ostertagia ostertagi , commonly known as the medium or brown stomach worm , is an important parasitic nematode ( round worm ) of cattle .

o. ostertagi can also be found to a lesser extent in sheep , goats , wild ruminants and horses .

the species causes ostertagiosis , which is potentially fatal in cattle .

it is found worldwide and is economically important to cattle industries , particularly those found in temperate climates .

the abomasal nematode o. ostertagi is a clade v nematode of the order strongylida , the family trichostrongylidae and genus ostertagia .

ransom first described the genus ostertagia in 1907 , which currently contains approximately 15 species .

all species of the genus ostertagia infect domestic or wild ruminants .

these species form a large and complex group , the taxonomy of which has not been fully elucidated .

ostertagia ostertagi

ostertagia ostertagi <EOT> aspects of the biology of ostertagia ostertagi in relation to the genesis of ostertagiasis .

the pathology following single infections of ostertagia ostertagi in calves . - pubmed - ncbi

pathophysiological and parasitological studies on ostertagia ostertagi infections in calves . - pubmed - ncbi

development of immunity to ostertagia ostertagi ( trichostrongylidae : nematoda ) in pastured young cattle .

comparative morphology of ostertagia mossi and ostertagia dikmansi ( trichostrongylidae ) from odocoileus virginianus and comments on other ostertagia spp . from the cervidae

effect of experimental ostertagia ostertagi infection or chronic pentagastrin treatment on abomasal pathophysiology and morphology of goats .

comparative morphology of ostertagia mossi and ostertagia dikmansi ( trichostrongylidae ) from odocoileus virginianus and comments on other ostertagia spp . from the cervidae | springerlink

aspects of the biology of ostertagia ostertagi in relation to the genesis of ostertagiasis . - pubmed - ncbi

ostertagia and teladorsagia spp , parasitic brown stomach worms of cattle , sheep and goats . biology , prevention and control . ostertagiasis . ostertagia lyrata , ostertagia ostertagii , teadorsagia circumcincta , teladorsagia pinnata , ostertagia circumcincta

development of immunity to ostertagia ostertagi ( trichostrongylidae : nematoda ) in pastured young cattle . - pubmed - ncbi

fox mt ( 1993 ) pathophysiology of infection with ostertagia ostertagi in cattle . vet parasitol 46 : 143–158 .

ostertagia species are found throughout temperate and subtropical areas of the world . the cattle species , ostertagia ostertagi is particularly important in temperate areas wherever cattle are raised .

armour j , bruce rg . inhibited development in ostertagia ostertagi infections - - a diapause phenomenon in a nematode .

analysis of the translationally controlled tumour protein in the nematodes ostertagia ostertagi and caenorhabditis elegans suggests a pivotal role in egg production .

michel jf , lancaster mb , hong c , berrett s . plasma pepsinogen levels in some experimental infections of ostertagia ostertagi in cattle .

analysis of the translationally controlled tumour protein in the nematodes ostertagia ostertagi and caenorhabditis elegans suggests a pivotal role . . . - pubmed - ncbi

michel jf , lancaster mb , hong c ( 1973 ) ostertagia ostertagi : protective immunity in calves . the development in calves of a protective immunity to infection with ostertagia ostertagi . exp parasitol 33 : 179–186 . 0014 - 4894 ( 73 ) 90023 - 4 [ pii ] .

assessing the agreement between ostertagia ostertagi elisa tests performed using the crude adult antigen and the adult and larval stage 4 excretory / secretory antigens .

ostertagia ostertagi in various stages of development . a unembryonated egg . b early embryonated egg . c embryonated egg . d first - stage larvae , l1

assessing the agreement between ostertagia ostertagi elisa tests performed using the crude adult antigen and the adult and larval stage 4 excretory . . . - pubmed - ncbi

michel jf , lancaster mb , hong c : ostertagia ostertagi : protective immunity in calves . the development in calves of a protective immunity to infection with ostertagia ostertagi . exp parasitol . 1973 , 33 ( 1 ) : 179 - 186 . 10 . 1016 / 0014 - 4894 ( 73 ) 90023 - 4 .

fenbendazole ( white drench ) and levamisole ( clear drench ) against ostertagia ostertagi was less than fully effective on 43 % and 53 % of farms tested , respectively .

pge occurs when parasitic infestations in the abomasum and intestines result in inflammation of the gastrointestinal mucosa . in the uk ostertagia ostertagi is of biggest concern with cooperia contributing to disease .

ritchie jd , anderson n , armour j , jarrett wf , jennings fw , urquhart gm . experimental ostertagia ostertagi infections in calves : parasitology and pathogenesis of a single infection .

disease caused by o . ostertagi is divided into two forms , type i and type ii .

identification and mean number of each species of abomasal nematode identified are presented in table 4 . ostertagia leptospicularis ( o . l ) 67 % and spiculopteragia asymmetrica ( s . a . ) 26 % were the predominant ostertagia - type species present . present but in lower numbers were spiculopteragia spiculoptera ( s . s ) 5 % and ostertagia ostertagi ( o . o ) 2 %

ross jg , dow c : the course and development of the abomasal lesions in calves experimentally infected with the nematode parasite ostertagia ostertagi . brit vet j . 1965 , 121 : 228 - 233 .

trefoil factor 3 immunofluorescent staining ( green ) , combined with dapi staining ( blue ) . formalin fixed , paraffin - embedded abomasum sections of holstein cows after ostertagia ostertagi infection were stained . ( a ) negative control , ( b ) exposed to o . ostertagi for 60 days . original magnification 20× .

these worms are often called ‘osties’ or ‘osters’ , short for ostertagia . however , the worm was reclassified in the early 1990s , with the genus name changing from ostertagia to teladorsagia . while ostertagia is a name still commonly used , they are also now called “tellies” , short for teladorsagia .

ostertagia ostertagii infects mainly cattle , but also sheep , goats and other domestic and wild ruminants .

markovits , judit eva , " effect of experimental ostertagia ostertagi infection or chronic pentagastrin treatment on abomasal pathophysiology and morphology of goats . " ( 1986 ) . lsu historical dissertations and theses . 4193 . urltoken

the datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are included within the article and its additional files . ostertagia ostertagi its2 sequence : genbank accession number ab245021 . 2 | : 1 , 036–1 , 126 bp .

vercauteren , isabel , peter geldhof , iris peelaers , et al . “defining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . ” molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts . 2002 . print .

this report is about the identification of parasite ostertagia ostertagi in cattle with persistent diarrhea . a farmer brought the fecal samples to national veterinary laboratories , islamabad from the village “charaa” , islamabad . he was having total of four animals including one cattle and three calves . cattle approximately 8 year old and have persistent diarrhea with the interval of 2 months after microscopic fecal examination it was conformed that animal was infested by ostertagia ostertagi .

efficacy of levamisole , moxidectin oral , moxidectin injectable and monepantel against ostertagia - type nematodes in deer .

our main objective was to assess whether feeding sainfoin has an effect on pathophysiological and parasitological measurements in calves experimentally infected with the most pathogenic and prevalent gin of cattle in temperate regions : ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora .

vercauteren i , geldhof p , peelaers i , claerebout e , berx g , vercruysse j . defining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts . 2002 .

predilection sites of adult ostertagia and teladorsagia worms are the stomach ( abomasum ) and the upper small intestine .

disease is caused by maturation of ostertagia ostertagi larvae ( ostertagiosis ) in the abomasum ( fourth stomach ) . unlike disease caus + ed by lungworm and liver fluke , pge does not usually cause clinical disease in adult cattle .

the following table summarizes the relevant information about ostertagia ostertagi , a nematode parasite of cattle found commonly throughout temperate areas of the world , and haemonchus contortus a nematode of sheep found throughout the world in warm temperate and subtropical areas .

' type ii ostertagiasis : ostertagia ostertagi may become hypobiotic in the autumn and if these infestation are heavy , lots of hypobiotic larvae reactivate in the spring . this causes severe acute gastritis ( fibrinous or haemorrhagic ) , and even sudden death .

vercauteren , isabel , peter geldhof , iris peelaers , edwin claerebout , g berx , and jozef vercruysse . 2002 . “defining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . ” in molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts .

lectin staining with ueai ( a - l - fucosyl terminals ) . carnoy ' s fixed , paraffin - embedded abomasum sections of holstein cows after ostertagia ostertagi infection were stained . ( a and c ) negative control , ( b and d ) exposed to o . ostertagi for 21 days . original magnification 20× ( left panels ) , 40× ( right panels ) .

citation : li rw , wu s , li w , huang y , gasbarre lc ( 2011 ) metagenome plasticity of the bovine abomasal microbiota in immune animals in response to ostertagia ostertagi infection . plos one 6 ( 9 ) : e24417 . urltoken

as already mentioned , ostertagia and teladorsagia are the most damaging worms of cattle in regions with temperate and cool climate .

as leaders in parasite control bimeda have a range of anthelmintics which can be used to successfully treat ostertagia and cooperia .

deer , anthelmintic resistance , anthelmintic efficacy , gastrointestinal parasites , ostertagia , levamisole , moxidectin injection , moxidectin oral , monepantel .

the main roundworm of cattle is ostertagia ostertagi , known commonly as the brown stomach worm . control of ostertagia will incidentally control other roundworms of lesser importance such as the smallå intestinal worm ( cooperia sp ) . occasionally , the stomach hairworm ( trichostrongylus . axei ) can be the predominant parasite but , more importantly , it is the only roundworm species that infects both sheep and cattle .

brown stomach worm occurs in most sheep and goat areas of australia and is a major parasite in winter rainfall districts . it is relatively rare in queensland . the brown stomach worm of cattle , ostertagia ostertagi is known to infect angora goats , but not sheep .

lectin staining , subjectively described from + + ( very strong ) to - ( absent ) during a primary infection with o . ostertagi .

purewal a , fox mt , shivalkar p , carroll ap , uche ue , vaillant c , watkinson a ( 1997 ) effects of ostertagia ostertagi on gastrin gene expression and gastrin - related responses in the calf . j physiol 498 ( pt 3 ) : 809–816 .

there are two types of disease caused by ostertagia . the signs of each type result from the same damage to the abomasum :

ostertagia and teladorsagia spp , parasitic brown stomach worms of cattle , sheep and goats . biology , prevention and control . ostertagiasis .

acquired immunity against cooperia spp . and ostertagia spp . in calves : effect of level of exposure and timing of the midsummer increase

although there are a number of nematode parasites known to be present in wa cattle only the two species that make up the bulk of typical worm burdens are reported here . these two species are cooperia oncophora ( hair worm ) and ostertagia ostertagi ( brown stomach worm ) .

the mcdonnell genome institute and collaborators are sequencing the bovine stomach worm , ostertagia ostertagi . this is the most economically important parasite of cattle throughout temperate regions of the world . globally , these small reddish brown worms are the major cause of parasitic gastritis ( ostertagiosis ) of ruminants .

claerebout e , hilderson h , meeus p , de marez t , behnke j , huntley j , vercruysse j : the effect of truncated infections with ostertagia ostertagi on the development of acquired resistance in calves . vet parasitol . 1996 , 66 ( 3–4 ) : 225 - 239 .

in this paper we describe molecular characterization of opa , an ostertagia polyprotein , and its potential to induce protection against homologous infection in cattle .

there were four ostertagia - type nematode species identified in the deer on this farm . the two spiculopteragia species of ostertagia - type nematodes ( s . spiculoptera and s . asymmetrica ) present are host specific to deer . ostertagia leptospicularis is a deer species but it has been reported in both sheep and cattle in new zealand ( mckenna 1997 ) . ostertagia ostertagi is an important cattle nematode previously only observed in white - tail deer in new zealand ( mckenna 1997 ) but made up 2 % of the ostertagia - type species present in these deer and 3 % on another te anau deer farm ( lawrence et al 2012 ) . it is worthy of note that the sheep ostertagia - type nematode ( teladorsagia ) was not present on this farm and in fact has never been identified in farmed deer in new zealand to date . on this farm moxidectin pour on was not evaluated and all of the ostertagia - type species were well controlled by moxi . spiculopteragia asymmetrica was the species showing the least efficacy to moxo on this farm . technically resistance to an anthelmintic can only be claimed if the dose rate to provide efficacy has been determined . the dose rate in deer for moxo has not been determined and therefore we cannot claim spiculopteragia asymmetrica is resistant on this farm . interpretation of the efficacies of oxo and levo is not appropriate in light of previous discussion regarding the need to determine / re - evaluate the correct dose of these anthelmintics in deer . previous reports on new zealand deer farms indicated ostertagia - type species exhibiting resistance to macrocyclic lactone anthelmintics . ostertagia leptospicularis was resistant to moxidectin pour on ( lawrence et al 2012 ) , ostertagia leptospicularis and spiculopteragia spiculoptera to moxidectin pour on and moxi ( lawrence 2011 ) , and ostertagia leptospicularis resistant to moxidectin pour on and ostertagia leptospicularis , spiculopteragia spiculoptera and spiculopteragia asymmetrica to ivermectin oral ( hoskin et al 2005 ) .

the internal transcribed spacer 2 ( its2 ) is a candidate diagnostic marker of the pathogenic cattle nematode ostertagia ostertagi . the aims of this study were : ( i ) to document and quantify how the development of o . ostertagi eggs affects its2 copies under different storage conditions , and ( ii ) to suggest optimal storage conditions for faecal samples in a diagnostic pipeline that involves detection and semi - quantification by real - time semi - quantitative polymerase chain reaction ( qpcr ) .

li rw , hou y , li c , gasbarre lc : localized complement activation in the development of protective immunity against ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle . vet parasitol . 2010 , 174 ( 3 - 4 ) : 247 - 256 . 10 . 1016 / j . vetpar . 2010 . 08 . 037 .

some of the drenches in group 1 ( benzimidazoles ) have lesser and a more variable effect on the immature and inhibited stages of ostertagia than previously thought .

data ( mean ± sd ) representing worm burden by sieving , percentage males and female fecundity based on the number of eggs in utero from 16 female worms per animal . the calves were experimentally infected with ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora and fed a tannin - rich diet ( group sf ) or a control diet ( group co )

the common stomach worms of cattle are haemonchus placei ( barber’s pole worm , large stomach worm , wire worm ) , ostertagia ostertagi ( medium or brown stomach worm ) , and trichostrongylus axei ( small stomach worm , see trichostrongylus sp in horses ) . in some tropical countries , mecistocirrus digitatus , a large worm up to 40 mm long , is present . h placei is primarily a parasite in tropical regions , whereas o ostertagi and , to a lesser extent , t axei are found in more temperate climates . adult male haemonchus are up to 18 mm long , females up to 30 mm . ostertagia adults are 6–9 mm long , and trichostrongylus , ~ 5 mm .

the objectives of this study were first to molecularly characterize the ostertagia polyprotein allergen ( opa ) ( e . g . , to determine the genomic organization , expression pattern , and immunolocalization ) and then to investigate the protective capacities of both purified native opa ( nopa ) and recombinant opa ( ropa ) in cattle challenged with o . ostertagi .

its2 copies of four developmental stages of ostertagia ostertagi . sample mean of its2 copies ( molecules μl - 1 ) illustrated on the y - axis plotted against each developmental stage ( x - axis ) . error bars indicate standard error of the mean ( sem ) . asterisks denote statistical significance : * * * = p < 0 . 0001

vercauteren , isabel , geldhof , p . , peelaers , i . , claerebout , e . , berx , g . , & vercruysse , j . ( 2002 ) . defining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts . presented at the molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites .

li rw , hou y , li c , gasbarre lc ( 2010 ) localized complement activation in the development of protective immunity against ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle . vet parasitol 174 : 247–256 . s0304 - 4017 ( 10 ) 00492 - 9 [ pii ] ; 10 . 1016 / j . vetpar . 2010 . 08 . 037 [ doi ] .

external structural changes of adult ostertagia ostertagi recovered from calves fed sainfoin for 58 days . scanning electron microscopy of representative worms recovered 42 days post - infection from control group ( co ) ( a , b ) or sainfoin group ( sf ) ( c , d ) . left column : tail of the female worm ; right column : close view of the cuticle

at present , the control of ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle largely depends on the use of chemical antihelminthic drugs . residues of introduced chemicals in foodstuffs and the environment have become a serious consumer concern . reports of resistance to antiparasitic drugs for a closely related parasite , cooperia species , in cattle ( 5 , 31 ) make the development of alternative control systems even more urgent .

the predominant worm type present in all 6 con deer was ostertagia - type and interestingly there were no cooperia present . the large intestinal parasite oesophagostomum was present in 3 of the six deer . table1 ; faecal larval culture ( flc ) worm type control group averagehaemonchus - ostertagia - type 69 % trichostrongylus 11 % cooperia - oesophagostomum / chabertia 20 % nematodirus -

early attempts to protect cattle against the abomasal nematode o . ostertagi with irradiated larval vaccines ( 2 ) or with crude somatic ( 12 ) and excretory - secretory ( es ) products ( 13 ) were not successful . moderate levels of protection were obtained in calves immunized with gut membrane glycoproteins of o . ostertagi ( 24 ) . recently , it was shown that vaccination of cattle with es products of adult ostertagia worms enriched for cysteine proteinases by thiol - sepharose chromatography reduced the fecal egg counts by 60 % compared to the counts in the control group ( 11 ) .

transcript expression in different developmental stages . this figure represents the number of transcripts expressed in each stage and the percent of those transcripts that are constitutively - expressed in c . oncophora ( a ) and o . ostertagi ( b ) . ( c ) c . oncophora and ( d ) o . ostertagi depict the number of transcripts up - regulated , down - regulated and specific to a given stage .

table 2 : group mean total worm counts for adult and immature ostertagia - types . anthelmintic treatment group efficacy against ostertagia - type adults . oster - type adults oster - type larvacontrol 1495 17moxi % efficacy 0100 % 67moxo % efficacy 3297 . 9 % 173oxo 42271 . 8 % 173levo 42371 . 7 % 118moxi + oxlevo 0100 % 14 . 5zolo 20086 . 6 % 14

concurrent with the diarrhea of o ostertagi and t axei infections , and with the anemia of heavy haemonchus infection , there is often hypoproteinemia and edema ( rare in o ostertagi infections ) , particularly under the lower jaw ( bottle jaw ) and sometimes along the ventral abdomen . heavy infections can result in death before clinical signs appear . other variable signs include progressive weight loss , weakness , rough coat , and anorexia .

note that routine treatment of adult cows after their second calving is not needed . individual cows in this group may be treated if they are scouring or losing condition because of infection with ostertagia .

a lot of research has been carried out on vaccines , but so far no really effective one is available against ostertagia and / or teladorsagia worms . to learn more about vaccines against parasites of livestock and pets

no fluorescence was detected in sections of ostertagia developed with preimmune rabbit serum ( fig . 2i ) or with the irrelevant rabbit serum ( antiscabies serum ) or in the conjugate controls ( data not shown ) .

cooperia oncophora and ostertagia ostertagi are among the most important gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle worldwide . the economic losses caused by these parasites are on the order of hundreds of millions of dollars per year . conventional treatment of these parasites is through anthelmintic drugs ; however , as resistance to anthelmintics increases , overall effectiveness has begun decreasing . new methods of control and alternative drug targets are necessary . in - depth analysis of transcriptomic data can help provide these targets .

most infections are mixed with other gastrointestinal roundworms ( e . g . cooperia spp , haemonchus spp , nematodirus spp , trichostrongylus spp , etc . ) which worsen the damage caused by ostertagia and / or teladorsagia worms .

' type i ostertagiasis : ostertagia ostertagi is ingested by calves in their first year at grass . the parasites colonise the gastric glands of the fundus and pylorus and then 17 - 21 days after ingestion , the parasites reach maturity and emerge from the gastric glands . emergence in sufficient numbers causes extensive pathological changes - chronic gastritis . a thickened , hyperplastic , non - functional gastric mucosa is formed , meaning impaired function in the gut resulting in diarrhoea and hypoalbuminaemia .

in an experiment in which 2 plots of pasture were contaminated , one at the end of september and the other in mid - december , with larvae of ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora , it was found that the ability of these larvae to interrupt their parasitic development increased and then decreased at much the same rate on either plot . seasonal effects , which might have been expected to accelerate these changes in larvae put on the pasture in december , were minimal .

schematic overview of the study design . anaerobic samples ( n = 9 × 2 ) contained 10 g of freshly recovered faeces with ostertagia ostertagi eggs and stored in vacuum bags under anaerobic conditions . samples were subjected to either 4 °c or 25 °c for duration of 0 to 336 h . to stop egg development the samples were frozen at - 20 °c . subsequently , o . ostertagi were isolated and differentiated to developmental stage . finally , 25× o . ostertagi eggs or l1 were counted and transferred to a clean petri dish . this was done in triplicates of each sample and its2 copies were quantified by qpcr . aerobic samples ( n = 9 × 2 ) were produced identically to anaerobic samples but eggs were isolated from faeces before storage and differentiated immediately at each time point . a total of 108 biological replicates were subjected to qpcr semi - quantification . abbreviations : epg , eggs per gram ; its2 , internal transcribed spacer 2 ; qpcr , real - time semi - quantitative polymerase chain reaction

that infect cattle , sheep and goats and other wild ruminants . worms of these genera are also called brown stomach worms . in the past most species were considered as belonging to the genus ostertagia . they have very similar features and life cycles .

ostertagia and other roundworms of cattle have a simple direct life cycle , as shown in figure 1 . an important feature of this life cycle is that it consists of two stages ; the free - living stage on pasture and parasitic stage in cattle .

the con group slaughtered on the 16th october had an average of 1495 ostertagia - type adults ( range 250 – 2650 ) . based on this result , the trial proceeded . all treated deer were slaughtered on the 31st october . the anthelmintics had the following efficacy against the adult ostertagia - type nematodes : moxi 100 % , moxo 97 . 9 % , oxo 71 . 8 % , levo 71 . 7 % , moxi + oxlevo 100 % and zolo 86 . 6 % ( table 2 ) .

pelleted sainfoin as a sole feed significantly reduced the population of o . ostertagi in young calves . our promising results confirm the potential value of sainfoin and perhaps other tannin - rich forages with a high percentage of prodelphinidins in integrated control of bovine ostertagiosis . although o . ostertagi is the main species responsible for reduced productivity in grazing calves , the apparent lack of effect against c . oncophora is a drawback and may hamper the practical use of sainfoin as a “broad - spectrum” anthelmintic forage . more research is needed to address the background of the lacking effect against c . oncophora .

abubucker s , zarlenga ds , martin j , yin y , wang z , mccarter jp , gasbarree l , wilson rk , mitreva m : the transcriptomes of the cattle parasitic nematode ostertagia ostartagi . vet parasitol . 2009 , 162 ( 1–2 ) : 89 - 99 .

clustering of stages based upon the number of transcripts in a stage containing a specific interpro domain . ( a ) c . oncophora ; ( b ) o . ostertagi . a lower - range scale ( 0 to 3 + ) was used to better illustrate the similarities and differences between the stages .

pre - type 2 phase : calves at end of first grazing season ( from october ) accumulate large population ( greater than 100 , 000 ) of ostertagia el4 ( arrested stage ) . disease is caused by l3 ingested in late autumn . there are usually no clinical signs .

ostertagia ostertagi . the nematode grows and develops in the gastric glands of the abomasum which it leaves just before it becomes an adult , approximately 17 - 21 days after infection . during its time in a gastric gland , the nematode grows about 100 fold . therefore we can predict that this growth will result in erosion of the secretory epithelium and also that swelling of the gland will occur . in heavy infections these erosive effects can be widespread resulting in heavy losses of secretory cells and significant reductions in the output of hcl and pepsinogen . these changes are summarized in the table below .

distribution of kegg categories associated with up - regulated transcripts . the number of up - regulated transcripts in free - living and parasitic life stages associated with kegg categories is compared in ( a ) c . oncophora and ( b ) o . ostertagi . * indicates significance ( p < 0 . 05 ) .

additional file 2 : figure s1 : length distribution of peptides with and without homologues in other species . description : histogram of the length of peptides that have homologues in other species and those that do not have homologues i . e . are unique to either c . oncophora or o . ostertagi . ( tiff 249 kb )

on sections of ostertagia parasites clear red fluorescence was observed in the intestinal cells of l3 animals ( fig . 2b ) , in the cuticle of l4 animals ( fig . 2d ) , and in the cuticle and hypodermis of both male and female adult worms ( fig . 2f and h ) .

the aims of this study were : ( i ) to document and quantify how the development of o . ostertagi eggs affects its2 copies under a multitude of storage conditions , and ( ii ) to suggest optimal storage conditions for faecal samples / bovine nematode eggs in a diagnostic pipeline that involves detection and semi - quantification by molecular methodologies .

simcock dc , joblin kn , scott i , burgess dm , rogers cw , pomroy we , simpson hv ( 1999 ) hypergastrinaemia , abomasal bacterial population densities and ph in sheep infected with ostertagia circumcincta . int j parasitol 29 : 1053–1063 . s0020 - 7519 ( 99 ) 00065 - x [ pii ] .

ivermectin is a cost effective treatment for gastrointestinal roundworms . at the therapeutic dose ivermectin will successfully treat the inhibited stage of ostertagia making it an excellent choice . bimeda provide ivermectin in an injectable and pour - on form and also in combination with clorsulon ( bimectin plus ) which can be used to treat liver fluke .

histochemical staining of carnoy ' s fixed , paraffin - embedded abomasum sections of holstein cows after ostertagia ostertagi infection . pas ( a - d ) stained mucins in pink ; ab - pas ph 2 . 5 ( e - h ) stained neutral mucins in magenta and acidic mucins in blue ; hid - ab ( i - n ) stained sialylated mucins in blue and sulphated mucins in brown . ( a , e , i ) negative control , ( b , f , l ) infected for 14 days , ( c , g , m ) infected for 21 days , ( d , h , n ) exposed for 60 days . original magnification 10× .

the amino acid sequences of all visible bands , as determined by maldi - tof mass spectrometry analysis , showed that all of the protein bands represented nopa or ropa . the nopa band , however , comprised traces of a protein homologous to a 17 - kda l3 es antigen of ostertagia ( embl accession no . aj318472 ) .

go term associations with transcripts expressed in each stage . for each phase of the life cycle ( free - living or parasitic ) several prevalent go terms are listed . * indicates a given term is significantly - enriched in that life cycle stage ( p < 0 . 05 ) . ( a ) c . oncophora ; ( b ) o . ostertagi .

fifteen jersey male calves ( 2–4 month - old ) were allocated into two groups and fed isoproteic and isoenergetic diets mainly composed of sainfoin pellets ( group sf ; n = 9 , three pens ) or concentrate and grass - clover hay ( group co ; n = 6 , two pens ) . after 16 days of adaptation , all animals were experimentally infected with 10 , 000 and 66 , 000 third - stage larvae of ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora , respectively . egg excretion , blood parameters and bodyweights were recorded throughout the study . worms were harvested by sieving for quantification and scanning electron microscopy ( sem ) 42 days post - infection ( dpi ) when the calves were necropsied .

moxidectin pour on has been the formulation of moxidectin which has consistently shown resistance by ostertagia - type nematodes on all deer farms evaluated to date ( n = 6 ) . with this knowledge and the desire to evaluate additional treatment groups , budget restraints meant that moxidectin pour on was not included as a treatment option in this trial .

it is important to stress that an ostertagia vaccine in cattle needs to be an antifecundity vaccine ( 30 ) . as the number of worm eggs shed during the first part of the grazing season determines the number of infective larvae in the pasture in the second half of the grazing season , reduction in egg excretion should be the target . also , because the fecundity of ostertagia is highly regulated by host immunity ( 23 ) and fecal egg output can be strongly reduced without a reduction in the number of worms ( 9 , 4 ) , the number of eggs per gram is the best parameter for evaluation of the protective efficacy of ostertagia antigens ( 30 ) . analogous with observations on the effects of antihelminthic boli on gastrointestinal nematodes in cattle ( 8 ) , it can be stated that vaccination with nopa that results in a 60 % reduction in the number of eggs per gram for at least 2 months is sufficient to protect first - grazing - season calves from ostertagiosis without interfering with the development of natural immunity .

in order to create anaerobic conditions , faeces containing o . ostertagi eggs were vacuum - packed using an easily available kitchen machine . while purified o . ostertagi eggs will quickly disrupt due to pressure if they are vacuum - packed ( data not shown ) , storage of eggs in faeces was essential to secure the integrity of the parasites and maintain a realistic evaluation of the vacuum packing strategy . thus , faeces were only present during storage of the anaerobic samples but not during storage of aerobic samples , and therefore the outcome may potentially have been influenced by other factors such as e . g . ph and humidity rather than oxygen tension . incorporation of an inhibition control by spiking a non - related target to the samples could confirm any presence of potential inhibitors .

distribution of protein homologues in free - living nematodes , strongylida parasites , and non - strongylida parasites . the percent of homologues in each of the three databases as well as the overlap between the databases is shown . ( a ) . c . oncophora ; ( b ) . o . ostertagi . for species included in each of the three databases please see the materials and methods .

the numbers of ostertagia - type larvae present in the control group was very low and as a result no conclusions can be drawn as to efficacy of the various anthelmintics against larvae from this trial . trichostrongylus nematodes were present in the con but in low numbers ( average 23 ) . all treatment groups were clear except the levo group ( average 2 ) .

the pour - on formulations of levamisole have also given variable results in adult cattle in winter . the concentration of the drug in these formulations has been increased in response to these findings , but the lack of effect of levamisole on the inhibited larvae of ostertagia means that levamisole - based drenches are not ideally suited for use in beef cattle over 12 months old .

young animals are more often affected , but adults not previously exposed to infection frequently show signs and succumb . ostertagia and trichostrongylus infections are characterized by profuse , watery diarrhea that usually is persistent . in haemonchosis and mecistocirrus infection , there may be little or no diarrhea but possibly intermittent periods of constipation . anemia of variable degree is a characteristic sign of both these infections .

in an attempt to dissect mechanisms underlying protective immune responses to ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle , which develops very slowly and requires a prolonged exposure before becoming effective , we developed partially immune animals using multiple drug - attenuated infections . while host mechanisms underlying the development of long - term protective immunity have recently been discussed [ 4 ] , the gut microbiota of ruminants has not been systematically characterized until recently [ 8 ] – [ 10 ] . three - way interactions between the host , its microbiota and parasites are little understood . in this study , we characterized the bovine abomasal microbiota using metagenomic tools . our results provided the first piece of evidence that a minimal disruption in the bovine abomasal microbiota by the parasitic nematode may contribute equally to the restoration of gastric function in immune animals .

hertzberg h , guscetti f , lischer c , kohler l , neiger r , et al . ( 2000 ) evidence for a parasite - mediated inhibition of abomasal acid secretion in sheep infected with ostertagia leptospicularis . vet j 159 : 238–251 . 10 . 1053 / tvjl . 1999 . 0475 [ doi ] ; s1090 - 0233 ( 99 ) 90475 - 6 [ pii ] .

the organization of the coding sequence of opa in genomic dna of ostertagia could indicate that there is only one copy of the opa gene . this is the case for the genes encoding npas of other nematodes , such as dirofilaria immitis ( 6 ) , brugia pahangi ( 27 ) , brugia malayi ( 27 ) , and d . viviparus ( 1 ) . the nopa antigen was located in the intestinal cells of ostertagia l3 and in the cuticle and hypodermis of l4 and adult parasites . similarly , immunostaining of di5 antigen , the opa homologue of d . immitis , was apparent in the hypodermis and the cuticle of the parasite ( 22 ) . in caenorhabditis elegans , npas have been found to bind fatty acids and retinol ( reviewed in reference 15 ) . in parasitic nematodes however , the major function of npas is to alter the host tissue environment to the parasites ' advantage ( 16 ) . the results of the immunolocalization analysis together with the western blot results indeed suggest that opa is secreted . release of opa into the environment could occur directly from the gut with the l3 stage or from the cuticle via the hypodemis with ostertagia l4 and adults .

the third - stage larvae ( l3 ) cannot feed , because they retain the cuticle ( " skin " ) from the second stage ( l2 ) as a protective sheath , but can survive for long periods within the dung pat . they can also move some distance away from the dung pat . the parasitic stage of the life cycle of ostertagia begins when a beast ingests l3 larvae .

this study characterized transcriptomes from multiple life stages from both c . oncophora and o . ostertagi . these data represent an important resource for studying these parasites . the results of this study show distinct differences in the genes involved in the free - living and parasitic life cycle stages . the data produced will enable better annotation of the upcoming genome sequences and will allow future comparative analyses of the biology , evolution and adaptation to parasitism in nematodes .

immunolocalization of opa . sections of l3 ( a and b ) , l4 ( c and d ) , and male ( e and f ) and female ( g and h ) adult o . ostertagi parasites were incubated with monospecific antibodies to opa , and antibody binding was detected by using alexa fluor - conjugated anti - rabbit immunoglobulin . female adult o . ostertagi parasites were also incubated with negative ( preimmune ) rabbit serum ( at a 1 / 2 , 000 dilution in 2 % hs ) ( i ) . panels a , c , e , and g are phase - contrast micrographs , and panels b , d , f , h , and i are fluorescence microscopy micrographs ( signal indicated by red fluorescence except in panel i ) . ic , intestinal cells ; i , intestine ; g , gonads ; h , hypodermis ; c , cuticle . bars = 25 μm .

generally , es products are considered to be essential for the development and survival of the parasite within the host and are targets for vaccine development ( 17 ) . immunoscreening of cdna libraries of both larvae ( third - stage larvae [ l3 ] and l4 ) and adults of ostertagia with polyclonal rabbit serum raised against es products led to identification of 15 genuinely secreted proteins with potential protective capacities ( 28 ) .

adult parasites of o . ostertagi were microscopically - selected from abomasal contents from animals killed 28 days post infection . cooperia oncophora eggs , l1 , l2 , l3sh and l3ex were also collected as described above . the l4 were obtained by baermannization of intestinal contents and washings from animals euthanized 10 days post infection ; adult worms were microscopically collected from animals euthanized 21 days post infection and further partitioned into male [ m ] and female [ f ] worms .

this occurs when ostertagia ostertagi infective larvae ( l3 ) are ingested by calves in their first or second year at grass . the parasites then take refuge in the gastric glands of the abomasum in order to undergo their period of development . if many worms emerge simultaneously then it can cause severe physical damage to the lining of the abomasum resulting in chronic gastritis . disease is observed in late summer / early autumn and is accountable to the ‘mid - summer rise’ when temperatures increase and many larvae quickly develop . affected calves will present with a decreased / total loss of appetite accompanied by a sudden onset profuse , green diarrhoea . generally many animals within the group are affected . these calves will suffer a severe loss of body condition ( 20 - 60kg ) which will greatly increase the time taken to finish ( up to three months extra ) . one paper suggests losses of up to £100 per head .

o . ostertagi infections can prompt protective immunity to ostertagiosis , making the species a good candidate for vaccine development . having a whole genome sequence for the species could also help with the development of novel methods to control these parasites in livestock , including defining the mechanisms underlying drug susceptibility and resistance with the possibility of extending the useful life of existing drugs and improving diagnostics in this area , as well as providing the means to study the host - parasite interaction in whole animals .

haemonchus contortus . in this example , unlike ostertagia , the parasite matures on the mucosal surface of the the abomasum . therefore its growth and development has little effect on the mucosa and makes no contribution to its pathogenic potential . despite the fact that adult haemonchus are no more than 1cm long , they are voracious blood feeders and it is this blood loss that is entirely responsible for the pathophysiological changes and clinical signs we see in haemonchosis .

although these findings indicate the presence of resistance in the ml group in cooperia oncophora on more than half of farms tested , it is unlikely that farmers using ml drenches are experiencing a major effect in terms of worm disease or production loss . this is because cooperia is considered to have a relatively less severe effect than most other species . importantly , the injectable mls were fully effective against ostertagia , which is the more important of the species .

friesian calves given a low level infection of the abomasal parasite ostertagia ostertagi over a six week period displayed a mild diarrhoea with high faecal egg counts and elevated plasma pepsinogen values . at necropsy on day 23 abomasal lesions characteristic of ostertagiasis were widespread . at 42 and 84 days oedema and congestion were also prominent . total worm burdens on days 23 and 42 were similar but a marked decrease had occurred by day 84 . feed digestibility and nitrogen economy were not markedly affected but radioisotopic measurements demonstrated an increase in albumin disappearance and catabolic rates , and plasma faecal clearance during the course of the infection . prior administration of a morantel sustained release bolus to a group of similarly infected calves reduced the total worm burdens to less than 50 per cent of those recorded in the infected calves on days 23 and 42 and this fell to 3 per cent on day 84 . abomasal damage and the adverse pathophysiological changes associated with infection were prevented in this group .

there was a total of 1393 transcripts identified as encoding putatively - secreted peptides of which 538 were enriched in at least one stage . it was determined that free - living stages tended to have more of these transcripts in common with each other than with the parasitic stages . parasitic stages tended to have a common pool of secreted peptides as well . the exception to this was c . oncophora l4 which shared more secreted peptides with the free - living stages than with the other parasitic stages . the 5 % of domains most prevalent in the secreted peptides were very similar between the two species . transthyretin - like , metridin - like shk toxin , saposin b , and cap domains were among the most prevalent for secreted proteins in both species . two insulin domains were among the most prevalent in secreted peptides of c . oncophora but were absent from o . ostertagi . ves allergen was found in 16 secreted peptides of o . ostertagi but was found in only one secreted peptide of c . oncophora .

eggs of ostertagia ostertagi were obtained from fresh faeces and stored at 4 °c or 25 °c under aerobic or anaerobic ( vacuum packing ) conditions . development was monitored by microscopy for up to 336 h , and the its2 copies were determined by qpcr from a fixed number of parasites . under aerobic conditions at 25 °c , embryonation and a significant increase of its2 copies ( p < 0 . 0001 ) were observed after 12 h . at 4 °c , embryonation occurred after 168 h with a trend towards increased its2 copies . anaerobic conditions inhibited egg development at both temperatures and no significant increase in its2 copies was noticed ( p = 0 . 90 ) . its2 copies were analysed for each parasite stage : first - stage larvae ( l1 ) exhibited significantly higher copy numbers ( 20 , 353 ± 1 , 950 ) than unembryonated eggs ( 568 ± 168 ; p < 0 . 0001 ) with lower coefficient of variation ( 33 vs 266 % ) .

log - transformed its2 copies plotted against developmental stages of ostertagia ostertagi throughout the four sub - experiments . a 4 °c under aerobic conditions . b 25 °c under aerobic conditions . c 4 °c under anaerobic conditions . d 25 °c under anaerobic conditions . the x - axis indicates storage time . distributions ( % ) of developmental stages are plotted on left y - axis ( white bar : unembryonated eggs ; brown bar : early embryonated eggs ; green bar : embryonated eggs ; yellow dotted bar : l1 larvae ; shaded bar : decomposed parasites ) . developmental stage was determined from photographs of 15 randomly selected eggs from each of nine time points . log - transformed its2 copies are plotted on right y - axis and are indicated by a black line . its2 copies were obtained from qpcr analysis of biological triplicate samples containing dna from 25 parasites ( eggs or larvae ) . error bars indicate standard error of the mean ( sem ) of log - transformed its2 copies

table 4 : mean worm count and anthelmintic efficiency by ostertagia - type species o . o o . l s . a s . scontrol 30 1002 389 75moxi 0 0 0 0 % efficacy 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 % moxo 0 0 32 0 % efficacy 100 % 100 % 91 . 8 % 100 % oxo 0 333 42 42 % efficacy 100 % 66 . 8 % 44 % 44 % levo 0 186 152 85 % efficacy 100 % 81 . 4 % 60 . 9 % 0 %

type 2 occurs when the ostertagia ( l3 ) ingested in late autumn do not emerge immediately and instead remain in the gastric glands in a hypobiotic state . these larvae are stimulated to emerge in the late winter / early spring ( feb - may ) and if the infestation is heavy then they will cause great damage as they do so . this causes an acute gastritis and in severe cases sudden death . routine treatment at housing and or when housed will prevent this which is preferable as response to treatment is generally very poor .

species - level microbial composition in the bovine abomasal microbiota was analyzed using cd - hit - otu ( wu et al . , 2011 , submitted ) . a total of 90 . 3±2 . 9 otu were identified in each abomasal microbial community . seventy two otu were present in the abomasal microbial communities of all 6 immune animals and likely represented the core microbiome of the abomasal microbial community . the community was dominated by 4 otu , which accounted for approximately 50 % of all 16s rdna sequences in control animals . among them , 2 otu ( otu # 1 , 22 . 9 % and otu # 7 , 8 . 1 % ) were annotated to the genus prevotella while the rest 2 otu belonged to bacteroidales and succinivibrio . ostertagi ostertagi infection significantly impacted only 2 otu in immune animals ( unadjusted p value < 0 . 05 ) . the relative abundance of otu # 32 ( lineage : catabacteriaceae ) was increased from 0 . 4 % in control to 1 . 0 % in infected animals while the relative abundance of otu # 25 decreased from 0 . 3 % in control to 0 . 1 % in infected animals ( p < 0 . 05 ) .

worms can readily be seen and identified in the abomasum , and small petechiae may be visible where the worms have been feeding . the most characteristic lesions of ostertagia infection are small , umbilicated nodules 1–2 mm in diameter . these may be discrete , but in heavy infections they tend to coalesce and give rise to a “cobblestone” or “morocco leather” appearance . nodules are most marked in the fundic region but may cover the entire abomasal mucosa and may be accompanied by a rise in gastric ph to 6–7 . as a result , pepsinogen will no longer be converted to pepsin and may leak across the damaged epithelium , leading to high plasma levels . there is also evidence that adult ostertagia can cause direct hypersecretion of pepsinogen . the increased abomasal ph may also stimulate production of gastrin and thus hypergastrinemia , which is closely associated with the inappetence that may accompany infection . this parasite - associated drop in intake has been shown to be largely responsible for impaired weight gain . edema is often marked and , in severe cases , may extend over the abomasum and into the small intestine and omentum .

aerobic storage of o . ostertagi eggs at 25 °c led to a significant increase in its2 copies after 12 h due to embryonation and subsequent hatching . in contrast , anaerobic storage ( vacuum packing ) at 25 °c completely inhibited egg development and any undesirable semi - quantification bias for up to 336 h . hence , vacuum packing is an optimal storage strategy prior to molecular diagnostic analyses . alternatively , aerobic storage at 4 °c for up to 72 h can be used . due to high copy numbers and lower genetic variation , the l1 stage may be considered for diagnostics and further molecular research .

aerobic storage of o . ostertagi eggs at 25 °c led to a significant increase in its2 copies from 12 h due to embryonation and subsequent hatching . in contrast , anaerobic storage ( vacuum packing ) at 25 °c completely inhibited egg development and any undesirable semi - quantification bias for up to 336 h . hence , vacuum packing is an optimal storage strategy prior to molecular diagnostic analyses . alternatively , aerobic storage at 4 °c for up to 72 h can be used . due to high copy numbers and less genetic variation , the l1 stage may be considered for diagnostics and further molecular research .

the objective of this study was to determine the agreement between elisa tests conducted using three o . ostertagia antigens : crude adult worm , larval stage 4 ( l4 ) excretory / secretory ( es ) and adult es . this study was carried out on 289 holstein cows from five herds in prince edward island and one herd in nova scotia . composite milk samples of these cows were collected ( between may and september 2002 ) from the respective provincial laboratories and sent to the atlantic veterinary college where each sample was tested for antibodies to o . ostertagi using an indirect microtitre elisa test . results were expressed as optical density ratio ( odr ) values . each milk sample was tested with three elisa tests , with each test using a different o . ostertagi antigen . there was a slight rise in odr values of both adult antigens , between may and august , with higher values obtained using the adult es antigen . l4 es odr values were generally higher than those for both adult antigens during the study period , except for may . there was a more dramatic rise in l4 es odr values between may and august . rises in odr in may and end of july coincided with periods of mass maturation of l4 to adult worms . the results of the study showed that the concordance correlation coefficient ( ccc ) between tests performed using both es and the crude antigens were low ( crude adult versus adult es = 0 . 31 , crude adult versus l4 es = 0 . 30 ) . the highest ccc was observed between tests done using both es antigens ( ccc = 0 . 56 ) . generally , the study results suggest that the antibody response ( detectable by the elisa ) is mainly directed against es antigens ( especially l4 ) than the crude adult worm antigen .


parvulastra vivipara , the tasmanian live-bearing seastar , is a tiny , uniformly orange-yellow seastar , up to 15 mm across .

the species usually has five short arms and is a rounded , pentagon shape .

morphological variation is common and three , four or six arms are occasionally present .

it is endemic to coastal waters in southeast tasmania .

parvulastra vivipara

parvulastra vivipara <EOT> parvulastra vivipara ( tasmanian live - bearing seastar ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link ( threatened species section ( tss ) , 2014wb ) [ state action plan ] .

citation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . parvulastra vivipara in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 06 : 36 : 25 + 1000 .

patiriella vivipara . department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from :

this tiny seastar , called patiriella vivipara is listed as endangered under the threatened species protection act 1995 .

scientific name : patiriella vivipara common name : tasmanian live - bearing seastar other names : live - bearing seastar , cushion star the species is conventionally accepted ( dartnall 1969 ) .

prestedge , g . k . ( 2001b ) . salinity tolerance of patiriella vivipara , a seastar endemic to southeast tasmania . the tasmanian naturalist . 123 : 36 - 46 .

byrne , m . ( 1996 ) . viviparity and intragonadal cannibalism in the diminutive asterinid sea stars patiriella vivipara and p . parvivipara . marine biology . 125 ( 3 ) : 551 - 567 .

prestedge , g . k . ( 1999a ) . will the introduced european green crab impact upon patiriella vivipara , the rare endemic seastar ? . the tasmanian naturalist . 121 : 26 - 28 .

prestedge , g . k . ( 1999b ) . will the introduced northern pacific seastar impact upon patiriella vivipara , the rare endemic seastar ? . the tasmanian naturalist . 121 : 29 - 32 .

prestedge , g . k . ( 2001a ) . updated information and previously unpublished observations on patiriella vivipara , a seastar endemic to southeast tasmania . the tasmanian naturalist . 123 : 24 - 35 .

threatened species survey of patiriella vivipara and gazameda gunnii in southport lagoon for the southport lagoon conservation area , george iii monument historic site & ida bay state reserve management plan 2006 ( tas . dpiw 2006a ) .

rowland , m . ( 2001 ) . education and monitoring program for the endangered tasmanian seastar - patiriella vivipara : project report & action plan for the woodbridge environment group . woodbridge , tasmania : marine and coastal research tasmania .

prestedge , g . k . ( 1998 ) . the distribution and biology of patiriella vivipara ( echinodermata : asteroidea : asterinidae ) a seastar endemic to southeast tasmania . records of the australian museum . 50 : 161 - 170 .

byrne , m . & a . cerra ( 1996 ) . evolution of intragonadal development in the diminutive asterinid sea stars patiriella vivipara and p . parvivipara with an overview of development in the asterinidae . biological bulletin . 191 : 17 - 26 .

threatened species scientific committee ( tssc ) ( 2009av ) . commonwealth listing advice on patiriella vivipara . department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 30 - jun - 2009 .

department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( 2009k ) . approved conservation advice for patiriella vivipara ( tasmanian live - bearing seastar ) . canberra : department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 30 - jun - 2009 .

( of patiriella vivipara dartnall , 1969 ) dartnall , a . j . ( 1969 ) . a viviparous species of patiriella ( asteroidea , asterinidae ) from tasmania . proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales . 93 ( 3 ) : 294 - 296 , 1 plate . page ( s ) : 294 [ details ]

tasmania department of primary industries & water ( tas . dpiw ) ( 2006a ) . threatened species survey of patiriella vivipara and gazameda gunnii in southport lagoon for the southport lagoon conservation area , george iii monument historic site & ida bay state reserve management plan 2006 . hobart , tasmania : marine environment section , marine farming branch ( tas . dpiw ) .

it is a tiny orange - yellow seastar , with adults only reaching up to 13mm across . it is endemic to tasmania which means it is only found here . the name p . vivipara comes from the seastar ' s ability to produce live young instead of eggs . this is known as viviparity . the newborn seastar is a tiny replica of its parent . this is tasmania ' s only known endemic , vivaparous seastar so it is very special .

p . vivipara is threatened because it only occurs in a limited area . all the known populations occupy less than 3 hectares . they are restricted to rocky reefs in the tidal zone and seem to prefer living under rocks near the high tide mark . this puts them at great risk from changes to their habitat . for example , they are at risk from pollution such as eutrophication or sedimentation which are threats at pittwater . another threat to seastars is from collectors who collect specimens for aquariums . it is also thought that the introduced nz seastar p . regularis could be competing with it . this seastar came to australia in a batch of oysters earlier this century .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en " " urltoken "

for information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .

department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( 2009 ) .

. canberra : department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from :

recovery plan not required , a recovery plan will have limited benefit for the species . the actions covered by the conservation advice are considered to be sufficient at this time ( 17 / 06 / 2009 ) .

guidelines for natural values surveys - estuarine and marine development proposals ( natural and cultural heritage division , 2015a ) [ management plan ] .

dartnall , a . j . 1969 . a viviparous species of patiriella ( asteroidea : asterinidae ) from tasmania . proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales 93 ( 3 ) : 294 - 296 fig . 1 pl . 29 [ 294 , pl . 29 ( a - f ) ] .

the distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .

the tasmanian live - bearing seastar is endemic to south - east tasmania . it is known from 13 isolated subpopulations within the south tasmanian natural resource management region ( tssc 2009av ) .

the extent of occurrence for the tasmanian live - bearing seastar has been estimated to be approximately 2600 km 2 , in the sheltered waters of south - east tasmania from d ' entrecasteaux channel to norfolk bay . however , much of the area is considered unsuitable for the species due to inappropriate substrate and depth of water ( deeper than 1 . 2 m ) ( m . wapstra 2007 , pers . comm . ) .

the area of occupancy is estimated to be 10002000 m 2 . this figure is based on relatively accurate estimates of the extent of most extant subpopulations totaling approximately 1024 m 2 . however , published accounts of the extent of the largest subpopulation ( pitt water ) , the most recently discovered subpopulation ( southport lagoon ) and historical accounts of subpopulations considered extinct , are not available . given the extent of all other subpopulations , it is highly unlikely that the inclusion of these subpopulations would result in more than a doubling of the estimated area of occupancy . this is due to the restriction of the species to specific substrates within the very narrow littoral zone ( m . wapstra 2007 , pers . comm . )

the species is known reliably from 13 locations ( prestedge 2001a ) , however , the subpopulations at two , or possibly three , of these locations are believed to be extinct ( prestedge 2001a ; rowland 2001 ) .

it is believed that the colony at woodbridge was introduced there in late 1995 . they originally came from pitt water and had been on display at the marine discovery centre at woodbridge . this colony was released from their small aquarium onto the shore at woodbridge , due to concerns for adequate care over the christmas period . this proved to be an unplanned , but successful relocation . no tasmanian live - bearing seastars had been recorded from this site prior to the relocation ( prestedge 2001a ) .

the species ' distribution is severely fragmented as all known subpopulations are small and isolated . the sites are separated by distances that exceed the presumed dispersal capacity of the species ( prestedge 2001a ) .

in dartnall ' s ( 1969 ) original survey , the species was recorded from three localities ( pitt water , roches beach and eaglehawk neck ) .

hoggins ( 1976 cited in rowland 2001 ) estimated the size of subpopulations at midway point , tinderbox and eaglehawk neck .

prestedge ( 1998 ) also monitored subpopulations of the tasmanian live - bearing seastar on the shore at pitt water between 1976 and 1982 , and eaglehawk neck , roches beach and fortescue bay in february 1998 .

during the 1990s additional new colonies were recorded mainly as a result of unsystematic private surveys ( prestedge 2001a ) .

rowland ( 2001 ) undertook an assessment of the abundance of tasmanian live - bearing seastars at a number of locations in south - east tasmania , excluding the pitt water subpopulations .

polanowski ( 2002 ) undertook surveys and population counts at several of the known sites , and located a new subpopulation at mays point , lauderdale .

in 2006 a survey of the species at southport lagoon ( for the purpose of developing a management plan for the area ) was conducted over five days from october to december . seven colonies , varying from a few individuals to several hundred seastars , were recorded ( tas . dpiw ) 2006a ) .

the discovery of a subpopulation during the 2006 survey at southport lagoon ( tas . dpiw 2006a ) , extended the known distribution for the species , and is the most southerly record known . the results from this survey indicate that there may be other subpopulations of the tasmanian live - bearing seastar not yet discovered in similar habitat in the surrounding area , but these are unlikely to significantly extend the distribution of the species ( tas . dpiw 2006a ) .

the estimated population size ( excluding the pitt water subpopulation ) is approximately 27 000 individuals ( rowland 2001 ) . no comprehensive surveys have been undertaken to estimate the subpopulation size at pitt water . however , an approximate estimate of 326 000 tasmanian live - bearing seastars in the pitt water subpopulation , has been made on the basis of existing data and the total length of inhabited shoreline . this estimate is based on limited data , and more detailed surveys would be required to confirm its accuracy ( polanowski 2002 ) .

the species is known from 13 isolated subpopulations which vary in abundance from less than 20 to several thousands ( tas . pws 2003 ) . these are considered subpopulations due to the extent of their geographical separation and the limited dispersal potential of the species ( prestedge 1998 ) .

materia ( 1994 ) suggests that the oyster cove subpopulation became extinct because of eutrophication of their habitat due to surrounding aquaculture practices , however , there are indications that the species never existed there ( rowland 2001 ) .

1 . prestedge 1998 2 . prestedge 1998 ; rowland 2001 3 . polanowski 2002 ; prestedge 1998 ; rowland 2001 4 . polanowski 2002 5 . polanowski 2002 6 . rowland 2001 7 . prestedge 1998 ; rowland 2001 8 . prestedge 2001a 9 . polanowski 2002 ; prestedge 1998 , rowland 2001 10 . prestedge 2001a ; rowland 2001 11 . rowland 2001 12 . prestedge 2001a 13 . materia 1994 ; rowland 2001 14 . rowland 2001 15 . tas . dpiw 2006a

there is insufficient information available to determine if this species undergoes extreme natural fluctuations in population numbers . however , there has been an increase in the number of colonies and in population numbers since 1990 and the species is thought to experience a boom - bust cycle ( prestedge 2001a ) .

the tasmanian live - bearing seastar is believed to live for 810 years ( prestedge 1998 ) .

none of these reserves are actively managed for the species , although the southport lagoon conservation area subpopulation is within an area covered by a management plan ( tas . dpiw 2006b ) that has made recommendations for the species , and the pitt water nature reserve subpopulation has been actively managed and monitored as part of the redevelopment of the sorell causeway ( aquenal 2001 ) .

the tasmanian live - bearing seastar lives in rocky areas in the upper intertidal zone , usually under rocks or in crevices . they appear to have a water depth limit , being found from just below the high water mark to a depth of approximately 1 . 2 m at high water ( prestedge 2001a ) . the species prefers gently sloping , sheltered shores , characterised by rocks often no more than 2030 cm high . the species was originally believed to have a strong affinity with sandstone , however it has been found to inhabit a variety of substrates including dolerite , sedimentary rock , basalt , concrete and house bricks ( prestedge 2001a ) .

the tasmanian live - bearing seastar does not overlap with any epbc act - listed threatened ecological communities ( tssc 2009au ) .

the tasmanian live - bearing seastar feeds , unselectively , on the film of algae and microbes coating the surface of submerged rocks ( bryant & jackson 1999b ; polanowski 2002 ) . the tasmanian live - bearing seastar feeds at night and on dull , overcast days ( prestedge 1998 ) . it is an extra - oral ( outside of the mouth ) feeder and can evert ( push out ) its voluminous cardiac stomach to a diameter larger than that of its body . tasmanian live - bearing seastars often have their stomach fully everted and in contact with the substratum , indicating that digestion is likely to take place outside the body ( polanowski 2002 ) .

insufficient information is available to determine daily seasonal patterns of movement for this species . it is unknown whether the species has a home range or territory .

the tasmanian live - bearing seastar is distinctive in the field due to its orange - yellow colour , making it easily detected even against a background of similar coloured substrate . it can be distinguished from similar species of patiriella spp . by its orange - yellow underside ( bryant & jackson 1999b ) .

the tasmanian live - bearing seastar can be surveyed at low tide , by walking the littoral zone and searching for the species by visual assessment of the substrate . lifting rocks by hand ( where possible ) to search for the species may also be undertaken ( prestedge 1998 ; tas . dpiw 2006a ) . surveying at night , or on overcast days , is recommended because the seastars are more visible as they emerge from hiding and move onto the top of rocks to feed ( polanowski 2002 ) .

minister ' s reasons for recovery plan decision a recovery plan is not considered to be necessary for this species as a recovery plan will have limited benefit for the species . the actions covered by the conservation advice are considered to be sufficient at this time .

in 2001 , part of the pitt water subpopulation of tasmanian live - bearing seastars came under threat from the necessary replacement of the bridge spanning the sorell causeway . the tasmanian department of infrastructure energy and resources undertook a relocation exercise during aprilmay 2001 . the tasmanian live - bearing seastars were removed from the causeway and placed at a number of relocation sites chosen during a relocation survey . a total of 21 368 seastars were relocated and a number of monitoring sites were established for future ongoing monitoring of seastar subpopulations ( aquenal 2001 ) .

ensure infrastructure or development activities in areas where the tasmanian live - bearing seastar occurs do not adversely impact on known subpopulations .

protect subpopulations of the listed species through the development of conservation agreements and / or convenants .

develop and implement a management plan for the control and eradication of the northern pacific seastar and new zealand seastar in the local region .

prestedge ( 1998 , 2001a ) published articles on a study into the biology and distribution of the tasmanian live - bearing seastar .

prestedge ( 1999a , 1999b ) published articles on two separate experiments investigating the impact of the european green crab ( carcinus maenas ) and the northern pacific seastar on the tasmanian live - bearing seastar .

prestedge ( 2001b ) published an article on the salinity tolerance of the species .

rowland ( 2001 ) undertook population surveys and produced an education and monitoring program for the species .

polanowski ( 2002 ) submitted an honours thesis on the feeding behaviour , distribution and population genetics of the tasmanian live - bearing seastar .

byrne and cerra ( 1996 ) conducted a study on the evolution and development of the species ( and one other closely related species ) .

aquenal ( 2001 ) . tasman highway sorell causeway bridge and approaches design and construction seastar relocation plan . report on relocation june 2001 . hobart , tasmania : department of infrastructure energy and resources .

bryant , s . & j . jackson ( 1999b ) . tasmania ' s threatened fauna handbook : what , where and how to protect tasmania ' s threatened animals . hobart , tasmania : threatened species unit , parks and wildlife service .

dartnall , a . j . ( 1969 ) . a viviparous species of patiriella ( asteroidea : asterinidae ) from tasmania . in : proceedings of the linnaean society of nsw .

materia , c . j . ( 1994 ) . a study of native asteroids in south eastern tasmania . wildlife report 94 / 9 . hobart , tasmania : tasmania parks and wildlife service , and the tasmanian museum and art gallery .

polanowski , a . ( 2002 ) . the feeding behaviour , distribution and population genetics of the endangered seastar . hons . thesis .

tasmania department of primary industries & water ( tas . dpiw ) ( 2006b ) . southport lagoon conservation area , george iii monument historic site & ida bay state reserve management plan 2006 . hobart , tasmania : tasmania parks and wildlife service , department of primary industries and water . available from : urltoken .

tasmania parks and wildlife service ( tas . pws ) ( 2003 ) . seastars endemic to tasmania . threatened species fact sheet . hobart , tasmania : tasmania parks and wildlife service . available from : urltoken .

wapstra , m . ( 2007 ) . personal communications . hobart , tasmania : environmental consulting options tasmania .

commonwealth of australia ( 2009j ) . inclusion of species in the list of threatened species under section 178 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( 80 ) ( 17 / 06 / 2009 ) . f2009l02541 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 30 - jun - 2009 .

anonymous ( 2009 ) . australian faunal directory . australian biological resources study . available from : urltoken .

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dartnall , a . j . 1969 , " a viviparous species of patiriella ( asteroidea : asterinidae ) from tasmania " , proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , vol . 93 , no . 3 , pp . 294 - 296 fig . 1 pl . 29

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0ba1dcbb - 295a - 4ace - 9f97 - e5f483eec9e3

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 91092607 - 3f20 - 4e4a - be1b - 3fbbb90f4fa0

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c1ddef26 - 4a09 - 4c23 - b1d7 - 5459d754dcb1

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ef8cbfc1 - 545b - 4e8c - 9845 - ec2938bc7960

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 591036

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the following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 2 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .

below is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .

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tasmania ' s first signal station has been restored more than 200 years since it began operation on mount nelson .

planned ecological burns in southwest national park will help regenerate important habitat areas for the critically endangered orange - bellied parrot .

p . vivapara was first described from the pittwater area by a . j . dartnall in 1968 . the seastar is only known to have been recorded in five locations in tasmania . these are : roches beach , lauderdale ; pittwater lagoon , midway point ; tesselated pavement , eaglehawk neck ; fortescue bay and powder jetty , howden . despite searching it has not been seen at howden since the development of an aquaculture farm and changes to the foreshore occurred .

research has been undertaken by christine rowland of marine and coastal research tasmania . a number of people have been researching the seastars abundance and current distribution as well as physico - chemical factors such as temperature , salinity and habitat type . this type of research is necessary so that suitable recovery plans can be developed and implemented to prevent this species from becoming endangered or extinct .

it is very important that local people are educated about marine species , especially about the importance of not collecting specimens . many of our invertebrates are becoming threatened through over collection , especially butterflies , coral and other marine life .

another seastar we may soon see included on tasmania ' s threatened species list is smilasterias tasmaniae . there are 3 dried specimens at the australian museum in sydney , believed to be all that remained of a species last seen in the 1960s . then in 1994 the species was ' rediscovered ' by c . rowland here in tasmania . she considers them likely to be listed as vulnerable .

< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href = " / manual / evidences " > more . . . < / a > < / p >

help pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .

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< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the ‘basket’ to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href = " / help / sequence - searches " > more . . < / a > < / p >

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< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the ‘correct annotation’ for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the ‘protein existence’ evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

cytochrome c oxidase is the component of the respiratory chain that catalyzes the reduction of oxygen to water . subunits 1 - 3 form the functional core of the enzyme complex . co i is the catalytic subunit of the enzyme . electrons originating in cytochrome c are transferred via the copper a center of subunit 2 and heme a of subunit 1 to the bimetallic center formed by heme a3 and copper b .

< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href = " / manual / evidences # eco : 0000256 " > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the < a href = " urltoken " > function < / a > section describes the catalytic activity of an enzyme , i . e . the chemical reaction it catalyzes . this information usually correlates with the presence of an ec ( enzyme commission ) number in the < a href = " urltoken " > names and taxonomy < / a > section . < p > < a href = ' / help / catalytic _ activity ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the < a href = " urltoken " > ' function ' < / a > section describes the metabolic pathway ( s ) associated with a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / pathway ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

this protein is involved in the pathway oxidative phosphorylation , which is part of energy metabolism .

< p > the < a href = " urltoken " > gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href = " urltoken " > controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the < a href = " urltoken " > names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the < a href = " urltoken " > names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates the name ( s ) of the gene ( s ) that code for the protein sequence ( s ) described in the entry . four distinct tokens exist : ‘name’ , ‘synonyms’ , ‘ordered locus names’ and ‘orf names’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href = " / manual / evidences # eco : 0000313 " > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the < a href = " urltoken " > names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates if the gene coding for the protein originates from the hydrogenosome , the mitochondrion , the nucleomorph , different plastids or a plasmid . the absence of this section means that the gene is located in one of the main chromosomal element ( s ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / encoded _ on ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the < a href = " urltoken " > names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the < a href = " urltoken " > names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the ‘taxonomic identifier’ or ‘taxid’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the < a href = " urltoken " > names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the < a href = " urltoken " > ' subcellular location ' < / a > section describes the extent of a membrane - spanning region of the protein . it denotes the presence of both alpha - helical transmembrane regions and the membrane spanning regions of beta - barrel transmembrane proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / transmem ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this section provides information on the tertiary and secondary structure of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / structure _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the < a href = " urltoken " > family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href = " / manual / evidences # eco : 0000259 " > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the ‘family and domains’ section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href = " urltoken " > length < / a > and < a href = " urltoken " > molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the < a href = " urltoken " > sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href = " urltoken " > canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the ‘sequence’ section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href = " urltoken " > uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called ‘primary ( citable ) accession number’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( ‘last modified’ ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href = " urltoken " > canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >

< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >