the white-footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ) is a rodent native to north america from ontario , quebec , labrador , and the maritime provinces ( excluding the island of newfoundland ) to the southwest united states and mexico .

in the maritimes , its only location is a disjunct population in southern nova scotia .

it is also known as the woodmouse , particularly in texas .

white - footed mouse

white - footed mouse <EOT> the white - footed mouse . ( courtesy of cary institute of ecosystem studies )

white - footed mouse with vhf radio tracking collar . credit : virginie millien , mcgill university

a captive white - footed mouse . she is at least 3 years and 8 months old .

white - footed mouse can survive one year in the wild and 3 years in the captivity .

what are predators of the white - footed mouse ? since the white - footed mouse is primarily nocturnal , its main predators are those that are active between dusk and dawn . snakes , owls , bobcats , weasels , and foxes are common predators of the white - footed mouse . the primary diet of the white - footed mouse is seeds , grains , small fruits , and small insects .

white - footed mouse is an excellent climber and swimmer . white - footed mouse has good orientation skills . it can easily find way and return back to its territory from a distance of 2 miles

white - footed mouse with vhf radio tracking collar . photo courtesy of virginie millien , mcgill university .

munshi - south j , kharchenko k . rapid , pervasive genetic differentiation of urban white - footed mouse (

white - footed mouse uses keen sense of hearing , smell and eyesight to find food and avoid predators .

most white - footed mice live for 1 year in the wild . in captivity , white - footed mice can live several years .

white - footed mouse is covered with grey , reddish , light or dark brown fur . abdominal side of the body and feet are covered with white fur ( hence the name , " white - footed " ) .

has a generally longer tail than white - footed mice that is distinctly bicolored . in white - footed mice , the tail is indistinctly bicolored .

deer mouse , peromyscus maniculatus , looks very similar and it can be a challenge to tell a woodland form of a deer mouse from a white - footed or wood mouse . the deer mouse is larger with a longer tail and long hind feet .

grieco tm , rizk ot . cranial shape varies along an elevation gradient in gambel ' s white - footed mouse (

main predators of white - footed mouse are hawks , owls , falcons , foxes , bobcats , weasels and snakes .

the cotton mouse can be distinguished from the white - footed mouse by the cotton mouse ' s darker fur , larger size , and noticeably large back feet . habitat preferences also help distinguish between these two species .

similar species : the white footed mouse is very similar to the deer mouse in size and color . it is hard to find distinguishable features between them . [ 2 ]

the white - footed mouse is also widely distributed but prefers wooded or brushy areas . it is sometimes found in open areas .

munshi - south j , nagy c . urban park characteristics , genetic variation , and historical demography of white - footed mouse (

white - footed mouse has large brown eyes , large , hairy ears and long tail ( one third of body length ) .

breeding interval white - footed mice can have 2 to 4 litters per year .

fig . 2 . range of the deer mouse ( p . maniculatus ) ( a ) and white - footed mouse ( p . leucopus ) ( b ) in north america .

white - footed mouse sleeps during extremely cold periods of the year . it occasionally wakes up to eat food stored near the nest .

white - footed mice are not endangered or threatened . they are common and abundant .

white - footed mice are omnivorous . they mostly eat seeds , berries , nuts ,

breeding interval : white - footed mice can have 2 to 4 litters per year .

brown , l . n . 1964 . reproduction of the brush mouse and white - footed mouse in the central united states . amer . midland nat . , 72 : 226 - 240 .

white - footed mice are not endangered or threatened . they are abundant throughout their range .

mating season of white - footed mouse depends on the climate . southern populations reproduce all year round . northern populations reproduce during the spring and autumn .

in general , white - footed mice are not aggressive toward humans unless they feel threatened . they avoid contact with humans whenever possible . as a nocturnal species , encounters with humans are relatively rare . this does not mean that a cornered or captured white - footed mouse is not capable of biting . if someone is bitten by a white - footed mouse , then they will require medical attention .

like other mouse species , white - footed mice are considered omnivorous . their staple foods include items like berries , seeds and grains . indoors , white - footed mice will eat fruits and certain vegetables . white - footed mice also eat insects such as gypsy moths , which makes them important for controlling pests in the wild . other insects frequently consumed by white - footed mice include caterpillars , grasshoppers , flies , snails and beetles .

white - footed mouse can reach 5 . 5 to 8 inches in length ( including the tail ) and 0 . 5 to 1 ounces of weight .

the white - footed mouse is often misidentified as a deer mouse ( peromycsus maniculatus ) as it closely resembles it in both size and coloration although deer mice tend to have a more distinctive separation of fur colors .

the white - footed mouse is one of the hosts that provides a blood meal for the ticks that can spread lyme disease . credit : phil myers , urltoken

how often does reproduction occur ? white - footed mice can have 2 to 4 litters per year .

goldman , e . a . 1942 . a new white - footed mouse from mexico . proc . biol . soc . washington , 55 : 157 - 158 .

female takes care of the babies on her own . young white - footed mice depend on their mother during the first three weeks of their life . after that period , they begin independent life . white - footed mouse reaches sexual maturity at the age of 44 days .

white - footed mice are small rodents that are capable not only of causing significant damage to buildings , but also of contaminating food and transmitting diseases . newtown - area homes and businesses should look to professional pest control to deal with matters involving the white - footed mouse .

the deer mouse is found throughout most of north america ( fig . 2 ) . the white - footed mouse is found throughout the united states east of the rocky mountains except in parts of the southeast ( fig . 2 ) .

the white - footed mouse is one of the hosts that provides a blood meal for the ticks that can spread lyme disease . photo courtesy of phil myers , urltoken .

what are some adaptations of the white - footed mouse ? white - footed mice area solitary and territorial through home ranges sometimes overlap . they are excellent climbers and swimmers allowing them to be found on almost any land mass . they have excellent sight , smell , and hearing .

research shows that white - footed mice reach maturity at about one month and can then start to reproduce .

white - footed mouse is a type of small rodent that can be found across north america . there are 17 subspecies of white - footed mouse that inhabit dry forests , brushlands , semi - deserts , and rural and urban areas . they keep number of insects under control and facilitate dispersion of plant seed and spores of fungi in the wild . also , they represent important source of food for wild birds and mammals . in rural and urban areas , white - footed mouse are classified as pests because they spread bacterial ( lyme disease ) and viral diseases and destroy crops . wild population of white - footed mice is large and stable .

white - footed mice are often abundant where they occur and are important as prey items for many small predators .

white - footed mouse occasionally produces buzzing sound by drumming on the surface of hollow reed or dry leaves using its front paws . this unusual behavior is still a mystery for scientists .

batzli , g . o . 1977 . population dynamics of the white - footed mouse in floodplain and upland forests . amer . midland nat . , 97 : 18 - 32 .

long , c . a . 1973 . reproduction in the white - footed mouse at the northern limits of its geographical range . southwestern nat . , 18 : 11 - 20 .

price , p . k . , and m . l . kennedy . 1980 . genic relationships in the white - footed mouse , peromyscus leucopus , and the cotton mouse , peromyscus gossypinus . amer . midland nat . , 103 : 73 - 82 .

lynch , c . b . 1974 . environmental modification of nest - building in the white - footed mouse , peromyscus leucopus . anim . behav . , 22 : 405 - 409 .

white - footed mice have excellent homing instincts , and can find their way back home from over 2 miles away .

white - footed mice have keen eyesight , hearing , and sense of smell . they use their vibrissae ( whiskers ) as touch receptors . a distinctive behavior of white - footed mice is drumming on a hollow reed or a dry leaf with their front paws . this produces a long musical buzzing . it is unclear why white - footed mice do this .

paradiso , j . l . 1960 . a new white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ) from southeastern virginia . proc . biol . soc . washington , 73 : 21 - 24 .

white - footed mice eat various types of fungi and help to disperse the spores of these fungi through their droppings . this helps to spread spores of fungi , such as mycorhizzal fungi , which help trees to gain nutrients through their roots . white footed mice may also eat harmful insect pests , such as gypsy moths . white - footed mice are not significant crop pests .

white - footed mice are omnivorous . they mostly eat seeds , berries , nuts , insects , grains , fruits , and fungi . in order to prepare for the winter , white - footed mice gather and store seeds and nuts in the fall .

) . this chapter will deal primarily with these species . collectively , all species of peromyscus are often referred to as “white - footed mice” or “deer mice . ” other species include the brush mouse (

range and habitat : this species is not as widespread as the deer mouse , and occurs throughout much of the eastern two - thirds of the u . s . ( except for the southeast ) and much of eastern mexico . the range of the white - footed mouse barely extends into canada in a few provinces . white - footed mice are most abundant in the adirondack lowlands along the periphery of the park in brushy , grassy fields , and especially in the drier forests and woodlands which support oaks and hickories . however , they are also found in other habitats such as coniferous , and mixed forests , bogs , and swamp edges , to elevations of at least 1484 m ( 4867 ft ) . while the deer mouse is more abundant at higher elevations , and the white - footed mouse at lower , both coexist at intermediate altitudes which offer the greatest variety of tree species . the white - footed mouse appears to use underground nest sites more than the deer mouse .

breeding season white - footed mice breed from march to october , or throughout the year in the southern parts of their range .

glaser , h . , and s . lustick . 1975 . energetics and nesting behavior of the northern white - footed mouse , peromyscus leucopus aoveboracensis . physiol . zool . , 48 : 105 - 113 .

this mouse is a typical rodent in being nocturnal and active throughout the year .

this mouse also makes very high pitched vocalizations , sounding like a bird trilling .

blair wf . a study of prairie deer - mouse populations in southern michigan .

gubernick dj , alberts jr . the biparental care system of the california mouse ,

breeding season : white - footed mice breed from march to october , or throughout the year in the southern parts of their range .

white - footed mouse is an omnivore ( it eats plants and meat ) . its diet is based on seed , acorns , grains , berries , fruit , fungi , insects , caterpillars and small mammals and birds .

white - footed mouse is solitary and territorial animal . it occupies territory of 0 . 5 to 1 . 5 acres . burrows of various mammals , abandoned nests of birds and hollow logs are favorite locations for nesting .

the scientist said a key to protecting human health is to take measures to try to control the white - footed mouse population , and one way to do that is by supporting natural predators by keeping their habitats intact .

what is the breeding season for white - footed mice ? white - footed mice are generally not social animals with the exception of the breeding season , which ranges from march to october in the north and year round in the south . gestation period is 22 to 28 days with nursing occurring until young are weaned . the mice are born hairless and blind , eyes open around 10 days and ears open around 12 days . the mature mating age of the white - footed mouse is 44 days .

the white - footed mouse is common in upland mature forests with fallen logs and snags , rocks , ledges , and brush piles . it also inhabits marshes , canebrakes , and brushy fence rows . the white - footed mouse eats seeds , nuts , grasses , fruits , and some insects . this species will commonly cache seeds and nuts in burrows and near nests . it is active throughout the year , primarily at night . principal predators include owls , skunks , foxes , the coyote , weasels , and snakes . the life span of a white - footed mouse is usually less than 2 years in the wild , but in captivity the record is 8 years . white - footed mice communicate with each other by foot - stamping , vocal squeaks , and scent . females are territorial during breeding season .

white - footed mice live an average of 1 year in the wild , meaning there is an almost complete turnover of wildmice every year .

the white - footed mouse is found in the mountains and piedmont region of northern georgia . its range includes most of the eastern united states , but this species is absent from the coastal plains of the southeastern united states .

the merriam mouse is limited to areas within southern arizona . the california mouse ranges from san francisco bay to northern baja california , including parts of the southern san joaquin valley . the sitka mouse is found only on certain islands of alaska and british columbia .

arbogast p , glösmann m , peichl l . retinal cone photoreceptors of the deer mouse

cornish , l . m . , and w . n . bradshaw . 1978 . patterns in twelve reproductive parameters for the white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ) . j . mamm . , 59 : 731 - 739 .

what do white - footed mice look like ? the white - footed mouse ranges in color from grayish - brown to reddish - brown on its dorsal side and face while its ventral side and legs are white . its average mass is 0 . 81 oz but can range from 0 . 5 oz to 1 oz . other members of the peromyscus family all have smiliar looks or ranges but can be differentiated by either tail length or mass .

workman jl , bowers sl , nelson rj . enrichment and photoperiod interact to affect spatial learning and hippocampal dendritic morphology in white - footed mice (

the old field mouse is distributed across eastern alabama , georgia , south carolina , and florida . the florida mouse , as its name indicates , is found only in florida .

the white - footed mouse is often mistaken for a deer mouse due to their similar appearance . both species have a brown or grayish back and a lighter colored underside . however , the deer mouse tends to have more distinct color variations between its back and belly . white - footed mice are still lighter colored on their bellies , feet and the underside of their tail . they have large eyes and ears to help them navigate in the dark . white - footed mice range from five - and - a - half inches to eight inches in length including their tail . the tail usually represents approximately one - third of that length . most members of the species weigh in at less than one ounce .

the cotton mouse is found only in the southeastern united states from east texas and arkansas through southeastern virginia . the golden mouse occupies a similar range but it extends slightly farther north .

while investigating how forests responded to defoliation stress , institute ecologists discovered that white - footed mouse populations played a large role in regulating the moths . key predators on gypsy moth pupae , research showed that moth populations declined when mice were abundant .

unlike the deer mouse which it closely resembles , the white - footed mouse’s fur is not soft and luxuriant , and the general color of the back and sides is a reddish or orangish , not grayish , brown . a darkish brown stripe occurs along the middle of the back from the head to tail . the tail is shorter than the combined head - body length , is paler but not white below , and does not end in a tuff of white hairs . in other respects the white - footed mouse is similar to the deer mouse . the throat , belly , and feet are white ; the ears thin , sparsely furred , and prominent . the black , beady eyes protrude and the whiskers are long and conspicuous . the average size of an adult is 176 mm ( 6 . 9 in ) in total length and 21 g ( 0 . 7 oz ) in weight .

parsons , l . m . , and c . r . terman . 1978 . influence of vision and olfaction on the homing ability of the white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus noveboraceasis ) . j . mamm . , 59 : 761771 .

none are registered for white - footed or deer mice . because of the species’ habitat , there are few situations where fumigation would be practical or necessary .

white - footed mice are primarily nocturnal . they are mainly solitary and are territorial , although their home ranges often overlap . white - footed mice climb and swim well . they also have a good sense of direction , and are able to return to a particular location from as much as 2 miles away .

when young white - footed mice are threatened , their mother carries them to safety one at a time by holding them by the neck with her teeth .

ormiston , b . g . 1983 . population and habitat dynamics of the white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ) . unpubl . ph . d . dissert . , state univ . new york at stony brook , new york , 181 pp .

white - footed mice are primarily nocturnal . they are mainly solitary and are territorial , though adjacent home ranges do overlap . white - footed mice climb and swim well . they also have keen homing instincts . in one study , captured individuals returned to the site of their capture after being released 2 miles away . when young white - footed mice are threatened , their mother carries them to safety one at a time by holding them by the neck with her teeth .

most white - footed mice live for one year in the wild . this means that there is an almost complete replacement of all mice in the population from one year to the next . most mortality occurs in the spring and early summer . in captivity , however , white - footed mice can live several years .

pedersen ab , antonovics j . anthelmintic treatment alters the parasite community in a wild mouse host .

, grains , fruits , and fungi . in order to prepare for the winter , white - footed mice gather and store seeds and nuts in the fall .

orr , h . d . 1959 . activity of white - footed mice in relation to environment . j . mamm . , 40 : 213 - 221 .

the piñon mouse is found from southwestern california through the southwestern united states to the texas panhandle . the rock mouse is limited to colorado , southeastern utah , eastern arizona , new mexico , and the far western portion of texas . the white - ankled mouse is found only in parts of texas and small areas in southern new mexico , southern oklahoma , and southern arizona .

size : the white - footed mouse is a medium size rodent like other common peromyscus species , although size can vary widely ( hall , 1981 and others ) . the tail is nearly half the total length and the ears are average to large in size .

snyder , d . p . 1956 . survival rates , longevity , and population fluctuations in the white - footed mouse , peromyscus leucopus , in southeastern michigan . misc . publ . mus . zool . , univ . michigan , 95 : 1 - 33 .

white - footed mice carry deer ticks , which spread lyme disease . they also may be a reservoir for four - corners disease , as their fecal matter can contain hantavirus , the organism that causes this disease . white - footed mice may also act as seed predators of oaks and pines , hindering their growth and spread .

harris se , munshi - south j , obergfell c , o ' neill r . signatures of rapid evolution in urban and rural transcriptomes of white - footed mice (

dewsbury , d . a . 1975a . copulatory behavior of white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) . j . mamm . , 56 : 420 - 428 .

grau , h . j . 1982 . kin recognition in white - footed deermice ( peromyscus leucopus ) . anim . behav . , 30 : 497 - 505 .

long - term research shows that white - footed mice are the critical hosts for black - legged ticks , which carry and spread the bacterium that causes lyme disease . superabundant mouse populations allow more ticks to survive and lead to predictable spikes in human lyme disease exposure .

collier ' s encyclopedia . vol 8 . " deer mouse . " 1993 . n . y .

unlike typical gray house mice , white - footed mice , known as peromyscus leucopus , are tawny brown , aside from the white that covers their bellies and feet . they are fast . and they are small , with tails as long as their bodies .

sacher ga , hart rw . longevity , aging and comparative cellular and molecular biology of the house mouse ,

davis , d . e . 1956 . a comparison of natality rates in white - footed mice for four years . j . mamm . , 37 : 513 - 516 .

white - footed mice are abundant throughout north america , but they are especially pervasive on the eastern coast of the u . s . they prefer heavily wooded or brushy areas as these offer the most cover , which protects them from predators . however , the white - footed mouse has become the most numerous mammal in pennsylvania because of its adaptability . this species can make a home for itself in virtually any habitat . white - footed mice always hide their nests carefully . old logs and tree stumps frequently are used in the wild . members of the species may make use of nests that have been abandoned by other rodents or birds . the nest typically is lined with found objects that may include feathers , hair , fur , grasses and leaves . white - footed mice will collect fabrics , pillow batting and insulation fibers to line their nests . when a family establishes a nest in a human habitation , it generally is well concealed in a wall void , basement or attic . kitchen cupboards , the space between major appliances and walls and pantries are other likely places to find a white - footed mouse nest .

choate , j . r . 1973 . identification and recent distribution of white - footed mice ( peromyscus ) in new england . journal of mammalogy , 54 : 41 - 49 .

the hudson river valley experienced a mouse plague during the summer of 2016 . the critters were everywhere . for most people , it was just a nuisance . but for keesing and ostfeld , the mouse plague signaled something foreboding .

anderson jf , johnson rc , magnarelli la ( 1987 ) seasonal prevalence of borrelia burgdorferi in natural populations of white - footed mice , peromyscus leucopus . j clin microbiol ; 25 : 1564–1566

choate , j . r . 1973 . identification and recent distribution of white - footed mice ( peromyscus ) in new england . j . mamm . , 54 : 41 - 49 .

although white - footed mice prefer acorns , they will eat other things . still , it ' s the acorns that play a big part in their ability to thrive , scientists say .

all of the peromyscus species have white feet , usually white undersides , and brownish upper surfaces . their tails are relatively long , sometimes as long as the head and body . the deer mouse and some other species have a distinct separation between the brownish back and white belly . their tails are also sharply bicolored . it is difficult even for an expert to tell all of the species apart .

a wood mouse spends a good amount of its time in trees and shrubs , so it is a good climber .

although previous studies have found that white - footed mice consume honeysuckle seeds removed from their pericarp ( mattos et al . 2013 ) , our findings suggest that whole honeysuckle fruits are not generally consumed by small mammals despite their high water content . however , small granivores may occupy honeysuckle - invaded areas because of the cover provided by shrub understories ( dutra et al . 2011 ) , which likely increased white - footed mouse foraging activity by improving protection from predators ( mccormick and meiners 2000 ) . furthermore , use of microhabitats that improve foraging opportunities is nonrandom ( edalgo et al . 2009 ) ; that is , white - footed mice actively select trails that include dense woody vegetation such as honeysuckle shrubs .

the main source of health concerns connected to white - footed mice is the transmission of lyme disease . like other rodents , white - footed mice carry specific bacteria that are responsible for the disease . deer ticks bite the rodent , which transmits the bacteria to them . then , the deer ticks bite humans or animals , possibly causing a case of lyme disease . on a less frequent basis , white - footed mice may be responsible for the spread of hantavirus . transmission of this illness occurs through the urine , saliva or droppings of an infected mouse . simply inhaling the air where these waste products have been left may be enough to trigger an infection . these serious illnesses require immediate medical attention .

a distinctive behavior of white - footed mice is drumming on a hollow reed or a dry leaf with its fore paws . this produces a prolonged musical buzzing , the meaning of which is unclear .

white - footed mice are active primarily at night and are secretive and alert , thus avoiding many predators . they are abundant in many habitats and are the major diet item of many small predators .

in addition , white - footed mice have bloodstreams that ostfeld calls “a breeding ground for all kinds of infectious agents , ” including pathogens that cause babesiosis and anaplasmosis , other tick - borne diseases .

anita rogic , nathalie tessier , pierre legendre , françois - joseph lapointe , virginie millien ( 2013 ) genetic structure of the white - footed mouse in the context of the emergence of lyme disease in southern québec . ecology and evolution 3 : 7 , 2075 - 2088 , mis en ligne 1er juillet 2013 ( résumé )

size : the total length of the white footed mouse is around 6 . 8 inches ( 173mm ) . the tail has a length of 3 . 1 inches ( 78mm ) and their hind foot is around 0 . 83 inches ( 21mm ) . the weight of the mouse ranges from 0 . 03 - 0 . 06 pounds ( 15 - 25g ) , with an average of 0 . 05 pounds ( 23g ) . [ 1 ]

‘mouse house’ in what is now referred to as sumner canyon at the scripps institution in la jolla , california . when his

macmanes md , eisen mb . characterization of the transcriptome , nucleotide sequence polymorphism , and natural selection in the desert adapted mouse

white - footed mice are known for a unique practice of drumming on hollow reads or a dry leafe with their front paws producing a musical buzzing sound , through it is unclear why they do this .

martin lb , weil zm , kuhlman jr & nelson rj ( 2006 ) trade - offs within the immune systems of female white - footed mice , peromyscus leucopus . funct ecol ; 20 : 630–636 .

ostfeld rs , miller mc & hazler kr ( 1996 ) causes and consequences of tick ( ixodes scapularis ) burdens on white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) . j mammal ; 77 : 266–273 .

while ticks that spread lyme disease are commonly thought of in connection with deer , it is from infected white - footed mice that these ticks usually acquire borrelia burgdorferi , the bacteria responsible for the disease .

dragoo jw , lackey ja , moore ke , lessa ep , cook ja , yates tl . phylogeography of the deer mouse (

white - footed mice range from 150 to 205 mm in total length and tail length from 65 to 95 mm . they weigh 15 to 25 g . the upperparts of the body are pale to rich reddish brown and the belly and feet are white . in some parts of the range it is difficult to distinguish

the other species of peromyscus have somewhat more specialized habitat preferences . for example , the cactus mouse occurs in low deserts with sandy soil and scattered vegetation and on rocky outcrops . the brush mouse lives in chaparral areas of semidesert regions , often in rocky habitats .

) , first demonstrated the feasibility of the deer mouse as a laboratory organism in the 1910s and 20s . he famously built the first

white - footed mice help spread various kinds of fungi by eating the sporing bodies and excreting spores . forest trees ' ability to take up nutrients is enhanced by the " mycorrhizal " associations formed by these fungi . for many temperate forest trees , these fungi have been shown to be an essential element in order for trees to prosper . white - footed mice also help control populations of some harmful insect pests , such as gypsy moths .

the two species of peromyscus inhabiting the adirondacks are similar in appearance , and are not always distinguishable from external characters . the deer mouse usually differs from the white - footed mouse ( p . leucopus ) in having : ( 1 ) soft , luxuriant fur that is gray on the upper parts of the body , ( 2 ) a uniformly colored back or a faint darker stripe along the middle , and ( 3 ) a tail that is dark above and white below ( bicolored ) and is as long of longer than the combined lengths of the head and body , with a tuft of white hairs at the tip . the lower parts of the body and feet of both species are white , and both have prominent , scantily - furred , thin ears , coarse whiskers , and black , bulging eyes . an average sized deer mouse is 184 mm ( 7 . 2 in ) in total length , and weighs 21 g ( 0 . 7 oz ) .

scientists say white - footed mice , which are primary carriers of the lyme bacterium borrelia burgdorferi , are a highly popular host of black - legged ticks — which consequently makes them a key culprit in the spread of lyme disease .

white - footed mice in howard county , maryland are being collared as part of a study to improve control of the ticks that spread lyme disease . the mouse collaring research , never before done in maryland , is a partnership of the agricultural research service ( ars ) , howard county department of recreation & parks ( hcrp ) , and university of maryland ( umd ) .

there are no methods known for successfully keeping white - footed or deer mice out of structures by means of sound . ultrasonic devices that are commercially sold and advertised to control rodents and other pests have not proven to give satisfactory control .

natarajan c , inoguchi n , weber re , fago a , moriyama h , storz jf . epistasis among adaptive mutations in deer mouse hemoglobin .

sheppe , w . 1966 . exploration by the deer mouse , peromyscus leucopus . amer . midland nat . , 76 : 257 - 276 .

young white - footed mice are born blind , naked , and helpless . their eyes open at about 12 days of age , and their ears open at about 10 days . females care for and nurse their young in the nest until they are weaned . soon after that , the young disperse from their mother ' s range . if the young or the nest are in danger , female white - footed mice carry their young one at a time to a safer location .

white - footed mice play a role in the transmission of lyme disease . they carry the bacteria that causes the disease and pass it to larval deer ticks when they are bitten . these deer ticks can then pass the disease to humans or other mammals . they also may be carriers of hantavirus , or four corners disease , through their feces . where they are abundant white - footed mice may limit the soread of trees such as acorns and pines , whose seeds they eat .

most white - footed mice live for one year in the wild . this means that there is an almost complete replacement of all mice in the population from one year to the next . most mortality occurs in the spring and early summer .

schwan tg , kime kk , schrumpf me , coe je et al ( 1989 ) antibody response in white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) experimental infected with the lyme disease spirochete ( borrelia burgdorferi ) . infect immunol ; 57 : 3445–3451

that said , predators of white - footed mice , such as owls , hawks , bobcats , foxes and weasels , won ' t get lyme disease by eating an infected rodent because the bacteria cannot survive digestive tracts of birds or mammals .

this species of mouse is very adaptable , abundant and an important source of food for a variety of bird and mammal predators in the food chain .

pederson ab , grieves tj ( 2008 ) the interaction of parasites and resource cause crashes in wild mouse population . j anim ecol ; 77 : 370–377

hoekstra he , hirschmann rj , bundey ra , insel pa , crossland jp . a single amino acid mutation contributes to adaptive beach mouse color pattern .

the documented allelopathic properties of honeysuckle shrubs ( dorning and cipollini 2006 ) prevent the growth of other vegetation species , further supporting honeysuckle monoculture establishment . in these monocultures , small mammals may be forced to consume and cache honeysuckle fruits ( dutra et al . 2011 ) . white - footed mice are known scatter - hoarders ( vander wall et al . 2001 ) , a behavior that can serve to disperse seeds to new and potentially favorable microhabitats . indeed , small - mammal seed caches are frequently located in areas highly suitable for germination ( abbott and quink 1970 ) . therefore , white - footed mouse caching behavior may contribute to honeysuckle dispersal .

white - footed and deer mice are considered native , nongame mammals and receive whatever protection may be afforded such species under state or local laws . it is usually permissible to control them when necessary , but first check with your state wildlife agency .

goodwin bj , ostfeld rs & schauber em ( 2001 ) spatiotemporal variation in a lyme disease host and vector : black - legged ticks on white - footed mice . vector borne and zoonotic diseases , 1 ( 2 ) , 129 - 138 .

white - footed mice — known for their wide eyes and ears , long tails and snow - white bellies and the feet from which they get their name — are often overlooked by humans , hiding out by the billions in u . s . forests , shrubby thickets and even wooded wetlands . but there ' s one creature that knows them well : the tick .

donahue jg , piesman j , spielman a ( january 1987 ) . " reservoir competence of white - footed mice for lyme disease spirochetes " . am . j . trop . med . hyg . 36 ( 1 ) : 92–6 . pmid 3812887 .

entomologist andrew li , with the ars invasive insect biocontrol & behavior laboratory in beltsville , maryland , who coordinates the tick management project wants the data to better understand how white - footed mice respond to bait boxes that include tick treatments like topical insecticides .

the principal problem caused by white - footed and deer mice is their tendency to enter homes , cabins , and other structures that are not rodent - proof . here they build nests , store food , and can cause considerable damage to upholstered furniture , mattresses , clothing , paper , or other materials that they find suitable for their nest - building activities . nests , droppings , and other signs left by these mice are similar to those of house mice . white - footed and deer mice have a greater tendency to cache food supplies , such as acorns , seeds , or nuts , than do house mice . white - footed and deer mice are uncommon in urban or suburban residential areas unless there is considerable open space ( fields , parks ) nearby .

ordinary mouse snap traps , sold in most grocery and hardware stores , are effective in catching white - footed and deer mice . bait traps with peanut butter , sunflower seed , or moistened rolled oats . for best results , use several traps even if only a single mouse is believed to be present . set traps as you would for house mice : against walls , along likely travel routes , and behind objects . automatic traps designed to live - capture several house mice in a single setting also are effective against white - footed and deer mice . they should be checked frequently to dispose of captured mice in an appropriate manner : euthanize them with carbon dioxide gas in a closed container , or release them alive into an appropriate location where they won’t cause future problems . for further details on trapping , see house mice .

( a ) the forest - dwelling deer mouse , p . maniculatus nubiterrae , perches high on a tree branch in southwestern pennsylvania . ( b ) the beach mouse , p . polionotus phasma , takes shelter among the dune grasses on florida ' s atlantic coast . ( c ) its mainland counterpart , the oldfield mouse , p . polionotus sumneri , is typically found in fallow fields and is sympatric with the cotton mouse , p . gossypinus ( d ) , which occupies adjacent stands of long leaf pine . image credits : a , evan p kingsley ; b , jb miller ; c , d , nicole bedford .

diet : the white footed mice are omnivores . their diet include seeds , berries , nuts , insects , grains , fruits , and fungi . they do not hibernate in winter so they tend to collect seeds and nuts during the fall . [ 1 ]

the brush mouse is found from southwestern missouri and northwestern arkansas through oklahoma , central and western texas , new mexico , southwestern colorado , utah , arizona , and california . the cactus mouse is limited to western texas , southern new mexico , arizona ( except the northeast portion ) , and southern california . the canyon mouse occurs in western colorado , northwestern new mexico , northern and western arizona , utah , nevada , southern california , southeast oregon , and southwestern idaho .

white - footed mice live are most commonly found in warm , dry forests and brushlands at low to mid - elevations . the can survive in a wide variety of habitats , including higher elevation forests and semi - deseart . because they are so adaptable , they also do well in suburban and agricultural settings . white - footed mice are the most abundant small rodent in mixed forests in the eastern united states . in the southern and western portions of their range , they are more restricted in habitat and are mostly found in wooded areas and semi - desert scrub near waterways . in southern mexico , they occur mainly in agricultural areas . white - footed mice build nests in places that are warm and dry , such as a hollow tree or vacated bird ' s nest .

the wood mouse stores seeds such as black cherry pits ( one of its favorite foods ) and acorns under logs and in trees , nests are constructed out of grass , leaves , hair , moss , and bark in a hidden location in its habitat . the wood mouse will also use an abandoned bird nest .

what is their habitat ? white - footed mice reside in a wide variety of areas but tend to favor warm , dry forests or brushlands at middle elevations . these mice can often be found around old stone works and fallen trees as they make good dry homes . this species of mouse is the most abundant in mixed hard woods along the eastern coast . four to twelve individuals can be found per acre of woodland .

fifteen species of native mice of the genus peromyscus may be found in the united states . the two most common and widely distributed species are the deer mouse (

white - footed mice spend a great deal of time in trees . they may use aban - locating and digging up buried seed . formerly , much reforestation was attempted by direct seeding of clear - cut areas , but seed predation by deer mice and white - footed mice , and by other rodents and birds , caused frequent failure in the regeneration . for this reason , to reestablish douglas fir and other commercial timber species today , it is often necessary to hand - plant seedlings , despite the increased expense of this method .

white - footed mice are capable of extremely fast reproduction , which means that a small problem becomes a major headache in surprisingly little time . if conditions are especially attractive to these rodents , then it is natural for even more families to be drawn to the structure . while property owners can take important steps like quickly cleaning up crumbs and any remains of food and sealing off potential entrances , it is nearly always necessary to seek professional rodent control to eradicate an infestation . having an inspection by an experienced professional is the best way to protect against a white - footed mouse infestation of your home or business . call newtown today to schedule a free rodent inspection ( 215 ) 579 - 7378 .

white - footed mice also were the dominant species observed through camera monitoring ( 80 . 30 % of 66 identifiable observations ) . examination of historical trapping data ( edalgo and anderson 2007 ; edalgo et al . 2009 ) suggested that deer mice ( peromyscus maniculatus ) were uncommon at the study site ; therefore , all peromyscus observed were recorded as white - footed mice . additional species included masked shrews ( 6 . 06 % ) , meadow voles ( 4 . 55 % ) , and eastern chipmunks ( 4 . 55 % ) .

white - footed mice live are most abundant in warm , dry forests and brushlands at low to mid - elevations . they do , however , occur in a wide variety of habitats , from higher elevation forests to semi - desert . due to this adaptability , they also do well in suburban and agricultural settings . white - footed mice are the most abundant small rodent in mixed forests in the eastern united states and in brushy areas bordering agricultural lands . in the southern and western portions of their range , they are more restricted in distribution , occurring mainly in wooded areas and semi - desert scrub near waterways . in southern mexico , they occur mainly in agricultural areas . white - footed mice build nests in places that are warm and dry , such as a hollow tree or vacated bird ' s nest .

the deer mouse occupies nearly every type of habitat within its range , from forests to grasslands . it is the most widely distributed and abundant mammal in north america .

white - footed mice range from 150 to 205 mm in total length , with their tail making up about one - third of that length . they weigh from 15 to 25 g . the fur on their back ranges from light brown to a more reddish brown , while the fur on their stomach and feet is white . their tails tend to be darker on the top and lighter on the bottom .

anticoagulants . anticoagulant baits such as warfarin , diphacinone , chlorophacinone , brodifacoum , and bromadiolone are all quite effective on white - footed and deer mice , although they are not specifically registered for use on these species . brodifacoum and bromadiolone , unlike the other anticoagulants , may be effective in a single feeding . if baiting in and around structures is done for house mice in accordance with label directions , white - footed and deer mice usually will be controlled . no violation of pesticide laws should be involved since the “site” of bait application is the same .

scientists say that white - footed mice are posing a particularly high risk to humans this year . a bountiful acorn harvest a couple of years ago gave them the sustenance needed to reproduce in greater numbers and climate change may be pushing them to expand their range toward the north .

more interestingly , scientists discovered a connection among acorn production , mouse population size and the number of blacklegged ticks infected with borrelia burgdorferi , the bacterium that causes lyme disease .

white - footed and deer mice are mostly nocturnal with a home range of 1 / 3 acre to 4 acres ( 0 . 1 to 1 . 6 ha ) or larger . a summer population density may reach a high of about 15 mice per acre ( 37 / ha ) .

home ranges of white - footed mice vary from 0 . 5 to 1 . 5 acres . density ranges from 4 to 12 mice per acre . the home range of males overlap with those of many females , providing access to potential mates . females are territorial during the breeding season .

lackey , j . a . 1978b . geographic variation in habitat use by the whitefooted mouse , peromyscus leucopus . amer . midland nat . , 100 : 171 - 177 .

white - footed mice are omnivorous . diet varies seasonally as well as geographically and may include seeds , berries , nuts , insects , grains , fruits , and fungi . because they do not hibernate , even in cold weather , in the fall they store seeds and nuts for the winter .

schwan , tg , burgdorfer , w , schrumpf , me , karstens , rh . ( 1988 ) the urinary bladder , a consistent source of borrelia burgdorferi in experimentally infected white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) . j clin microbiol ; 26 : 893–895 ( pdf , 4 pp ) .

white - footed mice are efficient transmitters of lyme disease in the northeast . they infect up to 95 percent of the ticks that feed on them . but it ' s people who create the conditions for lyme outbreaks by building homes in the animals ' habitat . stephen reiss for npr hide caption

both white - footed and deer mice occasionally dig up and consume newly planted seeds in gardens , flowerbeds , and field borders . their excellent sense of smell makes them highly efficient at locating and digging up buried seed . formerly , much reforestation was attempted by direct seeding of clearcut areas , but seed predation by deer mice and white - footed mice , and by other rodents and birds , caused frequent failure in the regeneration . for this reason , to reestablish douglas fir and other commercial timber species today , it is often necessary to handplant seedlings , despite the increased expense of this method .

here ' s how it works : adult ticks , which mostly feed upon white - tailed deer , drop off and lay their eggs on the forest floor , jones said . the eggs hatch out the next year into larvae , which at that point are generally not infected by the bacteria that causes lyme disease . the larvae get infected when they feed on an animal that carries the bacteria , which is most often white - footed mice .

charneé l . rose , philip j . turk , stephen m . selego , james t . anderson ; white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) select fruits of native species over invasive honeysuckle fruits , journal of mammalogy , volume 95 , issue 1 , 19 february 2014 , pages 108–116 , urltoken

peromyscus leucopus responds strongly to new objects placed within a familiar area , which may facilitate learning of new escape routes , feeding sites , nests , potential mates , and home - range areas . white - footed mice show weak neophobia , followed by neophilia that declines progressively ( sheppe , 1966 ) .


allomerus decemarticulatus is an amazonian ant species found in the tropics of south america .

this species is most notable for the workers ’ complex and extreme predatory behavior , which involves a symbiosis with both a plant and fungal species .

they live in leaf pockets of a host plant species , hirtella physophora .

these leaf pockets are areas inside of the plant between the leaves and the stem .

each colony , which consists of about 1,200 workers , inhabits a single tree ; however , the ants are spread among the leaf pockets , with typically 40 workers per pocket .

their diet primarily consists of large insects that are captured on the plant , but they also eat some kinds of food bodies produced by the plant as well as its nectar .

they are able to capture their prey , which is much larger than themselves , by constructing a platform that acts as a trap for the unsuspecting prey .

the ants hide in the trap and attack when any insect lands on it .

this technique is an example of ambush predation .

allomerus decemarticulatus

allomerus decemarticulatus <EOT> the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see allomerus decemarticulatus for further details

allomerus mayr , 1878 : 873 . type - species : allomerus decemarticulatus , by subsequent designation of wheeler , w . m . 1911f : 158 .

allomerus mayr , 1878 : 873 . type species : allomerus decemarticulatus mayr , by subsequent designation of wheeler , w . m . 1911 : 158 .

the workers of allomerus decemarticulatus construct a trap for capturing prey that is built from plant material and fungi .

palabras clave . allomerus , hormigas , formicidae , américa del sur , taxonomía .

table 1 . list of the allomerus species here recognized and their plant records .

allomerus septemarticulatus mayr stat . rev . ( fig . 5 a , b )

allomerus octoarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w ) ; forel , 1904 : 679 ( q , m ) ; wheeler g . c . & wheeler j . , 1955 : 125 ( l ) ; kempf 1972 : 19 ( revised status as species ) ; bolton 1995 : 61 ( catalogue ) . allomerus tuberculatus forel , 1912 : 2 ( w , m ) ; allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . tuberculatus : wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 . n . syn . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus : wheeler , w . m . , 1942 : 199 . allomerus octoarticulatus var . demerarae wheeler , w . m . in wheeler , g . c . , 1935 : 92 ( w , q , m ) ; allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . demerarae : wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 200 . n . syn . allomerus decemarticulatus novemarticulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann in wheeler , w . m . , 1942 : 199 ( w ) . n . syn . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . exanguis wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 200 [ unavailable name ] . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . angulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 [ unavailable name ] . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . melanoticus : wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 202 [ unavailable name ] .

allomerus octoarticulatus mayr ( figs . 4 a , b , c , d , e )

allomerus septemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w ) ; forel , 1904 : 680 ( q ) ; allomerus octoarticulatus var . septemarticulatus : forel , 1904 : 680 ; allomerus octoarticulatus septemarticulatus : wheeler w . m . , 1942 : 203 ; bolton 1995 : 61 .

the resident allomerus decemarticulatus colonies were over - provisioned ( experimental trees ; open circles ; n = 31 ) or not ( control trees ; filled circles ; n = 41 ) ( means ± se ) .

wheeler ( 1942 ) reports an a . decemarticulatus collection made on expanded hirtella peduncles and another ( probably ) on tococa or duroia , both from brazil . dejean et al . ( 2001 ) cite monogynous colonies of a . decemarticulatus in hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , with populations of more than 1 . 000 workers , which patrol leaves during the day , searching for prey . the allomerus material reported by kempf ( 1975 : 347 ) as a . decemarticulatus could be allomerus brevipilosus , if there is species fidelity to the associated plants .

allomerus vogeli kempf , 1975 : 348 ( w , m ) ; bolton 1995 : 61 .

one amazon species ( allomerus decemarticulatus ) cooperatively builds extensive traps from plant fiber . these traps have many holes and , when an insect steps on one , hundreds of ants inside use the openings to seize it with their jaws .

relative operational taxonomic unit ( otu ) richness of bacterial phyla in cuticular microbiomes of allomerus and tetraponera ants . for allomerus , two proteobacteria otus that could not be assigned to a class were omitted from the analysis .

wheeler ( 1942 ) reports an a . decemarticulatus collection made on expanded hirtella peduncles and another ( probably ) on tococa or duroia , both from brazil . dejean et al . ( 2001 ) cite monogynous colonies of a . decemarticulatus in hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , with populations of more than 1 . 000 workers , which patrol leaves during the day , searching for prey . the allomerus material reported by kempf ( 1975 : 347 ) as a . decemarticulatus could be a . brevipilosus , if there is species fidelity to the associated plants .

fernández , f . 2007a . the myrmicine ant genus allomerus mayr . caldasia . 29 : 159 - 175 . pdf

top image : a wasp tries to steal from an allomerus trap ( photo from de jean et al 2012 ) .

. . . in the study area , plant individuals are mostly inhabited by a . decemarticulatus with a single mature colony per plant ( solano et al . , 2003 ) , although another allomerus species , a . octoarticulatus , can compete for the same host plant in a few locations . allomerus decemarticulatus is a strictly monogynous ant species ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . reproductive individuals are produced throughout the year , since there is no massive mating swarm ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . . . .

figure 5 . allomerus septemarticulatus . a , worker in lateral view ; b , queen in lateral view , wings omitted .

3 . corbara b . 2005 . les piéges des fourmis allomerus . insectes 138 ( 3 ) : 15 - 17 .

dejean et al . ( 2001 ) studied predatory behavior in allomerus decemarticulatus . more recently dejean et al . ( 2005 ) registered trap building behavior for the first time in this species . these structures seem to help ants catch prey , and was an unknown behavior in ants .

6 . dejean a . , p . j . solano , m . belin - depoux , p . cerdan & b . corbara . 2001 . predatory behavior of patrolling allomerus decemarticulatus workers ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) on their host plant . sociobiology 37 : 571 - 577 .

. . . in the study area , plant individuals are almost exclusively inhabited by a . decemarticulatus with a single colony per plant ( solano et al . 2003 ) . moreover , a . decemarticulatus has never been found in association with another myrmecophyte ( grangier et al . 2009 ) . as in any other protective mutualism between ants and plants , a . decemarticulatus workers protect their host plant from defoliators , thus favouring its vegetative growth ( grangier et al . 2008 ; orivel et al . 2011 ) . . . .

to summarize , we found z . annulosus only on pubescent plants , including the myrmecophyte h . physophora whether or not the plant was sheltering a mutualistic a . decemarticulatus colony . the plant is slightly protected from defoliators , while z . annulosus is aided throughout its entire development . the relationship between z . annulosus and a . decemarticulatus corresponds to the simple coexistence of two competitors sharing hunting areas , with z . annulosus individuals benefiting from enemy - free space thanks to the presence of plant trichomes protecting them from a . decemarticulatus attacks .

. . . plant individuals are almost exclusively inhabited by the arboreal ant a . decemarticulatus with a single colony per plant ( solano et al . 2003 ) . moreover , a . decemarticulatus has never been found in association with another myrmecophyte species in the study area ( grangier et al . 2009 ) . as in any other protective mutualism between ants and plants , a . decemarticulatus workers protect their host plant from defoliators through their predatory behaviour ( dejean et al . 2001dejean et al . , 2005 grangier et al . 2008 ) . . . .

the ants , called allomerus decemarticulatus , live in trees in the amazon . their trap is made of natural plant hairs , some regurgitated goo , and a binding fungus that the ants , amazingly , appear to farm . it allows the ants to snag a meal , such as a large flying insect , that they otherwise could not handle .

. . . allomerus decemarticulatus is a strictly monogynous ant species ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . reproductive individuals are produced throughout the year , since there is no massive mating swarm ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . founding queens disperse by flying from their mother colony to search for an available host plant . . . .

allomerus decemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w ) ; kempf , 1975 : 347 ( q ) . worker measurements ( n = 1 ) : hw 0 . 55 hl 0 . 58 , 0 . 60 sl 0 . 33 0 . 55 wl 0 . 58 gl 0 . 54 tl 2 . 20 ci 94 si 60 .

when prey were placed on the stems , a . decemarticulatus workers were always the first to find and spread - eagle them ; z . annulosus nymphs never tried to feed on these prey .

. . . ( chrysobalanaceae ) , and its obligatory ant partner , allomerus decemarticulatus mayr ( myrmicinae ) ( grangier et al . 2009 ) . previous studies on this association demonstrated a conflict between ant behaviour and host plant reproduction , resulting in very low fruit production ( orivel et al . 2011 ; malé et al . 2012 ) . . . .

five polymorphic microsatellite loci of the arboreal ant allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) were isolated and characterized . the amplification and polymorphism of seven additional microsatellite loci , previously developed for the ant species a . octoarticulatus and wasmannia auropunctata , were also tested and the amplification conditions necessary for genotyping the complete set of 12 multiplexed markers in a . decemarticulatus determined . the number of alleles per locus ranged from three to 15 and observed heterozygosity varied from 0 . 09 to 0 . 95 . cross - species amplification of these loci was also successfully achieved in additional species of the same ant subfamily , myrmicinae . this set of microsatellite markers will be used in studies on the mating system and population genetic structure of myrmicinae in general and a . decemarticulatus in particular .

16 . wheeler g . c . 1935 . the larva of allomerus ( hym . : formicidae ) . psyche 42 ( 2 ) : 92 - 98 .

although associations between myrmecophytes and their plant ants are recognized as a particularly effective form of protective mutualism , their functioning remains incompletely understood . this field study examined the ant - plant hirtella physophora and its obligate ant associate allomerus decemarticulatus . we formulated two hypotheses on the highly specific nature of this association : ( 1 ) ant . . . [ show full abstract ]

. . . all allomerus species are specialist plant - ants inhabiting a variety of myrmecophytic hosts ( fernandez 2007 ) . in the study area , the plants are mostly inhabited by a . decemarticulatus with a single mature colony per plant ( grangier et al . 2009 ) , although another allomerus species , a . octoarticulatus , can compete for the same host plant in a few sites . the ants provide their host plant with protection from phytophagous insects , thus favouring its vegetative growth ( grangier et al . 2008a ; orivel et al . 2011 ) . . . .

bolton , b . 2003 . synopsis and classification of formicidae . mem . am . entomol . inst . 71 : 370pp ( page 208 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )

the tree is home to ants called allomerus decemarticulatus , which defend it from hungry insects . in return , the tree provides the ants with leaf pouches and swollen thorns as shelter , and feeds them with nectar and sugary nodules . these food sources are rich in carbohydrates but low in proteins . to supplement their diets , the ants need flesh , and they get it by shaping the tree into traps .

the trap ant , allomerus decemarticulatus , is a small , unassuming south american insect , staying out of sight much of the time in nest pouches among the branches of the tree , hirtella physophora . in this arboreal environment animal prey can be hard to come by . any substantial insect the ants would dearly love to get their mandibles into can simply relinquish its grip on the tree and fall or fly to safety .

background and aims : the plant hirtella physophora , the ant allomerus decemarticulatus and a fungus , trimmatostroma sp . , form a tripartite association . the ants manipulate both the plant trichomes and the fungus to build galleries under the stems of their host plant used to capture prey . in addition to its structural role , the fungus also improves nutrient uptake by the host plant . but it . . . [ show full abstract ]

allomerus decemarticulatus - trap - making . . . actual production of the trap occurs by first cutting plant hairs ( trichomes ) from a narrow vertical stretch of the stem outside of the domatia . . . and regurgitate the mold that acts as a paste and holds the trichomes together . . . this mold will continue to grow in between the trichomes and around the holes to fill out and reinforce the structure . . .

top 5 frightening insects you think insects are just little harmless nuisances ? then you need to be filled in on these top 5 scary insects , that either inflict unbearable pain or chase you half a mile . allomerus decemarticulatus closeup picture : april nobile , urltoken allomerus decemarticulatus trapping insect picture by alain degean gun picture : urltoken didier descouens , smartse & hans hillewaert for the bullet ant pictures japanese giant hornet pics by kenpei . music used : dance of the pixies by jens kiilstofte urltoken licensed under creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international ( urltoken ) " volatile reaction " kevin macleod ( incompetech . com ) licensed under creative commons : by attribution 3 . 0 urltoken make sure to subscribe if you want another top 5 every week ! and leave suggestions down below for what should be next ! if you do you might be put in the next video !

otus comprise pyrotags sharing ≥97 % nucleotide identity . hpad , hirtella - hosted a . decemarticulatus ; cnao , cordia - hosted a . octoarticulatus ; hpao , hirtella - hosted a . octoarticulatus ; avg , average ; sterr , standard error .

figure s1 . rarefaction curves ( 97 % shared identity ) for allomerus ( hpao station , hpad station , cnao station ) and tetraponera ( ngong hills , kitengela , mpala road ) ant samples .

bolton , b . 1994 . identification guide to the ant genera of the world . cambridge , mass . : harvard university press , 222 pp . ( page 106 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )

jaffe , k . 1993 . el mundo de las hormigas . baruta , venezuela : equinoccio ( ediciones de la universidad simón bolívar ) , 188 pp . ( page 10 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )

wheeler , w . m . 1910b . ants : their structure , development and behavior . new york : columbia university press , xxv + 663 pp . ( page 140 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )

allomerus brevipilosus n . sp . ( w ) brazil . a . decemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w , q ) brazil , french guiana . a . dentatus n . sp . ( w ) venezuela . a . maietae n . sp . ( w ) brazil . a . octoarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w , q , m ) brazil , bolivia , colombia , french guiana , perú . = a . tuberculatus forel , 1912 : 2 ( w , m ) . n . syn . = a . octoarticulatus var . demerarae wheeler , w . m . in wheeler , g . c . , 1935 : 92 ( w , q , m ) . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . demerarae : wheeler , 1942 : 200 . = a . novemarticulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann in wheeler , w . m . , 1942 : 199 ( w ) . n . syn . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . exanguis wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 200 . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . angulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . tuberculatus : wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . melanoticus wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 202 . a . septemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w , q ) brazil . status rev . a . undecemarticulatus n . sp . ( w ) venezuela . a . vogeli kempf , 1975 : 348 ( w , m ) . venezuela , brazil .

this specimen is very similar to what is here described as an a . decemarticulatus queen , although the virtual lack of erect pilosity raises attention . there are short hairs on the head , propodeum and ventral surface of the gaster , but the rest of the body can be considered as glabrous . taking into account both queens ( one described above ) which were seen and referred to this species , plus the data provided by kempf ( 1975 : 347 ) , it can certainly be established that the a . decemarticulatus queen has moderate to dense pilosity . the glabrous queen collected in an a . decemarticulatus nest provides the bases to speculate about polygyny or symbiotic processes ( parasitism ) mentioned by hölldobler and wilson ( 1990 ) . this interesting finding will be explored in further publications .

malé , p . g . , loiseau , a . , estoup , a . , quilichini , a . , & orivel , j . ( 2010 ) . characterization of polymorphic microsatellite loci in the neotropical plant - ant allomerus decemarticulatus ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) and multiplexing with other microsatellites from the ant subfamily myrmicinae . eur . j . entomol . , 107 ( 4 ) , 673 - 675 . doi : 10 . 14411 / eje . 2010 . 074 .

forel , a . 1895b . a fauna das formigas do brazil . bol . mus . para . hist . nat . ethnogr . 1 : 89 - 139 ( page 125 , allomerus in myrmicinae , myrmicini )

forel , a . 1917 . cadre synoptique actuel de la faune universelle des fourmis . bull . soc . vaudoise sci . nat . 51 : 229 - 253 ( page 243 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )

hölldobler , b . ; wilson , e . o . 1990 . the ants . cambridge , mass . : harvard university press , xii + 732 pp . ( page 16 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )

illustration of the presence of z . annulosus as a function of the presence of allomerus decemarticulatus and the mean number of leaves ( ±se ) of h . physophora . presence of z . annulosus ( filled circle ) , absence ( empty circle ) . glm : factors ants : ns ; size : ns ; leaves : p < 0 . 01 ; ants - size interaction : ns ; leaves - size interaction : ns ; ants - leaves interaction : p < 0 . 01 .

in the understory of pristine guianese forests , the myrmecophyte hirtella physophora almost exclusively shelters colonies of the plant - ant allomerus decemarticulatus in its leaf pouches . we experimentally tested three non - mutually exclusive hypotheses concerning phenomena that can determine the species specificity of this association throughout the foundation stage of the colonies : ( 1 ) interspecific competition results in the overwhelming presence of a . decemarticulatus queens or incipient colonies ; ( 2 ) exclusion filters prevent other ant species from entering the leaf pouches ; and ( 3 ) host - recognition influences the choice of founding queens , especially a . decemarticulatus . neither interspecific competition , nor the purported exclusion filters that we examined play a major role in maintaining the specificity of this association . unexpectedly , the plant trichomes lining the domatia appear to serve as construction material during claustral foundation rather than as a filter . finally , a . decemarticulatus queens are able to identify their host plant from a distance through chemical and / or visual cues , which is rarely demonstrated in studies on obligatory ant–plant associations . we discuss the possibility that this specific host - recognition ability could participate in shaping a compartmentalized plant - ant community where direct competition between ant symbionts is limited . © 2009 the linnean society of london , biological journal of the linnean society , 2009 , 97 , 90–97 .

allomerus samples were collected in french guiana from three inland sites , basevie , area 9 , and area 24 , which all are close to the field station at barrage de petit saut . hirtella - hosted a . decemarticulatus colonies ( hpad ) were sampled as well as cordia - hosted a . octoarticulatus colonies ( cnao ) and hirtella - hosted a . octoarticulatus ( hpao ) colonies . five worker ants from each of the hpad , cnao , and hpao samples were pooled and stored in 1 ml of 20 % glycerol at −20°c , until processing . allomerus decemarticulatus and a . octoarticulatus ants were distinguished morphologically by counting the number of antennal segments of representative worker ants under a stereomicroscope , 10 for a . decemarticulatus and eight for a . octoarticulatus . tetraponera penzigi workers were provided by naomi e . pierce ( harvard , u . s . a . ) and were sampled from kitengela ( s1 o 23′526′′ e36 o 49′108′′ ) and ngong hills ( s1 o 26′946′′ e36 o 38′358′′ ) from southern kenya ( near nairobi ) , as well as mpala road ( n0 o 32′ e36 o 42′ ) from central kenya ( laikipia district ) . an average of five worker ants were collected from each colony and were preserved in 1 ml of 20 % glycerol .

. . . this third partner , an ascomycota from the order chaetothyriales , therefore serves a structural purpose . allomerus decemarticulatus also supply their host tree with nutrients via the walls of the domatia and the fungus with wastes , whilst the fungus , in turn , also provides the host plant with nutrients [ 19 , 26 ] . finally , the workers partially castrate their host plant by cutting and chewing both the sterile and fertile parts of the flower buds [ 24 , 27 ] . . . .

comments . although there are no phylogenetic studies for tribe solenopsidini , allomerus seems to be a monophyletic genus . the clypeal configuretion and the constriction in the proximal base of each antennal club segment seem to be unique characteristics within the solenopsidini ( bolton 1987 ) . the clypeus , which is broadly inserted between the frontal antennal lobes , contradicts the tribal characterization ( except for diplomorium and allomerus , the remaining tribe members possess a narrow insertion , making the carinae close together ) . as bolton ( 1987 ) points out , the clypeal configuretion in allomerus can be a plesiomorphic condition or a secondary broadening . for now , neither of the explanations can be stated as more valid than the other .

mayr , g . 1878 [ 1877 ] . formiciden gesammelt in brasilien von professor trail . verh . k - k . zool . - bot . ges . wien 27 : 867 - 878 ( page 873 , allomerus as genus )

dalla torre , k . w . von . 1893 . catalogus hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus . vol . 7 . formicidae ( heterogyna ) . leipzig : w . engelmann , 289 pp . ( page 78 , allomerus in myrmicinae )

we also noted what kinds of interactions occurred between z . annulosus and a . decemarticulatus workers . during observations conducted prior to this study , we verified if one of the species preyed on the other . we then verified if they competed for prey by conducting experiments where we placed live nasutitermes sp . termite workers at three different places on a plant sheltering both an a . decemarticulatus colony and z . annulosus second or third instar nymphs . ( 1 ) we dropped a termite from ca . 5 cm in height onto the centre of the upper surface of the leaves where a z . annulosus was hunting . ( 2 ) we then dropped a termite near the domatia where workers were much more numerous . ( 3 ) finally , using forceps and selecting an internode situated above a leaf on which a z . annulosus was hunting , we placed the prey on the side of the stem without the trap built by a . decemarticulatus workers . each time we noted whether a z . annulosus or an a . decemarticulatus worker caught the prey first and verified if the other tried to rob the prey , or if they shared it . fifty replicates were conducted in each case .

when prey were dropped near the domatia , a . decemarticulatus and z . annulosus caught them first 20 and 30 times , respectively ( fisher ' s exact - test : p = 0 . 07 ) . when the ants caught the prey first , z . annulosus nymphs approached the domatia in five cases out of 20 , extending their rosters toward the prey , but finally gave up and moved further away . the a . decemarticulatus workers never reacted when the z . annulosus nymphs caught the prey first , allowing the nymphs to move slowly toward the centre of the leaves to eat the prey .

the allomerus decemarticulatus species is native to the tropics of south america . they are featured on this list because of their unique way of ambushing unwary giant insects . amazonian ants use a particular kind of fungus that they grow themselves – it’s never present in stems that weren’t touched by these ants . when the unsuspecting insect lands on a stem full of those trap holes , the predator insects swoop in and catch it with their mandibles . then , they slowly drag the captive to a leaf pouch , where they tear their prey apart . ouch .

the neotropical myrmicine ant genus allomerus mayr is revised . the genus is apparently monophyletic based on the antennal club configuretion . i recognize 8 species ( 4 described as new ) : allomerus brevipilosus n . sp . ( brazil ) , a . decemarticulatus mayr ( brazil , french guiana ) , a . dentatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) , a . maietae n . sp . ( brazil ) , a . octoarticulatus mayr ( = a . tuberculatus forel n . syn . = a . octoarticulatus var . demerarae w . m . wheeler n . syn . = a . novemarticulatus wheeler & mann n . syn . [ brazil , bolivia , colombia , french guiana , peru ] ) , a . septemarticulatus mayr status rev . ( brazil ) , a . undecemarticulatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) and a . vogeli kempf ( venezuela , brazil ) . better knowledge of the taxonomy of allomerus is needed to understand the apparently sporadic differences in antennal flagellomere number and speciation processes that are probably linked to plant cavity colonization .

emery , c . 1895l . die gattung dorylus fab . und die systematische eintheilung der formiciden . zool . jahrb . abt . syst . geogr . biol . tiere 8 : 685 - 778 ( page 769 , allomerus in myrmicinae , myrmicini )

the plant hirtella physophora , the ant allomerus decemarticulatus and a fungus , trimmatostroma sp . , form a tripartite association . the ants manipulate both the plant trichomes and the fungus to build galleries under the stems of their host plant used to capture prey . in addition to its structural role , the fungus also improves nutrient uptake by the host plant . but it still remains unclear whether the fungus plays an indirect or a direct role in transferring nutrients to the plant . this study aimed to trace the transfer of n from the fungus to the plant ' s stem tissue .

among those plants on which we observed z . annulosus was hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , a myrmecophyte that specifically houses colonies of the plant - ant allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) in pouches situated at the base of the leaf lamina , and provides them with extrafloral nectar . the workers of this species forage for prey on the host plant foliage and build gallery - shaped traps to capture large insects [ 24 ] , [ 25 ] . therefore , in the case of h . physophora , two predators seem to share a limited territory represented by the plant ' s foliage .

figure 7 . allomerus vogeli . a , worker in lateral view ; b , worker head in full face view ; c , male head in full face view ; d , male front wing . redrawn from kempf 1975 : 349 , figures 1 - 4 .

se ofrece una revisión de las hormigas myrmicinae del género allomerus mayr . este es un género aparentemente monofilético debido a la configureción de la maza antenal . se reconocen ocho species ( cuatro nuevas ) : allomerus brevipilosus n . sp . ( brasil ) , a . decemarticulatus mayr ( brasil , guayana francesa ) , a . dentatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) , a . maietae n . sp . ( brasil ) , a . octoarticulatus mayr ( = a . tuberculatus forel n . syn . = a . octoarticulatus var . demerarae w . m . wheeler n . syn . = a . novemarticulatus wheeler & mann n . syn . [ brasil , bolivia , colombia , guayana francesa , perú ] ) , a . septemarticulatus mayr status rev . ( brasil ) , a . undecemarticulatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) y a . vogeli kempf ( venezuela , brasil ) . se necesita saber más de la taxonomía y la biología de allomerus para entender las diferencias aparentemente esporádicas en el número de segmentos de las antenas y los procesos de especiación ligados a la colonización de partes internas de las plantas .

we focused this study on hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) that houses colonies of allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) in pouches situated at the base of the leaf lamina ( fig . 1 ) and provides them with extrafloral nectar . workers build galleries under the stems of their host - plants that serve as traps to capture insects of up to 1800 times the weight of a worker ( fig . 1 ; [ 25 ] ) . to build these galleries , the workers first cut plant trichomes along the stems , clearing a path ; then , using uncut trichomes as pillars , they build the vault of the galleries by binding together the cut trichomes with the mycelium of a fungus that they manipulate [ 25 ] . this third partner , an ascomycota from the order chaetothyriales , therefore serves a structural purpose . allomerus decemarticulatus also supply their host tree with nutrients via the walls of the domatia and the fungus with wastes , whilst the fungus , in turn , also provides the host plant with nutrients [ 19 ] , [ 26 ] . finally , the workers partially castrate their host plant by cutting and chewing both the sterile and fertile parts of the flower buds [ 24 ] , [ 27 ] .

comments . allomerus maietae is distinguished from the rest of the species by the shape of the mesosomal profile in lateral view ( fig . 3 ) , where the weakly convex promesonotum passes smoothly into the propodeum , which is slightly concave . the propodeal spiracle is very high . the body hairs are longer than in any other allomerus species , as well as the clypeal hairs , where the medial hair reaches half of the mandibularl length . the intermediate antennal flagelomeres are relatively slender . the type specimen was captured in maieta neblinensis in the amazon .

ashmead , w . h . 1905c . a skeleton of a new arrangement of the families , subfamilies , tribes and genera of the ants , or the superfamily formicoidea . can . entomol . 37 : 381 - 384 ( page 383 , allomerus in myrmicinae , stenammini )

insect fungiculture is practiced by ants , termites , beetles , and gall midges and it has been suggested to be widespread among plant–ants . some of the insects engaged in fungiculture , including attine ants and bark beetles , are known to use symbiotic antibiotic - producing actinobacteria to protect themselves and their fungal cultivars against infection . in this study , we analyze the bacterial communities on the cuticles of the plant–ant genera allomerus and tetraponera using deep sequencing of 16s rrna . allomerus ants cultivate fungus as a building material to strengthen traps for prey , while tetraponera ants cultivate fungus as a food source . we report that allomerus and tetraponera microbiomes contain > 75 % proteobacteria and remarkably the bacterial phyla that dominate their cuticular microbiomes are very similar despite their geographic separation ( south america and africa , respectively ) . notably , antibiotic - producing actinomycete bacteria represent a tiny fraction of the cuticular microbiomes of both allomerus and tetraponera spp . and instead they are dominated by γ - proteobacteria erwinia and serratia spp . both these phyla are known to contain antibiotic - producing species which might therefore play a protective role in these ant–plant systems .

wheeler , w . m . 1911g . a list of the type species of the genera and subgenera of formicidae . ann . n . y . acad . sci . 21 : 157 - 175 ( page 158 , type - species : allomerus decearticulatus ; by subsequent designation )

ettershank , g . 1966 . a generic revision of the world myrmicinae related to solenopsis and pheidologeton ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . aust . j . zool . 14 : 73 - 171 ( page 111 , review of genus ; page 81 , allomerus in myrmicinae , megalomyrmex genus group )

. . . these treelets have longlived leaves that bear a pair of leaf - domatia at the base of each lamina . the domatia differ both morphologically and anatomically from the lamina ( leroy et al . 2008 ) . in the study area , h . physophora is strictly associated with the plant–ant a . decemarticulatus ( myrmici - nae ) . . . .

5 . debout g . , r . pereyra , b . c . emerson y d . w . yu . 2005 . characterization of polymorphic microsatellites in the castration parasite plant - ant allomerus octoarticulatus cf . demerarae ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) . molecular ecology notes 6 : 182 - 184 .

emery , c . 1914e . intorno alla classificazione dei myrmicinae . rend . sess . r . accad . sci . ist . bologna cl . sci . fis . ( n . s . ) 18 : 29 - 42 ( page 41 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini [ subtribe monomoriini ] )

several allomerus specimens with new name labels were found in the mzsp , but it was impossible to establish the origin of these names , as no one else is actually working on the revision of the genus ( brandão , personal communication ) ; some of these names are used in the present paper .

although most classifications place allomerus in the tribe solenopsidini ( hölldobler & wilson 1990 , bolton 1987 , 2003 ) , this genus ( and the old world diplomorium ) do not fit the tribal diagnosis offered by bolton ( 1987 , 2003 ) . bolton ( 1987 ) suggests diplomorium ( monotypic genus known from south africa ) as the genus closest to allomerus , especially based on its clypeal configuretion . if this sister group relation is shown to be true , it might be a biogeographical distribution to be studied carefully , because no known group of sister ant taxa possesses such distribution that joins the amazon valley with south africa .

allomerus octoarticulatus may be a species complex . it is not possible to be sure as no types of the subspecies or varieties linked to this named were seen except for those of allomerus demerarae . i decided that the subspecies or varieties should be placed as octoarticulatus synonyms , due to the following reasons : the observation of allomerus demerarae cotypes ( lacm ) and the a . tuberculatus forel paratype picture ( mcz webpage ) shows that the only difference between these ants and the a . octoarticulatus concept is based upon differences in the propodeum . in a . demerarae the propodeum is slightly longer , and in a . angulatus and a . tuberculatus it is slightly angulate . the allomerus tuberculatus paratype photograph ( mcz webpage ) shows no signs of the tubercles mentioned by wheeler ( 1942 ) when referring to this variety . from the observed material it can be said that a gradation exists in terms of propodeal shape , from convex without angles and teeth , to highly angulate ( in lateral view ) . on the other hand the posterior and basal propodeal faces can be simple or with a pair of lateral carinae . in the few observed females and the observations made by wheeler ( 1942 ) , it seems that the propodeum is also variable , from rounded and continuous to toothed , with the female in an intermediate condition . i prefer to interpret these observations in the sense of allomerus octoarticulatus as a variable species . it is possible that it is really a complex with several species , but this can only be determined with more material and the observation of types .

little is known about the aggressiveness of plant - ants typically living in isolated trees nor about how that aggressiveness varies based on this isolation . here , we examine intra - and interspecific aggressiveness between workers of two allomerus species associated with two different myrmecophytes . in both cases , the level of intraspecific aggressiveness is very low whatever the distance separating the tested nests , while interspecific conflicts are always violent . similar patterns of aggressiveness have been reported in various ant species , but the strictly arboreal life of allomerus ants associated with the isolation of their adult colonies highlight different ecological conditions that might explain the lack of aggressiveness between conspecifics .

" it is something manufactured by the ants from elements coming from the plant and the environment , " he said in an email interview . " contrary to social spiders which are also collectively building a trap ( their web ) from the silk they produce , the trap of allomerus is made from external products . "

wheeler , w . m . 1922i . ants of the american museum congo expedition . a contribution to the myrmecology of africa . vii . keys to the genera and subgenera of ants . bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 45 : 631 - 710 ( page 663 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )

when z . annulosus nymphs moved from one leaf to another they walked on the upper part of the stems , avoiding putting their legs on the trap where a . decemarticulatus workers ambushed in a group . nevertheless , there were exceptions as five first and second instar nymphs were captured , meaning that exceptionally small z . annulosus nymphs can be caught despite the care they take to avoid the traps .

only otus comprising ≥1 % relative pyrotag abundance are shown . also shown is the average percent abundance ( avg ) and standard error ( sterr ) of taxa . taxonomy at the level of class is shown for proteobacteria . otu , operational taxonomic unit ; hpad , hirtella - hosted a . decemarticulatus ; cnao , cordia - hosted a . octoarticulatus ; hpao , hirtella - hosted a . octoarticulatus .

figure s1 . photographs of the reproductive parts of hirtella physophora during the different stages of anthesis and fruiting . ( a ) flower buds are segregated on fasciculate racemous inflorescences ; ( b ) as the flower opens , the stamens and the style progressively uncoil ; ( c ) flowers are characterized by a pentamerous perianth with five pale pink to white petals alternating with the sepal . allomerus decemarticulatus workers can be observed foraging at the mouth of the floral cup ; ( d ) once the flowers are completely open , the stigma from one flower is several centimetres away from that flower’s anthers , but can be very close to the anthers of another flower ; ( e - f ) the fruit is a fleshy drupe . ( jpeg 4670 kb )

figure 4 . allomerus octoarticulatus . a , worker in lateral view ; b , worker head in full face view ; c , queen in lateral view , wings omitted ; d , queen head in full face view ; e , male head in full face view . fig . 4e redrawn from kempf 1975 : 349 , figure 5 .

this species has been collected on hirtella myrmecophila ( mzsp ) , leaf cavities in remijia physophora , beneath leaves and caulinar cavities in tocota setifera pilger in brazil , and caulinar cavities in cordia hispidissima in bolivia ( wheeler 1942 ) . debout et al . ( 2005 ) isolated 15 a . octoarticulatus ( cf . demerarae ) microsatelites , obtaining high intrapopulation variation , results that are also likely for a . decemarticulatus .

debout g . d . g . , pereyra r . , emerson b . c . & yu d . w . 2006 : characterization of polymorphic microsatellites in the castration parasite plant - ant allomerus octoarticulatus cf . demerarae ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) . mol . ecol . notes 6 : 182 - 184 go to original source . . .

the diversity of proteobacteria within allomerus and tetraponera cuticular microbiomes . ( a and c ) relative abundance of pyrotags from proteobacterial classes ; ( b and d ) relative abundance of operational taxonomic units ( otus ) ( 97 % identity ) from proteobacterial classes . the distribution and average relative abundance of proteobacteria pyrotags and otus is enumerated in table s1 .

. . . hirtella physophora is an understorey myrmecophytic shrub whose ant - domatia consist of two leaf pouches situated at the base of the leaf blade , on both sides of the petiole . the leaf blades bear extra - floral nectaries on their abaxial surface ( leroy et al . 2008 ) . in french guiana , h . physophora is specifically associated with the plant ant a . decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) . . . .

bolton , b . 1987 . a review of the solenopsis genus - group and revision of afrotropical monomorium mayr ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) entomol . 54 : 263 - 452 ( page 282 , review of genus ; page 271 , allomerus in myrmicinae , in solenopsis genus group )

dlussky , g . m . ; fedoseeva , e . b . 1988 . origin and early stages of evolution in ants . pp . 70 - 144 in : ponomarenko , a . g . ( ed . ) cretaceous biocenotic crisis and insect evolution . moskva : nauka , 232 pp . ( page 80 , allomerus in myrmicinae , megalomyrmecini )

in the case of allomerus novemarticulatus , it has been synonymized with a . octoarticulatus for many reasons . in the first place , no 9 - segmented antennae have been seen in workers . there is an a . octoarticulatus worker in which the left antennae seems to be 9 - segmented , but the specimen’s level of conservation does not permit verification . on the other hand , wheeler ( 1942 : 199 ) observed that a . novemarticulatus is almost identical to a . octoarticulatus , except for the 9 antennal segments . it is better to leave this species as conspecific with a . octoarticulatus until better material is available and ensures the existence of an independent allomerus species that actually possesses 9 antennal segments .

when termite prey were experimentally placed onto the centre of the leaves , z . annulosus nymphs always detected them first , captured them and fed on them , while a . decemarticulatus workers never tried to rob these prey . if a patrolling worker arrived by chance , the z . annulosus only lifted the prey with its rostrum , avoiding any contact between the prey and the ant ( n = 17 cases out of 50 ) .

. . . these treelets have long - lived leaves that bear extraxoral nectaries and a pair of pouches at the base of each lamina . the leaf pouches that shelter ant colonies , diver both morphologically and anatomically from the lamina ( leroy et al . 2008 ) . each h . physophora is almost always associated with a . decemarticulatus ( 99 % of the inhabited plants , the remaining being inhabited by crematogaster sp . . . .

relative pyrotag abundance of phyla in cuticular microbiomes of allomerus and tetraponera ants . the cuticles of both ant genera are dominated by proteobacteria . we also report the average relative abundance ± the standard error for each phyla observed . for the tetraponera graph , cyanobacteria and candidate phylum tm7 are not shown but are present in average abundances of < 0 . 01 % .

allomerus samples were collected in french guiana and tetraponera samples were collected in kenya ( see materials and methods ) . bacteria were washed off from ant cuticles using sterile 20 % glycerol and bacterial dna was extracted and used as template for pcr with universal primers gray28f and gray519r ( materials and methods ) . the 16s amplicons that resulted were 454 - pyrosequenced with a gs flx sequencer ( roche ) using the gs flx titanium series chemistry kit . sequence data were quality filtered and taxonomy was assigned using the quantitative insights into microbial ecology ( qiime ) software package ( caporaso et al . 2010b ) . in total , 16 , 427 pyrotags ( allomerus ) and 8388 pyrotags ( tetraponera ) passed quality filtering and were assigned taxonomy .

there is another queen from french guiana , petit - saut collected by b . corbara and coworkers in june 9th , 2000 ( no . 5299 , deposited in ceplac ) and with a label that states “dans nid allomerus 10 - articulatus / hirtella 4” . it is a dealate female and was collected in an apparently normal nest in terms of the population , including the queen itself .

proportion of trees bearing zelus annulosus in each category . n = number of plants observed ; different letters indicate significant differences at p < 0 . 01 ( fisher’s exact - tests and the sequential bonferroni procedure ) . the four cordia nodosa and the tococa guianensis sheltering z . annulosus were occupied by allomerus octoarticulatus and crematogaster laevis , respectively , while the other treelets sheltered azteca spp . colonies .

( a ) leaves bear leaf pouches ( left arrow ) at the base of their laminas . allomerus decemarticulatus workers capture a green locust thanks to their trap : a gallery made using severed host plant trichomes and the mycelium of an astomycota fungus that the ants manipulate to create a composite material pierced by numerous holes ( from under which the workers ambush prey ) . a wasp is seen robbing a piece of the locust abdomen ; the wasp was also captured in turn as was the red reduviid ( right arrow ) . ( b ) at the distal position of the branch , flowers are segregated on racemous inflorescences at different stages of maturation from flower buds to fully open flowers . ( c ) development of young , green ( i . e . unripe ) drupes . ( d ) a dark purple ( i . e . ripe ) drupe . scale bars represent 1 cm .

given that we previously isolated six actinobacterial species from allomerus ants ( one amycolatopsis spp . and five streptomyces spp . ) and four of the isolates produced antifungal compounds ( seipke et al . 2012c ) , it is somewhat surprising that antibiotic - producing actinobacteria are not abundant on allomerus ants . additionally , even though our sampling suggested the absence of antibiotic - producing actinobacteria within the cuticular microbiome of tetraponera ants , we could readily isolate antibiotic - producing actinobacteria from the ants used in this study , including three streptomyces spp . and three saccharopolyspora spp , five of which have antifungal activity ( table s2 ) . in fact , this highlights the caution with which culture - dependent studies should be treated as our own approach was biased toward the selective isolation of actinomycetes , which have a “hairy” colony morphology due to their filamentous growth and are easy to identify by eye on agar plates . the culture - independent data suggests that filamentous actinomycete bacteria have a rare abundance on allomerus and tetraponera spp . as most of the species observed in culturing studies were not detected by deep sequencing the same samples ( materials and methods ) . as noted above , however , it is likely we under - sampled rare bacterial genera .

the assumption that z . annulosus is able to coexist with a . decemarticulatus raises questions about the nature of the biological interactions between z . annulosus , understory plants and ants patrolling their foliage for prey [ 26 ] . in general , these plants benefit from the presence of ants that patrol their foliage , and prey on herbivorous insects . the relationship is mutualistic when the plants reward the ants with sugary substances and / or shelter for the colony ( as is the case for myrmecophytes ) .

" allomerus workers hide in the galleries with their heads just under the holes , mandibles wide open , seemingly waiting for an insect to land , " the scientists write . " to kill the insect , they grasp its free legs , antennae or wings , and move in and out of holes in opposite directions until the prey is progressively stretched against the gallery and swarms of workers can sting it . "

published information on the maximum size and weight of the prey captured by arboreal ants is sparse . oecophylla longinoda workers can capture large insects 20 to 50 times their weight , with this ratio exceptionally reaching 580 for a small bird captured and transported after it had fallen to the ground [ 22 ] . allomerus workers use their gallery - shaped trap to capture insects up to 1800 times their weight [ 16 ] .

in the original description , kempf ( 1975 ) mentions that the a . vogeli worker possesses 9 flagelomeres , sometimes 10 due to the division of segments 2 or 3 , the worker ( figure 1 in kempf 1975 ) has 11 segments as a total . allomerus vogeli , a . dentatus and a . maietae share in the possession of a propodeal tooth or spine , which separates them from the rest of the species that belong to the genus . allomerus vogeli is distinguished from a . dentatus ( the closest related species according to morphological traits ) because of the position of the propodeal spiracle that in a . dentatus is closer to the propodeal spine than in a . vogeli . this species is known from mercés , rio negro , amazonas , brazil ; the type material was collected in myrmidone macrosperma ( kempf 1975 ) .

ant - fungus associations are well known from attine ants , whose nutrition is based on a symbiosis with basidiomycete fungi . otherwise , only a few non - nutritional ant - fungus associations have been recorded to date . here we focus on one of these associations involving allomerus plant - ants that build galleried structures on their myrmecophytic hosts in order to ambush prey . we show that this . . . [ show full abstract ]

allomerus plant associations are of high biological interest . table 1 shows the species list and associated plants based on literature and specimen labels . surely , more field collections will be needed before establishing the exclusiveness of some ants to certain plants . additional information and taxonomically well defined species will result in further symbiosis and coevolutionary studies , as those dealing with the crematogaster and macaranga association in asia ( itino et al . 2001 ) .

myrmecophytism occurs in plants that offer ants a nesting space and , often , food rewards in exchange for protection from predators and competitors . such biotic protection by ants can , however , interfere with the activity of pollinators leading to potential negative consequences for the plant’s reproduction . in this study , we focused on the association between the understory myrmecophyte , hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , and its obligate ant partner , allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) . we investigated the reproductive biology of h . physophora and the putative mechanisms that may limit ant–pollinator conflict . our results show that h . physophora is an obligate outcrosser , self - incompatible , and potentially insect - pollinated species . the reproduction of h . physophora relies entirely on pollen transfer by pollinators that are likely quite specific . potential interference between flower - visiting insects during pollination may also be lessened by a spatial and temporal segregation of ant and pollinator activities , thus enabling pollen transfer and fruit production .