the brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) is a duck in the typical merganser genus .

it is one of the six most threatened waterfowl in the world with possibly fewer than 250 birds in the wild and currently 4 kept in captivity at 2 different brazilian locations .

the origin of its name is from its long , sharp-edged beak that has a great number of teeth-looking edges .

brazilian merganser

brazilian merganser <EOT> a female brazilian merganser shelters her ducklings in the são francisco river , brazil .

hughes , b . ( 2003 ) brazilian merganser workshop . twsg news , 14 : 10 - .

this entry was posted in americas , archive , south america , waterbirds and tagged brazilian merganser . bookmark the permalink .

lins , l . ( 2003 ) brazilian merganser study at serra da canastra . twsg news , 14 : 11 - .

sleek ducks with long thin serrated bills designed to catch fish , the brazilian merganser is one of the most threatened wildfowl species in the world .

in addition to the auckland island merganser , there was a separate merganser species on the chatham islands ( mergus milleneri ) . merganser fossils from mainland new zealand cannot yet be assigned to either of the named species .

embed this arkive thumbnail link ( " portlet " ) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href = " urltoken " title = " arkive species - brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) " > < img src = " urltoken " alt = " arkive species - brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) " title = " arkive species - brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) " border = " 0 " / > < / a >

sylvan heights bird park and the international wild waterfowl association have been involved in efforts to prevent the extinction of the critically endangered brazilian merganser by providing funding , training , and advising to the brazilian organizations working with this species .

all anthropogenic activities that influence the quality and integrity of the rivers and their banks are a potential threat to the brazilian merganser . here we highlight these factors based on lamas ( 2006 ) .

the projects on marking - monitoring using radio - transmitters recently started by instituto terra brasilis in serra da canastra , and by funatura in chapada dos veadeiros , will bring important data for the brazilian merganser conservation .

brazilian merganser occurs mainly in watercourses with riffles , pools and waterfalls . changes in the hydrological regime , mainly due to the development of hydroelectric power plants , turn former long stretches of rivers into reservoirs , which has an extreme effect on some merganser populations . in the serra da canastra region , for example , the furnas and mascarenhas de moraes dams flooded several kilometres of flowing water , wiping out habitats that certainly held several territories . there are several new such infrastructure projects under way in different areas of the distribution of the brazilian merganser . to date , the only record of a brazilian merganser in standing waters ( de paula et al . 2008 ) seems to represent no more than an occasional occurrence . the operations of mining companies also interfere in with water including at springs and headwaters , potentially bringing negative impacts to brazilian mergansers habitats .

mike lubbock was invited to a workshop in belahorizonte , brazil , in 2000 to help address the dire situation of the brazilian merganser . the workshop was organized by wolf bartman , of the dortmund zoo in germany . a recovery plan was produced by experts from all three brazilian merganser range nations ( argentina , brazil , and paraguay ) , plus europe and the united states . they collated background information on the status and distribution , life history , and threats faced by the brazilian merganser and drew up a basic proposal for conservation action . mike has returned to brazil several times since 2000 as an adviser to conservationists and aviculture facilities working to save this species .

voice : “quacking like a duck” is the only recorded description of the call of the auckland island merganser .

the elusive brazilian merganser not only ranks among the most endangered of all waterfowl , but rarest of all birds as well . possibly fewer than 250 birds remain , and some conservationists fear that even this estimate may be optimistic .

( fabaceae : caesalpinioideae ) and the influence of quaternary climate changes in the brazilian cerrado . ann bot 100 : 1219–1228

some of these recommendation have undoubted and immeasurable importance and urgency . their application must be evaluated in each of the brazilian merganser´s areas of occurrence , considering the specific aspects of threat , politics , strategies , opportunities , and so on .

all the important actions for conservation of the brazilian merganser , based on our current knowledge , are described in the action plan for the conservation of the brazilian merganser . this publication must be consulted by anyone who intends to work with this species ( there are versions in portuguese and english – hughes et al . 2006a ; hughes et al . 2006b ) . this action plan is the third number of the threatened species series created by the brazilian environmental agency ( ibama ) for contributing to the protection and conservation of the brazilian threatened fauna . series of priority recommendations are listed under five themes : fiscalization and legislation ; species and habitat protection ; monitoring and research ; public awareness and capacity building ; and international collaboration and communication .

williams , m . 2012 . a merganser at auckland islands , new zealand . wildfowl 62 : 3 - 36 .

the brazilian merganser feeds mainly on fish , which it captures by diving in river rapids and backwater , but supplements this diet with molluscs and insects and their larvae ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . these birds usually feed in pairs ( 2 ) .

silveira , l . f . and bartmann , w . d . ( 2001 ) natural history and conservation of brazilian merganser mergus octosetaceus at serra da canastra national park , minas gerais , brazil . bird conservation international , 11 : 287 - 300 .

kear , j . & scarlett , r . 1970 . the auckland island merganser . wildfowl 21 : 78 - 86 .

de paula , gabriel arvelino cerqueira , marconi campos and ribon , rômulo 2008 . occurrence of the brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) in the southern border of the espinhaço range , minas gerais , brazil . waterbirds , vol . 31 , issue . 2 , p . 289 .

the river habitat required by the brazilian merganser has suffered from staggering deforestation and permanent flooding from dams . the dwindling population of these fish - eating ducks is perhaps most numerous in brazil ' s serra de canastra national park , 500 miles northwest of san paulo . adding to the birds ' plight , a series of forest fires devastated the national park and another area where the merganser was thought to have a stronghold .

mergansers ( subfamily : merginae ) are specialist fish - eating waterfowl . five of the six extant species have broad distributions in cool temperate and arctic regions of the northern hemisphere , where they primarily or exclusively inhabit lakes and rivers . the sixth , the now very rare brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) once occurred more widely on brazilian and argentine rivers . a coastal and marine habitat has been ascribed to the new zealand mergansers , which contrasts with the habitat of other mergansers notwithstanding the red - breasted merganser’s ( m . serrator ) seasonal use of sheltered coastal bays , coves and estuaries .

the species is legally protected in all three range states . it occurs in three brazilian national parks , two state parks and one private protected area ( braz

the conservation of the species necessarily depends on measures involving the recuperation and conservation of riparian forests , watercourses , and their springs and banks . thus , besides the benefits for the conservation of brazilian merganser itself , those measures would be geared towards the rescue of fundamental values of land use and environmental conservation .

the species inhabits clean rivers and streams , with rapids and still waters , bordered by forests or native vegetation , and with an abundance of fish . it is a shy bird and it is quite difficult to see in the wild . it prefers sparsely populated areas and avoids human presence , although at some localities it is bolder and occurs closer to villages and small towns . the brazilian merganser seems to tolerate some environmental degradation if there are well preserved stretches in its territory so the birds can seek shelter . territory size of the brazilian merganser varies between 5 - 12 km of rivers and streams in the serra da canastra region .

williams , m . j . 2015 . auckland island merganser . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken

we do not have evidence of the depth of the impact of tourism activities on brazilian merganser populations . in the serra da canastra national park the type of tourism developed thus far do not seem to interfere significantly with the brazilian merganser’s behavior , given that a pair has been breeding successfully over the years close to one of the most often visited areas in the park ( silveira and bartmann 2001 , bartmann 1988 , and personal observations ) . nevertheless , there has been a significant increase in tourism , both in the park and in its vicinity . the ever - growing number of tourists who come looking for rivers and waterfalls could potentially interfere with the birds’ behaviour ; this should be monitored closely .

we helped write the action plan for conserving brazilian mergansers . drawing on our long experience of waterbird monitoring , we helped terra brasilis establish a capture and marking programme using leg rings and radio transmitters . it was the first time brazilian mergansers had ever been caught for science and the ongoing programme is helping us to understand how the birds use the densely forested rivers .

bruno , s . f . and bartmann , w . ( 2003 ) brazilian mergansers in serra da canastra national park , minas gerais state , brazil . twsg news , 14 : 53 - 54 .

auckland island merganser . image from hombron , j . b . & jacquinot , h . voyage au pôle sud . zoologie . vol . 3 , . paris , france . image © no known copyright restrictions

williams , m . ; holdaway , r . n . ; rogers , k . m . 2012 . feeding environments of new zealand’s extinct merganser revealed by stable isotope analyses . wildfowl 62 : 190 - 203 .

the brazilian merganser exists in extremely low numbers at a few , highly disjunct localities in south - central brazil . in 2002 , the species was also found on the arroyo uruzú in misiones , argentina , the first record in the country for 10 years , despite extensive surveys . the bird was last recorded in paraguay in 1984 , where very little habitat remains , although local reports indicate that a few individuals may still survive there ( 4 ) .

carboneras , c . , kirwan , g . m . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .

a total of 27 specimens are known to have been obtained from the auckland islands . merganser bones found in natural deposits and maori middens at sites on north , south , and stewart islands are possibly referable to the same species .

it is also vital to promote an awareness - raising campaign on the importance of this species among people who live in the areas where it occurs . most inhabitants of these areas do not know the brazilian merganser . revealing the importance of the species to the community , and demonstrating that its presence in the region is a valuable feature and something to be proud of , could get people involved and committed in the search for , and application of , beneficial actions for its conservation .

the brazilian merganser is a very rare and threatened species that nowadays inhabits only a few protected areas and their surroundings in the brazilian territory . in order to estimate the remaining genetic diversity and population structure in this species , two mitochondrial genes were sequenced in 39 individuals belonging to two populations and in one individual collected in argentina in 1950 . we found a highly significant divergence between two major remaining populations of mergus octosetaceus , which suggests a historical population structure in this species . furthermore , two deeply divergent lineages were found in a single location , which could due to current or historical secondary contact . based on the available genetic data , we point out future directions which would contribute to design strategies for conservation and management of this threatened species .

when estimating the global population , don’t count on any individuals in argentina . i know of only one potential sighting in argentina since the 2002 record : on the arroyo pepirí guazú , miro ( 2010 ) saw three waterbirds that might have been brazilian mergansers .

the scarcity of information on the brazilian merganser’s biology and behavior makes it difficult to make decisions affecting the conservation and management of this species . studies on reproduction , feeding behavior , territories , intra - and interspecific interactions , and environmental factors affecting the species must be encouraged . research involving the marking of individuals , preferably with the use of radio transmitters , for confirmation of the home range , and daily and seasonal movements , is essential to accurate estimates of the size and dynamics of the populations .

hunting does not seem to be a current threat to the brazilian merganser . we heard stories , which we could not substantiate , that the species used to be hunted in the past . some local inhabitants claimed that it is not advantageous to hunt the bird as it is difficult to approach and at the same time small and with very little meat . yet , one has to take into account that the whole subject of “hunting” is mostly avoided by all and only rarely we find someone willing to provide positive information .

spp . , each pair using on average 9 km of river . range size was thought to be related to the availability of suitable nesting and feeding sites . scnp and its environs contain very little mature gallery forest with trees large enough to provide nest sites ( most having been selectively logged in the past ) . there is also competition for nest sites with other birds and mammals . all suitable habitat surrounding the scnp is now occupied by adult birds , leaving none for young birds . further research is needed to determine the fate and dispersion routes of juveniles . future conservation priorities for brazilian merganser in and around scnp include the installation of nest boxes to test whether the availability of good quality nest sites limits breeding success . a captive breeding programme could be established using eggs from these nest boxes . this would help to ensure the survival of this species and to provide birds for future reintroduction programmes should they be deemed necessary . further surveys , with subsequent establishment of reserves at key sites , are required throughout the brazilian merganser ' s range .

similar species : there were no species that the auckland island merganser could have been confused with at its last retreat around the coasts of the auckland islands . around mainland new zealand and the chatham islands , the yellow - footed stictocarbo shags ( spotted shag and pitt island shag ) were ( and are ) common around coastlines , and were of similar body shape and colouration to the auckland island merganser . however , the two shags were slightly larger and had different head colouration and crest formation , and many structural differences if seen at sufficiently close range .

in september 2007 , an information centre was opened in são roque de minas , a town in the region of serra da canastra , coordinated by the instituto terra brasilis . the purpose of this centre is to exchange and disseminate socio - environmental information and consolidate the brazilian merganser as the symbol for the ecosystem conservation in that region . the centre has been very successful ; more than 3 , 000 people have taken part in its activities , which include presentations , workshops , contests , movies and games . some local schools have included a visit to the centre in their regular activities .

auckland island merganser pairs were probably strongly territorial , maintaining their territory and relationship year - round . the eastern inlets of auckland island and the bays within carnley harbour each have a small feeding stream and it is unlikely that more than one pair could have occupied any inlet and bay .

brazilian merganser is a slender , dark , medium - sized bird , with a typically long crest on the rear of the head . back and wings are grayish brown . head and neck darker with metallic dark green reflections , better seen under sunlight . the breast is pale gray with narrow darker stripes ; the color of the underparts becomes paler towards the abdomen . the wing white mirror is visible during flight and it is also commonly observed when the birds are resting or swimming . the head crest is longer in the males than females . the bill is thin , narrow and serrated .

for this particular issue , the brazilian journal of ornithology will publish articles and reviews on ornithology in general , with emphasis on neotropical birds . it is indexed in databases zoological records , biological abstract , scopus , and isi . the current ( june 2017 ) impact factor is 0 . 414 ) . the journal o

mergus is the genus of the typical mergansers , fish - eating ducks in the seaduck subfamily ( merginae ) . the hooded merganser , often termed mergus cucullatus , is not of this genus but closely related . the other " aberrant " merganser , the smew ( mergellus albellus ) , is phylogenetically closer to goldeneyes ( bucephala ) . although they are seaducks , most of the mergansers prefer riverine habitats , with only the red - breasted merganser being common at sea . these large fish - eaters typically have black - and - white , brown and / or green hues in their plumage , and most have shomewhat shaggy crests . all have serrated edges to their long and thin bills that help them grip their prey . along with the smew and hooded merganser , they are therefore often known as " sawbills " . the goldeneyes , on the other hand , feed mainly on mollusks , and therefore have a more typical duck - bill . they are also classified as " divers " because they go completely under - water in looking for food . in other traits , however , the genera mergus , lophodytes , mergellus , and bucephala are very similar ; uniquely among all anseriformes , they do not have notches at the hind margin of their sternum , but holes surrounded by bone .

as mentioned above , less than 250 of these birds are left . they came from a central and southern brazilian region , and eventually fell into nearby regions of both argentina and paraguay . however , the populations confirmed to remain are all to be seen in brazil as none have been reported in argentina for quite some time – reports are scarce in 2015 .

our project´s intention was to find the dove merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) and purple –winged ground dove ( claravus godefrida ) which used to inhabit the higly endangered upper parana atlantic forest in paraguay . however , the loss of more than 90 % of forest cover due to the expansion of cattle ranching and agriculture had severely impacted these species . both species are categorized as cr ( critically endangered ) by the uicn´s redlist mainly because of habitat loss and pollution of rivers . currently the only stable population of the merganser is in the serra da canastra national park in brazil and in recent years there have been new records in argentina . in paraguay the species was last seen in 1983 .

the brazilian merganser is one of the ten most threatened waterfowl in the world , with possibly fewer than 250 birds thought to remain ( 3 ) . this dark , slender duck has a shiny dark - green hood with a long crest , which is usually shorter and worn - looking in females ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . upperparts are dark grey while the breast is light grey , getting paler towards the whitish belly , and a white wing patch ( speculum ) is particularly noticeable in flight ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the bill is long and dark ( 4 ) , shorter in the female ( 2 ) , and the legs are pink to orange - red ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .

one such project is taking place at zooparque itatiba in brazil . conservation teams have been continuing their efforts to locate and track breeding brazilian mergansers through some of the most remote river habitat . when a healthy nest is discovered , the teams remove a few of the eggs and transport them back to zooparque itatiba , leaving the rest to hatch with the parents in the wild . in 2015 , the teams were able to collect a total of eight eggs from two different nest sites , and successfully raised all eight ducklings back at the zoo . should the habitat for wild brazilian mergansers continue to degrade , the birds housed at zooparque itatiba will ensure that this species does not disappear altogether . ideally , their offspring may also help bolster wild populations in the future .

we thank the specialist work group for the conservation of brazilian merganser for valuable discussions and opinions on this manuscript . we also thank all the staff from instituto terra brasilis and funatura ( vivian s . braz and gislaine disconzi ) for collecting the samples at serra da canastra and chapada dos veadeiros , respectively ; dario a . lijtmaerand and pablo tubaro for providing the samples from argentina , bradley c . livezey for sending copies of his papers , and geoff m . hilton and paulo de tarso z . antas for useful suggestions that greatly improved this manuscript . the present study received grants from fapemig , cnpq , petrobras ambiental and fundação o boticário de conservação da natureza , and followed all ethical guidelines and legal requirements of brazil for sampling and studying an endangered species .

is considered to be one of the rarest and most threatened species in the neotropical region , yet little is known about its distribution and life - history . we studied the population of brazilian merganser in and around serra da canastra national park ( scnp ) in minas gerais , brazil , during 1996 , with additional observations from 1997 to 2000 . in this paper we report the sighting of previously undiscovered pairs and present some new behavioural data , including a description of calls performed by males and females , feeding behaviour , home ranges , parental care and population density . we also describe a previously unreported plumage of the young . a total of 39 individuals were recorded , comprising 12 adults ( six pairs ) and 27 young . brood size ranged from two to four ( mean 2 . 7 ) , being smaller than in other

a large merganser with a dark brown head and neck , dark grey upper body , dull greyish - brown breast and abdomen , dark brown eyes , a long slender serrated yellowish - orange bill with black on the upper mandible , and orange legs and feet . the upper wings were slate grey , and the lower wing coverts were darker and banded white ; males were larger with an elongated crest .

brazilian mergansers nest in holes of trees , and holes in rocks and in river banks . nest site for brazilian merganser , in rock cavity . the entrance to the nest cavity is located from 2 to 25 m above the water . only the female incubates , and she leaves the nest twice per day to feed . the male spends most time resting or feeding nearby , constantly vigilant , but sometimes flies off , departing the area for several hours . the female lays up to eight eggs , which are incubated for about 34 days . when leaving the nest , the female covers the eggs with her down feathers . the ducklings leave the nest in the following day after hatching . the ducklings are encouraged to abandon the nest by the motherīs call . the family stays together all the time ; the parents constantly keep the young between them . the parents provide the ducklings with fishes and invertebrates . they feed their young directly into their beaks , or they place caught fish in the water after shaking it in order the ducklings can catch it . after 10 days of life , young were observed fishing on their own , reducing the need for food provided by their parents . the young are able to perform short flies when they are around 2 months old . they generally stay with their parents about six months or even longer . many young die in these first months of life .

another potential , but very poorly studied , effect is the presence of exotic species of fish in the region . the peacock bass ( cichla sp . ) , along with other allochthonous species , commonly are introduced into the reservoirs and water courses . the peacock bass is also very common in fish - and - pay ponds . such predatory species have caused profound changes in the environments where they have been introduced , with the disadvantage that there are no effective processes to eradicate the species once it has settled in a host community ( fabio vieira 2002 , pers . comm . ) . though the peacock bass prefers to inhabit mostly still - water environments , it is possible to find it in river stretches . being an essentially fish - eating species , it may alter the dynamics of the native water communities as it becomes established . small native fish make up the brazilian merganser’s basic source of food and any factor interfering with the supply may have serious consequences for its populations .

mergansers were extirpated following polynesian settlement of new zealand and chatham islands . the auckland island population would have been severely diminished by predation by pigs and cats following their release onto auckland island in the 1820s , and possibly also by being a food for early sealers at the island . the earnest collecting of specimens for museums , especially in the 1890s , led to the last specimen being seen , and collected , in january 1902 , a mere 60 years after the merganser’s initial discovery .

their main distribution location seems to be within serra da canastra , where just under a fifth of the remaining population all remain . the last recorded ducks within argentina , for example , were in 2002 when they were found within the misiones . other than this , the animals are very much rare to be seen across the world as they have been ravaged by various different reasons . their habitats are diversely spread out as well , meaning that close interaction between groups of the merganser are no longer possible , which has contributed to their current state .

a duck of slender proportion and a dark color , it’s got a particularly long crest which tends to be a little bit shorter when you are talking about a female merganser . the upper body of these creatures tends to be dark grey , whilst the breast is a light grey color in contrast . one of the most striking things about these creatures , however , is the fact that they are mostly silent – when they do make noise , it almost sounds like a dogs bark rather than the traditional quack you would expect to hear from a duck .

brazilian mergansers feed basically on small fish they capture during dives , although aquatic macroinvertebrates also contribute to their diet . very often , before diving , they search for their prey swimming with just their heads submerged . dives can last 15 to 20 seconds , and even 30 seconds in deeper pools . we have observed them catching insects flying around their heads . in the serra da canastra region , the most common fish species which serve as their food are lambaris and barrigudinho . stomach content analysis of individuals from misiones , argentina , showed they ate lambaris , ciclids , catfish , virolito , larvae of dobson flies and , probably , molluscs .

we would like to invite participants of this ornithological congress of the americas to submit manuscripts to be considered for publication on a special volume of the brazilian journal of ornithology . we welcome review and case study manuscripts derived from the research exposed at the meeting . particularly , we would like to invite organizers of each symposium , as well as symposium´s participants , to submit a review manuscript on the topic of the symposium , which could have particular emphasis on the individual talks involved in the symposium . also , we would like to publish one study case per symposium . in addition to the manuscripts derived from symposia , we encourage other authors presenting their studies to submit manuscripts as a general submi

there are some recent research on the conservation status of the species in its distribution area originally known . these studies show that the species is still under heavy anthropic pressures , including the region of the national park of serra da canastra where diamond exploration sector has been doing strong pressures to mine even in protected areas . ex situ conservation initiatives have been conducted by the brazilian government , researchers and breeders , and today there are , the only two individuals of the species that are officially raised in captivity from eggs collected in the wild . therefore i believe it is still incipient to change the status of the species to a threat condition “lower” than the current one . especially because the conservation status of the species serves as an argument for compensation discussions as part of environmental projects

the sexes of the auckland island merganser were similar to each other , but males were larger and had an obvious and elongated crest . the head and neck were dark brown , the entire upper body dark grey , and the breast and abdomen dull greyish - brown . the upper wings were slate grey , and the lower wing coverts were darker and banded white . the middle secondary flight feathers were white on the outer web and black on the inner web and tips , with the primary flight feathers and inner secondaries tending blackish . the eyes were dark brown , and the upper bill black but with its cutting edge and the lower mandible yellowish - orange ; the legs and feet were orange . immature birds were darker versions of the adults . ducklings were dark brown - black above with yellowish - white underparts . their bill , legs and feet were dark olive - brown .

brazilian mergansers nest in holes of trees , and holes in rocks and in river banks ( lamas and santos 2004 , partridge 1956 , andrade et al . in press ) . the entrance to the nest cavity is located from 2 to 25 m above the water . only the female incubates , and she leaves the nest twice per day to feed ( bruno et al . , in press ) . the male spends most time resting or feeding nearby , constantly vigilant , but sometimes flies off , departing the area for several hours . the female lays up to eight eggs , which are incubated for about 34 days ( bruno et al . , in press ) . the eggs are oval in shape and pale beige , almost white , in coloration . the following mean measures data were taken from one nest with seven eggs : 61 . 7 mm ( length ) , 42 . 5 mm ( width ) and 59 . 86 g ( weight ) ( lamas and santos 2004 ) . when leaving the nest , the female covers the eggs with her down feathers .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en " " urltoken "

thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .

49 - 56 cm . dark , slender duck with long crest . dark hood with petroleum - green sheen . pale grey breast finely vermiculated dark , paler towards whitish belly . dark grey upperparts . white wing speculum . long , dark saw - bill . pinky - lilac legs . long , bushy hindcrest usually worn and shorter in females .

benstead , p . , bird , j . , butchart , s . , calvert , r . , capper , d . , clay , r . , mazar barnett , j . , pilgrim , j . , sharpe , c j , symes , a . , taylor , j . , khwaja , n . & ashpole , j

recent records from brazil indicate that this species ' s status may be marginally better than previously thought . nevertheless , the remaining known population is still extremely small and fragmented , and the perturbation , damming and pollution of rivers are likely to be causing continuing declines . for these reasons , it is listed as critically endangered . further information on the population size ( in particular whether it exceeds 250 mature individuals ) and on the subpopulation structure may result in its downlisting to endangered in the future .

. 2013 ) , where recent surveys yielded a rough estimate of 70 - 100 territories , roughly equivalent to 140 - 200 mature individuals ( l . v . lins unpubl . data ) ; if confirmed this would represent a significant increase to the size of the largest known subpopulation . tributaries of the rio são francisco in west bahia were thought to hold a significant population

( pineschi and yamashita 1999 ) , but a 2003 survey there failed to locate any birds . it has recently been found in patrocínio municipality , minas gerais ( i . lamas

2012 ) ; a record from itacolomi state parque in the same state is though thought to refer to an accidental or escaped bird ( arvelino de paula 2008 , l . v . lins

2012 ) . in goiás , there are records from emas and chapada dos veadeiros national parks ; the latter being surveyed in 2003 - 2004 with birds found just outside the park in the rio das pedras , and the total in the area thought to number fewer than 50 individuals ( disconzi 2012 ) . in 1995 , a small population was discovered on the rio tibagi , paraná

2003 ) , and six expeditions in 2007 and 2008 surveying a c . 55 km stretch of the rio novo located three breeding pairs ( barbosa and almeida 2010 ) , and four pairs along 115 km of river in 2010 - 2011 ( iecos brasil 2013 per l . v . lins

( pacheco and fonseca 1999 ) , são paulo , and santa catarina . in misiones ,

, 12 individuals were found on the arroyo uruzú in 2002 , the first records in the country for 10 years despite extensive surveys ( benstead 1994 , hearn 1994 , j . c . chebez

, it was last recorded in 1984 and there is little ( if any ) habitat left . however , local reports indicate that a few individuals may still survive

the population was estimated at 250 individuals in 1992 , and was thought likely to have declined since given ongoing threats , however there are recent suggestions that the population may exceed this figure ( l . v . lins

2012 ) . recent estimates from the three main areas currently known to hold the species are of 70 - 100 territories ( 140 - 200 mature individuals ) in the serra da canastra area ( l . v . lins

2012 , 2013 ) , fewer than 50 individuals at chapada dos veadeiros ( disconzi 2012 ) and eight at jalapão ( iecos brasil 2013 per l . v . lins

2015 ) , but these figures require confirmation and the population is currently precautionarily maintained within the band 50 - 249 mature individuals .

this species ' s population is suspected to have declined rapidly over the last 20 years ( three generations ) , in line with habitat loss and degradation within its range , owing to the expansion of hydroelectric power schemes , soy bean cultivation and mining operations . it appears to have been extirpated from paraguay .

it inhabits shallow , fast - flowing rivers , requiring rapids and clear waters . it occurs especially in the upper tributaries of watersheds but ranges into small rivers with patches of gallery forest surrounded by " cerrado " ( tropical savanna ) or within atlantic forest . it is non - migratory and does not abandon the stretch of river where it establishes its territory

, but timing may vary geographically . incubation may last c . 33 days ( bruno

. previously , the species was thought to rely on gallery forest which , although protected by law in brazil , has been cleared illegally throughout much of the species ' s range . however , evidence suggests it will occur on unforested , undisturbed stretches of river through cerrado . all recent records of the species in the serra da canastra region refer to unprotected sites north of the national park . these are sites under increasing pressure from mining , development of hydropower infrastructure and agriculture ( l . v . lins

1999 ) , and it is thought that diamond mining will resume at serra da canastra in the near future ( l . v . lins

2003 ) . dam - building has already caused severe declines across much of its range , and is increasing in scale ( l . v . lins

2003 ) , although there are no recent published records from emas national park . a species action plan has been published which outlines in detail its current status , ecology , threats and proposed conservation actions

( ibama 2006 ) . it is considered nationally critically endangered in brazil ( silveira & straube 2008 , mma 2014 ) . in argentina , sections of the arroyo uruzú are protected within the uruguaí provincial park ( p . benstead verbally 2004 ) . regular monitoring of the population in serra da canastra national park , brazil is conducted and in 2008 a team from the wwt and terra brasilis colour - ringed 14 individuals and fitted five of them with radio transmitters in order to increase knowledge of the species ' s movements and ecology ( braz

2006 ) . nest boxes have recently been installed within the protected area ( l . v . lins

2011 ) . a captive breeding programme was initiated in 2011 at the poços de caldas breeding center in minas gerais . two young have been successfully reared so far ( l . v . lins

. the pato aqui água acolá project has been engaging with students in the serra da canastra region to improve understanding of environmental problems related to the cerrado biome ( instituto terra brasilis 2014a ) . the project has also set up the conscious decision campaign to engage with those responsible for environmental licensing , construction and tourism activities that could have an impact on water quality within the species ' s range ( instituto terra brasilis 2015 ) .

2012 ) . continue to monitor the serra da canastra population . implement survey work in the jalapão region to find new individuals ( instituto terra brasilis 2014b ) . develop and implement a fieldwork strategy using satellite images . protect the watershed and riverine habitats of populations , especially in bahia . improve local awareness and promote riverbank protection . conduct surveys in paraguay to confirm local reports . advocate for the expansion of the chapada dos veadeiros national park in brazil to include the population in the rio das pedras ( bianchi

2005 ) . continue to develop captive breeding programmes . in 2014 a workshop was held in tocantins to discuss the conservation of the species in the jalapão region , measures discussed included a proposed normative instruction to outline activities that are not permitted in areas where the species is found ( instituto terra brasilis 2014b ) .

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pairs occupy permanent territories of 8 to 14 km stretches of river ( 4 ) , depending on the availability of suitable nesting and feeding sites ( 6 ) . nests are built in tree cavities and rock crevices ( 4 ) . the breeding season is thought to last from june to august , but may vary geographically ( 4 ) , and broods of between two and four chicks are usually raised ( 6 ) .

inhabits shallow , fast - flowing streams and rivers with rapids and clear waters , surrounded by dense tropical forest ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .

classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .

information authenticated ( 02 / 05 / 07 ) by dr baz hughes , head of species conservation , wildfowl and wetlands trust , slimbridge , uk . urltoken

speculum a bright and lustrous patch of colour found on the wings of ducks and some other birds .

del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1992 ) handbook of the birds of the world – ostrich to ducks . vol . 1 . lynx edicions , barcelona .

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wildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa

recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : mergus octosetaceus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .

) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .

isolated populations in se brazil in bahia , tocantins , goiás , minas gerais and paraná ( species is believed extinct in mato grosso do sul , rio de janeiro , são paulo and santa catarina ) , and ne argentina ( misiones ) . may still survive in e paraguay ( alto paraná ) .

49–56 cm ; 600–700 g . head , neck and upperparts dark brown with greenish iridescence and long crest ; upperwing blackish , secondaries and greater wing - coverts white . . .

usually silent , vocalizations being mainly heard during breeding season or when threatened , but . . .

rapid , torrential streams and fast - flowing rivers usually fringed by dense tropical forest , . . .

mostly fish ( of 6–19 cm length , characids , cichlids , pimelodids and hemiodontids ) , complemented with molluscs and insects and their . . .

few data available until recently . season apparently starts jun / jul ( dry season ) , with first ducklings hatching in early jul and young . . .

mostly sedentary , with only small - scale movements recorded , with genetic structure in . . .

critically endangered . small , little - known population , estimated at just 50–249 mature individuals by birdlife international , widely scattered over range ( of 32 , 600 km2 . . .

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hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .

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josep del hoyo , mark andrews , lúcio , fran trabalon , carlos gussoni .

sávio freire bruno , petemorris , bruno salaroli , dubi shapiro , claudia brasileiro , douglas bete , edson endrigo , fran trabalon , mark andrews .

in addition to collecting and raising these birds , zooparque itatiba staff have been building a large new aviary and pool to house the adolescent birds . at the october 2015 iwwa conference , a grant from the iwwa was allocated towards the completion of this project .

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this contributes to their rather comical image among some brazilians . however , their plight as a species is no laughing matter – it’s estimated that less than 250 of these birds are left in the world . they are in danger to such a scale that very little is even known about their traditional breeding techniques and style .

the most common threat to these ducks is down to humans , believe it or not . as industry and agriculture has expanded , their habitats have become smaller and been degraded . water has also become more toxic , and this has been a serious contributor to their massive demise .

soil erosion and deforestation play a part too , however . dam - building has been another key killer for these creatures , as they have been eradicating small rivers and turning them into massive lakes which aren’t suitable for the ducks . pesticides are one of the main killers as well , contributing to their measly number remaining .

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wwt has been supporting the terra brasilis institute , a local conservation organisation which is passionate about conserving the cerrado habitat in and around the serra da canastra national park , and the mergansers that live there . cerrado is an extensive savannah criss - crossed by gallery forests , which are evergreen corridors that have formed along the rivers and wetlands .

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myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .

there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .

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howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :

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recent records from brazil , and particularly a recent northerly range extension , indicate that this species ' s status is better than previously thought . nevertheless , the remaining population is still extremely small and severely fragmented , and the perturbation , damming and pollution of rivers continue to cause declines . for these reasons , it is listed as critically endangered . perturbation and pollution of rivers results largely from deforestation , agricultural expansion and , in the serra da canastra area , diamond - mining . previously , the species was thought to rely on gallery forest which , although protected by law in brazil , has been cleared illegally throughout much of the species ' s range . however , evidence suggests it will occur on unforested , undisturbed stretches of river through cerrado . mining has ceased in the immediate area of its known range but there is no additional habitat for dispersing birds . expanding agriculture and the construction of hydroelectric dams are considered the principal threats to the species . dam - building has already caused severe declines across much of its range . tourist activities result in river perturbation and have been recorded within known territories and inside national parks .


the long-thumbed frog , fletcher 's frog or barking marsh frog ( limnodynastes fletcheri ) is a species of non-burrowing ground frog native to southeastern australia .

the species belongs to the genus limnodynastes .

the twelve species in the genus are characterised by a lack of toe pads .

following phylogenetic analysis , the species was placed in l.peronii clade group alongside l. depressus , l. tasmaniensis and l. peronii .

long - thumbed frog

long - thumbed frog <EOT> breeding behaviour : long - thumbed frogs usually breed following rain in warmer weather .

this species is most similar to the spotted grass frog , limnodynastes tasmaniensis , and the long - thumbed frog , limnodynastes fletcheri . both these species have blotches on their backs , not stripes .

this species is commonly confused with the long - thumbed frog ( limnodynastes fletcheri ) , with which there is a regional overlap . the two frogs can be distinguished by a disproportionately long second digit of the inner front toes in the case of l . fletcheri . the long - thumbed frog also has larger irregular shaped spots on the back and a red / purple eyelid , which is uncommon in l . tasmaniensis .

reptiles and frogs thrive at neds corner station . surveys have recorded 24 species , including de vis banded snake , carpet python , the tessellated gecko , the shingleback lizard and the long - thumbed frog .

in south australia long - thumbed frogs are primarily found in river plains of the murray - darling basin and associated woodlands and grassy regions that flood with high rainfall .

identified using victorian frog identification key and species - specific frog calls at http : / / frogs . org . au .

several anuran species are found on kangaroo island : brown tree frog ( litoria ewingii ) , spotted marsh frog ( limnodynastes tasmaniensis ) , painted spadefoot frog ( neobatrachus pictus ) , brown toadlet ( pseudophryne bibroni ) and brown froglet ( crinia signifera ) .

in summary , we show that females prefer males that have high fertilization success . the only trait that we could link to high fertilization failure was relatively long thumbs in males ( which just fell short of being significantly non - preferred in females ) . long - thumbed males not only sired less offspring in competition with another male , but the offspring that they did sire also survived less well in early ontogeny . this work encourages more in - depth analysis of age - related male effects on sperm and dna quality .

also known as the barking frog , its common name in south australia is related to its very long first finger . their body colouration is brown to green with dark irregular olive green patches . they often have an orange or red patch above their eyelid .

however , there are 3 species of frogs that do not require a permit when kept as tadpoles or in juvenile forms . the exempt species are : eastern banjo frog ( limnodynastes dumerili ) ; striped marsh frog ( limnodynastes peroni ) ; and spotted marsh frog ( limnodynastes tasmaniensis ) .

" spotted marsh frog " redirects here . it is not to be confused with spotted marshfrog .

without a permit , you may collect and keep in captivity : frog eggs ; tadpoles ; up to six specimens of the common froglet ( crinia signifera ) ; and up to six specimens of the southern brown tree frog ( litoria ewingi ) . a tadpole becomes a frog when its tail is absorbed .

the department of conservation and land management issues licences . there are four species for which keeper ' s licences may be issued : litoria caerulea ( green tree frog ; category 2 ) , litoria moorei ( motorbike frog ; category 2 ) , litoria splendida ( magnificent tree frog ; category 3 ) , and heleioporus albopunctatus ( western spotted frog ; category 4 ) . the lower category frogs are generally easier to care for , and certainly cheaper to obtain a licence for .

, a species of ground - dwelling frog native to northern and north - eastern australia , and southern new guinea .

exotic toads are often confused with native frog species and many people have difficulty telling them apart . many of the cane toad reports agriculture victoria receives are actually the native eastern banjo frog , also known as the pobblebonk ( limnodynastes dumerilii ) .

ryan mj ( 1992 ) the tungara frog : a study in sexual selection and communication . chicago : university of chicago press .

byrne pg , roberts jd ( 2000 ) does multiple paternity improve fitness of the frog crinia georgiana ? evolution 54 : 968–973 .

knopp t , merila j ( 2009 ) multiple paternity in the moor frog , rana arvalis . amphibia - reptilia 30 : 515–521 .

dziminski ma , roberts jd , simmons lw ( 2008 ) fitness consequences of parental compatibility in the frog crinia georgiana . evolution 62 : 879–886 .

conservation status : v ( npwsa ) vu ( epbc act ) the southern bell frog was probably introduced into the onkaparinga . . . more info

the eastern smooth frog is found in south - eastern victoria . its average adult length is 3 - 3 . 5cm . this frog is grey or brown on its back , often with a number of scattered black - edged red spots and dark markings . its belly is white or light grey with brown or grey flecks .

all frog indigenous to australia are protected wildlife and cannot be taken from the wild in any form ( adult , juvenile , larva or egg ) without a permit .

sagvik j , uller t , stenlund t , olsson m ( 2008 ) intraspecific variation in resistance of frog eggs to fungal infection . evolutionary ecology 22 : 193–201 .

garner t , tomio g ( 2001 ) microsatellites for use in studies of the italian agile frog , rana latastei ( boulenger ) . conservation genetics 2 : 77–80 .

horton , p . ( 1982 ) . ' ' precocious reproduction in the australian frog limnodynastes tasmaniensis . ' ' herpetologica , 38 ( 4 ) , 486 - 489 .

dziminski ma , roberts jd , simmons lw ( 2010 ) sperm morphology , motility and fertilisation capacity in the myobatrachid frog crinia georgiana . reproduction fertility and development 22 : 516–522 .

greene ae , funk wc ( 2009 ) sexual selection on morphology in an explosive breeding amphibian , the columbia spotted frog ( rana luteiventris ) . journal of herpetology 43 : 244–251 .

the barking frog is found in north - western victoria . its average adult length is 5cm . this frog is light green or brown on its back with darker blotches and spots . it often has a pink or purplish patch on the back of each upper eyelid . the skin on its back is smooth with low , round warts . its belly is white and smooth .

the giant burrowing frog is found in south - eastern victoria . its average adult length is 9 - 10cm . this frog is usually grey , dark brown or black on its back and white on its belly . the sides of its body have scattered yellow spots and a stripe runs from under each through to each ear . the skin on their back is rough and warty .

uller t , sagvik j , olsson m ( 2006 ) crosses between frog populations reveal genetic divergence in larval life history at short geographical distance . biological journal of the linnean society 89 : 189–195 .

the spotted grass frog is found all over victoria . its average adult length is 4 - 5cm . this frog is light brown to olive - green on the back with irregular darker spots and blotches . they usually have a pinkish , yellow or white stripe running down the middle of the back and a raised pale stripe from below the eye to the arm . their belly is white and smooth .

this frog is common throughout australia and is one of the first species to inhabit new dams and ditches . this species is associated with most habitats , including permanent or temporary dams , roadside ditches , ponds , flooded grassland and slow moving creeks , in urban areas , farmland , woodland , coastal areas and arid areas . the frog is usually found in grass or under other cover , near a still water source .

martin , a . a . and tyler , m . j . ( 1978 ) . " the introduction into western australia of the frog limnodynastes tasmaniensis gunther " . australian zoologist 19 ( 3 ) : 321–325 .

citation : sherman cdh , sagvik j , olsson m ( 2010 ) female choice for males with greater fertilization success in the swedish moor frog , rana arvalis . plos one 5 ( 10 ) : e13634 . urltoken

sherman cdh , uller t , wapstra e , olsson m ( 2008 ) within - population variation in ejaculate characteristics in a prolonged breeder , peron ' s tree frog , litoria peronii . naturwissenschaften 95 : 1055–1061 .

the male and female frogs can be sexed by the presence of a flap of skin around the thumbs of the females . this is used to froth the water during amplexus to create the floating foamy nest that it lays eggs in , which is roughly the size of a human palm . the tadpoles of this frog are comparatively large ( up to 6 cm ) . this frog spends a minimum of 3 months in the tadpole stage .

the striped marsh frog is found in southern victoria . its average adult length is 6 . 5cm . this frog is light brown or grey - brown on its back with darker brown stripes . it has a pale stripe running down the middle of its back , and a pale rasied stripe running from below each eye to the arm . its arms and legs are scattered with irregular , dark spots and bands and its belly is white .

the giant banjo frog is found in north - western victoria . its average adult length is 9cm . this frog ranges in colour from pale yellow , fawn to red - brown on its back with a few small dark flecks and spots . it usually has a broad orange band down the sides of its body . its belly is yellow with black flecks and its groin is marbled black and yellow . the skin on its back is smooth .

the long drought eased in 2010 with a la nina event that brought replenishing rain to large parts of the country and saw high flows along the murray river . the rain also fell at neds corner station and triggered dramatic growth in the plants and a response in fish , frogs , reptiles and birds . the condition of the native vegetation has revealed that the hard work carried out by trust for nature ' s staff and volunteers has been incredibly worthwhile .

martin , a . a . and tyler , m . j . ( 1978 ) . ' ' the introduction into western australia of the frog limnodynastes tasmaniensis gunther . ' ' australian zoologist , 19 ( 3 ) , 321 - 325 .

lizards and snakes can easily dash from hollow to hollow , safe from the birds watching overhead . frogs appear soon after rain or when wetlands fill , and quickly breed to make use of the abundant new life . at night the ' bonk bonk ' call of the banjo frog ricochets through the trees . the nationally endangered growling grass frog also calls at neds corner station . in the more open saltbush and bluebush areas , the endangered hooded scaly - foot ( a legless lizard ) lives in the soil cracks .

this is a map showing where frog species are found in south australia , and is known as the ' frog atlas ' . students use the spatial visualisation tool , spatialgenie , to explore this map as spatial data . they can investigate this map alone or add other map layers . students use shape tools to measure area and distance , and they can also search for images . using spatialgenie , students can annotate the existing map layers . when students have finished , they can print , or embed the maps and images into their own work .

all other frog species remain unprotected . a permit is not required to keep or sell these species . no permit is required to take them from the wild in south australia , however they can ' t be collected in national parks , reserves or on private property without consent .

frog atlas : reproduced courtesy of south australian department for environment and heritage ( deh ) . licensed under a creative commons attribution 2 . 5 australia licence urltoken metadata : © education services australia ltd 2011 . you may view , copy , distribute , communicate and adapt this material for non - commercial educational purposes provided you retain all acknowledgements associated with the material .

the datasets ( accessed by the ' spatial layer information ' button ) contain the conservation status of frogs in sa . they contain records of individual sightings of frog species , including the sighting date , the method of sighting , and the latitude and longitude of the location . both the common and species names for the frogs are included , providing different ways in which the data can be sorted and interrogated .

neds corner station is where arid and semi - arid climatic zones meet . the murray river carves a shallow valley through its floodplain , through what is known as the murray scroll belt floodplain . the soft sand and soil gently rises and falls and in the depressions , wetlands sometimes form . along the river and in wetland areas the plants are ephemeral . while towering red gum trees and the smaller black box woodlands drop long roots in search of groundwater to survive the dry times , other plants come and go . sedges , reeds , water milfoil and small herbaceous plants spring into life when the murray water levels rise and trickle into the dry beds of anabranches and billabongs . the damp soil supports new life and with the vegetation comes insects , small fish , frogs and birds . when there is water , it is a time of abundance .

the males calling and the breeding will occur pretty much all year round , finishing during summer . the call of this frog varies from a staccato machine gun sounding burst to a single ' tok ' sound , depending on the call race , which varies geographically . the machine gun call is the northern call race , throughout nsw and qld . the ' tok ' call is the southern call race , which occurs in southern vic and tas .

this frog reaches 45 mm in length . its colour ranges from light brown to olive - green , with large , irregular shaped , green or brown spots on its back . occasionally it will have a thin , pale cream , yellow or bright orange stripe running from snout to vent . there is a raised pale stripe running from below the eye to the base of the arm . the arms and legs are spotted like the back , and the belly is white .

an increasing number of studies have shown that polyandry and sperm competition are much more prevalent among amphibians than previously thought [ 14 ] , [ 15 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] , [ 18 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] . females are thought to gain indirect genetic benefits from polyandry and a number of studies have shown both good genes and genetic compatibility effects on fertilization success and offspring fitness [ 14 ] , [ 18 ] , [ 21 ] , [ 22 ] . for example , in the polyandrous quacking frog , crinia georgiana , studies have shown significant male × female interaction effects on fertilization success and offspring fitness such as embryo survival and survival to metamorphosis [ 18 ] , while in the australian tree frog , litoria peronii , both genetic relatedness and intrinsic male quality can influence fertilization success in sperm competition [ 21 ] , [ 22 ] . thus the reproductive success of males and females are not only influenced by choices made before copulation , but also by processes operating after copulation such as sperm competition and gamete recognition systems .

we investigated two components of sexual selection in the moor frog ( rana arvalis ) , pre - copulatory female choice between two males of different size ( ‘large’ vs . ‘small’ ) , and their fertilization success in sperm competition and in isolation . females ' showed no significant preference for male size ( 13 small and six large male preferences ) but associated preferentially with the male that subsequently was the most successful at fertilizing her eggs in isolation . siring success of males in competitive fertilizations was unrelated to genetic similarity with the female and we detected no effect of sperm viability on fertilization success . there was , however , a strong positive association between a male ' s innate fertilization ability with a female and his siring success in sperm competition . we also detected a strong negative effect of a male ' s thumb length on his competitive siring success .

the moor frog rana arvalis is an explosive breeder forming large leks during the spring breeding season [ 23 ] , [ 24 ] . as in many amphibians , the operational sex ratio on any given night is highly skewed towards males , with genetic analysis of natural clutches revealing multiple paternity in 14 % to 29 % of clutches [ 20 ] . this suggests that sperm competition , through multiple mating or sperm leakage , plays an important role in the mating system of this species . the current study set out to test the importance of a number of male traits on female mate choice and subsequent in vitro fertilization success in r . arvalis . firstly , we tested pre - copulatory female choice for males of two different size classes . secondly , our recent research on other amphibians have demonstrated effects of genetic similarity on fertilization success in sperm competition [ 22 ] , and male innate fertilization ability [ 21 ] . therefore , we also include these post - copulatory aspects in our analysis of female mate choice , along with male arm length and thumb length which are known to be sexually selected traits in male - male competition and male - female amplexus [ 10 ] , [ 25 ] .

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to the best of our knowledge , the legal information presented here was correct at the time of writing . however , as rules and regulations may change without us being notified , any facts stated here should be read as a guide only . if in doubt , please contact the appropriate legislating body - generally the governmental department responsible for wildlife in your state .

in most cases , links are provided to forms and information held on government servers which will be updated as regulations change and therefore can be regarded as the most up - to - date material available . as these documents are maintained by the government and are not held on the urltoken server , please let us know if these files are moved and the links are broken .

all frogs , tadpoles , and spawn are protected in victoria . the collection of frogs from the wild or the release of frogs to the wild is prohibited . the release of frogs to your backyard or the raising of tadpoles for the purpose of release is also illegal . it is also necessary to obtain a licence before keeping most of the species of frogs available in captivity .

if you would like any information regarding the current regulations in victoria , the responsible party is the licensing unit of the department of sustainability and environment ( formerly the department of natural resources and environment ) . there are many forms available online to apply for a wildlife permit . below is a brief guide that should at least help you get the correct application .

for individuals , the form to get is the private wildlife licence application . included with the application is all the general information you need including pricing and the list of species which require licences ( and what level of licence ) . this important information is available nowhere else on the dse website so it is notoriously difficult to locate .

when using the arc tadpole kits , government and catholic schools ( including pre - schools ) under the jurisdiction of michael white or peter annett respectively do not need to apply for a permit - they can simply print out and display the authorisation form ( authorisation for government / catholic schools ) .

the application for a scientific permit to keep frogs - school seems specially designed for programs such as the arc tadpole kits whereby the school obtains tadpoles from a licensed dealer ( such as the arc ) and then returns the adult frogs to the dealer when metamorphosis is complete . however , as the authorisation forms ( mentioned above ) cover government and catholic schools , this application is only required by schools who do not fit those descriptions . contact sue hadden , in charge of licensing within the department of sustainability & environment , for more information .

for full information regarding which permit is required and the costs , consult the environment act website ' s licensing section .

all frogs ( and tadpoles ) are protected in nsw under the national parks and wildlife act , and it is against the law to take them from the wild to keep as pets . you can get a licence from the npws to keep frogs , but you must obtain the frogs from a licensed breeder or society . you can only keep frogs that have either been bred in captivity or for other reasons cannot be released back into the wild .

for educational purposes , schools in nsw have been licensed to enable children and their teachers to collect and keep a maximum of 20 tadpoles to watch them grow and transform into froglets . tadpoles must never be collected from national parks or other reserves . once tadpoles have transformed into froglets , they must be released back in the location where they were collected .

commercial trade in frogs is prohibited in nsw . if you purchase an animal from an interstate dealers , or from anyone else in another state , you must already hold a nsw amphibian keeper ' s licence and you must obtain an interstate import licence from the npws before you can legally bring it into nsw .

you can find this information easily on the new south wales national parks and wildlife site where the laws are fully explained and application forms are available .

the northern territory regulations state that " all animals that are indigenous to australia are classed as protected wildlife and a permit is required to keep these animals in the nt " .

however , amphibians feature on the " exempt species list " . instead , " common frogs " of the northern territory may be kept as pets . you will need a permit if you wish to trade in frogs and you will need a permit for other species that are not considered " common " in the nt .

all animals that are being sent into or out of the state require a import / export permit from the northern territory . a permit to keep wildlife is required to enable people to legally possess wildlife in captivity within the northern territory ( except exempt species ) - in order to acquire a permit to keep wildlife you must first purchase the animal from a lawful source .

the queensland governmental departments responsible for frogs are the environmental protection agency ( epa ) and the queensland parks and wildlife service ( qpws ) . it is difficult to locate the relevant laws either online or by telephoning the agencies .

the exception to the above is that a person may take and keep up to eight adult frogs of up to four species but no more than two frogs of any one species " for personal enjoyment " . the " taking " ( catching ) must be done on the person’s own property and the frogs be kept on that property . the frogs can’t be displayed and should there be progeny , the metamorphs must be released at the point of capture within 7 days of metamorphosis .

frogs from outside queensland must not be moved into the state without a permit .

the application for the relevant permit is available online but you may need to make a phone call to discover the exact cost . ( it is around $ 50 . )

) , are protected in south australia . a " permit to take " is required to collect these species from the wild .

if frogs are imported from another state or territory they must have been legally acquired in that state or territory . get an export permit from the corresponding state or territory wildlife agency prior to consignment .

for more information , visit the sa wildlife permit website or call the fauna permit section of national parks & wildlife in south australia on ( 08 ) 8124 4700 .

in tasmania , the relevant body for enquiries about keeping wildlife is the department of primary industries and water .

to keep most species of frogs you must apply for a permit and agree to abide by the code of practice for herpetology . the code is presented with the permit application and is available on the department ' s website .

there are no species of amphibians exempt from licence requirements in western australia . the taking of amphibians from the wild for any purpose , except under a taker ' s licence , is illegal , and any people attempting to illegally keep these animals will be prosecuted .

for more information , visit calm ' s naturebase website . application forms for licences , including the keeper ' s licence , are available at that site .

it is illegal to release captive animals into the wild . by releasing unwanted captive animals , even those that appear perfectly healthy , there is a very real danger of introducing exotic diseases or parasites into wild populations . instead , they should be sold ( or given ) to a licensed dealer . perth zoo asks that you not contact them , as they are not able to take such animals .

this site is maintained by the amphibian research centre . contact the arc for information .

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justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .

this australian endemic is known from southern queensland through central new south wales and into northwestern victoria and south australia .

the species inhabits woodlands and river floodplains . it is often associated with slow moving or still water found in inundated grassland , around ponds , dams and along creek lines . by day they hide under large rocks and logs and have been found in cracks in dried mud . in dry weather they often aggregate in groups . by night they are found alongside water . breeding is varied ; in wetter areas it breeds from october to march , in drier areas it breeds after heavy rains . males call from floating vegetation . about 300 eggs are contained within a floating foam nest . eggs hatch after one day and metamorphose after 1 - 2 months .

the species might suffer from habitat loss / degradation associated with agro - industry farming . increased salinity is also a threat .

jean - marc hero , john clarke , ed meyer , peter robertson , frank lemckert . 2004 .

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their call is a single dog - like ' bark ' . they can be heard in the following months : january , february , march , april , september , october , november & december

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cogger , h . g . , in cogger , h . g . , cameron , e . e . & cogger , h . m . 1983 , " amphibia and reptilia " , ed . walton , d . w . ( ed . ) , zoological catalogue of australia , vol . 1 , pp . 313 pp . , australian government publishing service , canberra

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 695b4d2a - 5716 - 45a0 - adfc - 517d45f7802a

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : afe133b5 - 5c24 - 4cb6 - afe0 - 6c8e1e7bf174

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 89785c3b - e078 - 49d3 - 91b6 - 5ea1a7cd20b7

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 425329

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the atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .

if the river , its wetlands and immediate floodplain support a density of life , further back where less water reaches , the vegetation is more fragile but resilient . saltbush and blue bush grow in the depleted soil . there are less trees , more shrubs and open spaces . the suns tendrils reach further and bake the exposed earth .

with the increase in vegetation growth since trust for nature began to manage the property , surveys have revealed the extent of reptiles , frogs , mammals and birds . three types of kangaroos visit the property - eastern grey , western grey and red . many of the small to medium mammals are totally or locally extinct but fat - tailed dunnarts , echidnas and three species of bat are still found here . sometimes the endangered giles ' planigale , a ferocious small mammal , pops up at night to feed on locusts , beetles and spiders . during extreme weather , the planigale shelters in the cracks in the dry floodplain soil .

fallen branches from the woodland trees create perfect habitat for many of these species .

the tall red gum and black box woodland trees lining the murray provide ample habitat for birds . wings of colour flash among the leaves - orange chats , apostle birds , budgerigar swarms , galahs and sulphur - crested cockatoos . little button quails forage among the leaf litter between the smaller plants on the woodland floor . there have been 112 bird species counted at neds corner station . rare birds , such as the swift parrot and endangered inland dotterel and regent parrot have also been recorded .

callitris glaucophylla pod . photo : n . wong and l . fraser , trust for nature

trust for nature has undertaken an extensive pest management program . sheep grazing ceased when the property was bought in 2002 and the destruction of rabbit burrows is ongoing . weeds continue to be removed . to compliment the pest management , trees have been planted in the semi - arid woodland areas of the property . regular surveys of plants and animals are undertaken to assess change over time . fencing of sensitive areas has also helped to protect the flora and fauna .

the future for the wildlife of neds corner station is positive . trust for nature will soon investigate the re - introduction of some species that haven ' t been found in the region for decades – possibly the bridled nailtail wallaby or the brush - tailed bettong .

this is an exciting next step . support the efforts to protect nationally threatened species and communities such as the hoody scaly - foot as the team battle to restore habitat for endangered species . donate now or contact us .

it was no small feat for trust for nature to purchase the 30 , 000ha neds corner station property in the mallee region of victoria in 2002 . we had a vision for the land – a conservation vision :

to be an inspirational example of ecological restoration , promoting the significance of biodiversity through informing and educating for public benefit while protecting 3 % of native vegetation on private land in victoria forever .

with support from generous individuals and organisations who have given us their time , money and encouragement , trust for nature acquired neds corner station and has worked hard ever since to achieve that vision . and this is only the start of the story .

neds corner station is a part of a broader conservation effort . some of the property is within the living murray icon site : chowilla floodplain and lindsay - wallpolla islands . the australian government has invested significantly to restore water to red gum woodlands , black box woodlands and the lignum swamps on the floodplain . this was to create breeding habitat for species such as the threatened murray cod and other native fish . land next to neds corner station is part of the new murray river national park . together with trust for nature ; parks victoria , local indigenous groups , the mallee catchment management authority and others will manage the land and waterways in and around neds corner station to enhance its biodiversity .

neds corner station was formerly a sheep station . when trust for nature bought the property the land was ravaged byerosion , stock trampling , rabbit grazing and affected by weeds . the native vegetation was sparse . many of the indigenous species found in the area by the early explorers ( such as bridled nailtail wallaby , brush tailed bettong and pig - footed bandicoot ) have now disappeared . for 13 years ( from 1997 to 2010 ) a protracted drought affected south - eastern australia . red gum and black box woodlands at neds corner station showed signs of extreme drought stress . in fact , the drought often made it hard to see how the decline of the property could be turned around .

neds corner station has been transformed by the commitment and dedication of trust for nature . in the early years , the trust relied on devoted volunteer rangers who planned and began the conservation tasks needed to restore the station . the first task was to remove the threats to native flora and fauna . from the outset , trust for nature stopped grazing to allow the regeneration and growth of native vegetation .

we needed to know what plants and animals existed on the property . a baseline flora and fauna survey was carried out shortly after grazing ceased to understand the condition of the property and to identify the species at threat .

there is now a full - time land management team at the station . a property manager and ranger work hard to improve the health and condition of the native vegetation and to look after the facilities . rabbit control , revegetation and maintenance of assets ( for example , the buildings , fences and equipment ) are ongoing tasks . an administration officer supervises paid and unpaid visitors who use the accommodation facilities that cater for up to 30 people .

trust for nature has completed a conservation action plan for neds corner station . the plan , facilitated by greening australia , identifies the conservation priorities of the property and wider local area to guide management activities . the plan was completed with the financial assistance of the nature conservancy and local conservation partners mallee catchment management authority , department of sustainability and environment and park victoria .

the trust works with all sorts of different partners at neds corner station . the property is a place of rich indigenous and european history . local indigenous groups help to protect and conserve the cultural objects found onsite and to advise on management works . a number of the historic buildings have gradually been restored and now enable trust for nature to invite other partners and volunteers to come and see and participate in the work we do . it gives other people the opportunity to experience a special part of victoria where wildlife thrives .

the protection of significant landscapes is in peter ' s blood . he grew up working on a property that eventually became part of mungo national park in new south wales . peter knows that others need to be inspired to help him do his job – without everyone ' s help he will not be successful . peter can impart stories about the land where he lives that will capture your attention . he will fascinate you with stories of contrast - about what ' s involved to protect a small , threatened plant to the way the landscape dramatically changes after a heavy rain .

at neds corner station , trust for nature is working to restore the habitat links across the landscape , and create better habitat for threatened wildlife . the habitats between the riverine woodlands and mallee / semi - arid woodlands are extremely important for the regent parrot and other wildlife , some of which are highly threatened species .

this project is partially funded through trust for nature and the australian government’s caring for our country initiative , together with support by the partners above .

3 . landscape scale conservation using integrated management of threats in the project area .

- expand and re - establish tree and shrub cover on more than 1 , 452ha at neds corner station and nearby properties .

- engage with the indigenous community to ensure that cultural heritage sites are identified and protected .

- engage 10 farmers that will undertake activities that will contribute to the ongoing conservation and protection of biodiversity .

this project recognises the critical need to restore landscape links throughout the mallee woodlands . this will benefit many species , including the nationally endangered regent parrot .

threats to the area include : loss of native vegetation chenopod mallee and semi - arid woodlands are both classified as threatened making them of high conservation significance . to protect these habitats , three key actions are needed : • an ongoing rabbit control program • protection of native plants from native herbivores , and • the re - establishment of native plants .

soil loss as a result of wind erosion neds corner station is mapped as a national priority area for actions to reduce impacts of wind erosion . the retirement of land from cultivation and its replacement with native vegetation is recognised as a management action , which will reduce soil loss .

impacts of rabbits rabbits are recognised as a significant threat to the survival of a range of native plants and wildlife , in particular semi - arid woodlands and chenopod shrublands .

many council roads are lined by mallee woodlands in varying states of health . roadsides are important landscape links and contain some of the most important woodland remnant sites within this landscape . many roadsides are impacted by rabbits and weeds to varying degrees . small patches of mallee woodlands on farm land are extremely important as they provide links across the landscape for birds and other animals .

mallee woodlands provide many important functions within the landscape . they provide on - farm benefits ; they contribute to the broader landscape by providing habitat for threatened species such as the regent parrot , and add an aesthetically pleasing natural dimension in a highly modified landscape . remnants of this vegetation community are essential for the maintenance of the genetic diversity of our native plands and wildlife species . these remnants also provide much of the seed that is used to revegetate farmland and other modified areas within the district .

mallee woodlands are essential for the survival of nationally vulnerable species such as the regent parrot .

mallee woodlands consist of deep rooted perennials which can help prevent and reduce dry land salinity . . with intact groundcover , they minimise soil loss and subsequent erosion problems by slowing the flow of water , allowing it to infiltrate the soil . in addition , mallee woodlands provide :

- protection for stock , crops and pasture from heat , cold and wind .

the current 2011 - 13 funded project covers neds corner station and surrounding farmland .

with financial assistance from mallee cma , we were able to purchase new signs to erect on roads around neds to control the movement of traffic across the property .

5 / 379 collins street melbourne 3000 australia phone : ( 03 ) 8631 5888 fax : ( 03 ) 9614 6999 urltoken copyright © 2011 trust for nature . all rights reserved .

no pads present on digits . parotid glands absent or indistinct . pupils horizontal . belly and thighs smooth , pale and unmarked . no tibial gland obvious , and longitudinal stripes on back are pale not dark > limnodynastes tasmaniensis .

this sighting is further east than most sightings of this species , but the site is in the headwaters of the yass river i . e . is part of the murray - darling system and hence consistent with the known distribution of the species .

no pads present on digits . parotid glands absent or indistinct . pupils horizontal . belly and thighs smooth , pale and unmarked . no tibial gland obvious , and no longitudinal stripe on back of any colour . the butterfly - shaped blotch behind the eyes is typical of this species . a pink or red patch on the upper eyelid is also common in this species but not observed in this specimen , possibly due to poor light conditions .

the striped marshfrog is light to grey - brown and marked with bold , dark longitudinal stripes . there is a pale , dark - edged line running down the middle of the back . a dark stripe is present on the side of the face and a conspicuous pale gland runs from below the eye to the forearm . the belly is white . this species grows to 73 mm .

found in open forests and usually associated with permanent water . this species does well in disturbed habitats .

breeds from late winter to early spring . the eggs are laid in a foam nest on the surface of the water and are usually concealed beneath vegetation .

queensland museum ' s find out about . . . is proudly supported by the thyne reid foundation and the tim fairfax family foundation .

you can copy and share this content for educational purposes . this work cannot be changed . attribute the copyright owner and author .

the map is based on datasets sourced from the biological database of south australia ( bdbsa ) . bdbsa data helps the sa and australian governments to make decisions about environmental issues . the datasets are also a useful source of information for people in the wider community who have an interest in biodiversity and conservation .

the datasets are a rich source of information about the distribution of frogs in sa . the records provide a real - world context for students to pose questions and interrogate the data . students can also consider the reliability of the datasets , looking at factors such as the level of quality assurance conducted on the data , the cross - referencing to specimen collection in the field , and changes in taxonomic classification that can occur over time .

occurring over most of eastern australia ( south australia , victoria , new south wales , central queensland and tasmania ) and extending along the eastern seaboard . its presence in the kununurra district in north - eastern western australia is believed to be the result of an accidental introduction via the relocation of several hundred transportable homes from adelaide . the extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 2 , 381 , 900 km2 . widely distributed and abundant .

barker , j . , grigg , g . c . , and tyler , m . j . ( 1995 ) . a field guide to australian frogs . surrey beatty and sons , new south wales .

roberts , j . d . and seymour , r . s . ( 1989 ) . ' ' non - foamy egg masses in limnodynastes tasmaniensis ( anura : myobatrachidae ) from south australia . ' ' copeia , 1989 ( 2 ) , 488 - 492 .

tyler , m . j . , smith , l . a . , and johnstone , r . e . ( 1994 ) . frogs of western australia . western australian museum , perth .

the most notable mammal present is the endemic kangaroo island kangaroo ( macropus fuliginosus fuliginosus ) , the icon for whom the island was named upon european discovery in 1802 . a smaller marsupial present on the island is the tammar wallaby ( macropus eugenii ) . an endemic dasyurid is the critically endangered kangaroo island dunnart ( sminthopsis aitkeni ) , which is found only in the west of the island in eucalyptus remota / e . cosmophylla open low mallee , e . baxteri low woodland or e . baxteri / e . remota low open woodland . the common brush - tailed possum ( trichosurus vulpecula ) is a widespread folivore native to australia .

monotremes are also represented on the island . there is also an introduced population of the duck - billed platypus ( ornithorhynchus anatinus ) in the western part of the island in flinders chase national park . the short - beaked echidna ( tachyglossus aculeatus ) is also found moderately widespread on kangaroo island .

chiroptera species on kangaroo island include the yellow - bellied pouched bat ( saccolaimus flaviventris ) , which species is rather widespread in australia and also occurs in papua new guinea . australia ' s largest molossid , the white - striped free - tail bat ( tadarida australis ) is found on kangaroo island . another bat found on the island is the southern forest bat ( eptesicus regulus ) , a species endemic to southern australia ( including tasmania ) .

the heath monitor ( varanus rosenbergi ) is a lizard that grows up to a metre in length , preying on smaller reptiles , juvenile birds and eggs ; it is frequently observed on warmer days basking in the sunlight or scavenging on roadkill . the black tiger snake ( notechis ater ) is found on kangaroo island . another reptile particularly associated with this locale is the kangaroo island copperhead ( austrelaps labialis ) .

the glossy black cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus lathami ) is found on the island , especially in the western part , where its preferred food , fruit of the drooping sheoak , is abundant . the kangaroo island emu ( dromaius baudinianus ) became extinct during the 1820s from over - hunting and habitat destruction due to burning .