the flammulated bamboo tyrant ( hemitriccus flammulatus ) , also called flammulated pygmy tyrant is a species of bird in the family tyrannidae , the tyrant flycatchers .

it is found in amazonian peru and bolivia , and the bordering states of brazil 's northwest , the north region .

its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests .

this tyrant is a small brown bird , with darker brown wings and a short tail ; it has a whitish breast , black legs and eyes , and a short , sharp-pointed bill , for hawking insects in flight .

flammulated bamboo tyrant

flammulated bamboo tyrant <EOT> the flammulated pygmy - tyrant is also commonly known as the flammulated bamboo - tyrant ( ridgely and tudor 1994 , clements and shany 2001 , valqui 2004 ) . the name “bamboo - tyrant” has not yet been accepted by the south american classification committee , but potentially could be , once the taxonomic relationships of species in the tody - tyrant clade ( which includes hemitriccus , myiornis , lophotriccus , atalotriccus , poecilotriccus , and todirostrum ) are more fully understood .

forest ( fragment ) with bamboo ( parque zoobotânico / universidade federal do acre ) .

spurts of notes . 1 km from the lodge grounds in mixed guadua bamboo and advanced secondary forest growth .

clock , b . ( 2018 ) . flammulated bamboo - tyrant ( hemitriccus flammulatus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .

about half a km from the lodge grounds in guadua bamboo growth . occasional wing - whirr can be heard .

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sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .

justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .

the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common but patchily distributed ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 16 - 17 . 6 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 11 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .

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formerly considered conspecific with h . diops and h . obsoletus . two subspecies recognized .

berlepsch , 1901 – e peru ( san martín s to madre de dios ) , nw brazil ( acre , and r mequéns in rondônia ) and n bolivia ( e to e beni , s to cochabamba ) .

( todd , 1915 ) – e bolivia ( r surutú , in w santa cruz ) .

11 cm ; 8·8–11·7 g . nominate race has crown and upperparts plain olive - green , dull whitish to buff - white supraloral spot and narrow eyering ; wings and tail plain olive ; . . .

sharp “tic” notes and fast rising trill , “tik - trrrrrríp” , remarkably similar in tone to , but . . .

arthropods . stomach contents in se peru contained 19 prey items , of which beetles ( coleoptera ) 33 % , hemipterans 18 % , homopteran bugs ( . . .

not globally threatened . fairly common but local . fairly common in tambopata - candamo reserved zone and manu national park and biosphere reserve , in peru ; and beni and pilón . . .

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highly speciose family , herein divided into nine subfamilies ( with ten tribes ) ; recent studies # r # r suggest that the first four listed ( platyrinchinae , pipritinae , tachurisinae , pipromorphinae ) are sister to rest of family , and may merit treatment as 1–4 separate families .

varied assemblage of genera , most of which have traditionally been grouped together , but detailed sequence now modified on basis of genetic findings # r # r # r . type genus currently subsumed into mionectes .

name based on triccus , a junior synonym of todirostrum , whereas todirostrini is a junior synonym of triccini # r .

incorporates snethlagea , idioptilon , microcochlearius , euscarthmornis and ceratotriccus , in recent times all most commonly used as subgenera . moreover , genetic data suggest that , as currently defined , present genus is not monophyletic # r # r # r .

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id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 543 side a track 156 seq . a )

id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 543 side a track 154 seq . a )

id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 546 side a track 8 seq . a )

id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 543 side a track 153 seq . a )

id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 543 side a track 150 seq . a )

id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 543 side a track 148 seq . a )

id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 543 side a track 147 seq . a )

distance to mike : 7 m . series of two calls . habitat : evergreen lowland forest , gallery forest . ref : nkm06a270

series of two calls . habitat : evergreen lowland forest , flood plain forest . ref : cc6b768

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) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .

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recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : hemitriccus flammulatus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .

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the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) , also known as malayan gharial , sunda gharial and tomistoma , is a freshwater crocodilian native to peninsular malaysia , borneo , sumatra and java .

it is listed as vulnerable on the iucn red list , as the global population is estimated at fewer than 2,500 mature individuals .

the specific name schlegelii honors the german herpetologist hermann schlegel .

false gharial

false gharial <EOT> the false gharial , also known as the malayan gharial or false gavial , that arrived at amsterdam zoo artis last year , has passed away . according to artis , the dominant mating behavior of the male gharial was what killed her .

breeding season false gharial breeding occurs during the wet seasons : november - february and april - june .

the false gharial is classified as “endangered” by the iucn and is listed on appendix i of cites .

clockwise from top left : the false gharial , tomistoma schlegelii ; american crocodile , crocodylus acutus ; indian gharial , gavialis gangeticus ; and american alligator , alligator mississippiensis .

evidence for placing the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) into the family gavialidae : inferences from nuclear gene sequences .

guess i didn ' t think that one through though the teeth you showed me were from a ganges gharial , the teeth of a false gharial are only slightly better .

crocodile specialist group , 2000 . " tomistoma schlegelii ( false gharial , malayan gharial , sunda gharial , tomistoma , tomistoma ) " ( on - line ) . iucn redlist of threatened species . accessed september 29 , 2012 at urltoken .

r . b . steubing , e . lading , and j . jong , “the status of the false gharial (

compared to the true gharial , the false gharial is smaller and has a shorter snout . there are small populations mostly in indonesia . surveys suggest the largest group lives in borneo .

( bezuijen , et al . , 1997 ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ; " false gharial " , 2012 )

( mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ; " false gharial " , 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 )

evidence for placing the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) into the family gavialidae : inferences from nuclear gene sequences . - pubmed - ncbi

the false gharial is placed in the order crocodylia ( 25 species ) and family crocodylidae ( 16 species ) . recent evidence of its relationship to the indian gharial may lead to a reclassification in the family gavialidae .

embed this arkive thumbnail link ( " portlet " ) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href = " urltoken " title = " arkive species - false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) " > < img src = " urltoken " alt = " arkive species - false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) " title = " arkive species - false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) " border = " 0 " / > < / a >

saint louis zoo . 2012 . " false gharial " ( on - line ) . saint louis zoo . accessed september 29 , 2012 at urltoken .

the difference between false gharial and indian gharial jaws was brought home to me when i first tried to urge a false gharial out of my way while servicing its exhibit . with indian gharials , there was a chance that the jaw might be damaged if an animal struck the “croc pole” ( a thick pole used to nudge crocs and keep them at a safe distance ) ; the first time a male false gharial hit my pole it splintered and flew out of my hands . he and his mate charged and , now unarmed , i fled out the exhibit service door .

since this animal was once called “false” gharial , then there must also be a true gharial , right ? yes ! compared to most other crocodilians ( crocodiles and alligators ) , both true and malayan gharials have long , slender snouts . so how do you tell if a gharial is true or false ? for one thing , they don ' t look exactly alike - - the malayan gharial doesn ' t grow as big as a true gharial , and its snout is somewhat shorter . for another thing , they don ' t live in the same areas - - malayan gharials live inindonesiaandmalaysia , while true gharials are found in northernindiaand surrounding countries . so now you know how to tell if a gharial is true or “false” ( malayan ) !

the slender snout is well adapted for catching fish but the false gharial exhibits a more generalised diet ; also eating insects , crustaceans and small mammals ( 2 ) .

the false gharial inhabits heavily - vegetated peat swamps and slow - moving “black water” rivers . there is evidence that it occasionally enters the tidal portions of certain rivers .

" gharial " originates from the hindi word " ghara " which is a clay pot with a long neck , much like the snout shape of an adult male gharial .

stuebing , r . , m . bezuijen , m . auliya , h . voris . 2006 . the current and historical distribution of tomistoma schlegelli ( the false gharial ) .

i was especially struck by the false gharials’ jaws . i had previously worked with a related species , the indian gharial ( gavialis gangeticus ) . the indian gharial feeds primarily upon fish that are captured with uniquely - long and slender jaws . the false gharial’s jaws are also elongated , but they are in no way slender ! up close , the massive bones and muscles that anchor these powerful weapons are readily apparent . it was easy to imagine that , as i had read in field reports , wild false gharials regularly dined on proboscis monkeys and other sizable mammals .

tomistoma , the scientific name for the malayan gharial , means " sharp mouth " in greek .

the gharial ( gavialis gangeticus ) is one of two surviving members of the family gavialidae , a long - established group of crocodile - like reptiles with long , narrow jaws . the gharial ( sometimes called the ‘indian gharial’ or ‘gavial’ ) is the second - longest of all living crocodilians .

( bezuijen , et al . , 2010 ; britton , 2012a ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ; " false gharial " , 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 )

( bezuijen , et al . , 1997 ; britton , 2012a ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ; " false gharial " , 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 )

( britton , 2012a ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ; " false gharial " , 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 ; stuebing , et al . , 2004 )

the false gharial is listed on the iucn endangered species list . they are native to peninsular malaysia , borneo , sumatra and sarawak , but the current population estimate is below 2 , 500 .

gharials have elongated , narrow snouts that are similar only to its relative , the false gharial , ( tomistoma schlegelii ) . the snout shape varies with the age of the gharial . the snout becomes progressively thinner the older the gharial gets . the bulbous growth on the tip of the males snout is called a ‘ghara’ ( after the indian word meaning ‘pot’ ) , only present in mature individuals .

the only predator of larger false gharials appears to be the salt water crocodile , crocodylus porosus .

a secretive nature keeps the false gharial shrouded in mystery . the few field studies that have been carried out ( please see below ) indicate that it has been exterminated from much of its range .

m . r . bezuijen , g . j . w . webb , p . hartoyo , r . w . s . samedi , and s . c . manolis , “the false gharial (

false gharials are opportunistic carnivores . they have been reported to grab monkeys ( crab - eating macaques (

digimorph - 3d images of gharial skull . slow to load but worth the effort . must install quicktime viewer

fossil and morphological data on tomistoma schlegelii ( false gharial ) show closest resemblance to crocodylidae . but recent molecular data show closer resemblance to g . gangeticus , causing some authors to place it in the gavialidae ( brochu , 2003 ) .

the research highlighted the difficulties involved in studying rare crocodiles in remote areas . staniewicz spent around nine months over 2009 - 12 attempting to assess the size of the false gharial population on mesangat lake , and to learn more about how they live .

adult false gharials are usually safe from predators due to their large size . eggs and hatchlings preyed upon by wild pigs (

artis has two false gharials : a 51 - year - old female and a male whose age is unknown . gharials can live to be a hundred . the false gharials at artis amsterdam royal zoo are part of the european breeding programme ( eep ) for this species . artis is investing in research . the zoo has been trying to produce young crocodiles for years and decided to keep only one species of crocodile to create more space for the animals . that species is the threatened false gharial .

r . b . stuebing , m . r . bezuijen , m . auliya , and h . k . voris , “the current and historic distribution of tomistoma schlegelii ( the false gharial ) ( müller , 1838 ) ( crocodylia , reptilia ) , ”

this research is about captive breeding of false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) at zoo negara , malaysia . the false gharial is a large fresh water crocodile . once widespread species currently can be found only in peninsular malaysia , west borneo , java and sumatra . with habitat destruction being the main contributor to their disappearance , it is believed that there are fewer than 2500 individuals left in the wild . the species is listed on appendix 1 ( endangered ) of the convention of international trade of endangered species ( cites ) .

false gharials are freshwater crocodiles that are found throughout indonesia ( including kalimantan , eastern sumatra , western java , and western borneo ) , parts of malaysia ( including peninsular malaysia and sarawak ) , and brunei . there have been unconfirmed reports of false gharials in vietnam and sulawesi , indonesia . they are assumed to be extirpated in southern thailand , where they have not been seen since the 1970s . false gharial populations are isolated and occur in low densities throughout their range . the largest known populations are in sumatra and kalimantan , with smaller established populations in malaysia . the highest density population of false gharials is in tanjung puting national park in kalimantan .

both malayan and true gharials are also sometimes called gavials . it ' s believed that this term began as a misspelling of gharial .

bezuijen , m . , p . hartoyo , m . elliott , b . baker . 1997 . second report on the ecology of the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) in sumatera . project tomistoma : i - 38 . accessed february 28 , 2013 at urltoken .

although some ambitious field studies have been undertaken ( please see “further reading” , below ) , we know surprisingly little of the false gharial’s life in the wild . unlike most large crocodilians , it is quite secretive , and dwells in habitats that are difficult to survey .

a very early gharial - like fossil is known from morocco ' s 60 million years - old rocks ( hua & jouve 2004 ) .

mathew , a . , m . ganesan , r . majid , c . beastall . 2011 . " breeding of false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) at zoo negara , malaysia " ( on - line pdf ) . zoo negara . accessed september 25 , 2012 at urltoken .

the false gharial is a crocodilian with a long , thin snout , with razor - sharp needle - like teeth . it is with this implement that the male gharial grasps the female to " show its dominance " , the zoo explained . from an autopsy , it seems that the mating behavior was a bit too rough for the female . she had wounds all over her body . eventually , she died of suffocation .

( bezuijen , et al . , 2010 ; crocodile specialist group , 2000 ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ; " false gharial " , 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 ; stuebing , et al . , 2004 ; stuebing , et al . , 2006 )

despite being a feature in many zoos across south east asia and europe during the 20th century , the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) is one of the least understood of the crocodilians . research over the last 20 years has revealed a few details , but it is still largely an enigma .

sometimes referred to as " gavial " which is probably a misspelling of gharial . the family and genus names have not been changed to reflect this error .

although the gharial can do this with some speed when required , when in water , the gharial is the most nimble and quickest of all the crocodiles in the world . their tail seems overdeveloped and is laterally flattened , more so than other crocodiles , this enables it to achieve the excellent water locomotive abilities .

staniewicz was able to document the stomach contents of juvenile false gharials she captured . this showed their diets include insects , frogs , spiders and fish .

( bezuijen , et al . , 2010 ; britton , 2012a ; crocodile specialist group , 2000 ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ; " false gharial " , 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 ; stuebing , et al . , 2004 ; stuebing , et al . , 2006 )

gharials are most adapted to the calmer areas in the deep fast moving rivers . the physical attributes of the gharial do not make it very suited for moving about on land . in fact the only reasons the gharial leaves the water is to either bask in the sun or to nest on the sandbanks of the rivers .

probably the most controversial living crocodilian is the false gharial , tomistoma , a slender - snouted form from malaysia , sumatra , and borneo . in phylogenetic analyses based on morphological characters , it is usually recovered within crocodylidae , which would mean that its similarities to gharials represent convergent evolution . however , molecular data suggests that tomistoma and the " true " indian gharial , gavialis gangeticus , are each others ' closest relatives . if that is the case , then the similarities between the " true " and " false " gharials are homologies inherited from a common ancestor , and it is the similarities between tomistoma and crocodiles that are convergent .

the false gharial is an unusual freshwater crocodilian ( a group that includes alligators , crocodiles , caimans and the gharial ) about which very little is known . like the gharial ( gavialis gangeticus ) from which it gets its common name , this species has a slender snout ( 2 ) . juveniles are dark / chocolate brown with black banding on the tail and body , a creamy white belly and dark blotches on the jaws ; much of this colouration is retained into adulthood ( 2 ) . controversy over the taxonomy of this species remains , as morphological features ( other than the snout shape ) suggest it belongs in the family crocodylidae where it is currently placed , but recent biochemical and immunological evidence suggests a closer relationship with the gharial , indicating it should also be placed in the family gavialidae ( 3 ) .

actually , this one may not be as close as we think . . . . . . . the largest living crocodile skull ever found belonged to a false gharial . while not as robust a snout as a niloticus or saltie , it is still much more lethal than that of a true gharial . based on the size of the skull , maximum length is in the 6meter range . a true " monster " more than capable of taking down a large lemon shark . - paleorod - o

tomistoma schlegelii is also known by english common name as freshwater malayan gharial or false gharial or tomistoma or sunda gharial whereas its local name in sarawak is “buaya jejulong . ” this species is listed under international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) red list as vulnerable species [ 1 ] and listed under appendix of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora and fauna ( cites ) . in peninsular malaysia , it is protected under wildlife conservation act 2010 . it is also listed as a protected animal in the sarawak wild life protection ordinance ( 1998 ) ; hence , any hunting , killing , or selling of wild tomistoma in the state is prohibited .

willis , r . e . , l . r . mcaliley , e . d . neeley , and l . d . densmore iii . 2007 . evidence for placing the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) into the family gavialidae : inferences from nuclear gene sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 43 ( 3 ) : 787 - 794 .

once found throughout much of southeast asia , the false gharial is now extinct in thailand , vietnam and sulawesi . today it survives only on the malay peninsula , borneo , sumatra and kalimantan . in the early 2000’s , a remnant population was discovered in western java . additional surveys are needed ( please check here urltoken for survey updates ) .

historically found in south east asia throughout the malay peninsula and also on sumatra and borneo ( 3 ) . today the false gharial appears to be extinct in thailand and is seen only at low densities ( although populations are widespread ) in malaysia and indonesia ( 3 ) . there are unconfirmed reports of sightings in vietnam and sulawesi ( 3 ) .

the life span of the gharial is not exactly known , however , it is thought to be around the same span as other reptiles being 50 – 60 years in the wild .

pfaff , c . 2004 . " north american regional false gavial studbook " ( on - line pdf ) . san diego zoo . accessed september 25 , 2012 at urltoken .

false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) * family : crocodylidae , * subfamily : tomistominae , * genus : tomistoma , * species : t . schlegelii , * phylum : chordata , * class : reptilia , * order : crocodilia * type : reptile , * diet : carnivore , * average lifespan in the wild : 40 to 60 years , * size : 12 . 25 to 15 . 5 ft ( 3 . 6 to 4 . 5 m ) , * weight : 2 , 200 lbs ( 977 kg ) , * protection status : endangered . * * did you know ? the gharial ' s scientific name , gavialis gangeticus is based on a misspelling of the hindi word ghariyal . * * * tomistoma schlegelii ) , also known as the malayan gharial , false gavial , or tomistoma is a freshwater crocodile of the crocodylidae family with a very thin and elongated snout . more info : urltoken

harshman j , huddleston cj , bollback jp , parsons tj , braun mj ( 2003 ) true and false gharials : a nuclear gene phylogeny of crocodylia . syst biol 52 : 386–402

the false gharial is extinct in several countries and is threatened elsewhere by dam building , gold mining , incidental capture in fishing nets , and the over - harvesting of fish . fewer than 2 , 500 adults are believed to remain , but accurate surveys are lacking . fortunately , several populations are located within reserves that also shelter orangutans and other creatures better known to the public .

harshman , j . , c . huddleston , j . bollback , t . parsons , m . braun . 2003 . true and false gharials : a nuclear gene phylogeny of crocodylia .

i’ve helped to grab , tie and transport adult false gharials on four occasions , and each experience confirmed my belief that these heavily - armored creatures are among the world’s most physically impressive reptiles . i’ve “wrestled” with other large crocs in the course of my work ( please see marsh crocodile photo ) , but none battled as hard or seemed as “indestructible” as did false gharials .

false gharial eggs have a soft inner membrane and harder , calcified shell . crocodilian sex is determined by temperature rather than genetics . incubation lasts approximately 90 days and young resemble small adults upon hatching . hatchlings are equipped with an “egg tooth” , a pointed structure on the end of the snout that allows the hatchling to slice through the egg shell ; this recedes a few weeks after hatching .

based on morphological analyses , extant members of the order crocodylia are divided into three families , alligatoridae , crocodylidae , and gavialidae . gavialidae includes one species , the gharial , gavialis gangeticus . in this study we have examined crocodilian relationships in phylogenetic analyses of seven mitochondrial genomes that have been sequenced in their entirety . the analyses did not support the morphologically acknowledged separate position of the gharial in the crocodilian tree . instead the gharial joined the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) on a common branch that was shown to constitute a sister group to traditional crocodylidae ( less tomistoma ) . thus , the analyses suggest the recognition of only two crocodylia families , alligatoridae and crocodylidae , with the latter encompassing traditional crocodylidae plus gavialis / tomistoma . a molecular dating of the divergence between alligatoridae and crocodylidae suggests that this basal split among recent crocodilians took place ≈140 million years before present , at the jurassic / cretaceous boundary . the results suggest that at least five crocodilian lineages survived the mass extinction at the kt boundary .

false gharials are long - lived animals with an estimated lifespan in the wild of 60 to 80 years , similar to that of other crocodilians . reports show that captive specimens have a shorter lifespan .

false gharials are not considered to be a threat to humans . there has been only one documented case of an attack on a human , and one documented attack on a cow in eastern kalimantan .

the false gharial , which may exceed 16 feet in length , is the least - studied of the large crocodilians , and among the rarest . it has been bred in captivity only 3 times in the last 60 years ( once at the bronx zoo , prior to my tenure ) and few us zoos exhibit them today ; 28 reside in european zoos , while south america is home to 1 specimen .

it would be very hard for either of these animals to severely damage the other , at parity . lemon shark ' s have gracile teeth and are not known for being able to predate on large prey , especially a crocodilian with placoderms , while the gharial ' s slender jaws and teeth are poorly designed to attack a stocky prey like the lemon shark . parity = stalemate , maximum weight = moderate advantage to gharial .

the gharial enclosure was remodeled as well . deeper water , extra pools , a water fall and banks where the reptiles could lay eggs . all of this was to ensure a suitable environment for the reproduction to commence .

the long , slender jaws of young false gharials indicate that they are fish specialists . the jaws thicken with age , allowing adults to take monkeys , small deer , birds , snakes , turtles and other creatures .

the gharial’s iucn red list status was changed from endangered to critically endangered in 2007 , after surveys suggested the population had halved in five years at india’s national chambal sanctuary , where most of the species are thought to live . .

slender - snouted crocodile ( mecistops cataphractus ) , photographed in captivity by thesupermat . i originally thought that this photo actually showed a false gharial ( tomistome schlegelii ) but a clearer dorsal view of the same animal reveals the scute pattern of mecistops ; it is definitely not a tomistoma ( see below ) . image licensed under creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 unported , 2 . 5 generic , 2 . 0 generic and 1 . 0 generic license .

gharial decline follows the decline of other riverine taxa now endangered or nearly extinct including the ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica ) and the mugger crocodile ( crocodylus palustris ) as well as many waterfowl and fish species . ( choudhury et al 2007 )

the scute pattern present on the anterior part of the dorsal shield , and in the cervical shield , shows that the crocodile shown above is indeed a slender - snouted crocodile ( mecistops cataphractus ) , not a false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) . photo by thesupermat , licensed under creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 unported , 2 . 5 generic , 2 . 0 generic and 1 . 0 generic license . diagrams of scute patterns from ross & mayer ( 1983 ) .

“project crocodile was held up as a poster child for crocodile conservation , but with the benefit of hindsight there were some fundamental failings , ” says colin stevenson , a leading gharial expert , and the author of one of the international zoo yearbook papers .

false gharials drew me into an even more dangerous incident some years later . seven cuban crocodiles ( crocodylus rhombifer ) broke through a wall and invaded an exhibit housing a pair of false gharials . i and two co - workers waded in and tried to separate the enraged combatants while also protecting one another from attack . in the ensuing two hour battle , we escaped injury and were able to separate the animals . many bore bite wounds , but crocs have amazing immune systems , and all healed without further complications .

the role of false gharials in their ecosystem is not completely understood due to a lack of study in the wild . they are large predators , preying on a variety of animals and keeping their populations in check . their distribution overlaps with that of siamese crocodiles (

the concentration of giant crocs in the miocene of south america is especially remarkable . the alligator mourasuchus , caiman purussaurus , and gharial gryposuchus all lived alongside one another . they must have specialized in different environments or types of prey to have coexisted successfully at such large sizes .

artis is committed to promoting the conservation of false gharials , not just within the zoo but also elsewhere . to that end , it is supporting a project in the danau sentarum national park in indonesia that was set up to preserve these wonderful creatures . the most serious threats to the false gharials ' survival are loss of habitat due to deforestation and agriculture , hunting and the removal of eggs from their nests . the peat bogs in the danau sentarum national park are an important breeding ground and are essential to the survival of this species .

the leg muscular system of the gharial is not suited to enable the animal to raise the body off the ground ( on land ) in order to achieve the high - walk gait , being able only to push its body forward across the ground in a movement called ‘body sliding’ .

i find it difficult to express just how fortunate i’ve been in having had the chance to work with 12 crocodilian species in the wild and captivity . breeding dwarf caimans , wrestling orinoco crocodiles into boats , getting up close and personal to gomek ( a giant , now famous salt water croc ) , rearing indian gharials…these and many other experiences remain etched in my memory . one species in particular cemented my interest in the group , and remains as much a mystery today as it was when i first saw it some 40 years ago – the massive false gharial , tomistoma schlegelii .

the idea that cataphractus might not be especially close to crocodylus is not actually novel . john e . gray gave this species its own genus – mecistops – back in 1844 . more recently , aoki ( 1976 , 1992 ) argued that mecistops should be treated as a distinct genus , and as a close relative of gharials and false gharials . indeed , the common name african gharial has sometimes been used for this species . that last idea hasn ' t been supported by other work ( both molecular and morphological ) ; anyway , the name mecistops is now back in business for the slender - snouted crocodile .

in the 1970s the gharial came to the brink of extinction and even now remains on the severely endangered species list . the conservation efforts of the environmentalists in cooperation with several governments has led to some reduction in the threat of extinction . some hope lies with the conservation and management programs in place as of 2004 .

despite the practical difficulties she encountered , staniewicz believes her confirmation of the existence of a relatively healthy population of false gharials at the site provides a useful lesson . “people tend to assume that pristine , undisturbed habitats are more worthy of conserving than places that has already been harmed or modified , ” she says .

a successful insemination does not necessarily mean that fertilisation will actually take place . whether the female has been fertilised will probably become evident this summer . little is known about the gestation period of false gharials . once the eggs have been laid , the incubation period is approximately 90 days , depending on the temperature .

) , from which false gharials get their common name . false gharials have a streamlined body and muscular tail , eyes and nostrils on top of the head , and a palatal valve that prevents water from entering the throat while underwater . they are known to grow to 4 - 5 m in length and may grow even larger . there are records of captive adults weighing from 93 - 201 kg . both adults and juveniles have dark , sometimes chocolate brown coloration , with black banding on the tail and body and dark patches on the jaws . the belly is cream - colored or white . males are longer and heavier than females .

false gharials are opportunistic carnivores . they have been reported to grab monkeys from river banks , submerging and drowning their prey or beating it against the bank . other prey items include wild pigs , mouse deer , dogs , otters , fish , birds , turtles , snakes , monitor lizards , and aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates .

in some ways the most visually striking of all the crocodilians , the gharial ( gavialis gangeticus ) has long , narrow jaws lined with rows of razor - sharp teeth . males use the bulbous growths on the tips of their snouts to generate buzzing snorting sounds to attract females and warn off rivals . they can reach 6m in length .

in 1975 the indian government launched the crocodile project to protect the gharial , along with the mugger and saltwater crocodiles . the scheme focused on creating sanctuaries , captive breeding , research and “head - starting” - protecting young crocodiles captured from the wild either as eggs or as hatchlings until they are strong enough to defend themselves against predators upon release .

the following year over 100 juvenile and young adults were found dead in mysterious circumstances . evidence from radio - tagging studies that revealed new details of gharial behaviours , such as parental care , also helped researchers pinpoint the cause of the mass deaths to a stretch of the chambal river that includes a bridge known to be used locally as a tipping place .

sadly , i learned that they too have weaknesses . in time , zoos began experimenting with sedatives as a means of rendering crocodile relocations less dangerous for both keeper and kept . unfortunately , little was known about the effects of medications designed primarily for mammals , and we lost two adult false gharials to complications arising from the use of ketamine .

the gharials numerous needle - like teeth are perfect for holding on to struggling , slippery fish . although primarily fish eaters , some individuals have been known to scavenge dead animals . the gharial is not thought to be a man - eater . despite its immense size , its jaws make it physically incapable of devouring any large mammal , including a human being .

in many cases , human jewellery has been found in the bellies of dead gharials ( this is most likely from scavenging human corpses which are floated down river in the ganges , or scavenging cremated remains that have been dumped into the ganges ) . the gharial also swallows jewellery , stones , sticks and the like to act as ‘gastroliths’ ( hard objects that aid in digestion and buoyancy management ) .

the extant crocodylians comprise 23 species divided among three families , alligatoridae , crocodylidae , and gavialidae . currently , based on morphological data sets , tomistoma schlegelii ( false gharial ) is placed within the family crocodylidae . molecular data sets consistently support a sister - taxon relationship of t . schlegelii with gavialis gangeticus ( indian gharial ) , which is the sole species in gavialidae . to elucidate the placement of t . schlegelii within the extant crocodylians , we have sequenced 352bp of the dentin matrix protein 1 ( dmp1 ) nuclear gene in 30 individuals and 424bp of the nuclear gene c - mos in 74 individuals . molecular analysis of the dmp1 data set indicates that it is highly conserved within the crocodylia . of special note is a seven base - pair indel ( gtgcttt ) shared by t . schlegelii and g . gangeticus , that is absent in the genus crocodylus , osteolaemus , and mecistops . to date , c - mos is the largest molecular data set analyzed for any crocodylian study including multiple samples from all representatives of the eight extant genera . analysis of these molecular data sets , both as individual gene sequences and concatenated sequences , support the hypothesis that t . schlegelii should be placed within the family gavialidae .

communication among false gharials has not been observed in the wild . from observed mating behaviors , it can be assumed that they communicate visually , tactilely and through olfaction . although most crocodilians use a variety of calls to communicate with their own species and to other animals , these have not been recorded for false gharials and , in fact , their mating has been observed to be silent , rather than accompanied by calls . all crocodilians possess integumentary sense organs located in the skin and covering much of the animal’s body including the body , tail , cloaca and inner surfaces of the legs , as well as on the head and jaws . these are likely used to detect changes in pressure caused by touch or the movement of prey in water ; this sense is likely used for hunting in murky water .

false gharials were once hunted for their skins , but their skins are not currently considered commercially valuable . in the mesangat area , their eggs are collected for use in traditional medicine . there is a good deal of research being done to learn more about the roles these animals play in their environments , as well as to determine whether they should be placed in the family crocodylidae or the family gavialidae .

there is debate over this species’ taxonomic classification . false gharials are currently listed included in the family crocodylidae based on fossil evidence and morphological similarities to extant crocodiles . other data , including biochemical , immunological and molecular characters suggest a closer relationship to the family gavialidae . studies of nuclear genes suggest the grouping of tomistomine and gavialine crocodilians into one taxon , which would comprise a sister group to the crocodylidae . other crocodilian researchers suggest considering tomistominae and gavialinae as sister taxa .

much is unknown about the reproduction of false gharials . the male at artis was showing mating behaviour – blowing bubbles in the direction of the female – which prompted the zoo to examine whether he had produced healthy sperm . male gharials have a penis that they insert into the female ' s cloaca during mating . reptiles , like birds , have a cloaca , which is an orifice in the body that serves as the opening for the digestive , urinary and reproductive tracts .

the maximum recorded length and weight is 340 cm and 183 kg . urltoken adult males weigh 150 to 250 kg ( 330 to 550 lb ) , while females are about 3 . 2 m ( 10 ft ) long and weigh an average of 90 kg ( 200 lb ) urltoken weight favours the gharial , but assuming this encounter occurs in the water , maybe the shark can exploit a swimming advantage . the gharials jaws too , seem like it would struggle to kill a decent sized shark .

habitat destruction caused by the construction of dams , channelling and deforestation amongst others has been the main cause of the decline of this species and continues to be its main threat to this day . intensive hunting in some areas , especially sumatra , in the mid 20th century also contributed greatly to the decline in population numbers . further threats come from fishing practices , with false gharials either becoming caught in nets , poisoned by toxins used to kill fish , or else loosing their food source to local fishermen .

habitat destruction caused by the construction of dams , channelling and deforestation amongst others has been the main cause of the decline of this species and continues to be its main threat to this day ( 3 ) . intensive hunting in some areas , especially sumatra , in the mid 20th century also contributed greatly to the decline in population numbers ( 3 ) . further threats come from fishing practices , with false gharials either becoming caught in nets , poisoned by toxins used to kill fish , or else loosing their food source to local fishermen ( 2 ) .

false gharials spend most of their time submerged in shallow wallows or mud - holes , with only their eyes and nostrils visible . crocodilians are capable of staying underwater for long periods of time . they usually submerge for 10 - 15 minutes , but can stay submerged for as long as 2 hours to avoid a perceived threat . this is accomplished by slowing down their metabolism and reducing oxygen consumption . basking behavior is likely used to aid in thermoregulation , though it is not often observed . it has been suggested that these animals may occasionally occupy burrows .

false gharials are found in a variety of habitats throughout their range , including lowland freshwater swamp forests , flooded forests , peat swamps , lakes , and blackwater streams and rivers . they are also found on the fringes of rainforests near slow - moving rivers . their preferred habitats are peat swamp areas with low elevation and acidic , slow - moving muddy water ; they are also found in secondary forest habitat , characterized by more defined river channels and banks , higher ph and elevation , and a lack of peat mounds . this species needs terrestrial areas for basking and nesting .

during my years with the bronx zoo , i was lucky enough to have 4 adult false gharials under my care , including the only proven breeders in the western hemisphere . they were huge beasts , the largest of which topped 600 pounds in weight . each had been in the collection for 20 - 30 years when i began working with them . i clearly recall seeing these same animals when visiting the zoo as a teenager , but their increased size did not fully register until i dug out some old food cards . upon arrival at the zoo , they were feeding upon goldfish…they now downed whole chickens without effort , and were capable of taking much larger meals !

very little is known about the natural mating behaviors of false gharials ; most details are from captive breeding programs , with a few acocunts from the wild . courtship behavior and nesting appear to take place during the rainy season in both cases . males approach females in the water , swimming around them . in some cases , this is accompanied by both animals hitting each other with their tails , in others copulation proceeds immediately . the male mounts the female , wrapping his tail around and under hers . copulation occurrs once a day for several days to a week , and is accompanied by a strong odor . one captive breeding program in malaysia had success housing a group of 3 males and 1 female . the female chose the largest male and appeared to stay near him during the courting period . when 2 females were kept in the same enclosure with the males , no mating occurred and it is theorized that females living in close proximity may suppress breeding in one another .

false gharials are mound - nesting crocodilians that lay very large eggs ( records up to 9 . 5 cm long and 6 . 2 cm wide ) , with a total mass approximately double that of any other species ( eggs may weigh up to 155 gm each ) . mounds are usually constructed on land at the shady base of a tree near water , using sand and vegetation including peat , twigs , tree seeds , and dried leaves . females have been observed beginning nest building a month or more after copulation and laying a clutch of 20 - 60 eggs 1 - 2 weeks after beginning to nest . after eggs are laid , more vegetation is added to the top of the nest by the female . mounds typically measure 45 - 60 cm high and 90 - 110 cm in diameter . eggs are laid just above ground level and the temperature within the nest fluctuates depending on the environment and rainfall ( records in captivity of 26°c - 32°c ) . eggs hatch after 90 - 100 days . captive breeding initiatives have shown that abundant vegetation improves the chances of breeding because it provides more cover and nesting material for the female . both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 20 years of age ( females measuring 2 . 5 - 3 m in length ) .

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the evolutionary relationship of tomistoma with other crocodilians was debated for many years , and the species was usually aligned with the true crocodiles ( crocodylidae ) based on morphological evidence ( norell 1989 , tarsitano et al . 1989 , brochu 1997 ) . molecular studies since the 1980s suggest a closer relationship to gavialis ( densmore 1983 , densmore and dessauer 1984 , gatesy and amato 1992 , harshman et al . 2003 , mcaliley et al . 2006 ) . a recent molecular study found that tomistoma shares gene sequences with gavialis which are absent from crocodylus , mecistops ( see shirley 2010 ) and osteolaemus , suggesting tomistoma should be placed within the family gavialidae ( willis et al . 2007 ) .

reasons for change a downgrade in iucn red list status from endangered to vulnerable is warranted because surveys indicate the species persists over a wide global range . it has clearly declined in many areas and ongoing habitat loss suggests these declines are continuing .

brunei darussalam : few crocodile surveys conducted to date ( e . g . das and charles 2000 , cox 2006 ) and possibly none targeting inland swamp forests , where t . schlegelii are most likely to occur . a crocodile photographed by an expatriate resident in 2005 at tutong river was confirmed by rbs ( from examination of the photograph ) to be a t . schlegelii ( stuebing et al . 2006 ) . there is no reason to suggest this was a released individual and it is the first confirmed national record .

java – status unclear . koningsberger ( 1913 : 376 ) noted ( in translation ) ‘whether , apart from c . porosus , t . schlegelii also occurs in java , is a question that cannot be answered with certainty . . ’ . meer mohr ( 1921 ) noted ( in translation ) ‘according to strauch , t . schlegelii occurs in java…the only specimen from java is in the museum in stuttgart [ germany ] . . . the origin of this specimen is uncertain . . . further work is required to clarify the status of t . schlegelii in java . . ’ . more recently , unconfirmed local reports of t . schlegelii have been obtained from one site , ujung kulon national park ( auliya 2002 ) . the most detailed account of crocodiles for this park is by hoogerwerf ( 1970 ) , who does not mention the species . given the small size of the park and modified nature of surrounding lands , any populations are presumably small .

kalimantan – confirmed records are from tanjung puting national park ( central kalimantan province ; e . g . galdikas and yeager 1984 , galdikas 1985 , simpson 2004 , auliya et al . 2006 ) , the mahakam and belayan river systems and mesangat lake ( east kalimantan province ; endert 1927 , meijard and sozer 1996 , ross et al . 1998 , staniewicz 2011 ) and upper kapuas river area , danau sentarum and gunung palung national parks ( west kalimantan province ; bezuijen et al . 2004 and references therein ; simpson and mediyansyah 2009 ) ; no conﬁrmed wild records from south kalimantan province . the species is likely to persist in many other locations in kalimantan , and the limited number of confirmed localities probably reflects low sampling effort .

sumatra – all known records are from eastern sumatra , east of the barisan mountain ranges ( bezuijen et al . 1998 ) . scattered populations persist from north sumatra to south sumatra provinces , with an isolated population in way kambas national park ( lampung province ) . the range of t . schlegelii in sumatra has declined by at least 30 % since the 1950s due to hunting and habitat loss ( bezuijen et al . 1998 ) .

thailand : status unclear . reported to have occurred ( e . g . smith 1916 , taylor 1970 ) but records vague and inconclusive . no reports since at least the 1970s ; previous authors have postulated the species may be extirpated ( humphrey and bain 1990 , ratanakorn 1994 ) or that historical records may have referred to localities in northern peninsular malaysia ( stuebing et al . 2006 ) .

viet nam : status unclear . a wild crocodile captured in 1967 was reported to be this species ( mucelli 2005 ) . given the severe threats facing two confirmed crocodile species in viet nam , crocodylus siamensis and c . porosus , it seems likely that even if t . schlegelii was historically present , it has been extirpated .

tomistoma schlegelii is a cryptic species and swamp forest habitats are difficult to access : many surveys may have under - recorded or not detected its presence . compared with spotlight densities for some other crocodilians , which may reach densities of tens or hundreds of individuals per kilometre , all recorded densities of t . schlegelii are low . repeat spotlight counts at two sites in sumatra indicate that densities declined over a seven - year period , which coincided with intensive logging and burning in these sites ( bezuijen et al . 2002 ) .

few other methods to estimate abundance have been applied to t . schlegelii . a mark - recapture study was conducted from 2010 - 2011 at mesangat lake ( east kalimantan province , indonesia ) but few individuals have been recaptured ( staniewicz 2011 ) . nest census methods have not been applied to t . schlegelii because nests are located in swamp forest and are highly cryptic .

tomistoma schlegelii is a freshwater , mound - nesting species . it is among the largest of the extant crocodilians , with males attaining lengths up to 5 + m ( bezuijen et al . 1998 , 2004 ; authors pers . obs . ) . it is restricted primarily to lowland swamps , lakes and rivers . most records are from peat swamp and freshwater swamp forest ( stuebing et al . 2006 ) , which historically encompassed most of the lowlands of borneo , eastern sumatra , and peninsular malaysia .

müller ( 1838 ) stated the diet of t . schlegelii comprised fish , monitor lizards ( varanus ) , waterbirds and mammals . predation of monkeys by t . schlegelii has been observed ( galdikas and yeager 1984 , galdikas 1985 , yeager 1991 ) . stomach contents of juvenile wild t . schleglii included shrimp ( bezuijen et al . 1998 ) and other invertebrates ( staniewicz and behler 2010 ) .

other scientific studies of t . schlegelii have included assessment of its taxonomic status ( see taxonomic notes ) , anatomy and skin qualities ( e . g . boulenger 1896 , king and brazaitis 1971 , brazaitis 1973 , fuchs 2006 ) , potential impacts of climate change ( bickford et al . 2010 ) , conservation effectiveness of protected area networks ( rödder et al . 2010 ) , and captive breeding and management ( see conservation measures ) .

small - scale opportunistic collection of wild individuals and eggs occurs in some regions , for sale to crocodile farms and / or consumption . previously hunted in some regions for skins and / or meat .

tomistoma schlegelii is listed under appendix i of cites . captive individuals are held in zoos and private facilities ( mainly crocodile farms ) around the world , and probably number a few thousand individuals in total . the largest captive population is at utairatch crocodile farm in thailand ( over 700 individuals ) . successful breeding has occurred at jong ' s crocodile farm ( sarawak ) , utairatch and pattaya crocodile farms ( thailand ) , and irregularly at zoos in malaysia , europe and north america ( ttf 2006 , r . sommerlad in litt . ) . the provenance of most captive individuals is unclear ; many wild - caught t . schlegelii held in captivity may have limited value for conservation purposes unless their original provenance can be determined .

in 2003 , the iucn crocodile specialist group ( csg ) formed the tomistoma task force ( ttf ) , a group of csg members who coordinate the csg’s efforts for t . schlegelii conservation . ttf activities comprise fundraising for ﬁeld research , international awareness - raising , and hosting of a ttf website . fund - raising events have been held in north america and europe , largely due to the voluntary efforts of bs , r . sommerlad and other csg members . two t . schlegelii student projects have been co - funded and are the first detailed autecological studies of the species . ttf reports have been prepared on global conservation priorities ( bezuijen et al . 2003 ) and husbandry standards for captive breeding of t . schlegelii ( shwedick and sommerlad 2000 , shwedick 2006 ) . in 2008 , a ttf workshop was held and a re - assessment of global conservation priorities was undertaken .


trychnopalpa is a genus of moth in the family gelechiidae .

the only member of the genus was described by edward meyrick in 1913 , and it was separated by a. j. t. janse in his 1958 the moths of south africa .

povolny gave the same member of this genus the now synonymised generic name synthesiopalpa .

the genus contains only one species , trychnopalpa fornacaria , which is found in south africa .

the wingspan is 12 – 14 mm .

the forewings are brown , with the markings dark grey or fuscous irrorated with black .

the basal third is irregularly and suffusedly spotted , and on the dorsum wholly suffused with blackish , the middle third of the dorsum suffused with dark grey .

the stigmata are moderately large and black , the plical beneath the first discal , the second discal resting on an irregular dark tornal blotch , a triangular costal blotch above this .

there are some suffused spots around the posterior part of the costa and termen , sometimes suffused into an apical patch .

the hindwings are grey , paler anteriorly .

trychnopalpa

trychnopalpa <EOT> space destined for new content such as comments , updates , suggestions , constructive criticism , questions and answers about " trychnopalpa " , doubts and solutions that help other visitors , users , students , professionals , etc . | be the first ( soon ) to send a feedback related to : trychnopalpa |

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acampsia westwood , 1840 , misspl . ; accompsia bruand , 1850 , missp . ; brachycrossata heinemann , 1870 ; brachicrossata hartmann , 1880 , missp . ; cathegesis walsingham , 1910 ; telephila meyrick , 1923

aganippe chambers , 1880 ; phaetusa chambers , 1875 , preocc . ( wagler , 1832 [ aves ] ) ; evippe chambers , 1873 ; tholerostola meyrick , 1917

anacompsis desmarest , [ 1857 ] , missp . ; tachyptilia heinemann , 1870 ; tuchyptilia kirby , 1871 , missp . ; tachiptilia chambers , 1878 , missp . ; tachyptilix hartmann , 1880 , missp . ; agriastsi busck , 1919 , missp . ; tachoptilia daltry , 1926 , missp . ; trachyphilia le marchand , 1947 , missp . ; trachyptilia le marchand , 1947 , missp .

ergatis heinemann , 1870 , preocc . blackwall , 1841 ; eucatoptus walsingham , 1897

microsetia stephens , 1829 ; chrysia bruand , 1850 ; nomia clem . , 1860 , preocc . by latr . , 1804 ; chrysopora clem . , 1860 ; nannodia heinemann , 1870 ; chrysesthia agassiz , 1847

evagora clemens , 1860 , preocc . ( peron & lesueur , 1810 [ coelenterata ] ) ; eidothea chambers , 1873 , preocc . ( risso , 1826 [ mollusca ] ) ; eidothoa chambers , 1873 ; coleotechnistes riley , 1891 ; eucordylea dietz , 1900 ; pulicalvaria freeman , 1963 ; coleotechnistes busck , [ 1903 ] , missp . ; hapalosaris meyrick , 1917

proclesis walsingham , 1911 ; lioclepta meyrick , 1922 ; deoclana fletcher , 1929 , missp .

anorthosia clemens , 1860 ; begoe chambers , 1872 ; epicorthylis zeller , 1873 ; malacotricha zeller , 1873 ; mimomeris povolny , 1978 ; sagaritis chambers , 1872 ; trichotaphe clemens , 1860 ; vazugada walker , 1864 ; oxybelia hubner , [ 1825 ] ; rhinosia treitschke , 1833 ; rhobonda walker , 1864 , preocc . ( walker , 1863 [ choreutidae ] ) ; carna walker , 1864 , repl . name ; preocc . ( gistel , 1848 [ echinodermata ] ) ; gaesa walker , 1864 ; eurysara turner , 1919 ; euryzansla turner , 1919 ; macrozanchla turner , 1919 ; brochometis meyrick , 1923 ; acanthophila heinemann , 1870 ; mimomeris povolny , 1978

downgraded to denote a subgenus of kiwaia philpott , 1930 by sattler 1988 , nota lepidopterologica10 ( 4 ) : 233 .

lamprotes heinemann , 1870 , preocc . ( r . l . , 1817 ) ; argyritis heinemann , 1870 , preocc . ( hubner , [ 1821 ] )

atoponeura busck , 1914 , preocc . ( szepligeti , 1905 [ hymenoptera ] )

paralechia busck , [ 1903 ] ; heringia spuler , 1910 , preocc . ( rondani , 1856 ) ; heringiola strand , 1917

chelaria haworth , 1828 ; hypatina : stephens , 1835 , misspel . ; tituacia walker , 1864 ; stomylia snellen , 1878 ; allocota meyrick , 1904 , preocc . ( motschulsky , 1860 ) ; cymatomorpha meyrick , 1904 ; deuteroptila meyrick , 1904 ; semodictis meyrick , 1909 ; allocotaniana strand , 1913 , repl . name ; episacta turner , 1919

neda chambers , 1874 , preocc . ( mulsant , 1850 ) ; pycnobathra lower , 1901 ; autoneda busck , [ 1903 ] ; toxoceras chretien , 1915

cleodora steph , 1834 , preocc . ( peron & lesueur , 1810 ) ; parasia duponchel , [ 1846 ] ; archimetzneria amsel , 1936

parelectra meyrick , 1925 , preocc . ( dognin , 1914 [ noctuidae ] )

noeza walker , 1866 , preocc . ( meigen , 1800 [ diptera ] ) ; neochrista meyrick , 1923

sattleria capuse , 1968 , preocc . ( povolny , 1965 ) ; klaussattleria capuse , 1968

pycnostola : meyrick , 1918 , misspel . ; pynocstola : meyrick , 1918 , missp .

telea stephens , 1834 , preocc . ( hubner , [ 1819 ] [ saturniidae ] ) ; aphanaula meyrick , 1895 ; hinnebergia spuler , 1910 ; microlechia turati , 1924 ; lita kollar , 1832

silotroga kirby , 1871 , missp . ; nesolechia meyrick , 1921 ; syngenomictis meyrick , 1927 ; sitotrogus matsumura , 1931 , missp . ; sitotrega borg , 1932 , missp . ; sititroga costa lima , 1945 , missp .

poecilia heinemann , 1870 , preocc . schneider , 1801 ; gibbosa omelko , 1988

inotica meyrick , 1913 ; instica sharp , 1915 , missp . ; araeologa meyrick , 1921 ; stomopterix turati , 1922 , missp . ; stromopteryx pierce & metcalfe , 1935 , missp .

harpagus steph . , 1834 , preocc . ( vigors , 1824 ) ; stomopteryx sensu auctt . , preocc . ( heinemann , 1870 )

teleia heinemann , 1870 , preocc . ( hubner , [ 1825 ] ) ; telphusa sensu auctt . , preocc . ( chambers , 1872 )

thiotrica inoue , 1954 , missp . ; thistricha meyrick , 1885 ; reuttia hofmann , 1898

nevadia caradja , 1920 , preocc . ( walcott , 1910 [ trilobita ] )

" this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant no . deb 416078 . any opinions , findings , and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the national science foundation . "

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genus : synthesiopalpa povolny , 1966 . acta ent . bohemoslovaca 63 : 147 .

type - species : gelechia fornacaria meyrick , 1913 . ann . transv . mus . 3 : 289 .

type specimens : ? type status ? country : ? locality , ( ? depository ) . .

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janse a . j . t . 1958 . the moths of south africa . vi . gelechiadae - — 6 ( 1 ) : 1–144 , pls . 1–32 .

type species : gelechia fornacaria meyrick , 1913 . annals of the transvaal museum 3 : 289 . by original designation and monotypy .

meyrick e . 1913b . descriptions of south african micro - lepidoptera . iv - annals of the transvaal museum 3 ( 4 ) : 267–336 .

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turcopalpa povolný , 1973 ; acta ent . bohemoslov . 70 : 98 ; ts : turcopalpa glaseri povolný

scrobipalpa africana povolný , 1968 ; acta sci . nat . brno 2 ( 3 ) : 10

turcopalpa africana ; povolný , 1976 , acta ent . bohemoslov . 73 ( 1 ) : 41 ; povolný , 1977 , acta ent . bohemoslov . 74 ( 5 ) : 335 ; [ nhm card ]

turcopalpa glaseri povolný , 1973 ; acta ent . bohemoslov . 70 : 100 ; tl : " anatolien , eregli , salzstepe "

sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;

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povolný , 1977 neue funde von gnorimoschemini ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) aus iran und afghanistan acta ent . bohemoslov . 74 ( 5 ) : 322 - 338

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