the white-bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) is a small passerine bird which breeds in tropical south america .

it is found from colombia , venezuela and trinidad south to bolivia and northern argentina .

this manakin is found in forests , secondary growth and plantations .

it is a small , plump bird about 10.7 centimetres ( 4.2 in ) long .

males have a black crown , upper back , wings and tail and are otherwise white .

females are olive-green and resemble female golden-headed manakins .

at breeding time , males are involved in lekking behaviour on the forest floor during which they puff out their neck feathers .

this is a fairly common species with a wide range , and the international union for conservation of nature has rated its conservation status as being of " least concern " .

white - bearded manakin

white - bearded manakin <EOT> characterisation of microsatellite dna markers in the white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) .

birdlife international . 2012 . species factsheet : white - bearded manakin manacus manacus . downloaded from birdlife international on 16 april 2012 .

the white - bearded manakin is generally uncommon in northern amazonia and southeastern peru where it ranges up to 1000 m along the foothill of the andes . it also occurs in the humid and semi - deciduous forest in tumbez . the white - bearded manakin also occurs in

male white - bearded manakin is distinctive across most of its range , and unlikely to be confused with any other species . it is most similar to white - collared manakin ( manacus candei ) , but the geographic distributions of these two species do not overlap ; also , male white - collared manakin has a bright yellow belly . there is contact ( and limited hybridization ) between white - bearded manakin and golden - collared manakin ( manacus vitellinus ) in western colombia . as the name suggests , the white of the collar , throat and breast of white - bearded manakin is replaced in male golden - collared manakin by bright deep yellow , with a green belly . females of the two species are quite similar , but female golden - collared manakin has a yellow tinge to the belly , which is more olive in female white - bearded .

: manacus from the dutch , manakin , the name a manakin bears in surinam .

white - bearded manakin occupies the understory of the edge of tropical lowland forest and adjacent second growth , where there is a dense understory .

protection / threats / status : white - bearded manakin is common in most parts of its range . the species is not threatened at this moment .

table s1 . museum data for the white - bearded manakin specimens in green plumage collected along the magdalena river valley and the eastern llanos in colombia .

description : white - bearded manakin , as other manakins’ species , is a small compact bird . its courtship displays are spectacular and occur at communal leks .

flight : white - bearded manakin performs rapid and complex flight displays . when in flight , this bird produces a kind of whirring noise , as a grasshopper .

diet : white - bearded manakin feeds mainly on small fruits . it also consumes insects such as beetles , flies and flying termites . it also takes spiders .

lill , a . 1974 . social organization and space utilization in the lek - forming white - bearded manakin , m . manacus trinitatis . zeitschrift für tierpsychologie 36 : 513 - 530 .

habitat : white - bearded manakin is locally common in gallery woodland and forest edges with dense undergrowth . it also frequents second growths . it is mainly seen below 800 to 1000 metres of elevation .

the white - bearded manakin , manacus manacus , is a small passerine bird which breeds in tropical south america . it is found from colombia , venezuela and trinidad south to bolivia and northern argentina .

cestari , c . 2010 . anting behavior by the white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus , pipridae ) : an example of functional interaction in a frugivorous lekking bird . biota neotropica 10 : 339–342 .

female white - bearded manakin also is similar to female chiroxiphia and antilophia manakins , but is smaller , with tarsi that are more orange ; also , antilophia have longer tails , and the females of some species of chiroxiphia ( lance - tailed manakin c . lanceolata and swallow - tailed manakin c . caudata ) have elongated central rectrices .

as other manakins’ species , the white - bearded manakin performs elaborated and complex figures at leks , involving several males . the lek is the same year after year , and the male spends most of its time in its territory . displays are more active after dawn and in the early afternoon . white - bearded manakin performs three distinct phases during the courtship displays , always with several males , sometimes up to 50 or more .

olson , d . h . and m . k . mcdowell . 1983 . a comparison of white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) populations and lek systems in suriname and trinidad . auk 100 : 739 - 742 .

white - bearded manakins are widespread in the lowlands of northern and central south america . there is an isolated population west of the andes from southwestern colombia south to extreme northwestern peru . the range also extends more continuously from northern and eastern colombia east across southern venezuela to the guianas and northeastern brazil , and south through eastern ecuador and peru to northeastern bolivia and central and east central brazil . white - bearded manakin is scarce or absent , however , from parts of southwestern amazonia . white - bearded manakin also occurs on trinidad , and from northeastern brazil south to southeastern brazil , eastern paraguay , and northeastern argentina .

table s1 . museum data for the white - bearded manakin specimens in green plumage collected along the magdalena river valley and the eastern llanos in colombia . data from : males in seemingly female - like plumage do not mimic females : uv reflectance reveals temporal cryptic dimorphism in a manakin species exhibiting delayed plumage maturation . - dryad

the white - bearded manakin is a widespread species in northern south america from colombia to northern argentina . males of the species gather at communal leks to display for females . the lek display includes the males hopping from vegetation to the ground and is accompanied by loud wing snaps , whirring , and calls . males are black above with white underparts and a white neck collar , while females and immatures are dark olive .

snow , d . w . 1962 . a field study of the black and white manakin , manacus manacu s , in trinidad . zoologica 47 : 65 - 104 .

cestari , césar and pizo , marco aurélio 2013 . frugivory by the white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus , pipridae ) in restinga forest , an ecosystem associated to the atlantic forest . biota neotropica , vol . 13 , issue . 2 , p . 345 .

. the male white - bearded manakin has a black cap and white neck and underparts . birds on the south side of the amazon have white mantle and have paler underparts . birds on the north side of hte amazon have black mantle and darker underparts . the female is olive - green with paler throat and center of the belly . both sexes have orange legs . it forages in the understory of interior forest . the female is similar to a

behaviour : white - bearded manakin feeds mainly on small fruits and insects ( mainly eaten by the young ) . fruits are plucked while flying , or sometimes from a perch if the fruit is close enough . insects are caught in flight in low branches . it usually forages alone .

voice : sounds by xeno - canto white - bearded manakin usual call is a slightly trilled “peerr” uttered at lek . during the displays , the male utters an excited “pee - you” and a high - pitched “chwee” . as other manakins’ species , it produces snaps and other noises with the wings .

adult male : crown deep black . sides of head ( including the auriculars ) and of neck , and broad collar across nape , white ( constrasting sharply with the black of the crown ) . back , wings and tail deep black . rump and uppertail coverts dark gray . throat and breast white ( and connected to the white nape collar ) ; belly and flanks white , with a gray cast .

the bird leaps across to an opposite vertical perch . as it alights , it turns in the air in order to look at the place from which it came . this short flight produces the characteristic snap when the bird takes off . white - bearded manakin male repeats rapidly these movements to and fro between two perches . when several males perform these movements together , we only see jumping black and white silhouettes .

the movement patterns of males , females and juveniles of lekking species often differ due to differences in the commitment to lek activities , which may lead to differences in the spatial distribution and dispersal distances of seeds they eat . by sampling seeds in three lek and non - lek areas of the white - bearded manakin (

range : white - bearded manakin is resident in tropical regions of south america . it is found in colombia , venezuela and trinidad , and southwards in bolivia and northern argentina . there are two populations in separated ranges , one in the pacific coast of ecuador , and the other in eastern and south - eastern coasts of brazil .

the white - bearded manakin lives in trinidad and throughout much of south america . the males court females by snapping their wings with firecracker - like pops . a flurry of males flits rapidly back and forth from one slender , bare sapling to another , a foot above the ground . when the male spots the . . . read more »

the elevational range of white - bearded manakin extends from the lowlands up to 1900 m in colombia , although it usually occurs below 1000 ( hilty and brown 1986 ) , to 1300 m ( but usually below 800 m ) in ecuador ( ridgely and greenfield 2001a ) , to 1000 m in venezuela ( hilty 2003 ) , and to 1000 m in peru ( schulenberg et al . 2010 ) .

snow , d . ( 2018 ) . white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .

marini , m . â . 1992 . foraging behavior and diet of the helmeted manakin . condor 94 : 151 - 158 .

description museum data for the white - bearded manakin specimens in green plumage collected along the magdalena river valley and the eastern llanos in colombia . hyphen indicates absence of geographic coordinates in the specimen label . the data correspond to specimens of the ornithological collections held in instituto de ciencias naturales de la universidad nacional de colombia ( icn ) and museo de historia natural de la universidad de los andes , colombia ( andes ) .

occurs at the court level , and the spatial distribution of deposited seeds varies with manakin lekking status and the daily period of foraging .

manacus are small , short tailed manakins . both sexes have orange tarsi and toes , and males have elongated feathers on the throat . females of all species of manacus are dull olive ; males of all species have a black crown and wings and a broad pale collar across the nape and upper back , but the color of the body plumage is variable across species , in various combinations of white , yellow or orange , and pale olive . the male white - bearded manakin is the whitest member of the genus : the upperparts are mostly black , except for the broad nape collar and a gray rump , and the underparts are almost entirely white , with a gray wash , variable in intensity , on the belly and flanks .

the amazing moonwalking manakin bird ! with naturalist , kim bostwick . from the pbs nature documentary deep jungle - new frontiers . read more »

n2 - eight microsatellite dna markers were isolated and characterized from white bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) using an enrichment cloning procedure . a large number of alleles ( range 9 - 25 ) , and high levels of observed heterozygosity ( mean 0 . 67 ) were resolved in 236 individuals . no evidence for linkage disequilibrium or the presence of null alleles was found , indicating that these markers will be useful for examining genetic relatedness , parentage and population structure in manakins .

ab - eight microsatellite dna markers were isolated and characterized from white bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) using an enrichment cloning procedure . a large number of alleles ( range 9 - 25 ) , and high levels of observed heterozygosity ( mean 0 . 67 ) were resolved in 236 individuals . no evidence for linkage disequilibrium or the presence of null alleles was found , indicating that these markers will be useful for examining genetic relatedness , parentage and population structure in manakins .

abstract = " eight microsatellite dna markers were isolated and characterized from white bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) using an enrichment cloning procedure . a large number of alleles ( range 9 - 25 ) , and high levels of observed heterozygosity ( mean 0 . 67 ) were resolved in 236 individuals . no evidence for linkage disequilibrium or the presence of null alleles was found , indicating that these markers will be useful for examining genetic relatedness , parentage and population structure in manakins . " ,

hartert , e . 1912 . [ description of a new subspecies of manakin ] bulletin of the british ornithologists ' club 29 : 63 - 64 .

data from : males in seemingly female - like plumage do not mimic females : uv reflectance reveals temporal cryptic dimorphism in a manakin species exhibiting delayed plumage maturation .

morphological , territorial , and behavioural characteristics were measured on white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) males from two leks in two consecutive years . these data were combined with data on marker - inferred relatedness to study possible co - variation with mating success . in one year , male size and male condition were correlated with mating success . in both years , males holding courts nearer the lek centre gained more matings . no observed male display behaviour appeared to be an independently important factor in explaining variance in male mating success . successful males made more aggressive displays than non - successful males and more displays were between close relatives . number of aggressive displays increased as the distance between male courts decreased . mating success in the white - bearded manakin is most likely mediated by a combination of morphological and behavioural characteristics , influencing both male–male competition and female choice . females could potentially use centrality on the lek as an indicator of male characteristics . however , levels of relatedness may influence spatial arrangement of males on a lek thereby affecting male–male interactions and ultimately influencing patterns of mating success .

friedmann , h . 1944 . a new manakin from cerro yapacana , upper orinoco valley , southern venezuela . proceedings of the biological society of washington 57 : 99 - 100 .

adult male has black and white plumage . crown , back , wings and tail are black . rump and uppertail coverts are rather grey . on the underparts , chin , throat and breast are white . belly , flanks , vent and undertail coverts are pale grey . undertail feathers are black . the throat shows elongated feathers which play an important role in courtship displays . on the head , lores , forehead and crown are black . cheeks and neck collar are white . bill is blackish , with paler lower mandible . eyes are dark brown . legs and feet are orange - red .

brumfield , r . t . , and m . j . braun . 2001 . pylogenetic relationships in bearded manakins ( pipridae : manacus ) indicate that male plumage color is a misleading taxonomic marker . condor 103 : 248 - 258 .

bostwick , k . s . , and r . o . prum . 2003 . high - speed video analysis of wing - snapping in two manakin clades . journal of experimental biology 206 : 3693 - 3706

morales - betancourt ja , castaño - villa gj ( 2017 ) data from : males in seemingly female - like plumage do not mimic females : uv reflectance reveals temporal cryptic dimorphism in a manakin species exhibiting delayed plumage maturation .

reproduction : breeding season varies according to the region . the white - bearded manakin male does not take part in nesting duties . the nest is a small shallow cup built between horizontal twigs , and secured with spider webs . it is usually placed low in vegetation , from 50 cm to 1 , 50 metre above the ground . it is a woven cup , made with rootlets and dead leaves , and the interior is lined with fine and soft materials . the nest - site is often near water . female usually lays two eggs . she incubates during 18 to 19 days , spending long moments on the nest , with brief foraging flights . chicks are fed mainly with insects , and they fledge about two weeks after hatching .

phiphatsuwannachai , suchada westcott , david a . mckeown , adam and savini , tommaso 2018 . inter - group variability in seed dispersal by white - handed gibbons in mosaic forest . biotropica , vol . 50 , issue . 1 , p . 106 .

morales - betancourt ja , castaño - villa gj ( 2017 ) males in seemingly female - like plumage do not mimic females : uv reflectance reveals temporal cryptic dimorphism in a manakin species exhibiting delayed plumage maturation . journal of avian biology 49 ( 1 ) : jav - 01467 . urltoken

we find several subspecies which vary in size and sometimes in colour extension . m . m . abditivus , with stiff and longer throat feathers . m . m . flaveolus with yellowish tinge in throat and collar . m . m . bangsi is smaller with grey belly and narrower collar . m . m . leucochlamys with more white in mantle and white belly . m . m . maximus is similar in plumage but larger , with longer throat and mantle feathers . m . m . interior with paler grey rump and lower belly and vent . m . m . trinitatis is larger , with broader white collar . m . m . umbrosus with darker grey areas . m . m . manacus is very similar . m . m . expectatus is much smaller . m . m . subpurus with darker grey rump and variation of grey on underparts . m . m . purus with less black on upperparts . m . m . longibarbatus with longer throat feathers and some variations in colour extensions . m . m . purissimus with shorter throat feathers and longer wings . m . m . gutturosus is darker grey below .

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sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .

justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .

the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 19 . 1 - 23 . 8 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 19 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .

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tu , l . , c . mccabe , and w . tori ( 2013 ) .

) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .

hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .

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a guide to the birds of colombia by steven l . hilty and william l . brown princeton university press – isbn 069108372x

female is very different with olive - green plumage on upperparts . underparts are duller , rather greyish - olive on throat and belly . breast is more olive - green . juvenile is similar to female . immature male has full adult plumage at one year .

the first phase is the commonest . the males jump between vertical twigs situated around the lek . the bird is perched sideways on a vertical stem . at this moment , the long throat feathers are erected as a “beard” longer than the bill .

the second phase is performed occasionally and less common . after the series of jumps from perch to perch , one male remains on the mating perch , quivering , and with the head and the body pointed downwards . then , it hops to the ground , turning in the air , lands with a strange grunting sound , and returns to higher place on the mating perch . then , with rapid small steps , it comes down to the perch with flapping wings . this phase is pre - copulatory .

the third phase is often directed to a female approaching the lek . the male crouches while its head is retracted . it sways side to side and flaps the wings , producing the whirring sounds . the long throat feathers are fluffed forwards and upwards as the wings are raised and fanned .

the female which visits a lek for mating , usually joins the male in a dance of jumps between a stem and the mating perch , both birds crossing each other in the air . then , the female remains on the mating perch . at this moment , the male performs the pre - copulatory display , ending in the “slide down” the perch onto female’s back .

recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : manacus manacus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .

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manacus manacus longibarbatus : lower amazonian brazil ( r . xingú to r . tocantins )

manacus manacus purissimus : e brazil ( r . tocantins to se pará and n maranhão )

manacus manacus purus : n brazil ( r . madeira to r . tapajós and sw pará )

manacus manacus subpurus : s - cent . brazil ( se amazona , e rondônia and nw mato grosso )

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the feathers of the throat are somewhat elongated ( and can be projected forward during displays ) . most remiges are stiffened , with thickened , bowed shafts and stiff outer webs . additionally , the distals portions of four outer five primaries are very narrow and stiff .

adult female : upperparts olive green . underparts paler and grayer , especially on the throat and belly .

juvenile : very similar to adult female ; body plumage fluffier . " young males " ( age ? ) may have dark shaft streaks on the crown .

bare parts color data are from junge and meise ( 1958 ) , haverschmidt ( 1968 ) , wiedenfeld et al . ( 1985 ) , and novaes and lima ( 1998 ) .

total length : 10 . 2 cm ( hilty and brown 1986 ) , 10 . 7 cm ( hilty 2003 ) , 10–11 cm ( schulenberg et al . 2010 ) , 11 cm ( ridgely and greenfield 2001b )

mass : manacus , male , mean 17 ± 2 g ( range 14 - 20 g , n = 5 ; dick et al . 1984 ) ; female , mean 15 . 5 g ± 3 g ( range 12 - 20 g , n = 4 ; dick et al . 1984 ) . additional data on mass is provided by kirwan and green ( 2011 ) .

the century dictionary and cyclopedia ( new york , ny : the century co . , 1889 )

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cherrie , g . k . , and e . m . b . reichenberger . 1923 . descriptions of proposed new birds from brazil and paraguay . american museum novitates number 58 .

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gyldenstolpe , n . 1951 . the ornithology of the rio purús region in western brazil . arkiv för zoologi second series volume 2 ( 1 ) : 1 - 320 .

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junge , g . c . a . , and g . f . mees . 1958 . the avifauna of trinidad and tobago . zoologische verhandleingen number 37 .

kirwan , g . m . , and g . green . 2011 . cotingas and manakins . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .

lima , c . a . , p . r . sequeira , r . m . m . gonçalves , m . f . vasconcelos , and l . leite . 2010 . dieta de aves de mata atlántica : uma abordagem baseada em conteúdos estomacais . ornitología neotropical 21 : 425 - 438 .

lopes , l . e . , a . m . fernandes , and m . â . marini . 2005 . diet of some atlantic forest birds . ararajuba 13 : 95 - 103 .

mckay , b . d . , f . k . barker , h . l . mays , jr . , s . m . doucet , and g . e . hill . 2010 . a molecular phylogenetic hypothesis for the manakins ( aves : pipridae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 55 : 733 - 737 .

novaes , f . c . , and m . de fátima cunha lima . 1998 . aves da grande belém . museu paraense emílio goeldi , belém .

olivares , o . m . 1958 . aves de la costa del pacifico , municipio de guapi , cauca , colombia . iii . caldasia 8 : 217 - 251 .

oniki , y . , and e . o . willis . 1999 . body mass , cloacal temperature , morphometrics , breeding and molt of birds of the serra das araras region , mato grosso , brazil . ararajuba 7 : 17 - 21 .

parkes , k . c . 1961 . intergeneric hybrids in the family pipridae . condor 63 : 145 - 150 .

rego , p . s . , j . araripe , m . l . v . marceliano , i . sampaio , and h . schneider . 2007 . phylogenetic analyses of the genera pipra , lepidothrix and dixiphia ( pipridae , passeriformes ) using partial cytochrome b and 16s mtdna genes . zoologica scripta 2007 : 1 - 11 .

ridgely , r . s . , and p . j . greenfield . 2001a . the birds of ecuador : status , distribution , and taxonomy . cornell university press , ithaca , new york .

ridgely , r . s . , and p . j . greenfield . 2001b . the birds of ecuador : field guide . cornell university press , ithaca , new york .

ridgely , r . s . , and g . tudor . 1994 . the birds of south america . volume ii . the suboscine passerines . university of texas press , austin , texas .

ryder , t . b . , and j . d . wolfe . 2009 . the current state of knowledge on molt and plumage sequences in selected neotropical bird families . ornitologia neotropical 20 : 1 - 18 .

schulenberg , t . s . , d . f . stotz , d . f . lane , j . p . o’neill , and t . a . parker iii . 2010 . birds of peru . revised and updated edition . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .

shorey , l . , s . piertney , j . stone , and j . hoglund . 2000 . fine - scale genetic structuring on manacus manacus leks . nature 408 : 352 - 353 .

sibley , c . g . 1957 . the evolutionary and taxonomic significance of sexual dimorphism and hybridization in birds . condor 59 : 166 - 191 .

snow , d . w . 1979 . family pipridae , manakins . pages 245 - 28o in m . a . traylor , jr . ( editor ) , check - list of birds of the world . volume vii i . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .

snow , d . w . 2004 . family pipridae ( manakins ) . pages 110 - 169 in del hoyo , j . , a , elliott , & d . christie , editors . handbook of the birds of the world . volume 9 . cotingas to pitpits and wagtails . lynx edicions , barcelona .

snow , d . w . , and a . lill . 1974 . longevity records for some neotropical land birds . condor 76 : 262 - 267 .

tello , j . g . , r . g . moyle , d . j . marchese , and j . cracraft . 2009 . phylogeny and phylogenetic classification of the tyrant flycatchers , cotingas , manakins , and their allies ( aves : tyrannides ) . cladistics 25 : 429 - 467 .

théry , m . 1992 . the evolution of leks through female choice : differential clustering and space utilization in six sympatric manakins . behavioral ecology and sociobiology 30 : 227 - 237 .

todd , w . e . c . 1928 . five new manakins from south america . proceedings of the biological society of washington 41 : 111 - 113 .

wiedenfeld , d . a . , t . s . schulenberg , and m . b . robbins . 1985 . birds of a tropical deciduous forest in extreme northwestern peru . pages 305 - 315 in p . a . buckley , m . s . foster , e . s . morton , r . s . ridgely , and f . g . buckley ( editors ) , neotropical ornithology . ornithological monographs number 36 .

willis , e . o . 1984 . manakins ( aves , pipridae ) as army ant followers . ciência e cultura 36 : 817 - 823 .

zimmer , j . t . 1936 . studies of peruvian birds . xxii . notes on the pipridae . american museum novitates number 889 .

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often considered conspecific with all congeners . see also m . vitellinus . almost all geographical variation probably clinal , and some of listed races may be untenable ; full revision of taxonomy needed . form named as “ m . coronatus ” , known only from type specimen ( “upper amazon” ) , appears to be hybrid between present species and ceratopipra erythrocephala . fifteen subspecies recognized .

bangs , 1899 – n colombia ( santa marta region , lower cauca valley , lower and middle magdalena valley ) .

chapman , 1914 – sw colombia ( s from sw cauca ) and extreme nw ecuador ( n esmeraldas , imbabura ) .

chapman , 1914 – nw & w ecuador ( w esmeraldas and pichincha s to n guayas ) .

chapman , 1924 – sw ecuador ( e guayas and extreme w chimborazo s to w loja ) and extreme nw peru ( tumbes ) .

chapman , 1914 – nw & sc venezuela , colombia e of andes , e ecuador , ne peru ( n of r marañón ) , and nw brazil ( on upper r negro ) .

( linnaeus , 1766 ) – s venezuela ( r casiquiare region , in s amazonas ) , the guianas , and ne brazil n of lower amazon , w to r negro .

gyldenstolpe , 1941 – w brazil ( r juruá ) , ne peru ( e loreto , madre de dios ) and nw bolivia ( e to r beni ) .

cherrie & reichenberger , 1923 – sc brazil ( upper r madeira to w mato grosso ) and n bolivia ( beni , n santa cruz ) .

bangs , 1899 – s bank of lower amazon in brazil ( r madeira probably to left bank of r xingu ) .

j . t . zimmer , 1936 – s bank of lower amazon in brazil ( right bank of r xingu e to right bank of r tocantins ) .

todd , 1928 – e brazil from right bank of r tocantins e to n maranhão .

( desmarest , 1806 ) – e & se brazil ( alagoas , bahia and minas gerais s to extreme se mato grosso do sul , e santa catarina and extreme ne rio grande do sul ) , se paraguay and extreme ne argentina ( misiones ) .

male calls at lek a rather plaintive , slightly trilled “peerr” , changing in excitement . . .

forest edges , especially where woody undergrowth is thick , also low shrubby forest and secondary . . .

mainly small fruits , also insects . in trinidad study area , fruits of 105 plant species , from 27 families , recorded as eaten ; . . .

in trinidad , egg - laying in jan–sept ( exceptionally , dec ) , peak may–jun , month of starting varying annually , and up to five . . .

resident . in radio - tracking study in french guiana , adults largely sedentary when breeding , moving . . .

not globally threatened . common in many parts of its wide range , but more local in areas of extensive unbroken forest . common in trinidad ; common in n & c parts of . . .

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this map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .

distribution maps should be very cautiously looked at . they do not provide with precise location but only give an idea of species global distribution . distribution areas are geopolitical ; as a consequence the whole of a country is selected if a species is only located in one single place . for more precise distribution areas please go to iucn site ( see link above ) .

) , chapman , 1924 . sw ecuador ( e guayas and extreme w chimborazo s to w loja ) and extreme nw peru ( tumbes ) .

) , chapman , 1914 . nw & sc venezuela , colombia e of andes , e ecuador , ne peru , and nw brazil ( on upper r negro ) .

) , gyldenstolpe , 1941 . w brazil ( r juruá ) , possibly also adjacent ne peru ( e loreto ) .

schulenberg , t . s . , d . f . stotz , and l . rico . 2006 . distribution maps of the birds of peru , version 1 . 0 . environment , culture & conservation ( ecco ) . the field museum .

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contribute to the knowledge and undertanding of bird distribution in peru . report your rare and unusual sightings :

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this article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .

. context - dependence in seed removal by lekking and non - lekking frugivorous birds in brazilian of atlantic forest .

the ecology of a tropical forest : seasonal rhythms and long - term changes .

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taxonomic source ( s ) del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk . sacc . 2006 . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken . sacc . 2006 . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .

population justification : the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) .

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hippelates is a genus of flies in the family chloropidae and are often referred to as eye gnats or eye flies ( the name is also used for members of the old world genus siphunculina ) .

they are very small ( 1.5 – 2.5 millimetres or 0.06 – 0.10 inches long ) flies that frequently congregate around the eyes to lap at the fluids .

they are primarily a nuisance pest , and do not bite .

they have been linked with the spread of bovine mastitis in north america , and in certain tropical regions , they are capable of vectoring disease-causing bacteria ( e.g. , yaws ) .

hippelates pusio is considered to be the vector for anaplasmosis , bovine mastitis , and haemophilus spp. which cause bacterial conjunctivitis or ' pinkeye ' .

hippelates

hippelates <EOT> lioppelates pusio was first named hippelates pusio by loew in 1872 , and liohippelates bishoppi was described by sabrosky as hippelates bishoppi in 1941 . in 1929 , duda described the genus liohippelates , which now contains the most important common species of eye gnats in the southeastern united states including what was hippelates pusio and hippelates bishoppi .

taplin d , zaias n , rebell g . 1967 . infection by hippelates flies . lancet 2 : 472 .

sabrosky cw . 1941 . the hippelates flies or eye gnats : preliminary notes . canadian entomologist 73 : 23 - 27 .

mulla ms . 1962 . the breeding niches of hippelates gnats . annals of the entomological society of america 55 : 389 - 393 .

bigham jt . 1941 . hippelates ( eye gnats ) investigations in the southeastern states . journal of economic entomology 34 : 439 - 444 .

what made you want to look up hippelates ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .

liohippelates bishoppi is found from february through september and liohippelates pusio year round . liohippelates pusio can be found from washington to north dakota , south to pennsylvania , as well as california south to mexico and east to the southeastern united states and bermuda ( gni 2010 ) . liohippelates bishoppi is found from saskatchewan to quebec , south to colorado , texas and florida . other liohippelates species found in the southeastern and eastern u . s . are liohippelates bicolor ( coquillett ) and liohippelates pallipes ( loew ) , whereas hippelates species found in the same area include hippelates nobilis loew , hippelates plebejus loew , and hippelates dorsalis loew ( sabrosky 1941 ) .

sanders da . 1940 . hippelates flies as vectors of bovine mastitis ( preliminary report ) . journal of the american veterinary medical association 97 : 306 - 308 .

kumm hw . 1935 . the natural infection of hippelates pallipes loew with the spirochete of yaws . royal society of tropical medicine and hygiene 29 : 265 - 272 .

observations on predation of hippelates collusor and distribution in southern california of associated fauna < legner , e . f . , l . moore and r . a . medved

kumm hw , turner tb . 1936 . the transmission of yaws from man to rabbits by an insect vector , hippelates pallipes loew . american journal of tropical medicine 16 : 1 - 16

herms wb , burgess , rw . 1930 . a description of the immature stages of hippelates pusio loew and a brief account of its life history . journal of economic entomology 23 : 600 - 603 .

during 1961–62 four hymenopterous parasites of the eye gnat , hippelates collusor ( townsend ) , were discovered in the semiarid agricultural regions of southern california . these parasites were found by field - exposing host hippelates pupae for several days between discs of nylon bolting cloth for predator protection . three of the parasites , phaenopria occidentalis fouts , spalangia drosophilae ashmead , and eupteromalus nidulans thomson , were successfully cultured in the laboratory and also studied in field releases . the fourth , trichopria n . sp . , died before propagation could be attempted . in field releases of parasites s . drosophilae was the most efficient species in seeking hippelates pupae in the environments studied .

hall jr . dg . 1932 . some studies on the breeding media , development , and stages of the eye gnat hippelates pusio loew ( diptera : chloropidae ) . american journal of epidemiology 16 : 854 - 864 .

dow rp , bigham jt , sabrosky cw . 1951 . sequel to " hippelates ( eye gnat ) investigations in the southeastern states " by john t . bigham . proceedings of the entomological society of washington 53 : 263 - 271 .

hippelates probably contribute to the rapid spread of streptococci throughout the island , and to the frequency of infection with more than one serotype ; they may also contribute to the high incidence of streptococcal skin infection , but this requires further evidence .

will fly predators work for hippelates species , i . e . eye gnats ? these are flies , and they breed in rotting organic matter . but elsewhere in your q & r section it is said that fly predators do not work for any kind of gnat .

tondella mlc , paganelli ch , bortoloho im , tankano oa , trino k and brandileone mcc . 1994 . isolamento de harmophilus aegyptius associado a febre purpurica brasileira de cloropideos ( diptera ) dos generous hippelates e liohippelates . revista do instituto de medicina tropical de são paulo 36 : 105 - 109 .

an epidemic of acute glomerulonephritis in trinidad led to an investigation into streptococcal skin infection , as most nephritis cases were associated with this . hippelates in this region commonly feed on skin lesions , infected or otherwise . some of these flies captured in the vicinity of infected children were found to be contaminated with streptococcus pyogenes ; 3 species were involved , h . peruanus , h . flavipes and h . currani . the naturally - acquired infection lasted for 28 hours or more , and the flies would return to human bait while still infectious . the hippelates population and the streptococcal skin infection rate at one school showed similar changes .

the eye gnats , a genus of flies in the family chloropidae ( fruit flies ) that are attracted to the bodily secretions and fluids of animals and humans , particularly those in the eyes . hippelates is suspected of transmitting certain types of conjunctivitis ( such as pinkeye ) , bovine mastitis , and yaws ( frambesia tropica ) .

unfortunately the fly predators do not work on hippelates . primarily the fly predators are for flies in the muscidae family , though they will occasionally parasitize those in the calliphoridae and sarcophagidae families . their very limited host range makes them ideal for biological control as they do not pose a risk to non - pest species ; unfortunately , it also means they are unable to control every pest species of fly .

predatory and scavenger arthropods were surveyed in hippelates collusor ( townsend ) breeding habitats in southern california by using 3 collection methods . a total of 117 different species was collected . the importance of potential predatory species is discussed , and various intensities of natural predation are recorded . there was considerable heterogeneity in predatory activity as influenced by locality , habitat , and seasonal and hourly differences . eggs and 1st - stage larvae sustained the highest predation , with a substantial amount being associated with teneral adults after pupal eclosion .

both liohippelates spp . and closely related hippelates spp . occur throughout much of north america ( sabrosky 1941 ) and 270 species have been described ( sabrosky 1987 ) . bingham ( 1941 ) determined during his investigations of liohippelates in the southeastern u . s . that liohippelates pusio was the most common pest of this genus . later that year , sabrosky ( 1941 ) found and described a new species , liohippelates bishoppi , misidentified by bingham as liohippelates pusio , which made up a moderate portion of the southeastern liohippelates .

physical barriers , such as screened porches and windows on houses and fly masks or fly sheets ( which resemble a fine cloth mesh , largely impenetrable by even the smallest pests ) on livestock , can provide some relief from annoyance and protection from possible pathogen transmission . sanitation methods to eliminate potential breeding sites , such as reducing manure and organic matter in soil and reducing loose soil matter , may reduce breeding at the location . however , often reducing liohippelates and hippelates breeding sites is nearly impossible in livestock facilities as manure , moisture and soil disturbance are inseparable from animals .

members of the genus liohippelates , formerly hippelates , are very small true flies and a common occurrence in much of north and south america ( sabrosky 1980 , kumm 1935 ) . these non - biting pests are attracted to fluids secreted by the eyes , nose and ears on both humans and animals . some species are attracted to discharge from open wounds and excrement ( goddard 2007 ) . because of their propensity for hovering around the eyes , this genus has been referred to commonly as eye gnats , but are also known as grass flies , eye flies , and fruit flies .

in 2006 114 people were examined in santa catalina and san joaquin ; 21 patients were clinically diagnosed with trachoma ( 18 . 4 % ) , 15 ( 13 . 2 % ) of them children under 15 years old . all trachoma phases were observed . three women had corneal opacity with poor vision . in the remaining three communities , three women with advanced trachoma with corneal opacity and blindness were detected . the poor quality of living conditions without fresh water and adequate sanitary disposal systems , and the abundance of flies identified as hippelates sp . , are risk factors for the transmission of the disease .

advisories are not working correctly for plymouth . the next closest stations are rocky mount , williamston and buckland . begin sprays …

from cotton – july 2 , 2018 , 03 : 12 pm please consider attending a scouting school this summer . we will post as they become …

earworm populations ( known as bollworm in cotton ) were relatively low in our system from 2011 to 2016 . arguably , at …

this week i have noticed damage on many pin oaks ( quercus falcata ) by oak spider mites ( oligonychus bicolor ) . oak …

recent news stories about giant hogweed have raised awareness of this nasty invader . yes , we have giant hogweed in …

when cotton blooms , it’s time to switch sampling and thresholds for plant bugs . this previous article covered management of …

we received a confirmed report of basil downy mildew in north carolina . growers are advised to actively scout for …

corn is susceptible to damage at three stages ( roughly ) : v1 to v6 , v14 to vt and r1 to r4 . …

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integrated pest management ( ipm ) is a sustainable approach to managing pests that combines multiple approaches including prevention , avoidance , pest monitoring and suppression in a manner that minimizes public health , economic , and environmental risk . ipm serves as a framework to provide an effective , comprehensive , low - risk approach to protect people and resources from pests .

ultimately , the goal with an ipm program is to help stakeholders deal with pests—insects , plant diseases , weeds , and more—with methods that reduce risks to public health and the environmental while saving money .

the north carolina extension ipm program serves as a focal point for team building , communication and stakeholder participation in integrated pest management ( ipm ) within the state . program goals include promoting effective and economical management of pests , reducing risks to human health from pests and pest management practices , and minimizing environmental effects through the adoption of ipm on a variety of crops and settings in north carolina . these goals are achieved by the timely delivery of ipm technology and research information to stakeholders in all regions of the state .

leadership of the extension ipm program in north carolina is provided by an ipm coordinator ( designated by the director of the north carolina cooperative extension service ) , an established advisory board , and working groups . dr . danesha seth carley , the current ipm coordinator , accepted the nc ipm coordinator position in 2013 .

the extension ipm coordinator involves faculty and staff from north carolina state university and north carolina a & t state university in ipm activities across the state , communicates program successes , and maintains stakeholder input via the advisory board and the ipm portal , as well as multiple training sessions and meetings .

the advisory board provides advice to the extension ipm coordinator regarding the direction of the ipm program in the state . it is composed of a wide variety of ipm stakeholders , including north carolina state university and north carolina a & t state university faculty , non - governmental agencies , environmentalists , north carolina department of agriculture & consumer services personnel , farmers and agricultural consultants .

the north carolina extension ipm program focuses on delivering ipm content to our stakeholders and community members through a variety of activities . the primary activities include information delivery , pest monitoring and data managment , evaluation and needs assessment tools development , and programs to magnify statewide ipm impacts .

the extension ipm program is a cooperative effort of the usda nifa , north carolina cooperative extension service , north carolina state university , and north carolina a & t state university . it also works in partnership with the southern ipm center , located at north carolina state university in raleigh , and acts to promote ipm in north carolina and the southern united states .

funding for the north carolina extension ipm program is provided by competitive grants from the u . s . department of agriculture’s national institute of food and agriculture ( nifa ) .

nc state university and n . c . a & t state university work in tandem , along with federal , state and local governments , to form a strategic partnership called n . c . cooperative extension , which staffs local offices in all 100 counties and with the eastern band of cherokee indians .

nc state university and n . c . a & t state university are collectively committed to positive action to secure equal opportunity and prohibit discrimination and harassment regardless of race , color , national origin , religion , political beliefs , family and marital status , sex , age , veteran status , sexual identity , sexual orientation , genetic information , or disability .

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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington

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pusio has been evaluated , showing that it is able to transmit the rickettsia up to three days after ingestion of infected erythrocytes [ 23 ] .

( diptera : chloropidae ) and tabanidae on cattle : its possible role in transmission of anaplasmosis .

en publicaciones anteriores ) ( mulla 1962 , legner y bay 1965 , legner et al .

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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .

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common name : eye gnats , grass flies , eye flies , fruit flies scientific name : liohippelates spp . ( insecta : diptera : chloropidae )

figure 1 . lateral view of an adult liohippelates sp . , from a horse farm in north central florida . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .

extremely large aggregations of eye gnats are common in areas that have loose sandy soils , especially in the southern united states . these high concentrations of flies are a great nuisance to humans and animals in rural towns as well as agricultural , recreational and tourist areas . while they do not bite , liohippelates spp . have been implicated in the transmission of several diseases to humans and livestock including human acute conjunctivitis ( pink eye ) . due to the increase of transmission of pink eye and the reduction in labor efficiency caused by extreme numbers of eye gnats in the coachella valley , california , a control project was initiated by the bureau of entomology in the 1920s to focus on the life history and possible control measures for this pest . hall ( 1932 ) subsequently implicated liohippelates pusio ( loew ) as one of the limiting factors in the development of the coachella valley .

the majority of the flies encountered in the southeastern region of the united states are liohippelates pusio and liohippelates bishoppi ( sabrosky ) , and as a result the biological information below will focus broadly on these two species .

adults : adult liohippelates are true flies ( bearing only two wings ) and are very small , approximately 1 . 5 to 2 mm long , and shiny black or grayish in color with clear wings . some species have reddish or yellowish heads . legs tend to be reddish - yellow to brown with brown bands ( hall 1932 ) .

figure 2 . lateral view of an adult liohippelates , unknown species . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .

eggs : the eggs of liohippelates flies are a pearlescent white and approximately 0 . 5 mm long . they are half as wide ( 0 . 25 mm ) as long , resembling a banana with one side curved and one nearly straight ( hall 1932 ) . eggs are deposited below the surface of loose soils .

larvae : the larvae hatch in seven to 11 days and feed on organic matter ( kahn 2008 ) . the larvae average 3 mm in length and are a whitish color ( hermes and burgess 1930 ) . larvae are pointed towards the anterior end and rounded towards the posterior . the mouth hook is darker than the rest of the body and curved gently downward .

pupae : the pupae are approximately 2 . 25 mm in length , depending on the media in which larvae developed and grew ( hall 1932 ) , and a reddish - brown color , turning darker as they age . liohippelates pupate in or around sand mixed with organic matter , such as manure , hay and remaining harvested crop debris .

figure 3 . primary liohippelates breeding sites in florida include loose soils with organic matter and moisture , as is found on many livestock facilities throughout the state . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .

liohippelates spp . are holometabolous , meaning they have four distinct life stages ; egg , larvae , pupa and adult . the life cycle of liohippelates can range from 11 days to three months depending on development conditions such as temperature and moisture ( hall 1932 ) . development from egg emergence to the adult is completed in approximately three weeks during the summer in florida ( bigham 1941 ) and multiple generations can occur each year . breeding sites are primarily those with freshly disturbed soil mixed with organic matter , such as cut grass and hay , and moisture . disturbances can be caused by digging , plowing , harrowing , or even by livestock activities ( bigham 1941 , mulla 1962 ) .

liohippelates are not host specific and will feed on the fluid from wounds , eyes , nose , and other areas on humans as well as livestock and domestic pets in a variety of situations . while they do not bite , due to their persistent feeding behavior this group of insects is responsible for extreme annoyance to people and animals when they occur in large numbers . in livestock , it has been suggested that high numbers of liohippelates can cause losses in condition , such as weight , due to continuous and unrelieved attack ( hinkle et al . 2001 ) .

figure 5 . congregation of adult liohippelates spp . around the eye of a horse . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .

many species of liohippelates have been implicated in the mechanical transmission of several diseases and conditions in humans and livestock . mechanical transmission of pathogens causing disease from liohippelates to humans or livestock occurs when a fly comes in contact with a pathogen , such as a bacterium or virus , and subsequently feeds or rests on a human or animal , transmitting the pathogen from one location to another by contact . as feeding occurs on the blood , mucus , and other fluids around natural orifices of mammals , pathogens can be carried easily into the body .

human acute conjunctivitis , also known as " pink eye " or " sore eyes , " is caused by one or more bacteria that can be mechanically transmitted by liohippelates . pink eye causes pain , swelling , changes in vision and extreme sensitivity to light ( mideha 2010 ) . incidents of conjunctivitis have been shown to increase during liohippelates outbreaks ( dow and hines 1957 , greenberg 1973 ) . in california , hall ( 1926 ) correlated pink eye to high populations of lioppelates flavipes ( loew ) .

liohippelates flavipes and liohippelates pallipes have been shown to mechanically transmit the spirochete treponema pertenue , the causative agent of yaws , in jamaica and parts of south america ( kumm 1935 , kumm and turner 1936 , saunders et al . 1936 ) . yaws is a skin infection that causes ulceration and , in severe cases , can affect bone and cartilage . yaws occurs mainly in warm and humid regions of the world , including much of south america , and primarily affects children under the age of 15 . yaws is especially common in poor communities and those in crowded conditions ( dnz 2010 ) .

figure 6 . this person has yaws with 8 month - old juxta - articular nodules on the left elbow . photograph by peter perine , cdc .

liohippelates has been implicated in mechanical transmission of pathogens between animals as well . in cattle , liohippelates can transmit the causative agents of acute bovine mastitis ( sanders 1940 ) and vesicular stomatitis ( taplin et al . 1967 ) . acute bovine mastitis is inflammation of the mammary glands , primarily caused by bacterial infection , which can be extremely painful and compromise milk quality . mastitis may also cause death in extreme cases ( bradley 2002 ) . treatment for mastitis includes the use of antibiotics , which has possible implications in public health as resistant bacterial strains may not respond to treatment ( bradley 2002 ) and milk from treated cattle cannot be sold for human consumption until the required withholding time has elapsed .

vesicular stomatitis is a reemerging viral disease that presents as lesions on the tongue , coronary bands and other body regions of cattle as well as horses , sheep , goats and pigs ( usda 2007 ) . this disease is remarkably similar in presentation to the deadly foot - and - mouth disease , which was eradicated from the united states in 1929 ( usda 2007 ) and infection can transfer to people who handle infected animals .

figure 7 . congregation of adult liohippelates around the puncture wound of a horse . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .

currently , there is no effective area - wide control . various insecticides , fogs , and soil treatments have been tested , but due to the incredible numbers of flies produced in the soil , area - wide treatment is nearly impossible . insecticides applied on a community level for mosquito control may reduce attack , but development sites quickly repopulate as the insecticide dissipates ( kahn 2008 ) .

repellents containing diethyl toluamide ( deet ) provide temporary protection from eye gnats ( hall and gerhardt 2009 ) , and many commercial livestock insecticides that contain pyrethrins , piperonyl butoxide or other common ingredients may provide some relief to animals .

( bpfsg ) the brazilian purpuric fever study group . 1992 . brazilian purpuric fever identified in a new region of brazil . journal of infectious disease 163 : 516 - 519 .

bradley a . 2002 . bovine mastitis : an evolving disease . the veterinary journal 164 : 116 - 128 .

( dnz ) dermnet nz . ( january 2010 ) . yaws . dermnet nz : the dermatology resource . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .

dow rp , hines jd . 1957 . conjunctivitis in southwest georgia . public heath reports 72 : 441 - 448 .

francy db , moore lg , smith gc , jakob wl , taylor sa , calisher ch . 1988 . epizootic vesicular stomatitis in colorado , 1982 : isolation of virus from insects collected along the northern colorado rocky mountain front range . journal of medical entomology 25 : 343 - 347 .

( gni ) global names index . ( 2010 ) . global names index - index of scientific names . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .

goddard j . 2007 . non - biting flies . pp . 191 - 200 . in physicians guide to arthropods of medical importance , 5th edition . crc press , boca raton , fl . 480 pp .

greenberg b . 1973 . flies and disease . vol . 2 . biology and disease transmission . princeton university press , princeton , nj . 856 pp .

hall rd , gerhardt rr . 2009 . flies ( diptera ) . in mullen gr , durden la ( editors ) , medical and veterinary entomology , second edition . elsevier , burlington , ma . 637 pp .

harrison ih , da silva ga , pitman m , fleming dw , vranjac a , broome cv . 1989 . epidemiology and clinical spectrum of brazilian purpuric fever . journal of clinical microbiology 27 : 599 - 604 .

hinkle nc , scholl pj , mock de and warner wb . 2001 . research and extension needs for integrated pest management for arthropods of veterinary importance . pp . 261 - 262 . in geden cj , hogsette ja ( editors ) , proceedings of a workshop in lincoln , nebraska . second edition . 328 pp .

( itis ) ( 2010 ) . liohippelates . integrated taxanomic information system . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .

kahn c ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . eye gnats . the merck veterinary manual . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .

looper m , stokes sr , waldner dn , and jordan er . ( 2001 ) . feeding waste milk to dairy calves . new mexico state university college of agricultural , consumer and environmental sciences . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .

( mideha ) infectious disease and environmental health administration . ( 2010 ) . conjunctivitis ( " pink eye " ) . maryland department of health & mental hygiene . urltoken ( 05 may 2011 ) .

sabrosky cw . 1987 . chloropidae . pp . 1049 - 1067 . in mcalpine jf , et al . ( editors ) , manual of nearctic . diptera . volume 2 . research branch agriculture . canada monograph 28 : 675 - 1332 .

saunders gm , kumm hw , rerrie ji . 1936 . the relationship of certain environmental factors to the distribution of yaws in jamaica . american journal of hygiene 23 : 558 - 579 .

( usda ) united states department of agriculture . ( march 2007 ) . information about vesicular stomatitis for the beef producer . urltoken ( 06 may 2011 ) .

publication date : april 2011 . latest revision : may 2011 . reviewed : october 2015 .

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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .

disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .

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natural infection of nyssomyia neivai ( pinto , 1926 ) ( diptera : psychodidae , phlebotominae ) by leishmania ( viannia ) spp . in brazil

analysis of covalent modifications of amyloidogenic proteins using two - dimensional electrophoresis : prion protein and its sialylation .

open repair of mycotic abdominal aortic aneurysms with biological grafts : an international multicenter study .

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female eye gnats maintained on honey in the laboratory retained more than half their original radioactivity 5 days after being tagged with p 32 . when tagged gnats were released at the center of three concentric circles of traps on a windy day , some moved 25 feet directly upwind but an equally large number was caught 75 feet downwind in traps on the outermost circle , on both sides of the mean downwind direction . releases of tagged gnats ½ and 1 mile from a rural population center in southwestern georgia resulted in almost complete penetration of the small town on the day of release . in one test , traps more than a mile from the release box caught 15 gnats in less than 3½ hours after it was opened . chi - square analysis was used to test the hypothesis that tagged gnats are distributed like the wild ones . local departures from an overall equilibrium between tagged and untagged gnats could be recognized , and progress of the dispersal could be followed by comparing successive collections .

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this article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .

vet , louise e . m . and lenteren , j . c . 2009 . the parasite - host relationship between encarsia formosa gah . ( hymenoptera : aphelinidae ) and trialeurodes vaporariorum ( westw . ) ( homoptera : aleyrodidae ) . zeitschrift für angewandte entomologie , vol . 91 , issue . 1 - 5 , p . 327 .

gordh , g . legner , e . f . and caltagirone , l . e . 1999 . handbook of biological control . p . 355 .

mann , j . a . stinner , r . e . and axtell , r . c . 1990 . parasitism of house fly ( musca domestica ) pupae by four species of pteromalidae ( hymenoptera ) : effects of host–parasitoid densities and host distribution . medical and veterinary entomology , vol . 4 , issue . 3 , p . 235 .

hammond , w . n . o . and neuenschwander , p . 1990 . sustained biological control of the cassava mealybugphenacoccus manihoti [ hom . : pseudococcidae ] byepidinocarsis lopezi [ hym . : encyrtidae ] in nigeria . entomophaga , vol . 35 , issue . 4 , p . 515 .

hammond , w . n . o . neuenschwander , p . and herren , h . r . 1987 . impact of the exotic parasitoid epidinocarsis lopezi on cassava mealybug ( phenacoccus manihoti ) populations . international journal of tropical insect science , vol . 8 , issue . 4 - 5 - 6 , p . 887 .

debach , paul huffaker , c . b . and macphee , a . w . 1976 . theory and practice of biological control . p . 255 .

legner , e . f . sjogren , r . d . hall , i . m . and washino , r . k . 1974 . the biological control of medically important arthropods . c r c critical reviews in environmental control , vol . 4 , issue . 1 - 4 , p . 85 .

horn , david j . 1971 . the relationship between a parasite , tetrastichus incertus ( hymenoptera : eulophidae ) , and its host , the alfalfa weevil , hypera postica ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) , in new york . the canadian entomologist , vol . 103 , issue . 01 , p . 83 .

( townsend ) , arranged in clumped or linear distributions , oviposited randomly producing equal numbers of progeny from cither host arrangement . mixed groups of linear and clumped puparia caused changes in behavioral patterns that resulted in reduced progeny production , thus showing parasitization to be nonrandom . host destruction was , nevertheless , greater in an all - clumped distribution , tile greater acceptance of clumped groups resulting in a greater number of progeny . mixed groups involving a choice between linear or clumped distributions demonstrated the greater acceptance of clumped groups . direct observation showed that the all - dumped distribution elicited the greatest overall initial attraction for hosts and subsequent movement to other areas . it was concluded that maximum host destruction resulted when completely random behavior was involved . a recognition of this , however , required a knowledge of behavior , host condition , and progeny production . the question of evaluating an exotic parasite’s effectiveness before introduction is discussed .

behavior changes the reproduction of spalangia cameroni , s . endius , muscidifurax raptor , and nasonia vitripennis ( hymenoptera : pteromalidae ) at increasing fly host densities

some mechanisms that affect the sex ratio of nasonia vitripennis ( walk . ) ( hymenoptera : pteromalidae ) reared from superparasitized house - fly pupae

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[ clinical evidence of trachoma in colombian amerindians of the vaupés province ] . - pubmed - ncbi

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programa de enfermedades transmitidas por vectores , secretaría departamental de salud , mitú , vaupés , colombia .

trachoma is the leading cause of infectious blindness in the world . in 2008 there were 1 , 300 , 000 persons with blindness caused by trachoma and 8 million with trichiasis , which might eventually lead to blindness . in latin america it has been documented in brazil , guatemala and méxico .

to inform the presence of trachoma for the first time in colombia , amongst amerindians of the department of vaupés .

in 2003 and 2006 the amerindian makú communities of san joaquín and santa catalina , located 5 km from the border with brazil , were visited . from 2007 to 2009 , san gerardo , san gabriel and nuevo pueblo , at a 35 km distance from san joaquín were visited .

trachoma exists in colombia , and it is frequent among the studied communities . its focalized distribution makes it amenable to elimination . it is advisable to search for trachoma in other indigenous communities in vaupés with similar living conditions .

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gustavo jiménez - uzcátegui , david a . wiedenfeld , f . hernán vargas , howard l . snell .

nathalia tirado - sanchez , john mccosker , diego ruiz , angel chiriboga , stuart banks .

yves finet , nathalia tirado - sanchez , angel chiriboga , diego ruiz , stuart banks .

frank bungartz , frauke ziemmeck , alba yánez ayabaca , fredy nugra , andré aptroot .

anne guézou , susana chamorro , paola pozo , ana mireya guerrero , rachel atkinson , chris buddenhagen , patricia jaramillo díaz , mark gardener .

gustavo jiménez - uzcátegui , javier zabala , brian milstead , howard l . snell .

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