the steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis ) is a bird of prey .

like all eagles , it belongs to the family accipitridae .

it was once considered to be closely related to the non-migratory tawny eagle ( aquila rapax ) and the two forms have previously been treated as conspecific .

they were split based on pronounced differences in morphology and anatomy ; two molecular studies , each based on a very small number of genes , indicate that the species are distinct but disagree over how closely related they are .

steppe eagle

steppe eagle <EOT> the habitat for the steppe eagle must be protected . agricultural practices should respect the habitat and the conservation of steppe birds like the steppe eagle .

the name " steppe eagle " is a parody of the desert eagle as both steppe and desert are ecological zone types .

tags : afghanistan , birds , eagle , navy seals , sen . chuck schumer , steppe eagle

vireo steppe eagle photos . urltoken species account , with an emphasis on european populations .

green , dietmar knopp and richard j . cuthbert diclofenac is toxic to the steppe eagle

with witch the steppe eagle is closely related . today they are definitely regarded as seperate species .

[ grin 2009 ] global raptor information network . 2009 . species account : steppe eagle aquila nipalensis . downloaded from

view different nest arrangements of the steppe eagle ( karjakin , 2012 : pp . 24 - 35 ) > > >

there are no specific conservation programs in place for the steppe eagle , however many parts of its range are protected .

steppe eagle | s . t . a . l . k . e . r . wiki | fandom powered by wikia

juvenile eagle and immature often show broad white band along the greater coverts on the underwing . plumage is paler . the young steppe eagle reaches the adult plumage at 4 - 5 years .

the steppe eagle is a quiet bird , only vocalising during the breeding season . their call sounds somewhat like a barking crow .

beside that , the large scale destruction of steppe habitat and conversion the agricultural land ( and the following reduction of prey like susliks ) is the major reason for the decline of the steppe eagle .

recommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : steppe eagle aquila nipalensis . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018

view the habitats of the steppe eagle in satellite images and photographs ( karyakin , 2012 : pp . 24 - 35 ) > > >

a steppe eagle named mitch was a long way off its normal migration route when it landed in norfolk , va . , last friday .

the steppe eagle is a large bird of prey , belonging to the aquila family , or eagle family . it was once thought to be a subspecies of the tawny eagle , but they are now known to be a distinct species . there are in fact two subspecies of the steppe eagle , aquila nipalensis nipalensis and aquila nipalensis orientalis which slightly differ in coloration and size . in general aquila nipalensis nipalensis is darker and larger .

embed this arkive thumbnail link ( " portlet " ) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href = " urltoken " title = " arkive species - steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis ) " > < img src = " urltoken " alt = " arkive species - steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis ) " title = " arkive species - steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis ) " border = " 0 " / > < / a >

steppe eagle arrives in march at breeding areas . both mates often arrive together . in this species , breeding season is strongly dependent on preys’ availability .

during a dive steppe eagles can reach a speed of 300 kilometers per hour .

story by andrea egan , vadim kirilyuk and undp russia / photos : undp / gef steppe project team and natalia sudets for undp steppe project and undp russia .

similar species within the steppe eagle’s nesting sites , similar breeds of eagles exist - the white - tailed eagle ( haliaeetus albicilla ) , golden eagle ( aquila chrysaetos ) , imperial eagle ( a . heliaca ) and greater spotted eagle ( a . nipalensis ) . all the above - listed species , as well as the lesser spotted eagle ( a . pomarina ) , which is most similar to the steppe eagle , migrate to the same areas , which makes identification of species difficult . when trying to identify eagles , attention must be turned to the colour of the underside of the wing . the young steppe eagle can be distinguished from the other eagles by the ‘juvenile band’ , formed cleanly by white lower coverts . with age the band turns black and by the age of 5 it will have almost completely disappeared . at this age the key indicators identifying the steppe eagle will be its wing and tail proportions , wing position in flight , and the length of the foot relative to the tail .

protection / threats / status : steppe eagle is vulnerable to persecution , changes or destruction of their habitat for agriculture , and collision with power lines . this species may be common in suitable habitat , and it is one of the most common eagles in the world . steppe eagle is not threatened at this moment .

as the name already says , the steppe eagle is a bird of open habitat like steppes , desert , semi - desert , grasslands and even agricultural areas .

a soldier from the kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion loads a helicopter during load training at illisky training center during steppe eagle 16 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )

a group of refugees clash with members of the kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion during the steppe eagle 16 , apr . 20 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )

the steppe eagle is a unique black kite featured only in s . t . a . l . k . e . r . : call of pripyat .

verifying the toxicity of diclofenac to steppe eagles . if such results are borne out ,

while there are currently no specific conservation measures in place for the steppe eagle ( 1 ) , it occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its range ( 6 ) .

it is not known exactly when a steppe eagle reaches sexual maturity , but it is estimated at around 3 to 4 years old , when it gains its adult plumage .

a soldier from the kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion pulls security following small arms fire from the local village during the steppe eagle 16 , apr . 20 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )

description : steppe eagle adult has dark brown plumage overall . the body is darker than the greyish wings . flight and tail feathers are greyish , and may be barred dark grey .

a team of medics from the kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion evacuate a simulated casualty during medevac training , apr 16 , at illisky training center kazakhstan during steppe eagle 16 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )

food : as a predator steppe eagle prefers small rodents as food , which he is able to catch . sometimes it can hunt for small chicks , eat carrion and occasionally reptiles .

the steppe eagle is a migratory species . most european birds and those from western asia spend the winter in eastern and southern africa . some also spend the winter on the arabian peninsula .

here at woburn we have one steppe eagle , goran . he is a gentle giant , with a laid back attitude to life . his call is more like a chicken than an eagle ! he was hatched in the czech republic , but has settled into life at woburn well .

soldiers from the kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion use their shields and gain confidence in their equipment during public order training at the illisky training center , kazakhstan during steppe eagle 16 , april 12 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )

steppe eagles are very quiet birds and use rarely vocalization for communication , except during the breeding season .

a team of soldiers from the kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states compete against another multinational team in a tug - of - war competition during steppe eagle 16 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , u . k . and the u . s . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )

[ birdlife international 2004 ] birdlife international . 2004 . birds in europe : population estimates , trends and conservation status . birdlife interntional . cambridge , uk . ( steppe eagle species account available at :

although generally considered common throughout its range , as a result of persecution , collision with power lines , and the conversion of steppe to agricultural land , the steppe eagle has disappeared from romania , moldova and ukraine ( 2 ) . nevertheless , it remains the most common eagle species of its size in the world ( 2 ) , and is therefore not considered to be threatened ( 1 ) .

a relatively large , handsome bird of prey , the steppe eagle closely resembles a number of related eagle species such as the tawny eagle , aquila rapax , that occur within its extensive range ( 2 ) . the plumage is mostly dark brown , with well - defined bars on the flight and tail feathers ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the main distinguishing features are the reddish - brown patch on the nape of the neck , the oval nostrils , and the long , wide gape . there are two recognised subspecies of steppe eagle , aquila nipalensis nipalensis and aquila nipalensis orientalis , the latter being slightly smaller , with paler plumage . the juvenile steppe eagle resembles the adult but is paler brown , with a characteristic broad white band running along the underside of the wing ( 2 ) .

) . therefore , it is possible that minks may also prey on lesser spotted eagle eggs .

for many inhabitants of the steppes , the eagle is held with a reverence that borders religion .

meyburg , b . - u . , c . meyburg & p . paillat ( 2012 ) : steppe eagle migration strategies - revealed by satellite telemetry . brit . birds 105 : 506 - 519 .

range : steppe eagle breeds from romania , through the asiatic steppes to mongolia . they are migratory raptors . the european and central asian races winter in africa , whereas the eastern races winter in india .

sgt . ana pegues , a veterinary food inspection specialist from area support group - kuwait , receives a medal and a certificate for her performance during the steppe eagle 16 sports day , apr . 17 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )

. . . steppe eagles aquila nipalensis ( sharma et al . , 2014 ) suggesting the possibility that diclofenac is toxic to other accipitrid raptors , such as the threatened spanish imperial eagle . . . .

habitat in most parts of its breeding range , the steppe eagle is typically an inhabitant of the open steppes and semi - desert spaces . in contrast to other eagles , it has truly mastered overland habitats , and thus a wide range of landscapes . the habitats of the steppe eagle can be categorised into the following : 1 . low steppe hills 2 . valley - beam systems in steppe zones , including in agricultural landscapes . 3 . vast , flat territories of undisturbed dry desert steppes , semi - deserts , and northern argillaceous scree deserts . 4 . steep slopes and cliff plateaus of steppe and semi - desert zones . 5 . all types of open spaces in the hills , regardless of the high - altitude zone ( steppe valleys , forest steppes around their peripheries or mountain plains , upper boundaries of forests , alpine tundras ) .

behaviour : steppe eagle feeds almost exclusively on several races of susliks , and especially little suslik ( citellus pygmaeus ) , small rodent related to terrestrial squirrels . it also may take other small rodents and young terrestrial birds , and occasionally crickets and reptiles . steppe eagle hunts from a hide and often pursues the prey before to catch it . this eagle may hunt by walking , or while flying , by circling and diving . it also waits at burrow entrance for rodents . it captures the preys with the talons .

habitat : steppe eagle frequents grassy steppes and semi - desert . the subspecies “nipalensis” is found in mountainous areas during the breeding season , up to 2300 metres of elevation , whereas the race “orientalis” breeds in lowlands .

. . . other external stressors relevant to steppe eagle mortality have recently been demonstrated as a potential threat to the species . specifically , the veterinary drug diclofenac responsible for large - scale declines in gyps vultures in south asia has recently been implicated in the death of steppe eagles ( sharma et al . , 2014 ) . the findings suggest that , as facultative scavengers potentially present in areas where diclofenac may be used as a veterinary drug , 31 steppe eagle populations may be exposed to and consequently adversely affected by diclofenac residues in carcasses . . . .

they collaborated on this work with a steppe eagle named cossack , whom they have studied for about 10 years . cossack wore an advanced recording device to track the details of his flight , like speed , turns and altitude .

maj . dave dalton , the executive officer for the 30th military engagement team - - jordan discusses troop leading procedures with the company staff from company 1 , kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion at the illisky training center , kazakhstan during steppe eagle 16 , april 12 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army phohto by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )

sgt . scott boyd , a platoon sergeant from 1st rifles battalion , 160th brigade , discusses riot control techniques with maj . chris hainge and one of the instructors from the kazakhstan peacekeeping operations training center during predeployment preparation for steppe eagle 16 , april 11 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )

voice : sounds by xeno - canto steppe eagle is usually silent outside breeding season , but when displaying , it utters crow - like barking . calls are often given during some behaviour such as displays , contact , alarm and threat .

flight : steppe eagle has long , broad wings , and flies with heavy , slow wing beats . when circling , the wings are held horizontally with slightly hanging hand . when soaring , wings are raised and bent at hand level .

. . . pesticide poisoning has adversely impacted on the steppe eagle eastern populations in rus - sia ( karyakin et al . , 2016 ) . sharma et al . ( 2014 ) mentioned that the steppe eagle is a vulnerable to diclofenac which was inten - sively used in the species ' wintering range in pakistan and india ( birdlife international , 2016b ) . in iraq , little is known about poi - soning as a threat to birds of prey . . . .

go here fledglings of the steppe eagle can be distinguished easily from other eagles by its longer beak and the colour of the primaries developing from pins , tail feathers and remiges on the upper and undersides of the body . after the opening of the primaries , the juvenile can be easily distinguished from that of the golden eagle and the eastern imperial eagle : the upper coverts of the spine and shoulder are brown , and the remiges and tail feathers are ochre - coloured .

as its name suggests , the steppe eagle mainly inhabits vast , semi - arid areas of grassland , known as steppe , although it also frequently occurs in semi - desert . during the breeding season , aquila nipalensis orientalis can be found in lowlands and low hills , whereas aquila nipalensis nipalensis occupies mountainous areas up to elevations of 2 , 300 metres ( 2 ) .

saryarka - steppe and lakes of northern kazakhstan protects substantial , largely undisturbed areas of central asian steppe and lakes in the korgalzhyn and naurzum state nature reserves . the property’s wetland areas are of outstanding importance for migratory waterbirds , including substantial populations of globally threatened species , as they are key stopover points and crossroads on the central asian flyways . the property’s steppe areas provide a valuable refuge for over half the species of the region’s steppe flora , a number of threatened bird species and the critically endangered saiga antelope .

to find food the steppe eagle flies over its territory . when it discovers prey it rushes down and kills it on the ground with its powerful claws . prey comprises predominately small mammals , especially gophers , but also small birds , insects and reptiles . the also feed on fresh carrion or steal prey from other animals . the steppe eagle has a crop in the throat which allows it to store food before it is moved to the stomach or regurgitated in order to feed its offspring .

mitch is a steppe eagle that cannot fly . his brown wings , permanently injured , no longer soar through the air . still , mitch is about to head from afghanistan to new york , thanks to the help of a few caring soldiers .

thus , the imperial eagle project will provide the chance to learn more about the eastern imperial eagle and improve the conservation of this bird in azerbaijan with the involvement of the media , local community stakeholders , infrastructure companies and governmental authorities .

federal wildlife laws recognize the importance of accommodating tribal spiritual needs by allowing exceptions for the religious purposes of indian tribes . eagle feathers are made available to tribal members every year from the fish and wildlife service ' s national eagle repository .

the " steppe eagle " ( aquila nipalensis ) ( kazakh : дала қыраны ) is a bird of prey . like all eagles , it belongs to the family accipitridae . cultural significance : the steppe eagle appears on the flag of kazakhstan , as the " national bird of kazakhstan " respectively . habitat and feeding : the steppe eagle breeds from romania east through the south russian and central asian steppes to mongolia . the european and central asian birds winter in africa , and the eastern birds in india . it lays 1–3 eggs in a stick nest in a tree . throughout its range it favours open dry habitats , such as desert , semi - desert , steppes , or savannah . it is found in south - eastern pakistan especially in karachi .

scott hickman poses with mitch in the cage he and his colleagues built for the eagle . photo : courtesy of scott hickman

. . . it may also be that diclofenac affects other vulture species , such as bearded gypaetus barbatus , egyptian neophron perc - nopterus and cinereous vultures aegypius monachus , and facultative avian scavengers , such as the red kite , spanish imperial eagle , golden eagle aquila chrysaetos and black kite milvus migrans . circumstantial evidence suggests that the steppe eagle which is in the same family ( accipitridae ) as vultures , kites and other eagles , may be susceptible to diclofenac ( sharma et al . 2014 ) . . . .

researchers find dead steppe eagles with diclofenac residues in their tissues in rajasthan ; experts say it points to alarming trend for all indian raptors .

remarkable is the velocity that steppe eagles can achieve during their flight . they can reach up to 60 kilometer per hour and when they dive they fall with a speed up to 300 kilometer per hour . compared with other birds steppe eagles spend relatively much time on the ground .

for the imperial eagle in 2006 , which stated that a basic assessment of the breeding population of the species was a priority .

watson , j . w . 2003 . bald eagle nesting chronology in western washington . washington birds 9 : 8 - 11 .

embed this arkive thumbnail link ( " portlet " ) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href = " urltoken " title = " arkive video - steppe eagles in natural habitat " > < img src = " urltoken " alt = " arkive video - steppe eagles in natural habitat " title = " arkive video - steppe eagles in natural habitat " border = " 0 " / > < / a >

the steppe eagle is a large and handsome bird of prey , belonging to the aquila , or eagle , family . as its name suggests you will find it living in steppe habitats , or dry grasslands , across eastern europe . you will also find them on the national flag of kazakhstan , pictured flying beneath the sun . they are fast for their size , reaching flying speeds of up to 37mph , and incredible speeds of up to 186mph when diving . when migrating for the winter they can fly an incredible 220 miles in a day .

we had suspected as much from observed declines in non - gyps vultures in asia , but this study confirms our worst fears . ” taking from empirical evidence , experts fear that just like the steppe eagles , other species of eagle may also be affected in the same way .

tingaya , r . e . , suredab , n . and gilbert , m . ( 2008 ) steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis ) foraging behavior in mongolia : a combined use of diversionary and covert ambush tactics ? . journal of raptor research , 42 : 155 - 156 .

the eastern imperial eagle has a small global population that is declining due to habitat loss and exploitation . photo : michael ransburg / flickr

appearance the steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis ) is a large eagle , with broad , long wings and a short rounded tail . adult birds are brown in colour . the undersides of the wings are either the same colour as the wing coverts and belly or darker , with visible barring . there is a white patch on the upper tail coverts . the nape has either a rusty - coloured or ochre patch , which differs considerably in size across birds . in juveniles and immature birds the underside of the wing has a narrow white band , formed by the large lower wing coverts ( the so - called ‘juvenile’ band ) , which serves well to distinguish steppe eagles of this age from other eagle species .

steppe eagles tend to nest on the ground , or in bushes , and occasionally on electricity pylons and other artificial structures . ground nesting allows a good view of surroundings , for protection , but as habitat loss and habitat conversion to agricultural land occurs more , the steppe eagle has to use higher nest sites . the nest is made of sticks and twigs , and is lined with camel dung and old rags . it is usually around 1metre in diameter .

the steppe eagle will produce a pellet every day , a small package of all the parts of their food they cannot digest fully , such as the bones and fur or feathers , regurgitated . this removes the indigestible parts of food , but also cleans the digestive tract of any debris and bacteria .

watson , j . w . 1990 . bald eagle dies from entanglement in fish net . journal of raptor research 23 : 52 - 53 .

shakhyru was the first event , in which the eagle trainer drags a dead ( ? ) fox behind his horse . his eagle is then released from a nearby hilltop and judged on how quickly it can descend upon the bouncing , deteriorating fox ( it’s certainly dead at this point ) .

the current flag of kazakhstan was adopted on june 4 , 1992 , replacing the flag of the kazakh soviet socialist republic . the national flag of the republic of kazakhstan represents rectangular breadth of blue color with the sun in its center surrounded by 32 beams , and a steppe eagle flying beneath it . there is a vertical strip with national ornament near hoist . images of the sun , beams , eagle and ornament — are all gold - colored .

the sun represents the source of life and energy . it is also a symbol of wealth and abundance ; the sun ' s rays are like grain , which is the basis of abundance and prosperity . peoples of different kazakh tribes had the golden eagle on their flags for centuries . the eagle symbolizes the power of the state . for the modern nation of kazakhstan , the eagle is a symbol of independence , freedom and flight to future .

a violent and exciting sport to witness , kokbar was easily the most popular event at the festival and drew even larger crowds than the eagle hunting .

adult lesser spotted eagles also are distinguished by their yellow eyes , whereas adult steppe eagles and greater spotted eagles have brown eyes . juveniles of all three species have brown eyes . the head and wings of lesser spotted eagles are a lighter shade of brown compared to the rest of its body ; in steppe eagles and greater spotted eagles , the entire body is a dark shade of brown . lesser spotted eagles also have a small head and beak for an eagle . like other eagles in the genus

the species suffers from declining and destruction of natural habitat . the large scale destruction of steppe habitat and conversion of steppes to agricultural land ( and the following reduction of prey like gophers ) is the major reason for the decline of the steppe eagle . especially in western ranges the number of populations is decreasing . however , at the moment the number of individuals is relatively high and the species is not seen as endangered . therefore it is qualified as least concern on the iucn red list of threatened species .

threats : habitat loss is the greatest threat as their natural steppe habitat is converted into agricultural lands . they are also very susceptible collisions with power lines and wind power development .

as steppe eagles are living in areas with very few trees they often build their nests on the ground , the slope of a hill and also on bushes and power poles .

like kazakh music , kazakh dance is decidedly odd . the aim of the dance is to replicate the movements of all the great steppe animals ( all four of them ) .

as the name indicates the steppe eagle prefers open and dry landscapes as semi - deserts , savannahs and grass steppes . the birds are living up to a height of 3000 meter , but can overcome heights up to 7900 meters . an average home territory comprises between 30 and 50 square kilometers but sometimes even encompass more than 100 square kilometers .

72 - 81 cm , wingspan 160 - 200 cm . dark - brown , medium - large aquila . juvenile usually has broad whitish band along greater underwing coverts . primaries banded , iris brown ( meyburg and boesman 2013 ) . similar spp . larger than tawny eagle a . rapax and separated by width and length of gape . generally darker than lesser spotted eagle a . pomarina and paler than greater spotted eagle a . clanga and has oval nostrils rather than round as in both these species .

diet : steppe eagle uses wide variety of hunting techniques , and may catch preys by walking or flying . it often steals preys from other raptors when in flight . susliks are their favourite preys , but other rodents , terrestrial birds , reptiles and crickets are also taken . carrion is eaten during migration and on wintering areas , mainly by immature birds .

bald eagle ( haliaeetus leucocephalus ) . in e . m . larsenand n . nordstrom , editors . management recommendations for washington ' s priority species , volume iv : birds

there are usually 1 - 4 eggs in the steppe eagle’s clutch . the laying of each subsequent egg takes place every 2 - 5 days , usually 3 - 4 days ( rarely up to 10 days ) . the incubation period begins with the first egg laid . the egg is white and freckled with ochre and light - brown spots of differing colour intensity and sizes . the shell is thick and coarse - grained . the size of the eggs are 62 . 5 – 80 . 1 x 48 . 9 – 60 . 5 mm , and 73 . 81 x 55 . 85 mm on average . the eggs of the steppe eagle are on average slightly smaller than that of the golden and eastern imperial eagle , but there is a strong overlap between the ranges of measurements and the classification of each species should not be determined using these dimensions . the incubation period lasts from 39 to 45 days .

federal wildlife laws such as the bald and golden eagle protection act generally criminalize the killing of eagles and other migratory birds and the possession or commercialization of the feathers and other parts of such birds . these important laws are enforced by the department of justice and the department of the interior and help ensure that eagle and other bird populations remain healthy and sustainable .

a research paper published on monday in the journal of the cambridge university press highlighted the threat faced by steppe eagles ( aquila nipalensis ) from veterinary diclofenac , after the corpses of two steppe eagles were found in rajasthan towards the end of 2013 and earlier this year . after these were studied over the last few months , the deadly chemical was found in their tissues , setting off alarm bells .

these closely related eagle species can be most readily distinguished during their juvenile stages . in each species , juvenile birds differ greatly compared to adults . for example , juvenile greater spotted (

once hatched , the young will stay in the nest for around 60 days . usually 2 to 3 of the young will survive to fledging . during this time the male will bring food to the female and young in the nest . the success rate of chick survival in the steppe eagle is directly linked with the population number of gophers , their main food during the breeding season .

the steppe eagle is a relatively large and handsome bird of prey belonging to the genus aquila . the species is divided in two subspecies : aquila nipalensis nipalensis and aquila nipalensis orientalis which slightly differ in coloration and size . in general aquila nipalensis nipalensis is darker and larger . usually steppe eagles achieve a body - length between 60 and 81 centimeters and a wingspan between 165 and 214 centimeters . the weight ranges between 2 , 4 to 3 , 8 kilogram and the female birds are slightly larger and heavier than their male con - species . the plumage is brown to dark brown and on the back of the head are sometimes yellow spots . flight feathers and tail are blackish . often the birds have a lighter or even white bond at the wings . the eyes are brown and the hooked tip is dark gray but in the beginning the bill is bright yellow colored . the tail is short and wedge - shaped . immature young birds are less contrasted and often have a white spot on the neck . in an age of 3 – 4 years a steppe eagle gets the adult plumage and reaches sexual maturity . in wild the lifespan reaches 30 years in captivity steppe eagles can reach over 40 years .

the bird — a large , mostly brown eagle that is slightly smaller than a bald eagle — was shot in the wing by an afghan soldier at a firing range in april . an american contractor who happened to have a background in ornithology rescued the bird and took it to a u . s . army veterinarian , who was able to splint its wing and provide medication .

electrocution is a serious problem which causes the death of many steppe eagles . the taking of young eagles out of the nest in order to sell them to western european countries also occurs [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] .

the steppe eagle is an opportunistic feeder , usually soaring above its prey , and taking steep dives , of up to 186mph towards the prey . the strong feet and talons are used to catch the prey and kill them , before either tearing them apart with the strong hooked beak , or if they are small , swallowing them whole . they will occasionally wait outside burrows of small mammals , waiting for them to emerge .

since november 2015 , sabuko ( society for nature conservation ) is carrying out conservation activities to improve the status of the eastern imperial eagle ( aquila heliaca ) through direct conservation measures , awareness raising and education .

the festival ended with the distribution of awards to the winners . if you’ve already read “ a hitchhiker’s tale from outer mongolia , ” you’re probably expecting me to mention a certain eagle vs . wolf death match now…

meyburg , b . - u . & c . meyburg ( 2010 ) . migration strategies of 16 steppe eagles aquila nipalensis tracked by satellite . 6th international conference on asian raptors . ulaanbaatar , mongolia , 23 - 27 june 2010 : poster

saryarka - steppe and lakes of northern kazakhstan comprises two protected areas : naurzum state nature reserve and korgalzhyn state nature reserve totalling 450 , 344 ha . it features wetlands of outstanding importance for migratory water birds , including globally threatened species , among them the extremely rare siberian white crane , the dalmatian pelican , pallas’s fish eagle , to name but a few . these wetlands are key stopover points and crossroads on the central asian flyway of birds from africa , europe and south asia to their breeding places in western and eastern siberia . the 200 , 000 ha central asian steppe areas included in the property provide a valuable refuge for over half the species of the region’s steppe flora , a number of threatened bird species and the critically endangered saiga antelope , formerly an abundant species much reduced by poaching . the property includes two groups of fresh and salt water lakes situated on a watershed between rivers flowing north to the arctic and south into the aral - irtysh basin .

migration the steppe eagle is a migratory bird and emigrates from its nest in winter . in recent years , there has been data about hibernating birds within the borders of the nesting sites in kazakhstan , but this remains a random phenomenon and is not the norm . wintering steppe eagles are dispersed across the tropical grassland ecosystems and deserts of the old world – africa , india , south - east asia , to the north until the arabian desert , iran , afghanistan . pakistan and south - east china ( sichuan , hubei ) . most of the global steppe eagle population seem to winter in africa ( a . n . orientalis ) and india ( a . n . nipalensis ) . birds from the population in the volga and aral - caspian regions spend winter in the persian gulf region and in various regions of africa , and those from central kazkhstan spend theirs in the persian gulf . this has been established through satellite monitoring of 16 birds which were mainly caught in saudi arabia . in particular , in the course of winter an adult female flew from ustiurt ( kazakhstan ) to botswana , south africa and zimbabwe , while another flew from ustiurt to ethiopia , chad and sudan ( meyburg et al . , 2012 ) . the general length of migration from kazakhstan can reach 17 000 km . similar data has not yet been determined for wintering steppe eagles of the eastern subspecies nesting in russia from the altai to the amura basin .

watson , j . w . , d . j . pierce , and b . c . cunningham . 1999 . an active bald eagle nest associated with unusually close human activity . northwestern naturalist 80 : 71 - 74 .

eagle ( burkit ) hunting is a distinguishing characteristic of kazakh culture . often these birds are raised as hatchlings , however many discerning burkit trainers insist that captivity - raised birds lack natural killer instincts . these trainers prefer to capture their eagles after they’ve mature , by stealing them out of the nest . to the casual layperson such as me , stealing a full - grown , pissed - off eagle with “killer instincts” from its nest seems pretty inadvisable .

steppe eagles arrive at their summer breeding grounds around april , at the start of spring . large nests , up to a metre wide , are constructed from twigs and lined with various materials , such as old rags and camel dung . while the nests are usually placed on the ground in a position allowing a good view of the surroundings , as a result of habitat alteration and persecution , nests are increasingly being found in trees , bushes and on artificial structures . the female lays a clutch of between one and three eggs which are incubated for 45 days , with the chicks being brooded for a further 55 to 65 days before fledging . the steppe eagle is remarkably long lived , reaching up to 41 years in captivity ( 2 ) .

habitat : the main habitat - the virgin steppe , foothills , semi - deserts . in the south - east of europe habitat covers an area from romania to p . urals , and in asia - east transbaikal , argun and the yellow river valley .

a denizen of the middle east and africa , the eagle got a lift on a military aircraft after being wounded in afghanistan and cared for by navy seals . it also received some valuable assistance from new york sen . chuck schumer .

the original distribution area of the steppe eagle ranged from eastern europe to central asia ( tibet , manchuria ) and the east asian mongolia . but in europe the species is now only found in russia north and north - west of the caspian sea . formerly steppe eagles also nested in moldova , romania and ukraine but it is long extinct in those countries . outside of europe the species is found in the steppes of central asia eastwards to mongolia , eastern kazakhstan , tibet and northeastern china . in autumn the eagles migrate to their winter territories . most european birds and those from western asia spend the winter in eastern and southern africa . some also spend the winter on the arabian peninsula . birds from farther east spend the winter in india and neighboring countries .

the distance between nests in concentrated nesting sites in low hills of the steppe ranges from 0 . 8 - 2 km with an average of 1 . 2 km , 2 - 6 km , usually 4 km in denser groups and 25km in less saturated groups .

and thanks to their efforts , the eagle named mitch will finally enjoy some peace at dubacher’s sanctuary , where thousands of visitors will be able to hear the story of “this very special bird and some very special guys that saved him . ”

garrett , m . g . , j . w . watson , and r . g . anthony . 1993 . bald eagle home range and habitat use in the columbia river estuary . journal of wildlife management 57 : 19 - 27 .

i timed my visit to coincide with the nomads’ burkit eagle hunting festival , a spectacular two - day pageant of kazakh culture , traditional food , equestrian sports , and giant eagles laying waste to bunnies , foxes , and one unlucky wolf .

here’s a second example of shakhyru that didn’t run quite as smoothly . i’m including it because it shows the wonderfully volatile nature of the eagles . eagle hunters only use female eagles , which are larger and more aggressive than their male counterparts .

meyburg , b . u . , boesman , p . , marks , j . s . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .

criterion ( x ) : biological diversity and threatened species : korgalzhyn and naurzum state nature reserves protect large areas of natural steppe and lake habitats that sustain a diverse range of central asian flora and fauna and support vast numbers of migratory birds , including substantial populations of many globally threatened species . the korgalzhyn - tengiz lakes provide feeding grounds for up to 15 - 16 million birds , including flocks of up to 2 . 5 million geese . they also support up to 350 , 000 nesting waterfowl , while the naurzum lakes support up to 500 , 000 nesting waterfowl . the property’s steppe areas provide a valuable refuge for over half the species of the region’s steppe flora , a number of threatened bird species and the critically endangered saiga antelope , a once abundant species much reduced across its range by poaching pressure .

watson , j . w . , and d . j . pierce . 1998 . bald eagle ecology in western washington with an emphasis on the effects of human activity . final report . washington department of fish and wildlife , olympia . 197p .

during the winter months the steppe eagle will migrate to warmer climates . around autumn they will start to move from northern breeding grounds in central asia , eastern europe , and russia . they will travel to wintering grounds across the middle east , the arabian peninsula and eastern and southern africa . they have been found to fly very long distances , with some individuals travelling 220miles in a single day . they return to summer grounds at the start of the breeding season , in april and may . during migration their diet varies considerably .

steppe eagle resembles several other eagles’ species , but the main features are the rufous patches visible on nape and neck of adults , and the large gape . numerous eagles show pale rump and white patch on back . when flying , we can see a whitish patch on the hand , and some eagles have pale inner webs on most of the primary feathers . the strong , hooked bill is dark grey with yellow cere and long gape . nostrils are oval . eyes are brown . short legs are feathered brown . talons are yellow .

because of avian flu concerns , the u . s . currently bans the import of birds from a long list of countries , including afghanistan . getting the eagle out of afghanistan and into the u . s . presented something of a bureaucratic obstacle course .

steppe eagles are migratory birds . in their breeding territories they are specialized on hunting gophers . during winter the eagles migrate to southern regions as india and near east . old birds start their flight to the breeding sites in the middle of february while young birds start around one month later .

their plumage is mostly dark brown in colour , with light barring on the flight and tail feathers . there is a patch of reddish - brown on the nape of the neck . the nostrils , or nares , are oval in shape , and the steppe eagle is the only species in aquila which the gape , or opening of the mouth , reaches beyond the eye . the beak is yellow with a dark tip . the juvenile is similar to the adult , but paler in colour , and with a broad white band on the underside of the wing .

habitat and habits : occurs in steppe , desert , semi - desert , open savanna , pastures , agricultural fields , paddy fields , grassland , and open woodland . it roosts on the ground , in groups in trees , or perches on power poles . steppe eagles are nearly always found in groups in winter , sometime numbering more than a hundred birds , and often in association with other raptors , especially black kites and lesser spotted eagles . this species appears sluggish , spending much of its time perched on rock piles , the ground , or telephone poles ) . more . . . .

hickman cared for the bird for several months , enlisting a colleague to help build it a spacious cage and feeding it by hand with whole chickens he obtained from a local cook . although it began to recover , the eagle would not be able to fly . hickman sought help from agencies in the u . s . , but got nowhere . one expert at a refuge in british columbia offered advice on caring for the bird , but was skeptical , wondering if hickman could provide it with a high enough quality of life to justify keeping the eagle alive .

the steppe eagle is an extremely widespread species , which makes long - distance migrations between summer breeding grounds and wintering sites . subspecies aquila nipalensis orientalis breeds in extreme south - east europe , southern parts of the russian federation , and central asia as far east as eastern kazakhstan . during the winter , it migrates to the middle east , the arabian peninsula and eastern and southern africa . by contrast , aquila nipalensis nipalensis breeds from the altai mountains , south to tibet , and east as far as north - east china and eastern mongolia , and mostly winters in southern asia ( 2 ) .

sabuko is also carrying out satellite tracking of juvenile birds with the help of mme and the vashlovani protected areas office . to raise awareness among locals , sabuko is conducting activities such as eagle watchers’ training , talks and presentations in schools , and meetings with municipality representatives , farmers and landowners .

lesser spotted eagles are medium - sized birds ( body length 54 to 65 cm ) , generally smaller than steppe eagles ( aquila nipalensis ) ( 60 to 81 cm ) and greater spotted eagles ( a . clanga ) ( 59 to 71 cm ) . the largest of these three species are steppe eagles , weighing 1 . 8 to 3 . 8 kg . thus , despite their relatively large size , lesser spotted eagles only weigh 1 . 2 to 2 . 2 kg , with an average of 1 . 6 kg . greater spotted eagles are just slightly heavier ( 1 . 4 to 3 . 2 kg ) than lesser spotted eagles .

the main diet of the steppe eagle during the summer consists of small mammals , especially gophers and suslik ( small squirrels ) , but also small birds , insects and reptiles . during the winter months they will rely heavily on winged harvester termites , and become more resourceful in finding food . some have been witnessed , in south africa , to ambush burrowing blind and semi - blind mole rats , by watching the soil for movement , to then plunge their feet into the ground and seize them . they will also take carrion when migrating , and have been known to steal food from other raptors , in mid - flight .

lesser spotted eagle females lay two eggs and stay with them continuously while males forage for food . after the eggs hatch , both parents tend the helpless , altricial young until fledging occurs , typically after 8 weeks . siblicide is common in this species , thus only one offspring typically survives to fledge .

in april 2007 , the azerbaijan ornithological society ( birdlife in azerbaijan ) started a comprehensive survey of imperial eagles in the northwestern part of azerbaijan . data collected during this survey were the first and most detailed data about the eastern imperial eagle for azerbaijan . in nine days , they covered 6 . 000sq km ( 7 % of azerbaijan territory , which is 25 % of the habitat suitable for the eastern imperial eagle ) where they found 25 breeding pairs of eastern imperial eagles and a five more active territories . it was estimated that for the studied area , the number of breeding pairs was 35 - 60 .

the eagle landed in virginia friday morning , and was then flown to new york by a pilot with the volunteer organization pilots n paws . it will be kept under quarantine for 30 days before inhabiting its new home at the berkshire sanctuary , where caretakers will keep it strong on chicken and “ratsicles . ”

interesting fact : eagle has very sharp , vision with broad coverage . each eagle eye is able to focus directly on the 2 items . visual acuity allows to see a hare at a distance of over three kilometers and a peripheral glance it can reach 270 degrees . with altitude eagle is able to see the production on the surface of 11 . 5 square kilometers . eagles effective in the hunt . they do not kill the extra animals are caught only for their own food and chicks . mainly small game hunting . eagles not only independently gather food , but also willing to engage in a frank robbery . for example , they can take away the prey from a small bird of prey on the fly . eagles excellently hunt flying birds . overtakes them unawares victim , prey to such a height that the bird does not see them . then dive with such speed that their production does not have time to notice .


musa is one of two or three genera in the family musaceae ; it includes bananas and plantains .

around 70 species of musa are known , with a broad variety of uses .

though they grow as high as trees , banana and plantain plants are not woody and their apparent " stem " is made up of the bases of the huge leaf stalks .

thus , they are technically gigantic herbs .

musa species are used as food plants by the larvae of some lepidoptera species , including the giant leopard moth and other hypercompe species , including h. albescens ( only recorded on musa ) , h. eridanus , and h. icasia .

musa ( genus )

musa ( genus ) <EOT> sister relationship , the latter genus is well supported ( bpp , 0 . 98 ) . the genus

sectional relationships in the genus musa l . inferred from the pcr‐rflp of organelle dna sequences

1 . the nomenclature of the genus musa by david constatine . retrieved 5 july 2017 .

the genus musa is in the family musaceae in the major group angiosperms ( flowering plants ) .

sectional relationships in the genus musa l . inferred from the pcr - rflp of organelle dna sequences

almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from the two wild species musa acuminata and musa balbisiana . the scientific names of bananas are musa acuminata , musa balbisiana or hybrids musa acuminata × musa balbisiana , depending on their genomic constitution . the old scientific names musa sapientum and musa paradisiaca are no longer used .

musa is the name of the genus to which wild and cultivated bananas belong . in the hierarchy of botanicall classification , a genus comes above species and below family . in the binomial nomenclature system created by carl linneaus , the genus name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus ( e . g . musa acuminata ) .

almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from the two wild species musa acuminata and musa balbisiana . the scientific names of bananas are musa acuminata , musa balbisiana or hybrids musa acuminata × balbisiana , depending on their genomic constitution . the old scientific names musa sapientum and musa paradisiaca are no longer used .

almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from the two wild species – musa acuminata and musa balbisiana . the scientific names of bananas are musa acuminata , musa balbisiana or hybrids musa acuminata × balbisiana , depending on their genomic constitution . the old scientific names musa sapientum and musa paradisiaca are no longer used .

2 . cheesman , e . e . 1947 . classification of the bananas . i . the genus ensete horan and the genus musa l . kew bulletin ( 2 ) : 97 - 117 .

3 . cheesman , e . e . 1947 . classification of the bananas . i . the genus ensete horan and the genus musa l . kew bulletin ( 2 ) : 97 - 117 .

4 . cheesman , e . e . 1947 . classification of the bananas . i . the genus ensete horan and the genus musa l . . kew bulletin ( 2 ) : 97 - 117 .

the plant list includes 203 scientific plant names of species rank for the genus musa . of these 66 are accepted species names .

shepherd k . cytogenetics of the genus musa ( international network for the improvement of banana and plantain , montpellier ) . 1999 .

banana is also used to describe enset and fe ' i bananas , neither of which belong to the musa genus . enset bananas belong to the genus ensete while the taxonomy of fe ' i - type cultivars is uncertain .

nwakanma dc , pillay m , okoli be , tenkouano a . sectional relationships in the genus

the genus musa is divided into two sections : musa and callimusa [ 1 ] . a section is a taxonomic rank below the genus , and subgenus if present , and above the species . it is also above the series , but in the case of bananas the term series has been used interchangeably with section . in 2013 , the number of sections in the genus musa was reduced from 5 to 2 [ 1 ] .

musapedia pages that mention cheesman : musa sections , nomenclature of cultivated bananas , calcutta 4 , musa itinerans .

a taxonomic genus within the family musaceae – large tropical herbs , commonly known as banana plants .

chessman also developed a coherent classification system for the musa genus , which he divided into four sections : australimusa , callimusa , eumusa and rhodochlamys [ 2 ] .

musa chunii häkkinen , a new species ( musaceae ) from yunnan , china and taxonomic identity of musa rub . . .

enter family names in full and use the wildcard character ( * ) for partial matches on genus and species .

1 . according to article 21 . 3 , the epithet in the name of a subdivision of a genus is not to be formed from the name of the genus to which it belongs by adding the prefix eu - . moreover , the name of any subdivision of a genus that includes the type of the adopted , legitimate name of the genus to which it is assigned is to repeat that generic name unaltered , according to article 22 . 1 .

there are 7 species in the genus ensete , all from tropical africa and asia . they were formerly placed in the banana genus , musa . in ethiopia , in addition to being an important food crop , it is also used in traditional medicine , and the leaves are used for thatching .

dill ( anethum graveolens ) is a short - lived perennial herb . it is the sole species of the genus anethum , though classified by some botanists in a related genus as peucedanum graveolens ( l . ) c . b . clarke .

the problems highlighted reveal the shortcomings of the current state of musa classification . hence , this study employs aflps in a phenetic examination of the relationships among sections musa , rhodochlamys , callimusa and australimusa of genus musa , and evaluates whether genetic differences among the sections are sufficiently significant or distinct to justify maintaining the four sections as separate groups .

shepherd k . 1990 . observations on musa taxonomy . in : jarret rl , ed . identification of genetic diversity in the genus musa : proceedings of an international workshop held at los banos , philippines , 5–10 september 1988 . france : inibap , montferrier‐sur‐lez , 158–165 .

tezenas du montcel h ( 1988 ) musa acuminata subspecies banksii : status and diversity . in : identification of genetic diversity in the genus musa . proc int workshop , los banos , philippines 5 - 10 september 1988 . inibap , montpellier , france , pp : 211–218 .

, a single colonization event from northern indo‐burma gave rise to the african species of the genus . at the time of divergence of

( a ) musa yunnanensis ( itc . 1573 ) ; ( b ) musa mannii ( itc . 1574 ) ; ( c ) musa rosea x siamensis ( itc . 1592 ) ; ( d ) musa campestris var . sarawakensis ( itc . 1517 ) ; ( e ) musa monticola ( itc . 1528 ) ; ( f ) musa lutea ( itc . 1515 ) . chromosomes were counterstained with dapi . bar = 5 μm .

a section is a taxonomic rank below the genus and above the species . it’s typically used to highlight relationships within a genus . for bananas , the first attempt to tidy up the musa genus dates back to 1887 , when the french botanist paul sagot recognized three groups : edible bananas , ornamental bananas with upright inflorescences and brightly coloured bracts , and giant enset species , which have since been given their own genus . sagot did not give names to his sections , but a few years later the british botanist john g . baker classified them as subgenera and respectively named them eumusa , rhodochlamys and physocaulis .

banana is the common name for herbaceous plants of the genus musa and for the fruit they produce . bananas come in a variety of sizes and colors when ripe , including yellow , purple , and red .

taxonomy , it is challenging to infer the exact number of species within the genus . based on the study of häkkinen & väre (

typification and check‐list of musa l . species names ( musaceae ) with nomenclatural notes

over the years several authors based the taxonomy of bananas on musa paradisiaca and musa sapientum . sometimes musa sapientum was treated as a subspecies of musa paradisiaca , but at other times botanical priority was ignored and musa paradisiaca was treated as a subspecies of musa sapientum . moreover , since musa paradisiaca is seedless , the subspecies seminifera was created in order to accommodate the wild seeded forms . giving a seed - bearing wild species the status of subspecies to a seedless cultivar is a good example of the stultifying effect formal nomenclature has had on the crop ' s taxonomy .

agrobacterium - mediated transformation of musa acuminata cv . ‘grand nain’ scalps by vacuum infiltration

figure 3 . the erect bunch of musa maclayi a wild australimusa banana species .

researchers norman simmonds and ken shepherd proposed the genome - based nomenclature system in 1955 . this system eliminated almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the nomenclature system of bananas based on musa sapientum and musa paradisiaca . despite this , musa paradisiaca is still recognized by some authorities today , leading to confusion . generally , modern classifications of banana cultivars follow simmonds’ and shepherd’s system . the accepted names for bananas are musa acuminata , musa balbisiana or musa acuminata × balbisiana , depending on their genetic ancestry

molecular analysis and genomic organization of major dna satellites in banana ( musa spp . )

factors influencing seed set in triploid musa spp . l . and production of euploid hybrids

figures 7 and 8 . the wild giant banana of montane forests , musa ingens .

relationship between nuclear 2c dna content and 2n chromosome number in representatives of the genus musa studied in the present work ( empty circles ) and by bartoš et al . [ 9 ] ( full circles ) , r = - 0 . 85 .

shepherd k ( 1988 ) observation on mus a taxonomy . in : identification of genetic diversity in the genus musa . proc int workshop held at los banos , philippines 5 - 10 september 1988 . inibap : montpellier , france , pp 158–165 .

daniells , j . , jenny , d . , karamura , d . and tomekpe , k . ( 2001 ) musalogue : a catalogue of musa germplasm . diversity in the genus musa . ( e . arnaud and s . sharrock , compil . ) . international network for the improvement of banana and plantain , montpellier , france .

in 1887 , the french botanist paul sagot published an article in which he subdivided the genus into three unnamed sections : i ) the edible bananas , ii ) the ornemental bananas with upright inflorescences and brightly coloured bracts , and iii ) the giant enset species , which were later given their own genus [ 2 ] .

isolation , characterization and chromosome localization of repetitive dna sequences in bananas ( musa spp . )

isolation , characterization and chromosome localization of repetitive dna sequences in banana ( musa spp . )

in view of the importance of chromosome numbers in grouping species within the genus musa , it will be of great interest to carry out a molecular study on the sole member of sect . ingentimusa that has a chromosome number of n = x = 14 .

started during the late eocene ( mean age estimate , 37 . 9 ma ; 50 . 5–24 . 5 ma 95 % hpd ) . clade i in the genus

the majority of dessert bananas eaten today derive from musa acuminata and are mainly eaten raw . plantains which are more starchy and less sweet are a hybrid between musa acuminata and musa balbisiana are usually cooked and eaten as a vegetable . morphologically wild banana is very different to its cultivar .

the species that currently make up each section are listed in the musapedia page on musa sections .

musa x fennicae ( m . siamensis ( male ) x m . rosea ( female ) )

flow cytometric estimation of nuclear dna amount in diploid bananas ( musa acuminata and m . balbisiana )

comparative analysis of phenotypic and genotypic diversity among plantain landraces ( musa spp . , aab group )

before simmonds and shepherd ' s system , cultivated bananas were classified using the binomial nomenclature system developed by carl linneaus that is used to this day to name species . in fact linneaus is the one who gave the name musa paradisiaca to the banana . being the first linnean name given to a banana , musa paradisiaca is technically the " type species " for the genus musa . except that musa paradisiaca , and musa sapientum which linnaeus later added to the genus , had been modeled after a plantain and a silk cultivar , respectively , and as such did not represent species in any reasonable sense of the word . nevertheless , these names , and others that were proposed in their wake , continue to be used to designate cultivars despite the existence of the nomenclature system developed by simmonds and shepherd ( see previous section ) .

the plant list includes a further 181 scientific plant names of infraspecific rank for the genus musa . we do not intend the plant list to be complete for names of infraspecific rank . these are primarily included because names of species rank are synonyms of accepted infraspecific names .

visit my website at urltoken - bananas are produced by several kinds of large flowering plants in the genus musa . the banana plant itself is considered to be the largest herbaceous flowering plant . because the plants are tall and fairly sturdy , they are often mistaken for trees .

this study improves significantly the knowledge about the nuclear genome of wild musa species . we provide novel data on nuclear genome size and genomic distribution of ribosomal genes in 21 wild musa accessions . we revealed high variability in both characters , especially in the section callimusa . our results indicate that species of the musa genus evolved from a common ancestor by chromosome fission , which was accompanied by dna loss . cladogram based on the ssr markers together with the previously studied wild diploids showed clear clustering and significantly increased the knowledge on genetic diversity within musa genus . ssr genotyping platform enabled us to identify groups of the most related species and sub - species . apart from phylogenetic analysis , characterization of its sequences indicated that more than a half of the new itc accessions representing wild musa accessions originated from hybridization between different genotypes within a species or between putative subspecies .

all three musaceae genera – ensete , musa and musella – originated in northern indo‐burma during the early eocene . musa species dispersed from ‘northwest to southeast’ into southeast asia with only few back‐dispersals towards northern indo‐burma .

at the time of the revision , the musa section included 33 species and the callimusa one 37 .

musa genotyping centre was established at the institute of experimental botany in olomouc , czech republic . available :

] in accordance to their expected classification based on plant morphology . newly introduced accessions belonging to the musa section were grouped within the cluster a comprising other species from section musa . the two accessions described as

musa × paradisiaca l . subsp . sapientum ( l . ) c . e . o . kuntze

li , l . - f . et al . 2010 . molecular phylogeny and systematics of the banana family ( musaceae ) inferred from multiple nuclear and chloroplast dna fragments , with a special reference to the genus musa . molec . phylogenet . evol . 57 : 1 - 10 .

about 40 species of evergreen perennials make up this genus from india , bangladesh , asia , and australia . they are grown for their very large leaves , their colorful flowers , and their edible fruits ( including bananas and plantains ) . use musa as specimens or in a greenhouse .

structures of waxy and adh 1 genes in musa and the positions of each primer used in this study .

identification of the genomic constitution of musa l . lines ( bananas , plantains and hybrids ) using molecular cytogenetics

de langhe , e . et al . 2005 . integrating morphological and molecular taxonomy in musa : the african plantains ( musa spp . aab group ) . pl . syst . evol . 255 : 225 - 236 .

12 . musa sections revisited published 28 august 2013 in under the peel , the blog of the promusa community .

musa genotyping centre was established at the institute of experimental botany in olomouc , czech republic . available : urltoken .

banana is also used to describe enset and fe’i bananas , neither of which belong to the aforementioned species . enset bananas belong to the genus ensete while the taxonomy of fe’i - type cultivars is uncertain .

phylogeny of banana streak virus reveals recent and repetitive endogenization in the genome of its banana host ( musa sp . )

the system is based on 15 characters that were chosen because they are different in musa acuminata and musa balbisiana [ 1 ] . each character is scored on a scale from one ( typical musa acuminata ) to five ( typical musa balbisiana ) . the possible total scores range from a minimum of 15 to a maximum of 75 . the expected scores are 15 for aa and aaa , 35 for aab , 45 for ab , 55 for abb and 75 for bb .

aflp has provided important information regarding the genetic relationships among taxa of sections of musa . in addition , it has generated unique molecular markers for the identification of musa species . the level of polymorphism in musa and the number of loci generated per primer pair using aflp compare favourably with other techniques . a study employing issrs in musa ( godwin et al . , 1997 ) generated 940 bands from ten primer pairs , but only 13·1 % were polymorphic , while rflp analysis of musa ( gawel et al . , 1992 ) using 66 primers generated only 96 alleles , an average of two alleles per probe .

comparative analysis of argonaute gene sequences in bananas ( musa sp . ) shows conserved species - specific ago - 7 piwi domains

as ernest cheesman noted in 1948 , " some botanists have regarded the seedless forms as ranking with the fertile species and have bestowed latin binomials upon them . others have preferred to regard them as varieties of one mythical “ species” ( usually called musa sapientum ) which is supposed to exist somewhere in the wild and fertile condition … such mistakes . . . are not peculiar to the genus musa , but they are unusually conspicuous in this group " [ 3 ] .

species in one of the two distinct tropical southeast asian subregions ( northern indo‐burma vs malesia ) is correlated with changes in extinction and speciation rate within that genus . of the eight models tested , the bisse‐bma analysis in b

results of aflp analysis showed that the 11‐chromosome and 10‐chromosome grouping are robust and justified and that the separation of musa species into different groups based on their chromosome numbers provides a reliable means for classifying musa species into sections . in contrast , the separations of sect . rhodochlamys from sect . musa , and sect . australimusa from sect . callimusa were not supported by the aflp analysis . indeed , there is more genetic variation within the two groupings , sect . musa – rhodochlamys and callimusa – australimusa , than there is between sect . musa and sect . rhodochlamys and between sect . callimusa and sect . australimusa , drawing attention to the fact that striking differences in morphological characters in musa species are not always indicative of the same degree of genetic difference .

most of the knowledge on nuclear genome size and genomic distribution of rdna loci in banana comes from the analysis of triploid cultivars and their wild ancestors [ 14 – 16 , 17 , 18 , 46 ] . only the study of bartoš et al . [ 9 ] included a wider range of musa species and provided the first complex picture of the whole genus . our study significantly expands the number of wild musa species where these key characteristics of nuclear genome are described .

ball t , vrydaghs l , van den hauwe i , manwaring j , and de langhe e . 2006 . differentiating banana phytoliths : wild and edible musa acuminata and musa balbisiana . journal of archaeological science 33 ( 9 ) : 1228 - 1236 .

fig . 2 . dendrogram showing genetic similarities between species of musa and ensete using upgma cluster analysis . scale bar depicts gdes .

phylogeny of banana streak virus reveals recent and repetitive endogenization in the genome of its banana host ( musa sp . ) | springerlink

secondary polyploids , heterosis , and evolutionary crop breeding for further improvement of the plantain and banana ( musa spp . l ) genome

analysis of expressed sequence tags from musa acuminata ssp . burmannicoides , var . calcutta 4 ( aa ) leaves submitted to temperature stresses

musa × paradisiaca var . dacca ( p . f . horaninow ) j . g . baker ex k . m . schumann

for the banana cultivar previously referred to as musa sapientum , see latundan banana . [ 19 ] for bananas and plantains previously referred to as musa paradisiaca , see plantain . for a list of the cultivars classified under the new system see banana cultivar groups .

figures 12 and 13 . wild australimusa banana species , musa maclayi growing in sheltered gully and bunches showing differences in bract retention .

overview : there is a huge amount of morphological variability in the cultivated banana . musa spp . which include banana and plantain , are not trees but giant herbs with a pseudostem ( formed from the bases of leaves rolled tightly around each other ) . members of this genus can grow up to 15 m tall making them the largest perennial herb in the world .

based on phenetic analyses , no clear distinction was apparent between species of sect . rhodochlamys and those of sect . musa . m . velutina ( sect . rhodochlamys ) was embedded within species of sect . musa , and m . laterita ( sect . rhodochlamys ) nestled within subspecies of m . acuminata . musa ornata ( sect . rhodochlamys ) also fell within the generally larger cluster of sect . musa . these results suggested that sect . rhodochlamys and sect . musa are not sufficiently distinct genetically to warrant separation into two sections . this is in agreement with the conclusions of simmonds ( 1962 ) , shepherd ( 1990 ) and jarret and gawel ( 1995 ) .

häkkinen , m . 2013 . reappraisal of sectional taxonomy in musa ( musaceae ) . ( taxon ) 62 : 809 - 813 .

musa flowers are individually not conspicuous , but the large main bracts are quite conspicuous ; the bracts curl back in turn to expose the flowers they have protected while in bud . musa species ( including cultivated bananas ) with pendulous inflorescences and dull purplish bracts have flowers with…

the species in the old eumusa section were described by cheesman as being more than 3 meters high , having pendent or semi - pendent inflorescences , many flowers to a bract and dull - coloured bracts . the section includes musa acuminata and musa balbisiana ( photo ) .

pcr - rflp of the ribosomal dna internal transcribed spacers ( its ) provides markers for the a and b genomes in musa l .

bananas are basically giant herbs , rather than trees , and there are approximately 50 species in the musa genus , which includes the edible forms of bananas and plantains . the genus is split into four or five sections , based on the number of chromosomes in the plant , and the region where they are found . furthermore , over a thousand different types of cultivars of bananas and plantains are recognized today . the different varieties are characterized by wide differences in peel color and thickness , flavor , fruit size , and resistance to disease . the bright yellow one found most frequently in western markets is called the cavendish .

the first subgeneric classification of musa s . l . began with three subgenera physocaulis , eumusa and rhodochlamys ( sagot , 1887 ; baker , 1893 ) . later , cheesman ( 1947 ) laid the foundation for the grouping of banana species into four sections . he recognized subgenus physocaulis as a distinct genus , ensete with a chromosome number n = x = 9 . within musa s . s . , he redefined subgenera eumusa ( now sect . musa ) and rhodochlamys as two separate sections , and described an additional two sections , australimusa and callimusa . cheesman ( 1947 ) also redistributed the species among the four sections to produce more homogenous groups .

in addition to m . acuminata and m . balbisiana , the genus musa contains about 70 species . based on morphology [ 5 ] and chromosome number , the genus was divided into sections eumusa ( x = 11 ) , rhodochlamys ( x = 11 ) , australimusa ( x = 10 ) and callimusa ( x = 9 , 10 ) [ 6 ] . more recently , argent [ 7 ] created a separate section ingentimusa , which contains only a single species m . ingens ( x = 7 ) . this classification has been questioned recently , and various regroupings were suggested [ 8 ] . genotyping with several types of dna markers confirmed the need for revision of the musa sections [ 9 – 12 ] . based on these results , häkkinen [ 13 ] combined the australimusa , ingentimusa and callimusa sections into section callimusa , and sections eumusa and rhodochlamys into a newly created section musa .

the taxonomy of the approximately 50 species within the genus musa remains poorly resolved , not least because of the widespread vegetative reproduction and natural occurrence of many hybrids . most frequently , the genus is divided into four ( sometimes five ) sections , eumusa and rhodochlamys with a basic chromosome number of x = 11 , australimusa ( x = 10 ) , and callimusa ( x = 10 or x = 9 ) ( after cheesman , 1947 ; simmonds and weatherup , 1990 ; dolezel and bartos , 2005 ) . various minor and major regroupings have been suggested ( wong et al . , 2002 ) . at the species level , the number of species and the status of subspecies has been debated ( taxonomic advisory group for musa , 2007 ) . however , from the point of view of the taxa related to crops , the morphological features are well defined ( musa germplasm information system , mgis ; ipgri–inibap / cirad , 1996 ) . in the last decade , in conjunction with molecular studies of musa accessions at the dna level ( see bartos et al . , 2005 ) , aspects of the taxonomy have been clarified but a careful treatment of the complementary and contrasting data , along with judicious filling of gaps in the data , is required to resolve the relationships and phylogeny in the genus .

cheesman ( 1947 ) noted that sect . musa and sect . rhodochlamys , although regarded as a close assemblage , were initially separated for convenience , sect . musa including the edible bananas with dull bracts while sect . rhodochlamys included the ornamental bananas with brightly coloured bracts . this view is no longer tenable in the face of genetic evidence and these two sections should be merged into a single section , sect . musa .

13 . lamare , a . , otaghvari , a . m . and rao , s . r . 2016 . phylogenetic implications of the internal transcribed spacers of nrdna and chloroplast dna fragments of musa in deciphering the ambiguities related to the sectional classification of the genus . genetic resources and crop evolution , 11 pages . doi : 10 . 1007 / s10722 - 016 - 0433 - 9 .

genome groups are further divided into subgroups usually defined as a set of cultivars derived from each other through somatic mutations . on the basis of this system , cultivar names are put between inverted commas and preceded by the name of the genus and when known , the name of the group and subgroup . for example : musa ( aaa group cavendish subgroup ) ' robusta ' [ 2 ] .

in 1976 , george argent added the section , ingentimusa for the lone species musa ingens , which has 7 pairs of chromosomes [ 5 ] .

molecular cytogenetics of musa species , cultivars and hybrids : location of 18s - 5 . 8s - 25s and 5s rdna and telomere - like sequences

centrifugation assisted agrobacterium tumefaciens - mediated transformation ( caat ) of embryogenic cell suspensions of banana ( musa spp . cavendish aaa and lady finger aab )

construction and characterization of a plant transformation - competent bibac library of the black sigatoka - resistant banana musa acuminata cv . tuu gia ( aa )

figure 14 . articulated phytoliths from seed of musa acuminata ssp . banksii qh067962 showing distinct dorsal ridging of eumusa seed phytoliths . b : articulated phytoliths from seed of musa peekelii lh82751 with distinctive tabular dorsal surfaces found in australimusa seed phytoliths . these were not found in the kuk assemblages . c : seed phytolith from seed of musa ingens . d : dorsal and lateral views of ensete glaucum seed phytoliths qh356652 . e : fossil eumusa seed phytolith with distinct dorsal ridging found in the phytolith assemblage from kuk . f : facetted phytolith seed morphotype of musa ingens found in the phytolith assemblage from kuk . lateral view of ensete seed morphotype found sediment from kuk . h : articulated chain of musa leaf phytoliths found in sediment from kuk .

8 . li , l - f . , häkkinen , m . , yuan , y - m . , hao , g . and ge , x . j . 2010 . molecular phylogeny and systematics of the banana family ( musaceae ) inferred from multiple nuclear and chloroplast dna fragments , with a special reference to the genus musa . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 57 ( 1 ) : 1 - 10 .

1 . häkkinen , m . 2013 . reappraisal of sectional taxonomy in musa ( musaceae ) . taxon 62 ( 4 ) : 809 - 813 .

musa puspanjaliae r . gogoi & häkkinen , a new species of musa sect . musa , is described and illustrated from west kameng , arunachal pradesh , india based on morphological characteristics observed in the field . the new species is common in sessa , zero point to ramda on sepa road of west kameng and hazi basti , ziro of lower subansiri district in arunachal pradesh . a key to m . puspanjaliae and . . . [ show full abstract ]

genetic stability of three economically important micropropagated banana ( musa spp . ) cultivars of lower indo - gangetic plains , as assessed by rapd and issr markers

the apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree , species malus domestica in the rose family ( rosaceae ) . it is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits , and the most widely known of the many members of genus malus that are used by humans .

the present work is part of a continuing study to revise the old names in musa and aims to clarify the taxonomy in the sections rhodoclamys and callimusa . lectotypes are designated here for musa sect . callimusa and m . sect . rhodochlamys . these sections were first erected without the indication of a type species .

in a broader phylogenetic view based on groupings that can be regarded as strictly monophyletic , angiosperm phylogeny group ( 2003 ) puts musa within the zingiberales , one of four sister orders in the monophyletic grouping commelinids , along with the poales ( grasses ) , commelinales and aracales . this puts musa in an important taxonomic position from the point of view of comparative genetics , since it is a sister group to the well - studied grasses . apart from the cereals , bananas are the major crop species within the commelinids . the musaceae family includes a second genus , ensete , with the ethiopian banana , used occasionally as a food in east africa . ginger , where the root is eaten , is the other significant crop in the zingiberales . there are a number of horticultural species in the genus musa , and strelitzia reginae ( bird - of - paradise ) lies in the sister familiy strelitziacea . the leaves of musa are used for their fibre content : when fresh as plates for eating or wrapping food parcels for steaming , or when dry as strips for weaving into various articles and for roofing shelters . specific names such as m . ornata and m . textilis reflect these uses .

the center of diversity of the genus musa ( musaceae ) is in southeast asia , a region not studied in detail and where new species and varieties continue to be reported . a new wild banana species , m . chunii häkki - nen from yunnan , china is described and illustrated based on observed morphological characteristics in the field . this extremely rare new species was only found in tongbiguan nature . . . [ show full abstract ]

the plant is also called head cabbage or heading cabbage , and in scotland a bowkail , from its rounded shape . the scots call its stalk a castock , and the british occasionally call its head a loaf . it is in the same genus as the turnip – brassica rapa .

this article examines the origin and evolution of the musaceae family with special emphasis on the tempo and timing of diversification of the genus musa in relation to its distribution range throughout tropical southeast asia . evolutionary relationships and age estimates within major musaceae clades are inferred to gain more insight into the complex processes of speciation and extinction that shaped the current banana biodiversity in tropical southeast asia . in addition , we discuss to what extent past climatic and geological events , such as the continuous sea level fluctuations during the pleistocene and the collision of the sunda and sahul shelf , influenced the radiation of musa in tropical southeast asia .

) . in a majority of accessions from the musa section , 5s rdna sites were localized on two or three chromosome pairs . three signals were observed on chromosomes of

bananas and plantains belong to the genus musa . it was linnaeus that first gave the scientific name musa sapientum for all sweet bananas , and the scientific name musa paradisiaca for plantains . however , linnaeus did not know that the two species he had described were in fact hybrids and not two distinct species . therefore , those two names could not be relevant in modern taxonomy . genetic studies have then demonstrated that all edible bananas and plantains come from a common ancestor , musa acuminata . plantains also carry genes from another ancestor , musa balbisiana . the genome of each ancestor could be represented respectively by the letter a and b . then , further studies showed that edible bananas are mostly triploids and their genome would be described as aaa . this means that they carry three sets of chromosomes derived from m . acuminata . different hybrid combinations have been observed , such as aab , bbb , and tetraploid groups ( aaaa ) were also described . therefore , an accurate classification for bananas seems to be a great challenge . however , one thing sure in that banana taxonomists seem to agree that there is no single scientific name that can be attributed to all edible bananas . therefore , a new type of classification was proposed by simmonds and that would abandon the latin name to use instead a group indication like this : genus ( musa ) + genome group ( e . g . aaa ) + subgroup name ( e . g . cavendish subgroup “grand nain” ) . in panama , the sweet bananas come mostly from the cavendish subgroup . the plantain subgroup is also triploid but has the genome group aab .

musa itinerans , known also as yunnan banana , is a close relative to both banana progenitors with wide distribution across subtropical china . it is native to south - east asia and can be found in moist ravines to mountainous areas . in china , it is usually found in secondary tropical rainforests . it grows fast and can produce long rhizome with sucker emerging more than 2 meters from the mother plant , explaining its name origin . interestingly , it was shown as one of the most foc - tr4 resistant and cold tolerant species in the musa genus , providing valuable resource for the disease resistance and hardiness improvement in banan . . . [ more ]

between 1925 and 1937 , cheesman worked as professor of botany at the imperial college of tropical agriculture in trinidad . after his return to england , he worked on the taxonomy of musaceae at the royal botanic gardens , in kew . as a result of his studies he revived the genus ensete [ 2 ] , first published in 1862 by paul fedorowitsch horaninow , but then not accepted . cheesman made it clear that there are no wild musa native to africa , only ensete .

by then , it was known that the vast majority of edible bananas were derived from either musa acuminata alone or hybridized with musa balbisiana . however , their origin proved to be more complicated than mere hybridisation . whereas some cultivars were , like their wild ancestors , diploid , most edible bananas were found to be triploid , that is they had three sets of chromosomes instead of two . in some cultivars all three sets seemed to come from musa acuminata , whereas in others , sometimes one set seemed to come from musa balbisiana , sometimes two sets . this complexity made it difficult to devise a concise nomenclature system based on latin names that could cope with all possible permutations [ 4 ] .

cultivated bananas are large , vegetatively - propagated members of the genus musa . more than 1 , 000 cultivars are grown worldwide and they are major economic and food resources in numerous developing countries . it has been suggested that cultivated bananas originated from the islands of southeast asia ( isea ) and have been developed through complex geodomestication pathways . however , the maternal and parental donors of most cultivars are unknown , and the pattern of nucleotide diversity in domesticated banana has not been fully resolved .

the taxon sampling represents five ensete species ( six accessions ) , 38 musa species ( 63 accessions ) and one species ( one accession ) of musella ( supporting information table s1 ) . in order to correctly estimate node ages for ensete , musa and musella , we extended the musaceae dataset with 156 zingiberales species and two outgroup taxa ( methods s1 ) .

hybridization is known to be common between species from sect . musa and sect . rhodochlamys , producing relatively vigorous offspring . according to simmonds ( 1962 ) , m . acuminata ( sect . musa ) crosses effectively with m . laterita , m . ornata and m . velutina ( all from sect . rhodochlamys ) , while m . balbisiana ( sect . musa ) hybridizes successfully with almost all species , including m . laterita and m . velutina . the weak reproductive barrier between the two sections supports the notion that they are not distinct .

an interesting outcome of this study is the observation of a negative correlation between the basic chromosome number ( x ) and nuclear genome size ( 1c ) , which became evident in this study after a wider range of musa species was analyzed . this trend could be explained by the evolution from a common ancestor by chromosome fission accompanied by dna loss . this hypothesis is in line with simmonds [ 49 ] , who speculated that the lower chromosome number of m . beccarii and the genus ensete reflects their ancient origin . similarly , bekele and shigeta [ 50 ] suggested that ensete glaucum and m . beccarii are ancestral forms of ensete and musa with a common ancestor that is yet to be established and the ancestral chromosomal number of both genera is x = 9 . on the other hand , if this hypothesis was true , representatives of the genera ensete and musella would be expected to have a genome size comparable to that of and other callimusa species . a more extensive study of the karyotype evolution in the family musaceae will be necessary to explain this " the less chromosomes , the larger genome " trend emerging in the genus musa , but not observed in other genera of the family .

( itc . 1531 ) ) . four groups comprised different representatives of the section musa ( former sections eumusa and rhodochlamys ) and two groups included different species belonging to section callimusa .

comparison of dna marker and pedigree - based methods of genetic analysis of plantain and banana ( musa spp . ) clones . i . estimation of genetic relationships , theoretical and applied genetics

. . . edible seedless bananas mostly grown in the backyards or home gardens whereas wild seeded bananas commonly found in the wild [ 4 ] . the genus musa are generally grouped into four sections : australimusa ( n = 10 ) , callimusa ( n = 10 ) , rhodochlamys ( n = 11 ) and eumusa ( n = 11 ) [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ] . most members of callimusa and rhodoclamys are ornamentals in nature ; they originated on the asian continent . . . .

compared to other species discussed in this volume , banana has an unusual triploid genetic background with parthenocarpy , and the process of domestication has been largely through collection of individual varieties from spontaneous mutations in the wild . hence conventional genetics and plant breeding are relatively poorly developed . however , genomic approaches are now rapidly advancing in musa : the global musa genomics consortium was established in 2001 to assure the sustainability of banana as a staple food crop by developing an integrated genetic and genomic understanding , allowing targeted breeding , transformation and more efficient use of musa biodiversity .

previous studies in the fields of archaeology , genetics and linguistics have shed light upon the major stages in the domestication process of cultivated bananas [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] , [ 70 ] . in this study , we have not only confirmed the multiple intra - and inter - specific hybridization origins of cultivated banana , but also revealed that both diploid and triploid cultivars harbor high levels of nucleotide diversity . however , only a small number of musa accessions were investigated in this study , and it may therefore be insufficiently representative of the genus . it will be necessary to employ tens of nuclear genes and hundreds of musa accessions in future studies to further elucidate the domestication process undergone by cultivated banana .

carreel f . etude de la diversité génétique des bananiers ( genre musa ) à l ' aide des margueurs rflp , phd thesis , institut national agronomique , paris - grignon ; 1994 .

perrier , x . et al . 2011 . multidisciplinary perspectives on banana ( musa spp . ) domestication . proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the usa 108 ( 28 ) .

the nomenclature system used to classify banana cultivars was developed by norman simmonds and kenneth shepherd in 1955 [ 1 ] . it classifies cultivated bananas into genome groups , according to the relative contribution of their ancestral wild species , and into subgroups , sets of closely related cultivars . this system eliminates almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of a taxonomy based on musa paradisiaca and musa sapientum .

in 1947 , ernest cheesman divided the genus into four sections based on chromosome numbers and morphological characteristics [ 4 ] . he wrote that he deliberately called the groups sections rather than subgenera " in an attempt to avoid the implication that they are of equal rank " . his grouping of species proved to be useful and was widely accepted .

cultivated bananas and plantains are giant herbaceous plants within the genus musa . they are both sterile and parthenocarpic so the fruit develops without seed . the cultivated hybrids and species are mostly triploid ( 2 n = 3 x = 33 ; a few are diploid or tetraploid ) , and most have been propagated from mutants found in the wild . with a production of 100 million tons annually , banana is a staple food across the asian , african and american tropics , with the 15 % that is exported being important to many economies .

then came ernest e . cheesman , the prescient british botanist who realized that the classification of banana cultivars needed a system different from the latin binomials used for wild species . in 1947 , he divided the genus musa into four sections based on the chromosome numbers and morphological characteristics of the species : those that have 11 pairs of chromosomes ( eumusa and rhodochlamys ) and those that have 10 pairs ( australimusa and callimusa ) . he said that he deliberately used the term section , rather than subgenus , to avoid the implication that the groups are of equal rank . in 1976 , another british botanist , george argent , added the section ingentimusa to accommodate a lone species , musa ingens , which has 7 pairs of chromosomes .

the distinct separation of the clusters comprising species with chromosome numbers n = x = 11 in sect . musa and rhodochlamys , and species with chromosome numbers n = x = 10 in sect . callimusa and australimusa , is in agreement with previous taxonomic alignment based on morphological data . cheesman ( 1947 ) noted that chromosomal differences between taxa of sect . callimusa – australimusa and sect . musa – rhodochlamys were correlated with many small differences in their habits and physiology , and regarded chromosome number as the best and safest criterion of relationships within musa . this study is in agreement with cheesman’s data and also the cytogenetic evidence of simmonds ( 1962 ) and shepherd ( 1990 ) and the more recent study on species in sections musa and rhodochlamys using rflp by jarret and gawel ( 1995 ) .

musa balbisiana was shown to be most distant in the present analysis . it is generally considered a distinct species ( cheesman , 1948 ; simmonds , 1962 ) and other molecular studies have demonstrated its position as a species isolated within sect . musa ( simmonds and weatherup , 1990 ; gawel and jarret , 1991 ; gawel et al . , 1992 ; jarret et al . , 1992 ) .

wong , c . et al . 2002 . assessment of the validity of the sections in musa ( musaceae ) using aflp . ann . bot . ( oxford ) 90 : 231 - 238 .

the musa orthologs of the waxy and adh 1 genes were identified by performing a blast homology search [ 26 ] against the musa est database at ncbi using the oryza sativa coding sequences as queries ( genbank accession numbers : waxy : nm _ 001065985 , adh 1 : ef122490 ) . the parameters for blastn ( urltoken ) were set as follows : database was expressed sequence tags ( est ) and organism name was musa . sequences that were retrieved in this way were used to design primers with the software primer premier 5 . 0 ( premier biosoft international , palo alto , ca ) . the positions of exons were determined by reference to the annotated o . sativa sequences . the homologs of matk and trnl - f in musa accessions were amplified using published universal primer sequences [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] .

häkkinen , m . & väre , h . ( 2008 ) . typification and check - list of musa l . names ( musaceae ) with nomenclatural notes adansonia , iii , 30 : 63 - 112 .

the species in the old rhodochlamys section were described by cheesman as being less than 3 meters high , having upright inflorescences , few flowers to a bract and brightly coloured bracts . ( photo : musa velutina )

donohue m , and denham t . 2009 . banana ( musa spp . ) domestication in the asia - pacific region : linguistic and archaeobotanical perspectives . ethnobotany research & applications 7 : 293 - 332 . open access

within the rhodochlamys and musa clusters , m . balbisiana colla formed a distinct branch , while the remaining species in the cluster were separated into two groups . the first cluster included m . ornata roxb . , the four subspecies of m . acuminata colla , m . laterita cheesman , m . velutina h . wendl & drude and m . sikkimensis , while the second cluster included m . itinerans and m . nagensium prain . species from sect . rhodochlamys , m . ornata , m . laterita and m . velutina were embedded within sect . musa , suggesting that the separation of sect . rhodochlamys from sect . musa was not clear‐cut .