macrognathus pentophthalmos , the sri lanka five-eyed spiny eel , is a small fish endemic to sri lanka .

it usually is found in running and stagnant waters of freshwater and brackish waters .

it is 19.5 cm ( 7.7 in ) in length .

recently , researches have shown that species once considered to be macrognathus aral in sri lanka , is actually a separate species , macrognathus pentophthalmos .

macrognathus pentophthalmos

macrognathus pentophthalmos <EOT> figure 5 in the sri lankan spiny eel , macrognathus pentophthalmos ( teleostei : mastacembelidae ) , and . . .

figure 3 in the sri lankan spiny eel , macrognathus pentophthalmos ( teleostei : mastacembelidae ) , and . . .

figure 4 in the sri lankan spiny eel , macrognathus pentophthalmos ( teleostei : mastacembelidae ) , and . . .

the sri lankan five - eyed spiny eel , macrognathus pentophthalmos ( teleostei : mastacembelidae ) , and it . . .

dorsal spines ( total ) : 19 - 22 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 50 - 57 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 47 - 54 ; vertebrae : 74 - 76 . belongs to the member of the macrognathus aculeatus group but distinguished from all other species of the this group by the following combination of characters : 15 - 17 rostral tooth plates ; 19 - 22 dorsal - fin spines ; and large ( eye size ) black blotches along dorsal fin . differs from its other indian congeners of the macrognathus aculeatus group as follows : from macrognathus aral , macrognathus pentophthalmos and macrognathus morehensis by the presence of dorsal fin blotches ( vs . white rimmed dorsal fin ocelli ) , from macrognathus aral and macrognathus pentophthalmos by having 15 - 17 rostral tooth plates ( vs . 19 - 27 ) ; and also from macrognathus pentophthalmos and macrognathus morehensis by having 19 - 22 dorsal - fin spines ( vs . 11 - 16 ) and from macrognathus morehensis by having 15 - 17 rostral plates ( vs . 8 - 11 ) ( ref . 83418 ) .

figure 5 . reproduction of plate 10 , fig . 1 of willughby ( 1686 ) : ‘ pentophthalmos’ .

the sri lankan population of the spiny eel previously assigned to macrognathus aral schneider ( teleostei : mastacembelidae ) is shown to be a distinct species , for which the name m . pentophthalmos gronow is available . macrognathus pentophthalmos is distinguished from its closest congener , m . aral , by having 14 - 16 dorsal spines and a pre - dorsal length of 43 . 3 - 46 . 8 % of standard length ( sl ) ( vs . . . . [ show full abstract ]

pethiyagoda , r . silva , a . maduwage , k & kariyawasam , l . 2008 . the sri lankan spiny eel , macrognathus pentophthalmos ( teleostei : mastacembelidae ) , and its enigmatic decline . zootaxa , 1931 : 37 - 48 . : urltoken

figure 2 . radiographs of a , macrognathus pentophthalmos , nmsl ff 137 , 174 mm sl ; b , m . aral , zmb 1420 ( lectotype ) , 214 mm sl ( courtesy of museum für naturkunde , berlin ) ; c , m . aral , wht 7510 ( topotype ) , 154 mm sl .

figure 4 . former distribution of macrognathus pentophthalmos in sri lanka , based on senanayake , 1980 ( black dots ) ; willey , 1910 ( green dot ) ; deraniyagala , 1932 ( blue triangles ) ; and material in the national museum of sri lanka , colombo ( red dots ) , indicating also the 500 m and 1 , 000 m contours .

figure 3 . lateral views of indian species of macrognathus . a , m . aral , wht 7510 ( topotype ) , 154 mm sl . b , m . guentheri , wht 7644 , 156 mm sl .

britz , r . , 2009 . species of the macrognathus aculeatus group in myanmar with remarks on m . caudiocellatus ( teleostei : synbranchiformes : mastacembelidae ) . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 20 ( 4 ) : 295 - 308 . ( ref . 83418 )

britz , r . ( 2009 ) species of the < i > macrognathus aculeatus < / i > group in myanmar with remarks on < i > m . caudiocellatus < / i > ( teleostei : synbranchiformes : mastacembelidae ) . : ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 20 ( 4 ) : 295 - 308 .

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according to the available literature on sri lankan freshwater fish fauna , there are 91 indigenous species occurs in inland water bodies of the country . 50 of those indigenous species are endemic to the sri lanka . there are 8 more marine and brackish water fish species that sometimes enter fresh water streams and at least another 24 of exotic species introduced accidentally or deliberately ( for the inland fisheries industry and as mosquito larvivores by anti - malariya campaign ) .

deraniyagala p . e . p ( 1929 ) ceylon sardines . spolia zeylanica , 15 ( 1 ) : 31 - 47 .

deraniyagala p . e . p ( 1929 ) two new freshwater fishes . spolia zeylanica , 15 ( 2 ) : 73 - 77 .

deraniyagala p . e . p ( 1937 ) malpulutta kretseri - a new genus and species of fish from ceylon spolia zeylanica , 20 ( 3 ) : 351 - 353 .

deraniyagala p . e . p ( 1943 ) a new cyprincid fish from ceylon . journ . roy . asi . soc . ( c . b . ) 35 ( 96 ) : 158 - 159 .

deraniyagala , p . e . p . ( 1952 ) a coloured atlas of some vertebrates from ceylon . vol . 1 : fishes . national museums of ceylon , colombo : pp . 41 - 42 .

deraniyagala p . e . p . ( 1958 ) three new cyprincids : a new cat - fish and vaiations among some cyprinoids and an anabantoid of ceylon spolia zeylanica , 28 ( 2 ) : 129 - 138 .

gans c . & bailey r . m . 1998 . two new synbranchid fishes , monopterus roseni from peninsular india and m . desilvai from sri lanka . occ .

papers of the mus . of zoology . the university of michigan . 726 : 1 - 18 .

kottelat m . & pethiyagoda r . ( 1989 ) schismatogobius deraniyagalai , a new goby from sri lanka : description and field observations .

kottelat m . & pethiyagoda r . ( 1990 ) , danio pathirana , a new species of cyprinid fish endemic to southern sri lanka , ichthyol explor .

kottelat , m . & r . pethiyagoda , ( 1991 ) . description of three new species of cyprinid fishes from sri lanka . in : pethiyagoda , r . , freshwater

fishes of sri lanka . wildlife heritage trust of sri lanka , colombo . pp . 299–313 .

explor . freshwaters , vol 19 no 2 , pp . 141 - 152 .

pethiyagoda r , kottelat m . , silva a . , maduwage k . , meegaskumbura m . ( 2008 ) . a review of the genus laubuca in sri lanka , with description of

three new species ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) i chthyol explor . freshwaters , vol 19 no . 1 , pp . 7 - 26 .

pethiyagoda r , silva a . , maduwage k . , meegaskumbura m . ( 2008 ) . puntius kelumi , a new species of cyprinid fish from sri lanka ( teleostei :

cyprinidae ) , ichthyol explor . freshwaters , vol 19 no . 3 , pp . 201 - 214 .

pethiyagoda r , silva a . , maduwage k . ( 2008 ) mystus ankutta . a new catfish from sri lanka ( teleostei : bagridae ) . ichthyol . explor . freshwater ,

freshwater fishes in sri lanka . in : the national red list 2012 of sri lanka ;

conservation status of the fauna and flora . weerakoon , d . k . & s . wijesundara eds . ,

senanayake , f . r . , ( 1985 ) barbus srilankensis , a new species of cyprinid fish from sri lanka . ceylon journal of science ( biological science ) ,

cyprinidae ) , ichthyol explor . freshwaters , vol 21 , no . 1 , pp . 27 - 50 .

pethiyagoda r . , meegaskumbura m . & maduwage k . ( 2012 ) a synopsis of the south asian fishes referred to puntius ( pisces : cyprinidae ) . ichthyol . explor . freshwaters , vol . 23 , no . 1 , pp . 69 - 95 june 2012

deraniyagala p . e . p ( 1929 ) some anguilliform fishes of ceylon . spolia zeylanica , 15 ( 1 ) : 1 - 29 .

deraniyagala p . e . p ( 1929 ) labyrinthici of ceylon . spolia zeylanica , 15 ( 2 ) : 70 - 111

deraniyagala p . e . p ( 1930 ) the eventognathi of ceylon . spolia zeylanica , 16 ( 1 ) : 1 - 41

deraniyagala p . e . p ( 1930 ) the opisthomi of ceylon . spolia zeylanica , 16 ( 3 ) : 265 - 269 .

deraniyagala p . e . p ( 1930 ) the nematognathoidea of ceylon . spolia zeylanica , 16 ( 3 ) :

deraniyagala , p . e . p . ( 1952 ) a coloured atlas of some vertebrates from ceylon . vol . 1 : fishes . national museums of ceylon , colombo , 149 pp . ,

munro , i . s . r . , ( 1955 ) the marine and freshwater fishes of ceylon . department of external affairs , canberra . 349 pp . , 56 pls .

gunathilake s . ( 2007 ) sri lankawe miridiya masun ( text in sinhala ) , biodiversity secretariat - ministry of envroment .

gunawickrama k . b . s . 2008 . intraspecific variation in morphology and sexual dimorphism in punius singhala ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) , cey . j .

pethiyagoda , r . , ( 1991 ) freshwater fishes of sri lanka . wildlife heritage trust , colombo . xiv + 362 pp .

pethiyagoda , r . and kottelat , m . ( 2005 ) . a review of the barbs of the puntius filamentosus group ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) of southern india

and sri lanka . the raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 12 : 127 - 144 .

giant squirrel is distributed throughout the island in suitable habitats as three different subspecies . wet zone and highland subspecies . . .

common animal distributed throughout the island , inhabiting rocky outcrops and / or trees in the country side and roofs of houses in urban . . .

an indigenous perennial herb very common along roadsides , gardens , waste grounds , scrub lands , forest margins , seashores and along stre . . .

common breeding resident of home gardens , cultivations , scrublands , forest edges of wet zone and dry forests throughout the island . it is . . .

රතු වා [ rathu wa ] / ceylon cassia / red cassia ( cassia . . .

in a few days i am getting ready to put on an exhibition of fine art prints and annotated maps at chennai’s dakshinachitra gallery . the show is entitled t . . .

pied kingfisher * ceryle rudis * ගෝමර පිළිහුඩුවා / මල් පිළිහුඩුවා this couple of birds were noted perching at a branch close to a small lake in kilinoc . . .

the last record of a sighting in sri lanka was 40 years ago in 1978 and for many years , birdwatchers in the country have been on the look - out for it here . . . .

nansen will address 38 - year gap in marine surveys . published on sundaytimes on urltoken

as we wrote earlier , our newly launched coexistence project seeks to find ways that people and elephants can continue to share space while meeting the need . . .

ohiya to kalupahana via devil ' s staircase - ඔහිය සිට කළුපහනට යක්ෂයාගේ පඩිපෙළ ඔස්සේ . . .

* english : * sri lankan krait * sinhala : * මුදු කරවලා [ mudu karawala ] * binomial : * * bungarus ceylonicus * bungarus ceylonicus ( sri lankan krait , මුදු කරවලා ) , is a . . .

i was doing my regular walk on a sunday in march 2018 and suddenly came across a pair of pied cuckoos . as this was a rare sight in colombo , i went and . . .

bar - headed goose – my 400 bird species in the country ! on 30th december morning i managed to see this beautiful goose at korakulam wetland in mannar . follo . . .

an informative article written by john wilson ( 30 . 10 . 17 ) the eastern reservoir catchment park duo is a term that i coined recently to collectively describ . . .

වයිරන් මුහුදු නයා හෙවත් ඉංග්‍රීසි භාෂාවෙන් annulated sea snake හෝ blue - banded sea snake යනුවෙන් හදුන්වන මෙම මුහුදු සර්පයා උග්‍ර විෂ සහිත සර්පයෙකි . ශ්‍රී ලං . . .

description : the fish is dull brown colored , dorsally darker . two raws of dark blotches are apparent on the sides . size : upto 4cm * habitat : * the ornate pa . . .

this picture was taken from mihinthale , ancient buddhist monastery . it is situated on top of a hill and the view from here is absolutely stunning . farawa . . .

* daily update - 04 may 2016 ( 22 items ) - http : / / srilankangreens . blogspot . com * covered : divaina , rivira , the island and daily news ( online versions only ) ( . . .

මෙම කෙටි ලිපිය සඳහා පාදක වූයේ 2014 වන වර්ෂයේ ජනවාරි මස සිදුවූ සර්ප දෂ්ටනයකි . මල් කරවලා නැත්නම් නිහලුවා යනු natricidae කුලයේ ( family ) natricinae උප කුලයට ( su . . .

* ( from bambarella through kalupahana along kalu - ganga to rambukoluwa and pallegama ) * continuing from the hike of my life - 4 days in the knuckles range ( pa . . .

so much fun stuff going on at urltoken including rolling out results from the last few years of research . head over - - don ' t be shy !

* " networking for migratory birds " * * for more information visit www . worldmigratorybirdday . org *

in august , 2012 i guided a five - day abridged version of my absolute birding tour . it was with ron and ben barkley , a farther son duo from the u . s . a . ben is . . .

for the beginner diver this is one of the most discomfiting times of a dive , the safety stop , 3 minutes at 5 meters with the aim of eliminating microbubbl . . .

in june 2003 , with thoughts typical of someone returning home after an absence of eighteen long years , i walked in again through the gates of the park hea . . .

the crested treeswift ( hemiprocne coronata ) is a kind of tree swift . the tree swifts are aerial near passerine birds , closely related to , but distinct fr . . .

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greek , makros = great + greek , gnathos = jaw ( ref . 45335 )

maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 18 . 4 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 83418 )

phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .

bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00302 ( 0 . 00138 - 0 . 00659 ) , b = 2 . 91 ( 2 . 72 - 3 . 10 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .

trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives

resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .

vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 23 of 100 ) .

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new & recent described flora & fauna species from all over the world esp . asia , oriental , indomalayan & malesiana region

wuodendron b . xue , y . h . tan & chaowasku wuodendron praecox ( hook . f . & thomson ) b . xue , y . h . tan & x . l . hou in xue , tan . . .

[ botany • 2017 ] begonia fulgurata | ดาดดารารัศมี • a new species ( sect . diploclinium , begoniaceae ) from chiang mai , northern thailand

begonia fulgurata c . - i peng , c . w . lin & phutthai ดาดดารารัศมี | | doi : 10 . 3767 / blumea . 2017 . 62 . 03 . 01 urltoken be . . .

chamaelirium viridiflorum l . wang , z . c . liu & w . b . liao in liu , feng , wang & liao , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / phytotaxa . 357 . . . .

great - billed seed - finch sporophila maximiliani ( cabanis , 1851 ) in ubaid , silveira , medolago , et . al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / . . .

endocerids with their filtering apparatus in mironenko , 2018 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2018 . 1491565 reconstruction by andre . . .

aristolochia tongbiguanensis j . y . shen , q . b . gong & s . landrein in gong , landrein , xi , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 6165 / tai . . . .

bagualosaurus agudoensis pretto , langer & schultz , 2018 doi : 10 . 1093 / zoolinnean / zly028 illustration : jorge blanco c . . .

the hypothetical phylogenetic relationships of ceratosaurs based on current topologies . the main source is from wang et al . ( 2016 . . .

nipponosaurus sachalinensis nagao , 1936 in takasaki , chiba , kobayashi , et al . , 2018 ニッポノサウルス | | doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2017 . . . .

begonia medogensis jianw . li , y . h . tan & x . h . jin in li , tan , wang , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 3897 / phytokeys . 103 . 25392 . . .

[ palaeontology • 2006 ] rapid asia - europe - north ame . . .

[ botany • 2009 ] hoya baishaensis • a new species ( . . .

[ botany • 1999 ] sonerila tenera • sonerila roxb . ( . . .

[ botany • 2011 ] impatiens parvisepala s . x . yu & y . . . .

[ botany • 2008 ] impatiens pachycaulon m . f . newman • . . .

[ botany • 2009 ] new thai impatiens ( iii ) • ชมพูสิร . . .

[ botany • 2009 ] new thai impatiens ( ii ) • เทียนพระ . . .

[ botany • 2009 ] new thai impatiens ( i ) • ม่วงกาญจน . . .

[ botany • 1979 ] thai impatiens • a comment on the . . .

anomaloglossus meansi : a new species of cryptic forest frog from the wokomung and ayanganna sky islands of southern guyana .

the benefits and costs of academic travel . or " there and back again ; again and again "

canon renueva su gama de 70 - 200 mm f : 2 . 8 y f : 4

plants go extinct , but sometimes species are rediscovered . this one after 151 years .

i ' m killing antediluvian salad but even in death there is rebirth . . .

necps carnivorous plant show : sept . 9 - 10 at tower hill botanical garden

this is a particularly beautiful species of centrolenid - the granular glass frog , cochranella granulosa .

our website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .

froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .


nototodarus sloanii is a species of squid commonly known as the new zealand arrow squid or wellington flying squid .

it is also known by its māori name of wheketere .

it is a favoured prey species of a number of marine mammals and diving birds .

it is an important food source for the new zealand fur seal and the endangered species : new zealand sea lion and yellow-eyed penguin ( megadyptes antipodes ) .

n. sloanii is sought by trawler fishermen for human consumption ; in this trawling process , australian sea lions are frequently killed , since they prey upon n. sloanii .

nototodarus sloanii

nototodarus sloanii <EOT> only one series of slender , conical , ventral supports distally . ( see nototodarus page for comparison of species ) .

urltoken accessed 12 / 04 / 14 mckinnon , j . f . ( 2007 ) . aspects of the population biology of the southern arrow squid , nototodarus sloanii , in southern new zealand ( thesis , doctor of philosophy ) . university of otago . retrieved from urltoken

justification : nototodarus sloanii has been assessed as least concern . this oceanic species has a wide geographic distribution . although this species is subject to fishing pressure , current levels appear to be sustainable and catches are regulated through quota systems . more research is still needed on the ecology and biology of this species .

as in other members of the genus , the right arm iv is more heavily hectocotylized . in n . sloanii this arm has ( after dunning and förch , 1998 :

two species of nototodarus are now believed to exist in new zealand , a southern form and a western and northeastern form , but their nomenclature has not been clarified or published .

mantle muscular tapers to pointed tail . fins broad . orange to pink over body , with a darker maroon strip down the mid line . can flash greenish over eyes .

breeding is thought to be on the shelf in less than 200m water , juveniles are found in coastal waters . adults deeper to 500m .

opportunistic generalist predator , feeding upon crustaceans , fish and squid . can be cannibalistic .

a short lived ( < 1year ) terminal spawner . spawning grounds unknown . restricted to the south island and the subantarctic islands . feeds on small fish , crustaceans , molluscs and is a cannibal . commercially harvested with goulds arrow squid . current quota for both species is about 127 , 000 tonnes .

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en - wellington flying squid , fr - encornet minami , sp - pota neozelandesa .

ommatrephes sloani gray , 1849 , cat . moll . brit . mus . , 61 .

mantle muscular tapers to pointed tail . fins broad , sagittate length 42 to 48 % of mantle length ; single fin angle 44° ( 40 to 500 ) . funnel groove with foveola and 10 to 13 longitudinal ridges . tentacular club occupies much of tentacle length ; protective membranes very low , weak ; largest sucker rings with 11 to 13 conical teeth all around interspersed with low truncated platelets ; distal central tooth not enlarged . arm sucker rings smooth proximally , grading to truncate teeth laterally and about 11 to 15 , short , triangular teeth distally , the central one enlarged ; both arms iv in males hectocotylized basally with modification of protective membranes and trabeculae into large , ridged , saw - tooth processes ; suckers absent ; stalks remnants only ; right arm iv distally with sucker stalks enlarged , comb - like , conical ; suckers and trabeculae lost .

a neritic and oceanic speciesoccurring from the surface to about 500 m depth , occasionally forming large aggregations down to 300 m . it occurs over a broad range of temperatures but seems to be either more abundant or more vulnerable in colder waters . two groups , possibly species , are distinguished by morphometric features , one north of the subtropical convergence zone and one within or south of the convergence . within the northern group clearly identified as n . sloani , the western population occurs in an upwelling area and grows to larger sizes than the eastern population . the group south of the convergence has a growth pattern similar to that of the northwestern population . growth rates vary inversely with size and directly with temperature ( roberts , 1983 ) . the lifespan of this species exceeds one year . each of the two northern populations has 2 peak spawning season : autumn ( march and april and spring ( september to november ) for the northwestern population , and july and december for the northeastern population .

maximum mantle length about 42 cm , maximum weight 1 . 8 kg in western new zealand , but 32 cm and 0 . 6 kg in the warmer waters of northeastern new zealand .

apart from the exceptionally good landings in 1980 ( 63 000 t reported from japan ( more than 90 % of the total catch ) and the republic of korea ) , annual catches of this species averaged about 29 000 t in recent years ( fao , 1983 ) . japanese and south korean jigger vessels , operating under joint - venture schemes with new zealand , take about half the catches , but they land only a fraction in this country . this squid is also taken in trawling operations of foreign licensed vessels from former ussr , japan and the republic of korea . the fishery is regulated through a quota system . the quotas for the 1981 / 1982 trawling season for all fishing grounds were allocated as follows : republic of korea : 1 600 t , japan : 9 900 t , former ussr : 11 500 t , and joint venture operations 27 000 t ( mattlin , 1982 ) . so far , only the western and southern groups of n . sloani are being exploited . the vessels usually operate during a 90 to 120 day fishing season extending from december to april . the total catch reported for this species to fao for 1999 was 31 358 t . the countries with the largest catches were new zealand ( 27 282 t ) and japan ( 1 853 t ) . frozen and processed squids are exported to various countries . domestically caught squid are marketed fresh or processed .

fao species catalogue vol . 3 . cephalopods of the world an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheriesclyde f . e . roper michael j . sweeney cornelia e . nauen 1984 . fao fisheries synopsis no . 125 , volume 3

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this species occurs on the continental shelf and slope waters of new zealand from the northern boundary of the subtropical convergence zone ( approx . 40 ºs ) to the auckland islands 51 ºs and the campbell islands 53 ºs ( dunning and förch 1998 ) . its range extends to the east of new zealand to include the chatham islands , and its range also overlaps with

to the north between about 40 ºs and 44 ºs ( dunning and förch 1998 ) .

new zealand ( chatham is . , north is . , south is . )

roper et al . ( 2010 ) report that the instantaneous biomass of this species has been estimated at between one and two million tonnes .

this is a demersal species spending the day either sitting on or swimming near the seafloor ( young and vecchione 2009 ) . it is abundant on the continental shelf in waters of less than 200 m and the distribution of paralarvae appears to be associated with continental shelves and sea mounts ( dunning and förch 1998 ) . tagging studies have not revealed any large - scale migration patterns , although aggregations may form to depths of 300 m ( roper et al . 2010 , dunning and förch 1998 ) .

body size appears to increase with increasing latitude and depth , and differences in size at maturity have been observed among regions and seasons ( dunning and förch 1998 , wormuth 1998 ) . unvalidated statolith growth increment counts suggest a life span of approximately one year , with males maturing at approximately 200 days and females later at 270 days of age ( uozumi

1998 ) . spawning appears to occur throughout the year at the population level in new zealand waters ( uozumi and ohara 1993 ) .

the stomach contents of individuals collected from chatham rise , new zealand , contained mesopelagic fish ( e . g .

) , crustaceans and cephalopods ( dunn 2009 ) . crustaceans were more important in the diet of smaller squid , and there were differences in diet between sexes with crustaceans and cephalopods being more important in females ( dunn 2009 ) .

this species forms an important part of the demersal fishery in new zealand waters ( dunning and förch 1998 ) . landings peaked in 2004 at slightly over 100 , 000 tonnes : they are currently ( as of 2011 ) at around 40 , 000 tonnes . catches are related to lunar phase , as is typical for species which undergo diel feeding migrations . the stock is taken by both jigging and trawling , and fishing effort is dominated by licensed foreign vessels and regulated through a quota system with the tac ( total allowable catch ) defined annually . the trawl fishery impacts on the threatened sea lion species phocarctos hookeri , and the squid fishery is further limited to protect the sea lions .

fishing is a potential threat to this species , although it is limited with a quota system .

there is active management of this fishery in place . further research is recommended in order to determine the precise distribution , population dynamics , life history and ecology of this species .

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dunning , m . c . and ellen celia forch / n . a . voss , m . vecchione , r . b . toll and m . j . sweeney , eds .

systematics and biogeography of cephalopods . smithsonian contributions to zoology , 586 ( i - ii )

sweeney , m . j . and c . f . e . roper / n . a . voss , m . vecchione , r . b . toll and m . j . sweeney , eds .

taxon validity : [ fide dunning and forch ( 1998 ) ] . repository : bmnh holotype uncataloged [ fide dunning and forch ( 1998 ) ] . type locality : waitemata harbour , new zealand

disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .

this species occurs on the continental shelf and slope waters of new zealand from the northern boundary of the subtropical convergence zone ( approx . 40 s ) to the auckland islands 51 s and the campbell islands 53 s ( dunning and frch 1998 ) . its range extends to the east of new zealand to include the chatham islands , and its range also overlaps with

to the north between about 40 s and 44 s ( dunning and frch 1998 ) .

this is a demersal species spending the day either sitting on or swimming near the seafloor ( young and vecchione 2009 ) . it is abundant on the continental shelf in waters of less than 200 m and the distribution of paralarvae appears to be associated with continental shelves and sea mounts ( dunning and frch 1998 ) . tagging studies have not revealed any large - scale migration patterns , although aggregations may form to depths of 300 m ( roper et al . 2010 , dunning and frch 1998 ) .

body size appears to increase with increasing latitude and depth , and differences in size at maturity have been observed among regions and seasons ( dunning and frch 1998 , wormuth 1998 ) . unvalidated statolith growth increment counts suggest a life span of approximately one year , with males maturing at approximately 200 days and females later at 270 days of age ( uozumi

the following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . no available public dna sequences . download fasta file

is a favoured prey species of a number of marine mammals and diving birds . it is an important food source for the

c . michael hogan . 2009 . yellow - eyed penguin : megadypes antipodes , globaltwitcher . com , ed . n . stromberg

nick gales , nicholas gales , mark hindell and roger kirkwood . 2003 . marine mammals : fisheries , tourism and management issues , csiro publishing , isbn 0 - 643 - 06953 - 4 , isbn 978 - 0 - 643 - 06953 - 4 , 446 pages

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the " expanded ventral membrane with supports " present only at extreme end of the arm .

off new zealand , on the chatham rise at 43 . 04°s , 175 . 01°e in bottom trawl at 367 m depth .

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for a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .

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epirrita filigrammaria , the small autumnal moth or small autumnal carpet , is a moth of the family geometridae .

it is found in scotland , northern england , wales and ireland .

epirrita filigrammaria is endemic to the british isles the wingspan is 30 – 38 mm .

the ground colour is greyish brown .

there are a few small dark bands across the forewings ( sometimes obscure ) and a well-defined fringe along the edge of the forewings .

very similar to the autumnal moth .

the moth flies in august & september .

the larvae feed on heather ( calluna vulgaris ) and bilberry ( vaccinium myrtillus ) .

epirrita filigrammaria

epirrita filigrammaria <EOT> small autumnal moth ( epirrita filigrammaria ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .

id pointers – an epirrita moth in late august on the upland moors is almost certain to be this species .

id : very similar to the other three epirrita species ; averages smaller but with overlap through most of the size range . usually distinguishable from the other three species by flight season as none of them fly before the end of september . male genitalia : octavals short , widely spaced and inclined medially . valvae with an angular prominence on the ventral border but without a distinct dentate projection ( which is present in e . dilutata and e . christyi ) . dissection group suggests that e . autumnata and e . filigrammaria cannot be separated on male genital features . pierce states that the octavals are smaller with a shallower excavation between them in e . autumnata and that the number of hairs on the christae , ~ 19 in e . autumnata , ~ 7 in e . filigrammaria , provides a clear distinction . female genitalia : there is probably no reliable means of separating female epirrita species , though pierce suggests that the signa of e . autumnata are distinctly smaller than those of the other 3 species .

notes : common on moorland throughout much of scotland , northern england and wales , rare elsewhere ; problems in identifying individuals to specific status mean that all epirrita species are under - recorded . unlikely to be recorded in hampshire or on the isle of wight . wingspan 30 - 38 mm . one of four very similar species of epirrita found in the uk , which are generally separable only by dissection of the genitalia . larva feeds on heather , bilberry and sallow , over - wintering as an egg .

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the fore wings are pale yellow inclining to ochreous , and the front edge is more or less tinged with the same colour as that of the oblique stripe from the tips of the wings to the middle of the inner margin . in the type , this stripe is purplish - brown , but in ab . labda , cramer , it is crimson , and in ab . atrifasciaria , stefan , it is blackish . in ab . sanguinaria , esper , the ground colour is pinkish . the hind wings are always white . ( plate 54 , figs . 1 and 2 . )

from 1857 , in which year the first specimen recorded as british was captured in september at plymouth , to 1874 , one or more examples of this interesting migrant seem to have occurred during the autumns of most years , in some part of the british isles , but chiefly in the south of england . the years in which it was apparently unrecorded were 1860 , 1861 , 1870 , 1872 , and 1873 . since 1874 there have been very few records . in 1879 a male specimen was taken at chingford , essex , august 17th , and a female ( ova obtained ) on september 1st ; a specimen occurred at christchurch , hants , october , 1893 ; a male was obtained in the isle of purbeck , dorset , september , 1895 , and one was secured at timoleague , co . cork , in august , 1898 ; one was accounted for at malvern , worcestershire , in august , 1901 ; a female in fine condition was captured , as it flew in the sunshine over a cambridgeshire meadow , in the autumn of 1906 . mr . h . m . edelsten obtained a male specimen in south devon , on september 12 , 1908 . the largest number of specimens appears to have been recorded in 1867 , when nearly thirty were secured , and of these four were taken in may in the isle of wight , where also two females were captured on

august 14th and 16th , and one specimen on september 3rd . six or seven occurred during august in lancashire , and three in perthshire , also in august .

the long caterpillar is variable , but is usually some shade of green above , inclining to whitish beneath , and yellowish between the rings ; the lines along the back are paler green , reddish , and olive green . it feeds on low - growing plants , such as knotgrass and dock , and has been reared from the egg in august and september . if eggs were obtained in may it would be possible to raise two generations of moths , or , perhaps , even three , during the year .

the species is an inhabitant of southern europe and north africa , and its range extends to india , madeira , and the canaries . in central europe , including the british isles , its occurrence is always a more or less casual event .

appears to be valid and is here employed . if it has to give way ,

has long been reported as a british species , but there does not appear to be any very convincing record of its capture in the british isles . it is widely distributed in europe , and generally common . as it is a sun - loving insect , it could hardly escape detection if it occurred in any part of our isles . a note by mr . v . r . perkins , in

for 1861 , p . 7449 , should , however , not be overlooked . this refers to the capture , on june 18th , of two male specimens that were disturbed from broom , " not far from the city of perth , by mr . d . p . morrison . "

two ordinary examples of this species are shown on plate 54 , figs . 4 , 5 . the ground colour is greyish , ranging in one direction to whitish , and in the other to brownish ; on the fore wings there are three cross lines , usually reddish - brown in colour , but sometimes dark brown inclining to blackish ; the first of these lines is always slender and sometimes very indistinct ; the second is often shaded on its outer edge , and the third on its inner edge , with brownish ; occasionally the space between the second and third is more or less dusky , especially on the lower half ; sometimes these two lines approach each other very closely on the inner margin ; the short oblique streak from the tip of the wing to the wavy submarginal line , and also the blackish central dot , are far more distinct in some specimens than in others .

the long stick - like caterpillar is pale ochreous brown , often striped with darker brown or blackish . it feeds on furze ( ulex ) and broom ( cytisus ) , from august to april . the moth is out in may and june , earlier or later according to the season , and is to be found almost everywhere that its food plants flourish .

the fore wings of this species are normally ochreous brown , inclining to reddish , but sometimes the general colour is of a light chocolate tint , and in such specimens the slender white lines edging the dark markings , and the white wavy submarginal line , are more distinct ; the central band - like marking occasionally tapers towards the inner margin . ( plate 54 , figs . 6 , 7 . )

the long caterpillar ( figured from a coloured drawing by mr . a . sich , plate

to yellowish between the rings ; there are indications of darker lines on the middle of the back and along the sides ; the usual dots are whitish and the spiracles black ; in some specimens the central line on the back is pinkish . it hatches from the egg in march or april , and feeds until june on mallow (

the moth appears in september and october , and is sometimes seen in november . it hides under the mallow , and other plants around , and is not much inclined to move during the day , but it becomes active in the evening , and then flies pretty briskly . the occurrence of this species in any locality will , of course , largely depend upon the presence of the food plant , but it seems to be widely distributed throughout the greater part of the british isles . it is , however , most frequent in the southern half of england .

to the earliest british entomologists this species ( plate 54 , figs . 8 and 9 ) was known by the english name given to it by moses harris , which is here revived . haworth ' s popular name for the insect is the " small mallow , " but this seems less suitable .

the fore wings are usually ochreous brown in colour , with a darker brown band , the inner area of which is often paler . the ground colour , however , varies considerably , in some examples tending to whity brown , and in others to a smoky hue . the whitish hind wings are generally more or less dusky clouded , chiefly from the base of the wing to the dark brown or blackish cross shade ; but sometimes these wings are entirely blackish , with just a trace of a pale cross stripe .

the caterpillar is greyish , with a pinkish tinge and black dots ; there are three lines along the back , the central one slaty blue , and the others ochreous , shaded on each side with pale brown ; a pinkish irregular ridge runs low down along the sides . it feeds on clover , vetch , grass , etc . , from september to june . ( plate 52 , fig . 2 , after hofmann . )

the moth is out in july and august , and is often common in fields and grassy places , generally throughout the greater part of the british isles . in ancient times it was dubbed the " aurelian ' s plague . " the range abroad extends to amurland .

ortholitha moeniata . —except that one specimen was said to have been taken near baron wood , carlisle , some years prior to 1855 ; and another , in 1866 , near york ; there is no evidence that this species is an inhabitant of the british isles .

in this species ( plate 54 , figs . 11 and 12 ) the ground colour of the fore wings is white ( inclining to bluish - white in some specimens ) , more or less stippled and scored with greyish brown ; the cross band is darker grey brown , and there are two black dots placed : - wise ( sometimes united ) in the paler central space of the band . hind wings , smoky grey , with a darker shade across the middle , and a pale one parallel with the outer margin . in some rare instances , the ground colour of the fore wings is entirely white , and the band exceedingly dark ; but specimens with the general colour , slaty - black and the band and basal patch grey , are extremely rare ; barrett mentions one such example , from box hill , surrey , in mr . r . adkin ' s collection .

the caterpillar is whity brown , more or less tinged with pink , dotted with black , and lined with grey along the back , the sides , and the under surface . it feeds , at night , on clover and trefoils , from september to june . ( plate

, fig . 3 , after hofmann . ) the moth is out in july and august , and in suitable localities , such as chalk downs , lime - stone hills , etc . , is generally plentiful

throughout england and south wales . it does not appear to have been noted in ireland , or in scotland , except that it has been recorded from the isle of arran .

the sexes of this species are shown on plate 54 , figs . 3 ♂ , 10 ♀ . the fore wings are greyish , inclining to whitish or to brownish , with two white - edged oblique bands , which in the lighter coloured specimens are broad and show up conspicuously , but in the darker are narrower and much less distinct .

the caterpillar is brownish , but varies in tint , in some cases inclining to pink ; there are three lines along the back , the central one dark green or brown , and the others more or less yellowish ; a blackish or dark grey line low down along the sides . it feeds on yellow bedstraw ( galium verum ) , and may be reared on other kinds of galium . there are two broods , one in may and june , and the other in august and september .

the moth , which frequents sand - hills and shelving banks by the seaside , is found resting upon its food plant or other vegetation around , in may and june , and again in july and august .

the species has a wide distribution , and occurs in suitable localities around the coasts of england ( except the north - east ) , and on the west coast of wales . it also inhabits the breck sand district of norfolk and suffolk , and has been found on chalk downs and hills in the south of england , and in cambridgeshire and berkshire . in ireland , it has been recorded from the counties of down and kerry .

texture . after it has flown for a time , the wings become paler , and lose most of their sheen .

the species has been recorded from pembrokeshire , glamorganshire , and monmouth , in south wales ; and it appears to be found in most of the counties of england southwards from worcester , hereford , gloucester , oxford , and bucks . except that it has been doubtfully recorded from stowmarket , suffolk , it does not seem to be found in the eastern counties ; and i cannot find that it has been noted from devon or cornwall .

, figs . 4 ♂ , 5 ♀ ) is very constant , and except that specimens after having been on the wing for a day or two become sooty brown , there is nothing much to note . it is the fringe at the tip of the

fore wings rather than the tip itself that is white , and this sometimes extends for a short distance along the fringe of the outer margin . haworth ' s english name for this insect ( his

) was " the looping chimney sweeper " in reference to its caterpillar , and to distinguish it from his " chimney sweeper , " " chimney sweeper ' s boy , " and other oddities in the vernacular among the psychids .

the caterpillar , which feeds in the spring on flowers of the earth - nut ( conopodium denudatum , or bunium flexuosum ) , is green , and paler on the sides than on the back ; there are three darker green lines along the back , the central one merging into reddish on the last ring , and the others narrowly edged on each side with white ; a whitish stripe runs below the red spiracles .

the moth is a sun lover , and flits about flowers growing among or near its food plant , in june and july .

the species is widely distributed over england , wales , ireland , and scotland , but it does not appear to have been noted north of moray in the last - named country . it is always very local , frequents moist fields , borders of woods , and even waysides .

the more or less greyish moth , shown on plate 55 , fig . 3 , varies in tint , some specimens being decidedly more grey than others . at the apex of the fore wings is a short blackish dash , and from this a curved dusky line may be traced to the inner margin . the female has the wings rather shorter than those of the male .

) , in july and august . when reared in captivity it will thrive on other kinds of cruciferæ .

the moth is out in june , sometimes late may ; it is exceedingly local in britain , and only occurs in the breck district , where it was first met with about fifty years ago . tuddenham , in suffolk , is a noted locality , as also is thetford , in norfolk .

this is a greyish white species , of which specimens of both generations are shown on plate 55 , figs . 6 ♂ , 7 ♀ ( 1st generation ) , fig . 8 ♂ ( 2nd generation ) . the chief variation is in the cross central bars of the fore wings , which are sometimes much widened , and occasionally joined from the middle to the inner margin ; or the space between these two bars is more or less filled up with dark grey . on the other hand , the bars are sometimes very faint , but such aberrations are perhaps most frequent in the second generation , which consists of smaller specimens .

the long caterpillar is brown , inclining to reddish or to greenish , with several darker and paler lines on the back and a yellowish line low down along the sides . it feeds on st . john ' s wort ( hypericum ) in june and july ; the caterpillars , hatching in the autumn , are not mature until the following april .

usually there are two generations of the moth , the first appearing in may and june , and the second in august and september . the species is pretty generally distributed over the british isles , extending to the hebrides and the orkneys ; and will probably be found in all localities where its food plant occurs freely . it affects cliffs and sandhills by the sea , rough places on chalk slopes , and sometimes the moths fly up in numbers as we walk over the herbage in such spots .

in general character this species somewhat resembles that last considered . it is , however , much smaller , and there are reddish clouds on the outer marginal area .

this reddish shading is more or less absent in the type , which is otherwise less variegated than var . imbutata , the form to which our british specimens are almost entirely referable . ( plate 55 , figs . 9 and 10 . )

the caterpillar is of somewhat stoutish build , and reddish brown in colour ; three darker lines along the back , and yellow stripe low down along the sides , the latter edged above with black on the front three rings , and blotched with pinkish on the middle rings ; the head is rather paler than the body , and the dots on the latter are yellow . it feeds on cowberry ( vaccinium vitis - idæa ) and cranberry ( v . oxycoccos ) , and seems to have a preference for the flowers of these plants : april to june .

the moth is out in july and august among the vaccinium in its swampy haunts on the heaths and moors of the north of england , and scotland , even to the shetlands . mcarthur took a specimen in the isle of lewis in 1901 . it also occurs in ireland . in england it does not seem to have been noted south of staffordshire .

the most striking features of this shining brownish coloured species are the oval - shaped marks on the disk of the fore wings , and the long whitish streak running to the tips of the wings . ( plate 57 , figs . 3 ♂ , 4 ♀ . )

the long caterpillar ( plate 56 , fig . 2 ) is deep green , with a darker line along the middle of the back , and whitish lines along the sides and the under surface ; the spiracles are reddish , encircled with black , and the head is flecked with brown . it feeds in the spring on broom ( cytisus scoparius ) .

the moth is out in september and october , and secretes itself during the day , but may be found at night flying about the broom bushes for a short time , and later on it sits upon the twigs . it occurs in almost every part of the british isles where the food plant of the caterpillar is well established .

a noticeable character in this glossy , greyish moth ( plate 57 , figs . 1 ♂ , 2 ♀ ) is the black mark on the upper part of the second cross line of the fore wings ( which probably suggested the english name " chevron " given to the species by donovan ) ; following the mark is a reddish or ochreous flush , extending to the tips of the wings .

the long , green caterpillar inclines to bluish above , and to paler green beneath ; a darker line along the middle of the back , then a slender whitish line edged with darker green , and between this and the white spiracular line there is another slender whitish line . it feeds , in august and september , on broom ; when full grown it enters the earth , and there turns to a reddish brown chrysalis , the wing cases of which are greenish . i am indebted to mr . a . j . scollick for the caterpillar and chrysalis figured on plate 56 , figs . 1 , 1 a .

the moth emerges the following year , from may to july , but its time of appearance is uncertain , and it may come up in early spring or not until early autumn . sometimes it will remain in the chrysalis for two winters .

norfolk , suffolk ; also glamorgan , and other parts of south wales . in scotland it is found in the south , but is more frequent from perthshire to moray . probably occurs in other british localities where there is plenty of broom .

the general colour of the species represented on plate 57 , figs . 5 ♂ , 6 ♀ , is greyish , inclining to ochreous or to whitish ; but occasionally it is clouded with dark greyish on the basal area , and there is a broad band of the same colour on the outer marginal area ; in such specimens the central band becomes less conspicuous .

the caterpillar ( plate 59 , fig . 2 ) feeds in may and june , on privet , at first on the leaf buds , and afterwards on the expanded leaves . it will also eat ash and honeysuckle . in colour it is rather deep green , with three fine lines along the back , the central one darker than the ground colour , and the others whitish and irregular ; a whitish stripe low down along the sides ; two points on the last ring of the body . the chrysalis ( plate 59 , fig . 2 a ) , which is enclosed in an oval earthen cocoon , is dark yellowish brown , inclining to blackish on the wing cases .

the moth may be found at night , in march and april , sitting on the privet hedge , and may then be easily boxed , as it seems very disinclined to fly at that time , but earlier in the evening it flits along the hedgerows , and is equally easy to net . when resting , however , one is able to select just the finest specimens .

north lancashire , cumberland , northampton , berks , essex , and kent . in scotland it has been reported from clydesdale and arran , but has not been noted from ireland .

the whitish fore wings of this species are tinged with grey or greenish grey , the cross lines and bands vary in intensity , and , as a rule , are more distinct and complete in the female than in the male . a form of not infrequent occurrence in scotland ( ab . fasciata , prout ) has blackish bands , which show up in strong contrast with the general whitish colour of the wings . the ordinary form is represented on plate 57 , fig . 7 ♂ , and fig . 8 on the same plate shows the named variety referred to .

the caterpillar is green , with rather darker lines along the back , and a yellow stripe low down along the sides ; the two points on the last ring are also yellow . it feeds , in june and july , on honeysuckle , sallow , birch , and alder . the moth is out in april and may , and seems to be more or less common in woodlands throughout the greater part of the british isles . in scotland it appears to be most plentiful from perthshire northwards to sutherlandshire , but it has not been reported from the orkneys , shetlands , or hebrides . ( early stages are shown on plate 59 , figs . 3 - 3 b . )

the boles of trees are favourite resting places , and upon them , and also upon gate - posts , etc . , the moth is often met with in the daytime .

with black , and sometimes there are whitish lines between them ; those on the central area are often united by a blackish cloud , and so form a band , and not infrequently the basal area is also blackish marked . ( plate

, figs . 3 and 4 . ) the ground colour is very apt to fade if the insect is exposed to moisture of any kind , as , for instance , when pinned in a damp collecting box , but i have one bred specimen of a reddish ochreous colour , and i am assured that it was of this tint when it emerged from the chrysalis . an old english name was " the brindle - barred yellow . "

the thick - set caterpillar is green , more or less tinged with pinkish ; three interrupted pink lines on the back , the central one sometimes inclining to purple , and broken up into spots ; the head is brown , sometimes marked with purplish , and there are two tiny points on the last ring of the body . it varies in the green tint and also in marking . it feeds on flowers and leaves of holly , ivy , dogwood , privet , etc . , in june and july , and in some sheltered southern localities again in september and october .

the moth is out in may and early june , and where a second generation is developed , in august and early september . it sits in the daytime on tree - trunks , but more especially those with smooth bark ; the stems of holly are a favourite resting place , but at box hill i have occasionally seen a specimen on the trunk of a beech tree . barrett states that it also rests on the trunks of fir trees , and that it is then very easily seen . night is its time of activity , and it is then attracted by light .

the species seems to be widely distributed , but locally and not generally common , throughout england , wales , and ireland ; it has only been recorded from rosemount , ayr , and one or two other localities in the south of scotland .

fore wings whitish , with two greyish bands on the basal area ; first and second lines greyish , variable in width , and sometimes only represented by marks on the front or inner margins ; there is a black central dot , and the outer area beyond the submarginal line is clouded with dark grey , especially on the upper half . sometimes the wings are so thickly stippled with the darker colour that they appear to be greyish , with interrupted and indistinct whitish cross lines . a rather frequent form has the fore wings tinged with ochreous , and of this tint is ab . zonata , thnbg . , which has the basal bands and outer marginal border blackish , the central area being without cross lines . ( plate 57 , figs . 9 ♂ and 10 ♀ . )

the caterpillar is green , darker below and between the rings ; the most distinct markings are two yellow lines along the back ; head , notched ; body wrinkled , and with two points on the last ring . it feeds on aspen , and other kinds of poplar , in june and july .

the moth appears in may , and continues out well into june , especially in its northern localities . it rests on the trunks of poplar trees , or on the stems of bushes around , and is sometimes easily alarmed , and flies off on the collector ' s approach , whilst at other times it sits quietly , and may be easily boxed . at dusk it may be seen flying around the poplars .

widely distributed in the southern half of england , and only found where poplars , chiefly aspens , are well established . from worcester its range extends northwards to staffordshire , leicestershire , derbyshire , and cheshire ; and it has been recorded from yorkshire and cumberland ; also from glamorganshire , south wales . in scotland it seems not to have been noted in the south , but is found more or less frequently from perthshire to sutherlandshire . rare in ireland .

this is a much smaller species than the last . the fore wings are whitish , with brownish - grey , or blackish - grey , cross lines and bands ; the central most distinct towards the front margin , where it encloses a black dot ; hind wings greyish , with black central dot . ( plate 58 , figs . 1 and 2 . )

the green , much wrinkled caterpillar has three whitish lines or stripes along the back , and in some examples there is a white line low down along the sides ; the head , which inclines to yellowish , is notched , and there are two pinkish points on the last ring of the body . it feeds on sallow in august and september .

the moth is to be found in may and june , and , in some years , again in july and august . it inhabits woods and hedgerows where sallow is plentiful , but , perhaps , is obtained more freely in fens . occasionally it may be beaten from the hedges , but it is active on the wing just before the close of day , and then disports itself over and about the sallow bushes . it occurs in suitable localities in most of the eastern and southern counties of england , and has been reported from some of the northern ones , and from glamorganshire , in south wales . kane states that it has been found in the north , south , east , and west of ireland , but is always local and scarce .

in orchards and gardens wherein are fruit trees one may have noticed that the trunks of the trees have broad bands around them . if these bands are examined , they will be seen

to be covered with a sticky compound , which has been put there for the purpose of trapping the almost wingless females of the winter moth , as they crawl up the tree after emergence from the chrysalis . in spite of such devices , and other precautionary measures taken to safeguard the trees from attack , the foliage of apple , pear , etc . , will not be quite free from the caterpillars of this species in their season .

the male has greyish brown fore wings , which are crossed by rather darker lines , and a dark , more or less distinct , central band ( ab . hyemata , huene ) . the ground colour is very much darker in some specimens than in others , and examples of a sooty brown colour are not infrequent ; barrett mentions an almost buff - coloured specimen . in the female , the tiny affairs representing wings are brownish , with indications of a darker band towards the outer margin of the front pair .

a small , purplish brown form , reared in january , 1882 , from caterpillars found in cumberland , feeding on sweet gale ( myrica gale ) , was described as a new species under the name myricaria , cooke ( entom . , xv . 57 ) . this has been referred by staudinger to c . boreata , as a form of that species , but it is probably an aberration of c . brumata .

the caterpillar is green , with a stripe of darker green along the back ; on each side of this are two white lines , and along the black spiracles is a pale yellowish line ; head , green , sometimes marked with blackish . it feeds on the foliage of trees and bushes , and sometimes abounds in april and may .

the moth appears during the winter months , and has been noted as early as october and as late as february . ( plate 58 , figs . 8 - 10 . )

this species is generally larger than the last - mentioned . the fore wings are marked somewhat as in that species ,

but they are paler in colour and more glossy ; hind wings whitish and glossy . in the female , the wings are useless for flying , but still they are larger than those of

the caterpillar is greenish , with a greyish stripe along the back , another edged above with yellow along the black spiracles , and a greyish line between the stripes ; the head is black . it feeds , in may and june , on birch , and the moth does not appear until october or november .

at one time considered to be a purely northern species : the earliest known british specimens , four in number , having been captured at petty pool , delamere , cheshire , on october 31 , 1848 . it is now known , however , to have a wide distribution in the south of england . northwards , its range extends throughout england and scotland up to moray . it is found in south wales ; also in galway , monaghan , and connemara , in ireland .

the fore wings of this glossy species ( plate 60 , figs . 1 , 2 ) are pale brown , tinged more or less strongly with rosy or purplish ; there are numerous darker and paler cross lines , the most distinct and constant being the blackish basal , and the two forming the edges of the central band ; the latter are marked with black ; the submarginal line is whitish , wavy , and sometimes broken up into dots . the species varies considerably in tint , some specimens inclining to pale greyish brown , others to smoky brown . hind wings , whitish grey , with several darker grey cross lines ; in dark specimens these wings are smoky grey . ab . cinereata , stephens , is a small pale greyish form , almost without rosy tinge and with fewer cross lines .

darker green stripes and lines . in another form there are four pale yellowish lines along the back and a yellow stripe low down along the sides . it feeds on buckthorn (

) , the leaves of which it fastens together with silk , and so forms a retreat . it will also eat sloe and bird - cherry (

the moth is out in august and through the autumn , when it sometimes visits the flowers of ivy , ragwort , etc . ; after hibernation it is again seen , perhaps even more frequently , in april and may , and is then occasionally found at sallow catkins . the species seems to have been noted from nearly all the english counties , but becomes rare from yorkshire northwards . in wales , and in ireland , it is apparently widely distributed , but in scotland it seems confined to southern localities , and is only rarely met with .

this species is very similar to the last , but the wings are not glossy , only reddish on the outer margin , and the black marked lines edging the central band of the fore wings are less irregular , the inner ones usually being much straighter . on the under side of the hind wings of the male is a fold enclosing hairs ; this is on the inner margin , just above the anal angle . ( plate 60 , fig . 3 ♀ . )

, fig . 3 , after hofmann ) is greyish inclining to greenish ; four white lines along the back , the central pair enclosing a dark line , the others are bordered below with dark greyish ; the black spiracles are set in yellowish blotches , and the plates on first and last rings are brown ; head , reddish - brown , glossy ( adapted from fenn ) . it feeds on the barberry (

is out in may and june , but in favourable seasons has appeared in late april . when on the wing at night it is freely attracted by light , but otherwise not often noticed . the species has occurred in many of the english counties from devon to durham , but it seems to be only common in the eastern counties , and most frequent perhaps in suffolk . it has been recorded from south wales , but is seemingly absent from ireland .

wings pale greyish , sometimes ochreous tinted , and crossed by numerous dark - grey wavy lines inclining to blackish on the front margin of the fore wings ; the waves of the central pair of lines on the fore wings often meet and so form a series of rings ; sometimes the space between the eighth and twelfth lines is of a dusky hue , and occasionally it is distinctly darker and band - like ; the outer margin of all the wings is brownish and traversed by a wavy white line . the male has tufts of blackish hair in a fold on the inner margin of the hind wing , this is noticeable on the upper side , but is best seen from the under side . ( plate 60 , figs . 4 ♂ , 5 ♀ . )

the somewhat dumpy caterpillar is reddish - brown with four yellowish lines along the back ; a greyish stripe along the sides , and a creamy stripe along the black spiracles ; head , pale brown and glossy . it feeds on sallow , aspen , and bilberry , and may be found from august throughout the autumn in spun - together leaves at the tips of the shoots . ( plate 62 , fig . 2 . )

the moth is out in june and july , and occurs in woods where there is a good growth of bilberry , or in marshy spots where sallow bushes abound .

in england the species is widely distributed over the southern and eastern counties ; its range extends through the midlands to cheshire , lancs . , and westmorland , rarely in lincoln and yorks . , and once recorded in durham ; it occurs in wales and in scotland , but only in the more southern part of each country . it is not plentiful in ireland , but widely distributed . the range abroad includes amurland .

the male is always smaller than the female , and is noticeable for its long body with tuft of hairs at the extremity . the wings in both sexes are dingy brown , or greyish brown , and the usual lines on fore wings are blackish , the space between first and second often dusky . ( plate 60 , fig . 6 . )

the caterpillar is short and stout , and in form very like that of the winter moth ; the back and a central dorsal stripe are black , the latter bordered with white , the sides are yellow ; the spiracular line is black , broken , and unconnected ; the spiracles are black ; the head is black , and the edge of the first ring of the body is yellow . ( crewe . ) it feeds , in may and june , on purging buckthorn ( rhamnus catharticus ) , and is to be found between two or more leaves , which it spins together as a hiding place .

in june and july the moth may sometimes be obtained by beating bushes of buckthorn , or the herbage below and around ; this plan works best when operated just before dusk . as a british insect it is only found in england , and is most frequent in the southern and eastern counties , but widely distributed in the west to worcester , and has been found in lancashire , westmorland , and yorks . in the last - named county , caterpillars were obtained freely at askham bogs in 1900 .

when stephens wrote of this insect in 1831 he noted its occurrence " in a lane near fulham . " even so recently as 1906 i obtained specimens on the putney side of wimbledon common .

the blackish oblique band on the fore wings of this ochreous brown species ( plate 60 , fig . 7 ♂ , 8 ♀ ) is sometimes indicated only by the blackish lines , the space between them being hardly darker than the general colour . sometimes all the wings are suffused with blackish brown , and in such specimens the only distinct marking is the whitish submarginal line .

the caterpillar is green , with three lines along the back , the central one dark green , and the others yellow ; the hind wings are marked with purple , and a stripe of the same colour runs along under the spiracles . in another form the general colour is greyish with a reddish - brown stripe along the back , and series of spots of the same colour along the sides . it may be found in may and june , concealed between leaves that it has fastened together to form a retreat .

the moth flies in late june and in july , and may be disturbed in the daytime from buckthorn bushes . it is widely distributed , and often common in the south of england , but is rare in the north ; and has also been recorded from south wales .

, hufnagel , and as this is an earlier name it may have to be adopted . according to prout , both this and the preceding species should be placed in the genus

in its typical form ( plate 63 , fig . 3 ) the blackish band of the fore wings is entire , but in ab . insulata , haworth ( fig . 4 ) , this band is interrupted by two whitish lines along the median veins , and so divided into three or four portions , the smaller section placed between the lines ; occasionally , the dividing lines assume stripe - like proportions , and the main portions are consequently smaller in size and further from each other , but one " island " still remains . in another form , the lower outer corner is distinctly separate from the costal portion ; thus the band is broken into four parts .

the long caterpillar is green , with a reddish - brown stripe along the back ; this is broken up into spots , except on the first three rings ; there are some reddish - brown spots on the sides . it feeds on various kinds of willow herb (

the moth should be looked for in beech and other woods amongst the food plants , from which , and the surrounding herbage , it is readily evicted . it flies at twilight , and later on , when it has been known to visit the sugar patch ; it is also attracted by light . it is out in may and june , and specimens of a second generation sometimes occur in the south . the species occurs locally throughout england , probably wales , and in scotland up to ross . in ireland , it is widely distributed and locally common in the north , but apparently not noted in the south .

the white veins and white lines passing through the blackish blotches at the base and on the front margin of the fore wings , give these wings a curious netted appearance ; the hind wings are smoky grey , with two white lines which appear to be continuations of the white second line and sub - marginal of the fore wings . ( plate 61 , fig . 1 . )

the caterpillar is green , inclining to yellowish , and more or less tinged with pinkish , especially on the sides ; three lines on the back , the central one reddish , the others whitish ; a central line along the pinkish spiracles . it feeds at night on yellow balsam (

seeds , and young foliage , and rests by day on the undersides of the leaves : september and october . ( plate

the moth is out in july and august , and , of course , will only be found in localities where the balsam flourishes ; these are very limited , and in britain are confined to westmorland and the northern border of lancashire , and north wales . the species was first introduced as british in 1861 , when the late henry doubleday recorded the capture of three specimens in august , 1856 , on the border of one of the lakes in westmorland , by his friend the late thomas h . allis . it seems that other specimens had been taken at the same time , but these passed into collections as the " second brood of silacearia . " the caterpillar is said to have been found in north wales , but has been more frequently obtained in the english lake district .

the range abroad extends to eastern siberia , amurland , corea , and japan ; but in the three last - named countries it is chiefly represented by var . ærosa , butt . , a large form .

the english name here retained was given to this species ( plate 63 , figs . 1 ♂ , 2 ♀ ) by harris , in 1775 , but in 1782 he changed it to " clouded carpet . "

in ground colour the fore wings are pale brown , more or less clouded with darker brown , or with reddish - brown ; the basal patch , central band , and blotch on outer margin below the tip of the wing , are all chocolate brown clouded with blackish and edged with white . hind wings , whitish , suffused with smoky grey , except on front area ; three dusky whitish - edged wavy lines , inclining to blackish on the inner margin . the egg ( plate 67 , fig . 3 ) is yellowish when laid , and then changes to purplish with a whitish bloom .

middle of the back is a series of purplish - edged , brown - centred , whitish , triangular markings ; the third ring is swollen , and has a black collar . it feeds at night on the foliage of red and black currant , also on gooseberry , and may be found in april and may , earlier or later according to season , sitting by day upon the bushes .

the moth flies in july and august , and occurs in gardens , but is said to be partial to sloe bushes and hedges . it is always more or less local , although it is distributed over the greater part of the british isles .

the fore wings of this rather variable species ( plate 63 , figs . 5 - 7 ) are yellowish or reddish grey , with a darker basal patch and central band ; a reddish blotch below the tip of the wing is edged with white , and the central band is also outwardly edged with white . hind wings , whitish , with two lines , and dusky hind marginal border , the latter sometimes inclining to reddish . occasionally , the fore wings are entirely pale ochreous , and the basal patch and the central band only very slightly darker , but the limiting lines are reddish , and the patch under the tip of the wing is bright orange red . var . insulicola , staud . , from the isles of scotland , has the fore wings rather narrower , and suffused with purplish brown or deep violet grey ; the hind wings are smoky grey . the female is usually smaller than the male , and often more yellow in colour .

eggs , whitish brown , mottled with darker . the early stages are shown on plate 67 , figs . 2 - 2 b .

with reddish ; another white line along the region of the spiracles . it feeds , in may or june ( earlier or later in some seasons ) , on sallow and birch . the moth is out in july and august , and frequents heaths and bogs more especially , but is also found in or around woods , and i have captured male specimens as they flew along hedgerows bordering fields , at dusk , in middlesex . the female is rarely seen on the wing .

the species , which ranges through central and northern europe to the ural and altai , is generally distributed throughout the british isles ; it is found also in the atlantic states of america .

the fore wings are yellow , with a reddish or purplish - brown basal patch , central band , and small patch on outer margin below tip of the wing , the central band more or less clouded or mottled with yellow . hind wings , whitish , tinged with yellow . the female is usually smaller , the colour generally paler , and the markings frequently only represented by cross lines . specimens from the isle of arran have the ground colour of fore wings more or less dappled with brown of the same tint as that of the central band and other markings ; the hind wings are tinged with a smoky hue . in other parts of scotland the brown colour becomes more and more general , until the fore wings are uniformly brown , and the hind wings dusky . on the mountains in the north nearly black specimens occur , and these seem to be referable to ab . musauaria , freyer . ( plate 63 , figs . 8 - 10 . )