crotalus scutulatus ( common names : mojave rattlesnake , mojave green , ) is a highly venomous pit viper species found in the deserts of the southwestern united states and central mexico .

it is perhaps best known for its potent neurotoxic-hemotoxic venom , which is considered the world 's most potent rattlesnake venom .

two subspecies are recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here .

crotalus scutulatus

crotalus scutulatus <EOT> crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( kennicott 1861 ) caudisona scutulata kennicott 1861 : 207 crotalus scutulatus — cope 1875 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — gloyd 1940 crotalus scutulatus — cope 1883 crotalus confluentus kellyi amaral 1929 : 90 ( fide klauber 1930 ) crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — stebbins 1985 : 233 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — tanner 1985 : 664 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — conant & collins 1991 : 236 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — liner 1994 crotalus scutulatus — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 293 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — tennant & bartlett 2000 : 532 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — dixon 2000 crotalus scutulatus — hoser 2009 crotalus scutulatus — wallach et al . 2014 : 194 crotalus scutulatus salvini günther 1895 crotalus salvini günther 1895 : 193 crotalus scutulatus salvini — gloyd 1940 crotalus scutulatus salvini — klauber 1952 : 98 crotalus scutulatus salvini — liner 1994 crotalus scutulatus salvini — beaman & hayes 2008

mojave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) lacking the acidic subunit dna sequence lack mojave toxin in their venom .

mojave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) lacking the acidic subunit dna sequence lack mojave toxin in their venom . - pubmed - ncbi

venomous ! crotalus scutulatus scutulatus and crotalus cerastes laterorepens hybridized in captivity . nomenclature : hoser’s 2009 classification and nomenclature has been rejected as unnecessary and unavailable by wüster & bernils 2011 .

crotalus scutulatus antivenin is derived and purified immunoglobulin fragments obtained from other domestic animals such as sheep previously immunized with crotalus scutulatus ( also known as the mojave rattlesnake [ 2 ] ) .

crotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study .

kento furui added the japanese common name " モハベガラガラヘビ " to " crotalus scutulatus kennicott 1861 " .

cardwell , michael d . 2006 . crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mohave rattlesnake ) . morphology . herpetological review 37 ( 4 ) : 477 - get paper here

strimple , pete 1993 . captive birth of mojave rattlesnakes , crotalus scutulatus scutulatus . litteratura serpentium 13 ( 5 ) : 166 - 168 - get paper here

crotalus scutulatus is restricted to the western edges of the state , from el paso to the big bend .

crotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study . - pubmed - ncbi

legal status : in utah , crotalus scutulatus scutulatus is listed as a wildlife species of concern . throughout the remainder of our region , the species is afforded no protected status . more

hardy , d . l . 1983 . envenomation by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in southern arizona , u . s . a . toxicon . 21 : 111–118 .

bush sp , cardwell md . mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) identification . wilderness environ med . 1999 spring . 10 ( 1 ) : 6 - 9 . [ medline ] .

bush , s . p . ; cardwell , m . d . 1999 . mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) identification . wilderness and environmental medicine 10 ( 1 ) : 6 - 9 .

massey , d . j . , et al . 2012 . venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . proteomics 75 : 2576 - 2587 .

strimple , pete 1996 . crotalus scutulatus ( kennicott ) , the mojave rattlesnake . litteratura serpentium 16 ( 2 ) : 36 - 38

powell , r . ; inboden , m . & smith , d . b . 1990 . erstnachweis von hybriden zwischen den klapperschlangen crotalus cerastes laterorepens klauber 1944 und crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( kennicott 1861 ) . salamandra 26 ( 4 ) : 319 - 320 - get paper here

wilkinson , j . a . , et al . 1991 . distribution and generic variation in venom a and b populations of the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in arizona . herpetologica . 47 : 54–68 .

hardy dl . envenomation by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in southern arizona , u . s . a . toxicon . 1983 . 21 ( 1 ) : 111 - 8 . [ medline ] .

according to the three major herpetological societies in the united states ( american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , herpetologists’ league , and society for the study of amphibians and reptiles ) , the standardized english name is northern mohave rattlesnake and the scientific name is crotalus scutulatus or crotalus scutulatus scutulatus , 1 if you consider our mohaves to be a subspecies distinct from the mexican rattlesnake crotalus scutulatus salvini . according to linguists , the english word mohave can be spelled with either an “h” or a “j . ” 2

glenn jl , straight rc . intergradation of two different venom populations of the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in arizona . toxicon . 1989 . 27 ( 4 ) : 411 - 8 . [ medline ] .

scutulatus ) in arizona . toxicon . 1989 ; 27 ( 4 ) : 411 - 8 . . 14 . hardy dl . envenomation by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in southern arizona , u . s . a . toxicon . 1983 ; 21 ( 1 ) : 111 - 8 . . more

murphy , r . w . ; crabtree , c . b . 1988 . genetic identification of a natural hybrid rattlesnake : crotalus scutulatus scutulatus x c . viridis viridis . herpetologica 44 ( 1 ) : 119 - 123 - get paper here

price a h 1982 . crotalus scutulatus ( kennicott ) . mojave rattlesnake . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 291 : 1 - 2 - get paper here

rael , e . d . ; knight , r . a . ; zepeda , h . 1984 . electrophoretic variants of mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) venoms and migration differences of mojave toxin . toxicon 22 ( 6 ) : 980 - 984

massey dj , calvete jj , sánchez ee , sanz l , richards k , curtis r , boesen k . 2012 . venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . journal of proteomics . urltoken

mrinalini , james j . hicks and wolfgang wüster . 2015 . crotalus scutulatus ( mohave rattlesnake ) maximum size . herpetological review 46 ( 2 ) : 270 - 271

cardwell , m . d . 2013 . behavioral changes by mohave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus ) in response to drought . unpublished thesis , california state university , sacramento .

table 4 : proteolytic activity inhibition of the c . s . scutulatus venoms by edta .

campbell , j . a . 1979 . crotalus scutulatus ( viperidae ) in jalisco , mexico . southwestern naturalist 24 ( 4 ) : 683 - 714 - get paper here

crotalids : crotalus sp . , sistrurus sp . ( agkistrodon sp . ) .

scutulatus scutulatus type b , found in a narrow range of arizona , lacks mojave toxins and has hemorrhagic activity . the same amounts of these two characteristically different snake venoms , c . more

glenn , j . l . ; straight , r . c . ; wolfe , m . c . ; hardy , d . l . 1983 . geographical variation in crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) venom properties . toxicon 21 ( 1 ) : 119 - 130

ed50 for the crotolus scutulatus snake evenomation is 8 mg antivenin / mg venom [ label ] .

borja , miguel ; gamaliel castañeda , jorge espinosa , edgar neri , alejandro carbajal , herlinda clement , osvaldo garcía , and alejandro alagon 2014 . mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) with type b venom from mexico . copeia 2014 ( 1 ) : 7–13 - get paper here

crotalus adamanteus , the eastern diamondback , is the biggest venomous snake in the americas .

a western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) . photo by sean bush , md .

* mohave rattlesnake ( c scutulatus ) envenomation is among the most controversial topics in envenomation medicine . more

table 3 : antibody recognition : proteinase and hemorrhagic activities of the c . s . scutulatus venoms .

table 2 : primers used for amplifying metalloproteinase sequences from crotalus s . scutulatus . genomic dna and sequence comparison to other snake venom metalloproteinases ( mp ) . nonconserved nucleotides are indicated in bold .

davis , d . r . & cardwell , m . d . 2017 . crotalus scutulatus ( mohave rattlesnake ) arboreality and climbing behavior . herpetological review 48 ( 3 ) : 670 - 671 .

mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) . note the diamond pattern fades into bands along the caudal third of the back and the white tail rings are wider than the black . photo by sean bush , md .

massey dj , calvete jj , sánchez ee , sanz l , richards k , curtis r , et al . venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . j proteomics . 2012 may 17 . 75 ( 9 ) : 2576 - 87 . [ medline ] .

fact : mohave rattlesnakes are no more unique than any other rattlesnake in the genus crotalus , which includes all rattlers except the little pigmy rattlesnakes and massasaugas . numerous genetic studies show that they are most closely related to the prairie and western rattlesnakes , crotalus viridis and crotalus oreganus , respectively . 3

salazar , jennifer d . , and carl s . lieb . geographic diet variation of mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) . diss . bs thesis , university of texas at el paso , el paso , 2003 .

crotalus scutulatus - ( kennicott , 1861 ) - proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , vol . 13 , p . 207 from original description citations for the reptiles and amphibians of north america © ellin beltz

massey dj , calvete jj , sánchez ee , sanz l , richards k , curtis r , boesen k : venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . j proteomics . 2012 , 75 : 2576 - 2587 . 10 . 1016 / j . jprot . 2012 . 02 . 035 .

table 5 : dna sequence homology for different structural domains of the four groups of c . s . scutulatus metalloproteinase genes .

in the united states , crotalus scutulatus is found in the southern portions of california , arizona , new mexico , and texas . there are two subspecies of the mojave rattlesnake , though only one ( c . s . scutulatus ) is found in the u . s . the mojave rattlesnake also has an extensive range in the northern half of mexico .

in a retrospective study of patients bitten chiefly by crotalus atrox and c . s . scutulatus , those patients given only medical treatment suffered less local morbidity than those given a combination of medical and surgical treatment ( hardy 1988 ) .

crotalus scutulatus is viviparous , giving birth to live young in late july or august , often coinciding with the summer monsoons . there may be as many as nine young , measuring up to 25 cm ( 10 in ) in length .

crofab ( crotalidae polyvalent immune fab ( ovine ) ) is a sheep - derived antivenin used for the management of adult and pediatric patients with north american crotalid envenomation [ label ] , which includes the crotalus scutulatus snake ( mojave snake ) .

wooldridge bj , pineda g , banuelas - ornelas jj , dagda rk , gasanov se , rael ed , lieb cs : mojave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) lacking the acidic subunit dna sequence lack mojave toxin in their venom . comp biochem physiol b . 2001 , 130 : 169 - 179 . 10 . 1016 / s1096 - 4959 ( 01 ) 00422 - 5 .

carstairs sd , kreshak aa , tanen da . crotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study . acad emerg med . 2013 may . 20 ( 5 ) : 522 - 5 . [ medline ] .

ruben k . dagda , sardar e . gasanov , boris zhang , william welch , eppie d . rael . erratum to : molecular models of the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) venom metalloproteinases reveal a structural basis for differences in hemorrhagic activities , journal of biological physics , 2014 , 217 - 218 , doi : 10 . 1007 / s10867 - 014 - 9347 - y

peña - peniche , a . , d . lazcano , i . ruvalcaba - ortega , and l . d . wilson . 2017 . crotalus scutulatus ( kennicot , 1861 ) . diet . mesoamerican herpetology 4 ( 3 ) : 644–648 - get paper here

antivenom indications : rattlesnakes ( in particluar crotalus atrox , c . adamanteus , c . viridis , c . oreganus , c . horridus , c . scutulatus ) ( gold et al 2002 , 2004 ; norris 2004 , warrell 2010 ) systemic signs of envenoming :

patients sustaining rattlesnake envenomation often develop thrombocytopenia , the etiology of which is not clear . laboratory studies have demonstrated that venom from several species , including the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) , can inhibit platelet aggregation . in humans , administration of crotaline fab antivenom has been shown to result in transient improvement of platelet levels ; however , it is not known whether platelet aggregation also improves after antivenom administration .

envenomation by some rattlesnakes , such as the mojave rattlesnake ( formerly mohave rattlesnake ) ( crotalus scutulatus ) , may cause a different clinical presentation than that generally encountered after most rattlesnake bites . in addition , other species , such as the southern pacific rattlesnake crotalus oreganus helleri , ( formerly crotalus viridis helleri ) , may cause signs and symptoms consistent with typical rattlesnake envenomation combined with signs and symptoms similar to mojave rattlesnake envenomation . [ 1 ] ( see rattlesnake envenomation for a more complete discussion of typical rattlesnake envenomation . )

the objective was to determine the effect of c . scutulatus venom on platelet aggregation in vitro in the presence and absence of crotaline fab antivenom .

the scutulatus is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .

cardwell , m . d . , et al . 2013 . type specimen of crotalus scutulatus ( chordata : reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) re - examined , with new evidence after more than a century of confusion . proceedings of the biological society of washington . 126 : 11–16 .

carstairs sd , kreshak aa , tanen da : crotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study . acad emerg med . 2013 may ; 20 ( 5 ) : 522 - 5 . doi : 10 . 1111 / acem . 12135 . [ pubmed : 23672368 ]

fact : like other rattlesnakes , mohaves have been evolving for millions of years . genetic evidence strongly suggests that mohave rattlesnakes diverged from an ancestor shared with crotalus viridis and crotalus oreganus before those lineages separated from one another between 26 . 4 and 3 . 9 million years ago . 3

after bites of the most dangerous rattelsnakes ( crotalus atrox , c . adamanteus , c . viridis , c . oreganus , c . horridus , c . scutulatus ) , antivenom should be given early , even before systemic envenoming has become obvious ( warrell 2010 ) . see also discussion kitchens and eskin 2008 .

t . chen and e . d . rael , “purification of m5 , a fibrinolytic proteinase from crotalus molossus molossus venom that attacks complement , ”

certainly not the biggest , nor the most widely ranging or populous of the rattlesnakes , the mojave rattler ( crotalus scutulatus ) has the most toxic venom and a reputation as extremely aggressive toward humans . physically similar to the western diamondback , the mojave rattler typically shades toward green , sparking the common name , mojave greens .

winchell , s . 2007 . klapperschlangen ! die gattung crotalus . reptilia ( münster ) 12 ( 66 ) : 18 - 25 - get paper here

the third most dangerous rattlesnake in north america , the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) lives in the densely populated northeastern area of the united states .

wang ym , parmelee j , guo yw , tsai ih : absence of phospholipase a2 , in most crotalus horridus venom due to translational blockage comparison with crotalus horridus atricaudatus venom . toxicon . 2010 , 56 : 93 - 100 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2010 . 03 . 015 .

the myth that mohave rattlesnakes have no scientific history and no “type specimen” ( the preserved animal used for the original description of a species ) has been fueled by an error in a publication in 1900 , 4 causing laurence klauber to correctly point out in 1956 that the type specimen designated for c rotalus scutulatus was not the correct species . 5 that confusion has recently and conclusively been resolved : the type specimen for crotalus scutulatus resides in the preserved collection of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia as specimen number ansp 7069 . 6

calvete jj , sanz l , cid p , de la torre p , flores - díaz m , santos mcd , borges a , bremo a , angulo y , lomonte b , alape - girón a , gutiérrez jm : snake venomics of the central american rattlesnake crotalus simus and the south american crotalus durissus complex points to neurotoxicity as an adaptive paedomorphic trend along crotalus dispersal in south america . j proteome res . 2010 , 9 : 528 - 544 . 10 . 1021 / pr9008749 .

a red diamond rattlesnake ( crotalus ruber ) . the postocular light stripe extends above the angle of the mouth in mojave rattlesnakes . photo by sean bush , md .

j . g . soto , j . c . perez , m . m . lopez et al . , “comparative enzymatic study of hplc - fractionated crotalus venoms , ”

means db : effects of rattlesnake roundups on the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) . herpetol conserv biol . 2009 , 4 ( 2 ) : 132 - 141 .

in a retrospective study of patients who were primarily bitten by crotalus atrox and c . s . scutulatus , 64 had swelling that extended as far as the axilla or inguinal region . none of these patients required surgical intervention . none of them developed symptoms that could have been attributed to compartment syndrome . all patients regained full functionality of the affected limb ( hardy 1991 ) .

mackessy sp : fibrinogenolytic proteases from the venoms of juvenile and adult northern pacific rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis oreganus ) . comp biochem physiol b . 1993 , 106 : 181 - 189 .

mackessy sp : venom ontogeny in the pacific rattlesnakes crotalus viridis helleri and c . v . oreganus . copeia . 1988 , 1988 : 92 - 101 . 10 . 2307 / 1445927 .

brown ws : biology , status , and management of the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) : a guide for conservation . soc study amphibians reptiles cir . 1993 , 22 : 78 -

the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) is widely distributed in western north america , occurring from the mojave desert through the sonoran and chihuahuan deserts to central mexico ( stebbins , 1985 ) . it can be distinguished from other rattlesnake species by features of color pattern and scalation , and especially by the presence of enlarged plates ( scutes ) on the head between the eyes ( degenhardt , et al . 1996 ) .

the enzymatic and hemorrhagic activities of fourteen c . s . scutulatus venoms are shown in table 3 . for comparative purposes , we also included data obtained from venoms from c . atrox ( call - 1 ) and c . m . molossus ( cmm88 ) as positive controls for both proteolytic and hemorrhagic activities [ 26 , 27 ] . we found that c . s . scutulatus venoms from css28 , css31 , and css36 ( collected from el paso , tx , usa ) showed potent hemorrhagic activity . venom from three other c . s . scutulatus css68 , css71 , and css74 collected in maricopa county , az , usa , also induced hemorrhage to the same extent as venom derived from c . atrox . the other eight c . s . scutulatus venoms ( collected from various geographic locations including maricopa county , az , usa ) did not cause hemorrhage ( table 3 ) .

french , w . j . , et al . 2004 . mojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) : molecular and geographic characterization . toxicon . 44 : 781–791 .

e . d . rael , m . martinez , and o . molina , “isolation of a fibrinolytic protease , m4 , from venom of crotalus molossus molossus ( northern blacktail rattlesnake ) , ”

hoser , r . 2009 . a reclassification of the rattlesnakes ; species formerly exclusively referred to the genera crotalus and sistrurus . australasian j . herpetol . 3 : 1 - 21 - get paper here

similar to and easily confused with the western diamond - backed rattlesnake - crotalus atrox , though there is little range overlap in california . compare the western diamond - backed rattlesnake to the northern mohave rattlesnake

straight rc , glenn jl : isolation and characterization of basic phospholipase ( pla2 ) and acidic subunits of canebrake toxin from crotalus horridus atricaudatus venom using hplc . toxicon . 1989 , 27 : 80 -

of ctenophorus scutulatus that i managed to dig up all showed quite colorful lizards , not dull gray ones like this . apparently it is one of many lizard species that attain a dark coloration when their body temperatures are lower . more

crotaline fab antivenom improved platelet aggregation in an in vitro model of platelet dysfunction induced by venom from c . scutulatus . it is unclear at this time whether this improvement in platelet dysfunction translates into improved clinical outcomes in envenomated patients .

cardwell , michael d . ; steve w . gotte , roy w . mcdiarmid , ned gilmore , and james a . poindexter 2013 . type specimens of crotalus scutulatus ( chordata : reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) re - examined , with new evidence after more than a century of confusion . proceedings of the biological society of washington mar 2013 , vol . 126 , no . 1 : 11 - 16 . - get paper here

glenn jl , straight rc , wolf tb : regional variation in the presence of canebrake toxin in crotalus horridus venom . comp biochem physiol c . 1994 , 107 ( 3 ) : 337 - 346 .

mackessy sp : kallikrein - like and thrombin - like proteases from the venoms of juvenile and adult northern pacific rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis oreganus ) . j nat toxins . 1993 , 2 : 223 - 239 .

patients sustaining rattlesnake envenomation often develop thrombocytopenia , the etiology of which is not clear . it has been shown thatcrotaline fab antivenom improved platelet aggregation in an in vitro model of platelet dysfunction induced by venom from c . scutulatus [ 1 ] .

figure 1 : alignment of the four groups ( gp1 , gp2 , gp3 , and gp4 ) of c . s . scutulatus metalloproteinase genomic dna sequences . assignment of exon and intron ( underlined ) regions was made by comparing metalloproteinase cdna sequences from c . atrox [ 7 ] and a . contortrix [ 12 , 30 ] with metalloproteinase genomic dna sequences from c . s . scutulatus obtained in this study . differences among the dna sequences are denoted by an asterisk ( * ) .

neurological symptoms : if the patient is suspected of having been bitten by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) , the patient may develop neurological symptoms including respiratory obstruction or failure which must be treated as an immediate emergency . the neurologic symptoms , as others , should be improved by antivenom . if breathing becomes impaired , respiratory assistance may be necessary , and intubation and ventilation may be appropriate adjuncts in certain clinical settings . secretions may become copious , necessitating suctioning .

amaral , a . do 1929 . studies of nearctic ophidia v . on crotalus confluentus say , 1823 , and its allied forms . bull . antivenin inst . amer . 2 ( 4 ) : 86 - 97

j . b . bjarnason and a . t . tu , “hemorrhagic toxins from western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) venom : isolation and characterization of five toxins and the role of zinc in hemorrhagic toxin , ”

in north america , local signs of envenoming , particularly swelling , are a reliable parameter of possible systemic envenoming in most crotalid bites . important exceptions are some populations of crotalus scutulatus ( " type a " ) , c . mitchelli , c . lepidus and c . tigris , which can cause systemic envenoming without significant local effects ( minton 1987a ) . c . adamanteus can cause incoagulability of the blood without significant local findings ( kitchens and van mierop 1983 ) .

snake venoms generally show sequence and quantitative variation within and between species , but some rattlesnakes have undergone exceptionally rapid , dramatic shifts in the composition , lethality , and pharmacological effects of their venoms . such shifts have occurred within species , most notably in mojave ( crotalus scutulatus ) , south american ( c . durissus ) , and timber ( c . horridus ) rattlesnakes , resulting in some populations with extremely potent , neurotoxic venoms without the hemorrhagic effects typical of rattlesnake bites .

wüster , w . & bérnils , r . s . 2011 . on the generic classification of the rattlesnakes , with special reference to the neotropical crotalus durissus complex ( squamata : viperidae ) . zoologia 28 ( 4 ) : 417–419

the following references are recommended for further indepth reading . this material includes case histories , guidelines , and recent findings in crotalus literature . these should be read only after treatment has begun , and the patient is in stable status .

r . a . martinez , s . y . huang , and j . c . perez , “antigenic relationships of fractionated western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) hemorrhagic toxins and other rattlesnake venoms as indicated by monoclonal antibodies , ”

the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) is one of the most lethal rattlers of north america . adults average 2 - 4 feet in length from head to tail ( shaw - cambell 1974 ) . it has a diamond shaped pattern that dissolves into an offset striped pattern towards the tail . the offset stripe pattern helps set it apart from the very similar diamond back . the color of the mojave rattlesnake varies from a greenish gray to a yellowish brown . these color variations provide camouflage in certain terrain .

this one is interesting . the large scales , relatively thick light tail bands , and ( only partially visible ) light stripe behind the eye all point to c . scutulatus . but the multiple small scales between the supraoculars , and the tail - most tail band being black are generally characteristics of c . atrox . it is possible i suppose that it is a hybrid , but i think it ' s much more likely that it ' s a somewhat aberrant c . scutulatus . several people have told me that they agree with this id .

klauber , l . m . 1930 . new and renamed subspecies of crotalus confluentus say , with remarks on related species . trans . san diego soc . nat . hist . 6 ( 3 ) : 95 - 144 - get paper here

o . zhou , b . j . smith , and m . h . grossman , “molecular cloning and expression of catrocollastatin , a snake - venom protein from crotalus atrox ( western diamondback rattlesnake ) which inhibits platelet adhesion to collagen , ”

judging by their appearance , you’d think both rattlesnakes were of the same species . you’d be right , being the clever person you are . they are in fact part of the same subspecies of southern pacific rattlesnake ( crotalus oreganus helleri ) .

rokyta dr , lemmon ar , margres mj , aronow k : the venom - gland transcriptome of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake crotalus adamanteus . bmc genomics . 2012 , 13 : 312 - 10 . 1186 / 1471 - 2164 - 13 - 312 .

m . anaya , e . d . rael , c . s . lieb , j . c . perez , and r . j . salo , “antibody detection of venom protein variation within a population of prairie rattlesnake crotalus v . viridis , ”

mackessy sp : evolutionary trends in venom composition in the western rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis sensu lato ) : toxicity vs . tenderizers . toxicon . 2010 , 55 : 1463 - 1474 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2010 . 02 . 028 .

nor are there any clinical trial results available on the efficacy of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors . c . s . scutulatus venom acts at the presynaptic level of neuromuscular transmission ( gopalakrishnakone et al . 1980 ) , while micrurus fulvius venom acts post - synaptically to depolarise the muscle fibre membrane ( brazil 1990 ) .

mackessy sp , williams k , ashton kg : ontogenetic variation in venom composition and diet of crotalus oreganus concolor a case of venom paedomorphosis ? . copeia . 2003 , 2003 ( 4 ) : 769 - 782 . 10 . 1643 / ha03 - 037 . 1 .

a majority of the fauna found in the mojave desert also extends into the sonoran or great basin deserts as well . however , the following avifauna and herpetofauna are characteristic of the mojave region in particular : leconte’s thrasher ( toxostoma lecontei ) , banded gecko ( coleonyx variegatus ) , desert iguana ( dipsosaurus dorsalis ) , chuckwalla ( sauromalus obesus ) , and regal horned lizard ( phrynosoma solare ) . snake species include the desert rosy boa ( lichanura trivirigata gracia ) , mojave patchnose snake ( salvadora hexalepis mojavensis ) , and mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) ( brown 1994 ) .

e . d . rael , j . z . rivas , t . chen , n . maddux , e . huizar , and c . s . lieb , “differences in fibrinolysis and complement inactivation by venom from different northern blacktailed rattlesnakes ( crotalus molossus molossus ) , ”

l . a . hite , j . d . shannon , j . b . bjarnason , and j . w . fox , “sequence of a cdna clone encoding the zinc metalloproteinase hemorrhagic toxin e from crotalus atrox : evidence for signal , zymogen , and disintegrin - like structures , ”

french wj , hayes wk , bush sp , cardwell md , bader jo , rael ed . mojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) : molecular and geographic characterization . toxicon . 2004 dec 1 . 44 ( 7 ) : 781 - 91 . [ medline ] .

there have been no clinical trials on the efficacy of antivenom in the treatment of micrurus fulvius and c . s . scutulatus ( " type a " ) bites . empirical data on the course of envenoming following micrurus bites give the impression that established symptoms of paralysis are not influenced by antivenom treatment ( kitchens and van mierop 1987 ) . likewise , there is no significant effect of the polyvalent wyeth anti - crotalid antivenom on the neurotoxic course of envenoming following c . s . scutulatus bites ( glenn and straight 1978 ) . this is not surprising , as neither " type a " venom nor mojave toxin is included in the manufacturing process of the polyvalent wyeth anti - crotalid antivenom .

w . j . french , w . k . hayes , s . p . bush , m . d . cardwell , j . o . bader , and e . d . rael , “mojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) : molecular and geographic characterization , ”

o . molina , r . k . seriel , m . martinez , m . l . sierra , a . varela - ramirez , and e . d . rael , “isolation of two hemorrhagic toxins from crotalus basiliscus basiliscus ( mexican west coast rattlesnake ) venom and their effect on blood clotting and complement , ”

french wj , hayes wk , bush sp , cardwell md , bader jo , rael ed : mojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) molecular and geographic characterization . toxicon . 2004 , 44 : 781 - 791 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2004 . 08 . 008 .

the southern pacific rattlesnake ( crotalus oreganus helleri ) is considered to be one of the most medically significant rattlesnakes in the usa . researchers from the university of queensland analyzed the venoms produced by two separate populations of this species . the populations studied are located in southern california , within a two hour’s drive from one another .

we identified four groups of c . s . scutulatus rattlesnake venoms with each having distinct biochemical profiles associated with metalloproteinase activity . rattlesnakes from each venom group had unique genomic nucleotide dna sequences for the mature metalloproteinase domain and noncoding regions . these findings support the genomic basis underlying diversity in venom metalloproteinase activities . this is the first report on genomic dna sequences of snake venom metalloproteinases .

certain populations of mojave rattlesnakes , c . scutulatus and the neo - tropical rattlesnake , c . durissus , have long been known to contain neurotoxins . if i recall correctly from my days at the bronx zoo , bites from these species were treated with a mix of 2 - 3 antivenins ( i’ve not checked current treatment recommendations ; please post below if you need further information ) .

douglas , m . e . , et al . 2002 . phylogeography of the western rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis ) complex , with emphasis on the colorado plateau . pp . 11–50 in : g . w . schuett , et al . ( eds . ) , biology of the vipers . eagle mountain publishing , eagle mountain , utah .

actually the third most dangerous rattlesnake in north america , the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) lives in the densely populated northeastern area of the united states . the snake , gracing the famous gadsden flag ( don’t tread on me ) , certainly has spawned more fear and respect from settlers than any other through the history of the united states .

e entry crotalus admanteus ) . although defibrinogenation , caused by the direct fibrinogen - coagulating activity of the venom , generally has a benign course , there is nonetheless a risk of spontaneous haemorrhage with extensive loss of blood or focal bleeding ( e . g . intracranial ; kitchens and eskin 2008 ) as long as the haemostatic defect is not corrected

rokyta dr , wray kp , lemmon ar , lemmon em , caudle sb : a high - throughput venom - gland transcriptome for the eastern diamondback rattlesnake crotalus adamanteus and evidence for pervasive positive selection across toxin classes . toxicon . 2011 , 57 : 657 - 671 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2011 . 01 . 008 .

douglas me , douglas mr , schuett gw , porras lw : evolution of rattlesnakes ( viperidae ; crotalus ) in the warm deserts of western north america shaped by neogene vicariance and quaternary climate change . mol ecol . 2006 , 15 : 3353 - 3374 . 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 294x . 2006 . 03007 . x .

calvete jj , pérez a , lomonte b , sánchez ee , sanz l : snake venomics of crotalus tigris : the minimalist toxin arsenal of the deadliest neartic rattlesnake venom . evolutionary clues for generating a pan - specific antivenom against crotalid type ii venoms . j proteome res . 2012 , 11 : 1382 - 1390 . 10 . 1021 / pr201021d .

valencia - hernández , ángel alberto ; irene goyenechea < br / > & jesús martín castillo - cerón 2007 . notes on scutellation , length , and distribution of rattlesnakes ( serpentes : viperidade : crotalus ) in the state of hidalgo , mexico . acta zoológica mexicana ( n . s . ) 23 ( 3 ) : 29 - 33 - get paper here

crotalus atrox may not be quite as massive as its eastern relative , but it makes up for that in numerous ways . the brownish “base” with cream outlines around the classic diamond shape and a quick to respond rattle announce its presence . the western diamondback has a massive range , extending well into mexico and stretching from the southeast to california and approximately halfway to canada .

it really doesn’t take much to make this list , if you’re a venomous snake in the united states . there are 21 species listed by the society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . nearly two thirds of the venomous snakes are true rattlesnakes ( crotalus ) along with one , sistrurus miliarius carrying the common name , pygmy rattlesnake , to bring the total to 14 .

with one exception , neurological manifestations following north american crotalid bites are limited to the signs and symptoms discussed above . in addition to local swelling and haemostatic defects , c . s . scutulatus ( " type a " ) bites can also cause neurological symptoms of envenoming , including paralysis . however , there are very few reports of obvious neurotoxic symptoms of envenoming following bites from this geographical variant of a single subspecies ( minton 1990a ) .

the mojave rattlesnake may be difficult to distinguish from the western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) , which inhabits an overlapping geographical range . some mojave rattlesnakes are greenish , but they may have a similar color as western diamondbacks . in the mojave rattlesnake , the diamond pattern fades into bands along the caudal third of the back , whereas the diamonds continue to the tail in the western diamondback .

crotalus adamanteus , the eastern diamondback , is the biggest venomous snake in the americas , and may be the biggest in the world . with recorded lengths nearing eight feet and weights in excess of 35 pounds , this is a significant creature and is quite dangerous to humans with a fatality rate of 10 - 20 % ( although rates were claimed as high as 30 % at one time ) .

boldrini - frança j , rodrigues rs , fonseca fpp , menaldo dl , ferreira fb , henrique - silva f , soares am , hamaguchi a , rodrigues vm , otaviano ar , homsi - brandeburgo mi : crotalus durissus collilineatus venom gland transcriptome : analysis of gene expression profile . biochimie . 2009 , 91 : 586 - 595 . 10 . 1016 / j . biochi . 2009 . 02 . 001 .

this is most common in victims of russell ' s viper , tropical rattlesnake ( crotalus durissus subspecies ) and some species of bothrops . patients bitten by russell ' s vipers may become oliguric within a few hours of the bite . loin pain and tenderness may be experienced within the first 24 hours and , in 3 or 4 days , the patient may become irritable and hypertensive and may convulse and become comatose with evidence of metabolic acidosis .

pit vipers are the largest group of venomous snakes in the united states and are involved in an estimated 150 , 000 bites annually of dogs and cats . 1 approximately 99 % of all venomous snake bites in the united states are inflicted by pit vipers . in north america , members of the family crotalidae belong to three genera : the rattlesnakes ( crotalus and sistrurus spp . ) and the copperheads and cottonmouth water moccasins ( agkistrodon spp . ) .

blood was obtained from four healthy male adult volunteers not currently using aspirin , nonsteroidal anti - inflammatory drugs , or other platelet - inhibiting agents . c . scutulatus venom from a single snake with known type b ( hemorrhagic ) activity was obtained from the national natural toxins research center . measurement of platelet aggregation by an aggregometer was performed using five standard concentrations of epinephrine ( a known platelet aggregator ) on platelet - rich plasma over time , and a mean area under the curve ( auc ) was calculated . five different sample groups were measured : 1 ) blood alone , 2 ) blood + c . scutulatus venom ( 0 . 3 mg / ml ) , 3 ) blood + crotaline fab antivenom ( 100 mg / ml ) , 4 ) blood + venom + antivenom ( 100 mg / ml ) , and 5 ) blood + venom + antivenom ( 4 mg / ml ) . standard errors of the mean ( sem ) were calculated for each group , and paired t - tests were used to measure differences between groups .

kartik sunagara , eivind a . b . undheimc , holger scheibd , eric c . k . grene , chip cochrane , carl e . persone , ivan koludarov c , wayne kelln e , william k . hayes e , glenn f . king d , agosthino antunesa , bryan grieg fry . intraspecific venom variation in the medically significant southern pacific rattlesnake ( crotalus oreganus helleri ) : biodiscovery , clinical and evolutionary implications . 2014 . journal of proteomics . urltoken

boldrini - frança j , corrêa - netto c , silva mms , rodrigues rs , torre pdl , pérez a , soares am , zingali rb , nogueira ra , rodrigues vm , sanz l , calvete jj : snake venomics and antivenomics of crotalus durissus subspecies from brazil : assessment of geographic variation and its implication on snakebite management . j proteomics . 2010 , 73 : 1758 - 1776 . 10 . 1016 / j . jprot . 2010 . 06 . 001 .

for example , the venom of timber rattlesnakes ( crotalus horridus ) living in new england is more effective against the most common local prey animal ( gray squirrels , i believe ) than against other creatures . further south , cottontail rabbits predominate in the diet , and the venom’s chemical make - up reflects this . timber rattlesnakes living on st . catherine’s island off georgia ( formerly used by the bronx zoo to breed endangered species ) seem to produce especially virulent venom , at least where dogs are concerned .

the mojave rattlesnake can easily be mistaken for the western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) , which inhabits an overlapping range . they both have well - defined light - edged diamonds down the middle of their backs . the diamond pattern fades towards the last third of the mojave rattlesnake , whereas the diamonds continue to the tail in the western diamondback . the tail of the mojave has contrasting light and dark rings . the white rings are much wider than the black rings , while the diamondbacks have thick black rings .

neurotoxic symptoms : in the united states one species of rattlesnake , the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutalatus ) , is known to produce a clinical picture with predominantly neurotoxic symptoms . the onset and progression of the symptoms may be rapid and subtle . in addition , they are more rapidly reversed in their early stages than when fully developed . it may be necessary to wake the patient and perform a brief neurologic check every hour or so to assure that breathing and other vital functions are not impaired . carefully note the progression of respiratory paralysis which may be present . be prepared to intubate and ventilate as necessary .

in a prospective study in which the majority of patients had been bitten by c . atrox and a smaller number by c . s . scutulatus , c . m . molossus and c . cerastes ( snakes identified according to geographical criteria ) , patients were investigated using non - invasive angiological methods ( pulse volume amplitude , blood pressure , skin temperature ) . in only one case was a reduced pulse volume amplitude recorded . this patient also had a decrease in blood pressure and the skin temperature of the bitten extremity . on angiography , thrombosis of the popliteal artery and the deep femoral artery was seen . the patient had applied a tourniquet following the bite , which may have caused the thrombosis . the thrombus was successfully removed using a fogarty catheter ( curry et al . 1985 ) .

6 h . the clotting time test is a simple means to regulate the antivenom dose . the initial dose should be repeated if the blood is still not coagulable 6 h after the first dose ( warrell 1990b ) . treatment of the haemostatic defect with blood product replacement should only be carried out if it is clearly indicated , i . e . there is already bleeding or there is an immediate risk of critical bleeding . in all other cases administration of antivenom should be a sufficiently effective and quick means of correcting the haemostatic defect ( burgess and dart 1991 ) . fabav has been evaluated in two clinical trial ( dart et al 1997 , 2001 ) . venom - induced abnormalities of the coagulation was reversible following antivenom treatment with recurrences as an important problem ( gold et al 2004 ) . see clinical entry ' crotalus sp . '

a thorough analysis of the dna nucleotide sequence showed that the fourteen metalloproteinase genomic dna sequences exhibited a perfect correlation with the biochemical classification of the rattlesnake venoms . the genomic dna sequences from css28 , css31 , css36 , and css68 were classified in group one ( gp1 ) , whereas genomic dna sequences belonging to css61 , css62 , and css64 were classified into group two ( gp2 ) . the genomic dna sequences belonging to css65 , css66 , css67 , css69 , and css75 were categorized into group three ( gp3 ) , whereas genomic dna sequences belonging to css71 and css74 were classified in group four ( gp4 ) ( figure 1 ) . this classification is identical to the classification that was based on the biochemical profiles of the fourteen rattlesnake venoms pointing to the existence of a genetic basis that gives rise to intra - species variation in metalloproteinase - associated activities in c . s . scutulatus . interestingly , the genomic dna sequence belonging to gp2 differed the most compared to the other three groups in that it contained a longer intron sequence ( table 5 ) .

all of the nucleotide sequences contained similar structural domains including a conserved “cysteine switch” sequence [ 34 ] located within the zymogen region , an n - terminal region of the proteinase domain , a zn 2 + - binding domain , and a spacer domain located between the proteinase and disintegrin domains . the homology among the genomic dna metalloproteinase sequences was greater than 95 % for the zymogen region ( nucleotides 1–82 ) , 100 % for the zinc - binding domain ( table 5 ) , and greater than 98 % for the spacer region ( nucleotides 1084 to 1147 ) . the dna sequence homology for the proteinase domain across all 14 c . s . scutulatus genomic metalloproteinase genes , excluding the intron ( nucleotides 83 to 474 and 909 to 1083 ) , was close to 89 % , and the sequence identity for the entire gene was at least 84 . 5 % homologous among the four groups of metalloproteinase genes ( table 5 ) . however , the sequence homology within the intron region among the fourteen snakes ( nucleotides 476 to 908 ) was highly variable ( ~ 67 % homology for some rattlesnakes , table 5 ) suggesting that differences in the splicing of introns and fusion of exons among the four different groups of rattlesnake venoms may contribute to variations in metalloproteinase activities as shown in table 3 .

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justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .

the species ' range extends from southern california , southern nevada , and southwestern utah south through arizona ( lowe et al . 1986 ) , southern new mexico ( degenhardt et al . 1996 ) , western texas ( tennant 1984 ) in the united states , and central mexico to near the south end of the mexican plateau in puebla and adjacent veracruz ( stebbins 2003 , campbell and lamar 2004 ) . its elevational range extends from sea level to around 2 , 530 m asl ( 8 , 300 feet ) ( stebbins 2003 ) ; above 1 , 800 m asl at the southern end of the range ( campbell and lamar 2004 ) .

this species is represented by a large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . on a range - wide scale , campbell and lamar ( 2004 ) mapped hundreds of collection sites . the adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100 , 000 . this snake is often locally common ( lowe et al . 1986 ) . its extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations , and population size are probably relatively stable .

mendoza - quijano , f . & hammerson , g . a . 2007 .

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uetz , p . & jirí hosek ( eds . ) , the reptile database , ( http : / / www . reptile - database . org )

banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner

checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada

flores - villela , oscar / mccoy , c . j . , ed .

mcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . touré

snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1

disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .

home » resources » categories and criteria » 2001 iucn red list categories and criteria version 3 . 1

see below for the rules and requirements outlined in the iucn red list categories and criteria . version 3 . 1 ( second edition ) . for translations of this document into other languages , click here .

the iucn red list categories and criteria are intended to be an easily and widely understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction . the general aim of the system is to provide an explicit , objective framework for the classification of the broadest range of species according to their extinction risk . however , while the red list may focus attention on those taxa at the highest risk , it is not the sole means of setting priorities for conservation measures for their protection .

extensive consultation and testing in the development of the system strongly suggest that it is robust across most organisms . however , it should be noted that although the system places species into the threatened categories with a high degree of consistency , the criteria do not take into account the life histories of every species . hence , in certain individual cases , the risk of extinction may be under - or over - estimated .

before 1994 the more subjective threatened species categories used in iucn red data books and red lists had been in place , with some modification , for almost 30 years . although the need to revise the categories had long been recognized ( fitter and fitter 1987 ) , the current phase of development only began in 1989 following a request from the iucn species survival commission ( ssc ) steering committee to develop a more objective approach . the iucn council adopted the new red list system in 1994 .

to give people using threatened species lists a better understanding of how individual species were classified .

since their adoption by iucn council in 1994 , the iucn red list categories have become widely recognized internationally , and they are now used in a range of publications and listings produced by iucn , as well as by numerous governmental and non - governmental organizations . such broad and extensive use revealed the need for a number of improvements , and ssc was mandated by the 1996 world conservation congress ( wcc res . 1 . 4 ) to conduct a review of the system ( iucn 1996 ) . this document presents the revisions accepted by the iucn council .

the proposals presented in this document result from a continuing process of drafting , consultation and validation . the production of a large number of draft proposals has led to some confusion , especially as each draft has been used for classifying some set of species for conservation purposes . to clarify matters , and to open the way for modifications as and when they become necessary , a system for version numbering has been adopted as follows :

version 1 . 0 : mace and lande ( 1991 ) the first paper discussing a new basis for the categories , and presenting numerical criteria especially relevant for large vertebrates .

version 2 . 0 : mace et al . ( 1992 ) a major revision of version 1 . 0 , including numerical criteria appropriate to all organisms and introducing the non - threatened categories .

version 2 . 1 : iucn ( 1993 ) following an extensive consultation process within ssc , a number of changes were made to the details of the criteria , and fuller explanation of basic principles was included . a more explicit structure clarified the significance of the non - threatened categories .


myrmecia analis is a species of the myrmecia genus .

myrmecia analis is usually only found in western australia .

it was described by mayr in 1862 .

myrmecia analis are around 20-22 millimetres long on average , but some workers can be slightly smaller , and have the colour tone similar to myrmecia vindex , but the head is slightly darker .

the mandibles are around 3-4 millimeters long .

myrmecia analis

myrmecia analis <EOT> the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see myrmecia analis for further details

no one has contributed data records for myrmecia analis yet . learn how to contribute .

myrmecia analis : holotype , worker , australia ( as new holland ) , australia , naturhistorisches museum wien , vienna .

atriscapa . myrmecia atriscapa crawley , 1925b : 580 ( w . ) australia . junior synonym of analis : clark , 1927 : 34 ; clark , 1951 : 54 .

die gattung myrmecia ist unterteilt in 9 artengruppen damit sich die vielen arten dieser gattung leichter klassifizieren lassen .

senior synonym of myrmecia atriscapa : clark , 1927 pdf : 34 ; clark , 1951 pdf : 54 .

the genus myrmecia is sub - divided in 9 species groups for an easier classification of the many species .

myrmecia atriscapa crawley , 1925 : syntype , 1 worker , albany , western australia , australia , australian museum .

myrmecia atriscapa crawley , 1925 : syntype , worker ( s ) , albany , western australia , australia , oxford university museum of natural history .

myrmecia atriscapa crawley , 1925 : syntype , 4 workers , albany , western australia , australia , clark , j . , anic32 - 005960 , australian national insect collection .

heterick ( 2009 ) - the apex of the gaster in this red - and - black ant is a conspicuous yellow .

the following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .

unless otherwise noted the text for the remainder of this section is reported from the publication that includes the original description .

crawley ( 1925 ) - length 14 mm . ( without mandibles ) ; length of mandibles 3 . 4 mm .

colour like a dark m . vindex , head somewhat darker ; mandibles castaneous with teeth dark brown ; scapes , except the extremities , dark brown ; legs slightly paler than thorax ; gaster deep black except the two apical segments and a wide lozenge - shaped patch on the middle of the second segment ( varying in distinctness in different specimens ) , which are castaneous .

legs pilose , but less so than in forficata , scapes with only a faint pubescence . there is a short pilosity on the body and a thin grey pubescence most abundant on gaster .

head broader than long , narrowing behind the eyes more than in forficata , the occipital angles not so rounded as in regularis , but more like a small forficata . clypeus emarginate , but not impressed in centre as in forficata . scapes pass the occiput by one - quarter of their length . epinotum moderately long , not sharply pointed in front . first node from above oval , narrower in front ; in profile rising abruptly in front ( even more so than in forficata ) , where it is highest , thence sloping down to the rounded posterior border . the stalk is intermediate between vindex and forficata , but nearer the former ; the length of the node is 1 . 4 that of the stalk , while in typical examples of vindex the proportion is 1 . 2 and in forficata 2 . 6 . the stalk is a little longer than in race simillima , sm . , of forficata . second node as broad as long , more than twice as wide behind as in front , the sides of the posterior third almost parallel .

entire head longitudinally rugose , with the space between eyes and antennal sockets reticulate . pronotum transversely striate , the striae not clean - cut , but wavy and arched . some specimens have one or two central longitudinal lines . rest of thorax : and epinotum with , similar but only transverse striation . petiole circularly rugose - striate ; postpetiole and first segment of gaster entirely smooth and shining , the remaining segments microscopically reticulate .

clark , j . 1927 . the ants of victoria . part iii . vic . nat . ( melb . ) 44 : 33 - 40 ( page 34 , queen described , , senior synonym of atriscapa )

clark , j . 1951 . the formicidae of australia . 1 . subfamily myrmeciinae : 230 pp . csiro , melbourne . [ ( 31 . xii ) . 1951 . ] pdf

crawley , w . c . 1925b . new ants from australia . - ii . ann . mag . nat . hist . 9 ( 16 ) : 577 - 598 pdf

heterick , b . e . 2009a . a guide to the ants of south - western australia . records of the western australian museum , supplement 76 : 1 - 206 . part 2 pdf

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mayr , g . , 1862 , myrmecologische studien . , verhandlungen der zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft in wien 12 , pp . 649 - 776

[ [ worker ] ] laenge : 19 mm - hellroth , mandibeln , geissel und beine gelb , die zwei knoten gelbroth , hinterleib schwarz , an der spitze gelb , die zaehne der mandibeln schwaerzlich , der schaft braun . die abstehende behaarung ist ziemlich spaerlich am ganzen koerper vertheilt , sie ist gelb , fein und nicht lang . die anliegende pubescenz ist sehr spaerlich , der hinterrand des ersten hinterleibssegmentes aber und die uebrigen segmente mit reichlicher gelber pubescenz . die mandibeln innen mit nur 4 groesseren zaehnen , die anderen sind klein , der aussenrand ist schwach concav , die oberseite fein und seicht laengsrunzlig und mit einer reihe grober puncte versehen . der kopf ist ziemlich grob streifig etwas nach hinten divergirend laengsgerunzelt ; das pronotum vorne quer bogig nach hinten gerunzelt , hinten laengsgerunzelt ; meso - und metanotum grob quergerunzelt . der erste knoten ist ziemlich grob quergerunzelt , wenig laenger als breit , seitlich gerundet , der zweite knoten und der hinterleib glatt und glaenzend , nur das mit reichlicher pubescenz versehene ende des hinterleibs ist fein punctirt . neuholland ( m . c . vienn . ) .

0 times found in low coastal scrub , 0 times found in banksia / nuytsia sandplain , 0 times found in swamp country , 0 times found in dry sclerophyll , 1 times found in heath , 0 times found in rainforest , 0 times found in sandplain heath .

0 times on track , 0 times ground forager , 0 times under rock , 1 times on shrub , 0 times on gyrostemon efn , 0 times mound nest , 0 times in termitarium , 1 times ground strays , 0 times forager on soil , 0 times flight intercept trap with trough .

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crawley , w . c . 1925 , " new ants from australia . ii " , annals and magazine of natural history , ser . 9 , vol . 16 , pp . 577 - 598

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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9b3c4d37 - 4f1f - 44a3 - 9710 - 18151a6d86ba

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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .

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the scar bank gem , ( ctenoplusia limbirena ) , also known as silver u-tail , is a moth of the noctuidae family .

it is found in south-western europe , africa ( lesotho , the cape province , kwazulu-natal , transvaal , mozambique , zimbabwe , zambia , botswana , malawi and eastern and equatorial africa ) , the canary islands , arabia , the southern himalayas , india , sri lanka , indochina to south-eastern china , taiwan , sulawesi , bali and timor .

in new zealand , it has been established since 2011 .

ctenoplusia limbirena

ctenoplusia limbirena <EOT> ctenoplusia limbirena looks very similar to another moth trichoplusia ni . ctenoplusia limbirena has a distinctive pale brownish / cream mark near the outer forewing margin .

remarks : ctenoplusia limbirena has a palaeotropical - subtropical distribution and occurs in macaronesia , africa and southern asia . ctenoplusia limbirena migrates occasionally further north ( southern europe etc . ) .

habitat : ctenoplusia limbirena inhabits subtropical agricultural areas , fallo land and herb - rich borders of all kinds .

ctenoplusia ( ctenoplusia ) astrapeia ; [ ne10 ] , 156 ( missp . ? )

ctenoplusia ( ctenoplusia ) limbirena ; behounek & ronkay , 1999 , spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 139 ; [ ne10 ] : 179 , pl . 12 , f . 52 - 56 , gen . 206 , 277 ; ronkay , ronkay & behounek , 2010 , witt catalogue 4 : 56

plusia limbirena guenée , 1852 ; in boisduval & guenée , hist . nat . insectes ( spec . gén . lépid . ) 6 : 350 ; tl : madagascar

ctenoplusia limbirena is a member of noctuid moths ( family noctuidae ) and it is now found in new zealand . it has a wingspan is 40–45 mm . europe , africa , arabia , asia including se asia to urltoken the known range of this species .

ctenoplusia ( ctenoplusia ) placida sundicata behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 125 , pl . 1 , f . 15 - 16 ; tl : timor

ctenoplusia ( ctenoplusia ) sumbawana behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 126 , f . 14 , pl . 1 , f . 17 ; tl : sumbawa

? ctenoplusia placida caledonica holloway , 1979 ; series entom . 15 : 481 ; tl : new caledonia

ctenoplusia ( ctenoplusia ) accentifera ; [ ne10 ] : 180 , pl . 12 , f . 57 - 62 , gen . 207 , 278 ; ronkay , ronkay & behounek , 2010 , witt catalogue 4 : 63

life cycle : ctenoplusia limbirena can be found all year round . i observed larvae feeding on urtica membranacea and other herbs near the coast in madeira in march 2013 ( ribeira da janela ) . the larvae live more concealed than those of related species such as trichoplusia ni or chrysodeixis chalcites and stay more near the ground or in the inner parts of the plants .

ctenoplusia caelata dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 99 ; tl : uganda , bwamba

ctenoplusia crinoides dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 100 ; tl : kenya , kakmega

ctenoplusia perispomena dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 97 ; tl : kenya , makakwet

ctenoplusia polycampta dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 94 ; tl : gabon , makokou

ctenoplusia triteia dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 96 ; tl : kenya , nairobi

ctenoplusia amydra dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 96 ; tl : cameroon , dchang plateau

ctenoplusia etiennei dufay , 1975 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 80 : 160 ; tl : reunion , grand maturum forest

ctenoplusia perplexa dufay , 1975 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 44 ( 4 ) : 115 ; tl : cameroon

ctenoplusia psileia dufay , 1975 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 44 ( 4 ) : 116 ; tl : cameroon

ctenoplusia asteia dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 103 ; tl : kenya , mt . elgon

ctenoplusia isospila dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 103 ; tl : tanzania , mt . roungoué

ctenoplusia proseides dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 102 ; tl : kenya , nairobi , muguga

ctenoplusia rubronitens dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 98 ; tl : cameroon , mt . cameroon

ctenoplusia scoteina dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 104 ; tl : kenya , nairobi , muguga

ctenoplusia selagisma dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 101 ; tl : tanzania , mt . merou

ctenoplusia dargei dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 102 ; tl : cameroon , bafut n ' guemba forest

ctenoplusia fulgens dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 97 ; tl : cameroon , bafut n ' guemba forest

ctenoplusia gemmata dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 98 ; tl : cameroon , bafut n ' guemba forest

ctenoplusia phoceoides dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 99 ; tl : cameroon , bafut n ' guemba forest

ctenoplusia karthalae dufay , 1982 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 87 : 224 ; tl : comoro is . , grande comore ; la covalescence

ctenoplusia vermiculata dufay , 1970 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 39 ( 3 ) : 106 ; tl : mt . korintji , sumatra

ctenoplusia ( acanthoplusia ) javana behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 134 , f . 20 , pl . 1 , f . 13 ; tl : tjinjiroean

subfamily plusiinae . the caterpillars of moths in this subfamily have only three fully developed pairs of prolegs on the abdomen ( those on segments 3 and 4 are lost or reduced ) . thus they are often termed ‘loopers’ , as they have a similar mode of progression to larvae of geometridae . adults usually have at least a small metallic marking on the forewing ; thysanoplusia orichalcea has extensive golden forewing patches . all new zealand species occur overseas ; ctenoplusia limbirena is a very recently introduced species with a natural distribution from southern europe through to south - east asia ; it appears to be established and can be expected to become commoner in new zealand . larvae of most species feed on a range of herbaceous plants , especially garden plants , but ctenoplusia albostriata seems to prefer asteraceae .

ctenoplusia ( acanthoplusia ) latistigma floresiana behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 129 , f . 16 , pl . 2 , f . 33 - 34 ; tl : flores

ctenoplusia ( acanthoplusia ) armata behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 128 , f . 15 , pl . 2 , f . 30 - 31 ; tl : philippines , mindanao

ctenoplusia ( acanthoplusia ) latistigma sulawesiana behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 131 , f . 17 , pl . 2 , f . 32 ; tl : sulawesi , puncak , palopo , 900 - 1300m

ctenoplusia ( acanthoplusia ) dufayi behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 132 , f . 18 - 19 , pl . 2 , f . 35 ; tl : philippines , n . luzon , ifugao , banaue

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host plants : the larva feeds polyphagous on herbs like solanaceae , fabaceae , asteraceae or urtica .

a rare autumn immigrant , mainly to the south and south - west of england , there have been around 15 records to date of this afrotropical species .

the species resembles silver y in appearance , but tends to be more reticulated , often with a violet or purple sheen , and usually a distinctive pale patch on the central part of the termen .

ukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .

the ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .

looking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .

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flies , caddisflies , craneflies , damselflies dragonflies , gnats , mayflies . midges , mosquitoes

insects ( ants , beetles , bugs , cicadas , cockroaches , centipedes , crickets , grasshoppers , lacewings , ladybirds , mantis , millipedes , scale , shield bugs , stick insects , wetas , weevils , etc . ) .

reptiles ( frogs , geckos , skinks , snakes , lizards , turtles ) .

trees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names a to f with photo .

trees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names g to l with photo .

trees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names m to q with photo .

trees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names r to z with photo .

trees ( new zealand ) hebes and their hybrids & cultivars ( photos ) .

weeds & escapee plants : a to f ( common names with photo ) .

weeds & escapee plants : g to l ( common names with photo ) .

weeds & escapee plants : m to q ( common names and photo ) .

weeds & escapee plants : r to z ( common names with photo ) .

the larvae host plants include solanum spp , geranium , nicotiana tabacum , althea , salvia , primula , lactuca sativa , mentha piperita , verbascum sp . and agave sisalana .

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version validée du meilleur niveau de connaissance disponible à un moment donné . cette catégorie indique une image fiable de la répartition à la date de réalisation de la carte , avec une bonne présomption d ' absence dans les secteurs où le taxon n ' est pas mentionné . exemple : atlas des amphibiens et reptiles de métropole .

ensemble de données contrôlées issues de programmes : comprend les jeux de données validées associés aux inventaires en cours ou à des inventaires terminés mais partiellement incomplets . diffère du niveau " distribution de référence " essentiellement sur le degré de complétude et d ' expertise collégiale . c ' est - à - dire que les données présentées ont une forte fiabilité mais ne représentent pas forcément l ' aire de répartition nationale du taxon .

jeux de données dont la méthodologie d ' acquisition ou d ' organisation ne satisfait pas aux critères de définition d ' un inventaire pour l ' inpn . ces données , provenant généralement de spécialistes et considérées a priori comme fiables , ne sont pas encore intégrées à un processus de validation tierce - partie . il s ' agit souvent de données destinées à intégrer un inventaire . exemple : données issues de cardobs , données pré - triées de programmes de sciences participatives .

données de programmes dont l ' objet principal n ' est pas l ' inventaire d ' espèces mais la qualification d ' une zone , en particulier d ' espaces protégés ou de périmètres d ' inventaire . exemple : znieff g1 et g2 , natura 2000 , espaces protégés , apb .

sweu - greece , africa , near east , asia minor . see [ maps ]

plusia aenescens prout , 1921 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 9 ) 8 ( 43 ) : 24 , pl . 4 , f . 1 ; tl : [ zambia ] n . rhodesia

indonesia , new guinea , new zealand , rapa is . . see [ maps ]

phytometra albostriata ab . disjunctana strand , 1917 ; archiv naturg . 82 a ( 2 ) : 48

plusia aurisuta dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 203 ; tl : perinet region , madagascar

polychrysia camptogamma hampson , 1910 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 5 ( 29 ) : 430 ; tl : br . e . africa , kikuyu , roromo

plusia caudata schaus , 1906 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 30 ( 1444 ) : 105 ; tl : mexico , orizaba

plusia chalcopasta hampson , 1912 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 21 ( 4 ) : 1225 ; tl : gooty ; nilgiris ; ceylon ; maskeliya ; pattipada

plusia edora prout , 1927 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . ( 1927 ) 75 : 222 ; tl : sao thomé

plusia epargyra dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 196 ; tl : périnet , e . madagascar

phytometra euchroa hampson , 1918 ; novit . zool . 25 : 215 ; tl : natal , durban

plusia euchroides carcasson , 1965 ; j . e . africa nat . hist . soc . 25 : 146 ; tl : uganda

plusia fracta walker , [ 1858 ] ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 12 : 920 ; tl : " congo "

plusia gammaloba hampson , 1910 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 5 ( 29 ) : 430 ; tl : madagascar

plusia glaphyra dufay , 1974 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 43 : 109 , f . 13 - 14 ; tl : brazil , parana , castro

plusia griveaudi dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 208 ; tl : s . moramango , e . madagascar

plusia lavendula hampson , 1902 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 2 ( 10 ) : 347 ; tl : cape colony

plusia leucostigma dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 208 ; tl : périnet , e . madagascar

sweu , africa , canary islands , arabia , s . himalayas , india , sri lanka , indochina - se . china , taiwan , sulawesi , bali , timor . see [ maps ]

plusia melanocephala möschler , 1884 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 33 : 297 , pl . 16 , f . 11 ; tl : cape colony

plusia micans dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 206 ; tl : ambre mt . , n . madagascar

phytometra nigrogemmea romieux , 1943 ; mitt . schweiz . ent . ges . 19 ( 3 ) : 111 , pl . 9 , f . 10 ; tl : upper katange , tshinkolobwe

plusia orbifer guenée , 1865 ; in vinson , voy . madagascar , annexe f : 47 , pl . 6 , f . 3 ; tl : madagascar

s . ontario , e . usa - arizona , kansas , nebraska , iowa , wisconsin , mexico , antilles , ca - brazil , n . argentina . see [ maps ]

larva on aster sp . , erigeron canadensis , nicotiana tabacum , solidago sp . [ mna25 . 1 ] , 47

plusia pauliana dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 202 ; tl : e . madagascar , lakato

plusia phocea hampson , 1910 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 5 ( 29 ) : 433 ; tl : natal , durban

plusia rhodographa dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 205 ; tl : ambre mt . , n . madagascar

plusia seyrigi dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 207 ; tl : madagascar , bekily

acnthoplusia dufay , 1970 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 39 ( 3 ) : 104 ; ts : pytometra tarassota hampson

acanthoplusia adiaphora dufay , 1974 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 43 : 107 ; tl : formosa , wushe

phytometra agnata var . sokutsuna strand , 1920 ; archiv naturg . 84 a ( 12 ) : 129 ; tl : formosa , banshoryo , sokutsu

phytometra eugrapha hampson , 1913 ; cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . 13 : 474 , pl . 237 , f . 14 ; tl : dutch new guinea

acanthoplusia herbuloti dufay , 1982 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 51 ( 3 ) : 73 ; tl : philippines

plusia ichinosei dufay , 1965 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 34 : 194 ; tl : japan

plusia latistigma prout , 1922 ; bull . hill mus . 1 ( 2 ) : 229 ; tl : ceram

ceylon , indochina , taiwn , sumatra , java , bali , sulawesi , timor , flores . see [ maps ]

acanthoplusia sigillata dufay , 1970 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 39 ( 3 ) : 105

plusia confusa ; holloway , 1976 , moths of borneo with special reference to mt . kinabalu : 32

[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .

revision de plusiinae : descriptions de nouvelles especes asiatiques et notes synonymiques ( lep . noctuidae )

reise der österreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von wüllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera

neuere beiträge zur schmetterlingskunde mit abbildungen nach der natur . ( 1 - 16 )

lépidoptéres de madagascar . in vinson . voyage a madagascar au couronnement de radama ii . in vinson ,

the moths of india . supplementary paper to the volumes in " the fauna of british india " . series iv . part v ( ? vi )

on some apparently new species and forms of noctuidae . collected by c . , f . , and j . pratt , in the mountains of central ceram , october , 1919 , to february , 1920

a list of noctuidae with descriptions of new forms collected in the island of sao thomé by t . a . barns

die macrolepidopteren des amurgebiets . i . theil . rhopalocera , sphinges , bombyces , noctuae in romanoff ,

wallengren , 1856 anteckningar i zoologien . i . kafferlandets macrolepidopter - fauna anteckn . zool . 1 : 1 - 78

if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .

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the following moth families are covered by this online guide : hepialidae , zygaenidae , sesiidae , geometridae , saturniidae , sphingidae , erebidae ( includes the former families arctiidae and lymantriidae ) , nolidae , noctuidae .

brief general introductions to these and some of the included genera are presented below ; no key to families is given here , as characters tend to be rather technical and involve specialised preparation techniques ; it is quite easy , however , to learn to recognise which family a moth belongs to , especially in the limited new zealand fauna .

the ghost moths or swift moths are primitive moths with very short antennae , long abdomens , and hindwings rather similar in shape and wing venation to the forewings . the family is well represented in new zealand with 30 species , including our largest moth species , the puriri moth ( aenetus virescens ) with a wingspan up to 150 mm in the female . aenetus is confined to the north island ; caterpillars form characteristic scars on trunks of native and introduced trees . other hepialid larvae in new zealand are more or less subterranean , forming tunnels in the soil of grasslands or wetlands ( e . g . , wiseana spp , the porina moths ) or under leaf - litter in forests ( e . g . , dumbletonius spp . ) . adults of many species are crepuscular , flying at dusk , and coming to light before it is fully dark , but aenetus tends to fly later in the night .

the burnet and forester moths are an unusual family of day - flying lepidoptera , many of which are brightly coloured and distasteful to birds and other vertebrate predators . they are naturally absent from new zealand , and only a single introduced species , the bamboo moth ( artona martini ) is present , having first been detected in whangarei in 1996 . it is has now spread as far as auckland ; the hairy larvae can cause conspicuous defoliation of bamboos in gardens and parks and sometimes occur locally in huge numbers . the diurnal adults are less conspicuous . artoni martini originates in south - east asia , and was presumably introduced accidentally through trade .

the clearwings are another unusual family of day - flying moths , most of which are mimics of wasps or bees , with partially transparent wings . they are day - flying but often very hard to find as adults ; caterpillars are internal feeders in a wide range of plants . there is only a single introduced european species in new zealand : the currant clearwing ( synanthedon tipuliformis ) , which as its name suggests , feeds as a caterpillar inside stems of cultivated currants ( ribes spp . ) . adults may occasionally be seen flying around the currant bushes in sunshine . they are rarely found north of the central north island .

the loopers are a very large family of moths ( over 20 , 000 species worldwide ) , well represented in new zealand by over 250 species , where most species are endemic . the common name comes from the larvae , which do not have the full complement of abdominal prolegs ( usually they have prolegs only on segments 6 and 10 ) , and therefore progress in the characteristic ‘inchworm’ looping motion . an important feature of the family is the presence of tympanal organs ( ‘ears’ ) at the base of the abdomen .

subfamily ennominae . all new zealand ennominae ( about 55 species ) are medium - sized relatively robust moths ( although not as robust as noctuidae ) , and the males in most genera have feathery antennae . in the genus pseudocoremia , the hindwings are often yellowish and much brighter than the forewings under which they are concealed when the moth is at rest . declana contains robust noctuid - like species , most exhibiting lichen - like or bark - like patterning . some , like d . floccosa , are very variable in colour pattern . the fern loopers in the genera ischalis , sarisa and sestra have scalloped or hook - tipped forewings , usually with strong dark lines running across them ; males have simple , non - feathery antennae . chalastra males do have feathery antennae ; c . aristarcha and pellurgata are medium - sized moths with distinctive white markings . ‘ chalastra ’ ochrea is more pseudocoremia - like and does not really belong with the other two chalastra species . gellonia and cleora are large brown moths , with feathery antennae in the males , and scalloped edges to the wings . cleora scriptaria , the kawakawa looper , is especially variable in pattern ; its current genus placement is likely to be incorrect . zermizinga indocilisaria is a small , grey , rather atypical ennomine , with an eastern distribution in new zealand . the female is short - winged ( brachypterous ) ; the species almost certainly originates from australia .

subfamily larentiinae . the larentiinae are very well represented in new zealand with about 200 described species . they tend to be more delicate , butterfly - like moths than ennominae , and some species ( e . g . asaphodes aegrota , austrocidaria similata , epyaxa rosearia ) will hold their wings vertically above the body like a butterfly when at rest . the subfamily contains many brightly coloured day - flying species , especially in the endemic genera paranotoreas , notoreas and dasyuris , many of which are restricted to open subalpine and alpine habitats . the cabbage tree looper ( epiphryne verriculata ) is a common and well known species belonging to this subfamily : the adults are often illustrated as a fine example of crypsis when resting on the dead leaves of their larval host - plant cordyline australis . the genus tatosoma is remarkable for the highly elongated abdomens of the males ; this feature has presumably evolved as a result of sexual selection by the females . the genus - level classification of larentiinae in new zealand is in need of extensive revision , e . g . moths currently assigned to the genus hydriomena are all wrongly placed . at the species level , the genera notoreas and pasiphila are particularly difficult and badly in need of revision ; identifications given here are based on those in nzac and there may still be errors .

subfamily sterrhinae . only a single species of this cosmopolitan subfamily ( usually called ‘waves’ ) occurs in new zealand ; this is scopula rubraria , which also occurs widely in australia . it is a very common species in pastures , roadsides and weedy places , especially in late summer , flying by day . larvae feed on a variety of herbaceous plants , including plantain ( plantago spp . ) .

the very large and unmistakeable gum emperor moth ( opodiphthera eucalypti ) is our only species of this family of silk moths , and was introduced from australia in the early 20th century . it is now widespread in new zealand , larvae feeding chiefly on eucalyptus spp . in gardens and parks , but also on schinus ( pepper tree ) .

the hawk - moths are a family of large streamlined moths ; many species are powerful fliers and migratory in habit . only one cosmopolitan species occurs regularly and breeds in new zealand , the convolvulus hawk - moth ( agrius convolvuli ) , with larvae feeding on convolvulaceae , including kumara ( sweet potato , ipomoea batatas ) . the silver - striped hawk - moth ( hippotion celerio ) occurs rarely as a migrant to new zealand : there appear to be very few recent records .

this family name has recently been revived ; the erebidae now include the former families arctiidae ( tiger moths ) and lymantriidae ( tussock moths ) along with several subfamilies formerly assigned to noctuidae . like noctuidae , erebidae have tympanal organs ( ‘ears’ ) on the metathorax . the family is very diverse in the tropics , but there are very few truly native species in new zealand .

subfamily lymantriinae . naturally absent from new zealand , the tussock moth subfamily is recorded here based on two accidentally introduced species which established briefly in the auckland area , but were subsequently eradicated . teia anartoides , the painted apple moth , originates from australia . the female has strongly reduced wings and is flightless ; males are day - flying . orgyia thyellina , the white - spotted tussock moth , originates from south - east asia , and has both winged ( flying ) and brachypterous ( flightless ) forms of the female . both species have hairy larvae with characteristic ‘toothbrush’ tufts on the dorsum ; larvae feed on a wide range of host plants , though teia prefer wattle ( acacia spp . ) .

subfamily arctiinae . this subfamily ( the tiger moths ) contains many colourful species worldwide ; larvae are hairy , with many secondary setae . the genus metacrias is our only endemic genus of arctiinae ; the three species chiefly occur in open habitats at higher elevations , and are almost confined to the south island ; only m . huttoni occurs in the north island ( ruahine range ) . females are flightless with minute wings , and males are diurnal with a strong , buzzing flight . larvae feed on a variety of herbaceous plants . two similar species of utetheisa ( crimson speckled footman ) occur as migrants to new zealand : u . pulchelloides ssp . vaga is a common migrant , with larvae on boraginaceae ; u . lotrix is very much rarer , with larvae on fabaceae . the cinnabar moth , tyria jacobaeae , is a european species introduced to new zealand in the 1920s as a biological control agent for its larval host - plant ragwort ( jacobaea vulgaris ( = senecio jacobaea ) ) . the conspicuous yellow and black banded larvae are distasteful to predators , as is the black and red day - flying adult . nyctemera annulata is an endemic species of a widespread genus ; larvae feed on senecio spp . the closely related australian n . amicus has reached northern new zealand and now hybridises freely there with n . annulata ; it can be difficult to distinguish the adults of the two species and the hybrid , but a white fringe to the wings probably always indicates some amicus parentage . specimens with whitish lines at the base of the forewing along the veins are the most likely to be nearly pure amicus .

other erebid subfamilies . all other erebidae in new zealand were formerly assigned to noctuidae ( subfamilies catocalinae , hypeninae and hypenodinae ) . subfamily placements still remain uncertain for some species , as the subfamily classification of erebidae has so far been largely based on northern hemisphere genera . a number of species only occur in new zealand as migrants from australia ( genera achaea , anomis , eudocima , hypocala ) ; other australian species have become established ( the large dasypodia spp . , with larvae on acacia , pantydia sparsa , with larvae on a range of plants , and the geometrid - like artigisa melanephele , with larvae on fungi and dead wood ) . schrankia costaestrigalis is a common , near - cosmopolitan species ; being small and slender - bodied , it is often mistaken for a micro - moth . only two endemic erebid species are found in new zealand : the common rhapsa scotosialis , with larvae feeding on leaf - litter or hanging moss , and the less common trigonistis anticlina , a forest species whose larvae are unknown .

two species of this family ( previously often treated as a subfamily of noctuidae ) are found in new zealand . larvae , as in arctiinae , have many secondary setae . the endemic nola parvitis is a rare species whose larvae feed on the endemic shrub helichrysum lanceolatum . the gum - leaf skeletoniser , uraba lugens , was accidentally introduced from australia and is now common in the northern north island , feeding on various myrtaceae , especially eucalyptus and lophostemon .

this is a huge worldwide family has about 140 named species in new zealand , which by world standards is an extremely limited fauna . adults have tympanal organs ( ‘ears’ ) on the metathorax , as do erebidae . it should be noted that the species of declana ( geometridae : ennominae ) resemble noctuidae superficially with their robust bodies and narrowish forewings .

subfamily amphipyrinae s . l . our two species of the endemic genus bityla are true amphipyrines , closely related to the northern hemisphere amphipyra . larvae of b . defigurata feed on muehlenbeckia vines ; adults overwinter . the life history of b . sericea is currently unknown . cosmodes is an unusual and striking endemic australian genus containing the single species c . elegans ; it occurs more or less regularly in new zealand , and probably breeds here at least temporarily . larvae feed on lobelia and verbena spp . proteuxoa is a large australian genus ; of the three species known from new zealand , one ( p . sanguinipuncta ) is a recent arrival , now well established . two species have been confused under the name proteuxoa comma , one of which may be undescribed , and both of which are thought to be endemic to new zealand , though closely related to australian species . proteuxoa species have larvae feeding on a range of herbaceous plants . the proper systematic placement of both proteuxoa and cosmodes remains to be determined ; they will probably be removed from amphipyrinae .

subfamily agaristinae . only the australian phalaenoides glycinae ( grapevine moth ) has been found in new zealand . the conspicuous black , white and red caterpillar feeds mainly on members of the plant family vitaceae ( including vitis , grapevine , and parthenocissus , virginia creeper ) , but is also recorded from other plants including cultivated fuchsia . formerly common in northern new zealand , this moth seems to have declined greatly here , and there have been few records ( if any ) in the last 10 years .

subfamily condicinae . only condica illecta ( formerly platysenta illecta ) has been recorded in new zealand , where it occurs rarely as an immigrant . overseas it is found in australia and throughout south - east asia and the pacific , where the larvae feed on various herbaceous plants in the family asteraceae .

subfamily heliothinae . the rare endemic heliothine australothis volatilis is known only from a few sites in central otago , where larvae feed on vittadinia ( asteraceae ) . adults are day - flying . our two species of helicoverpa are immigrant pest species ; h . armigera is by far the commoner species .

the large and highly enigmatic titanomis sisyrota is known only from ten specimens ( two of them lost ) , collected from scattered localities from the central north island to the southern south island . the last ( one of the lost specimens ) was collected in 1959 . the life history is unknown , but the very elongate , probing ovipositor of the female suggests that larvae are internal feeders . family placement of titanomis has never been satisfactorily resolved ; a recent published assignment to the micro - moth family glyphipterigidae is almost certainly incorrect , since morphology of the base of the abdomen suggests a more advanced position in ditrysia . extinction is a possibility , but as the moth has only ever been collected extremely rarely at long intervals , and was apparently widespread , it may well await rediscovery .

apart from unnamed species and species only recorded from the kermadecs , or only captured once in new zealand , there are a number of species of larger moth that are not represented in the image galleries . these fall into three categories :

1 . species for which it proved impossible to find or borrow good enough specimens for photography . the following species are in this category : hepialidae : aoraia hespera , a . oreobolae ; geometridae : pseudocoremia hollyae , p . hudsoni , austrocidaria prionota , chloroclystis impudicis ; noctuidae : agrotis ceropachoides .

2 . species of dubious taxonomic status , i . e . named species in unrevised groups that lack clear diagnostic features , that are not separated as species in nzac , and that require further taxonomic investigation . some may still prove to be valid species . the following species are currently in this category : geometridae : austrocidaria praerupta ( not distinguished from a . callichlora ) , dasyuris strategica , homodotis amblyterma , ‘ hydriomena’ canescens ( not distinguished from ‘ h . ’ clarkei ) , notoreas galaxias , n . isoleuca , pasiphila acompsa , p . punicea , p . vieta , xanthorhoe lophogramma ( not distinguished from x . semifissata ) ; noctuidae : ‘ aletia ’ cyanopetra ; ‘ a . ’ probenota ( not distinguished from ‘ a . ’ obsecrata ) ; ichneutica homerica ( not distinguished from holotype of i . cana , but an undescribed species is often called cana in collections ) ; meterana coctilis ( not distinguished from m . praesignis ) ; m . badia ( not distinguished from m . inchoata ) .

3 . species for which no known specimen survives , and which have never been recognised since their original description : hepialidae : ‘ porina ’ mairi ; geometridae : ‘ hydriomena’ iolanthe .

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