the wire-tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family .

it has two subspecies : h. s. smithii , which occurs throughout africa , and h. s. filifera , which is found in southern and southeastern asia .

it is mainly resident , but populations in pakistan and northern india migrate further south in winter .

the genus name hirundo is the latin word for swallow .

the species name smithii commemorates christen smith , a norwegian botanist and geologist .

wire - tailed swallow

wire - tailed swallow <EOT> the preferred habitats for wire - tailed swallow are : woodlands and grasslands . the wire - tailed swallow is also at home in wetland areas .

wire - tailed swallow at its nest , south africa . [ photo neil gray © ]

wire - tailed swallow pair in courtship display , tanzania . [ photo martin goodey © ]

wire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii fam . hirundinidae ) kruger park birds & birding .

the wire - tailed swallow is neither endemic or near endemic to the kruger national park .

in terms of distribution of the wire - tailed swallow in the kruger national park you may not see it in all areas . wire - tailed swallow : see above distribution map .

museum specimens indicate historical distributions . the map below shows locations from which museum specimens of wire - tailed swallow were collected . you can see more information on the individual museum specimens of wire - tailed swallow here .

wire - tailed swallow : this soundscape contains sharp discontinuous calls by swallow and loud bg calls by red - wattled lapwing and coppersmith barbet .

wire - tailed swallows measure 5 . 6 inches or 14 cm in length .

wire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family . kruger national park , mpumalanga province , south africa .

unlike many other swallow species , which nest in colonies - the wire - tailed swallows are solitary and territorial nesters .

the wire - tailed swallows ( hirundo smithii ) are swallows found in africa and asia .

the wire - tailed swallow ( latin name hirundo smithii ) is described in roberts birds of southern africa , 7th edition . this bird has a unique roberts number of 522 and you will find a full description of this bird on page 751 also a picture of the wire - tailed swallow on page 816 . the wire - tailed swallow belongs to the family of birds classified as hirundinidae .

wire - tailed swallows mostly feed on insects ( particularly flies ) , often caught in flight .

orn . white - tailed swallow [ hirundo megaensis , syn . : h . magaensis ]

the wire - tailed swallow is monogamous unless its mate dies . in the event of a partner dying hirundo smithii will seek out a new mate

the wire - tailed swallow is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .

the wire - tailed swallow is a small passerine bird in the swallow family . swallows are somewhat similar in habits and appearance to other aerial insectivores . the populations in northern india migrate further south in winter . this bird is found in open country near water and human habitation . wire - tailed swallows are fast flyers and they generally feed on insects , especially flies , while airborne . more

picture of the wire - tailed swallow on page 816 . the wire - tailed swallow belongs to the family of birds classified as hirundinidae . the map of the kruger you see on this page shows the areas ( coloured orange ) where this bird has been identified . the basic information was provided by the avian demographic unit based at uct and i created the maps from that information . . . more

the wire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family . swallows are somewhat similar in habits and appearance to other aerial insectivores , such as the related martins and the unrelated swifts ( order apodiformes ) . wire - tailed swallow breeds in africa south of the sahara and in tropical southern asia from the indian subcontinent east to southeast asia . it is mainly resident , but populations in pakistan and northern india migrate further south in winter . more

an adult male perched on an electric wire , preening and stretching wings and tail .

one of the first indicators to take note of when trying to identify a bird is it relative size . for example how big is the bird compared to a well known familiar bird . the wire - tailed swallow is a small bird about the size of a house sparrow . do not take this relative indicator as anything other than a rough easy to remember indicator . it is not a accurate visualization . the height of the wire - tailed swallow is about 14 cms and its weight is about 13 gms

* wire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) pair mating on a wire . mahad , raigad district , konkan division , maharashtra , india ( ssp filifera ) ryan brookes 3 september 2008 28 weeks ago 3 * an adult looking at a raptor chobe national park , botswana ( ssp smithii ) laurent demongin 30 september 2004 1 year ago 2 . more

orn . red - rumped swallow [ cecropis daurica , syn . : hirundo daurica ]

streak - throated swallow : nesting under the balcony overhang , on a busy road .

any of these swallow species would be a welcome guest in a birder ' s backyard , but those yards need to be swallow - friendly before the birds feel at home .

picture of the wire - tailed swallow has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike . original source : originally posted to flickr as wire - tailed swallow adult ( hirundo smithii ) author : lip kee yappermission ( reusing this file ) this image , which was originally posted to flickr . com , was uploaded to commons using flickr upload bot on 05 : 08 , 20 november 2008 ( utc ) by jerryfriedman ( talk ) . on that date it was licensed under the license below . this file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - share alike 2 . 0 generic license . you are free : to share – to copy , distribute and transmit the work

in uttarakhand , it is common to see swallow nests ( barn swallows there ) in shops and porches and inside of homes - usually on the wall above an incandescent light bulb . the people believe that the swallows bring them luck . they also leave a window open at all times to allow free movement of the birds into their shops and homes . its the first time i am seeing nests of wire - tailed swallows in peoples homes in the plains - this nest was at the joint of wall and ceiling in the porch . the house - owners are also happy that the birds are nesting in their home . wire - tailed swallow nests have usually been seen under bridges , near water etc . - ss

putting up wires or a wire antenna high across the yard or roof to provide additional perches with good visibility for birds and birders alike .

streak - throated swallow : a large group nesting under the balcony overhang , on a busy road - 2 .

turner , a . ( 2018 ) . wire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .

swallow is the common name for various small , swift - flying passerine birds in the family hirundinidae , characterized by long , pointed , narrow wings , a short bill , a typically notched or forked tail , and the ability to aerial feed , capturing insects on the wing . some birds in the family have the common name of martin . while the name " martin " tends to be used for the squarer - tailed species , and the name " swallow " for the more fork - tailed species , there is no scientific distinction between these two groups . a few other species in hirundinidae , comprising the genus psalidoprocne , have the common name of saw - wing . in europe , the name swallow is used colloquially as a synonym for the barn swallow .

streak throated swallows ( petrochelidon fluvicola ) are one of the four species of swallow birds found in madhya pradesh , indentified as 11 cm compact birds with chestnut crowns and brown streaks down the throat to breast and dirty off - white under parts . the juveniles look similar to wire tailed swallow juv . and can be only differentiated from their striped and non striped throats respectively . the birds are commonly seen in the open country , near water bodies , canals , rivers or lakes where they can easily find their food of insects and clay for building nests . swallows are found in big flocks and have an appealing nesting behavior , commonly called as swallow congregations .

i specially like this spot on lake pichola where i took pictures of asian openbill stork , river tern , pied kingfisher and wire tailed swallows . the birds are used to the vehicles passing by , so they don ' t fly away when you stop your car near them . its a pleasurable place to be in the mornings .

distribution of wire - tailed swallow in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( © animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 . movements and migrations little known , but it is thought be resident throughout its southern african range . more

the wire - tailed swallow is situated in the corner of a beautiful garden . the room consists of twin beds , a small patio and full bathroom . the room has a tv with 22 dstv channels , a fan , heater & electric blankets . tea / coffee - making facilities are available and coffee , tea , milk and sugar provided . guests can make use of a communal fridge & microwave at the lapa / braai areas . a maximum of two guests can be accommodated in this unit .

streak throated swallow - nesting site on the underside of a river bridge , waded by over hundred swallows . the picture was taken on the road towards kanha , madhya pradesh .

species of swallow and martin that are threatened with extinction are generally endangered due to habitat loss . this is presumed to be the reason behind the decline of the critically endangered white - eyed river martin , a species that is only known from a few specimens collected in thailand . the species presumably breeds in riverbanks , a much diminished habitat in se asia . two insular species , the bahama swallow and golden swallow , have declined due to forest loss and also competition with introduced species such as starlings and sparrows , which compete with these swallows for nesting sites .

even in the most swallow - friendly backyard , it can be difficult to attract these specialized birds on a regular basis . if you want to attract swallows but are having difficulty , consider :

tarburton , m . k . 1993 . a comparison of the breeding biology of the welcome swallow in australia and recently colonized new zealand . emu 93 ( 1 ) : 34 - 43 .

snapp , b . 1976 . colonial breeding in the barn swallow ( hirundo rustica ) and its adaptive significance . the condor 78 ( 4 ) : 471 - 480 . retrieved november 18 , 2008 .

the streak throated swallow , is found across india . it can be identified with its chestnut color head , broad tail with a small fork and heavily streaked throat , neck and breast . the under parts are off white .

some species , like the mangrove swallow , are territorial , whereas others are not and simply defend their nesting site . in general , the males select a nest site , and then attract a female using song and flight , and ( dependent on the species ) guard their territory . the size of the territory varies depending on the species of swallow ; in colonial - nesting species , it tends to be small , but it may be much larger for solitary nesters .

hirundinids are small to medium - sized passerines . the smallest , such as the white - thighed swallow , weigh about 10 g and the largest new world martins over 60 g . they are all specialist aerial insectivores , . . .

the swallows have a worldwide cosmopolitan distribution , occurring on every continent except antarctica . one species , the pacific swallow , occurs as a breeding bird on a number of oceanic islands in the pacific ocean , and a number of migratory species are common vagrants to other isolated islands and even to some sub - antarctic islands . many species have enormous worldwide ranges , particularly the barn swallow , which breeds over most of the northern hemisphere and winters over most of the southern hemisphere .

bijlsma , r . , and b . van den brink . 2003 . a barn swallow hirundo rustica roost under attack : timing and risks in the presence of african hobbies falco cuvieri . ardea 93 ( 1 ) : 37 - 48 . retrieved november 18 , 2008 .

in addition to insect prey , a number of species will occasionally consume fruits and other plant matter . species in africa have been recorded eating the seeds of acacia trees , and these are even fed to the young of the greater striped swallow ( underhill and hofmeyr 2007 ; turner 2004 ) .

where several species of swallow feed together , they will be separated into different niches based on height off the ground , some species feeding closer to the ground whereas other feeding at higher levels . similar separation occurs where feeding overlaps with swifts . niche separation may also occur with the size of prey chosen .

hirundines have a long association with humans , some species having nested on artificial sites for hundreds or , in some cases , even thousands of years . there are danish subfossil finds 5000 years old from neolithic flint mines , and the roman poet virgil wrote of a swallow , presumably the barn . . .

the majority of hirundines are not very social in the breeding season , when they nest solitarily or in loose groups , and forage alone or in pairs or small flocks . some , such as the mangrove swallow , are highly territorial , feeding mainly in their own large territory , but many species defend . . .

as with feeding habits , knowledge of the breeding biology of many species of hirundine is scanty . on the other hand , a few members of the family , especially the barn and cliff swallows , the tree swallow and the purple martin , have become model species for scientific study over the last few . . .

many cave , bank , and cliff dwelling species of swallow nest in large colonies . birds living in large colonies typically have to contend with both ectoparasites and conspecific nest parasitism ( brown and brown 1986 ; brown 1984 ) . old males benefit most from coloniality , since they are able to maintain their own nests and benefit from frequent extra - pair copulations .

sexes alike . glistening steel - blue above ; chestnut cap ; unmarked , pure white underbody distinctive ; two long , wire - like projections ( tail - wires ) from outer tail feathers diagnostic . solitary or small parties ; almost always seen around water , either perched on overhead wires or hawking insects in graceful , acrobatic flight , swooping and banking ; often flies very low , drinking from the surface ; roosts in reed beds and other vegetation , often with warblers and wagtails .

the breeding of temperate species is seasonal , whereas that of subtropical or tropical species can either be continuous throughout the year or seasonal . seasonal species in the subtropics or tropics are usually timed to coincide with the peaks in insect activity , which is usually the wet season , but some species like the white - throated blue swallow nest in the dry season to avoid flooding in their riverbank nesting habitat ( turner 2004 ) .

the eggs of swallows tend to be white , although those of some mud - nesters are speckled . the average clutch size is around four to five eggs in temperate areas and two to three eggs in the tropics . incubation stints last for 5 to 15 minutes and are followed by bursts of feeding activity . from laying , swallow eggs take between 10 to 21 days to hatch , with 14 to 18 days being more typical .

nesting sites : many types of swallows , swifts , and martins are cavity - nesting birds , and they will readily nest in birdhouses or specialized gourds . leaving dead trees with old woodpecker holes intact will provide additional nesting sites . some swallow species , such as barn swallows , will build their cup - shaped nests in sheltered areas under eaves on porches and decks or along roof lines . a muddy puddle – perhaps under a gutter downspout or in a sheltered location in the yard – will provide good nesting material to encourage the birds to raise their families in the neighborhood .

the incubation duties are shared between females and males in some species ; in others the eggs are incubated solely by the females . among the species where the male helps with incubation , the contribution varies among species , with some species like the cliff swallow sharing the duties equally and the female doing most of the work in others . among the barn swallows , the male of the american subspecies helps ( to a small extent ) whereas the european subspecies does not . even in species where the male does not incubate the eggs , the male may sit on them when the female is away to reduce heat loss .

the family uses a wide range of habitats . they are dependent on flying insects , and as these are common over waterways and lakes , they will frequently feed over these , but they can be found in any open habitat including grasslands , open woodland , savanna , marshes , mangroves and scrubland , from sea level to high alpine areas ( turner 2004 ) . many species inhabit human - altered landscapes including agricultural land and even urban areas . land use changes have also caused some species to expand their range , most impressively the welcome swallow which began to colonize new zealand in the 1920s , started breeding there in the 1950s , and is now a common land bird there ( tarburton 1993 ) .

because of the readiness with which some species nest in and around human settlements and buildings , people have had a long experience with swallows and many myths and legends have arisen as a consequence ( turner 2004 ) . the migratory habits of the european species have led to an association with spring , as recorded in the proverb " one swallow does not make a summer . " they have also been incorporated into religious stories , in part because of their arrival in europe around the time of easter , and apocryphal stories place them at the crucifixion of jesus , either trying to distract those sent to arrest jesus in the garden or to comfort jesus on the cross . they are also mentioned in the koran attacking christians who were attacking mecca . older legends have it that athene turned into one in order to flee danger .

with the open country for birds being quickly replaced with houses and buildings everywhere these birds have retorted to our kitchen gardens , where they feed on small insects and nest around houses . swallow nesting is considered ‘pests’ due to its gregarious behavior and limiting access of humans to their own garages or kitchen gardens . swallows can be very protective for the young ones and refuse to vacate even after repeated attempts . once the nest is built , the bird also tends to return at the same site every time for breeding and nesting . the solution lies in preserving their habitat of lakes , rivers and ponds around the agricultural land . if possible allow them a small corner around the house , warehouse etc . swallows can easily gain attention and help in clearing insects and small crop pests , in lieu of the space it needs to raise the young !

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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .

justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .

the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be common in africa , common in pakistan and locally common in india ( grimmett , inskipp and inskipp , keith et al . 1992 ) . trend justification : the population is estimated to be increasing following recorded range expansions ( del hoyo et al . 2004 ) .

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leach , 1818 – sub - saharan africa from senegal , s mali and c ivory coast e to c & se sudan , south sudan , ethiopia and somalia , and s ( outside c rainforest zone ) to n namibia , n botswana and ne south africa .

stephens , 1826 – breeding visitor to s uzbekistan , s tajikistan , afghanistan , n pakistan and nw india ; resident in se pakistan , most of india , sw nepal , myanmar , n thailand , laos , cambodia and c vietnam .

14–21 cm ; 9–17 g . distinctive . has forehead and crown rufous - chestnut , upperparts glossy blue ; wings and tail black with blue gloss , white patches on inner webs . . .

grassland , savanna , open woodland , clearings , cultivation , also human habitations , including towns . . .

diet includes flies ( diptera ) , beetles ( coleoptera ) , bugs ( hemiptera ) , butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) , mayflies ( ephemeroptera ) , . . .

generally two peaks , at start of rains , e . g . jan–may and jul–dec in senegal , all year ( peaks jan–mar and jul–aug ) . . .

in africa , resident near nest - site in some areas , e . g . in gambia , central african republic and w . . .

not globally threatened . varies from uncommon to locally abundant . uncommon in w africa , common and more widespread in e , common to locally very common in s ; common to . . .

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it is present in lucknow throughout the year and is therefore resident . not a breeding visitor as shown in the map . lucknow is the capital of uttar pradesh state and falls in the gangetic plains of india

they had adapted to human created structures . they roost on powerlines ranging from dozen to several hundreds sometimes in mixed flocks with other swallows . they also roost and build nests inside covered irrigation canals and aqueducts .

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has often been considered to include any or all of petrochelidon , cecropis and ptyonoprogne .

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an adult bird perched in a tree yawning , rubbing the bill and flying off .

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recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : hirundo smithii . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .

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occurs across much of asia and sub - saharan africa , absent from the lowland forest of west africa and the drc . in southern africa it is locally common in the extreme north of namibia , northern botswana , zimbabwe , central and southern mozambique , swaziland and eastern limpopo province , mpumalanga and kwazulu - natal .

little known , but it is thought be resident throughout its southern african range .

hawks aerial insects often in flocks with swallows , such as grey - rumped ( pseudhirundo griseopyga ) and lesser striped ( hirundo abyssinica ) swallows . the following food items have been recorded in its diet :

monogamous , solitary nester , with the pair bond lasting for the whole breeding season and probably for life .

the nest ( see image below ) is built by both sexes in about a week , consisting of a flat open cup built of mud pellets and lined with stems , grass and feathers . it is typically placed in an artificial site , such as near the roof of a veranda , on a wooden cross beam , inside a water tower , under a bridge or even on a boat . the same site is used repeatedly over multiple seasons ; before laying the eggs the original structure is repaired

egg - laying season is year - round , peaking from august - december and february - april .

it lays 2 - 4 eggs , which are incubated solely by the female for 14 - 19 days . in one study the eggs where incubated for 43 - 66 % of the day .

the chicks are brooded by the female for the first few days of their lives after which the male sometimes helps out . they are fed regularly by both sexes , leaving the nest after 15 - 24 days . the fledglings still roost in the nest for at least 3 - 4 weeks , possibly until the next clutch is laid .

not threatened , in fact its range has benefited from the introduction of man - made nest sites .

hockey par , dean wrj and ryan pg 2005 . roberts - birds of southern africa , viith ed . the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund , cape town .

harrison , j . a . , allan , d . g . , underhill , l . g . , herremans , m . , tree . a . j . , parker , v . & brown , c . j . ( eds ) . 1997 . the atlas of southern african birds . vol . 2 : passerines . birdlife south africa , johannesburg .

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bot . monkey apple [ nz ] [ syzygium smithii , syn . : acmena smithii ] [ lilly - pilly ]

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their common name is derived from their very long , fine outer tail feathers which trail behind like two wires ; and their scientific name honors professor chetien smith , a norwegian botanist , who was a member of the expedition that discovered this species .

the african race is widespread south of the sahara , except for their range extending further along the nile , and they are not found in the western equatorial lowland forests .

in southern asia , they are found from tadzhikistan , afghanistan and northern pakistan through india to burma as well as northwestern and northeastern thailand , laos and central vietnam .

they are mostly resident ( non - migratory ) , except for some populations in pakistan and northern india that migrate south for the winter .

they are usually seen in pairs close to bodies of water and human habitation ; or these fast fliers may fly low over water as they pursue their prey .

african form found in sub - saharan africa ; specifically in western africa from senegal east to southern mali south to the central ivory coast east to central and southern sudan , ethiopia and somalia , and south ( avoiding the central rainforest zone ) to northern namibia , northern botswana and northeastern south africa .

asian form found in southern uzbekistan south through tajikistan , afghanistan , pakistan , india east to southwestern nepal , burma / myanmar , northern thailand , laos , cambodia and central vietnam .

the plumage is mostly bright blue above , except for the reddish - brown crown ( top of the head ) and white spots on the tail . there is a blue bar extending from the beak through the eyes down to the neck and back . the plumage below is white , except for the darker flight feathers .

as suggested by their name , they have very long , outer tail feathers which trail behind like wires .

they construct neat half - bowl nests placed on vertical surfaces near water , such as below the ledges of cliffs or man - made structures , such as buildings and bridges .

the average clutch consists of 3 - 4 eggs in africa , and in asia , up to 5 have been reported .

afrikaans : draadstertswael . . . chinese : ? ? ? . . . czech : vlaštovka dlouhoocasá . . . danish : trådhalesvale . . . dutch : roodkruinzwaluw . . . estonian : niitsaba - pääsuke . . . finnish : jouhipääsky . . . french : hirondelle à longs brins . . . german : rotkappenschwalbe . . . icelandic : þráðsvala . . . italian : rondine codafili / codasottile di smith . . . japanese : hariotsubame . . . kwangali : sisampamema . . . lithuanian : si ? lauodeg ? kregžd ? . . . norwegian : trådhalesvale . . . polish : jaskólka rdzawoglowa , jaskó ? ka rdzawog ? owa . . . portuguese : andorinha de cauda longa . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : lastovicka hnedohlavá . . . slovenian : nitorepa lastovka . . . shona : nyenganyenga . . . spanish : golondrina cola de cerdas , golondrina colilarga . . . swedish : trådstjärtsvala . . . swahili : mbayuwayu mkia - sindano . . . tamil : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . thai : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . turkish : tel kuyruklu k ? rlang ? ç , tel - kuyruklu k ? rlang ? ç . . . tsonga : mbawulwana . . . zulu : inkonjane

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throughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . …

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open areas , cultivation , habitation , mostly in vicinity of canals , lakes , rivers .

common breeding ( summer ) visitor to n india , to about 1 , 800m in the himalaya ; breeds in many other parts of india ; widespread over the area , excepting arid zones .

the southern african bird atlas project ( sabap1 ) in namibia gathered a huge amount of distribution data between 1970 and 1993 .

ver time , these will give valuable information on population distribution , habitat requirements , trends and so on .

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swallows , swifts , and martins are beautiful , graceful birds that are highly desirable backyard visitors , but they are not typical backyard birds . because of that , attracting swallows can be a challenge even for experienced backyard birders with many feeders and a variety of backyard guests . understanding these birds ' unique needs is the key to learning how to attract swallows and enjoy the benefits of having these beauties in your yard .

swallows are attractive backyard birds for several reasons . their graceful , aerobatic , energetic flight can be a joy to watch as they swoop about , and their glossy plumage glitters in the sunlight . they are relatively quiet species , and while their song is typically musical and chirping , they are less vocal than species such as thrushes or mockingbirds – perfect for backyard birders who prefer a quiet landscape . the most desirable characteristic of swallows , swifts , and martins , however , is their voracious appetites . these insectivorous birds can consume hundreds of insects every day - from moths to mosquitoes - and inviting a family of them into the backyard can provide exceptional ( and free ! ) pest control .

the key to attracting any specific type of bird is to meet that bird ' s unique requirements for the basic needs of survival : food , water , shelter , and nesting sites .

for swallows , those requirements can be a bit different than other typical passerines and more familiar backyard birds .

food : swifts , swallows , and martins almost never visit bird feeders , no matter what food is offered . so what do swallows eat ? these are insectivorous birds and preserving healthy insect populations is essential for them to have an adequate food source . avoiding insecticides and pesticides is the first step , and areas of open grass should be large enough to allow the birds to skim low over them while feeding . leaving grass slightly longer will encourage more insects for the birds to feed on . some birders have had limited success offering mealworms for swifts and swallows to eat , but it takes a great deal of time and effort to get the birds accustomed to that unusual food source . that effort may be better spent fostering natural insect sources the birds are more familiar with .

water : these birds typically stay near natural water sources , and a nearby lake , large pond or broad stream is essential for them to drink . as they fly over the water , they skim the surface to dip their bills in for a drink instead of perching to sip . moving water is more apt to attract swallows , swifts , and martins to backyards with noise and sparkles , and a bird bath fountain , bubbler or mister can be effective in attracting their attention . they may visit larger bird baths , and will often fly through sprinklers or misters for a quick , cool dip .

shelter : while many backyard birds need extensive trees , bushes , and thickets to feel safe and secure , these aerial birds are quite distinct in that they prefer more open areas . they are agile fliers and will soar and dive around yards that have smooth curves and open space . providing perching spots on wires , clotheslines or antennas will encourage them to stay nearby .

removing large trees to provide more open space and more grassy areas for the birds to fly over while feeding .

adjusting lawn watering schedules as much as local ordinances may allow providing a fly - thru water source for the birds .

adding a nesting shelf under porch eaves to provide a safe , stable place for these birds to build their nests .

patience is essential for attracting swallows , and over time , if you meet all these birds ' unique needs , you will be rewarded with their elegant and graceful company .

the reference for the information following is " roberts birds of southern africa " , 7th edition * edited by par hockey , wrj dean and pg ryan , published by " the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund . "

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the family contains around 83 species in 19 genera . in this article , unless specified , the term swallows will be used in a collective sense for all members of the family , including species commonly known as martins or saw - wings .

the swallows have a cosmopolitan distribution across the world and breed on all the continents except antarctica . they also occur on a number of oceanic islands . a number of species are long - distance migrants .

with their agility in flight , ability to produce many different calls or songs , and some species nesting in and around human settlements and buildings , swallows have long fascinated people . they even have been incorporated into religious stories , partly due to their arrival in europe around the time of easter and because of apocryphal stories placing them at jesus ' s crucifixion . ecologically , they provide a valued role in controlling the numbers of insect species . a few species of swallows are threatened with extinction by human activities , although other species have benefited from human changes to the environment .

as passerine birds , or perching birds , swallows have feet that are specialized for holding onto a branch , with three toes directed forward without any webbing or joining , and one toe directed backward . swallows belong to the suborder passeri ( oscines ) with such birds as warblers , finches , wrens , starlings , cowbirds , lyrebirds , blackbirds , jays , and larks .

it is believed the hirundinidae family originated in africa as hole - nesters ; africa still has the greatest diversity of species ( 1989 ) .

the bill of the sand martin is typical for the family , being short and wide .

the swallows and martins ( and saw - wings ) have an evolutionary conservative body shape that is similar across the family but is unlike that of other passerines ( turner 2004 ) . swallows have adapted to hunting insects on the wing by developing a slender streamlined body , and long pointed wings , which allow great maneuverability and endurance , as well as frequent periods of gliding . their body shape allows for very efficient flight , which costs 50 - 75 percent less for swallows than equivalent passerines of the same size . swallows usually forage at around 30 to 40 kilometers per hour although they are capable of reaching speeds of between 50 to 65 kilometers per hour when traveling .

like the unrelated swifts and nightjars , which hunt in a similar way , swallows have short bills , but strong jaws and a wide gape . their body length ranges from about 10 to 24 centimeters ( 3 . 9–9 . 4 inches ) and their weight from about 10 to 60 grams ( 0 . 4–2 . 1 ounces ) . the wings are long , pointed , and have nine primary feathers . the tail has 12 feathers and may be deeply forked , somewhat indented , or square - ended . a long tail increases maneuverability , and may also function as a sexual adornment , since the tail is frequently longer in males . female barn swallows will select mates on the basis of tail length .


proconsul africanus is an ape which lived from about 23 to 14 million years ago during the miocene epoch .

it was a fruit eater and had a brain larger than a monkey , although probably not as large as a modern ape .

it was named by paleontologist arthur hopwood in 1933 after chimpanzees all called consul , which performed human like circus acts , such as riding a bicycle and playing the piano , in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries .

other species of the genus proconsul have since been discovered .

proconsul africanus

proconsul africanus <EOT> new wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya

new wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya

new wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya .

t1 - new wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya

new wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya — johns hopkins university

title = " new wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya " ,

proconsul africanus " type " cranium with mandible from rusinga island , kenya . found in 1943 by mary leakey .

o’connor , b . l . 1976 . dryopithecus ( proconsul ) africanus : quadruped or non - quadruped ? ] .

morbeck , m . e . 1977 . the use of casts and other problems in reconstructing the dryopithecus ( proconsul ) africanus wrist complex .

the morphology of mandibular molars of the two proconsul species , proconsul major and proconsul africanus , from the tinderet region , kenya was analyzed . while the molar size variability within the tinderet p . major was slightly greater than those of local african ape subspecies , the shape variability was comparable . because the two proconsul species show some differences in cusp areal proportions , p . major is not just a larger p . africanus in molar morphology . napak specimens are generally similar to the tinderet p . major .

a systematic revision of proconsul with the description of a new genus of early miocene hominoid .

proconsul africanus knm ru 7290 rusinga island , kenya 22 - 17 million years bp discovered by m . d . leakey , 1948 facsimile photo : don hitchcock 2013 source : western australian museum

i just found a partial skull fossil of proconsul africanus . this is crazy ! ! ! ! ! i ' ll be tweeting more about the discover . stay tuned ! ! ! : )

below are some of the still unanswered questions about au . africanus that may be answered with future discoveries :

zwell , m . , and conroy , g . c . 1973 . multivariate analysis of the dryopithecus africanus forelimb .

proconsul africanus natural history museum , london . knm ru 7920 . age about 18 million years . rusinga island , kenya . the original in kenya national museum , nairobi . photo : nrkpan permission : gnu free documentation license , version 1 . 2

dart , r . , 1925 . australopithecus africanus . the man - ape of south africa . nature 115 , 195 - 199 .

* 1 . lightly built skull , lacking crests * 2 . cerebrum larger than monkeys * 3 . typical ape dental characteristics including 5 cusps on all three mandibular molars * 4 . p . africanus is an arboreal quadruped , and not a knuckle - walker like modern apes . like monkeys , its legs and arms are equal in length * in other words , proconsul africanus has an ape - like skull on a more monkey - like body

work done on a . africanus has been more quantitative but has focused on comparing this taxon to paranthropus robustus rather than to extant hominoids . grine ( 71 ) found that a . africanus molars have lower incidences of pitting than seen for paranthropus . a . africanus scratches are also longer and narrower and show more homogeneity in orientation . grine argued that compared with the “robust” forms , a . africanus ate more soft fruits and leaves . comparisons with work from teaford ( 72 ) places a . africanus between cebus olivaceus on one hand and pan troglodytes on the other . work on a . africanus incisors has shown that this taxon has higher microwear feature densities on all surfaces examined than does paranthropus ( 17 ) . this suggests that a . africanus processed a greater variety of foods with its front teeth , including larger , more abrasive ones , than were encountered by paranthropus . comparisons with an extant baseline series examined by ungar ( 73 ) puts australopithecus between pongo pygmaeus and the seed predator / folivore presbytis thomasi in degree of anterior tooth use in ingestion .

…kenya , of the remains of proconsul africanus , a common ancestor of both humans and apes that lived about 25 million years ago . at fort ternan ( east of lake victoria ) in 1962 , leakey’s team discovered the remains of kenyapithecus , another link between apes and early man that lived about 14 million…

…she discovered the skull of proconsul africanus , an ancestor of both apes and early humans that lived about 25 million years ago . in 1959 at olduvai gorge , tanzania , she discovered the skull of an early hominin ( member of the human lineage ) that her husband named zinjanthropus , or “eastern man , ” though…

©1 this is a reconstruction of proconsul africanus ( cast ) , found at rusinga island , victoria lake , uganda . these primitive , medium sized apes lived in rain forests between 18 and 22 million years ago . this species and others such as dryopithecus existed before the hominid line diverged on the path to humans .

au . africanus is currently the oldest known early human from southern africa . where did it come from ? was it a descendent of au . afarensis from eastern africa ?

mchenry , h . , 1998 . body proportions in australopithecus afarensis and a . africanus and the origin of the genus homo . journal of human evolution 35 , 1 - 22 .

mary leakey made her first big discovery in 1948 : she found a partial skull fossil of proconsul africanus , an ancestor of apes and humans that later evolved into the two distinct species . her find was truly remarkable ; the fossil , believed to be more than 18 million years old , was the first species of the primate genus to be discovered from the miocene era .

walker and his field crew struggled against extreme weather , wildlife , and locals who misunderstood their aims , yet they managed to relocate the old proconsul sites . to their astonishment , they found that the original skeleton site preserved the contents of an ancient hollow tree : skeletons of carnivore ' s prey that had been carried to its lair . at least one proconsul , then , was found in a tree . the team also found incredibly rich new sites , returning triumphantly to nairobi with an unprecedented ten new partial skeletons of proconsul . as a bonus , they collected hundreds of specimens of contemporary species - rhinos , pigs , carnivores , rodents , hyraxes , reptiles , plants , and trees . they had gathered fossil evidence of almost every aspect of the miocene community in which proconsul lived .

name : proconsul  ( before consul ) . phonetic : pro - con - sul . named by : arthur hopwood  -  1933 . synonyms : kenyapithecus africanus , sivapithecus africanus , ugandapithecus ,  xenopithecus koruensis . classification : chordata ,  mammalia ,  primates ,  hominoidea ,  proconsulidae . species : p .  africanus ( type )  ,  p .  heseloni ,  p .  major ,  p .  nyanzae .  p .  gitongai and p .  meswae are sometimes mentioned . diet : herbivore ,  probably a specialist frugivore . size : around 1 meter tall ,  but exact size depends upon the species . known locations : east africa . time period : late oligocene through to the end of the miocene . fossil representation : multiple individuals .

proconsul bauplan , or body plan . proconsul , a tailless quadruped , lived some 18 million years ago in africa and is one of the best documented old world monkeys ( catarrhini ) of the miocene : thousands of fossil bone fragments have allowed reconstructions of its body proportions and mode of locomotion . while its status as a genuine early ape is disputed , proconsul represents a suitable model for the blueprint of an early hominoid . here , a montage of the skeleton and a lifelike reconstruction of a young female are shown . artist : unknown rephotography : don hitchcock 2015 source and text : vienna natural history museum , naturhistorisches museum wien

. . . proconsul major was renamed in a new combination ugandapithecus major ( senut et al . 2000 ; pickford et al . 2009b ) . this is still a matter of debate today ( see for example harrison , 2010 and the more recent but misleading paper by mcnulty et al . 2015 ) . however , the differences between proconsul and ugandapithecus are evident not only in the dentognathic anatomy but also in the postcranial morphology . . . .

n2 - the anatomy of the wrist of two species of the early miocene hominoid proconsul is described based on new material collected on rusinga island , kenya . these fossils generally confirm previous findings that the wrist of proconsul is monkey - like in much of its morphology . however , the structure of the ulnar side of the wrist , particularly the ulnocarpal joint , is significantly different from that of extant monkeys and suggests some functional affinities with extant hominoids . thus the wrist of proconsul is neither monkey - like nor ape - like in its total morphology . instead , it shows a unique combination of features which once again point to the oversimplicity of forcing fossil forms into categories based only on extant taxa .

ab - the anatomy of the wrist of two species of the early miocene hominoid proconsul is described based on new material collected on rusinga island , kenya . these fossils generally confirm previous findings that the wrist of proconsul is monkey - like in much of its morphology . however , the structure of the ulnar side of the wrist , particularly the ulnocarpal joint , is significantly different from that of extant monkeys and suggests some functional affinities with extant hominoids . thus the wrist of proconsul is neither monkey - like nor ape - like in its total morphology . instead , it shows a unique combination of features which once again point to the oversimplicity of forcing fossil forms into categories based only on extant taxa .

skeleton of the closely related species , proconsul nyanzae , now reclassified as ekembo nyanzae . photo : funkmonk permission : creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 unported license . source : muséum national d ' histoire naturelle , paris .

proconsul heseloni , now reclassified as ekembo heseloni . knm - ru 7290 , rusinga island , kenya , circa 18 million years bp . photograph : don hitchcock 2015 source and text : facsimile , vienna natural history museum , naturhistorisches museum wien

abstract = " the anatomy of the wrist of two species of the early miocene hominoid proconsul is described based on new material collected on rusinga island , kenya . these fossils generally confirm previous findings that the wrist of proconsul is monkey - like in much of its morphology . however , the structure of the ulnar side of the wrist , particularly the ulnocarpal joint , is significantly different from that of extant monkeys and suggests some functional affinities with extant hominoids . thus the wrist of proconsul is neither monkey - like nor ape - like in its total morphology . instead , it shows a unique combination of features which once again point to the oversimplicity of forcing fossil forms into categories based only on extant taxa . " ,

©1 australopithecus africanus is one of the many species of this genus that is believed to be ancestral to humanity . however , with the many species to be found , the exact sequence of species leading to humanity , has not yet been established .

early research focused on the question of whether proconsul was an ape or a monkey , but years of research on the wealth of proconsul material has shown us that this question is inappropriate . proconsul was a creature that lived soon after these two major lineages had split , and it has many characteristics in common with both apes and monkeys . for example , it did not have a tail like living apes , but it was a slow moving arboreal quadruped like many monkeys . it had a pattern of growth intermediate between modern apes and monkeys . it lived during a time in which there were many different species of early apes co - existing in eastern africa but only a few monkeys , a situation very different from modern times .

proconsul africanus this is a beautifully made and finished facsimile from skulls unlimited , who are suppliers of first class specimens of this kind . they seem to make a special effort to be as accurate as possible , and the results are better than most museums . note that the original specimen they have made this facsimile from , the almost complete 1948 discovery by leakey , has been distorted during its time of burial by overlying sediments , as shown in the photo on the right . proconsul skull - proconsul existed between 14 and 23 million years ago during the miocene epoch . this species is one of the better represented early hominid species due to the numerous specimens that have been excavated . this specimen is based on the 1948 leaky discovery at victoria lake , kenya . specifications : class : fossil hominids order : fossil hominids family : fossil hominidae origin : lake victoria 23 - 14 mya diet : omnivore skull length : 13 cm ( 5 . 1 in ) photo and text : urltoken

walker a . ( 1997 ) proconsul . in : begun d . r . , ward c . v . , rose m . d . ( eds ) function , phylogeny , and fossils . advances in primatology . springer , boston , ma

these vertebrate from the spine of an australopithecus africanus individual show it walked upright in a way very similar to modern humans . the uniquely human curve of your lower back absorbs shock when you walk . this early human ' s spine had the same curve .

this book , written for the general public , details the history of one of the lesser known branches in our family tree . the subject is the genus proconsul , a primate that lived in africa some 18 million years ago during the miocene epoch .

walker and shipman point out that in order to best understand the place of proconsul in our history , we should accept it as an early ancestral ape , and then build upon this understanding to redefine our definition of what it means to be an ape .

holloway responded to falk’s reinterpretation of australopithecus africanus by reiterating the claims of a hominid anterior placement of the lunate sulcus which dart originally proposed . today the debate still goes on between falk and holloway . figures 6 and 7 compare the taung child with an indian child .

the genus proconsul was recognized over 60 years ago as the first miocene anthropoid from sub - saharan africa ( hopwood , 1933 ) . the collections of proconsul fossils have grown steadily since then , so that it is now probably the best - known miocene primate . we have hundreds of fossils of several species from many localities in kenya and uganda . nearly every body part is now represented and much is known about sexual dimorphism , body proportions , growth and development , and paleoecology . because of this , the functional anatomy of the genus is relatively well known .

throughout history there have been many great historical discoveries all around the world . the many contributions that mary leakey and her family have made to the archaeological field have changed how history was viewed forever . her discoveries such as the partial skull fossil of proconsul africanus , partial skull of zinjanthropus boisei , fossils of homo habilis , and one of her greatest discoveries in 1979 , a trail of early human footprints in laetoli . how could the discoveries of partial skulls , and footprints left in the mud millions of years ago possibly help future archeologist and historians ? why are they so important ?

. . . noteworthy are the five pronounced ridges between the fovea anterior and the hypocone that are running from the lingual cingulum towards the tip of the protocone , the crista transversa anterior , and the crista obliqua . a very similar morphology we observe at molars of ekembo heseloni ( knm - ru 2036 ) and proconsul africanus ( bmnh 14084 ) ( walker et al . 1993 , hartwig 2002 , mcnulty et al . 2015 ) , both species being considerably older than the eppelsheim finds . the fovea posterior of epp 13 . 16 is well defined ; oval shaped and has as already mentioned no distal transverse ridge . . . .

in the context of describing the discoveries of proconsul in the field and in the lab , walker and shipman are able to touch on many important topics in the field of paleoanthropology , including species recognition in the fossil record , classification methods such as cladistics , the principle of uniformitarianism , determining life history strategies in extinct animals , and reconstructing aspects of paleobiology such as diet and locomotion in extinct animals . they explain these complicated topics clearly , which gives insight to the lay reader into the intricacies of our field . proconsul is an interesting taxon on which to focus , as it lived during a time in which old world higher primates were diversifying .

figure 5 . a comparison of the taung child endocast with apes and man . a . frontal lobe of an ape . b . taung specimen ( a . africanus ) . c . frontal lobe of a human . the simplicity and what seems to show sulcal pattern shows that the taung resembles the chimpanzee . adapted from reference 5 .

while some features of proconsul ( such as its teeth , long arms , mobile shoulder and elbow , gasping toes , lack of an ischial expansion on the hip ) were more similar to those of modern apes , other features were more similar to those of old world monkeys ( hip , length of the back , back mobility , narrow trunk , kneecaps , leg , and semicircular canals ) . analysis of the sacrum indicates that it lacked an external tail like all modern apes . proconsul probably weighed 25 - 30 pounds and was adapted for life in trees . its teeth suggest that it primarily depended on fruit rather than leaves ( walker , 2005 ; kingdon , 2003 ) .

thus , gould recognized the distinct division between the australopithecus and homo habilis ( recognized by most anthropologists as advanced a . africanus ) and homo erectus . the former two are on the mammalian line , whereas the latter is grouped with modern man . thus according to bbrs creationists would divide the two groups into a general mammalian kind and a human kind .

in the first part of the twentieth century , fossil teeth , jaws , a spectacular skull of proconsul found by mary leakey , and a stunning partial skeleton shaped anthropologists ' ideas of our distant past . in 1980 , when walker happened to recognize some misidentified bones from the well - known partial skeleton in the national museum of kenya in nairobi , the chance find set him on his own quest to unravel

‘some of our early ancestors , who were smaller than humans today , had brains closer to the average for their size of all mammals … this is australopithecus africanus and later african homo habilis … . the more recent , homo erectus and modern homo sapiens have much larger brains than predicted by body weight alone . this indicates that we have evolved larger brains at an exceptional rate and apparently have reached new levels of intelligence . ’ 13

comparisons with extant hominoids have shown that a . afarensis and a . africanus have relatively thick mandibular corpora ( 74 , 75 ) . the same pattern was also found for paranthropus boisei and p . robustus . fig . 5 shows mandibular robusticity index values for extant great apes , some miocene apes , and early australopithecines . the early hominids show relatively thicker mandibular corpora than extant great apes and miocene catarrhines , suggesting a morphological shift in the former .

shearing crest studies have been conducted on early miocene african apes and middle to late miocene european apes . these studies suggest a considerable range of diets in these forms . for example , rangwapithecus and oreopithecus have relatively long shearing crests , suggesting folivory ; ouranopithecus has extremely short “crests , ” suggesting a hard - object specialization ; whereas most other miocene taxa studied , such as proconsul and dryopithecus , have the intermediate length crests of a frugivore ( 14 , 45 ) .

in sum , then , the microwear suggests that , by the end of the miocene , hominoids had a wide range of diets . in contrast , a . afarensis probably focused on soft fruit but also began to incorporate into its diet abrasive , terrestrial resources that required incisal stripping . a . africanus may still have focused on soft fruit , particularly that which required a moderate amount of incisal preparation . clearly , considerably more work is needed on these and other early hominids to put together a reasonable picture of diet based on microwear evidence .

further field work by the leakeys , and then by walker and colleagues , expanded the number of proconsul fossils significantly , and today it is one of the best known fossil primates . walker and shipman describe the details of field work , and tell many interesting stories of encounters with curious natives , inclement weather , and cantankerous equipment . they are careful to break up the serious discussions of science with stories that describe the personalities of their colleagues or that highlight the excitement of discoveries , which will surely help to keep the interest of the reader .

as for the early hominids , a . africanus had more occlusal relief than did paranthropus robustus , suggesting a dietary difference between these species ( 30 ) . additional preliminary shearing quotient studies support this idea while reaffirming that the australopithecines , as a group , had relatively flat , blunt molar teeth and lacked the long shearing crests seen in some extant hominoids ( 28 ) . by itself , this indicates that the earliest hominids would have had difficulty breaking down tough , pliant foods , such as soft seed coats and the veins and stems of leaves—although they probably were capable of processing buds , flowers , and shoots .

there have been many attempts to measure the cranial capacity of man and his cranial configuration in order to directly measure his mentality . from what is now known of modern man , there is no relationship between cranial capacity and intelligence . in fossil man and apes the endocranial casts show arteries and the general shape of the inner aspects of the skull , but not the sulci and gyri which are important . the key transitional fossils proconsul and australopithecus have been challenged by falk and his group who demonstrate affinities of these organisms by ‘reading’ the sulci , especially the lunate sulcus on the endocranial casts . their work is disputed and so one must conclude that cranial configuration studies need further research .

the discovery of the fore - limb bones of p . africanus is therefore an event of considerable moment , for they constitute the oldest and most complete skeleton of the hominoid fore - limb so far known . it is clear that these bones belong to one of the most significant periods of primate evolution ; a period when the generalized catarrhine stock was emerging from a prolonged phase of arboreal quadrupedalism with its limited opportunities for adaptive radiation and was entering upon a phase that would provide a diversity of environmental opportunity leading ultimately to the emergence of four distinct patterns of locomotion among the anthropoidea : ( 1 ) arboreal quadrupedalism , ( 2 ) terrestrial quadrupedalism , ( 3 ) brachiation , ( 4 ) terrestrial bipedalism .

the only exception is ardipithecus , which is more chimp - sized in the p 4 –m 1 region , but intermediate between chimpanzees and orangutans in the m 2 –m 3 region . again , interpretations of such differences are hampered by the lack of body size estimates for ardipithecus , but if a body size estimate of 51 kg is used for a . anamensis ( the average of the two different estimates based on the tibia ) ( 18 ) , mchenry ' s “megadontia quotient” for this taxon is essentially identical to that for a . afarensis ( fig . 3 ) . in other words , its molars are large for a hominoid , but smaller than those of a . africanus or the “robust” australopithecines .

. . . we are assuming that the fossil represents the modal morphology for that species ( although this assumption might not hold in the future as more specimens become available ) . the miocene ape taxa included in the asrs are ekembo nyanzae ( knm - mw 13142 ; ward , 1993 ; ward et al . , 1993 ; re - assigned from the genus proconsul ; mcnulty et al . , 2015 ) , nacholapithecus kerioi ( knm - bg 35250 ; ishida et al . , 2004 ; nakatsukasa et al . , 2007 ) , and oreopithecus bambolii ( igf 11778 ; # 50 ; schultz , 1960 ; straus , 1963 ) . e . nyanzae preserves five presacral vertebrae . . . .

a prime example of how controversial endocranial casts can be involves the study of australopithecus . the taung child , australopithecus africanus , was found in late 1924 . dart published a preliminary report of this find in nature . in his report he stated that taung was a human - like ape with features intermediate between living anthropoids and humans . he pointed out that the brain was large ( 525cc ) , but now estimated by endocranial cast as ( 405cc ) and claimed that its general structure was more human than ape . in particular , the lunate sulcus , a groove on the rear portion of the brain which demarcates the visual portion of the brain , occupied a posterior position , as in humans ( see figure 5 ) .

. . . ekembo nyanzae ( knm - mw 13142 ) was positioned as a stem hominoid . ekembo ( including proconsul sensu stricto ) is almost universally found to be a stem hominoid ( begun et al . , 1997a , b ; ward et al . , 1997 ; alba et al . , 2015 ; mcnulty et al . , 2015 ) , although others interpret early miocene taxa be either stem catarrhines or sister taxa to hominoids ( rossie et al . , 2002 ; harrison , 2010 ) . the hiwegi formation from which the knm - mw 13142 skeleton derives is dated to 17 . 9 myr ( drake et al . , 1988 ) , and so this was selected as the tip date . . . .

studies of corpus shape in a . anamensis and ardipithecus ramidus will likely provide further clues regarding differences in mandibular architecture between great apes and later australopithecines . corpus robusticity indices for a . anamensis below m 1 average 53 . 5 ( m . leakey , personal communication ) . these values fall at the upper range for extant hominoids ( pan = 39 . 2–57 . 8 ; gorilla = 43 . 5–59 . 7 ; pongo = 35 . 7–52 . 0 ) and at the lower end of the range for later fossil hominids ( a . afarensis = 48 . 4–68 . 9 , a . africanus = 54 . 8–79 . 0 ) ( fig . 5 ) ( data from daegling and grine and lockwood et al . ) ( 75 , 85 ) .

unfortunately , little is known about the microwear of early australopithecines . no microwear research has yet been published for either ardipithecus ramidus or a . anamensis , although there has been some done on a . afarensis and a . africanus . the work done on a . afarensis has been largely qualitative and focused on the anterior teeth , and it suggests that these hominids were beginning to exploit savanna resources ( 69 ) . furthermore , ryan and johanson ( 70 ) argued that a . afarensis had a mosaic of gorilla - like fine wear striae and baboon - like pits and microflakes , indicating the use of incisors to strip gritty plant parts such as seeds , roots , and rhizomes . these authors also suggested that there was a functional shift in the p 3 complex from ape - like slicing and cutting to hominid puncture - crushing .

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animal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from…

horse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , …

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( eds ciochon , r . & corruccini , r . ) 239–248 ( plenum , new york , 1983 ) .

( eds ciochon , r . & coruccini , r . ) 30 ( plenum , new york , 1983 ) .

( eds armstrong , e & falk , d ) 57–76 ( plenum , new york , 1982 ) .

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solvieux - a large open - air site near gabillou in the l ' isle basin .

rusinga island , lake victoria , kenya - panorama taken from the south - eastern direction . it was on this island that louis leakey made an especially complete find of

is the first species of the oligocene - era fossil genus of primate to be discovered and was named by arthur hopwood , an associate of louis leakey , in 1933 .

the 18 - million - year - old fossil species has been considered a possible ancestor of both great and lesser apes , and of humans . the palaeontologist louis leakey , who was one of the foremost fossil - hunters of the 20th century and a champion of evolution , said :

. this , many authorities once concluded , gave us an indication of the common stock for apes and men . we have good forelimb bones for it , and in 1948 on rusinga island louis [ leakey ] discovered a skull , the first nearly complete specimen ever found . its canine teeth suggest an ape ' s , while its forehead reminds us of our own . it seems to me , however , to be neither an ancestral ape , nor yet an ancestor of man , but a side branch with characteristics of both stocks . '

, as did most other palaeontologists . opinion currently favours a position between the monkeys and the apes .

skull , shown here , was found in 1948 . additional pieces found in museum collections more than 30 years later glued on perfectly .

( walker is probably best known for having found the nariokotome boy , a 1 . 7 - million - year - old specimen of

fossils since his graduate - school days ; his wife pat shipman , is an anthropologist and celebrated science writer . together they have crafted a compelling and accessible narrative that educates and fascinates . both authors are faculty members at penn state university , where walker is distinguished professor of anthropology and biology and shipman is adjunct professor of anthropology .

he began by ' excavating ' in the museum , turning up still more pieces of the famous skeleton in the collections . then he moved on to field work , leading an expedition to remote rusinga and mfangano islands in lake victoria , where early finds had been made .

van den bergh g . et al . , 2016 : homo floresiensis - like fossils from the early middle pleistocene of flores , nature , 534 ( 7606 ) : 245–248 . doi : 10 . 1038 / nature17999 . pmid 27279221 .

the ' ape to man ' evolutionary image is a fraud . ( creation magazine live ! 6 - 10 )

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the skull is the first species of the primate genus to be discovered from the miocene era . # firstbigdicovery # 1948

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musk and his team of engineers built the 31cm ( 12 . 2 inches ) diameter escape pod and tested it in a swimming pool before shipping it to thailand . he hopes the pod will help rescue the boys still trapped in the tham luang cave .

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, with a combination of human - like and ape - like features . compared to

housing a larger brain and smaller teeth , but it also had some ape - like features including relatively long arms and a strongly sloping face that juts out from underneath the braincase with a pronounced jaw . like

humans occurred in africa . after prof . raymond dart described it and named the

fossils come from . he dubbed this fossil " little foot " , and has since found that it comes from a 3 . 3 - million - year - old partial skeleton , most of which is still embedded in the cave sediments . when this fossil is completely excavated , it will shed light on several questions about this species ( if it is designated as an

berger , l . r . , clarke , r . j . , 1995 . eagle involvement of the taung child fauna . journal of human

lacruz , r . s . , rozzi , f . r , bromage , t . g . , , 2005 . dental enamel hypoplasia , age at death , and weaning in the taung child . south african journal of science 101 , 567 - 569 .

scott , r . s . , ungar , p . s . , bergstrom , t . s . , brown , c . a . , grine , f . e , teaford , m . f . , walker , a . , 2005 . dental microwear texture analysis shows within -

were found alongside broken animal bones . dart assumed these broken animal bones , teeth and horns were used by

as weapons ; however , in the 1970s and 1980s , other scientists began to recognize that predators such as lions , leopards , and hyenas were instead responsible for leaving these broken animal bones . these predators even ate

individuals had a diet similar to modern chimpanzees , which consisted of fruit , plants , nuts , seeds , roots , insects , and eggs .

may have eaten from looking at the remains of their teeth - - - tooth - size , shape , and tooth - wear can all provide diet clues .

ate tough foods but also had a very variable diet including softer fruits and plants .

was once considered a “killer ape . ” now we know they were sometimes eaten by predators . living together in groups helped these early humans protect themselves . want to find out how this

this 3 - year - old child ' s skull is the first early human skull ever discovered in africa . it was found in 1924 , but it took over 20 years after that before scientists accepted the importance of africa as a major source of human

, although not the first to find this species , is the first to find a very intact skull ; unlike others that were only pieces beforehand . this 18 - million year old species discovery is very important to the overall understanding of the evolution of man . at first thought to be possible ancestor of both apes , and of humans , it was later proved not to be the case at all . the leakey expedition later found that

seems , “…to be neither an ancestral ape , nor yet an ancestor of man , but a side branch with characteristics of both stocks…” with this hypothesis more was discovered and added to the overall theories about the evolution of man . however over the years the exact placement of

is a historic find as well . this species was discovered to be the first hominin species to use stone tools . this was just another piece to the larger picture of the evolution of mankind , and without it we would not know what we know today .

the amazing discovery of a set of footprints preserved and fossilized some 3 to 3 . 5 million years ago , was by far the greatest discovery that mary leakey had throughout her life . these footprints were not only an amazing discovery due to how well they were preserved , but because they left evidence of the passage of what appeared to be an upright ,

. along with those reasons for its greatness , this find made it so that the very theories written at the time about the evolution of man , had to be revised ! these footprints showed that this species may have prevented brain expansion down the line of evolution .

mary leakey , along with her family left behind a legacy of great archeological finds that helped to better understand the world we live in today . dying in 1996 at the age of eighty - three , leakey left behind her legacy , that her sons , and other family members continue to carry out today .

“no amounts of stone and bone could yield the kinds of information that the paintings gave so freely . ”

mary leakey was a paleoanthropologist who , along with husband louis , made several prominent scientific discoveries . skull fossils found by the leakeys advanced our understanding of human evolution .

mary leakey was born on february 6 , 1913 , in london , england . she married louis leakey and the pair soon became one of science & apos ; s best - known husband - wife teams . among several prominent archaelogical and anthropological discoveries , the leakeys discovered a skull fossil of an ancestor of apes and humans while excavating the olduvai gorge in africa in 1960—a find that helped to illuminate the origins of humankind . mary continued working after her husband & apos ; s death . she died in kenya in 1996 .

mary douglas leakey was a paleoanthropologist who is best known for making several prominent archaeological and anthropological discoveries throughout the latter half of the 20th century . working with husband louis leakey , her longtime colleague , she uncovered a number of fossils in africa , which significantly advanced scientific knowledge of the origins of humankind .

mary leakey was born mary douglas nicol on february 6 , 1913 , in london , england . the daughter of an artist , at a young age , leakey excelled at drawing—a talent that she later used to enter into the field of paleoanthropology . when she was just 17 years old , she served as an illustrator at a dig in england .

in the 1930s , mary leakey was asked to illustrate a book entitled adam & apos ; s ancestors ( 1934 ) , authored by louis s . b . leakey , an archaeologist and anthropologist . the pair hit it off quickly and soon developed a personal relationship . they married in 1937 , forming one of science & apos ; s most well - known husband - wife teams . the couple moved to africa when louis embarked on an excavation project at the olduvai gorge , a steep ravine in what is now tanzania , east africa .

mary leakey further helped to unravel mystery surrounding the origins of humankind with her 1959 find : that july , while louis was resting , recovering from a bout of the flu , mary discovered the partial skull of an early human ancestor . early analyses of the artifact—initially named zinjanthropus boisei after louis leakey & apos ; s financial sponsor , charles boysey ( now known as australopithecus boisei ) —showed that this species was equipped with a small brain but massive teeth and jaws , and muscles so large they had to be anchored to a ridge at the top of the skull . it was later determined that zinjanthropus boisei was nearly 2 million years old , showing how long the species had been in africa .

in 1960 , the leakey team made its next major discovery : fossils of homo habilis , a species that is believed to be between 1 . 4 and 2 . 3 million years old , and to have originated during the gelasian pleistocene period . their find also provided evidence that the species were adept in making stone tools—making them the earliest known experts in that field .

after louis leakey died in 1972 , mary continued to research and hunt for fossils . nearly two decades after finding homo habilis , in 1979 , she discovered a trail of early human footprints at laetoli , a site in tanzania . the find was the first in the history of science to provide direct evidence of physical activity by humankind & apos ; s apelike ancestors , changing previously held assumptions about primates .

throughout her decades - long career as a paleoanthropologist , mary leakey & apos ; s projects were funded in part by the national geographic society , through dozens of grants . she chronicled her experiences in the 1979 book olduvai gorge : my search for early man , as well as in her 1984 autobiography disclosing the past .

mary leakey died on december 9 , 1996 , in nairobi , kenya . she was survived by three sons ( from husband louis leakey ) : richard , jonathan and philip . today , mary leakey & apos ; s work continues through both the leakey foundation and the younger generations of the leakey family : richard leakey , his wife , meave , and their daughter , louise , play active roles in carrying on the family legacy .

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a member of the austrian habsburg royal family , marie louise married emperor napoleon bonaparte and became the mother of his son , napoleon ii .

reality television star and " momager " kris jenner appears on keeping up with the kardashians with her husband and daughters kim , kourtney and khloé .

on this day in 1587 , mary , queen of scots was executed by her cousin , queen elizabeth i . the queen of england had imprisoned mary for the previous 18 years after she’d fled scotland . elizabeth signed mary’s death warrant after finding out that catholics had been plotting to assassinate her to restore mary to power .

mamie eisenhower was first lady of the united states when her husband , dwight eisenhower , was president from 1953 to 1961 .

maria tallchief was a revolutionary american ballerina who broke barriers for native american women .

the artist elisabeth louise vigée le brun was one of the best - known and most fashionable portraitists of 18th century france ; her clients included the queen marie antoinette .

saint katharine drexel used her personal fortune to fund schools for native americans and african americans . she was canonized in 2000 .

mary tudor was the first queen regnant of england , reigning from 1553 until her death in 1558 . she is best known for her religious persecutions of protestants and the executions of over 300 subjects .

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( knm - ru 2036 ) , discovered in 1951 from the early miocene deposits of rusinga island , kenya . napier and davis ( 1959 , p . 1 ) describe the importance of the fossil :

these keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .

blackith , r . e . , and reyment , r . a . 1971 .

conroy , g . c . , and fleagle , j . g . 1972 . locomotor behavior in living fossil pongids .

corruccini , r . s . , ciochon , r . l . , and mchenry , h . m . 1975 . osteometric shape relationships in the wrist of some anthropoids .

corruccini , r . s . , ciochon , r . l . , and mchenry , h . m . 1976 . the postcranium of miocene hominoids : were dryopithecines merely “dental apes” ?

jenkins , f . a . , jr . , and fleagle , j . g .

le gros clark , w . e . , and leakey , l . s . b . the miocene hominoidea of east africa .

le gros clark , w . e . , and thomas , d . p . 1951 .

lewis , o . j . 1971 . brachiation and the early evolution of the hominoidea .

lewis , o . j . 1973 . the hominoid os capitatum with special reference to the bones from sterkfontein and olduvai gorge .

napier , j . r . , and davis , p . r . 1959 . the forelimb skeleton and associated remains of

o’connor , b . l . 1975 . the functional morphology of the cercopithecoid wrist and inferior radioulnar joints , and their bearing on some problems in the evolution of the hominoidea . am .

pilbeam , d . r . , meyer , g . e . , badgley , c . , rose , m . d . , pickford , m . h . l . , behrensmeyer , a . k . , and shah , s . m . i . 1977 . new hominoid primates from the siwaliks of pakistan and their bearing on hominoid evolution .

pilbeam , d . r . , rose , m . d . , badgley , c . , and lipschutz , b . 1980 . miocene hominoids from pakistan .

( m . day , ed . ) , pp . 13–46 , symposium of the society for the study of human biology , volume 11 , barnes and noble , new york .

sarich , v . m . , and cronin , j . e . 1977 . molecular systematics of the primates , in :

( m . goodman and r . e . tashian , eds . ) , pp . 141–170 , plenum , new york .

schön , m . a . , and ziemer , l . k . 1973 . wrist mechanism and locomotor behavior of


lichenaula neboissi is a moth in the xyloryctidae family .

it was described by f.g. neumann in 1970 .

it is found in australia , where it has been recorded from victoria .

the larvae feed on pinus radiata .

lichenaula neboissi

lichenaula neboissi <EOT> lichenaula neboissi , xyloryctid moth , dorsal view . holotype . registration no . t 4180 .

lichenaula neboissi f . g . neumann , 1970 . [ nomen nudum ? ] . holotype nmv ♂ ballarat , victoria .

lichenaula melanoleuca turner , 1898 , the xyloryctidae of queensland . annals of the queensland museum 4 : 1–32 [ 19 ] . holotype anic ♀ , ballandean , qld .

lichenaula melanoleuca turn . tillyard , 1926 , insects of australia and new zealand . sydney , angus & robertson , 1 - 560 . ( 425 , pl . 28 , fig . 38 ) .

of smaller species we may mention . . . lichenaula melanoleuca turn . ( pl . 28 , fig . 38 ) , with forewings a patchwork of black and white . ( tillyard , 1926 ) .

lichenaula onychotypa turner , 1939 . a second revision of the lepidoptera of tasmania . papers and proceedings of the royal society of tasmania , 1938 : 57–115 [ 85 ] . holotype anic ♂ , hobart , tas .

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common , in nielsen , edwards , & rangsi , 1996 , checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera , 4 : i - xiv , 1 - 529 & cd - rom [ 88 ] .

beccaloni , g . w . , scoble , m . j . , robinson , g . s . & pitkin , b . ( editors ) . 2003 . the global lepidoptera names index ( lepindex ) . world wide web electronic publication .

australian capital territory , new south wales , south australia , tasmania , victoria , western australia . endemic .

common , in nielsen , edwards , & rangsi , 1996 , checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera , 4 : i - xiv , 1 - 529 & cd - rom [ 87 ] .

n . sp . female , 15 mm . forewings with vein 7 to apex . head and face white . palpi white , base of second , base and apex of terminal joint blackish . antennae blackish ; basal joint white . thorax white , with a transverse black band anteriorly . abdomen grey . legs whitish , anterior pair infuscated . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin obliquely rounded ; blackish - fuscous with white markings ; base narrowly white ; an outwardly oblique , irregularly outlined fascia from costa at 1 / 6 to inner - margin at ¼ ; a large white spot on costa at 2 / 5 not reaching fold ; another on costa at 2 / 3 ; a similar spot in disc at 2 / 3 confluent with the preceding ; a smaller spot below centre of disc ; a fifth spot at anal angle ; and two minute dots at and before apex of costa ; cilia whitish , bases blackish - fuscous except opposite costal dots and anal angle . hindwings and cilia grey .

ballandean ( 2 , 500 feet ) , near wallangarra : one specimen in february .

many of the caterpillars of this family bore into timber , hence their common name : timber moths .

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