panoquina panoquin , the salt marsh skipper , is a butterfly of the hesperiidae family .

it is found along the atlantic coast of the united states , from new york south to florida and the florida keys , west along the gulf coast to southern texas .

the wingspan is 35 – 39 mm .

the wings are dark brown with pointed forewings .

there are a few pale spots on the upperside of the forewings .

the underside of the hindwings has yellow veins and a short white bar at the end of the cell .

adults are on wing from may to august in two generations in the north and from april to october in three generations in the south .

in florida , there are multiple generations with adults on wing from february to december .

adults feed on the flower nectar of a wide range of plants .

the larvae feed on distichlis spicata .

panoquina panoquin

panoquina panoquin <EOT> species panoquina panoquin - salt marsh skipper - hodges # 4116 - bugguide . net

forewings are pointed . wings are dark brown . upperside of forewing has a few pale spots . underside of hindwing has yellow veins and a short white bar at the end of the cell .

two broods from may - august in the north ; three broods from april - october in the south ; several broods from february - december in florida .

nectar from flowers including privet , sweet pepperbush , red clover , gumweed , lippia , salt marsh fleabane , blue mistflower , thistle , and verbena .

along the immediate atlantic coast from long island , new york south to florida and the keys ; west along the gulf coast to south texas .

g5 - demonstrably secure globally , though it may be quite rare in parts of its range , especially at the periphery .

photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en " " urltoken "

upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington

disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .

contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en " " urltoken "

check list of the lepidoptera of north america . . . ms , database ( version 2003 )

ongoing developmental version with contributions by don lafontaine , jean - françois landry , jim troubridge , paul opler , ron hodges , john brown , et al . higher classification does not yet reflect recent and substantial changes that have been published

other contributing editors : tatiana dominick , donald , r . davis , douglas c . ferguson , john g . franclemont , eugene g . munroe , and jerry a . powell

disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .


} } angiostrongylus cantonensis is a parasitic nematode ( roundworm ) that causes angiostrongyliasis , the most common cause of eosinophilic meningitis in southeast asia and the pacific basin .

the nematode commonly resides in the pulmonary arteries of rats , giving it the common name rat lungworm .

snails are the primary intermediate hosts , where larvae develop until they are infective .

humans are incidental hosts of this roundworm , and may become infected through ingestion of larvae in raw or undercooked snails or other vectors , or from contaminated water and vegetables .

the larvae are then transported via the blood to the central nervous system , where they are the most common cause of eosinophilic meningitis , a serious condition that can lead to death or permanent brain and nerve damage .

angiostrongyliasis is an infection of increasing public health importance as globalization contributes to the geographic spread of the disease .

angiostrongylus cantonensis

angiostrongylus cantonensis <EOT> studies on eosinophilic meningitis . v . molluscan hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis on pacific islands

table 2 : rats examined for angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in muñoz , nueva ecija .

table 3 : snails examined for angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in muñoz , nueva ecija .

eosinophilic meningitis in thailand . clinical studies of 484 typical cases probably caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis

epidemiology of angiostrongylus cantonensis and eosinophilic meningitis in the people ' s republic of china .

learn more about how people get infected with angiostrongylus cantonensis in this new motion graphic video .

learn more about how to keep from getting infected with angiostrongylus cantonensis in this new motion graphic video .

the truncated life - cycle of angiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , in an accidental ( human ) host .

figure 1 : map of muñoz , nueva ecija , showing the distribution of angiostrongylus cantonensis infected rats and snails .

studies on eosinophilic meningitis . 3 . epidemiologic and clinical observations on pacific islands and the possible etiologic role of angiostrongylus cantonensis

cross jh . 1987 . public health importance of angiostrongylus cantonensis and its relatives . parasitology today 3 : 367 - 369 .

aguiar , p . , p . morera , j . pascual . 1981 . first record of angiostrongylus cantonensis in cuba .

angiostrongyliasis , the most common infectious cause of eosinophilic meningitis , results from infection by the parasitic nematode angiostrongylus cantonensis 1 . here , we present a case of eosinophilic meningitis due to a . cantonensis .

alicata je . 1991 . the discovery of angiostrongylus cantonensis as a cause of human eosinophilic meningitis . parasitology today 7 : 151 - 153 .

western blot analysis for angiostrongylus cantonensis . at left , few bands appear when an acute serum sample was tested against a . cantonensis extract . at right , many bands are present in a convalescent sample , in particular a strong band against specific 31 - kda a . cantonensis antigen ( arrowhead ) , confirming infection with a . cantonensis .

herwaldt bl . 2012 . angiostrogyliasis ( angiostrongylus cantonensis infection , neurologic angiostrongyliasis ) . centers for disease control and prevention , yellowbook , chapter 3 .

heyneman d , lim b . 1967 . angiostrongylus cantonensis : proof of direct transmission with its epidemiological implications . science 158 : 1057 - 1058 .

ash lr . diagnostic morphology of the third - stage larvae of angiostrongylus cantonensis , angiostrongylus vasorum , aelurostrongylus abstrusus , and anafilaroides rostratus ( nematoda : metastrongyloidea ) . j parasitol . 1970 ; 56 : 249–253 . pmid : 5445821

the nematode ( roundworm ) angiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , is the most common cause of human eosinophilic meningitis . in addition , angiostrongylus ( parastrongylus ) costaricensis is the causal agent of abdominal , or intestinal , angiostrongyliasis .

angiostrongylus costaricensis causes eosinophilic gastroenteritis and is found in latin america and the caribbean .

figure a : angiostrongylus cantonensis third stage ( l3 ) , infective larva , in a wet mount , recovered from a slug . note the terminal projection on the tip of the tail which is characteristic of a . cantonensis .

jitpimolmard , s . , j . kanpittaya , e . mairiang , s . tiamkao . 2000 . mr findings of eosinophilic meningoencephalitis attributed to angiostrongylus cantonensis .

5 kälber und 5 schweine wurden mit angiostrongylus cantonensis infiziert , 3 , 7 , 14 , 28 und 56 tage nach der infektion getötet und histologisch untersucht .

figure a : angiostrongylus cantonensis third stage ( l3 ) , infective larva recovered from a slug . image captured under differential interference contrast ( dic ) microscopy .

angiostrongylus cantonensis was first described from rats in china by chen in 1935 12 and placed in the genus pulmonema , as pulmonema cantonensis . the same species was also described a short time later in 1937 as haemostrongylus ratti by yokogawa 13 , who did not realize that it was the same species that had been described already by chen . the genus pulmonema was subsequently synonymized with angiostrongylus and the species name ratti was synonymized with cantonensis . 14 these nomenclatural changes were widely accepted so that the most common and widely used name for the species became angiostrongylus cantonensis .

figure 3 . adult female ( left ) and male ( right ) of the rat lungworm , angiostrongylus cantonensis . adapted from mackerras and sandars ( 1955 ) .

ishih , a . , t . lakwo , m . sano , m . terada . 1998 . effects of albendazole against larval and adult angiostrongylus cantonensis in rats .

five calves and 5 pigs experimentally infected with larvae of angiostrongylus cantonensis were killed 3 , 7 , 14 , 28 , and 56 days after infection and histologically examined .

to cite this page : syed , s . 2001 . " angiostrongylus cantonensis " ( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken

. memorandum on the first report of angiostrongylus in man , by nomura and lin , 1945 .

angiostrongylus costaricensis eggs and larvae in tissue stained with hematoxylin and eosin ( h & e ) .

9 . luessi f , sollors j , torzewski m . et al . eosinophilic meningitis due to angiostrongylus cantonensis in germany . j travel med . 2009 ; 16 : 292 - 294

a . vitta , r . polseela , s . nateeworanart , and m . tattiyapong , “survey of angiostrongylus cantonensis in rats and giant african land snails in phitsanulok province , thailand , ”

eamsobhana p , yong hs . immunological diagnosis of human angiostrongyliasis due to angiostrongylus cantonensis ( nematoda : angiostrongylidae ) . int j infect dis . 2009 ; 13 : 425–431 . pmid : 19117782

3 . eamsobhana p , yong hs . immunological diagnosis of human angiostrongyliasis due to angiostrongylus cantonensis ( nematoda : angiostrongylidae ) . int j infect dis . 2009 ; 13 : 425 - 431

tunel assay in the subarachnoid space and meningeal area of mice infected with a . cantonensis

ash lr . 1976 . observations on the role of mollusks and planarians in the transmission of angiostrongylus cantonensis infection to man in new caledonia . revista de biologia tropical 24 : 163 - 174 .

eamsobhana p . the rat lungworm parastrongylus ( = angiostrongylus ) cantonensis : parasitology , immunology , eosinophilic meningitis , epidemiology and laboratory diagnosis . bangkok : wankaew ( iq ) book center ; 2006 .

figure a : angiostrongylus costaricensis eggs in intestinal tissue stained with hematoxylin and eosin ( h & e ) .

image : left : angiostrongylus cantonensis third stage ( l3 ) , infective larva recovered from a slug . image captured under differential interference contrast ( dic ) microscopy . right : angiostrongylus adult worm recovered from vitreous humor of a human patient . the bursa is one indication that this is a male worm . the worm is most likely a . cantonensis based on the patient’s geographic location . credit : dpdx

hochberg ns , park sy , blackburn bg , et al , 2007 . distribution of eosinophilic meningitis cases attributable to angiostrongylus cantonensis , hawaii . emerg infect dis . 13 ( 11 ) : 1675–80 view article

2 . li h , xu f , gu jb , chen xg . a severe eosinophilic meningoencephalitis caused by infection of angiostrongylus cantonensis . am j trop med hyg . 2008 ; 79 : 568 - 570

kottwitz jj , perry kk , rose hh , hendrix cm . 2014 . angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in captive geoffroy’s tamarins ( saguinus geoffroyi ) . journal of the american veterinary medical association 245 : 821 - 827 .

mackerras mj , sandars df . 1955 . the life history of the rat lung - worm , angiostrongylus cantonensis ( chen ) ( nematoda : metastrongylidae ) . australian journal of zoology 3 : 1 - 25 .

center for disease control and prevention , 2004 . " angiostrongylus cantonensis infection " ( on - line ) . cdc , division of parastitic diseases , parasitic disease information . accessed august 23 , 2004 at urltoken .

we appreciate the assistance of wanpen chaicumpa in the confirmation of the diagnosis of a . cantonensis .

richards , c . s . , & merritt , j . w . ( 1967 ) . studies on angiostrongylus cantonensis in molluscan intermediate hosts . journal of parasitology , 53 ( 2 ) , 382 - 388 .

stockdale - walden hd , slapcinsky j , qvarnstrom y , mcintosh a , bishop hs , rosseland b . 2015 . angiostrongylus cantonensis in introduced gastropods in southern florida . journal of parasitology 101 : 156 - 159 .

cross , j . 2000 . " central nervous system parasites , phasmidea , order : strongylida . angiostrongylus cantonensis " ( on - line ) . atlas of medical parasitology . accessed august 23 , 2004 at urltoken .

known gastropod hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis , associated localities and corresponding key references . * references reporting only experimental laboratory infection - no locality is given for such studies . * * references reporting both natural and experimental infection .

kim jr , hayes ka , yeung nw , cowie rh . 2014 . diverse gastropod hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , globally and with a focus on the hawaiian islands . plos one 9 : e94969 .

anderson , d . , l . fitzgerald , c . gardiner , a . gutter , r . harris . 1990 . eosinophilic meningoencephalitis due to angiostrongylus cantonensis as the cause of death in captive non - human primates .

alicata je . biology and distribution of the rat lungworm , angiostrongylus cantonensis , and its relationship to eosinophilic meningoencephalitis and other neurological disorders of man and animals . adv parasitol . 1965 ; 3 : 223–248 . pmid : 5334821

5 . dorta - contreras aj , padilla - docal b , moreira jm . et al . neuroimmunological findings in angiostrongylus cantonensis meningitis in ecuadorian patients . arq neuropsiquiatr . 2011 ; 69 ( 3 ) : 466 - 469

figure b : a . cantonensis l3 , infective larvae , in wet mounts , recovered from slugs .

figure c : a . cantonensis l3 , infective larvae , in wet mounts , recovered from slugs .

however , in 1986 , ubelaker 15 split the genus angiostrongylus into five genera , based largely on their anatomy , assigning species to each of the genera , based on morphology but also on the definitive host , as follows : angiostrongylus ( found in carnivores , eg , dogs , foxes , cats ) , parastrongylus ( murids , eg , mice and rats ) , angiocaulus ( mustelids , eg , martens ) , gallegostrongylus ( gerbils and one murid ) , stefanskostrongylus ( insectivores , eg , shrews , tenrecs , etc . ) . angiostrongylus cantonensis , the definitive host of which is rats , was thus transferred to the genus parastrongylus , becoming parastrongylus cantonensis . however , although occasionally used , 16 , 17 this classification has not been widely adopted and the species continues to be referred to most widely as angiostrongylus cantonensis .

martin - alonso a , foronda p , quispe - ricalde ma , feliu c , valladares b . seroprevalence of angiostrongylus cantonensis in wild rodents from the canary islands . plos one . 2011 ; 6 : e27747 . pmid : 22110752

ac : angiostrongylus cantonensis ; csf : cerebrospinal fluid ; pcr : polymerase chain reaction . * eosinophilic meningitis : ≥ 10 eosinophils / mm3 in csf or ≥10 % wbc ) . * * meningitis : ≥ 10 wbc in csf .

figure a : angiostrongylus sp . male worm , approximately 4 . 25 mm in length , recovered from vitreous humor of a human patient . the worm is most likely a . cantonensis based on the patient ' s geographic location .

figure d : angiostrongylus adult worm recovered from vitreous humor of a human patient . the bursa is one indication that this is a male worm . the worm is most likely a . cantonensis based on the patient ' s geographic location .

hochberg ns , blackburn bg , park sy , et al , 2011 . eosinophilic meningitis attributable to angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in hawaii : clinical characteristics and potential exposures . am j trop med hyg . 85 ( 4 ) : 685–90 view article

6 . tsai hc , lai ph , sy cl . et al . encephalitis caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis after eating raw frogs mixed with wine as a health supplement . intern med . 2011 ; 50 ( 7 ) : 771 - 774

un nouveau nematode pulmonaire : pulmonema cantonensis n . g . n . sp . , des rats de canton

qvarnstrom y , sullivan jj , bishop hs , hollingsworth r , da silva , aj . 2007 . pcr - based detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in tissue and mucus secretions from molluscan hosts . applied and environmental microbiology 73 : 1415 - 1419 .

vincent lo re , stephen j . gluckman ; eosinophilic meningitis due to angiostrongylus cantonensis in a returned traveler : case report and review of the literature , clinical infectious diseases , volume 33 , issue 9 , 1 november 2001 , pages e112–e115 , urltoken

wilkins pp , qvarnstrom y , whelen ac , et al . 2013 . the current status of laboratory diagnosis of angiostrongylus cantonensis infections in humans using serologic and molecular methods . hawaii j med public health . 72 ( 6 ) : 55–7 view article

qvarnstrom y , sullivan jj , bishop hs , hollingsworth r , da silva aj . 2007 . pcr - based detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in tissue and mucus secretions from molluscan hosts . appl environ microbiol . 73 ( 5 ) : 1415–1419 view article

angiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , is the principal cause of eosinophilic meningitis worldwide , and the increase in world travel and shipborne dispersal of infected rat vectors has extended this parasite to regions outside of its traditional geographic boundaries . we report a case of eosinophilic meningitis due to a . cantonensis in a patient who recently returned from a trip in the pacific .

angiostrongylus cantonensis is a nematode ( phylum nematoda ) in the superfamily metastrongyloidea and family angiostrongylidae . 8 the systematics of the angiostrongylidae is not well understood , with many species inadequately described and probably others not yet recognized , a situation that has advanced but little since anderson 8 expressed the hope over 30 years ago that this might improve . there are around 20 species in the genus angiostrongylus globally 9 , 10 two of these cause disease in humans : angiostrongylus costaricensis morera & céspedes , 1971 , which causes abdominal angiostrongyliasis , and which is a problem especially in south and central america , 10 , 11 and angiostrongylus cantonensis ( chen , 1935 ) , which causes eosinophilic meningitis , is spreading rapidly to many parts of the world , and is the subject of this paper .

alicata , j . e . ( 1967 ) . effect of freezing and boiling on the infectivity of third - stage larvae of angiostrongylus cantonensis present in land snails and freshwater prawns . journal of parasitology , 53 ( 5 ) , 1064 - 1066 .

citation : kim jr , hayes ka , yeung nw , cowie rh ( 2014 ) diverse gastropod hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , globally and with a focus on the hawaiian islands . plos one 9 ( 5 ) : e94969 . urltoken

qvarnstrom y , sullivan jj , bishop hs , hollingsworth r , da silva aj : pcr - based detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in tissue and mucus secretions from molluscan hosts . appl . environ . microbiol . ; 2007 ; 73 : 1415 - 1419 .

we thank paron dekumyoy ( faculty of tropical medicine , mahidol university , thailand ) for performing the serological testing for angiostrongylus and gnathostoma species .

7 . diao z , chen x , yin c . et al . angiostrongylus cantonensis : effect of combination therapy with albendazole and dexamethasone on th cytokine gene expression in pbmc from patients with eosinophilic meningitis . exp parasitol . 2009 ; 123 : 1 - 5

synonym or cross reference : parastrongylus cantonensis , rat lungworm , angiostrongyliasis , cerebral angiostrongyliasis , eosinophilic meningitis , eosinophilic meningoencephalitis .

with the improvement of public health , eosinophilic meningitis associated with angiostrongylus cantonensis infection is now seldom reported in taiwan . eosinophilic meningitis typically occurred sporadically in children . this study aims to analyze the clinical manifestations and change in the contemporary epidemiology of eosinophilic meningitis in taiwan .

qvarnstrom y , xayavong m , da silva aca , et al . 2015 . real - time polymerase chain reaction detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis dna in cerebrospinal fluid from patients with eosinophilic meningitis . am j trop med hyg . ( epub ahead of print ) view article

figure b : angiostrongylus worm . note the very long spicules ( black arrows ) , one of the indications that this is a male worm .

the distribution map revealed that the sampling points for infected rats and snails overlap implying potential hosts occurring in the same area ( figure 1 ) . the map also showed that the selected villages have rats and snails harboring a . cantonensis and other parasites . two villages , namely , sapang cawayan and villa nati have the known definitive and intermediate hosts of a . cantonensis . however , there are also villages which have a . cantonensis infected rats but no a . cantonensis infected snails .

once angiostrongylus cantonensis becomes established in populations of rats , it is likely to be a permanent concern . eradication of rats and molluscs potentially could eliminate the problem , but this is impossible to accomplish . their abundance can be reduced , however , minimizing risk of infection .

hochberg ns , blackburn bg , park sy , sejvar jj , effler pv , herwaldt bl . eosinophilic meningitis attributable to angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in hawaii : clinical characteristics and potential exposures . am j trop med hyg . 2011 oct ; 85 ( 4 ) : 685–90 .

figure b : a . cantonensis ( l3 ) , infective larvae recovered from a slug . image captured under dic microscopy .

being infected with angiostrongyliasis does not protect you against becoming infected again in the future from another exposure to a . cantonensis .

lv s , zhang y , liu h - x , zhang c - w , steinmann p , zhou s - n , utsinger j . 2009b . angiostrongylus cantonensis : morphological and behavioral investigation within the freshwater snail pomacea canaliculata . parasitology research 104 : 1351 - 1359 .

sawanyawisuth k , chindaprasirt j , senthong v , limpawattana p , auvichayapat n , tassniyom s , et al . clinical manifestations of eosinophilic meningitis due to infection with angiostrongylus cantonensis in children . korean j parasitol . 2013 ; 51 ( 6 ) : 735–8 . pmid : 24516281

angiostrongylus is a parasitic nematode that can cause severe gastrointestinal or central nervous system disease in humans , depending on the species . angiostrongylus cantonensis , which is also known as the rat lungworm , causes eosinophilic meningitis and is prevalent in southeast asia and tropical pacific islands . the recognized distribution of the parasite has been increasing over time and infections have been identified in other areas , including africa , the caribbean , and the united states .

noda , s . , & sato , a . ( 1990 ) . effects of infection with angiostrongylus cantonensis on the circulating haemocyte population and the haematopoietic organ of the host snail m - line biomphalaria glabrata . journal of helminthology , 64 ( 3 ) , 239 - 247 .

citation : martin - alonso a , abreu - yanes e , feliu c , mas - coma s , bargues md , valladares b , et al . ( 2015 ) intermediate hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis in tenerife , spain . plos one 10 ( 3 ) : e0120686 . urltoken

citation : epelboin l , blondé r , chamouine a , chrisment a , diancourt l , villemant n , et al . ( 2016 ) angiostrongylus cantonensis infection on mayotte island , indian ocean , 2007 - 2012 . plos negl trop dis 10 ( 5 ) : e0004635 . urltoken

lim , j . m . , lee , c . c . , & wilder - smith , a . ( 2004 ) . eosinophilic meningitis caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis : a case report and literature review . journal of travel medicine , 11 ( 6 ) , 388 - 390 .

angiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , is the major cause of eosinophilic meningitis worldwide . rats serve as the definitive host of the nematode , but humans can be infected incidentally , leading to eosinophilic meningitis . a previous balb / c animal study has demonstrated increased apoptotic proteins and decreased anti - apoptotic proteins in mice infected with a . cantonensis . steroids may be an effective treatment option for eosinophilic meningitis caused by a . cantonensis , but the involved mechanism is unclear . this study hypothesized that the beneficial effects of steroids on eosinophilic meningitis are mediated by decreased apoptosis .

liu c , song h , zhang r , chen m , xu m , ai l , et al . specific detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in the snail achatina fulica using a loop - mediated isothermal amplification ( lamp ) assay . mol cell probes . 2011 ; 25 : 164–167 . pmid : 21515360

how to cite this article : liu j , gao j , zhou c . a case report on eosinophilic meningitis caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis . int j med sci 2011 ; 8 ( 6 ) : 510 - 513 . doi : 10 . 7150 / ijms . 8 . 510 . available from urltoken

iwanowicz dd , sanders lr , schill wb , xayavong mv , da silva aj , qvarnstrom y , smith t . 2015 . spread of the rat lungworm ( angiostrongylus cantonensis ) in giant african land snails ( lissachatina fulica ) in florida , usa . journal of wildlife diseases 51 : 749 - 753 .

jin e , qiang ma , da - qing ma , wen he , ai - ping j , and cheng - hong y . magnetic resonance imaging of eosinophilic meningoencephalitis caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis following eating freshwater snails . chinese medical journal . 2008 ; 121 ( 1 ) : 67–72 67 . pmid : 18208669

nueva ecija is the rice granary of the philippines and one of its towns , muñoz , was observed to have a . cantonensis [ 4 , 5 ] . the intensity and molecular biology of the observed parasites were not determined in previous studies . however , it is important to present stronger evidence regarding the presence of a . cantonensis as it could be mistaken for other species of angiostrongylus . furthermore , the intermediate host remains unknown in the region . this is an important key in assessing the infection of a . cantonensis particularly in humans because these hosts harbor the infective stage of the parasite . thus , this study was conducted to determine the extent of infection of a . cantonensis among rats and snails collected from muñoz .

campbell bg , little md . 1988 . the finding of angiostrongylus cantonesis in rats in new orleans . american journal of tropical medicine and hygiene 38 : 568 - 573 .

case 2 . angiostrongylus vasorum in the anterior chamber of the left eye of a 2 - year - old male cavalier king charles spaniel dog . ( mov 1003 kb )

a . cantonensis is the most common parasitic cause of eosinophilic meningitis outside europe and north america [ 4 ] . human cases of angiostrongyliasis , a neurotropic helminthic infection , have been reported in the south pacific , asia , australia , and the caribbean [ 4 , 5 ] . in the united states , case series have been reported from hawaii , where angiostrongylus infection is endemic [ 5 ] . there have also been reports of rats infected with angiostrongylus species in louisiana [ 6 ] .

figure c : higher magnification of image b . note the terminal projection on the tip of the tail which is characteristic of a . cantonensis .

angiostrongyliasis , also known as rat lungworm , is a disease that affects the brain and spinal cord . it is caused by a parasitic nematode ( roundworm parasite ) called angiostrongylus cantonensis . the adult form of a . cantonensis is only found in rodents . however , infected rodents can pass larvae of the worm in their feces . snails , slugs , and certain other animals ( including freshwater shrimp , land crabs , and frogs ) can become infected by ingesting this larvae ; these are considered intermediate hosts . humans can become infected with a . cantonensis if they eat ( intentionally or otherwise ) a raw or undercooked infected intermediate host , thereby ingesting the parasite . for more information on the life - cycle of a . cantonensis , visit the cdc website .

burns r . e , bicknese e . j , qvarnstrom y , deleon - carnes m , drew c . p , gardiner ch . , rideout ba . 2014 . cerebral angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in a captive african pygmy falcon ( polihierax semitorquatus ) in southern california . journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation 26 : 695 - 698 .

tube 1 , dna isolated from plutonia lamarckii tissue ; tube 2 , dna obtained from a . cantonensis adult worms ; tube 3 , negative control .

wang qp , wu zd , wei rl , owen zr , and lun zr . human angiostrongylus cantononsis : an update . eur . j clin microbiol . infect . dis . 2011

figure a : angiostrongylus costaricensis female worm in appendix tissue sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin ( h & e ) . image courtesy of regions hospital , st . paul , mn .

while the systematics of angiostrongylidae is in need of detailed study , the complex life cycle of angiostrongylus cantonensis is relatively well understood . the parasite is spreading widely around the world , resulting in cases of angiostrongyliasis in places where it had not previously been recorded , facilitated by ease of global travel , globalization of commerce , and climate change .

is not specific for either definitive or intermediate hosts . the requirement is that the intermediate host must be an invertebrate while the definitive is a terrestrial mammal . paratenic hosts , where the parasites don ' t develop to the next stage , can be either invertebrate or vertebrate . the definitive hosts for angiostrongylus cantonensis are usually rodents from the genus

citation : jarvi si , pitt wc , farias me , shiels l , severino mg , howe km , et al . ( 2015 ) detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in the blood and peripheral tissues of wild hawaiian rats ( rattus rattus ) by a quantitative pcr ( qpcr ) assay . plos one 10 ( 4 ) : e0123064 . urltoken

angiostrongylus cantonensis is the most common cause of eosinophilic meningitis in humans . it is usually caused by ingestion of raw or inadequately cooked intermediate hosts or food contaminated with infective third - stage larvae . we describe a case of eosinophilic meningitis caused by a . cantonensis in a male chinese patient . the patient had a history of eating raw fish and snail . we describe the clinical features of the patient , the diagnostic process and treatments . we also provide a brief update for physicians on the characteristics , diagnosis and treatment of eosinophilic meningitis caused by a . cantonensis , with particular emphasis on the update of prevalence and treatment of the disease in china .

beaver pc , rosen l . memorandum on the first report of angiostrongylus in man , by nomura and lin , 1945 . am j trop med hyg . 1964 ; 13 : 589–90 .

asato r , taira k , nakamura m , kudaka j , itokazu k , kawanaka m . changing epidemiology of angiostrongyliasis cantonensis in okinawa prefecture , japan .

the life history of a . mackerrasae was found to differ from that of a . cantonensis as follows : ( 1 ) the moulting times of a . cantonensis in the definitive host occurred a few days earlier than those of a . mackerrasae ; ( 2 ) the growth rate of a . cantonensis was more rapid than that of a . mackerrasae . however , there were no differences in the migratory pattern of the third - stage larvae of both species in experimentally - infected definitive hosts . it is concluded that mackerras & sandars ( 1955 ) described the life history of a . mackerrasae and not a . cantonensis .

chen ht . un nouveau nematode pulmonaire , pulmonema cantonensis , ngn sp . des rats de canton . ann . parasit . 1935 ; 13 : 312 .

huttemann , m . , schmahl , g . , & mehlhorn , h . ( 2007 ) . light and electron microscopic studies on two nematodes , angiostrongylus cantonensis and trichuris muris , differing in their mode of nutrition . parasitology research , 101 suppl 2 , s225 - 32 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00436 - 007 - 0698 - 1

slom tj , cortese mm , gerber si , jones rc , holtz th , lopez mhs , zambrano ch , sufit rl , sakilvaree y , chaicumpa w , herwaldt bl , johnson s . 2002 . an outbreak of eosinophilic meningitis caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis in travelers returning from the caribbean . new england journal of medicine 346 : 668 - 574 .

teem jl , qvarnstrom y , bishop hs , da silva aj , carter j , white - mclean j , smith t . 2013 . the occurrence of the rat lungworm , angiostrongylus cantonensis , in nonindigenous snails in the gulf of mexico region of the united states . hawaii journal of medicine and public health 72 supplement 2 : 11 - 14 .

lv s , zhang y , liu h - x , hu l , yang k , steinmann p , chen z , wang l - y , utzinger j , zhou s - n . 2009a . invasive snails and an emerging infectious disease : results from the first national survey on angiostrongylus cantonensis in china . plos neglected tropical diseases 3 : e368 .

phylogeny constructed using the classifications and phylogenies of bouchet and rocroi , aktipis et al . and strong et al . [ 59 ] – [ 61 ] , indicating the diversity of families in which mollusc species have been shown to act as hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis . bars at the right of the tree indicate the taxonomic group that the families belong to .

nematodes of the genus angiostrongylus are important causes of potentially life - threatening diseases in several animal species and humans . angiostrongylus vasorum affects the right ventricle of the heart and the pulmonary arteries in dogs , red foxes and other carnivores . the diagnosis of canine angiostrongylosis may be challenging due to the wide spectrum of clinical signs . ocular manifestations have been seldom reported but have serious implications for patients .

qvarnstrom y , da silva aqa , teem jl , hollingsworth r , bishop h , graeff - teixeira c , and da silva aj : improved molecular detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in mollusks and other environmental samples with a species - specific internal transcribed spacer 1 - based taqman assay . appl . envir . microbiol . ; 2010 ; 76 : 5287 – 5289 .

the pcr method was successfully applied to mucus secretions from p . martensi . spiking experiments revealed that the pcr could detect a single a . cantonensis larva in approximately 0 . 3 g of secretions . despite this , the majority of naturally infected p . martensi semislugs examined in this study did not have detectable levels of larvae in their mucus . since the notion that mollusks infected with a . cantonensis can shed larvae in their mucus trails was first suggested , other workers have found no or very few a . cantonensis larvae secreted from infected mollusks ( 3 , 7 , 8 ) . similar results have been obtained for excretion of other angiostrongylus species ( 6 , 15 , 25 , 28 ) .

angiostrongylus cantonensis - associated eosinophilic meningitis in humans has been commonly reported worldwide . however parasitologically confirmed cases are not common , as the parasite has been recovered only infrequently from the cerebrospinal fluid of patients . the potential value of immunodiagnosis is therefore self - evident . immunological tests can also help in the differential diagnosis of parasitic ( particularly helminths ) infections that cause eosinophilic meningitis . this paper summarizes the state of and advances in the immunological diagnosis of human angiostrongyliasis due to angiostrongylus ( = parastrongylus ) cantonensis . a specific antigen is available for the definitive diagnosis and unequivocal differentiation of eosinophilic meningitis due to helminth infections . rapid diagnostic kits based on dot - blot elisa have been developed and have proved to be simple , effective , and economical for field use .

figure 1 . rats are the normal host of angiostrogylus cantonensis nematodes . they acquire the parasite by feeding on infected molluscs . photograph by jennifer l . gillett - kaufman .

angiostrongylus cantonensis is a parasitic nematode and one of the major causes of eosinophilic meningitis , a potentially fatal disease in humans and other mammals , as well as birds [ 1 ] – [ 6 ] . additional causes of eosinophilic meningitis include other parasitic , bacterial , viral and fungal infections , as well as intracranial malignancies or medical devices and allergic reactions to drugs [ 7 ] . angiostrongylus cantonensis has been recorded on all continents except europe and antarctica and over 2 , 800 human cases of eosinophilic meningitis caused by it have been reported from about 30 countries [ 8 ] , [ 9 ] . most records of the disease , also known as rat lungworm disease , have been from tropical and subtropical areas in southeast asia and the pacific basin . however , cases have also been sporadically reported in other regions , including places where a . cantonensis is not present , when people return from regions where it occurs [ 8 ] – [ 13 ] .

two of the samples that tested positive with lamp were confirmed as positive by 18s rrna pcr ( genbank accession number km096415 ) . both were from p . lamarckii specimens . sequences exhibited 100 % similarity to an 18s rrna gene partial sequence of a . cantonensis retrieved from genbank ( ay295804 . 1 ) [ 18 ] and to a sequence obtained from a . cantonensis third stage larvae of parmarion cf . martensi [ 20 ] . both samples were confirmed to be infected with a . cantonensis by amplification of the its1 region .

however , if snails or slugs become abundant in home garden or other vegetable production areas and the produce is to be eaten raw , the produce should be examined for molluscs and washed thoroughly . soaking vegetables with 1 . 5 % bleach solution for 15 minutes ( 4 tablespoons or 2 oz of bleach per gallon of rinse water ; or 15 ml of bleach per liter of water ) has been shown to be effective for control of angiostrongylus costaricensis ( zanini and graeff - teixeira 2001 ) , and this decontamination procedure might be advisable for leafy vegetables that are potentially contaminated by angiostrongylus cantonensis as well .

8 . punyagupta s , juttijudata p , bunnag t . eosinophilic meningitis in thailand : clinical studies of 484 typical cases probably caused by angiostrongylus . am j trop med hyg . 1975 ; 24 : 921 - 931

duffy ms , miller cl , kinsella jm , de lahunta a . 2004 . parastrongylus cantonensis in a nonhuman primate , florida . emerging infectious diseases 10 : 2207 - 2210 .

apoptosis of mice brain homogenates can be repressed by treatment with dexamethasone . the findings here demonstrate one mechanism of action of corticosteroids in the treatment of a . cantonensis eosinophilic meningitis .

in humans , angiostrongylus eggs and larvae are not normally excreted but remain sequestered in tissues . a . costaricensis infections are predominantly abdominal ; both eggs and larvae ( occasionally adult worms ) can be identified in biopsy or surgical specimens of intestinal tissue where the eggs and larvae are engulfed in giant cells and / or granulomas . a . cantonensis infections are predominantly cerebral , being one of the most common causes of eosinophilic meningitis , although developing but immature adult worms can on occasion migrate to the lungs . no a . cantonensis eggs or larvae have been recognized in human tissues .

this study reveals an increase in brain apoptotic protein expressions and blood - brain barrier damage as demonstrated by increase evans blue extravasations following 2 - 3 weeks of infection with third stage larvae of a . cantonensis . steroid administration remarkably decreases the evans blue staining and apoptotic protein expressions . these findings provide evidences supporting the effects of steroids on a . cantonensis infection .

angiostrongylids are roundworms ( nematodes ) with thin cylindrical bodies . research has focused primarily on angiostrongylus cantonensis and species closely related to it . 2 , 10 , 15 , 18 – 22 angiostrongylus cantonensis and a . mackerrasae ( which was misidentified 20 as a . cantonensis by mackerras and sandars 18 in their detailed study ) are extremely similar in size and anatomy , 20 and the following data of mackerras and sandars for a . mackerrasae refer equally to a . cantonensis . first stage larvae are about 0 . 3 mm long and 0 . 015 mm in width ; second stage larvae are about 0 . 45 by 0 . 03 mm ; third stage larvae are similar in size , though a little thinner ; fourth stage larvae reach about 1 . 0 by 0 . 4 mm . the newly molted sub - adults are about 2 mm by 0 . 06 mm ; they grow to about 12 mm ( females ) and 11 mm ( males ) before leaving the rat ' s brain and migrating to the pulmonary arteries ( see the life cycle section , below ) , where they mature , reaching a size of up to about 35 by 0 . 6 mm ( females ) and 25 by 0 . 4 mm ( males ) . a number of publications have provided good descriptions of a . cantonensis . 10 , 20 , 23

hwang kp , chen er . clinical studies on angiostrongyliasis cantonensis among children in taiwan . southeast asian j trop med public health . 1991 ; 22 suppl : 194–9 . pmid : 1822885

in cases of eosinophilic meningitis , the diagnosis of a . cantonensis infection should be considered and the appropriate exposure history obtained . it is important for clinicians to consider a . cantonensis when evaluating a patient with an eosinophilic meningitis , even in regions outside of its traditional geographic boundaries . this case also highlights the new immunologic techniques being used to confirm the diagnosis of angiostrongyliasis .

eosinophilic meningitis can be the result of noninfectious causes and infectious agents . among the infectious agents , angiostrongylus cantonensis and gnathostoma spinigerum are the most common . although angiostrongyliasis and gnathostomiasis are not common in the united states , international travel and immigration make these diseases clinically relevant . both a . cantonensis and g . spinigerum infection can present as severe cns compromise . diagnoses of both infections can be challenging and are often clinical because of a paucity of serological assays readily available in the united states . furthermore , there are conflicting recommendations about treatment for angiostrongyliasis and gnathostomiasis . to further explore the emerging nature of these helminthic infections , a case description and review of a . cantonensis and g . spinigerum infections are presented . the clinical severity of eosinophilic meningitis and diagnosis of these infections are highlighted .

kwon e , ferguson tm , park sy , et al . 2013 . a severe case of angiostrongylus eosinophilic meningitis with encephalitis and neurologi sequelae in hawaii . hawaii j med public health . 72 ( 6 ) : 41–5 view article

serum and csf samples were sent to the faculty of tropical medicine , mahidol university ( thailand ) for helminthic immunoassay . the acute - phase serological and csf specimens collected during the patient ' s initial hospitalization tested negative for angiostrongyliasis and gnathostomiasis . the convalescent - phase serum and csf samples , collected 76 and 66 days after presentation , respectively , tested positive for antibodies against an angiostrongylus cantonensis 31 - kda antigen by immunoblot assay .

zanini gm , graeff - teixeira c . 2001 . inactivation of infective larvae of angiostrongylus costaricensis with short time incubations in 1 . 5 % bleach solution , vinegar or saturated cooking salt solution . acta tropica 78 : 17 - 21 .

there are limited controlled trials that outline the benefit or harm of using antihelminthics for treatment of a . cantonensis and g . spinigerum cns infection [ 3 , 17 ] . because of our patient ' s severe neurologic symptoms and progressive course of infection , he received a 28 - day course of albendazole therapy , with no clinical change . importantly , some eosinophilic meningitis treatment trials include patients who receive a diagnosis of angiostrongylus infection on the basis of local epidemiology and symptomotology but not serological testing . it is possible that some treatment trials are confounded by patients with eosinophilic meningitis secondary to a different helminthic infection , given the overlap in the geographic distribution of gnathostoma and angiostrongylus species .

a total of 64 rats ( 31 % ) were found to be infected with a . cantonensis ( table 2 ) . the rats belonging to r . norvegicus showed 46 % ( 11 / 24 ) prevalence for a . cantonensis infection while r . tanezumi showed 29 % ( 53 / 185 ) prevalence . statistical analysis revealed no significant differences between the rat species ( , ) . furthermore , intensity of a . cantonensis for r . tanezumi ( 62 parasite / rat ) is higher than r . norvegicus ( 43 parasite / rat ) and also showed no significant differences ( ; ) .

the 18s and its1 amplifications gave identical results . of the 37 species , 16 tested positive for a . cantonensis , with 70 specimens testing positive out of a total of 1 , 271 ( table 1 ) . among the 30 non - native species , 14 tested positive , two being newly recorded natural hosts of a . cantonensis ( cyclotropis sp . , oxychilus alliarius ) . of a total of 1 , 062 non - native gastropods , 6 % were positive for a . cantonensis . no specimens of four non - native species ( bradybaena similaris , deroceras laeve , limax flavus , melanoides tuberculata ) that have been recorded in other studies as hosts of a . cantonensis ( appendix s1 ) tested positive for the parasite . parmarion martensi had the highest prevalence of infection with 68 % ( 13 / 19 ) of the specimens testing positive for a . cantonensis followed by laevicaulis alte with an infection rate of 30 % ( 13 / 44 ) ( table 1 , figure 2 ) .

this is a retrospective study of patients diagnosed with eosinophilic meningitis at kaohsiung veterans general hospital , from december 1991 to september 2009 . the demographic characteristics , clinical presentations , laboratory data , radiographic imaging , and treatment and clinical outcome were analyzed . a pubmed search with the keywords of eosinophilic meningitis , a cantonensis , and taiwan was performed to retrieve cases of eosinophilic meningitis caused by a cantonensis since 1960 .

one hundred respondents in the study site were interviewed and a questionnaire was given out to each respondent . the respondents include farmers and housewives which are people that have high chances of getting a . cantonensis .

human angiostrongyliasis ( ha ) is a neurological helminthic disease caused by the lung worm angiostrongylus cantonensis . it is suspected in the combination of travel or a residence in an endemic area and eosinophilic meningitis . in mayotte , an island in the indian ocean , cases are rare but regular . the main objective of our study was to describe the epidemiological and diagnosis clues of ha in mayotte . the secondary objectives were to evaluate the contribution of real - time polymerase chain reaction ( rt - pcr ) for the diagnosis of ha , delineate the characteristics of the local transmission and ascertain the presence of a . cantonensis in achatina fulica , the potential vector of the disease .

angiostrongylus cantonensis is a parasitic worm of rats . it is also called the rat lungworm . the adult form of the parasite is found only in rodents . infected rats pass larvae of the parasite in their feces . snails and slugs get infected by ingesting the larvae . these larvae mature in snails and slugs but do not become adult worms . the life cycle is completed when rats eat infected snails or slugs and the larvae further mature to become adult worms .

autochthonous angiostrongylus cantonensis infection has been little recognized in the continental united states with the exception of louisiana . in contrast , it was recognized in hawai‘i in the early 1960s , and the parasite has been considered endemic since . however , infections were rare until late 2004 , when a case cluster was noted on the island of hawai‘i . while still uncommon , a . cantonensis infection has continued to emerge throughout the state , especially on the island of hawai‘i . despite increased community awareness , the diagnosis is commonly missed , and the lack of diagnostic tests as well as the challenge of educating clinicians and the public are constant limitations to the prevention and control of this emerging infection .

angiostrongylus cantonensis or the rat lungworm is a zoonotic helminth responsible for the disease called angiostrongylosis . its life cycle involves rodents as definitive hosts and mollusks as intermediate hosts . it can also infect other animals , for example , shrimps and frogs , without further development and still be infective when ingested . humans , however , are dead - end hosts for a . cantonensis and can be infected through ingestion of infected mollusks , things contaminated by infected mollusks , for example , soil and vegetables [ 1 , 2 ] , and ingestion of paratenic hosts . as a result , a . cantonensis is the major cause of eosinophilic meningitis in humans particularly in indo - pacific regions where it is endemic . the animal - human environmental interface of a . cantonensis is difficult to assess and one of the reasons is that its hosts are easily affected by changes in the environment [ 3 ] . changes in ecology and environment may also result in changes in the epidemiology of this parasite . thus , it is important to assess the possible transmission route of the parasite due to its risks to both veterinary and public health .

the low prevalence of a . cantonensis in freshwater snails in the study may has resulted from a number of factors such as the seasonal infection of rats with a . cantonensis . based on a study by antolin et al . [ 4 ] , female r . tanezumi in philrice farms from nueva ecija were found to be infected with a . cantonensis during june to september . this could mean that the transmission of the parasite between its hosts may have happened during these months . in connection to this , snails for the study were collected during other months of the year . furthermore , ecological characteristics of p . canaliculata and m . maculata such as their benthic life cycle may also be accounted for the low prevalence of a . cantonensis infection . according to lv et al . [ 16 ] , only a few species of freshwater snails naturally transmit a . cantonensis because rat feces containing its l1 are diluted in freshwater bodies . previous studies suggest that a . cantonensis infection in terrestrial snails and slugs are higher than freshwater snails [ 19 – 21 ] . in the present study , no a . cantonensis l3 was observed in a . fulica . the reason is unclear ; however , possibilities exist such as effects of seasonal variations and habitat of hosts on the transmission of parasite . based on observations , a . fulica becomes active when it starts to rain . in the study of salibay and luyon [ 22 ] , fewer rats were caught in rainy days . this indicates that there may have been less contact between rats and a . fulica . studies in other countries have shown that a . fulica are naturally infected with the parasite [ 8 , 17 , 19 , 23 – 25 ] . in the philippines , few reports regarding a . cantonensis infection in snails can be found . a . fulica and laevicaulis altae from metro manila were revealed to be infected with a . cantonensis [ 9 , 10 , 26 ] but other than the snail , no other reports have been made . this study , however , is the first record of a . cantonensis infected p . canaliculata and m . maculata in the philippines .

drug susceptibility : there is no specific treatment for angiostrongyliasis . a cantonensis is susceptible to albendazole and mebendazole , but a systemic response to dying worms may make the condition worse ( 2 , 3 , 7 ) .

asato r , taira k , nakamura m , kudaka j , itokazu k , et al . ( 2004 ) changing epidemiology of angiostrongyliasis cantonensis in okinawa prefecture , japan . jpn j infect dis 57 : 184–186 .

a . cantonensis was detected by morphological and / or molecular methods in all three mollusc species and from all the areas studied . the three species are common and widespread over the north - east part of tenerife .

eamsobhanaa p , limb pe , solano g , zhange h , ganf x , yongc hs : molecular differentiation of angiostrongylus taxa ( nematoda : angiostrongylidae ) by cytochrome c oxidase subunit i ( coi ) gene sequences . acta tropica ; 2010 ; 116 : 152–156 .

the pcr method presented here may also be useful for detecting angiostrongylus costaricensis , a parasitic nematode that causes gastrointestinal disease ( 22 ) . a . costaricensis has a life cycle similar to that of a . cantonensis , including the fact that mollusks are intermediate hosts that transmit the disease to humans ( 21 ) . the pcr primers described in this study are based on regions where these two parasites have almost identical sequences ( genbank accession number dq116748 ) , making it possible to use this pcr to examine mollusks for the presence of a . costaricensis , as well as a . cantonensis . the two species can be differentiated by sequence analysis . in addition to amplifying the intended angiostrongylus species sequence , the pcr primers were found to interact with an unidentified nematode species . this finding emphasizes the importance of sequence analysis of the pcr amplicons . it also highlights the need for further evaluation of the specificity of the pcr primers for dna from more nematode species , especially those that are associated with mollusks .

neuroimaging studies are often nonfocal without any characteristic lesions . despite this , they may be helpful to distinguish a . cantonensis eosinophilic meningitis from focal lesions which is more commonly seen with other parasitic infections such as neurocysticercosis and gnathostomiasis .

wang , l . c . , jung , s . m . , chen , c . c . , wong , h . f . , wan , d . p . , & wan , y . l . ( 2006 ) . pathological changes in the brains of rabbits experimentally infected with angiostrongylus cantonensis after albendazole treatment : histopathological and magnetic resonance imaging studies . the journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy , 57 ( 2 ) , 294 - 300 . doi : 10 . 1093 / jac / dki430

recovery of a . cantonensis from the patient’s csf confirms the diagnosis ; however , the organism is rarely detected on microscopy as it can adhere to the meninges and often migrates in neural tissue rather than remaining in the extrameningeal space .

although infected humans usually recover , the nematodes can penetrate the brain , spinal cord , and eyes , and sometimes cause paralysis , blindness , or death . other primates , dogs , horses , birds and other animals also are susceptible to infection . a particularly good host of the nematode is giant african land snail , achatina fulica , which has been deliberately relocated to some areas , but movement in association with other molluscs and rats is implicated in the spread of angiostrongylus cantonensis ( duffy et al . 2004 ) .


ancistroteuthis lichtensteinii , also known as the angel clubhook squid or simply angel squid , is a species of squid in the family onychoteuthidae and the sole member of the genus ancistroteuthis .

it grows to a mantle length of 30 cm .

it can be found in the western mediterranean sea , subtropical and tropical eastern atlantic ocean and western north atlantic ocean .

its diet include mesopelagic fish and pelagic crustaceans .

it is sometimes taken as bycatch by commercial fisheries , but is not a targeted species .

ancistroteuthis

ancistroteuthis <EOT> vecchione , m . , young , r . e . , and tsuchiya , k . 2008 . ancistroteuthis gray 1849 . ancistroteuthis lichtensteinii ( ferussac 1835 ) . version 28 april 2008 ( under construction ) . available at : urltoken .

justification : ancistroteuthis lichtensteini has been assessed as least concern . this oceanic species has a wide geographic distribution , making it less susceptible to human impact . it is occasionally taken as by - catch . however , more research is still needed on its ecology and biology .

citation : " angel clubhook squid , ancistroteuthis lichtensteinii ~ marinebio . org . " marinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio

research ancistroteuthis lichtensteinii » barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms

ancistroteuthis is monotypic . kubodera et al . ( 1998 ) , however , briefly described a new form of the species from the central atlantic . a . lichtensteinii is best known from the mediterranean sea . there , males mature at about 200 mm ml and the species reaches a maximum size of 300 mm ml ( kubodera et al . 1998 ) . this species is very similar to species of onychoteuthis but is most easily distinguished by the absence of a visible gladius along the mid - dorsal line and the absence of photophores .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en " " urltoken "

thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

this pelagic species occurs in open water in tropical to warm temperate waters of the atlantic and mediterranean sea ( roper and jereb 2010 ) . during spring and summer it occurs over gravel bottoms in the mediterranean and spawning occurs in the summer ( roper and jereb 2010 ) . little is known about its biology and ecology . its diet includes mesopelagic fish and pelagic crustaceans , predators include marine mammals and pelagic fish ( roper and jereb 2010 ) .

there are no species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . further research is recommended in order to determine the taxonomy , precise distribution , population dynamics , life history and ecology of this species .

to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .

( férussac [ in férussac & d ' orbigny ] , 1835 ) . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 140647 on 2018 - 07 - 09

( of onychoteuthis lichtensteinii ( férussac [ in férussac & d ' orbigny ] , 1835 ) ) férussac a . e . j . & d ' orbigny a . [ 1834 ] 1835 - 1848 . histoire naturelle générale et particulière des céphalopodes acétabulifères vivants et fossiles . pp . [ 1 - 96 ] , i - lvi , 1 - 361 , atlas with 144 plates . paris , baillière . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 334 [ details ]

gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]

spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]

roper , c . f . e . ; jereb , p . ( 2010 ) . family onychoteuthidae . in : p . jereb & c . f . e . roper , eds . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species known to date . volume 2 . myopsid and oegopsid squids . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes . no . 4 , vol . 2 . rome , fao . pp . 348 - 369 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 354 [ details ]

( of onychoteuthis hamatus risso , 1854 ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]

( of onychoteuthis hamatus risso , 1854 ) bolstad k . s . r . ( 2010 ) systematics of the onychoteuthidae gray , 1847 ( cephalopoda : oegopsida ) . zootaxa 2696 : 1 - 186 . page ( s ) : 106 [ details ]

( of onychoteuthis hamata risso , 1854 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]

intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]

bolstad k . s . r . ( 2010 ) systematics of the onychoteuthidae gray , 1847 ( cephalopoda : oegopsida ) . zootaxa 2696 : 1 - 186 . page ( s ) : 105 [ details ]

roper , c . f . e . ; jereb , p . ( 2010 ) . family onychoteuthidae . in : p . jereb & c . f . e . roper , eds . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species known to date . volume 2 . myopsid and oegopsid squids . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes . no . 4 , vol . 2 . rome , fao . pp . 348 - 369 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 353 [ details ]

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en " " urltoken "

this genus is currently considered to be monotypic but considerable variability in specimens outside the mediterrranean suggests that more study is needed .

figure . oral view of club tip , a . lichtensteinii , type a , 110 mm ml , usnm 294756 . photograph by r . young .

figure . left photographs - lateral and dorsoblique views of the occipital folds , a . lichtensteinii , type a , preserved , 110 mm ml , 20°27 ' n , 21°58 ' w , usnm 294756 . photograph by r . young . . the white arrows point to occipital fold number 3 . right drawings - dorsal and lateral views of head and occipital folds , a . lichtensteinii , 145 mm ml , mediterranean sea . drawings from pfeffer , 1912 .

gladius not visible on dorsal side of mantle ( i . e . , mantle muscle completely surrounds gladius - see title illustrations ) .

kubodera et al . ( 1998 ) stated that an oval , opaque area with a small posterior patch of photogenic tissue is present on the ventral covering of the eye . we believe this tissue likely to be iridescent ( but not photogenic ) ; observation of live specimens will be necessary to draw any further conclusions .

kubodera et al . ( 1998 ) also briefly described four geographical morphotypes , three forms in the atlantic and one in the pacific . the south atlantic and south pacific forms , however , belong to notonykia africanae ( nesis et al . 1998 ) and notonykia nesisi ( bolstad 2007 ) respectively . the other two of their forms are mentioned here as type a ( typical a . lichtensteinii ) and type b ; the most distinctive feature of the latter is the rhomboidal , non - attenuate shape of the fins . insufficient information is available at present to evaluate the significance of these differences .

paralarvae have not been described . the smallest described specimen is 16 mm ml . even at this small size , the mantle covers the gladius at least in its anterior half . the eyes , unlike those of onychoteuthis at this size , do not have luminous organs on the ventral surface of the eyeball . the conus has a spoon - shape rather than the cone - shape seen in onychoteuthis . the row of large brownish - red chromatophores on the dorsal midline is probably characteristic . the specimen showed traces of an iridescent metallic sheen , greenish on the mantle and dark blue on the head . this description is from naef ( 1921 - 23 ) .

figure . dorsal and ventral views of juvenile a . lichtensteinii . left - 16 mm ml . drawings from naef ( 1921 - 23 ) . right - dorsal , side and ventral views . photographs by r . young . the significance of the differences in chromatophore patterns is unknown .

the type locality is the western mediterranean . this species has been reported from the western mediterranean , and tropical and subtropical waters of the eastern atlantic and off nova scotia in the western north atlantic ( vecchione and pohle , 2002 ) . the records outside the mediterranean are very sparse . this species has also been reported from the gulf of mexico ( voss , 1956 ) and the southwestern pacific ( rancurel , 1970 ) , but these identifications are questionable because in both cases the specimens lacked numerous occipital folds . these squids may be young onykia ( kubodera , et al . , 1998 , their moroteuthis ) .

bolstad , k . s . 2007 . systematics and distribution of the new zealand onychoteuthid fauna ( cephalopoda : oegopsida ) , including a new species , notonykia nesisi sp . nov . reviews in fish biology and fisheries , 17 : 305335 .

kubodera , t . , u . piatkowski , t . okutani and m . r . clarke . 1998 . taxonomy and zoogeography of the family onychoteuthidae ( cephalopoda : oegopsida ) . smithsonian contributions to zoology , no . 586 : 277 - 291 .

naef , a . 1921 - 23 . cephalopoda . fauna und flora des golfes von neapel . monograph , no . 35 . english translation : a . mercado ( 1972 ) . israel program for scientific translations ltd . , jerusalem , israel . 863pp . , ipst cat . no . 5110 / 1 , 2 .

nesis , k . n . , m . a . c . roeleveld and i . v . nikitina . 1998 . a new genus and species of onychoteuthid squid from the southern ocean . ruthenica 8 : 153 - 168 .

pfeffer , g . 1912 . die cephalopoden der plankton - expedition . zugleich eine monographische übersicht der oegopsiden cephalopoden . ergebniss der plankton - expedition der humboldt - stiftung , 2 : 1 - 815 .

rancurel , p . l970 . les contenus stomacaux d ' alepisaurus ferox dans le sud - ouest pacifique ( cephalopodes ) . cahiers o . r . s . t . o . m . , serie oceanographie , 8 ( 4 ) : 3 - 87 .

vecchione , m . and g . pohle . 2002 . midwater cephalopods in the western north atlantic ocean off nova scotia . bull . mar . sci . 71 ( 2 ) : 883 - 892 .

voss , g . l . 1956 . a review of the cephalopods of the gulf of mexico . bulletin of marine science of the gulf and caribbean , 6 ( 2 ) : 85 - 178 .

photographs taken aboard the r / v g . o . sars , mar - eco cruise , central north atlantic .

this media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial license - version 3 . 0 .

. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the

vecchione , michael , richard e . young , and kotaro tsuchiya . 2010 .

each tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .

for a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .

tree of life design and icons copyright © 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .

10 . marine oceanic - > 10 . 1 . marine oceanic - epipelagic ( 0 - 200m ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 10 . marine oceanic - > 10 . 2 . marine oceanic - mesopelagic ( 200 - 1000m ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes

5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 4 . unintentional effects : ( large scale ) [ harvest ] ♦ timing : ongoing

1 . research - > 1 . 1 . taxonomy 1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology

iucn . 2014 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 1 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 12 june 2014 ) .

kubodera , t . , piatkowski , u . , okutani , t . and clarke , m . r . 1998 . taxonomy and zoogeography of the family onychoteuthidae . smithsonian contributions to zoology 586 : 277 - 292 .

roper , c . f . e and jereb , p . 2010 . family onychoteuthidae . in : jereb , p . and roper , c . f . e . ( eds ) , cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of cephalopods species known to date . volume 2 . myopsid and oegopsid squids . , fao , rome .

roper , c . f . e . , sweeney , m . j . and nauen c . e . 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 3 . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries . fao fisheries synopsis no . 125 vol . 3 : 277p .

eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .

to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !

sweeney , m . j . and c . f . e . roper / n . a . voss , m . vecchione , r . b . toll and m . j . sweeney , eds .

systematics and biogeography of cephalopods . smithsonian contributions to zoology , 586 ( i - ii )

taxon validity : [ fide naef ( 1923 : 326 ) ] . type species : onychoteuthis lichtensteini ferussac , 1835 in ferussac and d ' orbigny , 1834 - 1848 , species first mentioned

disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en " " urltoken "

this home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .

start or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !

help us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .

with your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .

deep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm

~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( ° > © 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < °° > - <

" for all at last returns to the sea — to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end . " - rachel carson

confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .

to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .

disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .

this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .