the striped stingaree ( trygonoptera ovalis ) is a common but little-known species of stingray in the family urolophidae , endemic to shallow , inshore waters off southwestern australia .

reaching 61 cm ( 24 in ) long , this species is characterized by an oval , grayish to brownish disc with darker mask-like markings around the eyes and paired blotches at the center of the disc that are extended posteriorly into horizontal lines .

its nostrils have enlarged lobes on the outer margins and a skirt-shaped curtain of skin with a deeply fringed trailing margin in between .

its tail terminates in a relatively large leaf-shaped caudal fin , and bears a small dorsal fin just before the stinging spine .

the rounded , flexible disc of the striped stingaree enable it to maneuver through the rocks , reefs , and seagrass that comprise its favored habitats .

the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed this species under least concern ; it is seldom caught by fisheries due to its habitat preferences .

striped stingaree

striped stingaree <EOT> striped stingaree pictures - trygonoptera ovalis images striped stingray / striped stingaree file size 6 megapixels . more

view more striped stingaree pictures in the shark pictures database common names : striped stingaree , bight stingaree . latin name : trygonoptera ovalis family : urolophidae identification : disc oval without pointed snout . more

striped stingray / striped stingaree images are available for commercial reproduction . please contact elasmodiver for information on licensing fees .

* striped stingaree , trygonoptera ovalis last & gomon , 1987 . * masked stingaree , trygonoptera personata last & gomon , 1987 . * common stingaree , trygonoptera testacea m�ller & henle , 1841 . more

striped stingaree , trygonoptera ovalis . source : rudie h . kuiter / aquatic photographics . license : all rights reserved

this eastern shovelnose stingaree was once unheard of in northern tasmania . now it is abundant .

picture of the striped stingaree has been licensed under a creative commons attribution . original source : ray author cookie monster from australia = = author : cookie monster from australia = = licen

other common names : sting ray , eagle ray , batfish , stingaree , bat sting ray .

the striped stingaree ( trygonoptera ovalis ) is a species of fish in the urolophidae family . it is endemic to australia . its natural habitats are open seas , shallow seas , subtidal aquatic beds , and coral reefs . more

other common names : skippies , oceanic bonito , striped tuna , arctic bonito , watermelon , victor fish .

other common names : bonehead , laguna tuna , magneto , striped tuna , california bonito , ocean bonito .

the small litter is likely due to the relatively large size of stingaree pups , which measure around half the maximum size at birth .

description : the body of the striped bass is elongate and slightly compressed . the head is a narrow , cone - shape , and the mouth is large . the color is greenish above , silvery on the sides , and white below . there are six to nine horizontal blackish stripes on the side . in southern california , the much smaller salema occasionally is mistaken for young striped bass ; the salema , however , has orange - brown stripes and larger eyes than those of striped bass .

mask around each eye and paired dark stripes that run back from behind the head to the tail . it is the most common stingaree seen on inshore reefs off the southern west coast .

description : the body of the striped marlin is elongate and compressed . the upper jaw is much extended , forming a rounded spear . the color is dark blue above becoming silver below , with light blue bars or vertical spots on the sides . of the billfishes that occur in california waters , the striped marlin is difficult to confuse with the others . marlin have scales , fins on the belly , and a rounded spear which set them apart from swordfish which have no scales or ventral fins and have bills that are flat . sailfish have an extremely high dorsal fin not found among the marlins , and shortnose spearfish do not have the long spear on the upper jaw nor the body weight of the marlin . the striped marlin normally develops conspicuous stripes along the sides of its body after death . this feature is unique to striped marlin .

natural history : the barred sand bass diet includes crabs , octopus , squid , and small fishes . the adults aggregate and spawn during warmer months . the eggs are free floating . the striped young appear in southern california nearshore areas and eelgrass beds during fall and winter .

fishing information : most striped marlin are taken by trolling artificial lures in areas they are known to inhabit . blind strikes are generally the rule , but one can occasionally tempt a “finner” or “sleeper” ( marlin swimming along the surface ) to strike if lures are trolled past the fish . live bait also works well but requires more effort since the fish must usually be first spotted visually . once a striped marlin is located , the angler should cast a bait in front of and past the fish so it can be reeled back towards the animal . strikes usually result from properly presented live bait . most striped marlin anglers prefer pacific mackerel as bait . the best california fishing locality is in a belt of water which extends from the east end of santa catalina island offshore to san clemente island and southward in the direction of the los coronados islands .

range : striped bass were brought to california from new jersey in 1879 . they now are found from northern baja california to barkley sound , british columbia . in california , they most commonly are found in the sacramento - san joaquin delta , san francisco bay and adjacent ocean areas .

range : striped marlin occur in tropical and warm temperature waters of the indian and pacific oceans . on the west coast of the united states they range as far north as oregon , but are most common south of point conception , california . they usually appear off california in july and remain until late october .

natural history : the food of striped marlin is predominately fishes , squid , crabs and shrimp . the latter three make up lesser portions of the diet than do fish . the spear of the marlin is sometimes used both as a weapon for defense and as an aid in capturing food . wooden boats frequently have been rammed by billfish , and in one instance the spear penetrated 18 . 5 inches of hardwood 14 . 5 inches of which was oak . when it uses its bill in capturing food , the striped marlin sometimes stuns its prey by slashing sideways with the spear rather than impaling its victim , as some believe .

a greyish to greyish - brown stingaree with dark markings below , in front of , and between the eyes and often a dark stripe on the snout ( obvious on juveniles ) , a pair of sometimes indistinct dark patches on the disc extending as stripes along the disc and tail , a pale midline pale , and a greyish to black caudal fin . the underside is white to yellow with dark margins on the disc and pelvic fins .

fishing information : the pacific staghorn sculpin is attracted to a variety of baits , preferably small invertebrates . it is not highly prized as a food or sport fish . on the other hand , it is a popular bait fish for the san francisco bay delta striped bass sport fishery . caution is recommended when handling this species because the spines located on the gill cover can leave nasty cuts if the fish thrashes around in your hands .

justification : a small to medium sized eastern indian endemic stingaree from southwestern australia ( the state of western australia ) common in shallow water in depths to 43 m . trygonoptera ovalis forms an insignificant component to the bycatch of the scallop and prawn trawl fisheries that operate within its range . this species typically occurs over rocky and reefy areas and is rarely caught by commercial fisheries operating within the area . since there is a large amount of this habitat within its range , this species is not of any great concern from a conservation point of view .

natural history : examination of stomach contents indicate sargo are bottom feeders , eating different small shrimps , crabs , clams , and sea snails . sargo spawn when they are about 7 inches long and 2 years old . spawning occurs in late spring and early summer . the 1 inch young appear in late summer and fall in shallow water , schooling loosely with young salema and black croaker . at a length of 5 inches , when they are about 1 year old , they join adult sargo schools . all through their life they are capable of displaying the striped pattern characteristic of juveniles .

fishing information : by far the largest part of the striped bass catch is made in san francisco bay and the delta . good fishing occurs during late summer , but is best in the fall . stripers occur along the coast only during late spring and summer at which time surf fishermen get a chance at them . a variety of artificial lures and chunks or strips of standard bait fish will attract stripers . the beaches immediately adjacent to the golden gate are generally the best coastal spots , but occasional good runs are encountered as far south as monterey and as far north as bodega bay . in san francisco bay , trolling with live bait is popular , with common catches under 10 pounds .

natural history : examination of stomach contents show that shrimp and anchovies are most important during the summer and fall while a variety of small fishes are eaten during the winter . females usually mature at 5 years of age when about 24 inches long and many males mature at age 2 when about 11 inches long . a 5 pound fish may spawn as many as 25 , 000 eggs in one season ; while a 12 pounder will spawn 1 , 250 , 000 eggs . a 75 pound striper produces as many as 10 , 000 , 000 eggs . striped bass are believed to spawn only in fresh water in which there is an appreciable current . in california , they spawn from march to july with a peak in april and may .

greek , trygon = a sting ray + greek , pteron = wing , fin ( ref . 45335 )

marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 4 - 43 m ( ref . 12951 ) . subtropical ; 26°s - 36°s

maturity : l m ? , range 35 - ? cm max length : 61 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6871 )

found near reefs , sea grass beds , and sandy beaches ( ref . 12951 ) .

last , p . r . and j . d . stevens , 1994 . sharks and rays of australia . csiro , australia . 513 p . ( ref . 6871 )

phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5156 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .

bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .

trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives

resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( assuming fecundity < 100 ) .

vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 68 of 100 ) .

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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

trygonoptera ovalis needs to be compared carefully wih the undescribed trygonoptera spp . ( a and b [ in last and stevens 1994 ] ) to determine relationships between these forms .

endemic to the eastern indian off southwestern australia : found only off the southwestern coast of australia from eucla ( 128°53 ' e ) to the abrolhos islands , western australia ( 28°43 ' s ) ( last and stevens 1994 ) .

trygonoptera ovalis is a common species found over rocky and reefy areas and some seagrass beds in depths of 1 to 43 m ( last and stevens 1994 , w . white pers . obs ) . aplacental viviparous species . attains 61 cm tl and males mature at 35 cm tl ( last and stevens 1994 ) . dietary composition has not yet been examined for this species . life history parameters age at maturity ( years ) : unknown ( both male and female ) . size at maturity ( total length ) : unknown ( female ) ; 35 cm tl ( male ) ( last and stevens 1994 ) . longevity ( years ) : unknown . maximum size ( total length ) : 61 cm tl ( last and stevens 1994 ) . size at birth ( cm ) : unknown . average reproductive age ( years ) : unknown . gestation time ( months ) : unknown . reproductive periodicity : unknown . average annual fecundity or litter size : unknown . annual rate of population increase : unknown . natural mortality : unknown .

very few threats . only a negligible component of prawn and scallop trawl bycatch , for which there is only a small number of boats operating within this fishery . not known to be caught by other fisheries within its range . preference of this species for rocky and reefy areas provides refuge from trawling activities .

none in place . the effective implementation of the australian national plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks ( shark advisory group and lack 2004 ) ( under the fao international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks : ipoa - sharks ) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in australia .

to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .

endemic to western australia , from east of low point , great australian bight to the houtman abrolhos .

disc almost oval , slightly longer than wide ; broadest part 1 to 3 eye diameters behind level of spiracles ; anterior profile obtuse . snout fleshy , tip not extended . eye of moderate size , 17 - 22 % preocular snout length . posterior margin of spiracle rounded or angular . mouth small ; about 4 minute papillae on floor . internasal flap skirt - shaped , posterior angle not extended into distinct lobe . posterolateral border of nostril forming a broad flattened and fleshy lobe . tail broad , rounded in cross - section ; of moderate length , 75 - 100 % disc length ; lateral cutaneous folds absent ; dorsal fin small ; caudal fin relatively large , lanceolate .

dorsal surface greyish to greyish - brown ; dark markings below , in front of and between eyes ; often with a dark stripe extending to snout tip ( obvious on juveniles ) ; paired dark patches near centre of disc extending as stripes posteriorly along disc and tail , sometimes darkish areas obscure ; pale along midline . caudal fin greyish or black . ventral surface white or yellow ; tail and margins of disc and pelvic fins mostly dark .

the specific name is from the latin ovalis ( oval ) , in reference to the distinctive shape of the disc .

trygonoptera ovalis last & gomon 1987 , memoirs of museum victoria 48 ( 1 ) : 63 , fig . 1 . type locality : south of red rocks point , great australian bight , wa [ 32°24´s , 127°30´e ] .

gomon , m . f . , yearsley , g . k . & last , p . r . 2008 . family urolophidae . 125 - 137 pp . in gomon , m . f . , bray , d . j . & kuiter , r . h . ( eds ) .

. sydney , nsw , australia : new holland publishers xvii , 434 pp .

last , p . r & gomon , m . f . 1987 . new australian fishes . part 15 . new species of

last , p . r . & gomon , m . f . 1994 . family urolophidae . pp . 172 - 181 figs 150 - 159 in gomon , m . f . , glover , c . j . m . & kuiter , r . h . ( eds ) .

. collingwood : csiro publishing australia 2 , 550 pp . last , p . r . , yearsley , g . k . & white , w . t . 2016 . family urolophidae pp . 676 - 705 . in : last , p . r . , white , w . t . , de carvalho , m . r . , séret , b . , stehmann , m . f . w . & & naylor , g . j . p . ( eds )

: urltoken contains images of sharks , skates , rays , and a few chimaera ' s from around the world . elasmodiver began as a simple web based

to help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .

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dorsum mid brown with two , sometimes indistinct , dark patches near midline of back , thinning and extending along tail . smaller dark patches below eyes . small dorsal fin in front of tail spine but no tail folds .

any area with rocky reefs ( especially adjacent to sand ) would be a good place to start . i encountered this ray while diving with dive albany .

sharks and rays - elasmobranch guide of the world . ralf m . hennemann . ikan .

p . o . box 8719 station central , victoria , bc . , v8w 3s3 , canada

found near reefs , sea grass beds , and sandy beaches ( ref . 12951 ) .

kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name " juovakiekkorausku " to " trygonoptera ovalis last and gomon , 1987 " .

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yearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 , " codes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases " , pp . 15 pp . + appendices

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 329959a5 - bce3 - 4fe2 - 906d - 93f6e3a03cd8

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ccd1335f - 90cd - 480f - 9fca - 45a88a3a4889

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 371784

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the family urolophidae , also known as stingarees , consists of two genera and about 35 species . they are bottom - dwelling rays in warm seas , usually lying partially buried under the sand . their rounded pectoral discs are colored to blend in with the sand , mud , or rocks on which they live . urolophids are relatively small rays , and feed on a variety of invertebrates , small fishes , and crustaceans . their tails , distinguished by the presence of a well - developed caudal fin , are equipped with one or more serrated stinging spines . like other rays they are viviparous ; urolophids give birth to between two and four young each year , or in some cases , every two years . because of their low birth rates and sometimes restricted range , urolophids are susceptible to human activity , although only one species is currently known to be threatened .

böhlke , j . , c . chaplin . 1968 . fishes of the bahamas and adjacent tropical waters . wynnewood , pa : published for the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia by livingston .

compagno , l . 1999 . systematics and body form . pp . 1 - 42 in w hamlett , ed . sharks , skates , and rays . baltimore , md : the johns hopkins university press .

hamlett , w . , t . koob . 1999 . female reproductive system . pp . 398 - 443 in w hamlett , ed . sharks , skates , and rays . baltimore , md : the johns hopkins university press .

last , p . , j . stevens . 1994 . sharks and rays of australia . australia : csiro .

moyle , p . , j . cech . 2000 . fishes : an introduction to ichthyology – fourth edition . upper saddle river , nj : prentice - hall .

nelson , j . 1994 . fishes of the world – third edition . new york , ny : john wiley and sons .

the world conservation union , 2002 . " iucn 2002 " ( on - line ) . 2002 iucn red list of threatened species . accessed december 03 , 2003 at urltoken .

wheeler , a . 1985 . the world encyclopedia of fishes . london : macdonald .

wourms , j . , l . demski . 1993 . the reproduction and development of sharks , skates , rays , and ratfishes : introduction , history , overview , and future prospects . pp . 7 - 19 in l demski , j wourms , eds . the reproduction and development of sharks , skates , rays , and ratfishes . dordrecht , the netherlands : kluwer academic publishers .

urolophids can be found in the eastern indian ocean , the western pacific , the eastern pacific from california to chile , and the western atlantic , including the caribbean . they are not known in the western indian ocean , the mediterranean , or the eastern atlantic .

urolophids , or stingarees , are rays with a rounded , oval , or rhomboidal disc created by the pectoral fins . the disc is less than 1 . 3 times as broad as it is long . their snouts are confluent with the rest of the disc . from the side they appear relatively flat , with the head not elevated . the spiracles ( respiratory openings ) are close behind the eyes , which are dorsolateral ( above and to either side ) on the head . the mouth is small and located on the underside of the snout , and often has several papillae on its floor . teeth are small and do not form flat crushing plates as in some other rays . there are five pairs of small gill openings , and the internal gill arches do not have filter plates or ridges . some stingarees lack a dorsal fin ; in others the fin is small , located just in front of the sting and behind the pelvic fins . the serrated stinging spine , located about halfway down the tail , is large and functional . a distinguishing feature of these rays is the presence of a moderately large , elongated caudal fin that extends to the tip of the tail . in the genus

. in coloration stingarees range from uniform grayish , yellowish , or brownish , to patterns of spots , reticulations , or dark mask - like bands . their discs may be smooth or covered with small denticles . these rays tend to be small , not more than 76 cm in length .

urolophidae is a marine family , although some members enter estuaries . restricted to tropical and warm temperate waters , urolophids are bottom - dwellers along coastlines and along the continental shelf . most live in relatively shallow water but some occupy depths of at least 700 m down the continental slope . they generally prefer sandy bottoms in which they can bury themselves , but a few species live on rocky substrates ( bottoms ) or in association with sea vegetation such as kelp . urolophids tend to have patterns and coloring that blend in with their environment .

many stingarees feed on fishes , worms , shrimps , and other small organisms they uncover when they flap their pectoral fins along the bottom . some are able to eat hard - shelled mollusks and crustaceans .

in their benthic ( on the bottom ) , warm , usually shallow - water habitat , stingarees affect the populations of prey animals such as invertebrates and small fishes . they in turn are eaten by larger fish and humans .

ray spines , some of them likely belonging to urolophids , have been found embedded in the mouths of many sharks . the great hammerhead

, in particular , appears to specialize in eating stingrays . they use their hammer - shaped heads to knock a ray to the bottom , and then pin the ray , once again with its head , pivoting around to bite the ray’s disc until the ray succumbs and can be eaten . in addition to their defensive venomous sting , most stingarees have cryptic coloring that blends in with the sandy or rocky bottom . some researchers describe stingarees as almost impossible to find unless they move .

urolophidae is prey of : chondrichthyes this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .

myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2006 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed february 16 , 2011 at urltoken . urltoken

urolophidae preys on : non - insect arthropods this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .

rays perceive and interact with their environment using sensory channels common to many vertebrates : sight , hearing , smell , taste and touch . rays also belong to a group of fishes , the elasmobranchs , whose electrical sensitivity seems to exceed that of all other animals . elasmobranch fishes are equipped with ampullae of lorenzini , electroreceptor organs that contain receptor cells and canals leading to pores in the animal’s skin . sharks and rays can detect the electrical patterns created by nerve conduction , muscular contraction , and even the ionic difference between a body ( i . e . of prey ) and water . in lab experiments , members of the family urolophidae changed their feeding location according to artificially induced changes in the electrical field around them . other experiments have demonstrated that cartilaginous fishes use electrosensory information not only to locate prey , but also for orientation and navigation based on the electrical fields created by the interaction between water currents and the earth’s magnetic field . although some rays can produce an electric shock to defend themselves or stun prey , members of the family urolophidae cannot . they are able , however , to inflict a venomous sting with their tail spine in defense .

bleckmann , h . , m . hofmann . 1999 . special senses . pp . 300 - 328 in w hamlett , ed . sharks , skates , and rays . baltimore , md : the johns hopkins university press .

members of the family urolophidae , like other rays and their shark relatives , employ a reproductive strategy that involves investing large amounts of energy into relatively few young over a lifetime . once sexually mature , stingarees have only one litter per year , usually bearing two to four young . since few young are produced , it is important that they survive , and to this end rays are born at a large size , able to feed and fend for themselves much like an adult . rays develop from egg to juvenile inside the mother’s uterus , sometimes to almost half their adult size . in this system , called aplacental uterine viviparity , developing embryos receive most of their nutriment from a milky , organically rich substance secreted by the mother’s uterine lining . an embryo absorbs this substance , called histotroph , by ingestion , or through its skin or other specialized structures . researchers have found that in some rays , the stomach and spiral intestine are among the first organs to develop and function , so that the embryo can digest the uterine “milk . ” rays’ eggs are small and insufficient to support the embryos until they are born , although the first stage of development does happen inside tertiary egg envelopes that enclose each egg along with egg jelly . the embryo eventually absorbs the yolk sac and stalk and the histotroph provides it with nutrition . development in the uterus usually takes about three months .

little specific information regarding lifespans in urolophidae was found , but in general rays , like their relatives the sharks , grow and mature slowly and are long - lived .

only a few species of elasmobranchs have been observed during courtship and mating . however , stingarees have a system that involves internal fertilization , so it can logically be inferred that mating communication between male and female must happen to an extent that allows the male to insert at least one of his two claspers ( male reproductive organs that are modifications of the pelvic fins ) into the female’s cloaca to deposit sperm . elasmobranch fishes have relatively complex endocrine ( hormonal ) systems ; based on knowledge of other vertebrates with similar systems , it is likely that females signal to males through chemical or behavioral cues to indicate when their hormonal state is appropriate for mating . in

researchers found that gland secretions seal the open groove on males’ claspers into a closed tube that protects semen from being diluted before it passes into the female . these secretions coagulate on contact with sea water , help transport sperm into the female , and provide lubrication for clasper insertion .

pregnancy in at least some urolophids lasts about three months , generally spanning some period in the spring , summer , and fall . it may take up to two years , however , for the egg follicle to accumulate enough yolk for ovulation ( release of an egg to be fertilized ) as in the case of

. this means that at least some stingarees may have litters only once every two years , but it is likely that other groups within the family give birth on a yearly cycle . within any given group of rays , individuals appear to go through mating , gestation , and parturition ( birth ) at the same time as all the other females in the group . stingarees usually bear between two and four young at a time , after nourishing the embryos with milky fluid ( histotroph ) secreted by the uterus ( see development for a description of this system , called aplacental uterine viviparity ) . in some groups the epithelium , or wall , of the uterus is modified to form trophonemata , elongated villi that extend into the uterine cavity to provide greater surface area for respiratory exchange and histotroph excretion . this advanced system of nourishing young inside the uterus can produce offspring that are relatively large at birth ( see development ) . according to one investigator , a young ray is rolled up like a cigar during birth , which , along with the lubricating histotroph , facilitates the birth of such proportionally large young . the young ray then unrolls and swims away . likewise , sting - bearing young are able to pass out of the mother’s body without stinging her because their stings are encased in a pliable sheath that sloughs off after birth .

no reported evidence of post - birth parental care in urolophidae was found . after such extended nurturing inside their mothers’ bodies , young rays come into the sea quite able to feed and fend for themselves ( see development and reproduction ) .

allen , t . 1996 . shadows in the sea : the sharks , skates , and rays . new york , ny : lyons and buford .

hamlett , w . 1999 . male reproductive system . pp . 444 - 470 in w hamlett , ed . sharks , skates , and rays . baltimore , md : the johns hopkins university press .

helfman , g . , b . collete , d . facey . 1997 . the diversity of fishes . malden , ma : blackwell .

is listed as near threatened . it lives in an area of intense fishing pressure , and females often abort embryos when captured . these factors , along with low fecundity ( they bear only two young at a time ) , making it vulnerable to human activity . other urolophids , sharing these characteristics , may become threatened in the future .

stingarees can cause serious wounds with their tail spines . the serrated spine tip can be difficult to remove without surgery if it breaks off in the wound . because they tend to occupy shallow water and are often colored to blend in with the bottom , they are a hazard to waders . some fishermen walk with a “stingray shuffle” to make the rays swim away without stepping on them and getting stung .

stingarees are seldom used commercially even though large numbers are frequently caught in nets , but several species have edible flesh . some are reported to be “chewy unless prepared properly . ” native peoples in many parts of the family’s range have used ray spines for spear tips , daggers , or whips .

the urolophidae are a family of rays in the order myliobatiformes , commonly known as stingarees or round stingrays ; this family formerly included the genera urobatis and urotrygon of the americas , which are presently recognized as forming their own family urotrygonidae . stingarees are found in the indo - pacific region , with the greatest diversity off australia . they are sluggish , bottom - dwelling fish that have been recorded from shallow waters close to shore to deep waters over the upper continental slope . measuring between 15 and 80 cm ( 5 . 9 and 31 . 5 in ) long , these rays have oval to diamond - shaped pectoral fin discs and relatively short tails that terminate in leaf - shaped caudal fins , and may also have small dorsal fins and lateral skin folds . most are smooth - skinned , and some have ornate dorsal color patterns .

stingarees feed on or near the sea floor , consuming small invertebrates and occasionally bony fishes . they are aplacental viviparous , meaning their embryos emerge from eggs inside the uterus , and are sustained to term first by yolk and later by maternally produced histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . as far is known , the gestation period lasts around a year and litter sizes tend to be small . stingarees have one or two relatively large , venomous stinging spines on their tail for defense , with which they can inflict a painful wound on humans . generally , stingarees have no economic value . some species form a substantial component of the bycatch of commercial trawl fisheries .

) , which has a rounded disc and no dorsal fin or lateral skin folds on its tail .

stingarees are modestly sized , ranging from 30 to 80 cm ( 12 to 31 in ) long . they have greatly enlarged

in shape . the snout is usually short and does not protrude much from the disc . the eyes are placed atop the disc and usually fairly large ; immediately posterior are teardrop - shaped

openings ) . there is a curtain of skin between the nostrils , formed from the fusion of the anterior nasal flaps , that reaches the mouth . there are varying numbers of papillae ( nipple - like structures ) on the floor of the mouth and sometimes also on the outside of the lower jaw . the teeth in both jaws are small , with rhomboid bases and blunt to pointed crowns ; they are arranged with a

pattern and number less than 50 rows in either jaw . the five pairs of

are found on males . the tail is shorter than to about equal to the disc , either flattened or thickly oval in cross - section , and ends in a leaf - shaped , symmetrical

. one or two relatively large , serrated stinging spines are placed atop the tail about halfway along its length . some species have a small

immediately before the spine , and / or lateral skin folds running along either side of the tail .

stingarees are generally shades of yellow , green , brown or gray above and pale below ; some species are plain , while others are adorned with spots , rings , blotches , lines , or more complex patterns .

studies have shown that stingarees that overlap in range differ in their diet composition , which likely serves to reduce competition . for example , off southwestern australia the

lasts 10–12 months and the litter size is small , no more than one or two in some cases .

stingarees caught from shallow water likely have relatively high chances of survival , but of concern is their tendency to abort any gestating young when captured and handled .

müller , j . and f . g . j . henle ( 1837 ) . " gattungen der haifische und rochen nach einer von ihm mit hrn . henle unternommenen gemeinschaftlichen arbeit über die naturgeschichte der knorpelfische " . bericht akademie der wissenschaften zu berlin 1837 : 111–118 .

müller , j . and f . g . j . henle ( 1838–1841 ) . systematische beschreibung der plagiostomen . veit und comp . p . 173–174 .

mceachran , j . d . , k . a . dunn , and t . miyake ( 1996 ) . " interrelationships of the batoid fishes ( chondrichthyes : batoidea ) " . in stiassny , m . l . j . , l . r . parenti , and g . d . johnson . interrelationships of fishes . academic press . pp . 63–84 . isbn 978 - 0 - 12 - 670950 - 6 .

nelson , j . s . ( 2006 ) . fishes of the world ( fourth ed . ) . john wiley . pp . 69–82 . isbn 0 - 471 - 25031 - 7 .

mceachran , j . d . and n . aschliman ( 2004 ) . " phylogeny of batoidea " . in carrier , j . c . , j . a . musick , and m . r . heithaus . biology of sharks and their relatives . crc press . pp . 79–114 .

séret , b . and p . r . last ( 2003 ) . " description of four new stingarees of the genus urolophus ( batoidea : urolophidae ) from the coral sea , south - west pacific " . cybium 27 ( 4 ) : 307–320 .

last , p . r . and j . d . stevens ( 2009 ) . sharks and rays of australia ( second ed . ) . harvard university press . p . 398–428 . isbn 0 - 674 - 03411 - 2 .

last , p . r . and l . j . v . compagno ( 1999 ) . " myliobatiformes : urolophidae " . in carpenter , k . e . and v . h . niem . fao identification guide for fishery purposes : the living marine resources of the western central pacific . food and agricultural organization of the united nations . pp . 1469–1476 . isbn 92 - 5 - 104302 - 7 .

platell , m . e . , i . c . potter , and k . r . clarke ( 1998 ) . " resource partitioning by four species of elasmobranchs ( batoidea : urolophidae ) in coastal waters of temperate australia " . marine biology 131 : 719–734 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s002270050363 .

fowler , h . w . ( 1941 ) . " contributions to the biology of the philippine archipelago and adjacent regions " . bulletin of the united states national museum 100 ( 13 ) : 1–879 .

white , w . t . and i . c . potter ( 2005 ) . " reproductive biology , size and age compositions and growth of the batoid urolophus paucimaculatus , including comparisons with other species of the urolophidae " . marine and freshwater research 56 ( 1 ) : 101–110 . doi : 10 . 1071 / mf04225 .

michael , s . w . ( 1993 ) . reef sharks & rays of the world . sea challengers . p . 91 . isbn 0 - 930118 - 18 - 9 .

trinnie , f . i . , w . t . white , and t . i . walker ( 2006 ) .

photo and id by belinda forbes . so well camouflaged ( and the juveniles in the seagrass even more so ) that belinda forgot it was even in the photo until i asked her about it the next day : )

up to a hundred per school . photos by belinda forbes . just one of the 50 - odd fish species at the groyne this day .

photo and id by belinda forbes . in water a few meters deep at the n . cottlesloe . reef

andrew tobin receives funding from the australian government via the fisheries research & development corporation .

april reside does not work for , consult , own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article , and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment .

republish our articles for free , online or in print , under creative commons license .

we know that climate change is driving changes in the world’s oceans . currents are shifting , temperatures are climbing and the availability and dynamics of nutrient upwelling is changing .

the coastal waters of south - eastern australia are a climate change hotspot , warming at a rate three to four times the global average . this is in part due to an increase in the strength and southward penetration of the east australian current ( eac ) , which carries warm water from the tropics down australia’s east coast .

in response , numerous marine species have been documented extending their distributions polewards , affecting the functioning of coastal and marine ecosystems in south - eastern australia . this will have knock on effects for local communities and fisheries , many of which are not well prepared .

with so many species on the move and changes happening so quickly , scientists have enlisted the help of citizen scientists – such as recreational scuba divers and fishers – to help record when , where and how often species are sighted . initiatives such as redmap have helped scientists identify many tropical species shifting their ranges south .

another successful example of citizen science is the new south wales state government’s gamefish tagging program . this world - leading gamefish tagging program , established in 1974 , asks recreational anglers to tag and release gamefish and provide information on the species , size , and release location which is sent back to the department of primary industries ( dpi ) .

more than 400 , 000 fish from at least 20 different species have been tagged , and more than 7 , 000 recaptures recorded .

all black marlin tag release locations recorded in the nsw dpi tagging program within the south - west pacific ocean .

this has enabled us to investigate whether there had been any geographical shifts in suitable habitat for the highly - mobile black marlin ( istiopmax indica ) in the previous 16 years .

the black marlin is one of the most keenly sought gamefish species targeted by recreational anglers in australia , with more than 54 , 000 records of tagged black marlin within the nsw dpi’s database .

an annual aggregation of large adults , some weighing more than 500kg , occurs off the northern great barrier reef each spring , forming the basis of a charter fishery that will celebrate its 50th year of operation in 2016 .

at the other end of the spectrum , juvenile black marlin from 15kg to 40kg undertake an annual migration southward along the east coast in association with the eac .

anglers target these juveniles off cairns and townsville in late winter , south - east queensland in late spring , and port stephens , nsw , in late summer . depending on the behaviour of the eac , juvenile black marlin may even extend as far south as bermagui , nsw , in some years .

but our research , published in october in global change biology , aims to identify any changes in the distribution of marlin habitat through time . we used the release positions of black marlin in the nsw dpi database and satellite - derived data such as sea surface temperature and current velocity .

the extensive spatial and temporal coverage of the tagging data allowed us to model the geographic distribution of black marlin habitat in the south - west pacific for 192 consecutive months from 1998 to 2013 .

we found variability in the location of suitable black marlin habitat across months and years .

on an annual basis , conditions favoured by black marlin occurred off north queensland at the start of spring and gradually shifted south along australia’s east coast from october to april . this coincided with the peak availability of black marlin to recreational anglers and also to a seasonal pulse in the eac .

from may to august , suitable habitat retreats back towards the equator as cold water currents push north over winter . we also identified a strong effect of el niño southern oscillation ( enso ) , with black marlin habitat extending up to 300km further south during la niña phases .

in addition to the large variability on shorter timescales , we also found that suitable marlin habitat has shifted south at a rate of about 88km per decade across all seasons , independently of the influence of enso .

we found that habitat is shifting faster during summer months ( 111km per decade ) in contrast to the rest of the year ( 77km per decade ) . this suggests that suitable habitat is extending south quicker than it is contracting at its northern edge .

poleward shift in the distribution of suitable black marlin habitat across all three seasons from 1998 - 2013 .

this result adds to the growing body of evidence showing that many species’ habitat is shifting polewards in response to climate change .

considering that all highly mobile tuna and billfish species respond to a similar suite of environmental factors , numerous species are likely responding to climate change .

what does this mean for australian fishers , black marlin and similar pelagic species ? these are questions that still need answering .

what is clear from this study is that mobile fish species are not immune from the impacts of climate change , and that long term data sets from recreational fishers are valuable tools in discerning such changes .

this article was co - authored by dr julian pepperell , a marine biologist and an external co - supervisor of honours and phd students , and his jcu honours student nick hill .

little penguins are among a number of species that are threatened by climate change .

marlin and dory plan to hitch a ride to sydney on the east australian current in finding nemo .

we estimate china only makes $ 8 . 46 from an iphone – and that’s why trump’s trade war is futile

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cumberland island an ecological survey of the coastal region of georgia nps scientific monograph no . 3

the following list includes those species of fish that are known from or likely to occur in estuarine and marine waters along the georgia coast seaward to a depth of 10 fathoms . this encompasses waters of the estuary , beach , and " coastal habitat . " in the text the term coastal habitat refers to that region from the ocean beaches to a depth of 10 fathoms as in struhsaker ( 1969 ) . species listed are based primarily on my own records from georgia inshore waters , from south carolina by bearden ( 1961a , 1965 ) , and from the coastal habitat by struhsaker ( 1969 ) . for the benefit of sport fishermen , the common offshore sport fishes are also included . this list is extracted from my manuscript , a field guide to georgia coastal fishes . this manuscript and the paper by struhsaker ( 1969 ) report a large number of additional species that are restricted to deeper waters of the continental shelf ; most of these species occur primarily on reefs .

seasonal records in the text are based on inshore collections , i . e . , beach and estuarine waters .

1 present address : c . w . rice div . , nus corp . , pittsburgh .

the common sharks that occur inshore on the georgia coast are not restricted to well - defined habitats . they may be collected in shallow beach waters as well as deeper waters of the sounds and offshore . most of the sharks considered below prefer warmer waters and leave inshore waters of georgia in the winter . one exception is the spiny dogfish , a northern species that migrates southward to georgia in the winter .

reported from south carolina but not georgia . mainly pelagic but sometimes found inshore .

young are often collected on the south carolina coast in spring and summer and they probably occur on the georgia coast .

stingrays are collected by hook , seine , and trawls in shallow beach waters and deeper estuarine waters .

the range of the devil ray , mobula hypostoma , includes the georgia coast , but it has not been reported from georgia or south carolina .

large specimens are occasionally seen jumping in georgia coastal waters and one reported to weigh 2500 pounds was caught in a shrimp trawl .

primarily found in tidal waters but enters ocean . commonly caught in gill nets in the altamaha river .

anadromous . commonly caught in gill nets in the altamaha river by shad fishermen .

primarily a freshwater species but often encountered in salt water on the georgia coast .

small individuals are often collected in tidal pools and canals and occasionally along the beach , high marsh , and upper reaches , from may to november .

large tarpon are commonly caught in warmer months on georgia beaches and in the lower altamaha river . juveniles occur in tidal pools and creeks in low - to high - salinities from july to november .


hiemalora is a fossil of the ediacaran biota , reaching around 3 cm in diameter , which superficially resembles a sea anemone .

the genus has a sack-like body with faint radiating lines originally interpreted as tentacles , but discovery of a frond-like structure seemingly attached to some heimalora has added weight to a competing interpretation : that it represents the holdfast of a larger organism .

this interpretation would stand against its original classification in the medusoid cnidaria ; it would also consign a once-popular hypothesis placing hiemalora in the chondrophores , on the basis of its tentacle structure , to the dustbin .

studies testing the feasibility of hypothesis investigated the possibilities that such fragile tentacles could be preserved , and concluded that it would be very improbable — especially as many hiemalora bearing beds also contain such fossils as cyclomedusa , but do not preserve the tentacles on these organisms .

heimalora has been identified in a wide range of facies and locations globally .

hiemalora

hiemalora <EOT> hiemalora cf . stellaris fedonkin , 1984 , pl . 5 , fig . 5 .

hiemalora pleiomorpha dzik , 2003 , p . 124 , fig . 10b ( only ) .

hiemalora stellaris fedonkin , 1984 , p . 42 - 43 , pl . 5 , fig . 3 .

hiemalora stellaris gureev , 1988 , p . 69 , pl . 13 , figs . 2 , 3 .

hiemalora pleiomorphus runnegar and fedonkin , 1992 , p . 387 , fig . 7 . 7 . 5c .

hiemalora aff . h . pleiomorphus narbonne , 1994 , p . 412 , fig . 3 . 1 .

hiemalora stellaris sokolov , 1997 , p . 134 - 135 , pl . 18 , fig . 3 .

hiemalora narbonne , dalrymple , and gehling , 2001 , p . 33 , 60 , 65 , 67 .

tentaculate discs with possible affinities to hiemalora , o’brien and king , 2004a , p . 209 - 210 , pl . 5b .

hiemalora martin , grazhdankin , bowring , evans , fedonkin , and kirschvink , 2000 , p . 843 - 844 , fig . 4d .

? hiemalora sp . farmer , vidal , moczydlowska , strauss , ahlberg , and siedlecka , 1992 , p . 189 , fig . 5a - b .

hiemalora fedonkin , 1982 is based on cosmopolitan fossils of the late vendian ( ediacaran ) neoproterozoic sequences . there is no consensus on the nature and systematic position of these organisms . taphonomic and morphological observations of extensive collections of hiemalora pleiomorphus from khatyspyt formation ( arctic siberia ) indicate that this fossil is just a part of an unknown organism . most probably hiemalora represents a form with a thick - walled body , possessing a cone - like attachment bearing radial processes that resemble sponge root offshoots or algal rhizoids . originally these structures penetrated the soft sediment and served as anchors as well as a source of symbiotic nutrition . various imprints of hiemalora could represent different sections of conic - shaped bodies . probably , there were several organisms referred to as hiemalora that had a similar substrate attachment organ .

hiemalora stellaris fedonkin in sokolov and ivanowskiy , 1990 , v . 1 , p . 90 - 91 , pl . 7 , figs . 1 , 6 .

figure 11 - reported world occurrences of hiemalora . 1 , sekwi brook ; 2 , avalon ; 3 , bonavista ; 4 , wales ; 5 , tanafjord ; 6 , white sea ; 7 , podolia ; 8 , olenek uplift ; 9 , ediacara ; 10 , questionable hiemalora in vindhyan supergroup . for references , see synonymy .

hiemalora stellaris fedonkin in sokolov and ivanovskiy , 1985 , v . 1 , p . 84 , pl . 7 , figs . 1 , 6 , fig . 7a .

discussion . - hiemalora has not previously been reported as having an attached frond . we here recognize a new genus that is distinct from hiemalora only by the presence of an attached stem and frondose superstructure . the situation is analogous to the practice of regarding aspidella and charniodiscus as separate taxa , depending on the basis of the presence or absence of an identifiable frond , as the genus of frond cannot be guessed from the preservation of only the holdfast ; both aspidella and hiemalora are viewed as form or organ taxa .

the one below it was thought to possibly be a member of the cnidaria by virtue of its tentacle - like structures . given that cyclomedsa is not found with preserved tentacles , hiemalora is now thought to be the anchor of some larger , as yet unknown creature .

lastly , de ( 2003 ) reported on two questionable hiemalora specimens from the upper vindhyan bhander group northwest of satna , central india . the illustrated specimens are not distinct enough to have confidence in their attribution to this genus , and they are not included in the synonymy .

all fossils come with a free certificate of authentication name : hiemalora stellaris age : mt . simon complex , lower uppe , cambrian location : marathon county , wisconsin , united states this specimen is sold loose . this fossil would make an ideal display piece . a rare collectible specimen .

material from the catalina area illustrated in this paper contributes new information on two aspects of the hiemalora enigma : function and original morphology . it bears on the long - standing question of whether the radiating structures are tentacles , roots , or traces . at least two specimens on the same bedding plane in the mistaken point formation at locality 5 , and another two in the fermeuse formation at localities 21 and 26 , show a tripartite arrangement ( fig . 12 ) : a disc with radial appendages that is indistinguishable from hiemalora , with an attached stalk , which in turn merges distally with an abraded , partially preserved frond . unfortunately , the detail of the fronds is insufficient to allow their attribution to any of the frondose forms known from newfoundland or elsewhere . these candelabra - like fossils with a hiemalora base are next described separately under primocandelabrum hiemaloranum n . gen . and sp .

martin et al . ( 2000 , fig . 4d ) illustrated a specimen of hiemalora from the white sea coast that very clearly portrays multiple branching , with one or more short branches diverging at angles of 300 - 60 [ degrees ] from the main strand . as already stated , the form was interpreted as a trace fossil .

it should be noted that hiemalora individuals without fronds in the catalina area are , in places , closely associated with , and seem to intergrade with , identical discs that are relatively quite smooth and that bear only a few faint , or no , ray - like radial markings ( fig . 7 . 4 ) . these structures could be regarded as simple , atypical , unornamented aspidella .

farmer et al . ( 1992 , fig . 5a , 5b ) illustrated , along with other body fossils , some low epireliefs from the stappogiedde formation in finnmark , northern norway , and attributed them to hiemalora sp . , but provided no further description . the specimens have a poorly defined central disc ~ 1 cm across , surrounded by a dense fringe of somewhat ragged - looking , radial appendages .

figure 10 - morphometry data of retrodeformed specimens of hiemalora in catalina area . 1 , scatter plot of mean ray length ( d ) vs . disc diameter ( d ) , and selected ratios of d / d . 2 , scatter plot of number of rays vs . disc diameter . 3 , frequency histogram of d / d ratio ; compare with fig . 5 of serezhnikova ( 2005 ) .

discussion . - the morphology of the basal disc with radiating processes coincides with that of hiemalora , and the two would be indistinguishable were it not for the presence of an attached stem and frond . the candelabra - like form with the radiating processes on the basal disc thus may have an important bearing on the interpretation of hiemalora insofar as the radiating appendages in the latter have been explained alternatively as tentacles and as rooting structures . the new bonavista material supports the case for the latter interpretation , if , indeed the two taxa represent different degrees of preservation of one type of organism . if so , one should look for evidence for the presence of an attached stem in specimens previously referred to hiemalora . on the other hand , the two taxa may be distinct despite the morphologic resemblance of the ray - bearing discs . the candelabra - like organisms were attached to the seafloor , and were felled in the same direction as nearby charnia and charniodiscus specimens . as with specimens of uiese latter frondose genera on the avalon peninsula , preservation quality is best for the basal disc and progressively deteriorates towards the distal portion , a taphonomic effect due to diachronous burial of an erect frondose organism ( laflamme et al . , 2004 , p . 829 ) .

we here provide an interim overview of 40 localities while more detailed studies are continuing . the fossils comprise more than a dozen taxa , most of which are also represented on the avalon peninsula . the most common and longest - ranging is aspidella terranovica . other long - ranging and widespread forms are bradgatia boynton and ford , 1995 , charnia ford , 1958 , charniodiscus ford , 1958 , hiemalora fedonkin , 1982 , and ivesheadia boynton and ford , 1996 , all of which ( excepting hiemalora ) are also characteristic of the charnwood forest area in england , from where , in fact , they were first described . fractofusus is rare in the mistaken point and fermeuse formations , but abundant at some levels in the trepassey formation , and unknown in the renews head formation and in the charnian of england . fossils not previously encountered are also described and assigned to four new species and genera .

narbonne ( 1994 , fig . 3 . 1 ) classified a solitary , fragmentary specimen from the sheepbed formation in nw canada as hiemalora aff . h . pleiomorpha . the specimen is relatively large , has somewhat more relief than typical h . pleiomorpha , has densely packed appendages , some fine striations of uncertain significance on one edge of the central disc , and is preserved in positive hyporelief in turbiditic siliciclastics . it was interpreted as a semiinfaunal polyp impression .

fossils attributed to either species with different degrees of certainty are now known from the ediacaran in other parts of the world ( e . g . , ukraine , norway , nw and e canada , australia ; refer to synonymy ) ( fig . 11 ) . an early illustration of a disc with branching processes that has caused some workers to compare it to hiemalora is “medusina filamentus” from the rawnsley quartzite ( sprigg , 1949 , p . 90 , pi . 30 , fig . 1 , text - fig . 7d ) . sprigg interpreted the form as a medusoid . the illustration of the holotype shows a partial narrow concentric rim surrounding the central disc and the field with the radial processes , at a distance of about 3vi times the radius of the central disc . this is unlike hiemalora . the specimen was subsequently ascribed to pseudorhizostomites sprigg , 1949 , to which it is connected by transitional forms , according to glaessner and wade ( 1966 , p . 605 ) .

preservation of local detail in the frond of one specimen , more clearly seen in the latex mold than the specimen in outcrop , shows several oblique divisions spaced equally about 4 mm apart ( fig . 12 . 3 ) . the pattern is reminiscent of secondary branches in charnia and charniodiscus . the shape of the preserved frond portion of this specimen also resembles a stalked specimen of bradgatia from the trepassey formation , but which is without a clearly recognizable hiemalora - like base ( see fig . 19 . 4 under bradgatia ) .

the assemblage includes aspidella , blackbrookia , bradgatia , charnia , charniodiscus , fractofusus , hiemalora , and ivesheadia . these occur throughout the succession , with aspidella being the most common genus , followed by charnia and charniodiscus . four new taxa are described , with candelabra - like fossils with a hiemalora - like base referred to primocandelabrum hiemaloranum n . gen . and sp . , bush - like fossils to parviscopa bonavistensis n . gen . and sp . , ladder - like fossils to hadryniscala avalonica n . gen . and sp . , and string - like fossils with basal disc to hadrynichorde catalinensis n . gen . and sp . the remains also include dubiofossils . the stratigraphic ranges of some taxa on the bonavista peninsula are longer than previously reported from the avalon peninsula , with fractofusus spindles present in the trepassey formation , bradgatia , charnia , charniodiscus , and ivesheadia reaching as high as the fermeuse formation , and aspidella extending into the middle of the renews head formation . the spindles in the trepassey formation are comparable to those found mainly in the stratigraphically older briscal formation on the avalon peninsula .

figure 12 - outcrop views of primocandelabrum hiemaloranum n . gen . and sp . ( 1 - 4 ) and primocandelabrum sp . ( 5 ) . all photos retrodeformed ; bar scale divisions in cm . 1 , partial frond with well developed rays on basal disc . mistaken point formation , level f7 at locality 5 at 37 . 5 m e ( see fig . 3 . 2 ) . holotype nfm f - 484 . 2 , large partial specimen . fermeuse formation , locality 26 . lighting from right paratype nfm f - 485 . 3 , detail view of latex mold made from frond of specimen of primocandelabrum hiemaloranum n . gen . and sp . in part 2 , showing rhythmically spaced transverse markings , probably representing secondary branches . photo is printed as mirror image to show same orientation as in part 2 . paratype nfm f - 485 . 4 , abraded frond with faint hiemalora - like base . fermeuse formation , locality 21 . lighting from right paratype nfm f - 486 . 5 , partial frond with aspidella - like base . trepassey formation , locality 20 .

description : this spectacular death assemblage predates the cambrian explosion by tens of millions of years . many early attempts at diversity were present during this time , both here and in the ediacara fauna of the flinders ranges of australia . many strange forms were present , some of which still do not have any parallels in modern times . these jellyfish - like examples are one that is relatively easy to attribute to descendants alive today . the incredible soft - bodied preservation is believed to be the result of impressions made in a microbial mat contained within the sand . there is debate about the true nature of both these examples . cyclomedusa was initially thought to be a pelagic jellyfish , but is now more likely a benthic organism much like a sea anemone .

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abstract - newly found fossils in the conception and st . john’s groups of the bonavista peninsula considerably extend the known geographic distribution of the ediacaran fossils in newfoundland . they occur in deepwater sediments and are preserved as epireliefs , forming census populations underneath volcanic ash layers throughout a more than 1 km thick turbiditic sequence . the exposed fossiliferous units comprise the mistaken point , trepassey , fermeuse , and renews head formations . the remains are tectonically deformed , with long axes of elliptical discs aligned parallel to cleavage strike ; shortening of originally circular bedding surface features is on the order of 30 - 50 % ( averaging ~ 35 % ) .

the distinctive and problematic ediacaran fossils of soft - bodied organisms constitute a prominent marker in the history of the proterozoic biosphere , and a substantial biologic enigma as well . there is no unanimity as to their affinities . early interpretations placed forms like those found in newfoundland in the kingdom animalia , principally in the phylum cnidaria ( e . g . , glaessner , 1959 , 1984 ; anderson , 1978 ; fedonkin , 1981 ) , others have presented different interpretations . included among these are attributions to a separate extinct kingdom , vendozoa ( seilacher , 1989 ; later vendobionta , seilacher , 1992 ) , xenophyophorean protists ( zhuravlev , 1993 , seilacher et al . , 2003 ) , lichens ( retallack , 1994 ) , photosynthetic “metacellular” organisms ( mcmenamin , 1998 ) , colonies of prokaryota ( steiner and reitner , 2001 ) , and fungus - like organisms ( peterson et al . , 2003 ) . ediacaran fossils are now thought to be mostly metazoans . for a comprehensive recent review , see narbonne ( 2005 ) .

the assemblages in the different areas are characterized by disparate sedimentary environments and different preservation styles , as well as distinctive biotic compositions ( e . g . , narbonne , 1998 ; waggoner , 1999 ; grazhdankin , 2004 ) . ediacaran megafossils in northwestern canada , australia , and eastern europe occur typically as hyporeliefs in shallow water siliciclastics , whereas those in newfoundland , england , and finnmark are preserved as epireliefs in deepwater sediments , and those in namibia commonly are transported entities preserved as endoreliefs in storm - generated sandstone . some forms such as discs are cosmopolitan , whereas others of more complex morphology have more restricted distribution . for analyses of ediacaran assemblages , see the reviews by waggoner ( 1999 , 2003 ) and grazhdankin ( 2004 ) . the forms here described from the bonavista peninsula conform to what is known from the avalon peninsula - preserved on upper bedding surfaces in deep water turbiditic and shallowing - upward pro - deltaic sediments , below ashfall deposits .

although the avalon assemblage has received a great deal of study in recent years ( gehling et al . , 2000 , narbonne et al . , 2001 , clapham and narbonne , 2002 ; clapham et al . , 2003 , 2004 ; narbonne and gehling , 2003 ; wood et al . , 2003 ; narbonne , 2004 , 2005 ; laflamme et al . , 2004 ; ichaso et al . , 2007 ; gehling and narbonne , 2007 ; laflamme et al . , 2007 ) , much sustained effort will be required to resolve major questions concerning the biological affinities of the elements of this biota . studies by narbonne and his associates are continuing to contribute substantially in this regard . narbonne et al . ( 2001 , p . 28 et seq . ) provide a useful summary of the history of research on the ediacaran biota in newfoundland .

the objectives of the present study are the description and illustration of new material from the bonavista peninsula , now the third area in newfoundland known to contain this remarkable assemblage ( o’brien and king , 2004a , 2004b , 2005 ) , and , secondly , to relate these occurrences and their context to those on the avalon peninsula to the south . some of the new localities have yielded exceptionally well preserved specimens of several taxa that improve our knowledge on the distribution , environmental setting , morphology , taphonomy , and taxonomic affiliation of specific ediacaran taxa . one of the significant aspects of the ~ 570 ma avalon assemblage is that no unequivocal trace fossils have yet been recognized . although here interpreted as body fossils , two of the new taxa in the bonavista area ( parviscopa n . gen . and hadrynichorde n . gen . ) have some aspects in common with certain trace fossils normally found in rocks younger by 30 million years ; these are suitable candidates for further studies to confirm their affinities .

the bonavista peninsula of newfoundland lies within the appalachian avalon zone , a complex and well - preserved neoproterozoic to early paleozoic terrene that records the development of segments of a much larger precambian orogenic system accreted to the appalachians during paleozoic orogenesis ( cf . o’brien et al . , 1996 ) . integral parts of this belt are ediacaran sedimentary rocks , which are spectacularly preserved along the deeply embayed coast of southeastern newfoundland

the murphy’s cove member is dominated by medium - bedded , gray and green sandstones and gray , green , and red mudstones . variegated structureless and laminated mudstones are present at the top of the member and may correlate with the hibbs cove member , uppermost mistaken point formation , at its type locality on the avalon peninsula ( king , 1990 ) . fine - grained , white , gray to light brown tuff forms thin beds and laminae throughout the member and commonly preserve ediacaran fossils underneath .

conception group strata in the core of the catalina dome pass conformably into fossiliferous marine mudrocks and interbedded sandstones of the st . john’s group ( williams and king , 1979 ) , which consists of , in ascending stratigraphic order , the trepassey , fermeuse , and renews head formations . these sediments formed initially in a deep basinal slope environment , which , in response to a combination of sea - level changes and to seaward advances of a large prograding delta , shallowed over time and in two major cycles ( king , 1980 , 1990 ; o’brien and king , 2005 ) .

figure 1 - geologic map of catalina area , with fossil localities ( after o’brien and king , 2005 ) . locality 32 is outside map area , near maberly , 7 km nne of northeast corner of area , at 48 . 608 [ degrees ] n 53 . 009 [ degrees ] w . shg = signal hill group .

large - scale slumps and disrupted beds are present throughout the trepassey formation , representing periodic rapid burial of the habitat that sustained the organisms in this deep - marine setting . the slumps are of the same composition as their respective members and indicate the presence of a slope on which original sediment deposits became unstable , either because of sediment load or seismic shock ; the mass movement was probably slight as the slumped material is near slump scars from which they were derived . the increasing influx up - section of laminated , fine - to medium - grained sand indicates high - energy downslope processes and may reflect shoaling of the basin or sea - level changes .

fermeuse formation . - the black - shale - dominated fermeuse formation lies in sharp and conformable stratigraphic contact above the trepassey formation . the succession studied to date consists primarily of three principal , interbedded lithofacies . following the terminology of o’brien et al . ( 2006 ) , the prominent facies ( a - f ) , seen in the lowermost part of the formation , is dark gray to black shale and mudstone with laminae , and thin to medium interbeds of gray siltstone , fine grained , brown - weathering gray sandstone , and minor tuff . impoverished current ripples and cross - lamination are locally present but are usually indistinct ; rhythmically alternating sand - mud graded units are common . a second , characteristically remobilized facies ( b - f ) consists of slumped folds of sandstone resedimented in a mud matrix that occur with debris flows . the latter consist of a mixture of sand , mud , and coarse angular to rounded cobble - size fragments of siltstone and sandstone . a third facies ( c - f ) , developed in the upper part of the succession , includes black shales with rare or widely spaced laminae or thin beds of silty sandstone . in general , the proportion of sand increases upwards through the formation . tuff beds are most common in the lower 300 m of the section and are associated with ediacaran fossils .

the remobilized facies ( b - f ) occurs throughout several hundred meters of stratigraphic section and contains repetitive and spectacularly preserved tabular units of synsedimentary folds and disrupted beds of sandstone , each unit commonly several meters thick , interbedded with black shale and silty sandstone . the slumped units are locally capped by sand - rich sedimentary breccias overlain by shale . thin beds of ash within the shales within facies a - f and b - f preserve a variety of ediacaran fossils at several stratigraphic levels .

the slumped and disrupted units are attributed to gravitational sliding of poorly consolidated beds of sand and mud on a sloping paleosurface during normal pelagic sedimentation . huge masses of mixed sand , mud , and coarse clastic debris were transported as debris and other mass flows into deeper parts of a submarine slope and basin . the presence of sharp bedding planes directly above truncated folds of sandstone and coarse breccias at the top of the disrupted unit indicate periods of erosion by intense bottom currents .

fossil assemblage and localities . - in a 1978 reconnaissance mapping and paleontological investigation of eastern bonavista peninsula , one of the authors ( king ) noted that 1 ) the siliceous rocks of goodland point , catalina , resembled the mistaken point formation , 2 ) the mudstones of catalina were comparable with the trepassey formation , and 3 ) the shale sequence of melrose matched the fermeuse formation . at that time , only the shales were found to be fossiliferous , yielding very poorly preserved sphaeromorph acritarchs and nonseptate filamentous microfossils near port union ( hofmann et al . , 1979 ) . as a result of more recent work , ediacaran fossils were discovered in this area ( o’brien and king , 2004a ) .

the main occurrence of the ediacaran biota on the bonavista peninsula is limited to the catalina dome ( fig . 1 ) . discoidal fossils have also been observed at english harbour , 20 km south of catalina , and at maberly , 10 km to the north . the exposed units belong to the conception and st . john’s groups , with fossiliferous horizons in the mistaken point , trepassey , fermeuse , and renews head formations .

the general geographic and stratigraphic distributions of the fossiliferous localities were given by o’brien and king ( 2004a ) , as was a summary of their morphologic diversity . the same authors have since provided a more detailed inventory of their occurrence ( o’brien and king , 2005 ) , but the present paper is the first to more fully describe and illustrate the ediacaran fossils on the bonavista peninsula . figure 2 presents a graphic summary of the more than a dozen constituent elements of this assemblage .

the fossils are best observed on dip slopes of shoreline outcrops . the discovery site , also the one showing the greatest diversity of fossils in the new assemblage , is located in the murphy’s cove member of the mistaken point formation ( locality 5 ) , and is illustrated in figure 3 . the fossils are protected under provincial legislation , but remain exposed to the elements ( wave and ice action , cliff collapse , algal and bacterial growth , human activity ) .

like the soft - bodied ediacaran fossils on the avalon peninsula , the impressions of the organisms are confined to turbiditic siliciclastics and are typically preserved on upper bedding surfaces of interturbidite mudstones , underneath thin water - laid tuffs ( narbonne et al . , 2001 , 2005 ) .

figure 2 - main components of ediacaran biota on the bonavista peninsula . basal portion of large charnia ford , 1958 is conjectural .

all fossils show the effect of early paleozoic tectonic deformation and pervasive cleavage development related to the formation of the appalachian orogenic belt . originally circular features such as the aspidella organism were deformed into nne trending ellipses , in effect constituting built - in strain gauges that provide a quantitative measure of the amount of tectonic shortening , which is on the order of ~ 35 % on average in the study area , but can attain 50 % or slightly more locally . this allows for the retrodeformation of not only their images , but also those of associated frondose , bush - like , and other fossils , to reconstruct their morphologies and felling directions at the time of burial ( wood et al . , 2003 , fig . 5 ) . most of the illustrations in the plates of the present paper are retrodeformed images of the fossils .

the fossils were studied in situ during the summers of 2004 to 2006 , and photographed with digital cameras . selected important specimens were molded with low viscosity ( ~ 7000 cps ) black latex which then served to make casts using a dental stone compound , both of which aided the study in the laboratory . very few actual samples were collected to respect legislation regarding the preservation of the fossil sites . specimens and casts are deposited at the newfoundland museum ( nfm ) in st . john’s , bearing consecutive numbers from nfm f - 457 to nfm f - 656 . catalogue numbers of illustrated material are cited in the captions of the respective figures .

the fossiliferous exposures extend stratigraphically from near the base of the mistaken point formation in the conception group to the middle of the renews head formation in the st . john’s group ( fig . 4 ) , and thus the range is limited by lack of strata in the lower part of the stratigraphic section as compared to the much more completely exposed sequence on the avalon peninsula , where the section also includes the fossiliferous briscal and drook formations below the mistaken point formation . on the other hand , many of the taxa reach stratigraphic levels appreciably higher on the bonavista peninsula than on the avalon ( fig . 5 ) .

the frondose forms charnia and chamiodiscus show strong preferred alignment on individual bedding planes , which is attributed to downcurrent felling by bottom currents ( wood et al . , 2003 ) . an overall bimodal pattern emerges , with a main mode in a nne direction , and an opposing secondary mode ( fig . 6 ) ; the mean vector show a slight clockwise rotation in ascending the stratigraphic section . the preferred orientation and tripartite organization of basal holdfast disc , stem , and frond indicate that the organisms were erect sessile benthos anchored on the mud , rather than endobenthic ( seilacher , 1992 ) .

various schemes have been devised to accommodate ediacaran fossils in a systematic way , but the goal of finding a suitable scheme acceptable to all who work with such remains is still elusive . the most comprehensive and elaborate attempt has been by fedonkin ( in sokolov and ivanovskiy , 1985 , and sokolov and iwanowski , 1990 ) , who arranged the taxa under two main headings , radialia and bilateria , with further groupings based on the underlying symmetry of the taxa . radialia encompass various classes of discoidal coelenterates , whereas the bilateria comprise various phyla of worm - and arthropod - like fossils , as well as the extinct phylum petalonamae of frondose forms , some of which , strictly speaking , are not bilateral ( e . g . , pteridinium giirich , 1933 ) . forms such as bradgatia , ivesheadia , fractofusus , and others do not readily fit into this scheme . another attempt to classify the ediacaran biota is that presented in runnegar and fedonkin ( 1992 , p . 373 ) .

inasmuch as the systematic position and phylogeny of many of the forms still need to be worked out ( e . g . , see runnegar , 1995 for arguments generally still current ) , we here use an informal order of presentation that groups the genus - level taxa based on the following broad informal geometric categories and their postulated affinities ( table 1 ) ; one kind of dubiofossil is also described . the scheme has its drawbacks . for instance , the discoid forms have traditionally been classified as cnidarians . however , they may be holdfasts of fronds that were not preserved , and they thus could or should be classed as petalonamae .

figure 3 - discovery locality ( locality 5 ) in mistaken point formation . 1 , section , looking east . co - author a . king standing near origin of baseline ( 0 . 0 m ) on main fossiliferous layer ( f7 ) , which extends to white arrow at left . meter - stick near middle resting on layer f4 with numerous aspidella billings , 1872 specimens ( see fig . 7 . 5 ) . lighter layers are tuffaceous horizons . principal fossil levels indicated by f1 - f8 in drawn section at right . 2 , composite photo of main bedding surface f7 of eastern part of main ledge at locality 5 , showing location of specimens that provided latex molds . numbers represent distances in meters east of origin of baseline , and are cited in captions in relevant subsequent figures . meter scale at center graduated in decimeters . discoid forms , spriggia morphs o’brien and king , 2004a , fig . 3 d , e ; pl . 3a , 3c partim .

description . - centimetric elliptical discs on bedding surfaces , with several preservational morphotypes , including small concave epireliefs and larger flat discs , both with distinct narrow raised rim , and others with few to numerous concentric ridges and depressions of low to moderate relief . dimensions of 84 specimens ( long axes ) measured at various localities ranging from 0 . 48 to 12 . 5 cm ( mean 3 . 72 cm ) , with a positively skewed , polymodal pattern ( fig . 7 ) ; two main modes between 1 and 3 cm and 4 and 5 . 5 cm .

occurrence . - mistaken point formation , localities 1 - 6 , 11 , 12 , 37 , 39 ; trepassey formation , localities 10 , 15 , 20 , 33 , 37 , 40 , 41 ; fermeuse formation , localities 16 - 19 , 21 - 30 , 38 ; renews head formation , locality 32 .

figure 4 - simplified stratigraphic section with approximate position of fossil localities . thicknesses are dip - based estimates . full circle indicates presence of taxon ; empty circle signifies uncertain identification . shg = signal hill group . basal portion of taxon 6 ( charnia grandisl ) is conjectural .

figure 5 - comparison of stratigraphic ranges of major ediacaran taxa in eastern newfoundland . thicknesses of formations are not to scale . note the higher ranges on the bonavista peninsula ( rectangles ) . inset map : a - mistaken point area on avalon peninsula ; b - catalina area on bonavista peninsula .

star - shaped forms , anderson and conway morris , 1982 , p . 7 - 8 , text - fig . 3 .

? medusina filamentus [ filamentis ] sprigg , 1949 , p . 90 , pi . 13 , fig . 1 , text - fig . 7d .

pinegia stellaris fedonkin , 1980 , p . 9 , pl . 1 , figs . 3 - 5 .

pinegia stellaris fedonkin , 1981 , p . 61 , pl . 30 , figs . 1 - 3 .

pinegia cf . stellaris fedonkin , 1983 , p . 129 , 134 , pl . 29 , fig . 3 .

description . - discs on upper bedding surfaces , 0 . 3 - 4 . 8 cm wide ( mean = 2 . 25 cm , n = 27 ) , outlined by a distinct narrow raised rim ~ 0 . 5 - 1 mm wide surrounding a mostly flat disc with or without concentric ring . attached to rim are numerous outwardly radiating , densely packed to moderately spaced narrow rays or appendages of variable length , generally of the order of the disc diameter or less , but in some specimens attaining double that ( maximum observed length 5 . 2 cm , with average maximum of 3 . 15 cm for 27 specimens ) . rays rectilinear to slightly sinuous , usually unbranched , but bifid and occasional trifid branching observed ; rays rarely crossing over one another ; 2 mm or less in width , slightly tapering distally to a point ( as if descending obliquely into the sediment ) or to a bulbous terminus ( fig . 9 . 1 ) . in figure 9 . 6 , small specimen sitting on ray of larger specimen . in specimens illustrated in figure 9 . 1 - 9 . 3 , and 9 . 6 , rays exhibiting shallow axial trough with curved semi - elliptical cross sections between narrow , levee - like lateral ridges ; possible fusion of two filaments . central disc bearing faint round outlines 3 - 5 mm across . measurements of more complete specimens given in figure 10 .

occurrence . - mistaken point formation , localities 2 , 3 , 5 , 11 , 35 ; fermeuse formation , localities 16 - 18 , 21 , 24 , 26 , 29 ? , 38 .

discussion . - inasmuch as the terms “tentacles” and “roots” used in the literature for the slender radiating appendages convey quite different anatomical features and functions , depending on one’s interpretation of the body , it seems more appropriate to use the more neutral descriptive labels “rays” or “appendages” until meir function has been more convincingly demonstrated . while appendages in most specimens are unbranched , a few clearly exhibit branching .

figure 6 - circular histograms ( radius of wedge ) showing azimuths of frond alignments of charnia and chamiodiscus ford , 1958 specimens on bonavista peninsula by formation , using 30 [ degrees ] bins for retrodeformed data ; mean vector and 95 % confidence interval superimposed .

figure 8 - size distribution of aspidella specimens in bonavista area , based on long diameter of ellipse coincident with cleavage / bedding lineation . polymodal pattern reflects different size values for different stratigraphic levels and localities .

specimens of h . stellaris from siliciclastic rocks in the mogilev formation of the ukraine ( gureev , 1988 , pi . 13 , figs . 2 , 3 ) are comparable to specimens from the white sea area .

relatively well preserved specimens from wales ( gehling et al . , 2000 , p . 450 ; j . gehling photo , personal commun . , 2005 ) closely resemble specimens from locality 3 in the catalina area , particularly the processes with levee - like borders and the rounded outlines on the disc .

genus primocandelabrum new genus type species . - primocandelabrum hiemaloranum new genus and species ( by monotypy ) .

diagnosis . - tripartite , candelabrum - like fossils comprised of basal disc , stem , and variable and incompletely preserved bushlike frond of overall triangular shape , containing coarse , distally diverging branches .

etymology . - named for the candelabrum - like shape and its early appearance in the geologic record ; primus = l . first .

diagnosis . - as for genus ; basal disc with prominent external radiating processes .

description . - tripartite epireliefs characterized by basal discoidal or globular structure attached to a distinct stem that develops distally into an incompletely preserved , bush - like or candelabra - like frond with a general , overall triangular shape . basal globular or discoidal structure outlined by a narrow raised marginal rim enclosing shallow depression with or without faint concentric markings ; numerous ( 8 - 30 ) narrow , straight to slightly sinuous or bent ray - like appendages radiating from disc rim . diameters of four discs observed 2 . 5 , 3 . 2 , 4 . 2 , and 7 . 8 cm , length of processes about equal to disc diameter . stem length ( distance between disc center and frond ) 3 . 7 , 5 . 3 , 6 . 0 , and 12 . 4 cm , similar to disc diameter , width uniform , respectively 0 . 5 , 1 . 6 , 0 . 8 , and 3 cm . fronds incomplete , proximal portion forming acute to approximately right angles , preserved length about double the stem length ( minima respectively 8 . 5 , 10 . 5 , 15 . 0 , and 23 . 5 cm ) , widths 4 . 7 , 7 . 0 , 7 . 2 , and 20 cm . frond with poorly defined , coarse , distally diverging ridges and intervening depressions ; two depressions in one specimen with faint transverse markings 3 mm wide ( fig . 12 . 3 ) .

types . - holotype nfm f - 484 ; paratypes nfm f - 485 , nfm f - 486 .

occurrence . - mistaken point formation at locality 5 , and trepassey formation at localities 21 and 26 .

type locality . - trinity bay north , locality 5 , at 37 . 5 m e ( see fig . 3 . 2 ) .

type horizon . - lower part of murphy’s cove member of mistaken point formation .

“dusters” , “feather dusters” , “tree fronds” , narbonne , dalrymple , laflamme , gehling , and boyce , 2005 , p . 58 , 60 , 65 , 68 , figs . 6 . 3 , 6 . 5 , 6 . 6 , 7 . 3 , 7 . 6 .

description . - tripartite epireliefs characterized by basal discoidal structure attached to a distinct stem that develops distally into an incompletely preserved , bush - like frond with coarse , distally diverging branching ridges and intervening irregular depressions . basal disc with or without faint concentric markings . fronds with overall inverted triangular shape apparently without distinct geometric pattern . diameters of four discs observed 2 . 0 , 2 . 2 , 3 . 1 , and 5 . 0 cm . respective stem length ( distance between disc center and frond ) 1 . 9 , 2 . 7 , 2 . 7 , and 5 . 5 cm , similar to disc diameter , stem width respectively 0 . 3 , 0 . 6 , 0 . 4 , and 1 . 0 cm . fronds incomplete , proximal portion forming acute to approximately right angles , preserved length respectively 2 . 4 , 4 . 8 , 12 . 3 , and 13 cm , widths approximately 4 . 0 , 5 . 8 , 10 , and 10 . 5 cm . one specimen with faint radial markings on basal disc .

occurrence . - mistaken point formation , localities 5 , 6 ; trepassey formation , locality 20 : fermeuse formation , localities 21 , 26 , 29 ? . also present in the mistaken point formation on the avalon peninsula .

discussion . - the dimensions and the shape of the bushy superstructure are very similar to those of specimens of p . hiemaloranum , but the ratio of frond width to frond length is slightly higher for primocandelabrum sp . than for p . hiemaloranum , and the basal discs lack the diagnostic radiating appendices . if originally present , the rays were not preserved , or the attachment disc is preserved at a higher level in the sediment , in which case the form may be a taphomorph of p . hiemaloranum . the fronds of most of these structures show no clear geometric patterns that would allow them to be referred to charnia , charniodiscus , or bifoliate rangeomorphs , and thus their affinities are undetermined .

fronds with rayless discs occur in the mistaken point formation on the avalon peninsula , where they have been variably referred to as “dusters” , “feather dusters” , and “tree - fronds . ” these are presently under study at queen’s university .

the catalina area has yielded fronds of several apparently intergrading morphologic varieties equipped with a short stem emanating from an attachment disc , all broadly attributable to charnia . the frond patterns range from ones with symmetrical , alternating , acutely diverging primary branches with regular transverse secondary partitions , to ones with a rhomboidal surface pattern , to ones with more asymmetrical and more irregular branches with few or no preserved secondary divisions and presence of rangeomorph elements , allowing for the differentiation of at least 3 morphotypes .

the appreciable morphologic diversity in the catalina area presents somewhat of a taxonomic dilemma , that is , whether one should assign the forms to different species , or whether the variability represents taphonomic factors or different orientations during burial . for our material , we rely on the regularity of the lobe pattern and transverse divisions , as well as the smaller acute angle at which lobes diverge from the main axis , to assign specimens to c . masoni , and mis includes those with rhomboidal patterns . we distinguish these from specimens with more irregular branching and with higher divergence angles , which we ascribe to charnia antecedens . bedding surfaces with numerous individuals of either species show strong preferred orientation , indicating felling from an erect , anchored living position in response to a passing current . a fourth species chacterized by decimetric length is attributed to c . grandis ?

the biological affinities of these fossils are uncertain . charnia has been variously interpreted as algal ( ford , 1958 ) , an octocoral of the extinct order rangeomorpha ( jenkins , 1985 ) , a pennatulacean cnidarian ( fedonkin , 1992 ; jenkins , 1992 , 1996 ; nedin and jenkins , 1998 ) , a vendobiont ( seilacher , 1989 , 1992 ) , or a fungus ( petersen et al . , 2003 ) . our new material includes fronds with distinct rangeomorph elements within the primary branches of charnia antecedens , placing them firmly within the rangeomorpha of the extinct phylum petalonamae pflug , 1972 . glaessner ( 1979 ) erected the family charniidae based on this genus . charnia masoni ford , 1958

charnia masoni ford , 1958 , p . 212 , pl . 13 , fig . 1 .

charnia masoni fedonkin , 1981 , p . 66 , pl . 3 , figs , 5 , 6 ; pl . 29 , fig . 1 .

charnia masoni fedonkin , 1985 , p . 110 , pl . 12 , fig . 4 ; pl . 13 , figs . 2 - 4 .

charnia masoni nedin and jenkins , 1998 , p . 315 , fig . 1 .

charnia masoni narbonne , dalrymple , and gehling , 2001 , p . 32 , pl . 1c .