the surinam cockroach or greenhouse cockroach ( pycnoscelus surinamensis ) is a species of burrowing cockroach .

it is a common plant pest endemic to the indomalayan region that has spread to tropical and into subtropical regions around the world , and in isolated populations to temperate climates where protective habitat such as greenhouses provide shelter for individuals inadvertently shipped in the soil of plants .

its populations are almost exclusively female , and it reproduces asexually , having evolved several clonal strains from its sexual progenitor p. indicus .

surinam cockroach

surinam cockroach <EOT> cockroaches : american cockroach , asian cockroach , australian cockroach , brown banded cockroach , cuban cockroach , florida woods cockroach , german cockroach , oriental cockroach , smoky brown cockroach , surinam cockroach and woods cockroach .

an adult surinam cockroach measures about three - quarters to 1 inch in length .

1 . surinam cockroach identification : call in a professional exterminator to assess suspected infestation areas thoroughly to determine which type of cockroach has invaded .

3 . removal of surinam cockroaches : plants containing surinam cockroaches need to be removed and treated off the premises .

control experiments on the surinam cockroach ( pycnoscelus surinamensis l . ) | journal of economic entomology | oxford academic

some of the scientific names of the different species of cockroaches are the american cockroach ( periplaneta americana ) , the florida woods cockroach ( eurycotis floridana ) , the oriental cockroach ( blatta orientalis ) , the german cockroach ( blattella germanica ) , the asian cockroach ( blattella asahinai ) , the surinam cockroach ( pycnoscelus surinamensis ) , the brown - banded cockroach ( supella longipalpa ) , the australian cockroach ( periplaneta australasiae ) , the smoky brown cockroach ( periplaneta fuliginosa ) , the pennsylvania woods cockroach ( parcoblatta pennsylvanica ) , the brown cockroach ( periplaneta brunnea ) , and the madagascar hissing cockroach ( gromphadorhina portentosa ) .

a pest management professional has the education , equipment and skills necessary to effectively address a surinam cockroach problem . finding and treating the surinam cockroaches can be challenging , especially if their home and eggs are spread throughout your house . a cockroach management professional provides their expertise to identify the pest problem and determine the best possible solution to resolve the surinam cockroach infestation .

key words : oxyspirura mansoni , bird eyeworm , pycnoscelus surinamensis , surinam cockroach , free roaming hen , gallus gallus domasticus .

this pest hitches a ride in plant soil and infests plants inside buildings . it is not normally considered a pest , but sometimes finds its way into homes via houseplants . the female surinam cockroach does not fly . the male surinam cockroach can fly very short distances . spring , summer , and fall are the most active seasons for the surinam cockroach . people have reported seeing large populations of surinam cockroaches emerging out of the ground in places the species has not been known to inhabit .

the male surinam cockroach has a black head with dark brown wings and can fly a short distance . the female surinam cockroach has a black head with light brown to olive colored wings that are too small to fly . the female surinam cockroach is able to reproduce without a male . she doesn’t need a nest site or place to deposit egg pods because she carries the eggs inside and gives birth to live young .

surinam cockroaches develop by metamorphosis—ootheca , nymphal stages or instars , and adult stages .

surinam cockroaches are not commonly found inside homes . however , they infest greenhouses and gardens and prove destructive pests . if you suspect a surinam cockroach infestation , contact your local pest control professional to discuss treatment and prevention methods .

unlike other new england cockroach species that invade homes to find moisture and feed on human food , surinam cockroaches prefer to eat plants . the surinam cockroach often feeds on the stems of plants rooted in the soil in which the insect lives . due to their status as herbivores and their need for warm , moist areas , surinam cockroaches can become a major problem in heated greenhouses .

the cockroach ' s nearest relatives include the grasshoppers , crickets and mantids . a distant cousin of the cockroach is the termite .

oxyspirura worms have an indirect life cycle . intermediate hosts are cockroaches ( e . g . pycnoscelus surinamensis , the surinam cockroach , for oxyspirura mansoni ) .

though not native to new england , surinam cockroaches can survive and thrive indoors upon relocation to the area . if undetected and permitted to reproduce , the surinam cockroach has the ability to create infestations capable of wreaking havoc on houseplants . on a larger scale , surinam cockroach invasions can overrun the indoor vegetation in greenhouses and shopping malls , creating unsightly landscaping and negatively impacting the commercial operations of plant retailers .

palabras clave : oxyspirura mansoni , pycnoscelus surinamensis , cucaracha de surinam , gallus gallus domasticus .

habit : the surinam cockroach is an insect snoop living in the soil of houseplants , under dead leaves on the outside and sometimes in the atria or greenhouses . .

there are many different types of cockroaches , and some can reproduce without the male , like the surinam cockroach . this is called parthenogenisis . other creatures are : moll

comments - the brown - banded cockroach frequents homes , hotels , apartments and hospitals . it resembles the german cockroach but is smaller in size .

distinguishing characteristics - this species is a bit darker in color than the american cockroach . also , the wings of the male are not as long as the wings of the male american cockroach . the ootheca of the brown cockroach is about twice as long as the ootheca of the american cockroach .

while the this cockroach can be spotted inside of homes on occasion , it’s not a common household pest . even if it does get inside , the cockroach is unlikely to cause damage to your home . still , cockroaches can spread disease and bacteria , causing health complications . control the surinam cockroach population around your home by :

2 . spread it out ! thinly spread mulch piles to make them less hospitable to surinam cockroaches .

the female surinam cockroach produces eggs without fertilization by a male cockroach . the female carries her egg capsule inside , until the young emerge . on average , the capsule contains 26 eggs , and the female can produce a new capsule 48 to 82 days later .

lihoreau m , rivault c . tactile stimuli trigger group effect in cockroach aggregations .

2 . bait and insecticide : a professional pest control expert can place large bait stations and sticky traps around the base of infested plants to catch pests as they leave . an exterminator may need to use granular cockroach baits in active surinam cockroach harborages . residual insecticides can be applied to foundations , mulches , plantings , potted plants woodpiles , and any other infested area . surinam cockroach populations can be significantly reduced by treating the barriers of the home with insecticide .

distinguishing characteristics - the field cockroach is smaller than its close relative , the german cockroach . the black area on the front of the head is the most distinguishing characteristic .

parker edj , niklasson m . desiccation resistance among clones in the invading parthenogenetic cockroach ,

lihoreau m , rivault c . kin recognition via cuticular hydrocarbons shapes cockroach social life .

description : the surinam cockroach adult 18 to 25 mm long . brown , the pronotum ( thorax ) is dark brown to black . its wings are pale brown , except for the tip almost transparent .

linnaeus 1758 : 32 . type locality " america " . restricted to surinam by o . thomas ( 1911 ) .

the surinam cockroach is easily recognised by its black head and pronotum , the latter of which has a yellow margin near the head . it is a good flier and can be found at lights where it occurs .

my cockroach looks similar to brown - hooded cockroach illustration in kaufman . however , the gulf coast is out of range . so i’m thinking mine is at least in the polyphagidae family .

charles f . doucette , floyd f smith ; control experiments on the surinam cockroach ( pycnoscelus surinamensis l . ) , journal of economic entomology , volume 19 , issue 4 , 1 august 1926 , pages 650–656 , urltoken

beccaloni g . w . ( 2007 - ) cockroach species file online . version 5 . 0

it is rather slow moving and sluggish , for a cockroach , and neither sex can fly .

color - the australian cockroach closely resembles the american cockroach . it is reddish - brown to dark brown . it has yellow markings on the pronotum and on the front edge of each wing .

there is one cockroach found in the home that will readily fly when disturbed . this is the

izutsu m , ueda s , ishii s . aggregation effects on the growth of the german cockroach

surinam cockroaches found in new england are always female and only produce female offspring . classified as a parthenogenic species , surinam cockroaches do not need to mate in order to reproduce . adult females produce egg cases , or oothecae , which are between 12 and 15 millimeters long and carried internally until hatching . each case contains roughly 25 eggs that hatch into nymphs after about 35 days . the average adult female surinam cockroach lives for up to seven months and produces three egg cases in a lifetime .

once the nymphs hatch from the egg cases , they look like smaller versions of the adult surinam cockroach but lack fully developed wings and cannot breed at this point . the nymphs will molt 10 to 13 times in about a year .

color - the brown cockroach is reddish - brown in color and has yellow margins on the pronotum .

wharton dr , lola je , wharton ml . growth factors and population density in the american cockroach ,

the surinam cockroach is listed in our group of large outdoor roaches . this cockroach is usually found outdoors , though it can migrate indoors . the best method of controlling surinam cockroach infestations is to alter its outdoor habitat ( if possible ) and to treat the exterior of homes and buildings as you would for other large , outdoor roaches . this roach typically prefers to live and breed in damp areas such as mulched flower beds , piles of organic debris ; due to its fondness for humid areas , basements and crawl spaces beneath buildings are also areas where they can be found .

surinam cockroaches live in piles of firewood , leaves , mulch , lumber piles , and other outdoor harborages . they avoid light and like moist , dark places . surinam cockroaches hide under stones and mulch ; underneath wood ; and in barrels , holes , cracks , and crevices in building walls—wherever they can conceal themselves . surinam cockroaches burrow three to four inches deep into soil . they build burrows for nymphs and incubating females .

it has long been said that the cockroach is one of the most successful and adaptive organisms on earth .

comments - the brown cockroach is found in the southeastern and the southern states , from florida to california .

the largest species of cockroach in the u . s . that is commonly a pest in the home is

as natives of the tropics and subtropics , surinam cockroaches can only survive in warm indoor areas when transplanted to colder regions . in new england , the surinam cockroach is almost exclusively found in greenhouses , shopping malls , restaurants , offices , and other buildings where indoor planters are common . surinam cockroaches are burrowing insects and primarily live in loose soil , compost , and mulch . during the day , the pests may also hide in crevices and holes providing ample heat and darkness . the nocturnal insects emerge at night , often en masse , to feed .

there are many cockroaches that can be potential pests and annoyances to homeowners . even those that are able to survive outside in the natural habitat like the oriental cockroach still venture inside for shelter and food quite often . one of the saving graces for you all is potentially the surinam cockroach , one that rarely makes its way into the human habitat , save perhaps for water .

comments - the cuban cockroach has been known to establish populations in parts of florida and in brownsville , texas .

uzsák a , schal c . differential physiological responses of the german cockroach to social interactions during the ovarian cycle .

nishino h , yoritsune a , mizunami m . postembryonic development of sexually dimorphic glomeruli and related interneurons in the cockroach

5 . bait them ! use granular roach bait , which is a great way to control these pests . a lot of brands are water - resistant and are useful in damp areas such as flowerbeds . use liquid insecticide to soak the soil in which surinam cockroaches have been burrowing . sun and rain will affect insecticide treatment staying power . reapply treatments and repeat the above steps to maintain a surinam cockroach - free property .

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surinam cockroaches prefer dark , moist areas and hide in corners and beneath objects . surinam cockroaches reproduce through parthenogenesis , allowing female specimens to produce offspring without the fertilization of males . eggs are hidden within the female’s abdomen and hatch internally . females may have an average of 3 egg cases which contain an average of 24 eggs .

of the 4 , 000 species of cockroaches in the world , the u . s . has about 55 species . this includes 49 native species and about six or seven introduced species . although a number of species may be found occasionally or accidentally in the home , there are only five species that are considered as common pests in the dwellings of man . these most common species are german cockroach , american cockroach , oriental cochroach , brown - banded cockroach and the smoky - brown cockroach .

wharton dr , lola je , wharton ml . population density , survival , growth , and development of the american cockroach .

surinam cockroaches have dark brown or black bodies with shiny brown wings . males have longer wings than the females , but regardless , neither gender can fly particularly well .

when fully grown , surinam cockroaches generally measure slightly less than an inch in length . dark and shiny , the bodies of surinam cockroaches are black with olive - green or dark brown wings that stretch past the abdomen and give the insects a distinctive two - tone look . developing nymphs have no wings , while adults are able to fly . in new england , only female surinam cockroaches exist . these females are able to reproduce asexually through a process termed parthenogenesis ( females lay unfertilized eggs ) .

surinam cockroaches have the ability to bite , but are not known to bite people . the mouthparts of these cockroaches are so small that their bites would be harmless .

native to the southeastern united states and other regions with warmer climates , surinam cockroaches are sometimes found in indoor settings throughout new england . the tropical insects , scientifically named pycnoscelus surinamensis , typically travel to the new england area as stowaways in potted plants , soil and mulch , and similar items imported from their native habitats . though not considered household pests in the same vein as other new england cockroach species , surinam cockroaches can still cause damage in the buildings they inhabit .

the amazing fact about surinam cockroaches is that they burrow and can cause lots of damage to your vegetation . they love tropic humid locations and can survive in moist dark areas on your property , including beneath objects and in corners . they reproduce parthenogenesis and this makes it possible for the females to reproduce even without male fertilizations . unlike most other cockroaches that lay eggs , the surinam female cockroach have the eggs hatch internally and it can have at least 3 egg cases .

corley ls , blankenship jr , moore aj , moore pj . developmental constraints on the mode of reproduction in the facultatively parthenogenetic cockroach

survey - to control german cockroaches , it is important to do a thorough inspection . a cockroach survey ( trapping ) is sometimes necessary to determine the extent of an infestation , as even a thorough inspection will not reveal all cockroach harborages or foraging areas .

the surinam cockroach can usually be found in greenhouses , gardens and potted plants . it thrives in dense vegetation growing in warm , moist conditions and will burrow down into vegetation and destroy plants from the roots . if found in your home it may have come in on a potted plant bought from a nursery .

kuwahara s , mori k . synthesis of ( − ) - periplanone - b , a sex pheromone component of the american cockroach .

comments - the asian cockroach is native to southeast asia . it is a relative of the german cockroach , but it prefers the outside . the species is now established in florida and is working its way westward . it is a strong flier and is attracted to lights .

comments - the german cockroach is native to europe . it is the most widely distributed and best known species in the u . s .

only females are found in the united states ; they reproduce by way of parthenogenesis or asexual reproduction without male fertilization . the female keeps the eggs inside and fertilizes them herself before giving birth to live nymphs . even though the female surinam cockroach can carry as many as 42 eggs , usually only 24 eggs will hatch and survive .

comments - the surinam cockroach is found worldwide . in the u . s . it is established in florida , louisiana and texas . this species is generally found outside under boards or litter . it is often a pest of greenhouses . in the u . s . the species is parthenogenetic , no males have ever been found .

the german cockroach is a widely distributed urban pest . it is also the most common cockroach species in houses , apartments , restaurants , hotels , and other institutions . this is true not only in pennsylvania but also throughout the united states and in most parts of the civilized world .

german cockroaches produce odorous secretions that can affect the flavor of various foods . when cockroach populations are high , these secretions may result in a characteristic odor in the general region of the infestation . disease - producing organisms such as bacteria , protozoans , and viruses have been found on cockroach bodies .

eggs of oxyspirura mansoni , manson eyeworm , are deposited in the eye , reach the pharynx via the nasolacrimal duct , are swallowed , passed in the feces , and ingested by the surinam cockroach , pycnoscelus surinamensis . larvae reach the infective stage in the cockroach . when infected intermediate hosts are eaten , liberated larvae migrate up the esophagus to the mouth and then through the nasolacrimal duct to the eye , where the cycle is completed . other insect species may also serve as the intermediate host .

professional granular roach baits scattered in mulched areas and flower beds or other landscaped areas where the surinam frequents will often control outdoor infestations . once outdoor areas are free of roaches , rarely are they found indoors . when potted plants are moved from outdoors to indoors , any of the outdoor roaches ( such as the surinam , smoky brown , etc . ) will often hitch - hike into homes .

first , let ' s examine the carrier of this disease organism . the domestic chicken , turkey , peafowl , pheasant , and quail—as well as numerous free - flying birds—can all act as the definitive host for this worm . the surinam cockroach is the intermediate host for this worm and the main method this disease is spread , or the vector .

comments - the australian cockroach is probably not indigenous to australia . in the u . s . , it is found mainly in the southern states .

a female surinam cockroach is about three - fourths of an inch long , has a shiny black head and pronotum , and has light brown , dark brown , or olive green wings . the pronotum has a pale white band on the front edge by the head . surinam cockroaches have stout , broadly oval bodies with short legs adapted for burrowing in soil . adult surinam cockroaches can be winged or wingless . females without wings are black and shiny with dull and matte segments in the rear section of the abdomen . females and males with wings have forewings that are brown in color with pale edges . the thorax is black with a pale front edge . males with wings are very rare . both sexes can be found in europe and indo - malaysia .

3 . seal it up ! fill any cracks or crevices in building foundations to keep surinam cockroaches out of your home . make sure all foundation and attic vents have tight - fitting screens over them .

the surinam cockroach causes extensive damage to vegetation , especially in heated greenhouses where large numbers can hide during the day , coming out at night to feed on the plants . they have the ability to destroy any vegetation , whether inside or outside your home . these cockroaches are also considered garden dwellers , specifically in gardens located in florida , louisiana or texas .

though surinam cockroaches are not generally considered a pest , they can end up in your home via houseplants . they are transported through plant soil and end up infesting homes and buildings the plants are brought to .

the shiny brown cockroaches are often confused with oriental cockroaches , but even though they appear similar , the rough abdomen of the surinam cockroach is the distinguishing feature . they also have wings that are light green or olive tinted . their mouthparts can bite , but they are not known to bite humans . the females cannot fly , but the males can fly short distances .

cockroach . what that means in plain english is that females can reproduce without mating . males are rare and when the occur they are sexually non - functional .

color - the cuban cockroach is pale green in color . its head , pronotum and the front half of the front wings are a bit lighter in color .

nishino h , iwasaki m , mizunami m . pheromone detection by a pheromone emitter : a small sex pheromone - specific processing system in the female american cockroach .

fang y , long c , bai x , liu w , rong m , lai r , an s . two new types of allergens from the cockroach ,

comments - the field cockroach is found from texas to california . it is normally found outside but will occasionally enter homes . it is somewhat active in the day .

comments - the smoky - brown cockroach is a very close relative of the american cockroach . it is mainly a pest in the eastern and southeastern u . s . this species is common outdoors in compost piles , woodpiles and rubbish . it is more and more becoming a pest of homes , warehouses and other man - made structures .

distinguishing characteristics - the american cockroach has two distinguishing characteristics . one is its size , and the other is the golden - yellow area around the outer edge of the pronotum .

because of their habitat and diet , these insects are considered a destructive pest , often doing considerable damage to gardens over time . since they do not need to find a mate , and the females can reproduce on their own , this species is a quick breeder . as such just a few in your garden or greenhouse can quickly turn into an infestation and result in lots of surinam cockroach damage to your garden .

reproduction : the surinam cockroach reproduces by parthenogenesis , ie without fertilization by a male , so the female is sufficient to carry the case . the female of this species carries her egg capsule within the body and when the embryos hatch from the eggs , the female expels the egg capsule , giving the impression of a live birth . the female may have an average of 3 egg pods containing an average of 26 eggs .

comments - the american cockroach is world wide ( cosmopolitan ) in distribution . it is the largest species and the second most common species found in homes in the u . s .

color - the oriental cockroach is dark brown to almost black and rather uniform in color . its legs are about the same color as their body but can be slightly lighter brown .

color - the american cockroach has a uniform light reddish - brown body . its yellow - brown pronotum has a golden - yellow border . its legs are also a golden - yellow .

distinguishing characteristics - the australian cockroach may be distinguished from its near relative , the american cockroach , by the straw - colored to yellowish streak extending about 1 / 3 of the way down the outer margin of the wings . also , by the wide yellowish area around the margin of the pronotum which leaves a " double " dark spot in the middle of the pronotum .

surinam cockroaches are common in the southeastern part of the united states , from north carolina to texas . they sometimes spread to other regions when they are inadvertently burrowed in the soil of tropical plants that are shipped to greenhouses and plant nurseries across the country .

from an economic standpoint , that means that a single nymph can give rise to an entire population of this cockroach . so the species can be spread easily . the cockroaches are moved about in nursery stock , soil , stock feed and the like . but even though this cockroach is tropical and subtropical its its habitat requirements , it can live quite nicely in greenhouses in temperate regions .

these shiny brown cockroaches can grow up to an inch in length ( although most average at around ¾ of an inch ) . these are easily confused with the oriental cockroach , and do have a somewhat similar appearance . the key distinguishing features are their rough abdominal area ( compared to the smooth abdomen of the oriental cockroach ) as well as their olive / light green tinted wings .

color - the field cockroach is light brown . it has a black face and two black longitudinal stripes on the pronotum . this species has been described as being olive - green in color .

one of the most common insects found in and around man - made structures is the cockroach . the cockroach is often labeled as a repulsive , filth - carrying , food - contaminating creature . controlling cockroaches in and around the home is a continuous battle . if effective , economic control is to be achieved , we must be able to positively identify the species that we are dealing with .

abdominal aberrations of the tergites have been described in the surinam cockroach , pycnoscelus surinamensis ( l . ) ( roth and willis 1961 ) ; the german cockroach , blattella germanica ( l . ) ( ross and cochran 1961 ) ; and blaberus giganteus ( l . ) ( fisk and brass 1961 ) . almost invariably these anomalies were restricted to the tergites only , the corresponding sternites being normal . in this note i describe an unusual specimen of p . surinamensis in which some of the abdominal segments , including internal organs , were duplicated . the female was isolated as a mature nymph from a culture of parthenogenetic p . surinamensis which originated from australia .

surinam cockroaches are burrowing insects that cause damage to vegetation . the species is most commonly found in humid , tropic areas such as the southeastern united states . adults are 18 to 25 mm in length . female adults have light - colored wings and black heads .

distinguishing characteristics - the oriental cockroach may be distinguished by its large size , robust shape and dark color . the short wings of the male and the rudimentary wings of the female are also distinguishing characters .

the surinam cockroach prefers dark , moist areas such as your garden . they are burrowing insects and make their homes almost exclusively in soil . they can also be found beneath rocks , rotten branches , in trash bags , compost piles , woodpiles , lawn thatches and other debris . even in houseplants . people may water their plants outside then bring the plants back in , not knowing that a roach has crawled into the soil . this is often the first point of contact .

the surninam cockroach is almost a perfect lab animal . it reproduces readily in captivity and is easily cared for . it does not have a disagreeable odour and females look after their young . children find them intriguing .

roth , l . m . 1998 . the cockroach genus pycnoscelus scudder , with a description of pycnoscelus femapterus , sp . nov . ( balttaria : blaberidae ; pycnoscelinae ) . oriental insects 32 : 93 - 130 .

the name cockroach is thought to have been derived from the spanish name for the insect , " cucaracha " . many of the most common species have an accepted common name , and some have one or more aliases .

this species of cockroach is well - established in virginia and along the southeast gulf coast in florida , louisiana , and texas . no males of this species are found in the united states . it is also found in australia and in humid tropics around the world . it lives mostly outdoors and does not breed inside human habitations . therefore , it is considered a nuisance insect . occasionally , it finds its way into northern states in malls and zoos , usually in atriums and potted plants imported from southern states like florida . surinam cockroaches build huge populations around landscape beds in the south in areas with thick layers of mulch , heavy ground cover , and landscape timbers . these roaches are sensitive to cold temperatures and can only survive indoors in northern regions . indoors , surinam cockroaches can be found as far north as canada .

color - the smoky - brown cockroach is very uniform dark brown to black in color . if there is any differentiation in color at all , the legs and the pronotum may be slightly darker than the rest of the body .

black butcher - birds , craticus quoyi , learn to find surinam cockroaches all they have to do is toss leaves out of roof gutters - - ( but not thoroughly enough to be useful ! ) . the cockroahces are large enough to be worth the effort and are a good source of fat and protein .

is latin meaning “hare - like” presumably in reference to the hare - like cleft lip of the genus . no type specimen exists , the original description by linnaeus being based on a text written by seba ( 1734 ) . the type locality was restricted to surinam by o . thomas ( 1911 ) . the species name

color - the head and thorax of the brown - banded cockroach is dark brown to almost black . its wings are also dark brown but banded with light brown . the legs are light brown and have small dark spots at the joints .

we evaluated the effect of ablation of primary chemosensory organs ( antennae and palps ) [ 16 ] on ootheca production , because chemosensory signals are known to be important for discrimination of the sex of cohabitants in other cockroach species [ 27 ] .

with the immanent publication of the guidebook to australian cockroaches , readers of this blog can expect an emphasis on cockroaches for a time . there are additional cockroach photos on the flickr site noted in the left margin for those who might be interested .

the current report addresses the finding of ocular filariosis in a domestic adult hen , raised in a backyard , in a community near la silla river , south nuevo leon , in mexico . the hen was submitted to a veterinary practice due to weakness and diarrhea . during necropsy , three nematodes were found underneath the nictitating membranes in both of the bird ' s eyes . the nematodes were identified as oxyspirura mansoni . the diagnostic was confirmed when the intermediate host of o . mansoni , the surinam cockroach ( pycnoscelus surinamensis ) , was found in the hen ' s living environment .

the biggest harm surinam cockroaches inflict on people is economic in nature . these pests will cause severe damage to expensive tropical plants in atriums , green houses , and yards by destroying plants from the roots . they have not been known to bite or harm humans in any way , are not aggressive , and stay hidden from sight .

when you have the surinam cockroaches infesting your property , it would be best that you call in pest control professionals . toro pest management is a market leader in pest solutions and will easily and effectively treat the infestations and keep your garden protected from further damaging infestations . the cockroaches can be hard to control considering that they burrow and can be in large populations . only the professionals with the right education , skills and equipment will be able to address your problem effectively . remember that they could be scattered all over your garden , making treatment hard for you , but the pest experts at toro know the right approaches and techniques to get rid of the surinam cockroaches both on your outdoors and indoors .

at the present time more than 4 , 000 species of cockroaches have been described and named . close study of fossilized cockroaches has revealed that very little change has occurred in the cockroach over time . the present day species are very much like their ancient ancestors .

with that good news comes some bad new unfortunately ; surinam cockroaches are extremely partial to your gardens ! it’s rare to see infestations of these cockroaches inside houses , and unlike other species , actually prefers the dirt and turf outside . this does mean that they are often seen in gardens throughout the south ( most predominantly in florida , louisiana , and texas ) .

color - the german cockroach is a uniform drab brown . its legs are a bit lighter in color than its body . the pronotum has two wide , black longitudinal stripes . between these longitudinal stripes there is a golden brown stripe that extends past the pronotum onto the wings .

comments - the oriental cockroach is worldwide in distribution . it is normally an outside species , but will move into the home during cold weather . it is commonly found in lawns , along the foundation of buildings , in water meters , in basements and in piles of rubbish .

pellens r , d’haese ca , bellés x , piulachs md , legendre f , wheeler wc , grandcolas p . the evolutionary transition from subsocial to eusocial behavior in dictyoptera : phylogenetic evidence for modification of the “shift - in - dependent - care” hypothesis with a new subsocial cockroach .

you may not have to worry about cleaning your food scraps away with these ones , but you certainly need to watch out for your plants ! surinam cockroaches are not omnivores like its other relative roaches , and instead chooses to dine on your freshly planted foliage . potted plants , flowers , tree leaves , and even weeds are all on the menu , so watch those petunias for bite marks .

check under wood that is permanently outside , as it may be rotting and serving as host to these cockroaches . further try to keep a look out for any disturbances to your garden / lawn . bite - marks along the stems or leaves of plants may be a sign of just your average garden grubs , but it may just be a burrow of surinam cockroaches nearby - so don’t dismiss it !

the route of infection in the hen was related with the presence of the burrowing cockroach . this insect belongs to the genus pycnoscelus , and is the intermediate natural host of oxyspirura mansoni . the cockroach was found in cracks , crevices , and underneath debris on the premises . the insects were identified as pycnoscelussurina mensis ( fig . 5 ) and neostylopygar hombifolia . pycnoscelus surinamensis , order orthoptera , suborder blattaria , family blattidae , is known to be the only intermediate host of o . mansoni and is widely distributed in the american continent ( jacobs et al . 2003 ; malgalhaes & caldas 2004 ) .

the german cockroach is the most successful of the species infesting buildings in pennsylvania . there are several reasons for this cockroach’s persistence and the difficulty of controlling it . german cockroaches produce a larger number of eggs per capsule and they undergo the shortest time from hatching until sexual maturity , resulting in a rapid population growth . a greater number of nymphs hatch successfully because the female carries the egg capsule during the entire time the embryos are developing within the eggs . also , and most importantly , german cockroaches are smaller than most other cockroaches and can conceal themselves in many places inaccessible to individuals of the larger species .

common names may vary from place to place and their use may be confusing . each species of cockroach has an accepted scientific name , which is composed of its generic and its species name . the scientific names of species will be given here to facilitate further study and to assure that you are studying the species with which you are concerned .

fishing bat ( hood & knox jones jr 1984 , davis 1973 , eisenberg 1989 ) , mexican bulldog bat ( redford & eisenberg 1992 ) , bulldog fishing bat ( parera 2002 ) , large fishing bat ( fischthal & martin 1978 ) , hare - lipped bat ( gudger 1945 ) , rabbit - nosed night - flying bat ( tomes 1860 ) , fish - eating bat ( goodwin & greenhall 1961 ) , surinam fishing bat ( goodwin & greenhall 1961 ) .

first and foremost , make sure that any paved areas are sealed tight and free of cracks . that small patch of dirt in your driveway may look like a mild inconvenience , but you’ll hate it more when a burrow of surinam cockroaches make there way inside it and widen it up a bit . use this same mentality when examining the foundation of your home . cracks in basement cement could provide a nesting area if they are not well maintained and kept clear of vegetation / soil .

the nymphs go through several molts . each time they increase in size and look more like the adults . some species of cockroaches may complete a life cycle in about 60 days . other species require about three years . the number of offspring from one female cockroach , in a single year , may range from several hundred to several thousand , depending upon species .

cockroaches are one of the most ancient of all insects . fossil evidence indicates that they have been on earth for over 300 million years . when compared to the cockroach , man has been around for only the blink of an eye . more than 200 species of fossilized cockroaches have been found in north america and europe . several species have been found in baltic amber .

the american cockroach , periplaneta americana ( l . ) ( insecta : blattodea : blattoidea : blattidae ) is a worldwide pest due to its euryphagous , gregarious behavioral ecologies and close association with human habitats [ 16 ] . this species is phylogenetically closer to termites ( blattodea : blattoidea ) than the members of the suborder blaberoidea , which includes n . cineria , p . surinamensis and the german cockroach blattera germanica [ 17 , 18 ] . females of p . americana show facultative parthenogenesis in the absence of males [ 19 , 20 ] . although the hatchability of eggs produced by parthenogenesis is lower than that of eggs produced by sexual reproduction [ 20 ] , the resultant female offspring have been shown to survive through at least two generations in the laboratory [ 19 ] .

there are no male surinam cockroaches in north america , but the species is far from extinct . in fact , the population is surviving quite well . this abundance is due to the fact that females can reproduce through parthenogenesis , which is not dependent on male participation . females produce female clone offspring and do so very quickly . this swift reproduction process means trouble – just a few of these cockroaches can rapidly turn into an infestation . and since these cockroaches feed on plants , an infestation can mean doom for your garden .

it is hard to believe , but cockroaches have never been positively linked to the transmission of pathogenic organisms that infect man . however , the potential for cockroach transmission of certain pathogens , under specific conditions , is undeniable . cockroaches frequent many sites where they can be contaminated with disease organisms . afterward , they frequently come in contact with man and this is a potential situation where transmission of these pathogens could occur .

the information for roaches should help not only identify pests but also help to differentiate types of roaches that are given common or incorrect names . to many people , any large roach , roaches that live primarily outdoors or any cockroach that is not a german cockroach is considered a woods roach . the wood roach is a distinct species of roach , not a group of bugs . however , many pest control experts do consider roaches that are not german roaches to belong to a generic " large roach " or " outdoor roach " because their primary source is the outdoors . " water bugs " is a term many people use to describe german cockroaches . there are no roach pests that are technically water bugs . when our customers say that water bugs are a problem in their home , we can usually assume that they have an infestation of german roaches .

pycnoscelus surinamensis l . , a tropical cockroach , has been found doing injury in a number of greenhouses in the eastern part of the united states . a study of its habits has been made and experiments conducted to determine practical control measures adaptable in commercial greenhouses . tests with poisoned baits indicate that their use over large areas would be impractical . sodium cyanide in solution when applied to the soil is the most promising control material used .

the only way to get control of this situation is to eliminate the cockroach as the vector . spray the coop and all pens with an insecticide designed to kill cockroaches . removal of the worms from under the nictitating membrane can be accomplished by using tweezers and picking them out , one by one . they will be about three quarters of an inch to approximately one inch in length and approximately the same diameter as a piece of thread .

el presente trabajo reporta el hallazgo de una filariosis ocular en una gallina doméstica adulta , criada en traspatio en una comunidad cercana al río la silla , al sur de nuevo león , méxico . la gallina fue remitida para una práctica de veterinaria debido a que presentaba debilidad y diarrea . a la necropsia , fueron encontrados tres nematodos debajo de la membrana nictitante en ambos ojos . los nematodos fueron identificados como oxyspirura mansoni . el diagnóstico fue confirmado cuando el huésped intermediario de o . mansoni , la cucaracha de surinam ( pycnoscelus surinamensis ) , fue hallado en el lugar donde habitaba la gallina .

chemical control - baiting is an effective method to control or eliminate german cockroaches . baits containing hydramethylnon , fipronil , sulfluramid , boric acid , or abamectin can provide a high level of control when applied to those areas where cockroaches harbor . some formulations of baits are available to the public in plastic feeding stations . professional pest control personnel also have cockroach baits in flowable granular and gel formulations . care should be taken to closely follow the label instructions for use .

different forms of gastroenteritis ( food poisoning , dysentery , diarrhea , and other illnesses ) appear to be the principal diseases transmitted by german cockroaches . the organisms causing these diseases are carried on the legs and bodies of cockroaches and are deposited on food and utensils as the cockroaches forage . cockroach excrement and cast skins also contain a number of allergens to which many people exhibit allergic responses , such as skin rashes , watery eyes and sneezing , congestion of nasal passages , and asthma .

facultative parthenogenesis , seen in many animal phyla , is a reproductive strategy in which females are able to generate offspring when mating partners are unavailable . in some subsocial and eusocial insects , parthenogenesis is often more prevalent than sexual reproduction . however , little is known about how social cooperation is linked to the promotion of parthenogenesis . the domiciliary cockroach periplaneta americana is well - suited to addressing this issue as this species belongs to the superfamily blattoidea , which diverged into eusocial termites and shows facultative parthenogenesis .

group - housed females of the american cockroach p . americana promote asexual ootheca production compared to isolated females . a founder colony of 15 virgin females is sufficient to maintain the colony for more than four generations over a period of more than three years only by parthenogenesis . recognizing female - specific chemosensory signals via antennae is the most potent sensory cue for promoting ootheca production . the promotion of ootheca production may be an early stage of social cooperation linked to more prevalent parthenogenesis adopted by eusocial insects .

most cockroaches have two pair of well developed wings . the front pair of wings ( forewings ) overlaps over the back . they are narrow , thick and leathery . the hind pair of wings are membranous and are folded fan - like beneath the front pair . many cockroach species are wingless and others have only rudimentary wings . in some species , the females have wings that are shorter than the males , and they may appear so different that they can mistakenly be taken as being two different species .

adult german cockroaches are 1 / 2 to 5 / 8 inch long and tan to light brown ( fig . 1 ) . although they have fully developed wings , they do not fly . nymphs are similar in appearance to adults except that they are smaller and lack wings . the german cockroach is best identified by its small size and by two dark parallel lines running from the back of the head to the wings . it is usually found in kitchens ( near dishwashers , stoves , and sinks ) and in bathrooms of homes .

cockroaches are among the most common of insects . fossil evidence indicates that cockroaches have been on earth for over 300 million years . they are considered one of the most successful groups of animals . because cockroaches are so adaptable , they have successfully adjusted to living with humans . about 3 , 500 species of cockroaches exist worldwide , with 55 species found in the united states . only four species are common pests in pennsylvania structures . these are the german , brown - banded , oriental , and american cockroaches . a fifth species , the pennsylvania wood cockroach is an occasional nuisance pest in some locations .

the surinman cockroach . got a problem with what you have here . yes , the bug i am infested with here on big island looks exactly like your foto . and i have been researching to identify this pest . but , wikipedia when i search surinman cockroach says the female does not fly . here’s by problem . please help . the bug looks like your picture . but it crawls into our house from any opening it can find . my husband has been spending weeks caulking up any openings on the bottom of the walls because that’s where they come in . the wikipedia says they are plant eaters and do not fly ! . we do not have plants in the house , and we are in a clearing in the forest . of course we have something like grass , but we are on lava rock . we have been here in this house for 4 yrs . and just this winter have had the worst infestation ever . they fly in , they crawl in . when they landed on the bed linen that’s when i said caulk the walls . they seem to find any opening and i have been calling them snuggle bugs because they like to crawl into the bathroom rugs . they seem to be nocturnal , but occasionally i find the coming across my floor in the day . what can we do to rid ourselves of this pest ? i would appreciate any info you have


kurixalus idiootocus is a small species of frog in the rhacophoridae family .

it is endemic to taiwan and is commonly known as the temple tree frog .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland , freshwater marshes , intermittent freshwater marshes and irrigated land .

it is listed as being of " least concern " by the iucn although there may be some destruction of its habitat .

kurixalus idiootocus

kurixalus idiootocus <EOT> advertisement calls of four kurixalus species from taiwan . a . kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . “slow call” b . kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . “rapid call” c . kurixalus wangi sp . n . “slow call” d kurixalus wangi sp . n . “rapid call” e kurixalus eiffingeri f kurixalus idiootocus .

four kurixalus species of taiwan . a kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ( holotype , adult , dark morph ) b kurixalus wangi sp . n . ( holotype ) c kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ( sub - adult ) d kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ( adult , light morph ) e kurixalus eiffingeri f kurixalus idiootocus .

kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . , kurixalus wangi sp . n . , oophagous tadpoles

lateral view of tadpoles of three oophagus kurixalus species . a kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . b kurixalus wangi sp . n . c kurixalus eiffingeri . scale bars 1 mm .

comparisons of the characteristics of slow mating calls among kurixalus eiffingeri , kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . and kurixalus wangi sp . n .

dorsal view of tadpole head region of three oophagus kurixalus species . a kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . b kurixalus wangi sp . n . c kurixalus eiffingeri . scale bars 1 mm .

temple tree frog ( kurixalus idiootocus ) temple tree frog stock photo , picture and royalty free image . image 56473078 .

chirixalus idiootocus — bossuyt and dubois , 2001 , zeylanica , 6 : 57 .

the guts of tadpoles of the two new species contained a yellow ‘yolky’ substance . when the same characteristic was observed in kurixalus eiffingeri it was confirmed as tadpole oophagy ( ueda 1986 , liang et al . 2002 ) . therefore , it is likely that the tadpole oophagy is a synapomorphy for the two new species and kurixalus eiffingeri . interestingly , kurixalus idiootocus , as well as all known kurixalus species from mainland china and southern asia lack this particular reproductive behavior . therefore , the oophagy reproductive behavior could also support the phylogenetic positions of kurixalus eiffingeri , kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . , and kurixalus wangi sp . n . within the kurixalus genus .

kurixalus eiffingeri , a native species in the island of taiwan , is the only rhacophorid within the genus kurixalus that has a tree - hole breeding reproductive mode and oophagous tadpoles ( ueda 1986 , lehtinen and nussbaum 2003 , wells 2007 ) . kurixalus idiootocus , a species endemic to taiwan , has a lentic feeding tadpole type , which is similar to most species in the genus kurixalus ( inger 1966 , inger et al . 1999 , kuramoto and wang 1987 ) . in previous molecular phylogenetic studies , kurixalus eiffingeri and kurixalus idiootocus have been recovered as sister taxa ( abraham et al . 2013 , yu et al 2013 , nguyen et al . 2014a , b ) . since kurixalus eiffingeri and kurixalus idiootocus are the only two species that have been described from the island of taiwan , rhacophorid frogs with similar life history to kurixalus idiootocus ( but see abraham et al 2013 ) , specifically any rhacophorid frogs with tree - hole breeding reproductive mode or lentic feeding tadpole type would be would be assigned to either of the two species .

nesting sites of three tree - hole breeding kurixalus species ( a nest is made by the animal ) . a eggs of kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . b eggs of kurixalus wangi sp . n . ; note that the parents were present with eggs c eggs of kurixalus eiffingeri .

molecular evidence for taxonomy of rhacophorus appendicularis and kurixalus species from northern vietnam , with comments on systematics of kurixalus and gracixalus ( anura : rhacophoridae ) .

analysis of covariance of morphometric characteristics of males and females among four kurixalus species .

aquixalus idiootocus — fei , hu , ye , and huang , 2009 , fauna sinica , amph . 2 : 671 .

effects of intermittent feeding on the growth of oophagous ( chirixalus eiffingeri ) and herbivorous ( chirixalus idiootocus ) tadpoles from taiwan .

measurements ( in mm ) of type series and other specimens of kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . and kurixalus wangi sp . n . abbreviations as in materials and methods .

genetic variation of three kurixalus species from taiwan according to mtdna co1 gene partial sequence .

a new tree frog of the genus kurixalus ( anura : rhacophoridae ) from vietnam .

molecular evidence for taxonomy of rhacophorus appendiculatus and kurixalus species from northern vi . . .

we follow wilkinson et al . ( 2002 ) in transferring this species from chirixalus to kurixalus .

fst ( above diagonal ) and nm ( below diagonal ) between three kurixalus species from taiwan .

a new cryptic tree frog species allied to kurixalus banaensis ( anura : rhacophoridae ) from vietnam .

annandale ' s high altitude frog ( kurixalus naso ) is a rhacophorid frog that . . .

in the latest study , a team led by zoologist yu - teh kirk lin at the national taiwan university in taipei studied kurixalus idiootocus tree frogs in a wooded suburb of taipei during the mating season , which lasts from february to september .

sampling localities of this study . localities 1 through 22 are around taiwan island , locality 23 from iriomote isle , locality 24 from ishigaki isle . the two isles belong to the southern end of ryukyu archipelago . color refers to the geographical distribution of the three kurixalus species . red : kurixalus eiffingeri ; green : kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ( taxon 1 ) ; b : kurixalus wangi sp . n . ( taxon 2 ) . loc . 20 : ligia , type locality of kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ; loc . 21 : shouka , type locality of kurixalus wangi sp . n .

dana campbell added text to " brief summary " on " kurixalus naso ( annandale , 1912 ) " .

dana campbell added text to " type information " on " kurixalus naso ( annandale , 1912 ) " .

a species boundary within the chinese kurixalus odontotarsus species group ( anura : rhacophoridae ) : n . . .

aquixalus ( aquixalus ) idiootocus — delorme , dubois , grosjean , and ohler , 2005 , bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon , 74 : 166 .

dana campbell marked " file : polypedates naso . jpeg " as trusted on the " kurixalus naso " page .

the epithet is named and dedicated to mr . ching - shong wang for his pioneering work and contributions to the herpetology of taiwan ( wang 1962 ) . mr . wang discovered two rhacophorid frogs ( rhacophorus taipeianus and kurixalus idiootocus ) ( liang and wang 1963 , kuramoto and wang 1987 ) in taiwan and suggested , in the early 1980s , that some kurixalus specimens collected near the type locality of this new species might be different from kurixalus eiffingeri ( personal communication ) . the name is used in the genitive case .

dana campbell selected " brief summary " to show in overview on " kurixalus naso ( annandale , 1912 ) " .

max : maximum frequency ; min : minimum frequency ; wid : width of frequency ( max - min ) ; dur : single note duration ; int : time interval between notes ; df : dominant frequency ; all data shown are mean and standard deviation ( in parentheses ) based on 30 advertisement calls recorded in the field under natural conditions . environmental parameters : 1 ) kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . : 18 °c , 93 % rh . 2 ) kurixalus wangi sp . n . : 25 °c , 84 % rh . 3 ) kurixalus eiffingeri : 19 °c , 91 % rh . 4 ) kurixalus idiootocus : 24 °c , 80 % rh .

phylogenetic relationships : k . idiootocus is closely related to k . eiffingeri . and has gone through several taxonomic changes . kuramoto and wang ( 1987 ) suggested these species might be related to the genus buergeria .

pca morphometric comparisons of four kurixalus species from taiwan . scatterplots of ( a ) principal components 1 and 2 , and ( b ) principal components 2 and 3 of size - adjusted morphometric data for male frogs of the four kurixalus species . the 95 % confidence ellipses for each population ( elm ) are shown .

two new species of rhacophorid tree frog were identified in taiwan . in both new taxa , derived reproductive characteristics of laying eggs in tree holes and oophagous tadpoles are shared with kurixalus eiffingeri , but they are divergent from each other in molecular genetics , mating calls , and tadpole and adult morphology . the morphological characteristics and the molecular phylogenetic evidence support the hypothesis that the two new species , kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . and kurixalus wangi sp . n . , are both monophyletic lineages .

abbreviations : k : kurixalus ; f : feihyla ; r : rhacophorus ; jp : ryukyu islands of japan ; ntw : northern taiwan ; ctw : central taiwan .

dana campbell marked the classification from " species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 " as preferred for " kurixalus naso ( annandale , 1912 ) " .

. . . in this study , we measured the body weight , body length , jump height , jump length , and climbing abilities of three species of frogs indigenous to taiwan . the results were used to design an amphibian corridor suitable for amphibian mobility . twenty specimens for each of the three species , rana adenopleura , rana latouchii , and kurixalus idiootocus , were collected for testing . their climbing ability . . .

kurixalus idiootocus — wilkinson , drewes , and tatum , 2002 , mol . phylogenet . evol . , 24 : 272 ; frost , grant , faivovich , bain , haas , haddad , de sá , channing , wilkinson , donnellan , raxworthy , campbell , blotto , moler , drewes , nussbaum , lynch , green , and wheeler , 2006 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 297 : 245 .

body size variation ( svl ) in female and male kurixalus species from taiwan ( mean ± standard deviation ) . ( * * : significant level < 0 . 01 ) .

factor loadings of the first three principal components of 18 size - adjusted morphometric characteristics of males of four kurixalus species . absolute values of loadings greater than 0 . 50 in boldface .

holotype of kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . dorsal ( a ) , ventral ( b ) , and ventral view of hand ( c ) and foot ( d ) . scale bars : 10 mm .

phylogeny of rhacophoridae is constructed using two mitochondrial ( 12s rrna and 16s rrna ) and two nuclear ( tyrosinase and rag - 1 ) genes in an attempt to test for the taxonomic status of rhacophorus appendiculatus and kurixalus species from tam dao . all phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that specimens from tam dao are nested in kurixalus bisacculus , indicating that they belong to k . bisacculus . . . . [ show full abstract ]

the notion of “frog song” needs more careful consideration , we have found a similar vocalizing behavior of the human and male frogs . many people sing in the bathroom because the acoustics make them feel like the voice is stronger and richer . male mientien tree frogs kurixalus idiootocus frequently perch and call in roadside concrete drainages – miniature urban canyons . in an indoor experiment using a replica of a concrete drain , males preferred one particular type of call perch that facilitated call transmission ( tan , tsai , lin , & lin , 2014 ) .

chirixalus idiootocus kuramoto and wang , 1987 , copeia , 1987 : 932 . holotype : ntuma 1010 , by original designation . type locality : " in a rain pool near sanshengkong ( a temple , altitude ca . 500 m ) in the southern slope of mount mientien - shan , taipei , taiwan " , china .

comparisons of measurements and ratios of tadpoles of three oophagus kurixalus species from taiwan ( anova significant level , * : 0 . 01 < p < 0 . 05 ; * * : p < 0 . 01 ) .

fei , 1999 , atlas amph . china : 252 - 253 , provided a brief account ( as philautus idootocus ) , figure , and map . bossuyt and dubois , 2001 , zeylanica , 6 : 57 - 58 , discussed with this species cannot be in philautus and , although they transferred it back to chirixalus , noted that the definition of chirixalus was so poorly resolved that this species might ultimately have to be moved to a distinct genus , a position formalized by wilkinson , drewes , and tatum , 2002 , mol . phylogenet . evol . , 24 : 272 . lue , tu , and hsiang , 1999 , atlas taiwan amph . rept . : 40 - 41 , provided a brief account for taiwan ( as chirixalus idiootocus ) . fei , hu , ye , and huang , 2009 , fauna sinica , amph . 2 : 671 - 676 , provided an account ( as aquixalus idiootocus ) and spot map . fei , ye , and jiang , 2010 , colored atlas of chinese amph . : 428 - 429 , provided a brief account ( as aquixalus idiootocus ) for china including photographs of specimens and habitat . fei , ye , and jiang , 2012 , colored atlas chinese amph . distr . : 498–499 , provided an account ( as aquixalus idiootocus ) , photographs , and a range map for china .

genetic distances among kurixalus species and two outgroup taxa in co 1 gene ( above diagonal ) and 16s rrna gene ( below diagonal ) . numbers on top row refer to species shown on the left column . genetic distances are shown as percentage .

the population of kurixalus naso population is thought to be small , and susceptible to deforestation . little is known about this species , and the taxonomic identities and relationships within this genus are also poorly known and not distinguishable on the basis of morphology ( tao et al . 2014 ; nguyen et al . 2012 ) . kurixalus naso occurs in several preserves including dihang - dibang biosphere reserve and mouling national park in arunachal pradesh ( dutta et al . 2004 ) . more sampling and fieldwork is necessary to understand this species , its ecology , and its conservation status .

holotype of kurixalus wangi sp . n . dorsal ( a ) , ventral ( b ) , and ventral view of hand ( c ) and foot ( d ) . scale bars 10 mm in ( a ) and ( b ) ; 5 mm in ( c ) and ( d ) .

annandale ' s high altitude frog ( kurixalus naso ) is a rhacophorid frog that inhabits montane forests , shrublands and grasslands of northeastern india , the eastern xizang province of china , and myanmar . in india it is recorded from altitudes between 1 , 100 and 1 , 500m asl . kurixalus naso is a small , arboreal species , that breeds in temporary water bodies ( dutta et al . 2004 ) . annandale ( 1912 ) reported the type specimen as 43 mm ( 1 . 7 in ) snout to vent length ( svl ) , with a stout body , short stout limbs , and a broad head . it is purplish - brown on its dorsal surface , with grey mottling , and has an off - white belly ( annandale 1912 ) . a cone - shaped snout distinguishes this species from others in genus kurixalus . ( annandale 1912 ; tao et al . 2014 ) . very little literature describes this species .

phylogenetic relationship of all kurixalus species from taiwan . a phylogram showing the phylogenetic relationships of the four kurixalus species , obtained by a maximum likelihood search based on 1207 nucleotides from mtdna co1 and 16s rrna genes . feihyla palpebralis and rhacophorus moltrechti were used as outgroups . the three values on each branch are maximum likelihood ( ml ) , maximum parsimony ( mp ) , and neighbor - joining ( nj ) analyses with bootstrapping support based on 2000 replicates . bootstrapping values below 50 % are not shown . ( jp : ryukyu islands of japan ; n . tw : northern taiwan ; c . tw : central taiwan ) .

we would like to show our gratitude to hm huang for collecting the first specimen of kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ; to jh chu , cc hwang , hj su and sm lin for advice on molecular analysis ; to h masaki for providing specimens of kurixalus eiffingeri from the ryukyu islands , to cy hsiao for photographs ; to yt chung for his dedicated fieldwork ; to cc wu for performing bench work ; and to cf lin for providing kurixalus eiffingeri tadpoles . thanks are extended to cj huang , ch chang , cw lin and yc liu for assistance with the fieldwork . we appreciate the help of sf chan with vocal analysis and yh chen for partial sample contribution . the map of taiwan was kindly prepared by pf lee . this study was partially supported by the council of agriculture grant ( 94–admin–4 . 1–conserv–03 ( 2 ) ) , by shei - pa national park , ministry of interior grant ( 094 - 301020500g1 - 005 ) , and a support from mr . cc chen . re brown greatly improved an early draft of the manuscript .

. . . phylogenetic data support the monophyletic origin of kurixalus despite its broad distri - bution ( li et al . , 2013 ; biju et al . , 2016 ; jiang et al . , 2016 ) . however , since these frogs are similar in morphology and overlap in body size , taxonomy is difficult and mainly based on molecular analyses ( wilkinson et al . , 2002 ; li et al . , 2008 ; li et al . , 2009 ; hertwig et al . , 2013 ; yu et al . , 2013 ; nguyen et al . , 2014a ; nguyen et al . , 2014b ; wu et al . , 2016 ) . currently , 14 species are recognized in kurixalus ( frost , 2017 ) . . . .

wu s - p , huang c - c , tsai c - l , lin t - e , jhang j - j , wu s - h ( 2016 ) systematic revision of the taiwanese genus kurixalus members with a description of two new endemic species ( anura , rhacophoridae ) . zookeys 557 : 121–153 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 557 . 6131

we construct the phylogeny of the kurixalus odontotarsus species group using two mitochondrial ( 12s rrna and 16s rrna ) genes in an attempt to delimit species boundaries within the chinese k . odontotarsus group . with strong support values , three major clades are obtained , and all phylogenetic analyses reject monophyly of k . odontotarsus . the tibetan lineage of k . odontotarsus was clustered with . . . [ show full abstract ]

kurixalus eiffingeri is not an endangered or protected species and thus no specific permission is needed for field studies . some bamboo forests in chitou are privately owned , and we had verbal permission from land owners ( mr . pan yeong - sung and ms chen mei - chi ) to conduct observational and field studies ( 23 o 41’05 . 4” n 130 o 47’45 . 4” e and 23 o 41’22 . 8” n 130 o 47’22 . 5” e , respectively ) .

in this study , we used a taiwanese frog ( kurixalus eiffingeri ( anura : rhacophoridae ) ) that breeds in water - filled bamboo stumps as a model animal to study the parentage between overlapping offspring and its ecological consequence on reproductive strategy and nest site selection . specifically , we used ( 1 ) five microsatellite dna markers to analyze the parentage of adults and tadpoles and ( 2 ) paired bamboo cups with and without tadpoles to study the nest choice of frogs and to reveal the possible causes of nest reuse .

a small to moderate - sized kurixalus . females snout - vent length averaging about 34 mm ( range : 30 . 8–37 . 1 mm ) ; males averaging 30 mm ( range : 28 . 6–31 . 6 mm ) . iris golden - yellow . two anterior horns of the x - shaped marking on back extending to eyelid . webbing extensive on toes , extending to the toe disc on the inner margin of toe v . belly and throat whitish . anterior margin of tadpole dorsal fin extending to posterior body . tadpole with almost no pigment on region of tail muscle . upper lip of tadpole with shallow transverse furrow .

description diagnosis : kurixalus idiooticus is a small treefrog similar to k . eiffingeri but with a smaller body size . it has a smaller and weakly developed pollex , has less rugose skin . no female anal flap is present , dorsal warts lack white spinules , its ground color is never greenish , and generally a large dark brown hourglass - like pattern on the back . males have an aggressive vocal behavior . the species has a generalized larval morphology . in contrast to all other known taiwanese rhacophorine frogs , k . idiooticus lays eggs terrestrially near the water ' s edge without constructing a foam nest ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .

. . . recently , dubois ( 2005 ) assigned both theloderma and nyctixalus to the tribe philautini ( including also aquixalus , kurixalus , and philautus ) , whereas more recently grosjean et al . ( 2008 ) proposed separation of theloderma and nyctixalus in the new tribe nyctixalini . this assignment and distant phylogenetic position of theloderma and nyctixalus in respect to other members of the subfamily rhacophorinae was also supported by subsequent phylogenetic analyses ( li et al . , 2008 li et al . , , 2009li et al . , , 2013 pyron and wiens , 2011 ) . based on the analysis of mtdna genetic markers , li et al . ( 2008 ) showed sister clade relationships between nyctixalus ( n . . . .

a moderate - sized kurixalus . females average about 41 mm snout - vent length ( range : 27 . 6–46 . 3 mm ) ; males average about 35 mm ( range : 29 . 0–42 . 3 mm ) . iris emerald to light green . two dark brown spots on eyelids , separated from each other and from x - shaped blotch on dorsum . subarticular tubercles on foot rounded and flat . belly and throat white or faintly - speckled . prepollex in males squarish , compressed and expanded . about half - webbed between two outer toes . anterior margin of tadpole dorsal fin extending to body . tadpole heavily dark brown to black pigmented in gular region and on tail muscle . upper lip of tadpole with deep transverse furrow , and prominent ridge extending from upper lip to anterior margin of nostril ( key of tadpole , 3 ) .

. . . three mitochondrial genes and five nuclear genes were surveyed : partial 12s rrna , trna - val , and 16s rrna genes were regarded as a single mitochondrial locus ; the other five nuclear loci included ( i ) a fragment of the brain - derived neurotrophic factor ( bdnf ) ; ( ii ) a fragment of proopiomelanocortin ( pomc ) ; ( iii ) a fragment of the recombination activating gene 1 ( rag - 1 ) ; ( iv ) a fragment of exon 1 of rhodopsin ( rhod ) , and ( v ) a fragment of exon 1 of tyrosinase ( tyr ) . mitochondrial 12s rrna , trna - val , and 16s rrna sequences of kurixalus eiffingeri from ishigaki island ( ryukyu islands ) ( see the last one in supplement table 1 for detailed information ) were newly acquired according to protocols of previous studies ( li et al . , 2008 ; li et al . , 2009 ) . sequences from mitochondrial dna and five nuclear loci were aligned with muscle 3 . 8 . 31 . . .

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frost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .

justification : listed as least concern in view of its relatively wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .

this species is endemic to taiwan , province of china , and occurs below 2 , 000m asl .

it inhabits shrubland , grassland , paddy fields and nearby pools . it usually breeds in shallow , still waterbodies .

habitat destruction and degradation are potential threats to this species , in particular infrastructure development for human settlement .

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tadpoles are pond - type ( rounded body , small mouth and sinistral spiracle with moderate tail ) . at stages 25 - 27 , body length is 1 . 4 - 1 . 5x longer than wide . body is oval and moderately depressed . eyes and nostrils are dorsolateral . dorsal fin is slightly larger than ventral fin . caudal musculature is slender and tapers gradually to the tip of the tail . papillae are marginal , small , and homogeneous in size ; they form a continuous row across the ventral lip and extend to the sides of the lips . ltrf is 2 : 1 + 1 / 3 at stages earlier than 37 and 2 : 3 + 3 / 3 or 1 : 4 + 4 / 3 at stage 37 . head and body are generally dark brown , sometimes with black spotting . caudal muscle is dark brown . fins are transparent at stage 25 . ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .

coloration in life : ground color of light grayish brown , brown , dark brown or yellowish brown ( never greenish ) . the dorsum is characterized by a dark brown stripe . dark brown spots and patches are on the sides of head . a brown bar extends from the nostril to edge of upper lip , and another brown bar extends from the anterior lower edge of the eye to the edge of the upper lip . the upper lip has a few narrow dark bars . an inverted y shape in brown or black extends from a dark cross band between upper eyelids to posterior part of the back . this marking can be y - shaped , h - shaped or x - shaped , or may be lacking . sides of the body have dark brown marbling with some dark spots . anterior throat has dark brown marbling and spotting , as well as some white granules . the belly is dark brown and marbled , scattered with dark spots . forearms have a dark brown cross band . thighs have numerous small dark patches on both the anterior and posterior sides . a dark knee patch is present . the sides of the anal opening are dark brown ; white granules are present on the dorsal and ventral sides of the anal opening ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .

is widespread in taiwan ( e . g . , pinglin , mientien - shan , chutung , suao , chushan , chiahsien , anping ) at altitudes from 10 - 750 m asl ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) . it generally occurs at a lower elevation than the closely related species

; so far the two species are known to overlap only at anping ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) . habitat includes grassland , paddy fields and shrublands or anywhere near still , shallow water bodies ( stuart et al . 2008 ) .

the breeding season lasts from march - june with males calling from the ground or in low shrubs , often near rain pools ( 5 - 20 cm in depth ) that are surrounded by high vegetation ( grasses or bushes ) . males form large breeding aggregations and calling males confront one another , with one male ceasing to call . calls resemble birds warbling and generally consist of a long series ( 2 - 6 seconds ) of fast , repeating pulses , but other call types include short trills with sharp pulses and short calls with a long pulse . males are aggressive and calling males approach each other , with one male then ceasing to call ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .

lays pigmented eggs ( gray - brown animal half , light yellowish gray vegetal half ) with transparent gelatinous coats . ova measured about 1 . 95 mm in diameter and were covered with two jelly layers , with the diameter of the outermost , tough , non - sticky jelly layer about 4 . 09 mm . eggs are laid terrestrially near the water ' s edge or in depressions , with hatching triggered by rainfall , filling the depressions or washing the tadpoles into adjacent ponds and ditches . some egg masses were observed more than 50 cm in horizontal distance from the water . egg masses were often concealed under fallen leaves or other debris , in soil depressions or in crevices behind stones or openings of rat holes . the clutch size averaged 182 eggs . tadpoles of

populations are stable with the major threat being habitat destruction and degradation from human settlements . its range overlaps with many protected areas in taiwan ( stuart et al . 2008 ) .

karyotype : 2n = 26 with eight small pairs and five large pairs of chromosomes ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .

is derived from the greek words “idios , ” or peculiar , and " ootocos , " or egg - laying ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .

kuramoto , m . , and wang , c . s . ( 1987 ) . ' ' a new rhacophorid treefrog from taiwan , with comparisons to

stuart , s . , hoffmann , m . , chanson , j . , cox , n . , berridge , r . , ramani , p . , and young , b . ( eds ) ( 2008 ) .

lynx edicions , iucn , and conservation international , barcelona , spain ; gland , switzerland ; and arlington , virginia , usa .

> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .

> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .

* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .

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temple treefrog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 111 ; lue , tu , and hsiang , 1999 , atlas taiwan amph . rept . : 40 ) .

mientien small treefrog ( fei , 1999 , atlas amph . china : 252 ) .

mientien treefrog ( lue , tu , and hsiang , 1999 , atlas taiwan amph . rept . : 40 ) .

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1 department of earth and life science , university of taipei . no . 1 , ai - guo west road , taipei , 10048 taiwan

4 department of life sciences , national chung - hsing university , no . 250 , guo - guang road , taichung city , 40227 taiwan

corresponding author : shu - ping wu ( wt . ude . utn @ uwgnipuhs )

this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .

species were collected by hand , euthanized using a dilute chloretone solution , and fixed in 10 % buffered formalin . frogs were later transferred to 70 % ethanol , and tadpoles were stored in 10 % buffered formalin . in addition to the type specimens described in this study , 343 samples that consisted of

and related taxa were collected from 22 locations throughout the island of taiwan . furthermore , three specimen of

were collected from the type locality . one was from iriomote isle and the other two were from ishigaki isle ( fig .

in addition , the eggs and tadpole morphometric characteristics were measured comprising total length ( tl ) , body length ( bl ) , tail length ( cl ) , tail height ( th ) , tail muscle height ( tm ) , internarial distance ( na ) , distance between eyes ( in ) , and tail muscle width ( mw ) ( altig and mcdiarmid 1999a , b ) . except for tl , bl , and cl , which were measured using dial calipers , tadpoles and eggs were measured under a dissecting microscope with a stage micrometer . developmental stages of tadpoles were as defined by gosner ( 1960 ) . drawings of the tadpoles were done by shw using a dissecting microscope with a camera lucida attachment .

all measurements of morphometric characteristics were taken using a dial caliper under a dissecting microscope , and measurements were rounded to 0 . 1 mm . digital webbing of the adults was recorded using savage and heyer’s formula ( 1997 ) .

t - tests were used to examine whether body size varied by gender within each taxon . an analysis of covariance ( ancova ) method was used to compare the size - adjusted means of morphometric characteristics . morphometric characteristics that satisfied the normality assumption were included in a multivariate principal component analysis ( pca ) based on the correlation matrix of size - standardized measurements ( all measurements divided by svl ) . scatter plots of the scores of the first three factors of pca were used to examine the differentiation among specimens . all of these tests and analyses were applied separately to male and female specimens . the statistical analyses were performed using sigmaplot 12 ( systat software , inc . ) .

frog mating calls were recorded using a digital recorder ( fostex fr - 2le ) and a microphone ( sennheiser me 67 / k6 ) . calls were recorded in the native habitats of these tree frogs , and environmental parameters including temperature and humidity were also recorded . avisoft saslab pro 5 . 2 . 08 ( avisoft bioacoustics ) was used to extract the maximum and minimum frequencies , as well as the width of frequency , the single note duration , and the time interval between notes of the mating calls . a rapid call and a slow call were identified . slow mating calls were compared among the subtypes in a pair - wise manner using wilcoxon - mann - whitney odds ( wmwodds ) calculations ( divine et al . 2013 ) . a bootstrap method was used to calculate the bonferroni corrected confidence intervals of the wmwodds .

polymerase ( super - therm ) , 0 . 5 μl of each primer ( 10 pm / λ ) , 1 μl template dna and ddh

o . thermal cycling was performed on a geneamp 9700 with 5 minutes at 95 °c for pre - denaturing , 35 cycles of 1 minute at 95 °c , 1 minute at 50 °c , 1 minute at 72 °c , and a final extension for 7 minutes at 72°c for both of the co1 and the 16s rrna genes . the amplicons were examined on a 2 % agarose gel for quality and fragment size . then they were purified using a geneaid pcr extraction kit and sequenced on an abi 3730 automated sequencer . estimates of genetic divergence among taxa were calculated using the kimura two - parameter model of correction for multiple substitutions at a site (

) . the transition / transversion ratio was set as 2 : 1 . chromatographs and sequences were examined and edited in bioedit 7 . 0 . 1 . (

) using the branch - and - bound search algorithm with 1000 permutation replicates to generate the null distribution . the fraction of ild null replicates with a significance value greater than the significance value of the ild was recorded . the sequences of the two gene segments were combined into one data set for subsequent analyses . dnasp 5 . 10 (

) was used to compute the population divergence conditions . tcs 1 . 21 (

) was used to reconstruct the minimum spanning network of haplotypes from each genetic population or species . a consensus ml tree was reconstructed by mega 6 (

a general time reversible model with a proportion of invariable sites and a gamma shaped distribution of rates across sites ( gtr + i + g , i = 0 . 4402 , g = 0 . 4519 ) was determined as the best - fitting model for the aligned sequences of the combined dataset using a hierarchical likelihood ratio test performed with the program mrmodeltest 2 . 2 ( nylander 2004 ) . the selected substitution model then was adopted in the reconstruction of the phylogeny by bayesian analysis and neighbor - joining ( nj ) analysis ( saito and nei 1987 ) .

the bayesian tree and the posterior probability distribution were determined using the program mrbayes 3 . 1 ( huelsenbeck and ronquist 2001 , ronquist and huelsenbeck 2003 ) . two independent monte carlo markov chain ( mcmc ) analyses were run simultaneously for 200 , 000 generations and sampled every 100 generations . to summarize the parameters and trees , the first 500 ( 25 % ) parameter values and trees were discarded . the nj analysis was conducted in paup using ml distance . gaps within the alignment were considered as missing values . the mp ( maximum parsimony ) analysis was performed with a heuristic search using 10 random stepwise steps followed by tree bisection reconnection ( tbr ) branch swapping . support for nodes was evaluated by bootstrap analysis ( felsenstein 1985 ) with 1000 replicates of the nj and the mp methods .

partial sequences of mtdna co1 gene were used as haplotypes to examine the genetic structures of the three subtypes . we calculated the fst , nm ( number of immigrants per generation , nm = ( ( 1 / fst ) - 1 ) / 4 ) , nucleotide diversity ( pi ) , and haplotype diversity ( hd ) . these calculations were made to comprehend the divergence and the intensity of gene flow among these taxa and to infer the evolutionary histories experienced by these taxa or their populations ( wright 1965 , avise 1994 ) .

) , collected on ligia timber trail , 1250 m elevation , taitung county , taiwan ( fig .

nchuzool 11311 - 13 collected on 2 august 2005 by hui - ming huang at the type locality ; nchuzool 11431 , asizam 0054 collected on 15 september 2005 by shu - ping wu at the type locality ; nchuzool 11442 ( eggs and tadpoles ) , collected on 7 february 2006 by shu - ping wu at the type locality ; nchuzool 11448 , collected on 16 february 2006 by shu - ping wu at 425 meters above sea level , at antong , hualien county ( fig .

ligia timber trail , 1250 meters above sea level , taitung county , taiwan , republic of china ( fig .

the epithet berylliniris is a compound word formed from beryllin ( l . ) , green - colored , and from iris ( l . ) , iris of the eye , and is treated as a noun in nominative singular in opposition to the generic name .

habitus moderately slender and somewhat flattened , size moderate ( svl 40 . 1 mm ) ; head wider than long ; tip of snout pointed ; snout obtuse in lateral view ; nostril barely visible from above ; canthus rostralis curved , prominent ; loreal region concave , oblique ; interorbital distance 1 . 5 times wider than upper eyelid width ; nostril oval , oblique , closer to tip of snout than to eye ; internarial distance slightly longer than nostril - eye distance ; eye diameter larger than nostril - eye distance ; pupil horizontal ; tympanic region oblique ; diameter of tympanum approximately half of eye diameter ; tympanum distinct , round ; tympanum to eye distance smaller than half tympanum diameter ; supratympanic fold from posterior tip of eye to base of arm ; jaw angle almost to posterior rim of tympanum ; premaxillary and maxillary teeth present ; choana exposed ; vomerine teeth present only on left side ; tooth patch oval , about half of choana diameter . vocal slits near commissure of jaw , slit - like .