lepidurus arcticus is a species of tadpole shrimp which inhabits both ephemeral pools and permanent freshwater lakes of norway , greenland , finland , sweden , svalbard , iceland , russia and the kuril islands .

unlike other species of tadpole shrimp , lepidurus arcticus is known to coexist with fish , such as arctic char .

furthermore , they exist in water temperatures much colder ( 4 – 7 °c or 39 – 45 °f ) than the other species of its order .

it is a common predator of daphnia pulex .

lepidurus arcticus

lepidurus arcticus <EOT> heart ultrastructure in lepidurus arcticus pallas ( crustacea , branchiopoda , notostraca ) . - pubmed - ncbi

arctic tadpole shrimp , lepidurus arcticus . viewed through a 10x hand lens . queen maud gulf bird sanctuary , nunavut . photo by justin heseltine .

christoffersen , k . ( 2001 ) . predation on daphnia pulex by lepidurus arcticus . hydrobiologia , 442 , 223–229 . doi : 10 . 1023 / a : 1017584928657

lakka , hk . ( 2013 ) . the ecology of a freshwater crustacean : lepidurus arcticus ( branchiopoda ; notostraca ) in a high arctic region ( master’s thesis ) . university of helsinki , helsinki , finland .

arnold , g . p . ( 1966 ) . observations on lepidurus arcticus ( pallas ) ( crustacea , notostraca ) in east greenland . annals and magazine of natural history , 9 , 599–617 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 00222936608651674

… branchinecta paludosa and the notostracan lepidurus arcticus are regularly found in small pools of the arctic tundra regions . these pools are temporary in the sense that they freeze solid in winter . a few species in these groups are found in permanent lakes .

lepidurus arcticus , or arctic tadpole shrimp , belong to one of only two genera in the order notostraca ( arthropoda : crustacea ) . considered living fossils , notostracans have existed since the permian in an evolutionary arrested state ( longhurst , 1955 ) .

wojtasik , b . , & bryłka - wołk , m . ( 2010 ) . reproduction and genetic structure of a freshwater crustacean lepidurus arcticus from spitsbergen . polish polar research , 31 , 33–44 . doi : 10 . 4202 / ppres . 2010 . 03

king eider ( somateria spectabilis ) ducklings . potential future consumers of l . arcticus . queen maud gulf bird sanctuary , nunavut . photo by justin heseltine .

rogers , d . c . ( 2001 ) . revision of the nearctic lepidurus ( notostraca ) . journal of crustacean biology , 21 , 991–1006 . doi : 10 . 1163 / 20021975 - 99990192

want : t . canciformis simplex ( those blue ones ) , t . canciformis green type , lepidurus , giant t . granarius ( so - called t . numidicus ) , beaver - tailed fairy shrimp

along with being a good candidate as an indicator species , l . arcticus may have an important role in the local ecology of arctic ponds . their diet is omnivorous , including ( but not limited to ) detritus , phytoplankton , and small crustaceans like daphnia pulex ( christoffersen , 2001 ; lakka , 2013 ) . with such a wide - ranging diet , l . arcticus likely plays an important role in the ecological structure of pond communities . in addition to their predatory role , l . arcticus stir up sediment as they search for food in in the benthic layer ( arnold , 1966 ) . this stirring up transfers nutrients into the main waterbody where it becomes available to primary producers ( arnold , 1966 ) .

their eggs also play another role in the continued success of l . arcticus . being restricted to often isolated water bodies and having such a short life cycle , l . arcticus is not able to expand its distribution on its own . on top of being highly drought resistant , l . arcticus eggs are also sticky ( lakka , 2013 ) . this aids the eggs in being able to hitch rides to new locations . while their mode of reproduction is not fully understood , it is known that asexual reproduction , through parthenogenesis , is common ( hessen et al . , 2004 ; lakka , 2013 ; wojtasik & bryłka - wołk , 2010 ) . thus , only a single egg is necessary to colonize a new location ( longhurst , 1955 ) .

the most important reason for studying l . arcticus however , is to learn more about them as a prey species for arctic birds . after all , invertebrate zoology is really just a fancied up term for the study of bird food . in europe , purple sandpipers ( calidris maritima ) , arctic terns ( sterna paradisaea ) , and dunlins ( calidris alpina ) have all been observed feeding on l . arcticus ( lakka , 2013 ) . all of which are birds that can be found breeding in the north american arctic . locally to where i first encountered l . arcticus , sizeable populations of king eiders ( somateria spectabilis ) , long - tailed ducks ( clangula hyemalis ) , arctic terns , red - throated loons ( gavia stellata ) , and various species of small shorebirds ( scolopacidae ) could be found nesting and feeding by the various surrounding lakes . it is highly likely that , given the lack of other food sources , l . arcticus makes up a significant portion of these birds diets during the breeding season .

even though they lack genetic diversity ( both spatially and temporally ) , l . arcticus is found across the globe in arctic and subarctic regions ( hessen et al . 2004 ; rogers , 2001 ) . i first encountered l . arcticus while working at karrak lake in the queen maud gulf bird sanctuary . with 13 . 5 km 2 of surface water and an approximate average depth of 1 . 2 m , karrak likely freezes to the bottom during the winter ( kellett & alisauskas , 1997 ) . not the friendliest conditions for a relatively unevolved crustacean .

back to my youth . collecting strange animals from fresh water . ben frederiks found the first one . steve coulson made me remember their name , and this morning i went on a hunt . i caught within 15 minutes 17 lepidurus arcticus , the tadpole shrimp . looks like a miniature horseshoe crab . as food i added daphnia , another of my favourite creatures . i give lectures about this creature about their ability to develop spines when fish are present , sexual and asexual reproduction , the ability to produce haemoglobin in oxygen low waters , their abilty to travel on bird legs , their winter eggs and thier role in cleaning turbid waters from fytoplankton .

the recent discovery of a fine suite of late - glacial strata near ballyhalbert on the north - eastern irish coast in an accessible position has allowed a careful study to be made of the different layers for plant and animal macrofossils . particularly interesting has been the recovery of numerous characteristic telsons of the freshwater notostracan lepidurus arcticus , a species which was reported recently by mitchell 1 from late - glacial levels at ballaugh in the isle of man , at neasham , co . durham , and at mapastown , co . louth . records from these late - glacial contexts are significant since the species is not known in the present fauna of the british isles . its modern distribution is circumpolar , between 65° and 80° n .

the heart of lepidurus arcticus consists of an epicardium and a single layer of strongly polarized myocardial cells , 10 - 50 micron thick , with the myofibrillar part facing the epicardium . the z - bands are diffuse and some z - material forms attachment plaques . relaxed sarcomeres show a hexagonal arrangement of thick filaments and 6 thin filaments in orbit , but filaments often diverge in their orientation . the sarcolemma invaginates from both the epicardial and the endocardial side of the cell , forming clefts and t - tubules . the sarcoplasmic reticulum is loosely reticular , cisternae associate with sarcolemma to form large and typical peripheral and interior couplings . the latter are of the " button - to - button " type and they tend to be located at the a - i level .

so how do they survive ? well , they don’t . not for very long anyways . l . arcticus has a single - season life cycle that terminates with the laying of its eggs in fall ( lakka , 2013 ; wojtasik & bryłka - wołk , 2010 ) . the key to this is their drought resistant eggs ( longhurst , 1955 ) .

hey ! im in a search for finding lepidurus arcticus in my area ( i am in the north ) and i have contacted a local biologist ! i ' m still waiting to hear back from her but she is currently trying to find locations where they have been recorded etc . whats great about this species is that they can live over a year , but are only up to a cm long ( recorded biggest ) and thier eggs hatch before they dry because they live in permanent little lakes . i can still ship the eggs to those interested in buying by freezing some dirt rock solid . this would be a really cool species to have ! imagine a constant colony of triops ! ill post more information when i hear back . also i wont be going to look till the spring , its all frozen . . . . anyways enjoy this link to see more : urltoken aaron

however , dispersal is still not well understood ( hessen et al . , 2004 ) , and overall , lepidurus is just one of many understudied genera of invertebrates . most of the contemporary research done on arctic tadpole shrimp , comes from studies in europe ( e . g . christoffersen , 2001 ; hessen et al . , 2004 ; lakka , 2013 ; wojtasik & bryłka - wołk , 2010 ) . their distribution in the north american arctic and subarctic is poorly known , even less so for the canadian portion than the alaskan portion ( rogers , 2001 ) . this is unfortunate given that in her 2013 master thesis , hanna - kaisa lakka identified l . arcticus as being a good candidate for use as an indicator species . among other reasons , they are sensitive to environmental change ( e . g . , ph , temperature , and salinity ) , are common over wide areas , and are highly visible and easily surveyed .

it is thought that birds are a primary source of dispersal for the species . either by eggs sticking to feet , through being pooped out after digestion of their parents , or by adults intended for ingestion being accidentally dropped in flight ( arnold , 1966 ) . since l . arcticus is one of the few tadpole shrimp species know to coexist with fish , it is also thought that their sticky eggs could attach to arctic char and be carried along as the char migrate to new areas or are taken as food ( lakka , 2013 ) .

arten synes övervintra i äggstadiet . unga individer kan påträffas under juli och fullvuxna under augusti–september . djuren är från och med ungefär en centimeters längd mycket lätta att se där de simmar likt små rockor strax över bottnen . på grund av sitt exponerade levnadssätt utgör de lättillgänglig föda för fågel och fisk . den är dock något mindre känslig för fiskpredation än andra bladfotingar då den stundom påträffats i fiskförande fjällsjöar . l . arcticus är liksom många andra sköldbladfotingar en allätare som livnär sig på växtdelar och bottenlevande smådjur , som mygglarver och maskar . arten gynnas sannolikt av stillastående , helst fisktomma samt av försurning , föroreningar och regleringar opåverkade fjällvatten .

when i first saw arctic tadpole shrimp , i wondered how such a small creature could live , and seemingly thrive , in such a remote and harsh environment . in attempting to answer my question , i expected to find some sort of egg designed to endure the freezing winter conditions . what i was not expecting to find was that l . arcticus is a genetically simple , living fossil , with a circumpolar distribution . nor was i expecting to find that such little arctic buddies could have such large impacts on the surrounding ecology or that they could potentially serve as useful indicators for the rapidly changing northern climate . way to go , little guys !

fjällsköldbladfotingen tillhör gruppen notostraca , sköldbladfotingar , som karakteriseras av att huvud och framkropp är täckta av en kraftig ryggsköld vilken är tillplattad uppifrån . ryggskölden har en rundad framkant , medan det i bakänden finns en djup inskärning med tandad kant . bakkroppen , som är lång och smal , bär en ändgaffel , s . k . furca , bestående av två spröt . de två antennparen är båda mycket små . de första benparen har utskott , som används för förflyttning när djuret kryper på botten , samt för att krafsa i bottenslammet efter föda . de övriga benen är plattade och flikiga . dessa ben , s . k . phyllopodier , är i ständig rörelse och används för kortare simturer , men framförallt som organ för andning , samt för filtrering och transport av födopartiklar till munnen . två fasettögon och ett mediant placerat naupliusöga sitter uppe på ryggskölden , nära framkanten . honorna når en längd på knappt 25 mm medan de mindre hannarna är knappt 15 mm . färgen är gulbrun . släktet har ytterligare en svensk art , spetssköldbladfotingen , lepidurus apus , vilken finns i södra sverige och skiljs genom sin större storlek , längre utskott på första benparet samt längre platta på sista bakkroppssegmentet .

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mclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31

disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .

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animal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from…

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hessen , d . o . , rueness , e . k . , & stabell , m . ( 2004 ) . circumpolar analysis of morphological and genetic diversity in the . hydrobiologia , 519 , 73–84 .

kellett , d . k . , & alisauskas , r . t . ( 1997 ) . breeding biology of king eiders nesting on karrak lake , northwest territories . arctic , 50 , 47–54 .

longhurst , a . r . ( 1955 ) . evolution in the notostraca . evolution , 9 , 84–86 .

fjällsköldbladfotingen förekommer huvudsakligen i högfjällsområdet från jämtland till torne lappmark . arten har en cirkumpolär utbredning i stillastående vatten inom det arktiska området , inklusive sydnorges fjälltrakter .

förekommer huvudsakligen i högfjällsområden där den troligen är relativt utbredd . antalet kända vatten är dock begränsat , bl . a . beroende på att arten är relativt svår att observera , varför vi räknar med ett visst mörkertal . den finns dels i små , fisktomma grunda vatten där den är känslig för inplantering av fisk , dels i större vatten med fiskförekomst ( främst röding ) där arten sannolikt selekterat för ett beteende som gör att den klarar fisknärvaro . arten är försurningskänslig . även om data saknas om eventuell minskning bedömer vi att det finns en fortgående minskning . antalet lokalområden i landet skattas till 25 ( 10 - 200 ) . utbredningsområdets storlek ( eoo ) skattas till 20000 ( 12652 - 50000 ) km² och förekomstarean ( aoo ) till 100 ( 40 - 800 ) km² . utifrån fynddata . minvärde utifrån fynduppgifter . en minskning av populationen pågår eller förväntas ske . minskningen avser kvalitén på artens habitat , antalet lokalområden och antalet reproduktiva individer . pga utsättning av fisk i fisktomma vatten . beroende på vilka av de skattade värdena som används varierar bedömningen från livskraftig ( lc ) till nära hotad ( nt ) . baserat på de troligaste värdena hamnar arten i kategorin nära hotad ( nt ) . de skattade värdena för förekomstarea ligger under gränsvärdet för starkt hotad ( en ) . detta i kombination med att fortgående minskning förekommer gör att arten uppfyller kriterierna för kategorin nära hotad ( nt ) . ( b2b ( iii , iv , v ) ) .

stoppa inplanteringen av fisk i fisktomma vatten . det vore inte orealistiskt att återskapa större , tidigare fisktomma fjällvatten via rotenonbehandling . i vissa områden i södra fjällkedjan kan kalkning behöva sättas in för att trygga artens fortlevnad .

länsvis förekomst och status för fjällsköldbladfoting baserat på sammanställningar och bedömningar av gjorda fynd .

blå punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och övriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan innehålla observationer som inte är validerade . kartan uppdateras var fjärde vecka .

enckell , p . h . 1980 . kräftdjur . signum i lund , ( 8 ) 685 sid .

sømme , s . 1934 . contribution to the biology of norwegian fish food animals . det norske videnskaps - akademi i oslo . 1 . matem - naturvid . klasse 1934 . no 6 . 36 pp .

längre texter , utöver kriteriedokumentation , har sammanställts av : pär - erik lingdell 1995 . rev ulf bjelke 2008 . © artdatabanken , slu 2008 .

i det avancerade verktyget kan man söka ut och få fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst län , i en viss biotop , substrat , som påverkas av en hotfaktor , eller som är knutna till en sk värdart , t ex trädet alm . dessa kan även kombineras .

söka fram arter som är rödlistade , knutna till alm , är beroende av död ved och som finns i kronobergs län .

söka fram arter som är rödlistade , lever i småvatten och som påverkas negativt av igenväxning .

defaultläget i verktyget är arter som är rödlistade 2015 och dessa är klassade på samtliga sökfaktorer . under fliken rödlistekategori kan man dock välja att även inkludera arter som inte är rödlistade . om man väljer att inkludera icke rödlistade arter behöver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte är klassade på samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanställning av vad som är komplett .

denna funktion används när du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka på deras namn . du kan också välja att använda knappen ”jämför arter” för att se bilder , kartor och kännetecken i en jämförelsevy .

du kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via släktträdet och där välja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat sätt att göra ditt urval är att använda fliken ”filtrera” , där du kan söka på olika egenskaper . ovanför listan med sökresultatet finns en knapp ”lägg i mitt urval” .

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if there is another apocalypse and mass extinction , i have no doubt in my mind that my triops will live , and populate the post apocalyptic earth . . . . and then . . . . . they evolve

" . . . whenever you are in doubt , or when the self becomes too much with you , apply the following test . recall the face of the poorest and the weakest man whom you may have seen , and ask yourself , if the step you contemplate is going to be of any use to him or her . . . then you will find your doubts and your self melt away . " - - gandhi

have : t . longicaudatus ( regular * , black beauty * , gonochoric ) , t . granarius * , t . canciformis ( regular , red / albino / japanese , bavarian ) , t . australiensis ( regular , green , silver / queensland ) , t . newberryi * , t . mauritanicus , clam shrimp , fairy shrimp ( red - tailed , spiny - tailed ) , seed shrimp

i ' d love some but . . . i don ' t think i could keep my water 40 degrees . . . < _ <

40f is no problem where i live during the winter . you can also buy fish tank coolers . but most of the time they cost quite a bit . a lot of times you will find little refrigorators at garage sales . you can cut a small hole for a wire to put a light inside then reinsolate the hole . my well water is always at 45f so it would be easy for me to have a drip line near the bottom and an area for thwater to leave the tank near the top where the water is warmer . just some ideas

t . longicaudatus green / t . longicaudatus marbled / t . longicaudatus black beauty / t . longicaudatus gonochoric / t . cancriformis / t . albino cancriformis / t . granarius / l . cryptus / t . mauritanicus

i ' m going to put them in a tiny fridge i will set to 40 f .

how would you be able to view them in a fridge ? anyways i know where i can get a tank cooler and if that does not work i plan to modify a small fridge so then it has windows . anyways i still have not heard back from her . . . .

yeah you ' d be able to view them it ' s glass but it ' s small - - it can prob . only hold a 5 gallon . . . . it ' s built for cooling water bottles nico

yes i ' ve hear wine coolers ( the appliance , not the drink ) work well for these purposes . they ' ve typically got a front door made of glass and are much cheaper than even little college - style refrigerators . definitely something to consider !

what you can do is get yourself a small can cooler and put inside this a length of coiled up airhose of about 20 feet . have another smaller coil which you place inside the triops tank . fill hose full of clean water and a little salt and use a small water pump to circulate the self - contained hose water from the cooler to the tank . similar in the way some computers cpus can be cooled via water . the peltier diode inside the cooler ' sucks ' heat away from inside the cooler and so cools the water in the hose . therefore the heat in the tank is transferred away and it cools . the bit of salt in the hose water prevents it from icing up . one alternative diy is to place a large flat heatsink to the side of the glass tank wall with the peltier on the heatsink and put a small cpu fan on the diode . power it up and the heat is blown away .

abundance , if you happen upon any , i would be extremely interested . i have the perfect environment for these guys in my basement .

okay i have got an email back ! she has 2 locations where they have been reported but sadly both locations are inaccessible by car or boat . i don ' t think i can do a 5 - 6 hour hike to collect those triops . she is still trying to track down other locations ! she also mentioned there was another species here ! she did not give any name . i ' ll get back to you guys on trying to get them from alaska , there are more accessible triops loctions there . i ' ll keep you all posted !

email me where you live and i ' ll see about finding you some locations .

abundance had to go away for awhile , he said he ' d be back in the spring though . he ' s in the yukon , not sure exactly where

anyone know when aaron ' s gonna be back ? i hope he found them . . . . .

: bump : : bump : anyone know when aaron ' s gonna be back ? i hope he found them . . . . .

oh the hounds wouldn ' t be able to sniff them out , he ' d have to do it himself . . . .

hey i ' m back with good news . while searching for alaskan and yukon trilobites , i found a photo of l . articus in hooper bay alaska . the guy who found them called them trilobites thus making it slip under my radar . he did not know what they were . i plan to contact this guy soon and get him to ship them to skagway ( closer and faster to get to , takes to long at the border ) i plan to ask him to get a nice big scoop of the sediment he found them in plus some live specimens . i will post when i have contacted him or more info . here is the urltoken

please refrain from reviving old threads - this one has been inactive almost a year . thank you !

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the habitat consists of exclaves of open steppe vegetation on sands or loess and xerophilous grasslands on alkaline substrates .

the larvae bore the roots of artemisia species .

paracossulus thrips

paracossulus thrips <EOT> paracossulus thrips - urdu meaning and translation of paracossulus thrips , translation , multiple word search ( seperate words with space ) , english to urdu machine translation of paracossulus thrips and more .

what is there to think - at sineva by yakovlev paracossulus thrips . correct necessary .

paracossulus thrips is a species of moth of the cossidae family . it is found in hungary , romania , ukraine , russia , kazakhstan and turkey .

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regions of the russian federation : the volga - don , east caucasus , the european central black earth , central european , western caucasus , krasnoyarsk , lower volga , prealtay , mid - volzhsky , south west siberian , south ural .

[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )

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also common in the southern urals , in the south of western siberia , kazakhstan and altai .

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osedax mucofloris is a species of bathypelagic polychaetes that is reported to sustain itself on the bones of dead whales .

translated from the mixed greek and latin used in scientific names , " osedax mucofloris " literally means " snot-flower bone-eater " , though the less-accurate " bone-eating snot-flower worm " seems to be the form actually used .

the species is found in north east atlantic where it is abundant .

osedax mucofloris

osedax mucofloris <EOT> olingo added text to " bone - eating snot - flower worm ( osedax mucofloris ) " on " osedax mucofloris glover , kallstrom , smith and dahlgren , 2005 " .

osedax mucofloris extends out of the whale bone into the seawater . the major features of this portion are :

high symbiont diversity in the bone - eating worm osedax mucofloris from shallow whale - falls in the north atlantic .

based on available data ( which are clearly very limited ) , osedax mucofloris is associated with shallower depths than other known osedax species , having been collected at 30 and 125 meters .

a detailed description of the morphology of osedax mucofloris has been published in the scientific journal proceedings of the royal society of london .

high symbiont diversity in the bone - eating worm osedax mucofloris from shallow whale - falls in the north atlantic . - pubmed - ncbi

molecular analysis of osedax mucofloris using coi and 18s rrna sequences confirmed genetic seperation from morphologically similar o . rubiplumus and o . frankpressi ( glover et al . , 2005 ) .

many osedax species have numerous pinnules on their palps that give the crown a feathery appearance . of the known osedax species , only o . mucofloris and o . frankpressi have pinnules oriented all inward ( the pinnules in the other species being turned outward , both inward and outward , or absent ) . most known osedax species have red palps ( the palps of o . frankpressi are red with two white lateral stripes in living worms ) , but the palps of osedax mucofloris are white to pink . ( rouse et al . 2004 ; vrijenhoek et al . 2009 )

osedax worms are marine annelids closely related to deep sea vent / seep - associated . . .

citation : huusgaard rs , vismann b , kühl m , macnaugton m , colmander v , rouse gw , et al . ( 2012 ) the potent respiratory system of osedax mucofloris ( siboglinidae , annelida ) - a prerequisite for the origin of bone - eating osedax ? plos one 7 ( 4 ) : e35975 . urltoken

schander , c . , rapp , h . t . , & dahlgren , t . ( 2010 ) . osedax mucofloris ( polychaeta , siboglinidae ) , a bone - eating marine worm new to norway . fauna norvegica , 30 , 5 - 8 . urltoken

detailed examination of at least 50 mature specimens indicated an absence of the dwarfed males reported for northeast pacific osedax species . however , o . mucofloris appeared able to reproduce and grow to maturity within one month on defaunated bones placed into aquaria . ( glover et al . 2005 )

the bone - eating siboglinid polychaete osedax mucofloris glover , källström , smith & dahlgren , 2005 is reported from norwegian waters for the first time . dense growth was found on bovine bones deposited at 118 meters depth off western norway . dwarf males were observed for the first time . the two specimens sequenced were identical to haplotypes previously found at a swedish whale fall . the possibility of finding additional species of osedax is discussed .

as with the trunk of o . mucofloris , the anterior vestimentum of vestimentifera lacks branching vessels between the ventral and the muscularized dorsal vessel [ 33 ] . the resemblance between the blood vascular systems adds new evidence to the hypothesis that the trunk of osedax and the vestimentum of vestimentifera are homologous regions [ 21 ] .

the measured o 2 depleted bone environment as well as ferrous sulphide precipitations ( figure 8e ) supports the suggested exposure of osedax to sulphide . furthermore the large root surface in the related lamellibrachia is highly efficient in hydrogen sulphide uptake [ 17 ] . since the main trophic source of osedax compared to other siboglinids ( including lamellibrachia ) seems to be heterotrophic bacteria rather than sulphide - detoxifying chemoautotrophic bacteria [ 8 ] , osedax may instead possess physiological adaptations to detoxify sulphide .

in the present study we investigated whether osedax mucofloris is exposed to an inhospitable hypoxic or anoxic microenvironment by measuring the o 2 distribution surrounding the embedded root system . we assessed possible morphological and / or physiological adaptations to the environmental conditions through detailed morphological studies of the respiratory surfaces and the blood vascular system as well as respiratory measurements of o 2 consumption . the results are discussed in relation to the unique environment , endosymbionts , and embedded root structure of osedax as well as compared with studies of related annelids .

it is important to understand osedax mucofloris reproduction , as scientists want to know how these animals are able to disperse between isolated whale - fall habitats . when the first species of osedax was described , it was noted that the species seemed to exhibit very strong sexual dimorphism . the males did not develop into mature adults . instead , they appeared to remain as larval - sized individuals attached to the side of females , fertilising eggs as they were released into the water column . dwarf males have been described for :

osedax mucifloris appeared to be able to reproduce and grow to maturity within one month on defaunated bones placed in a aquaria ( glover et al . , 2005 ) .

to date , osedax mucofloris has only been recorded from 2 whale carcasses in the swedish fjord kosterfjord ( 58° 53 . 1 n , 11° 06 . 4 e ) . it may be widespread in the atlantic , however . the problem is finding whale remains on the sea floor - even if there are a lot of them , they are small relative to the vast expanses of the ocean .

our data show that o . mucofloris inhabiting bone in cuvettes ( purple and yellow dots , figure 9 ) have a lower mo 2 than o . mucofloris inhabiting sectioned cow bone ( green , blue , red dots , figure 9 ) . along with high standard deviations , this highlights the difficulties of measuring o 2 consumption on these embedded worms . the variations are most likely caused by the difference in blind respiration measurements and the large biological activity present on decaying bone , which was difficult to quantify . future studies should thus be carried out to more precisely determine the mo 2 of o . mucofloris and the contribution of other o 2 - consuming surfaces .

the circular trunk musculature in o . mucofloris is weakly developed , as found in several other annelids [ 26 ] , [ 27 ] . the diagonal musculature revealed in the present study , may compensate for the weak circular musculature by having a similar supportive function . diagonal musculature has most likely been mistaken for circular musculature in several annelids [ 26 ] , [ 27 ] , including previous studies of osedax [ 15 ] , [ 21 ] .

beggiatoa live in the restricted interface between hydrogen sulphide presence and oxygenated water [ 51 ] . o . mucofloris must therefore be in contact with toxic sulphide concentrations . photographer : helena wiklund , department of zoology , göteborg university , sweden .

the shallow water species osedax mucofloris glover , källström , smith , dahlgren , 2005 , has been found at 30 m and 125 m water depth off the coast of tjärnö , sweden [ 12 ] , [ 13 ] , and at 120 m depth in bjørnafjord , norway [ 24 ] . currently these are the only records of osedax from the atlantic , though other species are found in shallow waters in both the east and west pacific [ 4 ] , [ 25 ] . the 125 m deep locality near tjärnö is characterized by stable oceanic salinity ( 34–35‰ ) , temperature ( 5–7°c ) and dissolved o 2 concentration ranging from 4 . 6 to 6 . 3 ml o 2 l −1 [ 13 ] .

previous studies of other close relatives of osedax such as vestimentifera and sabellidae have shown anterior branchial structures to be of vital importance when tube - bound tissue is not ventilated [ 29 ] – [ 31 ] . likewise , the anterior branchial structures of o . mucofloris seem morphologically adapted to facilitate efficient o 2 uptake form the surrounding water . as with the branchial plume of vestimentifera [ 31 ] , [ 32 ] , the anterior palps and pinnules of o . mucofloris have a large surface area to volume ratio and short diffusion distances . furthermore , o 2 uptake is optimized by the two ventilating ciliary bands on each palp , a feature also seen in other siboglinidae and in sabellida in general [ 20 ] , [ 31 ] , [ 33 ] .

o . mucofloris has only recently been discovered and it is not yet known if it is under threat . one possibility is that intensive whaling over the last 300 years has reduced the available habitat for this polychaete worm , a previously unknown consequence of the whaling industry .

the quantity and complexity of capillaries in the root structure of o . mucofloris reflects the high o 2 demand of osedax , presumably for the metabolism of its heterotrophic endosymbionts and production and development of eggs . similar capillaries are visible on the exposed ovisac of o . frankpressi ( figure 2f in [ 1 ] ) and o . roseus ( figure 4e in [ 21 ] ) , while the present study shows the presence of capillaries supplying the more distally placed root tissue and bacteriocytes . however , the extent of capillaries does not match the extensive capillary network of the trophosome in other siboglinidae [ 20 ] , [ 33 ] . this is in accordance with the original description [ 1 ] mentioning the lack of a discrete trophosome , the osedax trophosome instead being diffuse and beneath the epidermis of the embedded tissue .

when corrected for background respiration , the measured o 2 consumption ( mo 2 ) of o . mucofloris ranged almost across a factor of ten from 220±93 µg o 2 g −1 h −1 to 2053±1950 µg o 2 g −1 h −1 ( table 1 ) , depending on the approach used for measurement . mo 2 measured on o . mucofloris inhabiting sectioned bone pieces ( b1–b3 ) vs . mo 2 measured o . mucofloris inhabiting bones in cuvettes ( c1 , c2 ) , resulted in two distinctly different ranges of mo 2 . the mo 2 of c1 and c2 was 220±93 µg o 2 g −1 h −1 and 238±29 µg o 2 g −1 h −1 , respectively , while the mo 2 of b1–b3 range from 976±201 µg o 2 g −1 h −1 to 2053±1950 µg o 2 g −1 h −1 . methods and ranges are commented further in the discussion .

g . w . rouse , s . k . goffredi , and r . c . vrijenhoek ( 2004 ) . " osedax : bone - eating marine worms with dwarf males " . science 305 : 668–671 . doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 1098650 . pmid 15286372 .

specimens were carefully dissected from the bone and fixed for immunohistochemistry , benzidine staining and histology . prior to dissection , osedax mucofloris were anesthetized for 5–10 minutes in a 1∶1 solution of seawater and mgcl 2 ( isotonic to seawater ) . anaesthetized animals were gently dissected with scalpels and fixed at 4°c over night in 4 % paraformaldehyde in 0 . 15 m phosphate - buffered saline ( pbs ) with 5 % sucrose , ph 7 . 4 . subsequently , the animals were rinsed 4–6 times for 30 min in pbs with 5 % sucrose and were then stored at 4°c in pbs with 0 . 05 % sodium azide ( nan 3 ) .

an extended root surface ( and high area to volume ratio ) is likewise found in both lamellibrachia ( e . g . , [ 16 ] ) and osedax ( yet branched ) . however , the main function has so far been interpreted as very different . whereas the osedax root surface is suggested to mainly facilitate uptake of organic compounds ( with less focus on the possible congruent uptake of sulphide ) [ 9 ] , the root of lamellibrachia is found to be the main respiratory surface of hydrogen sulphide necessary for the chemosynthesis of the symbionts [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] , [ 28 ] .

the estimated diffusion distance in o . mucofloris ( pinnule epidermis 1–2 µm , palp epidermis ∼30 µm ) is furthermore comparable to what has been found for r . pachyptila ( pinnules ∼2 . 00 µm ; branchial filaments ∼25 µm ) and ridgeia piscesae ( pinnules ∼1 . 00 µm ; branchial filaments ∼17 µm ) [ 31 ] , [ 32 ] .

" world - wide whale worms ? a new species of osedax from the shallow north atlantic " . proc . biol . sci . ( national center for biotechnology information ) 272 ( 1581 ) : 2587–92 . 22 december 2005 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2005 . 3275 . pmc 1559975 . pmid 16321780 .

though beyond the scope of the present paper , microanalytical approaches such as microsensors [ 40 ] , [ 41 ] and functional imaging techniques [ 42 ] could yield a more complete mapping of the chemical microenvironment of osedax , including the exact levels of sulphide exposure and spatio - temporal dynamics of o 2 in the root system . it would also be interesting to know whether osedax have sulphide - binding properties of their haemoglobin as found in vestimentifera [ 43 ] , [ 44 ] , as they might use them to transport toxic sulphides from the area surrounding the root structure to e . g . , the palps , somehow releasing the toxic compounds to oxygenated seawater or detoxifying them .

two nerves , originating at the anterior part of the brain , innervate each palp . one nerve runs abfrontally , between the two lateral ciliary bands and the other nerve runs laterally underneath one of the ciliary bands ( figure 5a ) . further details on the female osedax nervous system will be described elsewhere ( worsaae & rouse , unpublished ) .

the unique bone - eating organism , osedax ( siboglinidae , annelida ) was first described in 2004 from a whale fall located at 2891 m depth in monterey bay , pacific ocean [ 1 ] . since its first discovery it has been found on multiple whale falls in the pacific and atlantic oceans , artificially deployed cow bones [ 2 ] as well as on other vertebrate bones such as those of teleost [ 3 ] . there are five formally described species , with at least a further 12 species known from genetic evidence [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] . in addition , convincing fossil traces of osedax have been found in oligocene and pliocene mammal bones [ 6 ] , [ 7 ] .

osedax worms are marine annelids closely related to the deep sea vent / seep - associated vestimentiferan worms . the sessile ( i . e . , fixed in one place ) females bore into the bones of whale carcasses - - and possibly bones of other vertebrates ( rouse et al . 2004 ; glover et al . 2005 ; vrijenhoek et al . 2008 ) .

we do not yet know the full answer . one theory is that it overcomes the problem of males and females finding each other if they are unable to move ( sessile ) , as osedax females are . the males are able to move around the females , fertilising their eggs . it is easier to do this if you are small and motile , or dwarfed .

micro sensor measurements of o 2 concentrations in proximity to the bone interface were conducted , through agar - filled holes , on osedax - colonized bone fragments in cuvettes . the obtained profiles of o 2 concentration from the aerated seawater , and inwards showed steep o 2 gradients towards both the bone and tissue surface ( figure 8a , b ) . anoxic conditions or very low o 2 levels were found at the bone surface , within the bone , and in proximity to the embedded root tissue of o . mucofloris ( table 2 ) . the average o 2 flux at the bone and tissue interface was 0 . 028±0 . 0024 nmol o 2 cm −2 s −1 ( n = 5 ) and 0 . 029±0 . 0040 nmol o 2 cm −2 s −1 ( n = 3 ) , respectively .

glover , a . g . ; kallstrom , b . ; smith , c . r . ; dahlgren , t . g . 2005 . world - wide whale worms ? a new species of osedax from the shallow north atlantic . proceedings of the royal society b - biological sciences 272 ( 1581 ) : 2587 - 2592 page ( s ) : 2 589 [ details ]

o 2 consumption was measured on o . mucofloris inhabiting three sectioned cow bone pieces ( b1 , b2 and b3 ) and bones in two cuvettes ( c1 and c2 ) . measurements were either initiated directly after the annelids protracted subsequent to the disturbance of being moved ( c1 , c2 , b1 ) or after one night of acclimatization ( b2 , b3 ) . all measurements were corrected for background respiration . for b2 and b3 the background respiration was measured using the same water and bones ( after dissection and 48 hours of acclimation to restore biological activity ) . for c1 , c2 and b1 the background respiration was the mean value of measurements using new water , bones in two cuvettes and three sectioned bone pieces without o . mucofloris . different respiration chambers were used for sliced bone pieces ( volume : 186 ml ) and cuvettes ( volume : 51 ml ) .

the present study shows that osedax mucofloris has a higher weight specific o 2 consumption ( mo 2 ) than other resting annelids ( figure 9 ) [ 18 ] . this may reflect an elevated demand of the embedded tissue due to presence of heterotrophic aerobic endosymbionts , which have a higher metabolism than regular tissue . the measured mo 2 actually corresponds to that found for riftia pachyptila [ 22 ] , [ 23 ] ( figure 9 ) , possessing a vast amount of chemoautotrophic bacteria in their trophosome . furthermore , a high mo 2 may also reflect oxidative sulphide detoxification . the high mo 2 corresponds well with the large sbsa and elaborate branchial structures , which are both usually associated with animals exhibiting a high o 2 demand . this correlation is also found in arenicola marina with smaller sbsa and lower mo 2 ( red square , figure 9 ) .

a : sketch of the path of the longitudinal trunk vessels into the root structure , drawn from the light microscope with a camera lucida of a benzidine stained o . mucofloris female . trunk twisted in midsection . b : dic light micrograph of a benzidine stained o . mucofloris female . lateral view , trunk twisted in midsection . ventral and dorsal blood vessels continues , folded , into the anterior part of the ovisac / root system . c : close up of blood vessels near ovisac . d : close up of blood vessels supplying more distally placed capillaries . e : capillaries supplying tissue and endosymbionts . abbreviations : blood traces ( b ) , blood vessel ( bv ) , capillaries ( cap ) , dorsal blood vessel ( dbv ) , egg cluster ( ec ) , oviduct ( od ) , ovisac ( os ) , palp ( p ) , root structure ( r ) , trunk ( t ) , ventral blood vessel ( vbv ) .

glover , a . g ; kallstrom , b . ; smith , c . r ; dahlgren , t . g ( 2005 ) . " world - wide whale worms ? a new species of osedax from the shallow north atlantic " . proceedings of the royal society b : biological sciences 272 ( 1581 ) : 2587–2592 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2005 . 3275 . issn 0962 - 8452 . pmc 1559975 . pmid 16321780 .

the trunk of osedax mucofloris encloses two major longitudinal blood vessels ( figures 2e , 6a , b ) . the dorsal vessel is highly muscularized with circular musculature throughout its length ( figure 2d , e ) . no lateral connecting vessels between the major longitudinal vessels or epidermal capillaries were found in the trunk . from the trunk , the two blood vessels continue posteriorly into the root structure and increase in diameter ( figure 6a , b ) . when studied under the light microscope , the muscularized dorsal vessel is visible as a defined tube along the trunk , and continues into the anterior root structure , curling up in the centre anterior to the ovisac . the curling configuration is most likely caused by contraction of the basal part of the trunk . the exact further path of the vessel was difficult to determine . the confocal laser scanning microscope ( clsm ) studies also showed the continuation of the dorsal blood vessel around the ovisac , revealing cylindrical musculature at the ovisac , corresponding in diameter to the musculature of the dorsal blood vessel of the trunk ( figure 4b ) .

a : osedax mucofloris extend its palps and pinnules , with large respiratory surfaces , into the overlying o 2 - rich water in order to uptake o 2 . o 2 is then distributed to the buried root system through the extensive blood vascular system also supplying the heterotrophic endosymbionts . the o 2 distribution to the root system is crucial as local uptake is not possible in the anoxic bone environment . the anoxic environment is partly produced by intense bacterial processes ( green arrows ) utilizing o 2 at the bone surface . hydrogen sulphide is produced by anoxic bacterial processes within the bone matrix during decomposition of organic content using sulphate . b : schematic illustration of assumed blood flow in palp and pinnules , longitudinal section . blue vessels carrying venous blood through afferent vessels , red vessels carrying arterial blood through efferent vessels . c : schematic illustration of assumed blood flow in palp and pinnules , transverse section . likewise blue vessels carries venous blood through afferent vessels , red vessels carries arterial blood through efferent vessels . note that the palp blood vessels are created by an invagination of the basement membrane . green indicates musculature .

a rough estimate was made of the surface area of the anterior crown , calculated from palp length given by glover et al . [ 12 ] , and the dimensions of palps and pinnules of o . mucofloris found in the present study . this results in a weight specific branchial surface area ( sbsa ) of ∼22 cm 2 g −1 fixed mass , which is similar to the sbsa of riftia pachyptila and higher than the sbsa of fish , crabs and other annelids [ 31 ] . this is especially obvious when compared to the sbsa of e . g . , arenicola marina ( 4 . 00 cm 2 g −1 ) [ 34 ] , although this species can also take up o 2 across its general epidermis .

interestingly , the present study showed that each pinnule is equipped with a distal sensory cell and external sensory cilia . these structures may sense disturbance in the water to avoid predators , as osedax need not sense food items or reproductive indicators in the water [ 1 ] , [ 8 ] , [ 35 ] . additionally , sensing of currents may also be beneficial in order to orientate the palps e . g . , for optimal uptake of dissolved o 2 . riftia pachyptila does not have sensory structures on the pinnules , but does have long , separate sensory filaments that lack ciliary bands and pinnules . these structures , with unknown function , are placed between pinnulated filaments [ 33 ] .

a : single z - stack image of the ‘trunk - root system’ connection , note the bundles of longitudinal muscles . b : musculature located by the ovisac , assumed to be the posterior end of the longitudinal dorsal blood vessel . c : single z - stack image of pinnules , circular musculature encircling the pinnular loop , note the distal perikaryon and sensory cilia . d : single z - stack image showing a longitudinal section of the pinnule in c , note the internal nerve . e : depth coded z - stack , pinnule nerves in osedax ‘yellow - collar’ . abbreviations : cilia ( ci ) , circular muscles ( cm ) , lateral ciliary band ( lcb ) , longitudinal muscles ( lm ) , nerve ( n ) , perikaryon ( pe ) .

in january 2009 , 3 replicate experimental sampling devices , using cow and whale bone , for recruitment of female o . mucofloris ( figure 10 ) were placed at 125 m depth off the coast of tjärnö , sweden ( 58°52 . 976n ; 11°05 . 715e ) in close vicinity to a minke whale carcass sunk in october 2003 [ 13 ] . one device for morphological and reproductive studies was successfully retrieved in may 2009 . a second device was retrieved in november 2009 for in vivo studies ( respirometry and microsensor analysis ) and additional morphological studies . additionally , a piece of cetacean bone deposited at 123 m in the same area in may 2008 was retrieved in january 2009 and used for preliminary investigations and for designing experimental setups . in january 2009 , the bottom water had a salinity of 34 . 6‰ , a temperature of 8 . 4°c , and an o 2 content of 78 . 7 % atmospheric saturation .

pinnules ( up to 100 µm wide ) project perpendicularly from the frontal palp surface between the lateral ciliary bands , with a density of approximately eight pinnules across the palp per 50 µm palp length ( figures 3a , 5f , g ) . at the proximal end of the palps , pinnules are less developed than at the distal end , seemingly growing in length ( up to 170 µm ) synchronously with the growth of the palp ( figure 3a ) . a sensory cell extends through the centre of the pinnule with a distal perikaryon and a few external , presumably sensory , cilia ( figure 4c , d ) . its axon seems to connect with one of the two major longitudinal palp nerves , possibly the one running more laterally beneath the ciliary band . this is supported by similar findings in osedax “yellow - collar " ( figure 4e ) .

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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : biology letters publisher : london : royal soc . , 2003 - isbn / issn : 0962 - 8452 oclc : 265429584

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read , g . ; fauchald , k . ( ed . ) ( 2018 ) . world polychaeta database .

glover , kallstrom , smith & dahlgren , 2005 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 265980 on 2018 - 07 - 09

van der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]

: i think it ' s brilliant . describes exactly what it does and what it looks like and piques one ' s interest .

that is the most awful name for a species that i ' ve ever seen . wow .

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feathered plumes , which are the gills , or branchiae , that bring oxygen down to the root structure embedded in the whale bone .

a cylinder - shaped column that extends furthest into the water column . scientists think this structure , an oviduct , shoots fertilised eggs into the water column , perhaps helping the animal to disperse tiny larvae to be carried off by ocean currents .

live specimens are visible as four white to pink palps that emerge from the surface of the whale bone . the palps are 5 - 6 mm in length , and are surrounded at their base by a thin mucous tube . the oviduct is white , and extends to one - third of the length of the uncontracted palps . the palps are of equal length , measuring 0 . 8 mm when contracted , with numerous pinnules 0 . 1 mm in length . at the base of the pinnules there is a ciliary band that runs the entire length of each palp . the pinnules are 0 . 01 mm wide . they are densely packed and coloured white to pink in live specimens , with microvilli 0 . 05 mm in length . the trunk region is 6 - 8 mm in length and 0 . 5 mm wide , and is partially embedded within the bone matrix . the trunk is principally composed of bands of longitudinal muscles , galnds and major dorsal and ventral blood vessels . the mouth and gut are absent . there are ventral plaques on the collar ( peristomial region ) of the trunk .

on dissected specimens , an oviduct is visble running into an ovisac and the root structure , and contains numerous eggs in the trunk region . there is a vascularized root system of 2 - 10 mm in length , which burrows in a shallow depression to depths of 2 - 3 mm into the whale bone matrix in a bracnhed , mycelial form . numerous eggs ( greater than 100 in number ) were relaesed from the ovisac on disturbance . the eggs ranged in diameter from 85 - 90 um . the chaetae and opisthosomal region were not observed . epibiotic rod - shaped bacteria ( length 1 - 1 . 5 um , width 300 nm ) were present over the surface of the trunks , palps and pinnules , but absent from the roots .

found on the bones of an experimentally implanted minke whale carcass at 125 m depth , kosterfjord , sweden ( 58°53 . 1 ` n , 11°06 . 4 ` e ) ( glover et al . , 2005 ) .

depth range based on 1 specimen in 1 taxon . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 125 - 125 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .

glover et al . ( 2005 ) reported that disturbance caused the worms to retract completely into the bone . however , when placed in aquaria , with clean , chilled seawater , they would emerge from the bone and be clearly visible to the naked eye . over a period of several minutes , the worms would first extend the palps , and then the oviduct ( see video here ) . any disturbance to the aquarium tank would result in the animals immediately withdrawing into the bone .

means " snot - flower bone - eater " , though the less - accurate " bone - eating snot - flower worm " seems to be the form actually used .

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verna c 1 , ramette a , wiklund h , dahlgren tg , glover ag , gaill f , dubilier n .

max planck institute for marine microbiology , celsiusstr . 1 , 28359 bremen , germany .

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copyright : © 2012 huusgaard et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .

funding : the work was supported by the danish research council ( urltoken ; grant # 272 - 06 - 0260 to k . worsaae ) and the swedish research council ( urltoken ; grant # 2006 - 2768 to t . dahlgren ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .

competing interests : one of the authors is currently employed as a senior researcher , phd by uni research , a non profit research institute controlled by the university of bergen . uni research has no competing interests to this work in terms of employment , consultancy , patents or products . this does also not alter the authors′ adherence to all the plos one policies on sharing data and materials .

ciliary bands and sensory structures ( anti acetylated α - tubulin staining and histology ) .

in the description below , we use a dorsal - ventral definition opposite to the one used by rouse et al . [ 1 ] , [ 21 ] , based on a new interpretation ( rouse & worsaae , unpublished ) .

we found two previously unreported broad longitudinal ciliary bands dorso - laterally on each side of the oviduct on the anterior part of the trunk ( figure 2a , b , e ) . the ciliary bundles of the bands consist of multi ciliated cells , appearing pillow - like with numerous , conspicuously short cilia ( < 10 µm long ) projecting outwards from the centre of the elliptical bundles ( figure 2c ) . the bundles are organized in an anterior - dorsal diagonal pattern within the longitudinal bands ( figure 2b ) . the ciliary bands narrow toward the posterior part of the trunk and are replaced by single tufts of cilia scattered basally across the trunk surface ( figure 2a ) . the short cilia appeared immotile , and with several longitudinal nerves running beneath , ( worsaae & rouse , unpublished ) their function may be sensory rather than ventilatory .

a : dorso - lateral view of a complete specimen , lateral ciliary bands occupies half the length of the trunk . b : dorsal view of the anterior part of the trunk , elliptical shaped cilia bundles are directed anteriorly from the lateral part of the trunk . c : depth coded z - stack , the elliptical shaped cilia bundles constituting the lateral ciliary band are formed by ciliary tufts . d : close - up of transverse section of a trunk . e : transverse section of a trunk , note the muscularized dorsal blood vessel . f : single z - stack image of the trunk musculature , longitudinal muscles beneath circular and diagonal muscles . abbreviations : ciliary tufts ( ct ) , circular muscles ( cm ) , diagonal muscles ( dm ) , elliptical ciliary bundles ( ecb ) , lateral ciliary band ( lcb ) , longitudinal muscles ( lm ) , muscular gap ( mg ) , palp ( p ) , root structure ( r ) , torn ovisac ( to ) , trunk ( t ) , dorsal blood vessel ( dbv ) .

two dense ciliary bands are found on each palp along their epidermal longitudinal lobes on each lateral side , as previously reported [ 12 ] ( figures 3a , b , e , 4c , 5a , f , g ) . the bands consist of multi ciliated cells with 70–90 µm long cilia ( figure 3e ) . the ciliary bands extend from near the basal part of the palps to the distal tip , beating in metachronal waves .

a : lateral view of palps , pinnules increasing in length and development along the palp . b : abfrontal view of the midsection of a palp , ciliary bands on each side . c : close - up of palp musculature . d : lateral view of the muscular palp - trunk connection . e : close - up of the lateral ciliary band of a palp . abbreviations : circular muscles ( cm ) , lateral ciliary band ( lcb ) , longitudinal muscles ( lm ) , muscular bundles ( bu ) , muscular gap ( mg ) , oviduct ( od ) , pinnules ( pin ) .

diagram of a transverse section of the basal part of palps ( a ) , dic light micrographs of benzidine stained palps ( b–d ) and transverse 1 . 2 µm sections of

a : diagram of a transverse section at the basal part of the palp region . circular musculature ( continued green lines ) encircles the longitudinal musculature ( green broken lines ) in a cylinder formation . two gaps separate the longitudinal muscle bands . black lines illustrate the motile lateral ciliary bands and two main palp nerves run along each palp as shown ( blue dots ) . b : pinnular loop filled with blood . c : pinnular loops , broken lines and arrows indicate the assumed direction of blood flow . d : midsection of palp , longitudinal blood vessels and pinnular loops visible . e : transverse section of a pinnule , the pinnular loop enclosed by a membrane fusing in the centre . f : transverse section of the distal part of a palp , arrow tips shows circular musculature . g : transverse section of the distal part of a palp , the two longitudinal blood vessels obvious . abbreviations : circular muscles ( cm ) , epidermis ( ep ) , lateral ciliary band ( lcb ) , left dorsal palp nerve ( ldpn ) , left ventral palp nerve ( lvpn ) , membrane fusion ( mf ) , musculature ( m ) , palp blood vessel ( pbv ) , pinnule ( pin ) , pinnular loop ( pl ) , right dorsal palp nerve ( rdpn ) , right ventral palp nerve ( rvpn ) .

the longitudinal muscles run along the entire length of the trunk ( figure 2a ) , originating posteriorly at the trunk basis , and inserting anteriorly at the base of the four palps ( figure 3d ) . in one individual , it was possible to detect clustering of longitudinal muscles into 14–16 bundles of > 20 muscle strands in the posterior part of the trunk , anterior to the root structure ( figure 4a ) . along , and around the entire trunk , the muscles are distributed in a dense cylindrical formation with an average of six strands per 50 µm ( figures 2d , e , 3d ) . the musculature is slightly separated internally to the oviduct ( possibly by the nerve cords ) , as well as randomly along the trunk , creating minor gaps most likely for mucus gland exits or nerves ( figures 2a , 3d ) . anteriorly , a gap in the musculature is found ventrally at the position of the brain , as well as at each of the four insertion points of the palps . at each of these four points , the longitudinal musculature divides into two bundles ( of each 20–30 strands ) , encircling the insertion point of the palp ( figure 3d ) . the longitudinal palp muscles originate at the base and run along the entire length of the palps to their tips , separated by a smaller frontal and a larger abfrontal gap ( figures 3c , d , 5a ) . no longitudinal musculature was detected in the pinnules .

around the ovisac and anterior root structure the longitudinal musculature divides , and together with the circular muscles , creates a mesh - like structure ( figure 4a ) . the musculature extends posteriorly along the roots in a cylindrical formation , supporting the tissue penetrating the bone .

thin circular muscles are found peripheral to the longitudinal muscles along the entire trunk , with 24 strands per 50 µm ( figure 2d ) . the circular muscles are most dominant in the posterior part of the trunk and continue into the root structure ( figure 4a ) . notably , much thicker diagonal muscle strands were found beneath the circular musculature , but peripheral to the longitudinal muscles ( figure 2f ) . attached at the mid - dorsal line , the strands run diagonally around the trunk in an anterior direction and attach at the mid - ventral line . the diagonal muscles are distributed along the entire length of the trunk , lying further apart ( 35–70 µm ) in the posterior end than along the rest of the trunk ( 5–10 µm ) .

the circular musculature of the palps encircles the longitudinal musculature as a cylinder with ∼18 muscle strands per 50 µm and is evenly distributed along the entire palp ( figure 3c ) . fine circular muscles enclose each vessel of the pinnular loop ( figure 4c , d ) ; they were likewise visible in the semi - thin sections on the outside of the pinnular loop and along the midline of each pinnule ( figure 5f , arrow tips ) , with a spacing corresponding to those shown with phalloidin staining ( figure 4c , d ) .

the ventral blood vessel also continues into the root structure , but as a narrower and less defined vessel , the path of which was even more difficult to determine , than that of the dorsal vessel . blood vessels of different sizes , as well as multiple obvious capillaries within the root tissue were observed ( figure 6b–e ) . larger vessels extend out from the area of the ovisac and divide into thinner vessels ( diameter : 7–30 µm ) . capillaries were detected in the periphery of the root tissue ( figure 6e ) , with distances between the detected capillaries ranging from 65–220 µm .

anteriorly , each palp encloses a pair of blood vessels created by invaginations of the inner lamina of the basement membrane of the epidermis ( figures 5f , g , 7c ) . imaging of live specimens confirmed the presence of two blood vessels , running along the entire length of the palps .

the pinnules are largely filled by a blood cavity lined with a membrane , which fuses in between the two blood cavities along most of the pinnule length , thereby creating the pinnular loop ( figures 5b–g , 7c ) . the palps of the histological sections were ∼300 µm in diameter at the base and the palp epidermis was ∼50–75 µm thick . the palp diameter and the thickness of the epidermis were both found to decrease towards the distal end of the palp .

pinnules vary in diameter along their length and along the palp , with a median diameter of ∼40×100 µm for the pinnules and ∼20–40 µm for each blood vessel . the diffusion distance across the pinnule epithelium was measured on the semi - thin sections to be 1–2 µm , and for the epidermis of the distal part of the palps , the diffusion distance was measured to be ∼30 µm .

a : depth profile of o 2 towards bone surface , blue : agar , red : cuvette wall , green : bone surface . b : depth profil of o 2 towards tissue surface , blue : agar , red : cuvette wall , green : tissue surface . c : schematic drawing of the micro sensor measuring path through the cuvette wall . d : placement of measuring site on wb1 , note the blackened areas indicating presence of ferrous sulphide . e : close - up of measuring sites on wb1 .

micro sensor measurements of o 2 distribution in one mucus tube showed a ∼50 % decrease in the o 2 concentration in the centre of the mucus tube wall as compared to outside the tube ( table 3 ) . direct measurements within the tube were not possible due to disturbance by the worm . measurements of the o 2 microenvironment surrounding the palps showed a strong decrease in o 2 concentrations , when a palp approached the microelectrode measuring tip . at the base and middle of the palp , the o 2 levels were almost zero showing the o 2 uptake to be high in these areas ( table 3 ) . at the distal end of the palp the o 2 concentration was only reduced to approximately 50 % atmospheric saturation , possibly due to decaying palp tips .

the presence of highly vasculated palps and pinnules , the former densely ciliated showed that the anterior crown is the main site for o 2 uptake ( figure 7a–c ) . uptake of o 2 over the trunk surface is possible , but a thicker epidermis , short and seemingly immotile ciliary bands and no obvious respiratory structures suggest that the trunk is a minor site of o 2 uptake . oxygen does , to some extent , diffuse from the surrounding water into the mucus tube , thereby supplying the dwarf males .

the well - developed longitudinal musculature of the trunk serves to retract the trunk and palps into the tube and bone , presumably as protection from predators . as no regular retraction patterns of trunk musculature were detected , retraction into the tube is not considered a significant mode of ventilation for required o 2 . furthermore , the tube only surrounds the trunk , tightly fitting to the base of the trunk and the surface of the bone , preventing any water exchange to the ovisac and roots from the bone surface . the longitudinal musculature is moreover able to stretch the extensive branchial structures ( palps ) into the aerated water in order to increase the o 2 uptake .

the main blood flow within the palp vessels may be generated by the circular body wall musculature of the palp . however , the thin circular musculature of the pinnules surrounding each branch of the looped blood vessel ( figure 4c , d ) most likely assists local blood flow , as suggested for the tentacular vessels of riftia pachyptila [ 22 ] . musculature in anterior appendages has been found in several vestimentifera , in the form of sphincter muscles located in the branchial lamella and filament vessels [ 33 ] .

graph modified from cammen [ 18 ] , the regression line ( log r = −1 . 682 + 0 . 850 * log w ) calculated from measurements of resting nonventilating annelids only . dots : b1 ( red ) , b2 ( blue ) , b3 ( green ) , c1 ( purple ) , c2 ( yellow ) . triangles : previous measured o 2 consumption of r . pachyptila . no sulphide present in water when measuring : red , blue [ 22 ] and green [ 23 ] ; sulphide present in water during measurement : purple [ 23 ] . red square : o 2 consumption of resting arenicola marina [ 52 ] .

the experimental sampling devices were placed at 125 m depth off the coast of tjärnö , sweden ( 58°52 . 976n ; 11°05 . 715e ) in close vicinity to a minke whale carcass sunk in october 2003 [ 13 ] .

four specimens were stained following the protocol of worsaae & rouse [ 45 ] . first staining included the primary antibodies monoclonal mouse anti - acetylated α - tubulin ( sigma t6793 , 1∶200 ) & polyclonal rabbit anti - serotonin ( sigma : s5545 ; 1∶100 / 1∶400 ) or monoclonal mouse anti - acetylated α - tubulin & anti - fmrfamide ( immunostar : 20091 , 1∶100 ) . this was complimented by secondary antibodies ; anti - mouse cy5 ( jackson immunoresearch : 115 - 175 - 062 , 1∶400 ) and anti - rabbit tritc ( sigma t5268 , 1∶200 / 1∶400 ) . hereafter specimens were incubated for 60 min in phalloidin conjugated with fitc or alexa flour 488 ( sigma f5282 or invitrogen a12379 , 0 . 17 or 0 . 33 µmol l −1 phalloidin in pbs ) . specimens were mounted in 100 % vectashield® containing dapi ( vector laboratories inc . , california , usa ) and stored at −18°c . the specificity of primary antibody binding versus e . g . , autoflourescence was tested by omitting one of the primary antibodies , but otherwise treating specimens as described .

specimens were studied using a leica tcs sp5 confocal laser scanning microscope ( clsm ) ( university of copenhagen , faculty of health science , courtesy of m . givskov and t . bjarnsholt ) . leica lasaf computer software or imaris® x64 6 . 0 . 0 ( bitplane ag , zurich , switzerland ) was used to produce projections of z - stacks of clsm images , while further analyses of z - stack series were performed with imaris® x64 6 . 0 . 0 . computed 2d images of muscles , nerve and cilia with relation to respiration and palp morphology were further optimized with adobe photoshop cs3 and adobe illustrator ( adobe system incorporated ) for presentation .

one specimen was embedded in epon and used for histological analysis . semi - thick 1 . 2 µm sections were cut on a microtome ( em uc6 , leica , wetzlar germany ) with a diamond knife ( diatome ; biel , switzerland ) . a small amount of pattex contact adhesive ( pattex compact ; henkel kgaa , düsseldorf , germany ) was diluted with a few drops of xylene in an eppendorf tube and applied to the side of the epon block to make serial sectioning of ribbons possible following the protocol of henry [ 46 ] and ruthensteiner [ 47 ] . bands of ∼20 sections were stained with toluidine blue and mounted in entellan® ( electron microscopy sciences , pennsylvania , usa ) . sections were studied and photographed using light microscopy ( bx50 microscope ; dp71 camera ; cell f software ; olympus , japan ) .

using a modified version of the benzidine staining method by knox [ 48 ] , haemoglobin was stained in four fixed specimens . a 100 % saturated benzidine solution was prepared by adding benzidine to distilled water . the solution was stirred for two hours . fixed specimens were rinsed in running tap water in the same time period . specimens were subsequently incubated in the filtered benzidine solution for 1 hour , also under stirring . next , 3 % hydrogen peroxide was added drop by drop until blood vessels turned dark blue . specimens were either mounted in glycerol directly or dehydrated in a series of alcohol acidified with drops of 0 . 1 % acetic acid , where after tissues were cleared in xylene and mounted in d . p . x between two cover slips . specimens were analyzed and photographed under a light microscope ( bx50 microscope ; dp71 camera ; cell f software ; olympus , japan ) .

o 2 consumption was measured in seawater kept at ∼100 % atmospheric saturation using intermittent respirometry in accordance with vismann and hagerman [ 49 ] . the experimental setup was placed in a constant temperature room at 6°c . each experiment encompassed 3–8 measuring sequences consisting of a flushing period of 10–30 min and a measuring period of 30–45 min . the set - up had a chamber flushing rate of 30 ml min −1 and a shunt water flow of 8 ml min −1 past the o 2 electrode ( e5046 , radiometer medical aps , brønshøj , denmark ) .


ethmia acontias is a moth in the family depressariidae .

it was described by meyrick in 1906 .

it is found in sri lanka and southern india .

the wingspan is 17 – 21 mm .

the forewings are pale whitish-fuscous with blackish markings .

there is a streak from the base of the costa to beneath the costa at two-fifths , brown towards its middle .

there is an irregular streak along the fold from the base to near the middle , beyond the apex of which lies a dot surrounded with whitish .

there is also a median longitudinal streak from before the middle to the termen beneath the apex , its posterior extremity bifurcate .

there is a series of irregular dots along the posterior part of the costa and termen .

the hindwings are fuscous-whitish , suffused with fuscous towards the apex .

ethmia acontias

ethmia acontias <EOT> adults resemble " ethmia hainanensis " and " ethmia acontias " , but can be distinguished by the continuation and breaks in the three black stripes on the forewings .

adults resemble " ethmia acontias " , but can be distinguished by the breaks in the first and second black stripe on the forewings .

how can i put and write and define acontias in a sentence and how is the word acontias used in a sentence and examples ? 用acontias造句 , 用acontias造句 , 用acontias造句 , acontias meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .

this is the sister genus to " acontias " , which together form the well supported afrotropical subfamily acontinae .

this new concept of " acontias " is a sister lineage to " typhlosaurus " , and these two genera are the only genera within the subfamily acontinae .

rather , it seems to be slightly closer to " acontias " ; it might either belong into the acontinae or , as it seems to be quite distinct from " acontias " too , into a not yet established novel and perhaps monotypic subfamily ; more research is clearly required . ( austin & arnold 2006 )

examples include the " sinophis " snakes , the purple frog and sri lankan lizard genus " nessia " which appears similar to the madagascan genus " acontias " .

a species of lizard endemic to sri lanka , " nessia layardi " ( originally placed in the genus " acontias " ) was named after him by edward frederick kelaart .

" " ' acontias breviceps " " ' , the " ' shorthead lance skink " ' , is a viviparous , legless , fossorial lizard occurring along the southern and eastern sections of the great escarpment in south africa .

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