the southern sennet , sphyraena picudilla , is an ocean-going species of game fish in the barracuda family , or sphyraenidae .

it was described by the cuban zoologist felipe poey .

the description was part of a two-volume work , which poey published in 1860 , entitled historia natural de la isla de cuba or natural history of the island of cuba .

southern sennet are sometimes used as a food fish , and marketed either fresh or frozen .

although they are generally harmless , southern sennet have been linked to ciguatera poisoning .

southern sennet

southern sennet <EOT> the southern sennet has a range from florida to louisiana . as you can probably see the southern sennet is closely related the great barracuda yet is considerably smaller . the southern sennet is a predatory fish that feeds on fish , shrimp and squid . good to eat though not commonly caught and utilized .

a giant barracuda is leading a school of southern sennet - - another type of barracuda . so unusual to see . the video was taken on my 500th dive at invisibles on bonaire .

greenish or grayish above , with silvery sides marked by numerous dark blotches . tall widely forked with pointed lobes . two other members of the cuda family might be encountered . the fairly uncommon southern sennet , sphyraena picudilla , grows to about 18 inches , but looks very similar to the bigger cuda and is usually found in schools . the guaguanche , sphyraena guachancho , is much like the sennet in size , shape and rarity . it can be distinguished by a yellow or gold mid - body stripe .

miller and jorgenson ( 1969 ) reported the southern sennet from st . simons beach . struhsaker ( 1969 ) considered the other three species to be coastal , and bearden ( 1961b ) listed them from south carolina . i collected one small guaguanche at sapelo beach . barracudas are rarely found inshore along georgia , and are represented inshore by juveniles .

daly , r . j . 1970 . systematics of southern florida anchovies ( pisces : engraulidae ) . bull . mar . sci . gulf caribbean 20 ( 1 ) : 70 - 104 .

in southern nigeria , west africa they are smoked and used in the preparation of different soups . barracuda meat is smoked is because when cooked fresh , the fish is quite soft and disintegrates in the soup .

listed in this family are 14 species that occur within or are likely to occur within the range of the estuaries and coastal habitat . struhsaker ( 1969 ) lists five additional species which represent three additional genera for offshore waters . on the georgia coast , the summer flounder and southern flounder are the only flatfishes that are important in the sport and commercial fisheries .

irl distribution : barracuda , especially juveniles , are found throughout the lagoon in mangrove and seagrass habitats ( fah 1976 ) where food and shelter are prominent . however , the distribution of the species in the irl may be linked in part to temperature . a study conducted by kupschus & tremain ( 2001 ) showed that the majority of fish collected were alongside other tropical and subtropical species at the southern end of the lagoon .

activity time : fah ( 1976 ) found that s . barracuda in the indian river lagoon are a diurnal species ( active during the day ) , feeding in seagrass and mangrove habitats two hours after sunrise to about two hours before sunset . the great barracuda shares a similar diet with the northern sennet , s . borealis , which is a nocturnal feeder most active between 3 : 00 am and approximately two hours before sunrise . differences in activity time between these two species are thought to be a method of niche separation to reduce competition for food resources .

ii . habitat and distribution regional occurrence : the range of s . barracuda is nearly circumtropical , encompassing the warm waters of most oceans . the species is rarely found in northern areas where winter temperatures dip below 20°c for extended periods of time . however , some individuals have been found in the cooler waters off the coast of the northeast united states , south africa and japan ( de sylva 1963 ) . on the east coasts of north , central and south america , the range of the great barracuda extends from massachusetts to southern brazil ( robins et al 1986 ) .

reproduction : reproduction for s . barracuda occurs sexually through external fertilization . sexual maturity is reached between the second and third year for males , and the third to fourth year for females . barracudas do not exhibit sexual dimorphism , and sex can only be determined upon examination of the gonads . adults spawn between april and october in southern florida ( de sylva 1963 ) , releasing eggs and sperm into the water column . literature detailing spawning behavior in the great barracuda is lacking . however , in similar species , females may spawn several times in one season , releasing over 500 , 000 eggs each time ( de sylva 1963 ) .

greek , sphyraina , - es = the name of a fish ( ref . 45335 )

marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 65 m ( ref . 9626 ) . tropical ; 32°n - 38°s , 97°w - 32°w

western atlantic : bermuda , florida ( usa ) , and the bahamas to uruguay .

maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 61 . 0 cm fl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 40637 ) ; common length : 36 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3819 ) ; max . published weight : 1 . 1 kg ( ref . 40637 )

inhabits coastal waters . found in rocky or coral reefs ( ref . 9710 ) . more abundant over muddy bottoms . juveniles are encountered in seagrass beds ( ref . 9626 ) . often occurs in large schools , sometimes near the surface ( ref . 9626 ) . marketed fresh and frozen .

robins , c . r . and g . c . ray , 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin company , boston , u . s . a . 354 p . ( ref . 7251 )

phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .

bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00589 ( 0 . 00298 - 0 . 01164 ) , b = 2 . 93 ( 2 . 77 - 3 . 09 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .

trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 2 ±0 . 3 se ; based on diet studies .

resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .

vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 48 of 100 ) .

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tropical and subtropical . distribution : atlantic , indian , and pacific oceans . elongated body . large - mouthed with the lower jaw projecting forward bearing strong fanglike teeth . upper jaw non - protractile , an adaptation to feeding on large prey . well - developed lateral line . gill rakers vestigial . position of pectoral fins relatively low . dorsal fins far apart . first dorsal fin with 5 spines ; second dorsal with 1 spine and 9 soft rays . vertebrae 24 ( 11 + 13 ) . usually to 1 . 8 m maximum length ; could grow longer . voracious predators of other fishes . attacks on humans have been reported . pelagic spawning in schools . food and game fishes , but large specimens may be ciguatoxic .

greek , sphyraina = a fish similar to an iron pin , a pike like fish , 1849 ( ref . 45335 ) .

the list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .

rather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .

but we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .

unless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .

this list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .

in the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .

when subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .

type genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .

type species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .

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juvenile sphyraena barracuda , like the one pictured above , inhabit seagrass beds and areas around mangroves where food and shelter are prominent . photo l . holly sweat , smithsonian marine station at fort pierce .

adult s . barracuda in the florida keys . as barracuda grow larger , their coloration and pattern changes from the juvenile form seen above . solitary or small schools of adults are typically found on coral reefs . photo kathleen gifford , florida institute of technology .

synonomy : esox barracuda walbaum 1792 s . picuda bloch & schneider 1801 s . becuna lacépède 1803 s . commersoni cuvier 1829 s . dussumieri cuvier 1829 s . agam rüppell 1835 s . affinis rüppell 1835 s . nuageuse lienard 1843 s . kadenar montrouzier 1857 s . snodgrassi jenkins 1901 s . akerstromi whitley 1947 s . microps marshall 1953

species description : the body of sphyraena barracuda is elongate to slightly compressed with small , cycloid scales . the head is long and pointed with a large , nearly horizontal jaw fitted with variably - sized flattened or conical canine teeth that extend to the roof of the mouth . two short dorsal fins are widely separated , with the first located opposite or directly behind the pelvic fins , and the second opposite the anal fin .

iii . life history and population biology age , size , lifespan : adult s . barracuda commonly reach 2m , with a maximum reported length of 2 . 3m ( russell 2002 ) . the maximum age of barracuda is unknown , but the typical lifespan may often exceed 14 years ( de sylva 1963 ) .

abundance : while the great barracuda is generally a solitary species , juveniles and young adults are commonly found in seagrass beds and alongside mangrove forests . studies conducted in the indian river lagoon documented a catch of 376 individuals ranging from 122 to 840 mm over a 17 - month period from 1996 to 1998 ( kupschus & tremain 2001 ) .

embryology : little is known about the embryology of s . barracuda . de sylva ( 1963 ) documented the collection of eggs from the ovaries of females , describing them as translucent and 0 . 74 to 0 . 81mm in diameter . however , these eggs were most likely immature and all attempts to culture embryos in the laboratory were unsuccessful .

iv . physical tolerances temperature : distribution of s . barracuda is primarily restricted to tropical and warm temperate waters worldwide , suggesting a narrow thermal tolerance in the species . in the indian river lagoon , hunting activity and gut contents of the great barracuda declined in cold / dry seasons . laboratory studies revealed less prey stalking activity in juveniles kept in water below 15°c than in those maintained at 21 - 27°c ( fah 1976 ) . galloway ( 1941 ) observed high mortality in barracudas in the florida keys during january 1940 , when water temperatures dropped to 6°c .

salinity : juvenile s . barracuda are common in estuaries where salinity may fluctuate seasonally and during tidal cycles by = 20 ppt . adults are found primarily in nearshore and coral reef areas where salinities are stable at approximately 35 ppt .

v . community ecology trophic mode : barracudas employ ram strike feeding , quickly lunging to force prey to into the jaws where sharp teeth and head shakes shear it into manageable pieces ( grubich et al . 2007 , porter & motta 2004 ) . the diet of s . barracuda consists mainly of schooling fishes , however studies of gut contents in both juveniles and adults have revealed solitary fishes and small numbers of crustaceans , mollusks and plant material ( de sylva 1963 & fahs 1976 ) . prey selection is indiscriminate and determined by the mouth length of the barracuda , but certain prey items are found more frequently . in florida , approximately 70 % of the diet of juvenile s . barracuda is comprised of gobies , herrings , sardines and silversides ( de sylva 1963 ) . in the indian river lagoon , the dominant prey item of young barracuda is the bay anchovy , anchoa mitchilli ( fah 1976 ) . nearshore and coral reef fishes such as ballyhoo , triggerfishes and mullet are the primary prey of adult barracuda ( de sylva 1963 ) .

predators : the speed and size of adult s . barracuda allows for few predators . however , juveniles and small adults have been reported in the guts of the goliath grouper , epinephelus itajara , the dolphinfish , coryphaena hippurus and several species of tuna ( de sylva , 1963 ) .

habitats : juvenile barracuda are commonly found in estuaries where they feed and take shelter in seagrass beds and among mangrove prop roots ( fah 1976 ) . solitary individuals or small groups of adults are typical on nearshore and coral reefs ( gudger 1918 ) .

barracuda is the common name for the various marine , ray - finned fish comprising the family sphyraenidae of the order perciformes , characterized by a long , fairly compressed , elongated body covered with small , smooth scales and with a large mouth with strong , fang - like teeth . they are notable for their long size , reaching up to six feet ( two meters ) or more in length . there is only one genus of barracudas , sphraena , which has about 20 species ( nelson 1994 ) .

despite an unfavorable reputation as dangerous to humans who are scuba diving , snorkeling , or swimming in their waters , unprovoked attacks by barracudas on humans are rare . rather , barracudas generally add value to human life as food and game fish and for the wonder they add to nature . ecologically , they are integral to many marine food chains , serving as the top predator in some tropical and subtropical waters and helping to maintain the balance of nature .

barracudas ( family sphyraenidae and genus sphyraena ) are found in tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide .

barracudas have an elongate body and large mouth , with the lower jaw jutting out beyond the upper ( nelson 1994 ) . their strong , fang - like teeth are unequal in size and set in sockets in the jaws on the roof of the mouth . the head is quite large , pointed , and pike - like in appearance . the gill - covers do not have spines and are covered with small scales . the two dorsal fins are widely separated , with the first having five spines and the second having one spine and nine soft rays ( nelson 1994 ) . the second dorsal fin and anal fin are the same size and are situated on the top and bottom of the barracuda , equidistant from the tail . the lateral line is prominent and extends straight from head to tail . the spinous dorsal fin is placed above the pelvics . the hind end of the caudal fin is forked or concave . it is set at the end of a stout peduncle . the pectoral fins are placed low down on the sides . the barracuda also has a large swim bladder .

nelson ( 1994 ) reports that the maximum length of barracudas is normally to 1 . 8 meters ( almost 6 feet ) , but are said to reach somewhat longer lengths . only some species of barracuda grow to a large size . the species that do are the european barracuda , barracouta or spet ( s . sphyraena ) , found in the mediterranean and eastern atlantic ; the great barracuda , picuda , or becuna ( s . picuda ) , ranging on the atlantic coast of tropical america from florida to brazil and reaching the bermudas ; the california barracuda ( s . argentea ) , extending from puget sound southwards to cabo san lucas ; the indian barracuda ( s . jello ) and the black - finned or commerson ' s barracuda ( s . commersoni ) , both from the seas of india and the malay peninsula and archipelago .

barracudas typically have coloration that is dark green or gray above a chalky - white underbelly . sometimes there is a row of darker cross - bars or black spots on each side . the fins may be yellowish or dusky .

barracudas occur both singly and in schools around reefs , but also appear in open seas . swimming in schools , or individually , they are voracious predators and hunt using a classic example of lie - in - wait or ambush . they rely on surprise and short bursts of speed ( up to 27 mph or 43 km / h ) to overrun their prey , sacrificing maneuverability ( rqcsr 2007 ) . they also exhibit some scavenger - like feeding habits .

the larger barracudas are more or less solitary in their habits . young and half - grown fish frequently congregate in shoals . their food is composed of fish of all types . large barracudas , when gorged , may attempt to herd a shoal of prey fish in shallow water , where they guard over them until they are ready for another meal .

like sharks , barracudas have long had a bad reputation as being dangerous to humans . however , unprovoked attacks on humans are extremely rare and millions of scuba divers , snorkelers , and swimmers spend time with them in the water without any incidents . barracudas sometimes do follow snorkelers and scuba divers across a reef , which can make one feel uncomfortable , but they are harmless unless provoked . because barracudas have a scavenger - like tendency , it has been theorized that barracudas tend to follow snorkelers because they believe that the snorkelers might be large predators and if they were to capture prey it would be easy for the barracudas to scavenge whatever may be left behind .

being formidable hunters , they should be respected , as barracudas are perfectly capable of defending themselves against humans that harass them . handfeeding or trying to touch them is strongly discouraged . spearfishing around barracudas can also be quite dangerous , as they are strongly attracted by the wounded fish .

there have been isolated cases where barracudas did bite a human , but these incidents are rare and are believed to be caused by bad visibility . barracudas will stop after the first bite as humans are not their normal food source .

barracudas are prize fish , and can be caught either fly or sea fishing . they are extremely powerful , and require tough and strong rods .

barracudas are caught as food and game fish . they are most often eaten as fillet or steak and have a strong taste like tuna or salmon . larger species , like the great barracuda , have in some areas been implicated in cases of ciguatera food poisoning ( usfda 2007 ) .

agbayani , e . 2004 . sphyraenidae . fishbase ( eds . r . froese and d . pauly ) . retrieved december 2 , 2007 .

humann , p . , and n . deloach . 2002 . reef fish identification : florida , caribbean , bahamas . jacksonville , fl : new world publications . isbn 1878348302 .

nelson , j . s . 1994 . fishes of the world , 3rd edition . new york : john wiley & sons . isbn 0471547131 .

norman , j . r . , and f . c . fraser . 1949 . field book of giant fishes . new york : g . p . putnam .

reefquest centre for shark research ( rqcsr ) . 2007 . what ' s the speediest marine creature . biology of sharks and rays . retrieved october 26 , 2007 .

rochefort , c . de . 1681 . histoire naturelle et morale des iles antilles de l ' amérique enrichie d ' un grand nombre de belles figures en taille douce … avec un vocabulaire caraïbe . rotterdam : r . leers .

sloane , h . , m . van der gucht , and j . savage . 1707 . a voyage to the islands madera , barbados , nieves , s . christophers and jamaica , with the natural history … of the last of those islands to which is prefix ' d an introduction , wherein is an account of the inhabitants , air , waters , diseases , trade , & c . … ; illustrated with the figures of the things describ ' d . london : printed by b . m . for the author .

u . s . food & drug administration ( usfda ) . 2007 . harzard , market , geographic and nomenclature information for great barracuda ( barracuda ; sphyraena barracuda ) . seafood products research center - center for food safety & applied nutrition - regulatory fish encyclopedia . retrieved october 26 , 2007 .

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western atlantic : bermuda , florida ( usa ) , and the bahamas to uruguay . ;

attributes / relations provided by ♦ 1 jorrit h . poelen , james d . simons and chris j . mungall . ( 2014 ) . global biotic interactions : an open infrastructure to share and analyze species - interaction datasets . ecological informatics . ♦ 2 food habits of reef fishes of the west indies , john e . randall , stud . trop . oceanogr . 5 , 665–847 ( 1967 )

protected areas provided by biological inventories of the world ' s protected areas in cooperation between the information center for the environment at the university of california , davis and numerous collaborators .

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butsch , r . s . ( 1939 ) a list of barbadian fishes . : j . b . m . h . s . 7 ( 1 ) : 17 - 31 .

böhlke , j . e . and c . c . g . chaplin ( 1993 ) fishes of the bahamas and adjacent tropical waters . 2nd edition . : university of texas press , austin .

carl , h . ( 2003 ) danish fish names . : zoological museum of copenhagen . unpublished .

cervigón , f . ( 1993 ) los peces marinos de venezuela . volume 2 . : fundación científica los roques , caracas , venezuela . 497 p .

claro , r . ( 1994 ) características generales de la ictiofauna . : p . 55 - 70 . in r . claro ( ed . ) ecología de los peces marinos de cuba . instituto de oceanología academia de ciencias de cuba and centro de investigaciones de quintana roo .

crossman , e . j . ( 1972 ) collecting trip to st . lucia . : dept . ichthyology & herpetology . 32 p .

erdman , d . s . ( 1983 ) nombres vulgares de los peces en puerto rico ( common names of fishes in puerto rico ) . : commonwealth of puerto rico . technical report , vol 3 . no . 2 , second revised edition . 44 p .

fao - fies ( 2017 ) aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . : retrievef from urltoken ( accessed 08 / 06 / 2017 ) .

froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .

gómez - canchong , p . , l . manjarrés m . , l . o . duarte and j . altamar ( 2004 ) atlas pesquero del area norte del mar caribe de colombia . : universidad del magadalena , santa marta . 230 p .

ihering , r . v . ( 1968 ) dicionário dos animais do brasil . : editora universidade de brasília , brasília : 790 p .

martin , f . d . and j . w . patus ( 1984 ) an annotated key to the teleost fishes of puerto rico . : compendio enciclopedico de los recursos nat . 5 : 1 - 191 .

mceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223–1316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas .

nahím , h . r . and f . cervigón ( 2003 ) peces del archipiélago los roques . : agencia española de cooperacíon internacional . 304 p .

nelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - pérez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea and j . d . williams ( 2004 ) common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . : american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . ix , 386 p . + 1 cd .

nión , h . , c . ríos and p . meneses ( 2002 ) peces del uruguay : lista sistemática y nombres comunes . : montevideo , dinara , infopesca .

nomura , h . ( 1984 ) dicionário dos peixes do brasil . : brasília : editerra . 482p .

randolph , s . and m . snyder ( 1993 ) the seafood list : fda ' s guide to acceptable market names for seafood sold in interstate commerce . : u . s . government printing office , washington , usa . pag . var .

robins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al . , 1991 : common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada , fifth edition . american fisheries society special publication , no . 20 . 183 .

silva , m . ( 1994 ) especies identificadas en las pesquerias costeras artesanales del suroeste de la republica dominica . : reportes del propescar - sur : contribuciones al conocimiento de las pesquerías en la república dominicana . vol . 1 , 47p .

size : the great barracuda ranges from foot - long juveniles on shallow flats to 50 pounds or more offshore . usual maximum is around 30 pounds , with the average being 5 - 15 pounds . world record 85 pounds ( all above information from bigfishtackle . com ) .

the barracuda is at home almost anywhere from shorelines and bays out to blue water . great barracuda is seldom seen inshore , but is common offshore on wrecks and artificial reefs . found throughout the indian ocean .

dark above with silvery sides . many spots , which are both yellow and brown . the body is proportionately deeper than with juvenile king mackerel , and the yellow spots appear rounder and brighter , but if in doubt , the only true identifier is the lateral line , which tapers rather gently from front to back with no severe dip .

size : common at 1 - 3 pounds ; not too unusual at 5 - 7 pounds ; maximum potential over 10 pounds . world record 13 pounds ( all above information from bigfishtackle . com ) .

this mackeral is largely coastal , but roams offshore at times . found throughout the indian ocean .

overall brownish or goldish . heavy body . no scutes forward of tail fin . dark oblique line through the eye that ends at the dorsal fin .

size : schools of young fish are common at 5 - 20 pounds . average size over deep wrecks and reefs is 30 - 60 pounds , but 100 - pounders are not too rare and the potential maximum exceeds 150 pounds . world record 155 pounds ( all above information from bigfishtackle . com ) .

adults are common at various depths , ranging from reefs several hundred feet deep to fairly shallow wrecks and reefs . big ones also come close to shore at times . found throughout the indian ocean .

in the water , cobia look very much like sharks . the usual color is brown or dark gray above , whitish on the underside , with a dark stripe running from gills to base of tail . the striped appearance is more vivid in juveniles . several rather sharp finlets on the dorsal surface extend from behind the head to the dorsal fin .

size : common from 20 to 50 pounds ; sometimes up to 80 pounds , and possibly to 100 or more . world record 135 pounds ( all above information from bigfishtackle . com ) .

cobia love to hang around navigation markers , wrecks and artificial reefs , where they swim both at the surface and down deep . they also escort wandering mantas and other large rays , and many are caught around those hosts . found throughout the indian ocean .

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cumberland island an ecological survey of the coastal region of georgia nps scientific monograph no . 3

the following list includes those species of fish that are known from or likely to occur in estuarine and marine waters along the georgia coast seaward to a depth of 10 fathoms . this encompasses waters of the estuary , beach , and " coastal habitat . " in the text the term coastal habitat refers to that region from the ocean beaches to a depth of 10 fathoms as in struhsaker ( 1969 ) . species listed are based primarily on my own records from georgia inshore waters , from south carolina by bearden ( 1961a , 1965 ) , and from the coastal habitat by struhsaker ( 1969 ) . for the benefit of sport fishermen , the common offshore sport fishes are also included . this list is extracted from my manuscript , a field guide to georgia coastal fishes . this manuscript and the paper by struhsaker ( 1969 ) report a large number of additional species that are restricted to deeper waters of the continental shelf ; most of these species occur primarily on reefs .

seasonal records in the text are based on inshore collections , i . e . , beach and estuarine waters .

1 present address : c . w . rice div . , nus corp . , pittsburgh .

the common sharks that occur inshore on the georgia coast are not restricted to well - defined habitats . they may be collected in shallow beach waters as well as deeper waters of the sounds and offshore . most of the sharks considered below prefer warmer waters and leave inshore waters of georgia in the winter . one exception is the spiny dogfish , a northern species that migrates southward to georgia in the winter .

reported from south carolina but not georgia . mainly pelagic but sometimes found inshore .

young are often collected on the south carolina coast in spring and summer and they probably occur on the georgia coast .

stingrays are collected by hook , seine , and trawls in shallow beach waters and deeper estuarine waters .

the range of the devil ray , mobula hypostoma , includes the georgia coast , but it has not been reported from georgia or south carolina .

large specimens are occasionally seen jumping in georgia coastal waters and one reported to weigh 2500 pounds was caught in a shrimp trawl .

primarily found in tidal waters but enters ocean . commonly caught in gill nets in the altamaha river .

anadromous . commonly caught in gill nets in the altamaha river by shad fishermen .

primarily a freshwater species but often encountered in salt water on the georgia coast .

small individuals are often collected in tidal pools and canals and occasionally along the beach , high marsh , and upper reaches , from may to november .

large tarpon are commonly caught in warmer months on georgia beaches and in the lower altamaha river . juveniles occur in tidal pools and creeks in low - to high - salinities from july to november .

catadromous . common spring through fall in oligohaline and freshwater creeks , tidal creeks , low - and high - salinity tidal pools , and rare in high marsh .

in addition to the species listed , three other ophichthids occur offshore on the georgia coast ; these are letharchus velifer , verma kendalli and mystriophis intertinctus .

beach , high marsh , and ologohaline creek . rarely seen on georgia coast .

in addition to the species listed , the atlantic round herring ( etrumeus teres ) occurs off georgia , but it is not known from inshore waters .

anadromous . an important commercial and sport fish in georgia rivers during the january - march spawning migration .

common along beaches ; also found in the high marsh , tidal canals , and tidal pools , from may to november .

schools are abundant in lower and middle reaches and near beaches of georgia estuaries in warmer months . some occur in the sounds throughout the winter . also found in the high marsh , tidal canals , and high - salinity tidal pools . rare in the oligohaline creeks and low - salinity tidal pools . most migrate south or offshore in winter .

common in the lower reaches , high marsh , and probably in oligohaline creeks . rare along the beach .

collected at beaches at savannah , sapelo island , and brunswick . also collected in the high marsh and tidal canals .

occasionally collected at beaches and in the lower reaches and rare in the high marsh , june to october . more abundant south and offshore .

known from the beaches , lower reaches , and high marsh , july to december . more abundant to the south .

common at georgia beaches , lower and middle reaches , and high marsh , may to november .

found at beaches , lower , middle , and upper reaches , in the high marsh , and in high - salinity tidal pools , common throughout the year .

a bottom species occasionally collected at the beach , lower reaches , and middle reaches , april to november . more common in coastal and offshore habitats .

adults are common on beaches and deeper estuarine waters and juveniles are common in the deeper waters . present in estuaries from march to november . migrates to ocean in autumn and winter .

the leopard toadfish ( opsanus pardus ) and atlantic midshipman ( ponichthys porosissimus ) are found only offshore , often in association with reefs .

common in lower and middle reaches usually around debris . sometimes found in oyster reefs and along the beach .

lower and middle reaches of estuary , in association with oyster reefs in shallows and shell in deeper waters .

the ocellated frogfish ( antennarius ocellatus ) was reported offshore by struhsaker ( 1969 ) , and the two species listed below , reported from st . simons beach ( miller and jorgenson 1969 ) , are stragglers from offshore .

ogcocephalus radiatus and halieutichthys aculeatus occur offshore on the georgia coast . one species reported from inshore is listed below .

abundant offshore , sometimes collected in the coastal and lower reaches habitats ( anderson 1968 ) .

the carolina hake ( urophycis earlli ) and silver hake ( merluccius bilinearis ) probably occur offshore ( struhsaker 1969 ) .

species reported from offshore by struhsaker ( 1969 ) include the bank cusk - eel ( ophidion holbrooki ) , polka - dot cusk - eel ( otophidium omostigmum ) , blotched cusk - eel ( ophidion grayii , and lepophidium spp .

deeper waters of lower and middle reaches , coastal habitat , and rare in beach habitat .

in addition to the species listed , platybelone argalus occurs in the gulf stream off georgia .

found around docks in the lower and middle reaches , also known from the high marsh and the beach .

three species of halfbeaks apparently occur on the georgia coast but they have not been collected inshore . they may be restricted to offshore . flyingfishes do not normally occur in georgia estuaries or along the beaches although they are common offshore . listed here is a straggler from offshore and another species likely to occur near shore . two other flyingfishes probably occur offshore on the georgia coast . these are parexocoetus brachypterus and cypselurus cyanopterus .

in the high marshes , tidal canals , high - and low - salinity tidal pools . euryhaline .

beach , high marsh , lower to upper reaches , oligohaline creek , tidal canal and tidal pools . abundant in shallow waters and not found in deep waters .

the only definite georgia records were collected at a marsh near the meridian dock ( miller and jorgenson 1969 ) . the spotfins apparently have disappeared since the collecting site became occupied with spartina and juncus .

present at beaches throughout the year and occasionally taken in the high marsh , tidal canals , and high - salinity tidal pools .

most abundant in fresh water but common in the high marsh , oligohaline creeks , tidal pools , tidal canals , and sometimes found at the beach .

common in high marsh , fresh water , tidal canals , tidal pools , and rare at the beach and in oligohaline creeks .

lower reaches , beach , and high marsh habitats . present throughout the year .

most abundant in oligohaline creek and fresh water near the coast , and also found in the upper reaches and at the beach . present throughout the year .

beach , high marsh , lower and middle reaches , and high - salinity tidal pools . present throughout the year .

one species of trumpetfish ( aulostomus maculatus ) is known from georgia offshore waters .

three pipefishes are known from the georgia coast syngnathus fuscus , s . louisianae , and corythoichthys albirostris ( one record ) . additional forms which may occur inshore along the georgia coast are s . scovelli , s . floridae hubbsi , and s . f . mckayi ( dr . e . herald , pers . comm . ) . s . pelagicus and s . springeri may occur offshore .

often found at the beach , upper and lower reaches , and rare in oligohaline creek .

common in georgia estuaries . known from beach , high marsh , lower to upper reaches , high - salinity tidal pool , and rare in oligohaline creek .

ranges from north carolina to pensacola , fla . , but not known from georgia .

young occur in tidal pools and tidal ditches from june to november in georgia .

numerous sea bass species occur on live - bottom areas off the georgia coast . the gag , mycteroperca microlepis , is a straggler to georgia estuaries . only two species ( centropristis ) are common in the estuary , centropristis ocyurus occurs offshore . two species of diplectrum occur in the coastal habitat and diplectrum bivittatum occurs offshore ( struhsaker 1969 ) . two more serranids , serraniculus pumilio and serranus subligarius , occur offshore and may be found in reefs in the coastal habitat .

young are commonly in estuarine sounds and rivers throughout the year . large black sea bass are abundant offshore around reefs .

the white perch morone americana occurs in south carolina ( bearden 1961b ) but not georgia .

many species of sunfishes enter brackish waters occasionally . i collected four species in the oligohaline riceboro creek when the water was fresh . these were the flier ( centrarchus macropterus ) , warmouth ( lepomis gulosus ) , bluegill ( lepomis macrochirus ) , and largemouth bass ( micropterus salmoides ) .

the smaller " snapper blues " are commonly caught with fishing poles on beaches , in sounds and estuarine rivers . large bluefish are caught offshore .

commonly caught around buoys offshore . found around mouths of sounds and rivers of south carolina ( bearden 1961a ) .

most offshore records of carangids are from struhsaker ( 1969 ) . a few additional species may be found in the gulf stream .

primarily offshore near the gulf stream . juveniles occasionally migrate or drift inshore ( berry 1959 ) .

collected in georgia estuarine and coastal waters ( anderson 1968 ) but most abundant offshore .

adult crevalle jack are rarely caught with fishing poles on the georgia coast . young are sometimes collected along the beach and in the marsh ( miller and jorgenson 1969 ) .

common june - december in waters of beach , lower reaches , and coastal habitat and rare in middle reaches and high - salinity tidal pools .

common june - november along the beach and also occurring in the high marsh , middle reaches , and high - salinity tidal pools .

sometimes collected in waters of the beach , lower reaches , and coastal habitat , may - september .

young pompano are abundant along the beaches in the warmer months . all three species of trachinotus apparently occur offshore .

young occur along the beach and sometimes in the high marsh , may - november .

the common dolphin ( conyphaena hippurus ) is often caught offshore by sport fishermen and the pompano dolphin ( c . equisetis ) also occurs offshore .

the snappers are tropical fishes that are represented by at least seven species offshore . the red snapper ( lutfanus campechanus ) supports a small commercial fisheries off georgia . included in the synonymy of the red snapper is l . aya and l . blackfordi ( anderson 1967 , rivas 1966 ) . one snapper ranges inshore .

on the georgia coast the mangrove snapper occurs primarily offshore . a few juveniles were collected in shallows of the lower reaches , beach , high marsh , low - and high - salinity tidal pools .

beach , high marsh , low - and high - salinity tidal pools , and rare in oligohaline creeks and tidal canals . euryhaline . collected july through november .

occasionally collected in waters of beach , lower reaches to oligohaline creeks , high marsh , tidal canals , and low - and high - salinity tidal pools , july - november . mostly in shallows but some were collected while trawling in the lower reaches .

recorded for the beach and high marsh by miller and jorgenson ( 1969 ) . also reported for the coastal habitat ( bullis and thompson 1965 ) .

the grunts are primarily tropical fishes . the pigfish is the only species common in temperate atlantic waters and often found in the estuaries . the tomtate occasionally occurs in the coastal habitat and is more common around reefs and offshore . the white grunt ( haemulon plumieri ) occurs offshore on reefs .

most abundant offshore in reef and shelf - edge habitats and sometimes collected in coastal habitat .

collected in the lower and middle reaches of the estuary . also in coastal habitat and open shelf habitat . collected june through december inshore .

sciaenids are predominantly temperate - water fishes that need estuarine waters for nursery grounds . the diverse and abundant sciaenids of georgia are the most important group to coastal sport fishermen . they are the most abundant fishes in terms of number available for trawling ( anderson 1968 ) and probably biomass .

abundant in trawl catches in the coastal habitat and lower and middle reaches . mostly young are found in waters of the beach , high marsh , oligohaline creeks , tidal canals , and high - and low - salinity tidal pools .

a very popular sport fish along beaches and in lower and middle reaches , caught mostly in fall and winter . also in coastal habitat , high marsh , and high - salinity tidal pools .

most common in lower reaches . also in waters of coastal habitat , beach , middle reaches , high marsh , tidal canals , and high - salinity tidal pools . present throughout the years .

beach , lower reaches up the estuary to oligohaline creeks , high marsh , tidal canal , and high - and low - salinity tidal pools . present throughout the year .

both young and adults are common to abundant in the lower reaches throughout the year and beach habitat spring through fall . also known from the coastal habitat , high marsh , and middle teaches .

young are common along the beach in warmer months and occur there throughout the year . also known from the lower reaches and high marsh .

young are common along the beach . young and adults are sometimes caught in the lower reaches . rare in high marsh . occurs april through august .

adults are abundant in the lower reaches . other habitats are the beach , high marsh , middle teaches , and high - salinity tidal pools . rare in oligohaline creeks and tidal canals . present throughout the year .

large black drum are occasionally collected in the lower reaches . young occur in beach waters , high marsh , tidal canals , high - and low - salinity tidal pools . also recorded for the coastal habitat .

large red drum are caught along the beaches and in the lower reaches . young are occasionally collected in high - salinity tidal pools and rarely in the high marsh , tidal canals , and low - salinity tidal pools .

this is the most abundant species in trawl catches in the lower reaches . most abundant in warmer months . sometimes occurs in the middle reaches and beach habitats .

two species were collected at 10 - 11 fathoms off south carolina ( bullis and thompson 1965 ) and are listed here . the dwarf goatfish ( upeneus parvus ) occurs offshore .

nine species were listed by struhsaker ( 1969 ) for offshore waters . four species that occur inshore are listed here .

sheepshead support a sport fishery in the lower reaches . young sometimes occur along the beach and in the high marsh . also offshore on reef habitat .

uncommon but widespread . they occupy beach waters , lower reaches , high marsh , tidal canals , and high - and low - salinity tidal pools .

moore ( 1962 ) reported juvenile yellow chubs from the georgia shore and juvenile bermuda chub from the south carolina and florida shores . adults occur offshore .

ranges from reefs and coastal habitat to beaches , lower and middle reaches , and high marsh .

this family includes at least four butterflyfishes of the genus chaetodon and angelfishes of the genus holacanthus off the georgia coast . only one is known from within the coastal habitat .

four species are known from the georgia coast , mostly from reefs . only one has been reported inshore .

primarily reefs . reported by miller and jorgenson ( 1969 ) from st . simons beach .

ubiquitous in shallow waters of the beach , from the lower reaches to the oligohaline creeks , and high - salinity tidal pools . also found in the high marsh , tidal canals , and low - salinity tidal pools .

beach , high marsh , lower to upper reaches , tidal canals , and high - and low - salinity tidal pools .

seven species apparently occur within depths of the open - shelf and others occur farther offshore . the tautog ( tautoga onitis ) occurs inshore on the south carolina coast ( bearden 196la ) but does not range south to georgia . two species collected on a reef at a depth of 70 ft off the georgia coast are listed here .

two species that have been collected offshore are the bucktooth parrotfish ( sparisoma radians ) and emerald parrotfish ( nicholsina usta ) ( struhsaker 1969 ) .

two stargazer species occur off the georgia coast . the lancer stargazer ( kathetostoma albigutta ) occurs offshore .

open - shelf , coastal habitat , lower reaches and occasionally beach , high marsh , and middle reaches . usually on sandy bottoms .

several specimens have been collected in the coastal habitat but not within the estuarine or beach waters .

oyster reefs and probably other cover in the lower reaches and along the beach .

known from a reef near the coastal habitat and from the lower reaches and beach .

a euryhaline species that i collected only in the low - salinity tidal pools .

collected in lower reaches and high - salinity tidal pools , and reported from coastal habitat by anderson ( 1968 ) .

collected in low - salinity tidal pools . also reported from st . simons beach and altamaha river ( miller and jorgenson 1969 ) .

common in oyster reefs in the lower reaches . also collected in the upper reaches , oligohaline creeks , beach waters , high marsh , and high - salinity tidal pools .

occurs over a broad salinity range and available data suggest preference for sandy substrates ( dawson 1969 ) . i collected this species only in a muddy high - salinity tidal pool .


hawaiian gold coral ( kulamanamana haumeaae ) is a rare , extremely long-lived deep-sea coral found on seamounts near hawaii .

one colony has been dated as 2,740 years old , while others are considered 5,000 years old .

although it has been harvested commercially for use in jewellery for a long time , it was not formally described by taxonomists until 2012 when it was found to be related to both the genus savalia and the octocoral-associated zoanthid , corallizoanthus tsukaharai .

hawaiian gold coral

hawaiian gold coral <EOT> vintage gold fill gf hawaiian black coral pendant curb link chain necklace17 . 75 "

the hawaiian gold coral may also be one of the longest - lived . . .

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hawaiian gold coral is a long - lived , deep - sea coral found in the north pacific ocean . ( photo credit : hurl )

hawaiian gold coral grew at a rate of approximately 3 inches per year , and only about 3 % of the bed could be harvested annually . both state and federal laws strictly regulated the harvest . of all gem corals , hawaiian gold coral was by far the rarest .

in hawaiian deep coral assemblages . mar ecol prog ser 533 : 135 - 147

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the color of hawaiian gold coral varied widely and displayed many interesting patterns , unlike pink and black corals . its color ranged from a sandy beige to almost black . hawaiian gold coral has a special characteristic called “chatoyance , ” from the french word for “cats eye , ” which describes a mysterious moving inner light .

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abstract : the hawaiian gold coral is a parasitic zoantharian that colonizes other deep corals and secretes a protein skeleton that over millennia can grow and more than double the original mean size of the host colony . surveys at 6 known coral beds in the hawaiian archipelago found mature gold coral to be a common taxon and dominant at the geologically older sites . fewer than 5 % of the gold coral colonies seen were in the process of subsuming their host , described here as the ‘midas’ phase . bamboo coral (

the hawaiian gold coral ( kulamanamana haumeaae ) is a deep sea zoanthid coral found on seamounts throughout the hawaiian archipelago at depths of 343 m - 575 m . known mostly because of its beauty and rareness as a gem coral , it has been collected since the 1970s for the jewelry industry ( referred to as genus gerardia , a synonym of savalia ) , but was not scientifically described until 2013 . molecular evidence indicates that hawaiian gold coral belongs in its own genus .

citation : sinniger f , ocaña ov , baco ar ( 2013 ) diversity of zoanthids ( anthozoa : hexacorallia ) on hawaiian seamounts : description of the hawaiian gold coral and additional zoanthids . plos one 8 ( 1 ) : e52607 . urltoken

( mean ± sd ) . cross sections of mature gold coral colonies show the host averages just 9 . 8 cm of the stem’s core , indicating that much of the host skeleton is lost when subsumed by gold coral tissue . the absence of midas colonies in a bamboo coral assemblage found growing on a 76 yr old wreck close ( ~ 1 km ) to a mature gold coral patch suggests that gold coral recruitment is infrequent . this time lag between the growth of the host and the arrival of the gold coral successor is essential because otherwise the speed of the midas phase would subsume the host population faster than it could replenish .

distribution : so far found in the hawaiian archipelago with a distribution similar to the hawaiian gold coral , ku . haumeaae . similar and potentially identical zoanthid was observed in other pacific locations such as line , jarvis , palmyra and kingman [ 3 ] .

blue coral is thought to be in the initial stage of disintegration . this color generally expands only below the surface . it is an unusual variety found off in cameroon . hawaiian gold coral is rare by far . its color tone ranges from sandy beige color to complete black . on the off side of maui in hawaii , this exquisite variety of coral is found with resin or lacquered texture . the only company in the world that creates jewelry from hawaiian gold coral is maui divers .

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hawaiian gold coral : ( gerardia species ) hawaiian gold coral was discovered in small amounts in 1971 by dr . richard grigg using star ii submarine in the same general area as the pink coral discovery area off makapu ` u point in 1 , 200 feet of water . in the year 2000 , two new beds of hawaiian gold coral were discovered ; one atop an ancient underwater volcano called cross seamount , 100 miles south of oahu , the other off keahole point on the big island of hawai ` i . both beds were at a depth of 400 meters ( about 1 , 300 feet ) . the beds off makapuu were the only commercially harvested beds in the world .

each coral gemstone color has its own distinct quality . black coral is exotic and dramatic and has long been considered to guard against misfortune . pink coral is delicate and is said to bring good health . red coral is best described as rich and romantic . and gold coral with its mysterious inner light , is the rarest of all corals .

symptomatic of the order , a suite of other zoanthids , besides the hawaiian gold coral , have been observed and collected in hawaii , but far less is known of their biology and ecology and they have not been described taxonomically .

etymology : this species name is dedicated to haumea , hawaiian goddess of fertility .

sp . in the hawaiian archipelago . mar ecol prog ser 397 : 163–172 .

colour : in vivo , polyps , tentacles and coenenchyme are brownish - yellow , similar to the hawaiian gold coral ku . haumeaae , but distinct enough in colour to be recognised as a different species from the submersible , ( fig . 1b ) .

coral jewelry is exciting to wear . with distinct look and features from gold , platinum or silver jewelry , coral jewelry has become popular quite fast . but don’t get carried away with the luster . pause…hold back . before you enter the market to buy your choice of coral jewelry designs , we have some important tips from the coral jewelry buying guide .

although black and gold coral are relative newcomers to northern cultures , they have long been used as gem material in their native territories . they are found primarily off the coasts of hawaii and cameroon . akori corals from cameroon were highly prized before the eighteenth century . hawaiian gold coral is the rarest gem coral variety and harder than other varieties . it was first described scientifically in the 1970s . the harvesting of this gem material , however , is currently restricted and cost prohibitive due to environmental considerations .

etymology : the feminine name of this genus is derived from the hawaiian terms kula ( = gold ) and manamana ( = branch ) referring to the particular skeleton of the type species of this genus .

grade a - all natural black coral very rare find . about 34 large beads of a coral ranging from 27mm to 21mm .

bleaching produces gold coral from black . this is a stable treatment . this process can be identified by magnification ( which reveals a different texture ) and lower sg and refractive index values .

mature colonies may take 50 years to grow , so to ensure the future of hawaiian black coral , maui divers strictly adheres to both federal and state regulations that the company helped to establish , prohibiting the harvesting of immature colonies . in this way , not only sustainability , but also growth of precious hawaiian black coral is supported .

black coral is rare and , when polished , it shines with such luster you can almost see your own reflection in it . its stunning contrast against yellow gold makes it a wonderful gift as well as a beautiful keepsake to treasure forever . our popular paradise ring features an ocean wave shaped by a graceful cut of polished black coral , gold maile leaves representing hawaiian royalty , and diamonds that shine like the evening stars over paradise ; a perfect reminder of a trip to the islands .

black coral : ( antipathes grandis ) the first new black coral bed found in centuries was discovered by maui divers in deep waters off lahaina , maui in 1958 . today , hawaiian black coral - - the world ' s finest deep sea precious coral and the hawaii state gemstone - - is carefully collected by hand by our divers at depths that exceed 200 feet .

hawaiian gold coral grows in a fan shape , up to 1 meter ( 3 feet ) in height . its skeleton ranges between golden yellow and orange in color , with polyp color , when living , bright yellow to orange . polyps will flash with bioluminescence and produce copious mucus when disturbed .

treasure - hunting divers , uncontrolled harvesting , pollution and climate change have all contributed to the decimation of our naturally occurring coral beds on the ocean floor surrounding the hawaiian islands .

calcite coral , 1 . 69 and 1 . 49 , not usually measurable . conchiolin ( black coral ) has ri of 1 . 56 .

you also have to be careful in picking the right coral . must buyers of coral end up in getting some other materials that are used to imitate the natural coral . there are all the chances for you to be mistaken with plastic , man made coral , howlite , shell , ivory , onyx / calcite and fossil ivory as coral . for conchiolin coral , the materials like plastic , chalcedony and jet are used for imitation .

the calcareous coral has hardness of - 3 1 / 2 to 4 and fair toughness . while the conchiolin coral has hardness of 3 and good toughness . both the varieties of coral have glass like waxy to vitreous polish luster .

despite its ecological significance and long history of exploitation , the hawaiian gold coral has never been subject to taxonomic studies or a formal species description . as a result of this , the nomenclature concerning the hawaiian gold coral has been relatively confused . this species was first mentioned as parazoanthus sp . [ 10 ] before being referred to as gerardia lacaze - duthiers , 1864 starting in 1976 in ageing studies [ 18 ] , due to its secretion of a scleroproteic skeleton . however , the genus gerardia had been recognised as a younger synonym from the genus savalia nardo 1844 already [ 19 ] . more recently this synonymy was mentioned in several publications [ 20 ] – [ 22 ] .

the purpose of this study is to re - examine specimens of the hawaiian gold coral and four other species of arborescent zoanthids from the hawaiian archipelago to evaluate the biodiversity of these ecologically important zoanthids and to provide taxonomic placement of these species in consideration of their evolutionary history . this aim was achieved and results in the description of several new zoanthid genera , a significant advance in the understanding of zoanthid biodiversity considering that until this study only 18 genera were recognised .

coral approx . 3mm to 10mm wide round . 2 beads 10mm 10mm 10mm .

coral is natural , not dyed or enhanced . strung on nylon coated wire .

based on the phylogenetic trees , several options could be considered to define the taxonomy of hawaiian deep octocoral - related zoanthids .

) foraging in deep - water coral beds . mar mammal sci 18 : 244–258 .

coral : south china sea ( red carving ~ 4 inch tall ) . photo ©

layers of coral skeleton laid down over the past 1 , 000 years can be seen in this polished section of a deep sea coral . ( photo by m . mccarthy )

there are many common enhancements that are done on coral that spoil their natural qualities . dyeing the calcareous coral deepens and at times changes the color and saturation with epoxy . the dying will then hide cracks at the surface and make it fill with cavities in the low quality of coral . it is a quite common practice that cheats the coral customers .

) comprised 85 % of the midas colonies , with two - thirds found at the youngest site , where the mean height of bamboo coral was significantly greater than at other sites . marked midas colonies revisited after 5 yr showed the gold coral tissue spreading across the host at an estimated rate of 2 . 2 ± 0 . 69 cm yr

coral values are based on hue , saturation , size , cut , and polish . top values for calcareous coral go to red , pink , and orange pieces . other colors are graded separately . highest values for conchiolin coral go to black , then brown . gold color has additional value , especially if it shows a sheen . when polished , the color may shimmer through a transparent layer . coral carvings can be quite valuable . the determining factors are the size and color of the piece as well as the skill of the artist .

since 2001 , the fishing industry for hawaiian gold coral has been restricted to a point where it is no longer cost effective to collect it . the coral , which grows to a large size and in large numbers of individuals , dominates the coral biomass in its depth range and habitat , and is now recognized for its importance in its ecosystem . furthermore , recent dating studies show that k . haumeaae is one of the longest - living species on earth , with some individuals determined as 2740 years of age , growing at tremendously slow rates of about 15 - 45 micrometers in radius / year .

coral seems to be an excellent choice for jewelry . but , have you ever thought that where from coral comes actually ? coral is a sea product that grows in branches , which look much like dwarf underwater trees . in the whole cycle of making of coral , a marine gelatinous animal collects calcium carbonate around its body . it is a polyp made of calcite fibrous crystals .

coral is the external skeleton of a tiny , plantlike animal called the coral polyp . it lives in warm oceans in all tropical areas of the world . although these creatures are only one millimeter in length , they grow as a colony on top of each other for generations . the resulting structures can be quite massive . coral growths come in many shapes . the coral commonly used to make gems is branched and treelike . the largest sections of a coral ' s trunk are used for carvings . most coral is cut into cabochons or made into a variety of shapes for use in necklaces .

pink coral : ( corrallium secundum ) pink coral was first discovered off makapu ` u point , oahu , in 1 , 200 feet of water in 1966 , and we began making jewelry from it the same year . now it is found over the entire length of the hawaiian chain from oahu in the east to beyond midway island in the west .

the two have already teamed up with the monterey bay aquarium research institute to launch the next stage of their research . they are using remotely operated underwater vehicles to collect bamboo coral , another long - lived deep - sea species , in monterey bay ' s deep underwater canyon . the researchers plan to apply the same techniques they used with hawaiian gold coral to understand how el niño cycles have influenced california ' s dynamic coastal systems . ultimately , they want to better predict how a changing climate will shape the region ' s multimillion - dollar fisheries .

etymology : the genus name refers to hurl ( the hawaiian undersea research laboratory ) which has provided significant funding and the use of their submersible pisces for deep - sea coral research in the hawaiian archipelago . work with agency has provided many deep - sea coral species new to science . due to budget restrictions hurl was closed in the year of the description of these zoanthid species and this genus name is to acknowledge the important contribution of hurl in the discovery of deep - sea diversity around the hawaiian archipelago . the ending - zoanthus , is a common ending of genera names in the order , historically referring to the flower - like appearance of the animal polyps .

the hawaiian gold corals , however , produced a surprisingly clear record . " i was amazed , " said mccarthy . " it was a massive ' aha , ' lightning bolt moment that showed what we ' re doing actually works . you don ' t get those moments all that often . this is an amazing data set that kelton generated . "

gorgeous hawaiian , genuine black coral bracelet for larger size ( up to 9 . 5 " ) . hard to find size ! inner circumference is 9 . 5 " ( 23 . 4 cm ) . they don ' t make this kind of jewelry anymore .

the physical look of the carbonate type of coral is that it flaunts a distinct pattern of parallel stripes with a little different colour and transparence . the glass simulants of the coral lacks the ideal structure of coral . they have a glassy luster and tend to have bubbles . the glass simulants can also display conchoidal fracture . the plastics simulants of coral also do not have coral the structure and can possibly show molding lines . you can detect the shell simulants by their layered structure . it displays fine rippled lines on its surface .

pink coral is delicate found in utmost quantity in the entire length of hawaiian chain . it is very dense and solid . the shaded colors in the large pink corals are the gem’s natural qualities . the value of pink coral depends on its rarity . the precious red coral is revered high since the early civilizations for its beautiful color , texture and luster . it is found in ocean depths of about 500 to 1 , 000 feet . its rate of growth is very slow , only about 1 / 4 inch each year . this makes the red coral really highly treasured and prized .

you can buy coral in a great variety of colours that range from dark red , pink , white , spotted pink , orange , blue , violet , black and golden brown . each coral color has its own unique quality . black coral is exotic and dramatic to look and rare to find . it is considered as a guard against misfortune for a long time now . when polished , the black coral shines with beautiful luster .

walsh ge , bowers rl ( 1971 ) a review of hawaiian zoanthids with descriptions of three new species . zool j linn soc - lon 50 : 161–180 .

there are some facts and qualities about the real coral that you should keep in mind . the best coral should have a deep natural color . it is found in a standard ( round or oval shape ) and finished surface . the perfect coral does not have any dents or holes or perforations . it is smooth to touch .

based on our knowledge on zoanthid taxonomy and evolution , the hypothesis of the hawaiian zoanthids examined in this study belonging to 5 genera was retained and is presented here .

ignoring phylogenetic information at genus level and based on the history of referring to the hawaiian gold coral as gerardia sp . , all the skeleton secreting zoanthids could be grouped into savalia . however , the taxonomic significance of the skeleton is unknown as well as information on biochemical similarities between secretions of savalia and ku . haumeaae is still missing . the absence of sand incrustation in ku . haumeaae is at least as important character to separate kulamanamana from savalia as is the skeleton to group those species together .

the polyps then create a branch like shape , built in the shape of hollow tubes fitted in one another . this makes for a sort of axial skeleton upon which the boneless coral polyps grow . they thrive a colony of their own and create the coral . a fully - grown coral remains covered with lime , barnacles , and salt .

coral size : 7x9mm . coating : rhodium plated on sterling silver . stone : genuine natural black coral ( not treated , not enhanced ) . pendant size : 14mm ( w ) x 25mm ( l ) including the bail .

etymology : this species is dedicated to emily and acadia baco - taylor , both born during the taxonomical investigations of these hawaiian species and presenting positive taxis towards bubble gum .

2 . 6 - 2 . 7 . note : black coral , composed of conchiolin , is 1 . 34 .

you can do some tests to identify the real coral . place the real coral in a glass of cow’s milk . if the color of milk will change to the one with red tinge , the coral is real . the imitation coral cannot change the milk’s whiteness . another interesting test you can carry out is by actually wearing it . a true coral changes its color as per the physical health of the wearer . it will resume its original color when the physical health of the person is restored . but , it will fade out prior to the disorder in the wearer’s physical health is evident .

there are two types of coral . calcareous corals are composed primarily of calcite and come in whites , reds , and pinks . conchiolin corals are composed of conchiolin , the same substance found in pearls and other shells . they come in black , brown , and gold colors . the conchiolin type is tougher and less brittle than the calcareous type .

reimer jd , nonaka m , sinniger f , iwase f ( 2008 ) morphological and molecular characterization of a new genus and new species of parazoanthid ( anthozoa : hexacorallia : zoantharia ) associated with japanese red coral . coral reefs 27 : 935–949 .

by analyzing the composition of long - lived , deep - sea corals , uc santa cruz researchers have been able to track how ocean ecosystems responded to climate shifts over the past 1 , 000 years . hawaiian gold corals , which can live to be over 4 , 000 years old , act as living records , or " paleoarchives , " by recording in their growth rings the chemical signatures of past ocean conditions .

grigg rw ( 1974 ) distribution and abundance of precious corals in hawaii . proc 2nd int coral reef symp , brisbane 235–240 .

grigg rw ( 1993 ) precious coral fisheries of hawaii and the us . pacific islands . mar fish rev 55 : 50–60 .

roark eb , guilderson tp , dunbar rb , ingram bl ( 2006 ) radiocarbon - based ages and growth rates of hawaiian deep - sea corals . mar ecol prog ser 327 : 1–14 .

coral jewelry was an important part of na hoku for many years . while we enjoyed sharing the beauty of this unique gemstone with our customers , it became very clear to us that the ever - increasing harvest of coral is detrimental to the delicate ocean environment .

parrish fa ( 2007 ) density and habitat of three deep - sea corals in the lower hawaiian chain . in : george ry , cairns sd , editors . conservation and adaptive management of seamount and deep - sea coral ecosystems . miami , fl : rosenstiel school of marine and atmospheric science , university of miami . pp 185–194 .

distribution : besides collection locations , also observed in submersible and rov videos at the makapu ' u coral bed off oahu , hawaii .

as a buyer , you should first obtain the scientific ( latin ) name present in the control list of the coral . check whether cites regulates it or not . cites regulates all hard corals . if it is a cites species , the buyer requires a cites export permit that the exporting country issues . make sure that the coral producer obtains the cites permit for you before your order your coral jewelry .

precious coral was used in the oldest form of gemstone jewelry with pieces dating back 25 , 000 years showcased in museums . the use of coral , whose distinctive feature is that it can take a perfect polish , even predates the use of another ancient favorite , the pearl .

red coral : ( corallium japonicum ) with a history predating the ancient glories of rome , precious red coral has been revered since early civilizations for its color , luster and texture . found in ocean depths of approximately 500 to 1 , 000 feet , red coral grows only about 1 / 4 inch per year , making it a highly treasured gemstone . our red coral is harvested in waters off the island chains of ogasawara and ryuku , as well as the mediterranean . we also hand select both rough material and cut stones of the highest quality from markets around the world .

the appearance of calcareou coral can range from semi translucent to opaque . its color can go from light to dark pink and then to dark red . it is also found in white , orange and cream colors and also in purple and blue at times . the appearance of other variety of coral , conchiolin coral , can range from semi translucent to opaque . it is found in gray , black , yellow and dark brown colors .

it is difficult to find all the ideal conditions for the making of coral , such as right depth , intensity and temperature at one place . this is the reason there are less places in the world that provide best quality of coral . the best quality coral can be found in the southern ireland , madeira , bay of biscay , canaries , mauritius , cape de verde islands , japan , hawaii , australia , mediterranean , red sea , malay archipelago and in the japanese waters . italy is the place that is considered the center of coral jewelry making . in italy , torre del greco , near naples is the place where the best quality of coral jewelry is made . you can buy a lot of jewelry designs of coral , such as beautiful earrings , pendants , brooches , rings , tie bars , cuff links , belt buckles , pillboxes and inlaid jewelry boxes .

the gem use of coral began before recorded history . the ancient greeks , romans , and native americans used red , pink , and white corals extensively . deep red , bright pink , and clear white corals were highly prized . inland cultures far from the sources of coral would trade for these resources .

we are therefore asking jewelers everywhere to stop the advertising and selling of coral jewelry , and we ask that consumers cease purchasing this precious , endangered resource .

although coral reefs are more commonly found in tropical areas , they can occur in colder , deeper water , such as those found to the west of ireland .

our incomparable collection of the finest hawaiian and island lifestyle jewelry is recognized in hawaii and throughout the world for our exquisite island - inspired designs . from our original hawaiian slipper ( flip flop ) pendant , our wave pendant collection , our waterfall pendant collection , our elegant palm tree jewelry collection , to our latest koa wood inlay jewelry designs , and exclusive na hoku koa wood watches . we also feature our traditional hawaiian jewelry , our popular plumeria jewelry collection , our exquisite collection of pearl jewelry , and the timeless na hoku diamond solitaire engagement ring and bridal ring collections . we feature the exclusive collections made by kabana , le vian , effy , and bellarri . na hoku earrings , bracelets , pendants , necklaces , and rings capture the essence of the hawaiian and island lifestyle , and is unmatched in quality and craftsmanship . we invite you to visit us online or in our fine jewelry stores located across the continental u . s . and throughout hawaii .

16 . 5” hawaiian puca ( pucca ) shell necklace . it is designed with disc and flat nugget puca shells with the screw on clasp . the middle is designed with shells that have a lei flower design along with br . . .

auster pj ( 2007 ) conservation and adaptive management of seamount and deep - sea coral ecosystems . in : george ry , cairns sd , editors . conservation and adaptive management of seamount and deep - sea coral ecosystems . miami , fl : rosenstiel school of marine and atmospheric science , university of miami . pp . 93–99 .

hawaiian gold coral , like other corals in its family ( parazoanthidae ) , is epizoic , specifically associated with bamboo corals ( isididae ; octocorallia ) . it is unclear whether k . haumeaae colonizes host skeletons once its host has died , or whether it parasitizes it , competing for resources ( as do some closely related savalia species ) . recent studies suggest that the speciation and radiation of parazoanthid corals is driven by their close host relationships , and the biology behind these host / epizoid interactions are the subject of understanding a newly - discovered diversity of deep - sea octocorals ; four other genera of which were collected and described in the same scientific publication as k . haumeaae ( sinniger et al . 2013 ) .

etymology : this species name is dedicated to dr . frank parrish for his contribution to the knowledge of the biology of ku . haumeaae and other precious corals in the hawaiian archipelago as well as his support of the research of arb and fs .

a close relative of conchiolin corals is the rare blue coral . the hues are very nice , but the saturation is low , so these pieces tend towards gray shades .

to conclude , be very alert when you go off to buy the coral jewelry you like . remember the guiding tips above to get the best deal . happy shopping !

the coral that is suitable for jewelry is not generally formed in reefs . it is found in small branch - like structures . it can be seen as the skeletal remains of the marine animals or the polyp corallicum . the most worthful coral is the noble red , also called corallicum rubrum . a typical and unique feature of precious corals is that they have a wonderful polish .

the hawaiian gold coral , described here as ku . haumeaae , has historically been referred as “ gerardia sp . ” , a younger synonym of savalia nardo 1844 . based on the close molecular distances between all octocoral - associated zoanthids , all species examined could have been moved to the genus savalia which would then also include the genus corallizoanthus . however , savalia is characterised by its ability to secrete a skeleton and this ability is not shared by corallizoanthus , h . parrishi and ka . kerbyi ( unclear in h . ammophilus ) . morphology of the colonies is completely different between those species , with corallizoanthus colonies consisting of individual polyps connected together only temporarily after polyp division , b . emilyacadiaarum also presents a poorly developed coenenchyme and groups of polyps scattered along the host , and other species usually present dense colonies with well developed coenenchyme covering most of the host .

parrish fa , baco a ( 2007 ) state of deep coral ecosystems in the united states western pacific region : hawaii and the united states pacific islands . in : lumsden se , hourigan tf , et al . . , editors . the state of deep coral ecosystems of the united states . noaa technical memorandum crcp - 3 . silver spring , md : national oceanic and atmospheric administration . pp . 155–194 .

only the corals that grow slow and live long are selected for jewelry and other ornamental purposes . the intensive collection of reefs threatens them . if you wish to buy the coral jewelry from overseas , it is important to make sure that you find out if you should take a cites permit . when you are buying it at home , always enquire from the retailer whether the coral is imported with required cites permit .

miller k , neil h , tracey d ( 2009 ) recent advances in deep - sea coral science and emerging links to conservation and management of deep - sea ecosystems . mar ecol prog ser 397 : 1–5 .

murray roberts j , wheeler aj , freiwald a , cairns sd ( 2009 ) cold - water corals : the biology and geology of deep - sea coral habitats . cambridge : cambridge university press . 334 p .

a very dense and hard gemstone , its color runs the entire spectrum of pink , from almost white to hibiscus pink to salmon red . the marbled and shaded colorings in some larger pink corals are natural qualities of the gem . the value of pink coral gemstones vary according to rarity , but all shades of this coral are highly prized . maui divers hand selects only the highest quality stones that meet our rigorous standards of excellence .

biological interactions : this species colonises a paragorgiid coral , most likely paragorgia coralloides . due to the coexistence of the octocoral and the zoanthid , further studies are necessary to determine the type of relationship between the two organisms .

etymology : this species is named after terry kerby , who has been a hurl submersible pilot through most of the time period hurl has been in operation and was pilot during the collection of most of the specimens in this paper . his knowledge of the hawaiian deep - sea fauna considerably facilitated the sampling of the zoanthids described here .

strictly based on phylogenetic tree information , hawaiian species might be placed in the genus corallizoanthus , however , the remarks mentioned above apply also in this situation and while savalia would remain independent , the secretion of a skeleton by ku . haumeaae appears as a character difficult to ignore when grouping this species with non - skeleton secreting zoanthids .

bayesian tree based on concatenated 18s , coi and 16s genes . values at the nodes represent posterior probabilities and bootstrap values respectively . “ s ” indicate the ability to secrete a skeleton . values below posterior probabilities of 0 . 5 or 50 % bootstrap were considered as unresolved . hawaiian zoanthids described here are indicated in bold . epizoanthidae are used as outgroup . vertical bars indicate the species belonging to epizoanthidae and parazoanthidae respectively .

all those zoanthids were found in areas of seamount pinnacles or on the slope of hawaiian islands exposed to currents . this habitat was frequently shared with other precious corals such a corallium lauuense , other octocorals and antipatharians , as described in detail for ku . haumeaae in previous studies [ 3 ] – [ 5 ] . however , the distribution of those epizoic species is expected to be highly dependent on the distribution of the host organisms .

the coral skeletons contain essential amino acids left largely intact from when they were in the cells of phytoplankton from hundreds of years ago . by analyzing the composition of these amino acids in different growth rings , the researchers could tell what types of phytoplankton were dominant at different times in the past .

we thank dr . f . parrish dr . s . cairns , dr . h . zibrowius , dr . j . pawlowski , and dr . c . messing for their information on the gold coral and related zoanthids and advice in conducting this research . we also thank all the staff of the hawaii undersea research laboratory for the help in the sampling of the specimens . fs also which to thank dr . k . sakai and dr . s . harii for their help during the writing phase of this manuscript . dr . m . daly , dr . p . cartwright and dr . j . reimer contributed to obtaining several dna sequences of zoanthids used to compare to our samples . dr . p . chevaldonné and dr . m . bo kindly provided access to putative i . primnoidus specimens . the authors also wish to thank the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to improve this manuscript .

in 2005 , na hoku made the decision to cease all manufacture and sales of coral jewelry . while some questioned the economic sense of our decision , we felt then as we do now , that we are all responsible for the stewardship of our environment and must act , in any way we can , to protect it .

our pink coral designs reflect the beautiful and fragrant blossoms of the islands , such as the pikake flowers , which may well have been fashioned into the lei you received during a visit to hawaii . our princess ka ` iulani ring was named after the most beautiful princess of hawai ` i ; when you turn it to the side , it looks like a crown .

in the 1970s , pierre gilson developed “created corals” to help protect the natural variety from destructive harvesting . this imitation red and pink coral has a specific gravity ( sg ) of 2 . 44 . this is always lower than natural red and pink material . this synthetic has weak birefringence and lacks natural structure . under high magnification , you can see a fine granular texture .

corals are formed deep undersea by microscopic animals called coral polyps . these tiny , soft - bodied creatures form minute , hard shells . as a colony grows , it takes on complex branching , tree - like forms which allows the maximum number of polyps to be fed by the nutrients in the water . over time , colonies can form structures ranging from a hand - sized fan to a continent - wide reef .

etymology : this masculine genus name is dedicated to dr . helmut zibrowius for his precious contribution to deep - sea zoanthid science through the collection of several important samples . he also introduced the first author to deep - sea zoanthid research and especially to octocoral - associated zoanthids such as savalia through his accurate naturalistic observations and critical comments . this genus should not be confused with the coral - parasitic crustacean genus zibrowia grygier , 1985 .

distribution : throughout the hawaiian archipelago seamount and island slopes between 343–575 m on hard substrata in low - sediment areas with high relief . usually one of the most abundant taxa in this depth range and habitat type , often with other corals present . also observed in line and jarvis islands , palmyra atoll and kingman reef however at lower densities [ 3 ] . similar specimens with golden or dark brown , almost black axis , also referred as “ gerardia ” , were collected in the west atlantic [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] , and in new zealand [ 61 ] . if those zoanthids appear to be closely related enough to be congeneric , species - level relationships require further morphological and molecular analyses .

deep - sea corals , particularly on seamounts , have received significant attention over the last decade [ 1 ] . these corals have been shown to play a role as ecosystem biobuilders , acting as habitats for diverse invertebrate and fish communities [ 2 ] . in these studies , significant attention is given to scleractinians and more recently to octocorals . however , as in shallow water , the hexacorallian order zoantharia ( also sometimes called zoanthidea ) , may also make up a considerable component of some deep - sea coral communities [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] but have received little attention .

a ) kulamanamana haumeaae gen . n . sp . n . in situ , b ) zibrowius ammophilus gen . n . sp . n . in situ , c ) hurlizoanthus parrishi gen . n . sp . n . in situ , d ) axis of ku . haumeaae with the calcified skeleton of host bamboo coral visible in the center , e ) kauluzoanthus kerbyi gen . n . sp . n . fixed sample , polyps of ku . haumeaae can be seen on the right coloured in pink after reacting with formaldehyde , f ) bullagummizoanthus emilyacadiaarum gen . n . sp . n . fixed sample .

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copyright : © 2013 sinniger et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .

funding : specimens were collected by arb through grants from the hawaii undersea research laboratory and hawaii seagrant and by the national oceanic and atmospheric administration ( noaa ) office of ocean exploration grant numbers na04oar4600071 , na0oar4600108 , and na03oar4600110 . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .

in 1913 carglren , who was probably the most active researcher on this order , said “among the anthozoa ( … ) there is hardly a group which is so uniform in its morphological characteristics as the zoantharia …” [ 23 ] . nearly a hundred years later , despite numerous taxonomical investigations of the morphological characteristics of this order , carlgren ' s statement is still accurate . the sphincter position has been traditionally used to identify zoanthid genera , although lwowsky [ 24 ] illustrated the risks of misidentification using this character . this is exemplified in the parazoanthidae , in which recent taxonomic work casts doubts on the significance of the sphincter muscle position ( the main distinguishing feature of isozoanthus ) as a valid character [ 7 ] and recent studies based on morphology assigned various unrelated zoanthids to the genus isozoanthus [ 25 ] – [ 28 ] , none of which matched with the ecological characteristics of previously described isozoanthus species . similarly , swain [ 29 ] showed clearly that the sphincter position did not allow proper identification at the genus level and does not represent the evolutionary history of this group .

at the species level , nematocysts appear to be the most promising morphological character for use within the order [ 28 ] , [ 30 ] , [ 31 ] . however , ryland et al . [ 32 ] suggests using very large sample size to obtain reliable information , although such size are too large for most descriptions of new species ( which are often represented by only a few polyps ) . additionally , until now no studies have been made on the intraspecific and intra - individual variation of nematocysts sizes and assemblages in zoanthids through their life cycle and through changes in biological activity . for these reasons , nematocysts as a diagnostic character are to be interpreted with caution until more research is being made both on intra - and interspecific cnidome variations .

recently , dna information has shed light on the phylogenetic relationships among zoanthids and has also helped revise the taxonomy of several groups of zoanthids as well as describe new taxa [ 7 ] , [ 8 ] , [ 21 ] , [ 33 ] – [ 35 ] . however , the sole use of dna to identify zoanthid species might not be sufficient to distinguish closely related species [ 36 ] and it is therefore necessary to integrate not only dna and morphology but also ecological parameters to identify specimens .

general morphology and anatomy were studied by means of a stereo dissecting microscope . the anatomical and micro anatomical details were studied using staining in toto . nematocysts were examined with a light microscope equipped with a nomarski differential interference contrast optic system . a minimum of ten polyps for each species and all the colonies available were examined . the classification and terminology of nematocysts follows that of schmidt [ 40 ] , as adapted by den hartog [ 41 ] and den hartog et al . [ 42 ] , in table 2 we also include the terminology used by ryland and lancaster [ 43 ] . the surveys of the cnidome are summarised in table 2 in which the ranges of length and width of nematocysts are included .

distribution , type , relative abundances and size ranges of cnidae in the new zoanthids species described here .

the electronic edition of this article conforms to the requirements of the amended international code of zoological nomenclature , and hence the new names contained herein are available under that code from the electronic edition of this article . this published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in zoobank , the online registration system for the iczn . the zoobank lsids ( life science identifiers ) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the lsid to the prefix “ urltoken ” . the lsid for this publication is : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 369f0bc5 - 9cdd - 496e - 8c21 - 2baa9e996531 . the electronic edition of this work was published in a journal with an issn , and has been archived and is available from the following digital repositories : pubmed central , lockss .

abbreviation used : 16s = mitochondrial large ribosomal subunit ; arb = amy baco ; bpbm = bernice pauahi bishop museum ; mmc = museo del mar , ceuta ( spain ) ; mnhg = natural history museum of geneva ( switzerland ) ; niwa = national institute of water and atmospheric research ( wellington , new zealand ) ; nsmt = national museum of nature and science ( tokyo , japan ) ; usnm = smithsonian institution ( washington dc , usa ) ; rmnh = naturalis ( leiden , the netherlands ) .

urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : f1f3fe5d - 3482 - 4658 - a84b - 589d2c4e225e

diagnosis : macrocnemic genus associated with octocorals secreting a golden to dark brown scleroproteic skeleton . absence of mineral incrustations in the ectoderm , well developed coenenchyme completely covering the host , . characteristic insertion / deletion pattern in the 16s v5 region sensu sinniger et al . [ 21 ] ( fig . 2 ) .

this figure shows the v5 region sensu sinniger et al . [ 21 ] with characteristic insertion / deletion pattern specific to each genus . this region is located in the second half of the mt16s rdna gene . sequences are represented from 5′ to 3′ and the sequences used are ay995925 , eu035623 , kc218431 , kc218438 , kc218434 , kc218433 , kc218435 .

cnidae in the different tissues of the zoanthids described here . letters correspond to the cnidae listed in table 2 .

urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : de4b202a - 3564 - 4111 - 8885 - 81b5ac0dbce7

holotype : p5 593 , keahole point ( 19°48 . 203′ - 19°47 . 943′ n , 156°08 . 047′ - 156°07 . 478′ w ) , hawaii , 15 . 10 . 2004 , 396 . 5 m , coll . arb , more than 200 polyps on fragments of different sizes , presence of some polyps of the parasitic zoanthid kauluzoanthus kerbyi , usnm 1190187 ( formalin - fixed ) , fragment of 20–25 small polyps , usnm 1190188 ( ethanol - fixed ) .

paratypes : p5 - 582 , makapuu , hawaii , 02 . 10 . 2004 , 395 m , two fragments of 30–35 and 20 polyps of small size , bpbm - d2250 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 582 , makapuu , hawaii , 02 . 10 . 2004 , 401 m , three fragments of 18–20 , 15 and 25–30 polyps medium to large size , mnhg - inve - 82279 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 583 , makapuu , hawaii , 03 . 10 . 2004 , 427 m , three fragments of 24 , 30–35 and 10–15 polyps of different sizes , niwa - 84101 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 583 , makapuu , hawaii , 03 . 10 . 2004 , 432 m , two fragments of 90–95 and 30–35 polyps of different sizes , mmc - t3 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 583 , makapuu , hawaii , 03 . 10 . 2004 , 406 m , two fragments from the same colony of 45–50 and 60–65 polyps of different sizes , mmc - t4 ( formalin - fixed ) ; p5 - 585 , lanikai , hawaii , 05 . 10 . 2004 , 400 m , fragment of 10 small polyps and also a fragment of 85–90 polyps of small size , usnm 1190189 ( formalin - fixed ) ; p5 - 586 , lanikai , hawaii , 05 . 10 . 2004 , 410 m , three fragments of , 10–15 , 10–15 and 30–35 polyps of different sizes , niwa - 84102 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 588 , cross seamount , hawaii , 09 . 10 . 2004 , 394 m , three fragments of 15–20 and 20–25 polyps of medium to big sizes , nsmt - co 1547 ( ethanol - fixed ) , two fragments of 8–10 and 20–25 polyps of medium size , mnhg - inve - 82280 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 589 , cross seamount , hawaii , 09 . 10 . 2004 , 388 m , two fragments from the same colony of 80–90 polyps of different sizes and 25–30 polyps of small size , bpbm - d2251 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; gp5 p5 - 523 , bank 8 , hawaii , 06 . 10 . 2003 , 526 m , usnm 1190190 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; gp6 p5 - 522 , bank 8 , hawaii , 05 . 10 . 2003 , two fragments of 75–80 and 35–40 polyps of different sizes , 544 m , nsmt - co 1548 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p4 - 19 , keahole point , hawaii , 22 . 11 . 2000 , 385 m , fragment of 55 polyps of equal size , rmnh coel . 40076 ( ethanol - fixed ) . all samples collected by arb .

diagnosis : golden axis , tissue colour ranging from pale yellow to medium orange , secretion of excessive mucus when collected and absence of mineral incrustations are distinctive characters of this species , in terms of cnidome , the main diagnostic characters appear to be the presence of enlarged penicilli a ( p - mastogophores a ) in tentacles and body wall and penicilli e in all the tissues .