chasmaporthetes , also known as hunting or running hyena , is an extinct genus of hyenas distributed in eurasia , north america , and africa during the pliocene-pleistocene epochs , living from 4.9 million to 780,000 years ago , existing for about 4.12 million years .

the genus probably arose from eurasian miocene hyenas such as thalassictis or lycyaena , with c. borissiaki being the oldest known representative .

the species c. ossifragus was the only hyena to cross the bering land bridge into the americas , and ranged over what is now arizona and mexico during blancan and early irvingtonian land mammal ages , between 5.0 and 1.5 million years ago .

chasmaporthetes was one of the so-called " dog-like " hyenas ( of which the aardwolf is the only survivor ) , a hyaenid group which , in contrast to the now more common " bone-crushing " hyenas , evolved into slender-limbed , cursorial hunters like modern canids .

the genus has entered the popular culture lexicon as a result of cryptozoologic claims , having been proposed as the likely origin of the american shunka warakin and the cuitlamiztli .

chasmaporthetes

chasmaporthetes <EOT> etiquetas : acinonyx pardinensis . , asia . , chasmaporthetes australis . , chasmaporthetes lunensis . , chasmaporthetes . , europe . , miocene , north america . , pachycrocuta brevirostris . , prehistoric animals

life reconstruction of a pair of chasmaporthetes gangsriensis . image credit : julie selan .

chasmaporthetes gangsriensis is the smaller among plio - pleistocene eurasian species of the genus .

comparative measurements ( mm ) of african fossil chasmaporthetes and lycyaenops maxillary premolars . a

chasmaporthetes was named by hay ( 1921 ) . its type is chasmaporthetes ossifragus . it was assigned to hyaenidae by hay ( 1921 ) , geraads ( 1997 ) and flynn ( 1998 ) .

by the early pliocene , chasmaporthetes crossed the bering land bridge to america , where they evolved into chasmaporthetes ossifragus , becoming north america’s only native hyena before being brought to extinction by the end of the ice age .

partial left maxilla of chasmaporthetes gangsriensis . scale bar – 20 mm . image credit : tseng zj et al .

the new fossils of chasmaporthetes , including partial lower jaws , maxillae , and toe bones , were collected from the pliocene deposits of the zanda basin in southwestern tibetan plateau in 2009 , and identified as a new species , chasmaporthetes gangsriensis .

tooth enamel structure in the hyaenid chasmaporthetes lunensis lunensis from the late pliocene of italy , with implication on feeding behaviour .

artist’s depiction of chasmaporthetes–the hunting hyena . it was a fast runner and an important carnivore on 4 continents during the pliocene .

chasmaporthetes gangsriensis lived in what is now tibetan plateau during the middle pliocene , 4 . 9 - 4 . 1 million years ago .

( pdf ) tooth enamel structure in the hyaenid chasmaporthetes lunensis lunensis from the late pliocene of italy , with implication on feeding behaviour .

berta , a . 1981 . the plio - pleistocene hyaena chasmaporthetes ossifragus from florida . journal of vertebrate paleontology , 1 : 341 - 356 .

the limb bones of chasmaporthetes were long and slender like those of cheetahs , and its cheek teeth were slender and sharp - edged like those of a cat . it is likely that chasmaporthetes probably inhabited open ground and was a daytime hunter . in europe , the species c . lunensis competed with the

“ chasmaporthetes gangsriensis is morphologically the most basal pliocene chasmaporthetes in china , and is consistent with the ‘out of tibet’ hypothesis for some pleistocene megafauna” , said dr zhijie jack tseng of natural history museum of los angeles county and university of southern california , who is the lead author of a paper published in the journal of vertebrate paleontology .

chasmaporthetes kani , new species from china : with remarks on phylogenetic relationships of genera within the hyaenidae ( mammalia , carnivora ) . american museum novitates ; no . 2632

cursorial hyenas ( chasmaporthetes ) , also known as hunting or running hyenas , are an extinct genus of hyenas endemic to north america , africa , and asia during pliocene and pleistocene periods .

chasmaporthetes kani , new species from china : with remarks on phylogenetic relationships of genera within the hyaenidae ( mammalia , carnivora ) . american museum novitates ; no . 2632 | henry galiano - urltoken

details - chasmaporthetes kani , new species from china : with remarks on phylogenetic relationships of genera within the hyaenidae ( mammalia , carnivora ) . american museum novitates ; no . 2632 - biodiversity heritage library

an illustration of the skull of chasmaporthetes lunensis from spain and a full restoration of the hyena ' s dog - like head . art by mauricio antón and modified by antón et al . , 2007 .

the oldest representatives of chasmaporthetes appeared in the late miocene of greece , chad , and china . however , the genus was already widespread at the time of their earliest record around 7 million years ago .

berta , a . ( 1981 ) . the plio - pleistocene hyaena chasmaporthetes ossifragus from florida journal of vertebrate paleontology , 1 ( 3 ) , 341 - 356 doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 1981 . 10011905

this prehistoric animal is an animal very curious . due to the different characteristics was an animal uncommon , and is called chasmaporthetes , although not really a distinct species , it really is the family of a peculiar group of hyenas .

chasmaporthetes has often been called the " hunting hyena . " by itself , this isn ' t a very helpful moniker . despite their reputation as scavengers , for example , spotted hyenas actually obtain much of their meat through hunting , with carrion making up as little as five percent of their diet in some populations . even so , the nickname is meant to highlight the long - legged and relatively graceful build of chasmaporthetes . this was a hyena well - adapted to running and chasing down prey .

. . . however , a few morphological features that are preserved prompt some modification of qiu et al . ' s ( 2004 ) emended diagnosis of the genus chasmaporthetes : they indicated that the infraorbital foramen in species of chasmaporthetes is located dorsally over the p4 anterior root , or immediately dorsorostral of it ; in c . gangsriensis , the foramen is situated dorsal of the posterior p3 root , a more plesiomorphic feature in their framework ( ) . by comparison , the infraorbital foramen is situated between p3 and p4 in the complete c . lunensis skull from la puebla de valverde ( antónant´antón et al . , 2006 ) , being more posterior than c . gangsriensis ; in correspondence , the orbit is also further rostrally placed in chasmaporthetes gangsriensis , and the ventral - most rim of the orbit is just above the p4 paracone , not the p4 metastyle as in the la puebla de valverde specimen . the morphology shown in c . gangsriensis therefore expands the range of variation in relative p4 - infraorbital foramen position in chasmaporthetes . . . .

chasmaporthetes is a genus that lived in europe , asia , africa and north america about 15 million years ago during the miocene . in short , a sort of prehistoric animal that i thought you would like to know if you love animals , prehistoric or not .

. . . pliocene faunas of europe yield two species of hyaenids : the more common in the paleontological record pliocrocuta perrieri and the quite rare so - called hunting hyaena chasmaporthetes lunensis . chasmaporthetes apparently represented a wolf - like ecotype , although its dentition and jaws were still quite robust and well adapted to bone crushing ( galiano and frailey , 1977 ; ferretti 1999 ; anton et al . , 2006 ) . anton et al . ( 2006 ) suggested that c . lunensis was an active group hunting predator . . . .

discussion . the associated dnm 3 specimens represent a partial left pes of a hyaenid that is both metrically and morphologically distinct from both crocuta and parahyaena . the metatarsal and phalanges conform to previously described morphology of chasmaporthetes elements , but are more gracile than the more robust north american taxon ( berta , 1981 ; tseng et al . , 2013 ) . at present , the drimolen makondo specimens have not been directly compared to postcranial elements associated with craniodental remains assigned to percrocuta ( adcrocuta ) australis ( l 13033 ; hendey , 1974 ; 1978 ) , reassigned to chasmaporthetes australis ( werdelin and solounias , 1990 ) , that include a third and fifth metatarsal and seven phalanges ( of undescribed position ; neither photographs nor measurements of these specimens have been published ) . at present , the known biogeography of chasmaporthetes in south africa during the terminal pliocene and early pleistocene would suggest these remains most likely represent chasmaporthetes nitidula ; it is the only currently recognised species in the genus documented in the cradle of humankind karstic deposits , and two craniodental specimens are known from the drimolen main quarry ( o’regan and menter , 2009 ) . at a minimum , these specimens represent one of only two sets of chasmaporthetes postcrania in africa , the first attributed postcrania for the genus known from a cradle locality , and potentially the first c . nitidula postcrania in the record .

werdelin , l . , a . turner and n . solounias . 1994 . studies of fossil hyaenids : the genera hyaenictis gaudry and chasmaporthetes hay , with consideration of the hyaenidae of langabaanweg , south africa . zoological journal of the linnean society 111 : 197 - 217 .

kurten , b . , & werdelin , l . ( 1988 ) . a review of the genus chasmaporthetes hay , 1921 ( carnivora , hyaenidae ) journal of vertebrate paleontology , 8 ( 1 ) , 46 - 66 doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 1988 . 10011683

. . . the relative gracility and less massive dentition of chasmaporthetes lunensis suggest reduced scavenging habits ( turner , 1992b ) . according to antón et al . ( 2006 ) , it could be a social predator , as a single individual would be unable to subdue and kill medium - and large - sized prey because of its long muzzle and relatively gracile forelimbs . however , croitor and brugal ( 2010 ) qualify chasmaporthetes as a " wolf - like " ecotype , retaining strong bone - crushing capabilities , and consider this hyaenid a solitary predator . . . .

although many researchers stressed that the cheek teeth of the several chasmaporthetes species were better suited to shearing than crushing , this did not mean that the hyenas were incapable of cracking bone . after all , modern spotted hyenas are formidable hunters as well as accomplished bone - crackers , and a complete skull of the european species c . lunensis found in spain exhibited patterns of tooth wear consistent with breaking open bones . much like the modern spotted hyena , chasmaporthetes was a hunter that could make full use of a carcass , as well as scavenge when the opportunity presented itself .

. . . < 90 ? . this morphology is characteristic of the three extant bone - cracking hyenas and the extinct pachycrocuta , clearly distinguishing the studied specimens from chasmaporthetes , which displays less steeply folded bands and more closely packed with one another ( ferretti , 1999 ) . . . .

yet chasmaporthetes was not unique to north america . the species hay described - c . ossifragus - turned up in deposits between 3 and 1 . 5 million years old at other sites in mexico , the american southwest , and florida , but other species of the same genus were also discovered in europe , africa and asia . rather than being entirely unique to north america , chasmaporthetes had initially evolved elsewhere and eventually spread over the bering land bridge into north america . it was a long - lived variety of hyena that was just part of a radiation of now - extinct forms .

the left upper jaw ( maxilla ) of a chasmaporthetes found in florida ( facing left ) . the preserved teeth , from the left , are the third incisor , canine , and premolars 2 - 4 . ( the second incisor and first premolar were missing . ) from berta , 1981 .

hunter - schreger bands ( hsb ) and the outer enamel surface of the teeth of the hunting hyena chasmaporthetes lunensis lunenesis del campana , from olivola ( late pliocene , italy ) has been analysed . as in the bone crushing hyenas ( crocuta , hyaena , and pachycrocuta ) c . i . lunensis possesses complex hsb , with both horizontal and vertical components . however the less intense folding of the hsb and the smooth outer enamel surface suggest a more primitive structure than that in the bone crushing hyenas . this is consistent with the hypothesis that chasmaporthetes was not an extremely specialized bone eater .

tseng , j . z . , li , q . , and wang , x . 2013 . a new cursorial hyena from tibet , and analysis of biostratigraphy , paleozoogeography , and dental morphology of chasmaporthetes ( mammalia , carnivora . j ournal of vertebrate paleontology , 33 : 1457 - 1471 .

tseng zj et al . 2013 . a new cursorial hyena from tibet , and analysis of biostratigraphy , paleozoogeography , and dental morphology of chasmaporthetes ( mammalia , carnivora ) . journal of vertebrate paleontology 33 ( 6 ) : 1457 - 1471 ; doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2013 . 775142

ty - book ti - chasmaporthetes kani , new species from china : with remarks on phylogenetic relationships of genera within the hyaenidae ( mammalia , carnivora ) . american museum novitates ; no . 2632 ur - urltoken py - 1977 au - frailey , david . au - galiano , henry . er -

though the north american chasmaporthetes specimens were differentiated from other species by their relatively robust limbs , deep lower jaws , and slightly curved tooth rows , their general anatomy was consistent with finds in the old world . these hyenas were hunters that ran down their prey . this might have put them in competition with speedy cats that evolved about 1 . 8 million years ago - namely north america ' s false cheetah miracinonyx - but some researchers stressed caution in drawing conclusions about diet on the basis on anatomy alone . in a 1994 paper about chasmaporthetes and hyaenictis , paleontologists lars werdelin , alan turner , and nikos solounias wrote :

the scientists turned out to be wrong . based upon the computerized models created for the study , tseng and colleagues concluded that the skull of " chasmaporthetes was just as adapted for handling stress incurred during bone - cracking behavior as the modern crocuta [ spotted hyena ] . " yet this does not necessarily mean that the extinct hyena hunted and fed in the exact same way that spotted hyenas do . chasmaporthetes still had comparatively slender teeth better suited to cutting through fresh than breaking through bone , and so the authors of the paper suggest that the stress - absorbing features of the skull might be adaptations to withstanding forces generated by struggling prey . the way the hyenas caught prey has to be taken into account , and future studies that model stresses created by prey may help scientists identify skull characteristics related to hunting rather than fracturing bone . chasmaporthetes certainly could have been a competent bone - cracker , but whether the anatomy of its skull can be attributed to this kind of behavior is another question .

zhijie tseng , mauricio antón , and manuel salesa published the results of their study in paleobiology earlier this year . like many other bone - cracking carnivorans , the skull of chasmaporthetes exhibited a mosaic of features that gave it a powerful bite - a short snout , massive premolars , a large sagittal crest on the top of the skull for muscle attachment , deep lower jaws , and teeth modified at the microscopic level to resist fracturing . these traits are present to relatively lesser or greater degrees among carnivorous mammals adapted to crack bones , but the scientists proposed that the skull of chasmaporthetes would have had suffered greater stress while breaking through bone than the skull of a modern spotted hyena .

. . . european hyaenictis have generally been included in the hyaenid ecomorphotype 4 ( cursorial meat - and bone - eating hyenas , including among others chasmaporthetes and lycyaena ) , instead of ecomorphotype 5 ( transitional bonecracking hyenas , like belbus werdelin and solounias , 1991 , and metahyaena viranta and werdelin , 2003 ) or 6 ( fullydeveloped bone - cracking hyenas such as adcrocuta ; werdelin 1996 ; werdelin and solounias 1996 ; turner et al . 2008 ) . however , some previous studies have favored some degree of durophagy in cursorial miocene hyaenids such as chasmaporthetes , in spite of noting their lesser bone - cracking abilities compared to fully developed bone - crackers ( kurtén and werdelin 1988 ; werdelin et al . 1994 ; ferretti 1999 ; antón et al . 2006 ) . this was further confirmed by a finite elements analysis of the skull of chasmaporthetes ( tseng et al . 2011 ) , according to which this taxon would have been able to the resist the masticatory stresses generated by a bone - cracking diet ( although less efficiently than crocuta ) . . . .

tseng , z . , antón , m . , & salesa , m . ( 2011 ) . the evolution of the bone - cracking model in carnivorans : cranial functional morphology of the plio - pleistocene cursorial hyaenid chasmaporthetes lunensis ( mammalia : carnivora ) paleobiology , 37 ( 1 ) , 140 - 156 doi : 10 . 1666 / 09045 . 1

it should be noted , however , that our suggestion of adaptations towards a cursorial and active hunting mode of life for chasmaporthetes does not mean that it did not scavenge , nor that it was necessarily in competition with extremely cursorial hunters such as acinonyx [ true cheetahs ] and miracinonyx . however , relative to other hyaenas [ , ] it has clearly evolved in that direction .

werdelin , l . , turner , a . , & solounias , n . ( 1994 ) . studies of fossil hyaenids : the genera hyaenictis gaudry and chasmaporthetes hay , with a reconsideration of the hyaenidae of langebaanweg , south africa zoological journal of the linnean society , 111 ( 3 ) , 197 - 217 doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1096 - 3642 . 1994 . tb01483 . x

for decades , most of what was hypothesized about the north american hyena was based on chasmaporthetes specimens found elsewhere . jaw fragments and teeth were all that had been recovered in the southwest and mexico . this changed in 1981 , when annalisa berta described parts of the skull and limbs of the hyena found in florida . no single skeleton was found , but by looking at the accumulated pieces berta determined that the florida hyenas had strongly - muscled , flexible upper arms and long , slightly curved tibiaewhich indicated that the hyenas had very powerful hindlimbs . the fact that premolars of chasmaporthetes resembled the meat - slicing teeth of the spotted hyena rather than the crushers of the brown and striped hyenas was taken as an indication that it was more of a predator than a scavenger , and a fleet - footed one at that .

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unfortunately , no one has yet found a complete skull from an american hyena . perhaps some lucky paleontologist will , but , for now , the skull from spain provides the best available information about the possible feeding habits of these " hunting hyenas . " i can only imagine a pack of chasmaporthetes chasing down a prehistoric pronghorn through the grasslands - a scene that still echoes in africa , but occurred during a distant part of north america ' s prehistory .

. . . ( turner et al . 2008 ) . thus , ips62078 differs from chasmaporthetes ( see kurtén and werdelin 1988 ; werdelin and solounias 1991 ; werdelin and turner 1996 ; antón et al . 2006 ; tseng et al . 2013 ) in the presence of p1 , the relatively broader cheek teeth , the less developed accessory cusps in the premolars , the mesial and distal accessory cusps of the premolars aligned with the main cusp ( instead of lingually tilted ) , the presence of metaconid ( even if vestigial ) , the tricuspid m1 talonid ( chasmaporthetes lacks the hypoconulid and sometimes the hypoconid ) , and the presence of m2 . compared to lycyaena , the dentition of ips62078 is larger , somewhat stouter ( i . e . , it displays relatively broader cheek teeth ) , and is further characterized by smaller and more indistinct premolar accessory cusps ( werdelin 1988 ; werdelin and solounias 1991 ) . . . .

. . . the enigmatic chasmaporthetes clusters with hyaenidae but is more distinct than the other species in its mandible shape ( fig . 7 ) . this taxon was less capable of cracking bones than the extant crocuta , hyaena , and parahyaena , which cluster with pachycrocuta and pliocrocuta , confirming previous inferences on its paleobiology ( berta , 1981 ; kurténkurt´kurtén and werdelin , 1988 ; ferretti , 1999ferretti , , 2007 antónant´antón et al . , 2006 ) . . . .

. . . the enigmatic chasmaporthetes clusters with hyaenidae but is more distinct than the other species in its mandible shape ( fig . 7 ) . this taxon was less capable of cracking bones than the extant crocuta , hyaena , and parahyaena , which cluster with pachycrocuta and pliocrocuta , confirming previous inferences on its paleobiology ( berta , 1981 ; kurténkurt´kurtén and werdelin , 1988 ; ferretti , 1999 ferretti , , 2007antónant´antón et al . , 2006 ) . . . .

hyenas diverged from the stem feliform in the oligocene and transitioned through six ecomorph groups from civet - like insectivores / omnivores through generalised jackal - like meat and small bone eaters to the fully developed modern bone crushers . 4 this middle phase is well represented by the four hyaenid species that have been described from the south african fossil site of langebaanweg ( lbw ) e quarry 14 - 17 ( figure 1 ) : chasmaporthetes australis , hyaenictitherium namaquensis , hyaenictis hendeyi and ikelohyaena abronia . 4 , 18

acinonyx pardinensis , and may have preyed on the small bourbon gazelle ( gazella borbonica ) and the chamois antelope ( procamptoceras brivatense ) . the north american c . ossifragus was similar in build to c . lunensis , but had slightly more robust jaws and teeth . it may have preyed on the giant marmot paenemarmota , and competed with the far more numerous borophagus diversidens . a study on the genus ' premolar intercuspid notches indicate that chasmaporthetes was likely hypercarnivorous rather than durophagus as its modern cousins ( excluding the aardwolf ) are .

. . . the same value in tasso and serengeti , because of the occurrence in the tasso assemblage of the hunting hyaena chasmaporthetes lunensis ( del campana , 1914 ) . this peculiar hyaenid was , in fact , characterized by a dental specialization to bone consumption lesser developed than in the " hyper - scavenger " pachycrocuta , or in the extant bone - crackers hyaena and crocuta ( ferretti , 1999 ferretti , , 2007 rook et al . , 2004 ) . the same reasoning can be addressed concerning the category " carcasse destroyers " offig . . . .

the lbw hyaenids , unlike their modern bone - cracking counterparts , were poorly adapted to bone cracking . 1 - 18 , 40 , 41 ikelohyaena abronia , which has traditionally been regarded as the most durophagous of the lbw species , 4 , 22 , 38 possessed derived features in skull stress distribution and levels of strain energy similar to those of crocuta crocuta , but importantly lacked the bite force of the extant species . 42 this fossil species belonged to a clade of early or transitional bone - cracking hyenas that also included other early genera such as palinhyaena , belbus , hyaenid sp . e and leecyaena . 4 chasmaporthetes australis and h . hendeyi on the other hand , fell within a clade of hypercarnivorous hyenas that also included the extinct genus lycyaena . the extinct lycyaena - chasmaporthetes - hyaenictis clade , which emerged as habitats opened up during the terminal miocene , was unique in that its members exhibited post - cranial adaptations indicative of advanced cursoriality . 4 , 30 hyaenictitherium namaquensis was a late - occurring member of the ictitherines , a clade of canid - like hyenas that were prominent during the middle miocene and began dying out at the end of the miocene .

but paleontologists have been able to do more than propose hypotheses on the gross anatomy of the chasmaporthetes bones alone . the rediscovery of the skull from spain - which had been found in the 1970 ' s and studied by dolores soria for her doctoral thesis before fading from view until 2007 - finally provided scientists with an opportunity to see what kind of stresses and strains the hyena ' s skull was capable of withstanding . paleontologists have carried out these tests for a variety of bone - crunching mammals over the years , and so there was already plenty to compare the c . lunensis skull with .

. . . the hyaenids proteles cristata ( j050607t02 , zjt comparative collection , prepared dry skull ) , ictitherium sp . ( hmv 0163 ) , chasmaporthetes lunensis [ 55 , 72 ] , ikelohyaena abronia [ 65 ] , parahyaena brunnea ( mvz 117842 , museum of vertebrate zoology , university of california , berkeley ) , and crocuta crocuta [ 55 ] were analyzed . the fossil and modern canids analyzed included mesocyon coryphaeus , microtomarctus conferta , epicyon haydeni , borophagus secundus , and canis lupus from tseng and wang [ 52 ] , and lycaon pictus from tseng and stynder [ 65 ] . . . .

fossil species of the family hyaenidae represent a wide range of ecomorphological diversity not observed in living representatives of this carnivoran group . among them , the cursorial meat - and - bone specialists are of particular interest not only because they were the most cursorial of the hyaenids , but also because they were the only members of this family to spread into the new world . here we conduct a functional morphological analysis of the cranium of the cursorial meat - and - bone specialist chasmaporthetes lunensis by using finite element modeling to compare it with the living crocuta crocuta , a well - known bone - cracking carnivoran .

for this analysis we only considered specimens preserving sufficient morphology to be identified at least to order level and are not presenting data on indeterminate mammalian elements or fragments . we have also not undertaken an analysis of the 554 primate craniodental and postcranial specimens , as this collection has recently been partially analysed ( see nieuwoudt , 2014 ) . we have also not duplicated the primary description of the main quarry carnivores of o’regan & menter ( 2009 ) , but we have re - evaluated the previously published dinofelis and chasmaporthetes specimens because of their bearing on biochronological interpretations and present data on carnivore specimens catalogued since publication of that study .

chasmaporthetes , also known as hunting or running hyena , is an extinct genus of hyena endemic to north america , africa , and asia during the pliocene - pleistocene epochs , living from 4 . 9 mya—780 , 000 years ago , existing for approximately 4 . 12 million years . the genus probably arose from eurasian miocene hyenas such as thalassictis or lycyaena , with c . borissiaki being the oldest known representative . the species c . ossifragus was the only hyena to cross the bering land bridge into the americas , and ranged over what is now arizona and mexico during blancan and early irvingtonian land mammal ages , between 5 to 1 . 5 million years ago .

in 1921 oliver hays was the curator of a museum that eventually became the smithsonian . one day , he was examining fossils that had been collected from the val verde copper mine in anita , arizona 20 years earlier . barnum brown , a world renowned fossil collector at a time when fossil hunters were celebrities , had labeled 1 specimen as “cat . ” this curious specimen consisted of just a lower jaw . after much pain - staking comparisons with other specimens , oliver hay concluded the jaw belonged to an extinct species of hyena that he named chasmaporthetes ossifragus . the paleontological community doubted hay had correctly identified the specimen . it was nearly 50 years before enough evidence had accumulated to verify hay’s conclusion that hyenas once roamed north america .

description . in addition to the four indeterminate hyaenid craniodental and postcranial specimens described by o’regan & menter ( 2009 ) , three further elements can be attributed to the family . the dn 2864 scapula preserves a very large infraglenoid tubercle relative to the size of the preserved glenoid fossa and is derived from hyaenid smaller than extant parahyaena brunnea thunberg , 1820 . the dn 2973 right p4 preserves the complete protocone and lingual aspect of the anterior accessory cusp and paracone with little occlusal wear . there is some buccolingual swelling on the paracone that is shared with extant p . brunnea p4s and the sk 327 p . brunnea p4 from swartkrans member 1 ( although smaller than the latter ) , and there is no evidence for buccolingual compression or a ridge leading to the trigon basin as in crocuta crocuta . this specimen , along with the dn 2321 p4 fragment described by o’regan & menter ( 2009 : 344 ) , support the occurrence of a hyaenid individual distinct from lycyaenops and chasmaporthetes in the main quarry deposits . in contrast , the dn 3281 right p2 preserves the anterior margin of the crown and half of the anterior root that lacks the cingulum distinctive for p . brunnea dentition . the specimen preserves strong labial ridging and a flattened lingual aspect , and is too buccolingually expanded to represent chasmaporthetes or lycyaenops . the closest extant morphological match is crocuta crocuta ; minimally suggesting an additional hyaenid distinct from l . silberbergi , c . nitidula , and the dn 2973 / 2321 individuals .

chasmaporthetes ossifragus , known as the hunting hyena , lived in north america from about 4 . 9 million years bp to ~ 780 , 000 bp , making it an important large carnivore of the pliocene and early pleistocene . it had long strong legs and is thought to have been an active hunting animal that chased its prey down , possibly in packs . although it possessed a powerful bite and did eat some bone , it didn’t eat as much bone as the modern extant spotted hyena ( crocuta crocuta ) . it lived alongside other large predators such as the bone eating dog ( borophagus diversidens ) , the giant cheetah ( acinonyx ) , the scimitar - toothed cat ( dinobastis ) , and the dirk - toothed cat ( megantereon ) . it likely preyed upon horses , llamas , camels , peccaries , deer , pronghorn , marmots , and other small mammals .

description . dnm 3 - 4 is a fourth metatarsal preserving the proximal articular surface and a small portion of the diaphysis ( fig ure 6 . 1–5 ) . while the articular surface is robust , the proximal end is distinctly mediolaterally compressed relative to extant hyaenids ( e . g . , crocuta and hyaena ; table 5 ) but follow the proportions and morphology of the single previously described chasmaporthetes ossifragus third metatarsal ( uf 27372 ; berta , 1981 ; table 5 ) . the medial and lateral aspects preserve the paired ( dorsal , triangular ; plantar , rectangular ) articular facets for the third and fifth metatarsals , respectively . in slight contrast to the uf 27372 specimen , the lateral dorsal articular facet is more robust and extends further towards the plantar surface on dnm 3 - 4 . this extension nearly converges with the plantar facet to close off the shallow concavity that receives the base of the fifth metatarsal .

most of the initial identifications brown had made in his notes turned out to be correct . the mammals appeared to represent a time in the not - too - distant past when forms still living in north america today mixed with lineages that have since been extirpated . what stood out were two parts of " cat " jaw that didn ' t correspond to any known feline . with the exception of a tiny part of a molar , the crowns of the teeth were entirely gone , but together the two pieces comprised most of the mandible of a carnivorous mammal . though this was not much to work with , hay was able to determine that the jaw had belonged to a hyena - a type of carnivore never before found in north america - and he named it chasmaporthetes ossifragus . " the name of this [ genus ] makes allusion to the grand canyon , " hay wrote , " whose beginning this animal may have witnessed . "

fossil remains of chamaporthete s have been found at 4 sites in florida , 3 sites in arizona , 2 sites in north texas , 2 sites in mexico , and 1 site in new mexico . it is the only species of hyena known to have crossed the bering landbridge to north america where it was likely more widespread than its fossil record would indicate–there just aren’t many pliocene - aged fossil sites in the midwest and northeast . a similar species , chasmaporthetes lunensis , lived in europe , asia , and africa during the same time period , and it may actually be the same species . this means the hunting hyena was 1 of the most wide ranging and successful large carnivores ever . the reason for its extinction is unknown , but it disappeared at a time when forests were replacing grassland and desert habitats . archaic species of wolves ecologically replaced american hyenas , but it’s not known whether they outcompeted them or simply took advantage of an extinction that occurred due to other causes .

a remarkably complete , well - preserved skull of the pliocene hunting hyaena chasmaporthetes lunensis from la puebla de valverde ( teruel ) is described . this exceptional find allows us to define more clearly the cranial morphology of this taxon , and to put its morphological features into evolutionary and functional perspective . compared with the sympatric hyaenid pliocrocuta perrieri , c . iunensis has a higher and wider rostrum , cheek teeth placed more anteriorly in relation to the orbits , a lower zygoma and a dorsally concave saggital crest , all pointing to a lesser development of the muscle temporalis and a greater emphasis on canine bite over premolar crushing bite . horizontal wear on the premolars , caudal extension of the frontal sinus and other features indicate that scavenging or at least complete utilization of carcasses was a behavioural trait of the hunting hyaena . overall , the available evidence suggests that c . iunensis was an active , group hunting predator of medium - sized ungulates , able to fully utilize car - casses but less dedicated to scavenging than the contemporary species p . perrieri .

although africa ' s spotted hyena is the most iconic member of the group , there are three other species of living hyena : the striped hyena , the brown hyena , and the aardwolf . they are all that ' s left of a once - more widespread and diverse lineage that traces back about 20 million years to small , civet - like forms such as plioviverrops . now , based upon appearances alone , it might seem reasonable to lump all four modern hyenas into a single evolutionary subgroup tied together by common ancestry , but this wouldn ' t be right . the aardwolf , a strange and small hyena that primarily eats termites , is actually a relatively distant cousin of other modern hyenas and represents what some of the early members of the group may have been like . likewise , the extinct giant pachycrocuta was a closer relative of the spotted hyena than the striped and brown hyenas , and there was an entire array of extinct forms with no living representatives . chasmaporthetes was among these now - extinct hyena lineages , and it was significantly different from the hyenas we know today .

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the carnivoran specimens provide a more constrained depositional age . remains of the genus chasmaporthetes have been recovered across african localities , with c . nitidula described from south african deposits ranging from sterkfontein jacovec cavern and members 2 and 4 ( < 2 . 46–2 . 01 ma ; herries et al . , 2013 ) to as late as swartkrans member 3 ( sometime between 1 . 3 and 0 . 6 ma ; herries , curnoe & adams , 2009 ) . however , lycyaenops silberbergi has been recovered from a far narrower range of terminal pliocene and early pleistocene deposits of laetoli ( as lycyaenops cf . l . silberbergi ; werdelin & dehghani , 2011 ) in east africa and sterkfontein in south africa ( ∼3 . 8–2 . 02 ma ; turner , 1990 ; turner , 1997 ; werdelin & lewis , 2005 ; werdelin & peigné , 2010 ; herries & shaw , 2011 ; herries & adams , 2013 ) . a single mandibular specimen ( sk 300 ) of lycyaenops silberbergi has been described from swartkrans member 1 ( ewer , 1955b ) , and although questions over provenience has been raised it is still considered derived from these deposits ( see discussion in turner , 1987b ) ; this effectively establishes an lad for the species within these deposits of 1 . 96 - 1 . 80 ma ( pickering et al . , 2011a ; herries & adams , 2013 ) .

the drimolen palaeocave system has been actively excavated since the 1990s and has produced a demographically - diverse record of paranthropus robustus , early homo , and a substantial record of early pleistocene bone tools ; all recovered from the main quarry , a single fossil bearing deposit within the system . early surveys identified an isolated solution - tube 55 m west of the main quarry filled with decalcified matrix and fossils ( the drimolen makondo ) . recent excavations into the makondo have started to address the geology , depositional history , and faunas of the deposits ; particularly whether the makondo represents a distant uneroded part of the main quarry infill , or deposits in - filled into a separate entrance within the same system . we present the first description of fossil macromammalian faunas from the makondo , excavated 2013 - 2014 . a total of 531 specimens were recovered , 268 ( 50 . 5 % ) of which are taxonomically identifiable . the resulting list is diverse given the sample size and includes primate and carnivore taxa frequently recovered at other terminal pliocene and earlier pleistocene localities , as well as more rarely encountered species and elements like the first postcranial remains of the hunting hyaenid ( chasmaporthetes ? nitidula ) from the cradle . while some of the makondo fauna overlaps with taxa recovered from the main quarry , there are key differences between the described samples that may reflect differences in the age of the deposits and / or taphonomic processes between these deposits at drimolen .

n2 - large carnivores structure the character of scavenging opportunities in any environment . in pliocene and early pleistocene africa there were three large sabertooth cats sympatric with the ancestors of the modern felid community , and scavenging opportunities were presumably different from those in modern africa . an understanding of a possible scavenging niche for early hominids must articulate knowledge gained from actualistic research with detailed reconstructions of extinct carnivore paleoecology . contrasting skeletal and dental anatomy suggest that sabertooths and modern felids were ecologically distinct . evidence from functional morphology and fossil associations elucidates the distinctions . sabertooth incisor and carnassial morphology indicates extreme flesh specialisation and lack of bone - crushing ability . sabertooth cranial morphology and fossil associations suggest a specialisation upon very large prey . the post - cranial morphology of sabertooths indicates a dense woodland and forest habitat preference . this implies that two distinct large carnivore communities existed in the pliocene and early pleistocene : a mixed and open habitat community composed of the ancestors of the extant carnivore community plus chasmaporthetes , and a closed habitat community dominated by the sabertooths . scavenging opportunities in the closed habitat community would have been much better than in more open habitats . homo habilis with its inferred arboreal abilities could have passively scavenged very effectively in dense woodlands and forests . paleoenvironmental and paleontological data indicate that these closed habitats shrunk after 1·7 million years ago and the sabertooths probably went extinct in sub - saharan africa . homo habilis perhaps increasingly utilised more open habitats and would have been forced to confront large predators to gain adequate scavenging returns . archaeological data of stone tool raw materials and site placement suggests that early hominids switched from an emphasis on dense woodland habitats to increased usage of more open habitats after 1·6 million years ago . confrontational scavenging along with increased predation pressure may have contributed to the morphological changes associated with the shift to homo erectus .

ab - large carnivores structure the character of scavenging opportunities in any environment . in pliocene and early pleistocene africa there were three large sabertooth cats sympatric with the ancestors of the modern felid community , and scavenging opportunities were presumably different from those in modern africa . an understanding of a possible scavenging niche for early hominids must articulate knowledge gained from actualistic research with detailed reconstructions of extinct carnivore paleoecology . contrasting skeletal and dental anatomy suggest that sabertooths and modern felids were ecologically distinct . evidence from functional morphology and fossil associations elucidates the distinctions . sabertooth incisor and carnassial morphology indicates extreme flesh specialisation and lack of bone - crushing ability . sabertooth cranial morphology and fossil associations suggest a specialisation upon very large prey . the post - cranial morphology of sabertooths indicates a dense woodland and forest habitat preference . this implies that two distinct large carnivore communities existed in the pliocene and early pleistocene : a mixed and open habitat community composed of the ancestors of the extant carnivore community plus chasmaporthetes , and a closed habitat community dominated by the sabertooths . scavenging opportunities in the closed habitat community would have been much better than in more open habitats . homo habilis with its inferred arboreal abilities could have passively scavenged very effectively in dense woodlands and forests . paleoenvironmental and paleontological data indicate that these closed habitats shrunk after 1·7 million years ago and the sabertooths probably went extinct in sub - saharan africa . homo habilis perhaps increasingly utilised more open habitats and would have been forced to confront large predators to gain adequate scavenging returns . archaeological data of stone tool raw materials and site placement suggests that early hominids switched from an emphasis on dense woodland habitats to increased usage of more open habitats after 1·6 million years ago . confrontational scavenging along with increased predation pressure may have contributed to the morphological changes associated with the shift to homo erectus .

abstract = " large carnivores structure the character of scavenging opportunities in any environment . in pliocene and early pleistocene africa there were three large sabertooth cats sympatric with the ancestors of the modern felid community , and scavenging opportunities were presumably different from those in modern africa . an understanding of a possible scavenging niche for early hominids must articulate knowledge gained from actualistic research with detailed reconstructions of extinct carnivore paleoecology . contrasting skeletal and dental anatomy suggest that sabertooths and modern felids were ecologically distinct . evidence from functional morphology and fossil associations elucidates the distinctions . sabertooth incisor and carnassial morphology indicates extreme flesh specialisation and lack of bone - crushing ability . sabertooth cranial morphology and fossil associations suggest a specialisation upon very large prey . the post - cranial morphology of sabertooths indicates a dense woodland and forest habitat preference . this implies that two distinct large carnivore communities existed in the pliocene and early pleistocene : a mixed and open habitat community composed of the ancestors of the extant carnivore community plus chasmaporthetes , and a closed habitat community dominated by the sabertooths . scavenging opportunities in the closed habitat community would have been much better than in more open habitats . homo habilis with its inferred arboreal abilities could have passively scavenged very effectively in dense woodlands and forests . paleoenvironmental and paleontological data indicate that these closed habitats shrunk after 1·7 million years ago and the sabertooths probably went extinct in sub - saharan africa . homo habilis perhaps increasingly utilised more open habitats and would have been forced to confront large predators to gain adequate scavenging returns . archaeological data of stone tool raw materials and site placement suggests that early hominids switched from an emphasis on dense woodland habitats to increased usage of more open habitats after 1·6 million years ago . confrontational scavenging along with increased predation pressure may have contributed to the morphological changes associated with the shift to homo erectus . " ,

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full reference : o . p . hay . 1921 . descriptions of species of pleistocene vertebrata , types or specimens of most of which are preserved in the united states national museum . proceedings of the united states national museum 59 : 599 - 642

parent taxon : hyaenidae according to r . a . stirton and w . g . christian 1940

" has the earth ' s sixth mass extinction already arrived ? " this question - the title of a review published in last week ' s nature - immediately sparked a flurry of news reports about an impending ecological catastrophe on a scale not seen in 65 million years . we are not witnessing a die - off as severe as any of the " big five " prehistoric cataclysms just yet , but the continued , gradual loss of threatened species is bringing us ever closer to the tipping point . we can either take action and stave off this large - scale disaster , or simply wait for it to happen .

of course , extinction is the inevitable fate of every species . species do not only disappear during worldwide disasters . extinction greatly outpaces the origin of new species on a global scale during rare crises , but the character of life on earth is constantly shifting as some lineages dwindle as others speciate and continue to change .

you do not need to look very far back into the fossil record to appreciate the ongoing ebb and flow of life . when i traveled through utah and wyoming for the first time in the summer of 2009 , i saw the iconic elk , pronghorn , bison , and bears that symbolize the american wilderness . but these animals are only the inheritors of a landscape that has been inhabited by a changing cast of megamammals for millions of years . the great mammoths , ground sloths , deep - snouted bears , and sabercats of pleistocene north america represent a lost world that disappeared only yesterday in geological terms , but they , too , were preceded by what we might perceive as strange assemblages of creatures , including north america ' s only hyena .

in 1901 , workmen at the val verde copper mines in anita , arizona were prospecting around an ancient limestone fissure when they discovered a cache of ancient mammal bones . the fragments were badly broken , but the bone material itself was well - preserved , and a number of specimens were soon collected by b . c . bicknell . the site also piqued the interest of globe - trotting fossil hunter barnum brown , who collected a few additional specimens in 1904 . pieces of prehistoric horses and camels were found among those of pronghorn , squirrels , groundhogs , and pocket gophers , as well as what appeared to be jaw fragments from a large cat .


ptereleotris zebra is a species of dartfish native to the indian ocean and the western pacific ocean .

an inhabitant of reefs , it can be found in schools at depths of from 2 to 31 metres ( 6.6 to 101.7 ft ) though usually no deeper than 4 metres ( 13 ft ) .

this species can reach a length of 12 centimetres ( 4.7 in ) sl .

it can also be found in the aquarium trade .

ptereleotris zebra

ptereleotris zebra <EOT> aquarium movies urltoken description of fish ( language：japanese ) ゼブラハゼ chinese zebra goby , zebra dartfish ( goby ) ptereleotris zebra スズキ目ハゼ亜目クロユリハゼ科クロユリハゼ属 板橋区立熱帯環境植物館 itabashi botanical gardens aquarium copyright © 2014 - sasuke m tsujita all rights reserved .

it’s not when it’s a shotsilk goby ! ptereleotris zebra must be one of the hobby’s most under - rated little fish . also known as the chinese zebra goby , this is a kind of dartfish and so therefore a relative of ‘true’ gobies .

the orange - striped gudgeon ( ptereleotris grammica ) from the southern indo - pacific is a deeper water species which makes it more difficult to obtain than p . zebra , consequently commanding a correspondingly eye - wateringly price .

justification : ptereleotris zebra is widely distributed and may be locally abundant in some areas . this is a popular species in the aquarium , but this is not considered to be a major threat on a global level . therefore , it is listed as least concern .

ptereleotris zebra is used in the aquarium trade and exported from the maldives . the free on board value of this species is $ 1 . 50 ( edwards and shepherd 1992 ) . liveaquaria . com ; us $ 15 . 99 per small individual from indonesia ; us $ 26 . 99 large individuals from the maldives .

ptereleotris zebra is a schooling fish common in tropical waters around the world , except the atlantic ocean . they are usually found in less than 20 feet of water , but have been recorded as deep as 90 feet . they are generally associated with reefs and in lots of current / surge . groups generally share the same burrow , and group sizes can very from a couple individuals to dozens . they feed on plankton and other small suspended foods . the largest p . zebra recorded was almost 5 inches long .

p . zebra might be a good bet for captive breeding efforts and a few species of true goby have been successfully bred and reared in the aquarium , and they share similarities in reproductive strategy .

( of pogonoculius zebra fowler , 1938 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]

randall , j . e . and d . f . hoese , 1985 . revision of the indo - pacific dartfishes , genus ptereleotris ( perciformes : gobioidei ) . indo - pac . fish . ( 7 ) : 36 p . ( ref . 528 )

ptereleotris zebra inhabits exposed seaward reefs in relatively shallow water over hard bottoms and areas subjected to strong currents . it forms aggregations ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) . its depth range is 0 . 5 - 40 m ( accessed through the fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . net , 2015 - 03 ) , but usually occurs between 2 - 4 m ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) . its maximum recorded size is 11 . 4 cm total length ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) .

ptereleotris zebra ranges from the red sea and islands in the western indian ocean to the line and marquesas islands , north to the ryukyu islands , south to the southern great barrier reef , the mariana and marshall islands in micronesia , french polynesia ( moorea ) , palau , fiji , and samoa ( randall and hoese 1985 , allen and erdmann 2012 ) . the depth range is 0 - 40 m ( myers 1991 , accessed through the fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . net , 2015 - 03 ) .

p . zebra normally spend their first few days in an aquarium hiding , but soon emerge if conditions are right . they live normally in the reef’s shallow water zone in quite turbulent conditions and will similarly thrive in vigorously - moving water .

aquascaping is , however , extremely important if the shotsilks are going to not only thrive , but also display well . p . zebra relies on natural hiding places and won’t construct its own , so these will need to be provided . gnarled lived rock riddled with holes is ideal .

there are no known species - specific conservation measures for p . zebra . its range overlaps with a number of marine protected areas ( iucn and unep 2014 ) . there are limits implemented by the maldivian government on the export of reef fishes for aquaria ( edwards and shepherd 1992 ) .

greek , pteron = wing , fin + the name of a nile fish , eleotris ( ref . 45335 )

marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 2 - 31 m ( ref . 1602 ) , usually 2 - 4 m ( ref . 1602 ) . tropical ; 22°c - 28°c ( ref . 27115 ) ; 30°n - 30°s

indo - pacific : red sea and islands in the western indin ocean ( ref . 528 ) to the line and marquesas islands , north to the ryukyu islands , south to the southern great barrier reef ; mariana and marshall islands in micronesia .

maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 12 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 48637 )

dorsal spines ( total ) : 7 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 27 - 29 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 25 - 28 ; vertebrae : 26 . yellowish to greenish gray in color ; lower half of eye to ventral of chin nearly enclosed by a broad blue - edged dark red to purple area ; opercle with 2 diagonal bright blue bands ; pectoral fin base with an orange - red bar broadly bordered with bright blue . chin barbel followed by a median longitudinal fold . fins yellowish ; 2nd dorsal a median longitudinal row of blue spots .

this schooling species inhabits exposed seaward reefs in relatively shallow water , over hard bottoms . usually many individuals occupy the same refuge . found to be subjected to strong currents , where in small to large aggregations ( ref . 48637 ) . feeds on zooplanktons ( ref . 89972 ) .

phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .

bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .

trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 ±0 . 45 se ; based on food items .

vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .

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urltoken scott w . michael , marine fishes , 1st ed . ( t . f . h . publications inc , new jersey , 2001 ) . rudie h kuiter & helmut debelius , world atlas of marine fishes , 1st ed . ( ikan - unterwasserarchiv 2006 ) in house resources : adam mangino , eli fleishauer

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the shotsilk goby is a stunning dartfish but , as dave wolfenden explains , you may have to minimise any stress factors to appreciate it .

they’re not only found around china but also around a large area of the indo - pacific , red sea and great barrier reef . they are found from around 2 - 30m / 6 . 6 - 98’ and will reach a 10cm / 4” , looking absolutely stunning .

arguably this is the most attractive of all the dartfish ; their slender body exhibiting bright , metallic green coloration , punctuated by vertical stripes of pink with blue facial markings .

the name ‘dartfish’ is pretty apt . their behaviour involves hovering above the reef’s substrate in groups , exhibiting a ‘nervous’ demeanour and always ready to dart to the nearest crevice . these diurnal ( daytime - active ) fish also use such crevices to sleep in .

aquarium set - up needs to take this skittish behaviour into account . shotsilk gobies are definitely not suitable for aquaria which contain boisterous and / or predatory fishes . predators , such as triggers or lionfish , will find the timid dartfish just too tempting , whereas boisterous , territorial fishes intimidate them . this renders them out of sight , and presumably stressed , for potentially long periods .

in extreme cases , shotsilks spend so much time hiding they are unable to obtain enough food to survive — and stress also appears to take its toll .

potentially unsuitable tank mates include many damsel species , which can be pugnacious , numerous tangs , wrasses and butterflyfish . suitable companions should include more sedate groups and dragonets , jawfish and blennies display the more peaceful attitude which helps ensure shotsilks are confident enough to look their best .

these are totally invertebrate - friendly fish , but some invertebrates are predatory and the ‘gobies’ can make an easy target ! seemingly all dartfish also tend to jump if startled , so open - topped tanks can be risky .

shotsilk gobies can , due to their size and habit of hovering around a fixed spot , be kept in reasonably compact aquaria , with around 100 l / 22 gal being suitable for a pair .

these fish will also appreciate caves and , to spoil them , offer a fine sand substrate as they may use this as a retreat as well as any rocks and caves .

they can be kept individually , but never seem to look as good as pairs or small groups . best introduce any pairs or small groups at the same time to reduce the possibility of territorial squabbling .

like most other goby - like fish , this is pretty hardy and disease is rarely an issue if maintained in a reasonably stress - free environment .

they are , however , sensitive to many medications and can react to copper treatments for cryptocaryon , for example . if possible use alternatives to those with formaldehyde , copper or malachite . copper would be a no - no for the invertebrate aquarium anyway !

feeding is rarely a challenge provided they aren’t overly hassled by other tank mates . they are planktivores and spend most of their waking hours feeding — needing regular meals preferably twice a day . however , most adapt easily to a captive diet .

they should accept small frozen feeds such as mysis and cyclops , as well as flakes and small pellets . in an established reef set - up , they will forage to a certain extent on natural populations of copepods , amphipods and other planktonic beasties .

shotsilk gobies are visually difficult to sex , but not impossible – there are no obvious differences in coloration but an intimate examination might allow a view of each fishes’ genital papilla just in front of the anal fin area .

the papilla is a tube - like structure used to deposit eggs or sperm , and in mature males , tends to be more pointed , the female’s papilla having a more rounded appearance ) .

another tactic is to keep a group of several individuals and hope that a pair , or pairs , will naturally form . courtship has been observed in the aquarium , and characterised by the male ‘mouthing’ the female and beating his pelvic fins before embarking on a parallel swimming behaviour with her .

the eggs are laid in a cave and the adults guard them . the resulting fry are incredibly small and very sensitive to environmental fluctuations , which makes them so challenging to rear . i suspect , however , that it’s only a matter of time before some enterprising aquarist succeeds in culturing this species .

there’s no reason why a single specimen shouldn’t survive , but an individual won’t behave as naturally , or as interestingly , as a pair or group . they are very much social fish in the wild , so best keep them at least as a pair .

there are actually two sub - species and p . grammica grammica is more sought after than p . grammica melanota due to its more colourful appearance . this species seems to fare best in a relatively dimly - lit aquarium and should ideally be kept in pairs . care is generally quite straightforward .

another species occasionally offered in the trade , and considerably less expensive than the orange - striped gudgeon , is the streamer gudgeon or blue hana goby ( p . hanae ) from the western indo - pacific . this is characterised by trailing caudal fin rays and ‘worm - like’ appearance . they can be kept individually and generally adapt to aquarium life well — but very prone to jumping out !

in the wild they are often found living in burrows with alpheus pistol shrimps . unlike the mutualistic interactions many gobies have with shrimp partners , however , the dartfish doesn’t really have a ‘relationship’ with the shrimp and behaves less like a lodger and more like a squatter !

‘shot silk’ is the name given to the shiny silk fabric which appears as different colours , depending on the angle it’s viewed from . the shotsilk goby’s common name is inspired by the fabric because of the fish’s reflective , iridescent and metallic coloration !

watch out for ominous early signs when shotsilk gobies start to get aggressive . such interactions between conspecifics are initially characterised by a subtle signal — courtesy of the normally hidden chin barbel !

this article was first published in the october 2009 issue of practical fishkeeping magazine . it may not be reproduced without written permission .

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description this schooling species inhabits exposed seaward reefs in relatively shallow water , over hard bottoms . usually many . . .

description this schooling species inhabits exposed seaward reefs in relatively shallow water , over hard bottoms . usually many individuals occupy the same refuge . [ details ]

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liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]

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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 4 december 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 4 december 2014 ) .

american samoa ; australia ; british indian ocean territory ; china ; christmas island ; cocos ( keeling ) islands ; djibouti ; egypt ; eritrea ; fiji ; french polynesia ; india ; indonesia ; israel ; japan ; jordan ; kiribati ( kiribati line is . , phoenix is . ) ; malaysia ; maldives ; marshall islands ; myanmar ; nauru ; northern mariana islands ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; samoa ; saudi arabia ; seychelles ; solomon islands ; sudan ; taiwan , province of china ; thailand ; timor - leste ; united states minor outlying islands ( howland - baker is . , us line is . ) ; yemen

there are 49 records in fishnet2 mostly with one to three , but some with 12 - 14 individuals per lot ( accessed through the fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . net , 2015 - 03 ) .

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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .


the barred cuckoo-dove ( macropygia unchall ) is a species of bird in the family columbidae .

it is found in bangladesh , bhutan , cambodia , china , india , indonesia , laos , malaysia , myanmar , nepal , thailand , and vietnam .

its natural habitats are boreal forests and subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests .

barred cuckoo - dove

barred cuckoo - dove <EOT> select an image : 1 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 2 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 3 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 4 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 5 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 6 . barred cuckoo dove > > pair 7 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 8 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 9 . barred cuckoo dove > > juvenile 10 . barred cuckoo dove > > juvenile 11 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 12 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 13 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 14 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 15 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 16 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 17 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 18 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 19 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 20 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 21 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 22 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 23 . barred cuckoo dove 24 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 25 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult female 26 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 27 . barred cuckoo dove 28 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 29 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 30 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 31 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 32 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 33 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 34 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 35 . barred cuckoo dove 36 . barred cuckoo dove 37 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult female 38 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 39 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult female 40 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 41 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 42 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 43 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 44 . barred cuckoo dove 45 . barred cuckoo dove > > pair 46 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult 47 . barred cuckoo dove 48 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult 49 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 50 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 51 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult males 52 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult females 53 . barred cuckoo dove > > subadult 54 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult 55 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 56 . barred cuckoo dove 57 . barred cuckoo dove 58 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 59 . barred cuckoo dove > > fledgling 60 . barred cuckoo dove > > juvenile on nest 61 . barred cuckoo dove > > female on nest

barred cuckoo - dove ( macropygia unchall ) is a species of bird in the columbidae family .

a hatchling of barred cuckoo - dove ( macropygia unchall ) in the nest , under the rain .

these barred cuckoo - dove species have moderate forest dependence . these species normally occur in altitudes from 450 to 3000 meters .

the barred cuckoo - dove species are non - migratory resident birds . the populations in higher elevations may move to lower levels and plains during winter .

the breeding season of these barred cuckoo - dove is from march to july in india and nepal . the nesting season is from december to march in malaysia .

the natural ecosystems of these barred cuckoo - dove species include montane forests , boreal forests , moist lowland forests , tropical and subtropical dense evergreen forests and secondary forests .

the barred cuckoo - dove species are distributed in india , nepal , bhutan , bangladesh , china , myanmar , thailand , cambodia , laos , vietnam , malaysia and indonesia . these cuckoo - dove species are long tailed and have brownish plumage . these doves are polytypic species .

the upperparts , wings and tail of the barred cuckoo - dove are dark pinkish brown . the forehead and throat are pale buff . the hinderneck has green or purplish pink iridescence .

the iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated the dove species and has listed it as of " least concern " . the cites ( convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) status is ‘not evaluated’ for barred cuckoo - dove (

the bill is grayish black and the eyes are dark brown . the feet are pinkish gray . the barred cuckoo - doves make a repeated hooting sound .

the diet of the barred cuckoo - dove consists mainly of seeds . a variety of seeds , cereals , grains , buds , shoots , berries and small fruits are their primary food . these doves are mostly arboreal and occasionally they feed on the ground .

) has not been quantified . the overall population trend of these dove species is reported to be stable .

these barred cuckoo - doves are monogamous . the nests are usually located on the fork of trees . the nest is a flimsy platform made of twigs , sticks and plant matter . the clutch is usually 3 - 4 eggs .

) is a medium - sized dove , measuring 35 to 40 cm in length and weighing 150 to 180 grams .

the crown , ear coverts and nape are pinkish gray . the underparts are pale buff with fine dark barring . the tail is long and barred .

habitat degradation and fragmentation , human disturbances at the nesting sites and capture for pet trade are the main threats that may endanger the survival of these dove species .

this article is part of project columbiformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each pigeon and dove , including made - up species .

baptista , l . f . , trail , p . w . , horblit , h . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . barred cuckoo - dove ( macropygia unchall ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .

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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .

justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .

the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as generally common to frequent , although scarce in the himalayas ( gibbs et al . 2001 ) , while the population in china has been estimated at c . 100 - 100 , 000 breeding pairs ( brazil 2009 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .

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( blyth , 1843 ) – himalayas from kashmir and garhwal e to assam , sichuan and sw yunnan , and s in hills of myanmar to shan states .

swinhoe , 1870 – mountains of se china ( fujian , guangdong , hainan ) s to c vietnam ( annam ) , laos and thailand .

( wagler , 1827 ) – montane areas of malay peninsula , through sumatra and java to bali , lombok and flores .

37–41 cm ; 153–182 g . forehead and throat buff merging into pinkish grey crown , ear - coverts and nape ; green or purplish pink iridescence on hindneck ; sides of . . .

most common vocalization is a repeated overslurred hoot , preceeded by a soft introductory syllable . . .

inhabits dense evergreen forest and secondary jungle at 450–2750 m in himalayas . in sumatra , . . .

seeds , grain , buds , shoots , acorns , berries and small drupes constitute its diet . occasionally feeds on the ground in open glades in forest . . .

in india and nepal , breeds at least mar–jul ; nests found dec–mar in malaysia ; no data on seasonality from greater or lesser . . .

sedentary and resident throughout most of range , but himalayan birds may move down to adjacent . . .

not globally threatened . considered common in s vietnam and thailand . occurs throughout sumatra , java and bali where said to be common , although less so than

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hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .

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macropygia unchall unchall : mts . of malay peninsula , sumatra , java , lombok and flores

macropygia unchall minor : mts . of se china to vietnam , laos , n thailand and hainan

howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :

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recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : macropygia unchall . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .

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in india , these doves are distributed in the states of sikkim , west bengal , assam , meghalaya , arunachal pradesh , nagaland , manipur , tripura and mizoram .

in china , these species are distributed in the provinces of yunnan , sichuan , guizhou , hubei , hunan , guangxi , hainan , guangdong , jiangxi , fujian and zhejiang .

is distributed in montane areas of malaysia and indonesia ( sumatra and java ) .

is distributed in southeast china ( fujian , guangdong , hainan ) , vietnam , laos , cambodia and thailand .

is distributed in northeast india , nepal , bhutan , bangladesh , myanmar and china ( sichuan and yunnan ) .

the artificial ecosystems of these species include trees around agricultural fields , plantations and rural gardens .

both the parents incubate the eggs and take care of the nestlings . the nestlings are initially fed with regurgitated crop - milk , a secretion from the lining of the crop of parent birds .

later the nestlings are fed with regurgitated seeds and plant matter . the young fledge in about 15 days and become independent after 35 days .

post breeding , the juveniles may disperse and establish in new locations within the range . they may make local movements for feeding and breeding within their range .

throughout its range this species is reported to be common to rare . the generation length is 5 . 2 years . its distribution size is about 12 , 900 , 000 sq . km .

) does not approach the thresholds for being vulnerable , either under the range size criterion , or under the population trend criterion or under the population size criterion .

this article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .

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welcome to the box elder tennis association ! we hope that you enjoy browsing our website , and that you find a lot of useful information . we expect the information on this website to be of particular interest to tennis players both young and not as young , looking to help support tennis as the lifetime sport that it is . and promote health , wellness and community via the sport of tennis .

planning will soon take place for our exciting upcoming activities and tournaments . get out and work on your skills now ! stay in touch with the website for info !

the second teen fun tennis night , was held sponsored by brigham city sights & sounds and beta . follow the link below for complete article .

© 2016 . box elder tennis association ( beta ) . all rights reserved .


the larvae feed on genista florida .

they create an upper-surface tentiform mine .

phyllonorycter genistella

phyllonorycter genistella <EOT> phyllonorycter genistella is a moth of the gracillariidae family . it is known from the iberian peninsula .

lastuvka , a . & z . lastuvka - the european phyllonorycter species feeding on the plants of the tribe genisteae ( fabaceae ) , with descriptions of twelve new species ( lepidoptera : gracillariidae ) . in acta universitatis agriculturae et silviculturae mendelianae brunensis 54 ( 5 ) : 65 - 84 . 2006

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the larvae feed on genista florida . they mine the leaves of their host plant . they create an upper - surface tentiform mine . [ 2 ]

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citation title : " fossil - calibrated molecular phylogenies reveal that leaf - mining moths radiated several million years after their host plants " .

this study was previously identified under the legacy study id s1423 ( status : published ) .

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a local species that is restricted to the south - east of england where it has a predominantly coastal distribution .

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