galaxiella munda is a species of fish in the galaxiidae family .

it is endemic to inland waters of southwest western australia , and known as the western mud minnow .

in 1999 the mud minnow was not included in the list of threatened species under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act , but is listed as near threatened on the iucn red list .

galaxiella munda

galaxiella munda <EOT> mean genetic divergences between populations of galaxiella munda for cytochrome b calculated using p - distances .

information on the western mud minnow ( galaxiella munda ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .

martin f . gomon & dianne j . bray , galaxiella munda in fishes of australia , accessed 10 jul 2018 , urltoken

biology of galaxiella munda mcdowall ( teleostei : galaxudae ) , including a comparison of the reproductive strategies of this and three other local species .

western dwarf galaxias , galaxiella munda . source : stephen beatty / freshwater fish group & fish health unit , murdoch university . license : all rights reserved

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wager , r . 1996 . galaxiella munda . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 18 may 2011 .

berra , t . m . & g . r . allen . 1989 . clarification of the difference between galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway , 1953 ) and galaxiella munda mcdowall , 1978 ( pisces : galaxiidae ) from western australia . rec . west . aust . mus . 14 : 293–297 .

mean genetic divergences between populations of galaxiella nigrostriata for cytochrome b calculated using p - distances .

mean genetic divergences between western lineage populations of galaxiella pusilla for cytochrome b calculated using p - distances .

mean genetic divergences between eastern lineage populations of galaxiella pusilla for cytochrome b calculated using p - distances .

molecular phylogeny and phylogeography of the australian freshwater fish genus galaxiella , with an emphasis on dwarf galaxias ( g . pusilla )

male blackstriped dwarf galaxias , galaxiella nigrostriata . source : gerald r . allen / western australian museum . license : all rights reserved

galaxiella munda mcdowall 1978 , j . r . soc . n . z . 8 ( 1 ) : 119 , figs . 1 - 2 . type locality : pool in jarrah forest , about 8 km north of scott river , between nanup and augusta , 34°13 ' s , 115°29 ' e , western australia .

pen , l . j . , gill , h . s . , humphries , p . & potter , i . c . 1993 . biology of the black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata , including comparisons with the other two galaxiella species . journal of fish biology 43 : 847–863 . urltoken

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gill , h . s . & neira , f . j . 1994 . larval descriptions of three galaxiid fishes endemic to south - western australia : galaxias occidentalis , galaxiella mund a and galaxiella nigrostriata ( salmoniformes : galaxiidae ) . marine and freshwater research 45 : 1307–1317 . doi : 10 . 1071 / mf9941307

saddlier s , jackson j , hammer m . melbourne : state of victoria department of sustainability and environment ; 2010 . national recovery plan for the dwarf galaxias galaxiella pusilla .

wager , r . 1996 . galaxiella nigrostriat a . in : iucn 2012 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 2 . . downloaded on 14 may 2012 .

pen , l . j . , gill , h . s . , potter , i . c . & humphries , p . ( 1993 ) . growth , age composition , reproductive biology and diet of the black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway ) , including comparisons with the other two galaxiella species . journal of fish biology 43 : 847 - 864 .

galaxiella munda and g . nigrostriata show even more extreme examples of population differentiation . overall though , patterns were broadly similar to those in g . pusilla . some proximate populations had low divergences ( e . g . , sites 32–33 , 34 and 36 , 38–39 ) . populations 24–25 were unusual in that they are separated by considerable distance , yet they were genetically quite similar ( fig . 3 and table s5 ) . most other populations had high genetic divergences , typically from 0 . 7 % to 3 . 0 % ( tables s4 , s5 ) . interestingly , despite being more common in elevations closer to sea level , g . nigrostriata displayed a higher degree of genetic differentiation than g . munda ( table s1 ) .

gill , h . s . & morgan , d . l . 1996 . threatened fishes of the world : galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway , 1953 ) ( galaxiidae ) . environmental biology of fishes 47 : 344 .

galeotti dm , mccullough cd , lund ma ( 2010 ) black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway 1953 ) ( pisces : galaxiidae ) , a review and discussion . j r soc west aust 93 : 13–20 .

summary of pairwise comparisons of allele frequency between sites for galaxiella pusilla west . site 9 was excluded from the analysis due to small sample size and lack of a geographically - proximate neighbour . format as for table s8 .

colour varies in relation to the water inhabited . in tannin - stained waters g . munda is dark brown on the back and sides with a silvery - white belly . may also be greenish olive dorsally with a longitudinal silvery stripe , a brownish - orange stripe ( usually during the breeding season ) and a narrow dark stripe with a silvery belly .

smith , k . d . 1996 . an outlying population of galaxiella nigrostriata ( pisces : galaxiidae ) at melaleuca park , western australia : causes of habitat fragmentation . honours thesis , department of zoology , the university of western australia . 115 pp .

fish fact : the muddy , or western mud minnow ( galaxiella munda ) is the closest rellie to the black - strip minnow , but instead of being found in ephemeral waterbodies , it is found in spring - fed headwater streams that are the result of groundwater expression . take the yaragadee as an example , these species is most secure in yaragadee aquifer - fed streams . at least we aren ' t drawing that aquifer down - phew . the species has a one year life - cycle so if something negative happens in their streams then they are likely to go kaput . big worry considering our recent year of climate change .

galeotti , d . m . 2013 . metapopulation theory explains black - stripe minnow ( pisces : galaxiidae , galaxiella nigrostriata ) distribution in seasonal wetlands in south - west western australia . msc thesis , edith cowan university , perth , western australia , 165 pp . urltoken pdf

galeotti , d . m . , m . a . castalanelli , d . m . groth , c . mccullough & m . lund . 2014 . genotypic and morphological variation between galaxiella nigrostriata ( galaxiidae ) populations : implications for conservation . marine and freshwater research urltoken abstract

thompson gg , withers pc ( 1999 ) the metabolic response to hypoxia and emersion of aestivating fishes ( lepidogalaxias salamandroides and galaxiella nigrostriata ) and a non - aestivating fish ( bostockia porosa ) from south - western australia . australian journal of zoology 47 : 295 - 305 .

gill , h . s . & morgan , d . l . 2003 . ontogenetic changes in the diet of galaxiella nigrostriat a ( shipway , 1953 ) ( galaxiidae ) and lepidogalaxias salamandroides mees , 1961 ( lepidogalaxiidae ) . ecology of freshwater fish 12 : 151 - 158 .

the ml analyses of each gene recovered a nearly identical interspecific topology , with the only incongruence being among brachygalaxias relationships . cyt b placed b . gothei and b . bullocki as sister species , whereas s7 placed b . gothei in between the two b . bullocki lineages . bootstrap support was high ( > 98 % ) for all deep nodes in the cyt b dataset , with the exception of the node uniting g . munda and g . nigrostriata ( 52 % ; fig . 2 ) . our tcs networks provided a more detailed pattern of the relationships between cyt b haplotypes within each galaxiella species , highlighting the large number of nucleotide differences between many populations ( fig . 3 ) .

citation : unmack pj , bagley jc , adams m , hammer mp , johnson jb ( 2012 ) molecular phylogeny and phylogeography of the australian freshwater fish genus galaxiella , with an emphasis on dwarf galaxias ( g . pusilla ) . plos one 7 ( 6 ) : e38433 . urltoken

galeotti , d . m . , mccullough , c . d . & lund , m . a . 2010 . black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway 1953 ) ( pisces : galaxiidae ) , a review and discussion . journal of the royal society of western australia 93 : 13–20 .

maximum likelihood trees for galaxiella based on analysis of cytochrome b ( a ) and s7 ( b ) sequences and a neighbour joining tree for allozymes ( c ) . panel a shows the complete tree with operational taxonomic units ( otus ) for each galaxiella species collapsed . expanded trees within each species are shown below , with the lower scale bar applying to each of the four subtrees . bootstrap values are based on 1000 pseudoreplicates . trees are rooted with brachygalaxias . each otu code is based on the sampling location number and name in table 1 and fig . 1 , while the coloured symbols match figs . 1 , 3 and 5 .

unmack pj , bagley jc , adams m , hammer mp , johnson jb ( 2012 ) molecular phylogeny and phylogeography of the australian freshwater fish genus galaxiella , with an emphasis on dwarf galaxias ( g . pusilla ) . plos one 7 ( 6 ) : e38433 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0038433

smith , k . d . , pen , l . j . & knott , b . 2002 . genetic and morphological study of the black - stripe minnow , galaxiella nigrostriata ( salmoniformes : galaxiidae ) , including a disjunct population near perth , western australia . records of the western australian museum 21 : 285–290 . pdf open access

knott , b . , jasinska , e . j . & smith k . d . 2002 . limnology and aquatic fauna of epp 173 , melaleuca park , refuge for an outlier population of the black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata ( pisces : galaxiidae ) in southwestern australia . records of the western australian museum 21 : 291 - 298 .

unmack pj , bagley jc , adams m , hammer mp , johnson jb ( 2012 ) molecular phylogeny and phylogeography of the australian freshwater fish genus galaxiella , with an emphasis on dwarf galaxias ( g . pusilla ) . plos one 7 ( 6 ) : e38433 . pdf open access doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0038433

smith , k . d . , knott , b . & jasinska , e . j . 2002 . biology of the black - stripe minnow , galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway ) , in an acidic , black - water lake in melaleuca park near perth , western australia . records of the western australian museum 21 : 277 - 284 . pdf available open access

galeotti , d . m . , mccullough , c . d . & lund , m . a . 2008 . current state of knowledge of the black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata ( pisces : galaxiidae ) in western australia . edith cowan university , centre for ecosystem management report 2008 - 12 , unpublished report to kemerton silica sands pty . ltd . , perth , western australia . 36 pp

occur in slow - running , tea - colored streams usually in sandy areas . also found in swamps , small ponds and roadside ditches . also lives in the vegetated shallows of some freshwater lakes . water is typically acidic ( ph 4 . 5 - 6 . 5 ) and darkly tannin - stained . an inhabitant of temporary waters , capable of aestivating in damp bottom sediments over summer . spawning habits similar to g . munda . most individuals perish after their first spawning ( ref . 44894 ) . feed on small insects , larvae of aquatic insects and micro - crustaceans . breeding is associated with winter rains . males take on a bright color pattern at the start of the breeding season ( ref . 33842 ) .

refer to table 1 for corresponding locality details . each species is represented by a different symbol , with populations from both lineages of g . pusilla color coded to match figs . 2 , 3 and 5 . shaded areas refer to the general distribution of each galaxiella species . low sea level drainage patterns are shown to the minus 135 m bathymetric contour . bathymetry predicts a large depression that we refer to as lake bass . the small inset of australia shows the relevant biogeographic provinces , and the black central southern region represents the extent of the eucla basin .

summary of genetic diversity of cytochrome b sequences sampled within galaxiella pusilla populations and clades in this study . locality numbers , the number of individuals sampled , number of haplotypes ( h ) , haplotype diversity ( hd ) with its standard deviations , nucleotide diversity ( π ) with its standard deviations , and the results of coalescent simulations of three neutrality statistics , tajima’s d , fu’s f s , ramos - onsins and rozas’ r 2 , are shown . within - population values only represent genetically polymorphic sites ; unlisted populations were monomorphic ( h = 1 ; hd = π = 0 . 000 ) .

summary of pairwise comparisons of allele frequency between sites for galaxiella pusilla east . due to their small sample sizes , sites 16 and 20 were pooled with a geographically - proximate neighbour ( sites 15 and 21 respectively ) . lower triangle = number of loci displaying statistically - significant differences in allele frequency ( p < 0 . 05 after bonferroni correction ) . upper triangle = results of determining p - value for each population pair across all loci ( fisher’s method ) after bonferroni correction ; * * * = p < 0 . 001 , * * = p < 0 . 01 ; ns = not significant .

allozyme frequencies at all variable loci for the 22 sites surveyed for galaxiella pusilla . site codes follow table 1 . frequencies of all but the rarer / rarest alleles are expressed as percentages and shown as superscripts ( allowing the frequency of each rare allele to be calculated by subtraction from 100 % ) . maximum sample sizes per site are shown in brackets ( asterisks indicate sample sizes of n = 3 for the designated sites and loci ) . a dash indicates insufficient enzyme activity at this locus . invariant loci : ald1 * , ald2 * , enol * , gapd1 , glo * , gp , gpi2 , pgam * , and pk * .

a very small galaxiid found creeks and streams of south - west western australia .

adults are brownish - grey above with a white belly , and have several whitish blotches along the upper side , and a broad coppery - brown stripe edged in fine olive brown stripes just below the midline from behind the eye to the tail base .

video of western dwarf galaxias by the freshwater fish group of murdoch university , western australia .

endemic to temperate freshwaters of south western australia , from the albany district ( 118°10’e ) to north of perth ( 31°50’s ) .

the western dwarf galaxias prefers swift - flowing streams in karri forests , near submerged vegetation . the water in these streams is usually acidic ( ph 3 . 0 - 6 . 0 ) and darkly tannin - stained , and the water temperature fluctuates widely with the seasons . it also occasionally occurs in ponds , swamps and roadside drains .

dorsal fin 7 - 10 ( usually 8 - 9 ) ; anal fin 11 - 15 ( usually 12 - 14 ) ; pectoral fin 9 - 12 ( usually 10 - 11 ) ; pelvic fin 5 - 7 ( usually 6 ) ; gill rakers16 - 20 .

body elongate , slender , almost tubular ; body depth at anus 10 . 5 - 14 . 3 % sl ; head short , snout short and bluntly rounded ; mouth small , oblique , reaching to front of eyes ; jaws equal in size with no enlarged canine teeth ; eye large , upper margin at head profile ; gill rakers long and slender ; pyloric caeca absent ; compressed behind the vent ; caudal peduncle longer than deep ; scales absent .

fins small and membranous ; low membranous fold along caudal peduncle almost to dorsal and anal rays dorsal fin short - based ; dorsal fin origin behind anal fin origin ; caudal fin long , truncate to rounded ; pectoral fins narrow - based , small and rounded , inserted high laterally ; ventral fin very small , inserted at mid - body .

carnivore - feeds on small insects , aquatic insect larvae and microcrustaceans - usually near vegetation at the edges of streams .

the western dwarf galaxias has a year - long life cycle that is completed entirely in freshwater . the sexes are separate and fertilisation is external . spawning occurs between june and october , with a peak during august and september . females spawn several times , depositing several batches of eggs in flooded vegetation over several weeks . adults die soon after spawning .

allen , g . r . 1989 freshwater fishes of australia . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey .

allen , g . r . , midgley , s . h . & allen , m . 2002 . field guide to the freshwater fishes of australia . perth : western australian museum 394 pp .

gill , h . s . & f . j . neira 1998 galaxiidae ( galaxiinae ) : southern galaxias . p . 70 - 77 . in f . j . neira , a . g . miskiewicz & t . trnski ( eds . ) larvae of temperate australian fishes : laboratory guide for larval fish identification . university of western australia press . 474 p .

mcdowall , r . m . ( 1978 ) a new genus and species of galaxiid fish from australia ( salmoniformes : galaxiidae ) . j . r . soc . n . z . 8 ( 1 ) : 115 - 124 .

mcdowall rm , frankenburg rs ( 1981 ) the galaxiid fishes of australia . rec aust mus 33 : 443–605 .

mcdowall , r . m . & j . m . waters . 2004 . phylogenetic relationships in a small group of diminutive galaxiid fishes and the evolution of sexual dimorphism . journal of the royal society of new zealand 34 ( 1 ) : 23 - 57 .

merrick , j . r . & g . e . schmida 1984 australian freshwater fishes : biology and management . griffin press ltd . , south australia . 409 p .

morgan , d . , gill , h . & potter , i . ( 1996 ) . the distribution of freshwater fish in the southwestern corner of australia . report to water and rivers commission . waters and rivers commission , perth , western australia .

morgan , d . l . , gill , h . s . & potter , i . c . ( 1998 ) . distribution , identification and biology of freshwater fishes in south - western australia . records of the western australian museum . supplement no 56 , perth , western australia .

paxton , j . r . , d . f . hoese , g . r . allen & j . e . hanley 1989 zoological catalogue of australia . volume 7 . pisces . petromyzontidae to carangidae . australian government publishing service , canberra . zoological catalogue of australia . volume 7 . v . 7 : i - xii + 1 - 665 .

greek , galaxias , ou = a kind of fish , diminutive ( ref . 45335 )

oceania : endemic to australia . known only from the southwestern part in coastal streams between albany and ellen brook .

maturity : l m 4 . 7 range ? - ? cm max length : 6 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 44894 ) ; common length : 3 . 5 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5259 )

dorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 6 - 8 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 9 - 12 ; vertebrae : 38 - 43 . adults are brown - grey dorsally and white ventrally with several whitish blotches near the dorsal midline , and a broad brown stripe just below midline from behind eye to caudal - fin base .

allen , g . r . , 1989 . freshwater fishes of australia . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey . ( ref . 5259 )

phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5625 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .

bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .

trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 ±0 . 36 se ; based on food items .

resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 3 . 70 ; tm = 1 ; tmax = 1 ; mean fec = 65 ) .

vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 14 of 100 ) .

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information on the dwarf galaxias is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .

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peter j . unmack , 1 , 2 , * justin c . bagley , 2 mark adams , 3 , 4 michael p . hammer , 3 , 5 and jerald b . johnson 2 , 6

conceived and designed the experiments : pju mph jbj . performed the experiments : pju ma . analyzed the data : pju jcb ma . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : pju mph ma jcb jbj . wrote the paper : pju jcb ma .

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southern australia provides an excellent geological setting for studying biogeographic patterns . long - term aridity since the oligocene created a vast desert region in southern australia , isolating two moist temperate regions in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the continent . the biota that occupy these two regions have been isolated since at least mid - miocene (

for corresponding locality details . each species is represented by a different symbol , with populations from both lineages of

color coded to match figs . 2 , 3 and 5 . shaded areas refer to the general distribution of each

species is differences in the width of the continental shelf . regions with narrow continental shelf should present limited opportunities for drainage connections during low sea levels , since few rivers are likely to connect (

) , whereas a broader continental shelf allows a greater area for rivers to traverse and potentially interconnect . much of southern australia has a relatively narrow continental shelf , thus most drainages remain isolated during low sea levels (

are widespread across southern australia . as presently defined , the genus consists of three species of small , stout - bodied galaxiid fishes

is usually found in smaller creeks and can occur further inland . both species overlap to a limited extent in floodplain habitats that have seasonal connections to more permanent water bodies

, a more integrative approach is needed ; one that blends phylogeny and phylogeography . although obviously relevant , previous single - and multi - locus phylogenetic analyses of

used limited within - taxon sampling ( one sample / species ) . previous within - species comparisons in the two western

employed good sampling with 10 individuals from each population but included only three populations outside of victoria . here , we improve on previous studies of the biogeography and population genetics of

fishes . first , we use gondwanan fragmentation and the well known geology of southern australia to derive geologically - based calibration points for analyses and thereby estimate a time frame for diversification within the genus based on broader within - taxon sampling . this amounts to a ‘congeneric phylogeographical’ sampling approach . this has been shown to present a viable means of increasing systematic accuracy and improving historical inferences , by the recovery of polyphyly and ‘cryptic’ lineages , within vertebrate species

species based on more extensive geographic sampling . third , we investigate phylogeographic patterns within each

species in southern australia . specifically , if shelf width is important then populations of

in the western portion of their range in southeastern australia will have a high level of genetic divergence between drainages . in contrast , populations of

permission to undertake field work and collect specimens was obtained under the following permits : victorian fisheries research permit rp 581 , victorian flora and fauna permit 10002072 , victorian national parks permit 10002154 , tasmanian inland fisheries service permit 2003 / 12 , tasmanian department of primary industries , water and environment permit tfa 03106 , south australian primary industries and resources - section 59 exemption , western australian license to take fauna for scientific purposes sf006928 . specimens were obtained under arizona state university institutional animal care and use committee ( iacuc ) approval 09 - 1018r , brigham young university iacuc approval 070403 and university of adelaide animal ethics committee approval s - 32 - 2002 .

the rarity and conservation status of these species limited our sample sizes . in many cases , there were only one or a few populations known per river basin . our primary goal was to include one population per major drainage where each species is found . we examined samples of

were provided by david galeotti ( edith cowan university ) . fishes were collected with seine and dip nets and either frozen whole in liquid nitrogen or preserved in 95 % ethanol in the field . our sampling ranged from 1–11 individuals per locality , with most sites represented by 10 individuals within

, plus two sequences from genbank for a total of 219 ingroup samples . based on their close relationships to

jn232599 . 1

jn232707 . 1

nc _ 008448 . 1

jn232601 . 1

jn232709 . 1

jn232602 . 1

jn232710 . 1

. the location column gives the general location of each sample . station code refers to the field number or sama ebu code that samples are catalogued as . the last three columns provide the number of individuals ( n ) examined for each marker . abbreviations : ck , creek ; hwy , highway ; r , river ; rd , road ; sa , southern australia ; tas , tasmania ; vic , victoria ; wa , western australia .

we employed a gis approach to quantify several environmental factors needed to evaluate our hypotheses linked to changes in sea level . datasets used to generate maps ( e . g . ,

and manipulated in arcinfo and arcmap version 10 ( environmental systems research institute , redlands , ca ) . bathymetric data were obtained from a 30 arc - second ( ca . 1 km ) dataset gebco 08 ( september 2010 release ,

we extracted genomic dna from muscle tissue for each specimen using dneasy tissue kits ( qiagen inc . , chatsworth , ca ) . we amplified the mtdna cytochrome

. when this failed to produce sufficient pcr product , the gene was amplified in two halves using glu21 - hd . gp ggrttgtttgagcctgtytcgt and gp . 505

we also used the forward primers glu18 taaccaggactaatgrcttgaa or glu31 tgrcttgaaaaaccaccgttgt with hd . gp as well as the internal forward primer sal . 484 caatgaatttgagggggrttctc or gn . 484

. we also included the first two introns and the second exon of the nuclear s7 gene . all nuclear sequences were obtained by nested pcr using the following primers : 1f

in the second reaction . in a few cases , we had to use the internal primers 1f . 2 and 2r . 67 tacctgggarattccagactc , and 2f . 2

. the first of these nested reactions were 25 µl . final concentrations for polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) components per 25 µl reaction were as follows : 25 ng template dna , 0 . 25 µm of each primer , 0 . 625 units of taq dna polymerase , 0 . 1 mm of each dntp , 2 . 5 µl of 10x reaction buffer and 2 . 5 mm mgcl

. data files containing all individuals sequenced as well as various analysis files were deposited in dryad , doi : 10 . 5061 / dryad . c3g8h .

to reconstruct a species tree and to date clade divergences and coalescence times to the most recent common ancestor . we combined the data from cyt

and s7 , included all individuals sequenced , then ran analyses using a relaxed molecular clock in beast 1 . 6 . 1

. the full datasets for each gene were imported into beauti 1 . 7 ( prerelease ) , which we used to generate the input file for beast . we incorporated two calibrations based on geological events . the first was the root of the tree , representing the split between

, as potentially congruent with the separation of australia , antarctica and south america . the terrestrial separation of australia and antarctica occurred at approximately 52 ma

. three separate analyses were conducted using both calibration points in the same analysis , plus one analysis with each calibration used individually . analyses were also conducted excluding the sequence data to check that posterior distributions were not heavily driven soley by our priors rather than the sequence data . we used an uncorrelated lognormal relaxed molecular clock based upon a lognormal prior using the ‘speciation birth death’ process . both lognormal prior calibrations had a mean of 1 . 0 , with standard deviations of 1 . 5 for the calibration of 52 ma and 1 . 0 for the 14 ma calibration . the best - fitting model of molecular evolution for each gene ( cyt

: gtr + i + g ; s7 : gtr + g ) was estimated via aic in modeltest . analyses were run for 200 million generations , with parameters logged every 10 , 000 generations . multiple runs were conducted to check for stationarity and that independent runs were converging on a similar result . output from beast was examined in tracer 1 . 5 with 10 % burn - in and the tree results were summarized using treeannotator 1 . 7 ( prerelease ) .

we used multiple methods to examine within and between population genetic patterns in order to investigate the role of sea level changes in structuring genetic variation . we explored patterns of genetic variation in

population and clade , and for all populations combined . to test the relative contribution of genetic variation to within and between population structure in

. if genetic structuring is driven by isolation among drainages due to drainage basin boundaries , then we expect to see high levels of structuring among drainages . cases where high amounts of variation can be explained between groups suggest an important historic barrier to gene flow exists coincident with the structure of the model . to evaluate movement between drainage basins , we combined populations into 15 groups based on drainage basins or close geographic proximity ( i . e . , the following populations were combined : 1–4 , 11–12 , 13–14 , 15–16 , 17–18 ;

since frozen tissues were available for virtually all g . pusilla , we were able to obtain comparative allozyme profiles for this species . these were used to independently assess the finding by coleman et al . [ 35 ] of a major east - west dichotomy , and provide more appropriate molecular data for assessing whether any dichotomy reflected the presence of cryptic species . three specimens of an outgroup species , galaxias olidus , were also included in this analysis . we conducted allozyme electrophoresis of muscle homogenates on cellulose acetate gels ( cellogel™ , milan , italy ) following richardson et al . [ 66 ] . details of all enzyme and locus abbreviations , electrophoretic conditions , and stain recipes are contained in richardson et al . [ 66 ] or wallman and adams [ 67 ] , while the allozyme nomenclature follows hammer et al . [ 68 ] .

the genetic relationships among all sites were initially assessed by constructing a neighbour - joining ( nj ) tree from a pairwise matrix of nei’s [ 69 ] unbiased genetic distances ( nei d ) , following the methodology of hammer et al . [ 10 ] . we then used genepop 4 . 0 [ 70 ] to assess the raw allozyme genotypes for statistically - significant departures from hardy - weinberg expectations , for evidence of linkage disequilibrium at each individual site ( for n > 4 ) , and to detect statistically significant differences in allele frequency among sites within each of the two major lineages evident within g . pusilla . threshold probability values were adjusted for the use of multiple tests using sequential bonferroni correction [ 71 ] . finally , we employed the multivariate ordination technique principal coordinates analysis ( pco ) to visually assess the genetic affinities among all individuals within each lineage ( details in [ 10 ] ) .

our molecular datasets provided clear discrimination among all described species . in addition , they revealed major and concordant genetic discontinuities consistent with cryptic speciation in g . pusilla as per coleman et al . [ 35 ] .

) . removal of fish with identical haplotypes within populations reduced the dataset to 66 individuals . the number of individuals from a population with a given haplotype is provided after the population name in

. based on this reduced dataset , 680 characters were invariant , 28 characters were variable but parsimony uninformative and 433 characters were parsimony informative . both

codon , while the latter also had a premature stop codon in the third - to - last codon position ( codon 378 ) . neither change is unusual for cyt

among fishes ( p . j . unmack , pers . obs . ) or across various animal groups

) and was obtained via whole mtdna amplification , which minimizes the chance of amplifying nuclear pseudogene copies ( masaki miya , pers . comm . ) . maximum likelihood recovered one tree for cyt

( a ) and s7 ( b ) sequences and a neighbour joining tree for allozymes ( c ) . panel a shows the complete tree with operational taxonomic units ( otus ) for each

species collapsed . expanded trees within each species are shown below , with the lower scale bar applying to each of the four subtrees . bootstrap values are based on 1000 pseudoreplicates . trees are rooted with

) . inclusion of individual alleles from 14 heterozygous individuals increased the dataset to 66 sequences . the number of heterozygous positions within an individual varied from one to three ( all heterozygous individuals were phased into individual alleles prior to ml analyses ) . based on this dataset , 535 characters were invariant , 10 characters were variable but parsimony uninformative and 354 characters were parsimony informative . maximum likelihood recovered one tree for s7 with a likelihood score of −3378 . 210082 (

( a ) is color - coded relative to figs . 1 , 2 and 5 . circle size represents haplotype abundance ; the key to circle size is in the center of panel a . the ancestral haplotype in each network is indicated by a box . haplotype counts are given in parentheses when multiple populations share the same haplotype . haplotype labels consist of the population number and name from

) , with bayesian posterior probabilities equal to 1 . 0 for all internal nodes . divergence dating results obtained using * beast are presented in

. running the analysis with the same settings , but without data confirmed that our input settings actually produced the desired prior probability distributions on our calibrated nodes and that our data were responsible for our results rather than our priors . most statistics from all three analyses had ess scores > 400 , demonstrating the chain was well sampled . results were substantially different depending on the calibration used . when the single calibration of 14 ma was used , all dates were much younger (

the first line presents results based on both calibration points of 52 and 14 million years , while the second and third rows represent results under each individual calibration . the mean and 95 % highest posterior densities are given for each node ( in millions of years ) , and we report the per lineage mean rate of evolution per million years for each gene in the last two columns .

± one standard deviation ( s . d . ) = 0 . 212±0 . 090 ; mean π×100± s . d . = 0 . 059±0 . 014 ) , but moderate genetic diversity within each clade (

) . results from our amova analyses found high levels of among - group structure consistent with the effects of strong isolation between populations . when all groups ( n = 15 ) were compared , among - group comparisons accounted for 95 . 8 % of the genetic variation . within eastern

( n = 7 ) among - group comparisons accounted for 90 . 2 and 72 . 8 % of the variation respectively . all three among - group amova values were statistically significant ( p < 0 . 05 ) .

< 0 . 0001 ) , supporting demographic - spatial expansion . neutrality tests showed a similar pattern across

. comparing bsps to constant demographic models supported bsp patterns . bsp models provided a better fit to the data within each

mean posterior n e estimates for each species ( darker lines ) are bounded by upper and lower 95 % highest posterior densities ( g . pusilla west , pink shading ; g . pusilla east , blue shading ) . the x - axis represents units of time in thousands of years ago ( ka ) , scaled according to posterior mutation rates estimated in beast . the y - axis shows estimated population size in hundreds of thousands , calculated assuming a g . pusilla generation time equal to 1 . 0 . the fish shown is a male g . pusilla west ( by mph ) .

. no site displayed any statistical evidence of either linkage disequilibrium or of genotype frequencies being incompatible with hardy weinberg expectations . these data unequivocally recovered the same two primary clades (

) ; lineage e1 comprised victorian sites 11–18 , while lineage e2 consisted of the two most southerly victorian sites ( 15 and 16 ) plus all tasmanian sites ( sites 19–22 ) . these two lineages were diagnosable by near - fixed differences at two loci (

) , as well as by major differences in allele frequency ( δp > 40 % ) at three other loci . lineage e2 was further divisible into two sub - lineages e2a ( sites 15 , 16 , 19 , 22 ) and e2b ( sites 20 , 21 ) , diagnosable by a fully - fixed difference at a single locus (

) plus major differences in allele frequency at three other loci . importantly , this phylogeographic structure is concordant with the cyt

west ( b ) individuals . relative pco scores are plotted for the first and second dimensions , which individually explain 41 % and 10 % ( a ) and 25 % and 17 % ( b ) respectively of the total multivariate variation present . individuals are colour - coded relative to

west also revealed statistically significant differences in allele frequency , usually involving multiple loci , in all but four instances ( sites 6 vs . 7 , 1 vs . 2 , 1 vs . 3 , 2 vs . 4 ;

) . here lineage w2 consisted of the most easterly site ( site 10 ) , while lineage w1 comprised all other sites . additional phylogeographic structure was detectable within the widespread lineage w1 , although only one of the three sub - lineages ( w1b = site 5 ) was allozymically well - differentiated from the other two sublineages ( w1a = four western sites , w1c = four eastern sites ) by major differences in allele frequency at multiple loci (

based on a single individual per taxon , although their dataset included two additional genes ( rag1 and 16 s ) and morphological characters . our results , showing a deep divergence between

west using a suite of non - hypervariable nuclear genetic markers ( and therefore more suitable for assessing species boundaries ) , were also consistent with the conclusions of coleman et al .

based on mtdna coi and nuclear microsatellites . we therefore refer to these lineages hereafter as distinct candidate species . our results were strongly supported , with s7 and the combined analysis having high bootstrap values ( 100 and 1 . 0 respectively ) for all between species relationships . high support from the cyt

our divergence estimates varied greatly depending on whether we used the separation of australian and south american species ( min . age set to 52 ma ) or the east - west separation between

species ( min . age set to 14 ma ) . essentially , analyses using the older calibration point recovered mean ages slightly more than double those recovered using the younger calibration (

) . when both calibrations were included , estimates were up to ∼10 % lower , especially on the upper 95 % highest posterior distribution ( hpd ) . while we present results from all three calibration combinations , we favour the results obtained using a single calibration of 52 ma . the separation of southeastern and southwestern australia by the formation of the nullarbor plain (

may have separated long before that event . indeed , it has already been suggested that east - west separation of some groups predates this event by potentially tens of millions of years

. we are more confident that continental drift was responsible for their separation than some form of oceanic dispersal . neither

have any proclivity for marine environments today , nor do they possess any traits that imply a potentially diadromous life cycle . it is certainly not impossible that they were once diadromous , although this implies a substantial convergence in morphological and ecological characteristics , perhaps driven by adaptation to similar habitats . our age estimates based on continental drift are similar to burridge et al .

, they obtained a slightly older mean age than our analysis ( 58 vs . 55 . 8 ma ) . however , their credibility interval was broader ( 45–72 vs . 52–66 ma ) , probably due to their much larger dataset with multiple calibration points . the remaining divergences between each

were all younger than our results , with their mean ages usually being similar to our lowest 95 % credibility interval values . in contrast , the age for both

species was similar in both studies . it is also important to recognise that our estimate of 52 ma for the separation of australian and south american clades is only a minimum estimate . it is quite likely that the true divergence would have occurred earlier . this implies that all of our age estimates would be underestimated if the continental separation is an appropriate calibration point .

species across southern australia at a mean age of 34 . 3 ma ( 95 % hpd of 24 . 5–44 . 5 ma ,

are adapted to exploit more ephemeral environments , they might be expected to persist under more arid conditions . however , increasing aridity would also increase the likelihood of extirpation , given

species are more reliant on ephemeral habitats i . e . , seasonally wet and dry on an annual basis . as aridity intensified across southern australia

, these ephemeral habitats would be less reliably rewatered , thus eliminating populations through extended droughts .

was estimated to have a mean age of 22 . 5 ma ( 95 % hpd of 15 . 2–30 . 5 ma ,

adapted to survive in temporary habitats . alternatively , if aestivation was ancestral , then

evolved the ability to compete and survive in permanent habitats . it seems likely that temporary habitats like those used by

species had a mean age of 5 . 7 ma ( 95 % hpd of 2 . 2–9 . 1 ma ,

, with populations from mount emu creek / hopkins river representing the western species . this contrasts strongly with patterns in other co - distributed fishes , where species - level separations or western range limits occur at the eastern side of the lake bass drainage

, at least within freshwater fishes . no other fish species have divergences of this scale ( i . e . , species level differentiation ) at this location , although within - species genetic breaks are present in several groups

, consistent with this boundary representing a barrier that is not frequently crossed by aquatic organisms . one major exception to the separation on the western edge of lake bass is population 10 from the barwon river , which is thought to have become part of the lake bass drainage during low sea levels (

species at first seems perplexing , as it runs counter to predictions from current drainage patterns . based on the unique signature found at all molecular markers examined here (

, it seems unlikely that population 10 represents a recent translocation . instead , this outcome infers that the geomorphic history of the barwon river basin differs somewhat from that of adjacent basins . while several authors

, the lake expansion hypothesis needs to be re - examined geomorphically now that more accurate elevation and geological mapping is available . clearly though , evidence does support some faunal exchange via lake corangamite .

and allozyme analyses were broadly congruent , although they differed in details . the extent of within - species genetic divergence differed between species as well as markers ; for cyt

had an average within - group genetic divergence of 0 . 8 % , while the western

populations relative to the western species ( 90 . 2 % vs . 72 . 8 % respectively ) . five groups of populations had shared or closely related cyt

( p - distance of 0 . 5 % ) ; however allozymes grouped sites 6–9 together (

populations , which only differed from each other based on allele frequencies . coleman et al .

against expectations , we found that neither inferred phylogenetic patterns , nor patterns of genetic structuring , corresponded very closely to predictions based on estimated low sea level drainage patterns . we predicted that populations 10–16 , plus 19–20 would essentially show a low degree of genetic structure , since hydrological models predict that they would have been part of a larger continuous drainage system during historical periods of low sea level (

) . lastly , populations 1–9 were expected to show relatively higher levels of genetic divergence . although the latter pattern was indeed evident based on cyt

) . one extreme example is the relationship between sites 11–14 and 17–18 , which are quite geographically distant . based on low sea level drainage patterns , these populations should not have any lowland connections (


the cinnamon-rumped trogon ( harpactes orrhophaeus ) is a species of bird in the family trogonidae .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

cinnamon - rumped trogon

cinnamon - rumped trogon <EOT> select an image : 1 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male 2 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > female 3 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male 4 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > adult male 5 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > adult male 6 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > female 7 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > female 8 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male 9 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male 10 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male 11 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male

cinnamon rumped trogon . trogon birds are residents of tropical forests worldwide . they feed on insects and fruit , and their broad bills and weak le… | pinteres…

( note : date listed in the video is incorrect ; clip was recorded on the 9th september 2012 . ) short clip of cinnamon - rumped trogon calling from within the understorey of the disturbed forest in panti bird sanctuary . attention : do turn up the volume to hear the cinnamon - rumped trogon ' s call , as it is quite weak .

this article is about bird family trogonidae . for bird genus trogon , see trogon ( genus ) .

trogons , trogon collaris ( two left pictures ) and trogon massena , costa rica . photo : © vladimir dinets

narina trogon , apaloderma narina adult male narina trogon , apaloderma narina , perched in pigeonwood . photo : patty mcgann urltoken

) has the most atypical call of any trogon , research has not yet established whether the closely related javan trogon has a similar call .

collar , n . ( 2018 ) . cinnamon - rumped trogon ( harpactes orrhophaeus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .

not globally threatened . common to fairly common in mexico ; found throughout yucatán , where the commonest trogon . most numerous trogon also throughout belize ; found to be . . .

, is a bird in the trogon family . it is found from southern mexico to western

and short necks . trogons range in size from the 23 cm , 40 gram scarlet - rumped trogon to the 40 cm , 210 gram resplendent quetzal ( not including the male quetzal ' s 0 . 91 m tail streamers ) . their legs and feet are weak and short , and trogons are essentially

[ order ] trogoniformes | [ family ] trogonidae | [ latin ] apalharpactes reinwardtii | [ uk ] javan trogon | [ fr ] couroucou de reinwardt | [ de ] reinwardttrogon | [ es ] trogon de java . | [ nl ] reinwardts trogon | [ authority ] temminck , 1822

a number of other species . the narina trogon of africa is thought to undertake some localised short distance

male has red head , blue bill and eye ring . black throat , grey breast and red belly . pale brown upperparts , undertail mostly white . female with red in male replaced by cinnamon . pale brown bars on wings .

skull of a trogon showing the presence of a basipterygoid process ( bpg . p . ) and a schizognathous palate

seems to use deserted trogon nests about 2 meters up in a dead stump or cavity . no further details .

of the trogon order . the subspecies costaricensis is slightly smaller than the nominate race and has shorter narrower tail plumes .

the beak of trogon birds is used in part for securing food and cutting it up thanks to serrated cutting edges .

in oligocene rocks from switzerland and miocene france . the oldest new world fossil of a trogon is from the comparatively recent

the calls of the quetzals and the two caribbean genera are the most complex . among the asian genera the sumatran trogon (

comments : composed of two groups : ambiguus of southwestern u . s . and mexico ( coppery - tailed trogon ) and elegans of guatemala , el salvador , honduras , nicaragua , and costa rica ( elegant trogon ) ( aou 1998 ) .

male has light green bill with yellow base . head , upper breast and upper parts all green with golden blue shine . yellowish bare skin on face . underparts light - red . on the wings fine pale grey with black bars . female brown face and throat . breast more cinnamon washed brown .

the usual call is a croaking " co - ah co - ah co - ah " . the trogon will also include some chattering notes .

this article is part of project trogoniformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each trogon , including made - up species .

contains 39 species in eight genera . the word " trogon " is greek for " nibbling " and refers to the fact that these birds gnaw holes

. they are fairly large ( all over 32 cm or 13 inches long ) , slightly bigger than other trogon species . quetzals have iridescent green or golden - green

euptilotis neoxenus is related to pharomachrus and is called the eared quetzal by some authorities , such as the american ornithologists ' union , but the eared trogon by others .

primary lowland forest , favors dense closed canopy . usually 3 - 8 meters up in the understorey . almost never in open land , which seperates it from lokkalike narina trogon .

collar , n . ( 2018 ) . black - headed trogon ( trogon melanocephalus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .

collar , n . & van ballen , s . ( 2002 ) . " the blue - tailed trogon harpactes ( apalharpactes ) reinwardtii : species limits and conservation status " . forktail 18 : 121–125 .

priotelus is a genus of birds in the trogon family consisting of two species the cuban ( p . temnurus ) and hispaniolan trogon ( t roseigaster ) . the latter is usually placed in genus priotelus , but shows significant differences from p . temnurus in bill pattern , plumage coloration and some morphological features . hence it is by some authorities placed in its own genus temnotrogon . both priotelus species are the only trongons in the caribbean area .

flight , where a trogon flies from an observation perch to a target on another branch or in foliage . once there the birds hovers or stalls and snatches the item before returning to its perch to consume the item . this type of foraging is commonly used by some types of bird to obtain insect prey ; in trogons and quetzals it is also used to pluck fruit from trees . insect prey may also be taken on the wing , with the trogon pursuing flying insects in a similar manner to

riehl , christina ( 2008 ) . " communal calling and prospecting by black - headed trogons ( trogon melanocephalus ) " . the wilson journal of ornithology 120 ( 2 ) : 248–255 . doi : 10 . 1676 / 07 - 025 . 1 .

a striking green and yellow trogon . upperparts green , except for a blue tail . underparts largely yellow with a green breast band . the bill is red and the naked skin around the eye is blue . voice a dry , high rattling " sterrrr "

the alarm calls are in the background , and typical of a trogon . previously published on avocet as av10537 . certainty : 100 % . id determined by : not specifically indicated ; recordist normally sees birds recorded and indicates if any question ; matches xc cuts . gps : estimate from google earth . alarm

the majority of trogons are birds of tropical and subtropical forests . they have a cosmopolitan distribution in the worlds wet tropics , being found in the americas , africa and asia . a few species are distributed into the temperate zone , with one species , the elegant trogon , reaching the south of the united states specifically southern arizona and the surrounding area . the narina trogon of africa is slightly exceptional in that it utilises a wider range of habitats than any other trogon , ranging from dense forest to fairly open savannah , and from the equator to southern south africa . it is the most widespread and successful of all the trogons . the eared quetzal of mexico is also able to use more xeric habitats , but preferentially inhabits forests . most other species are more restricted in their habitat , with several species being restricted to undisturbed primary forest . within forests they tend to be found in the mid story , occasionally in the canopy .

dacosta , j & klicka , j . ( 2008 ) . " the great american interchange in birds : a phylogenetic perspective with the genus trogon " . molecular ecology 17 ( 5 ) : 1328–43 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 294x . 2007 . 03647 . x . pmid 18302692 .

kristoffersen , anette vedding ( 2002 ) . " an early paleocene trogon ( aves : trogoniformes ) from the fur formation , denmark " . journal of vertebrate paleontology 22 ( 3 ) : 661–666 . doi : 10 . 1671 / 0272 - 4634 ( 2001 ) 022 [ 0661 : aeptat ] 2 . 0 . co ; 2 .

the male elegant trogon has a metallic deep green head , upper breast and back , black face and throat , and red - orange lower breast and belly . he shows grey upperwing coverts . the female has a metallic bronze head , upper breast , back , upper tail and upperwing coverts . she shows a dull white upper belly , and a small white vertical stripe behind the eye .

* the trogons and quetzals are birds in the order trogoniformes which contains only one family , the trogonidae . the family contains 39 species in eight genera . they might constitute a member of the basal radiation of the order coraciiformes or closely related to mousebirds and owls . the word “trogon” is greek for “nibbling” and refers to the fact that these birds gnaw holes in trees to make their nests .

collar , n . ( 2018 ) . philippine trogon ( harpactes ardens ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .

" trogon is greek for ' to gnaw or eat ' and refers to the structure and function of the beak . the cutting edges of the maxilla and / or mandible are variably serrated among most new world species and probably aid in securing live prey or large fruit . these serrations , along with the decurved tip of the bill ( present in all species ) , are also useful in cutting food items into smaller pieces . " ( fowler 2003 : 246 )

old world trogons ( apaloderma , harpactes , and apalharpactes ) clearly form a clade ( johansson and ericson 2004 , moyle 2005 ; contra sibley and ahlquist 1990 , espinosa de los monteros 1998 ) , though relationships within that clade are not clear , since neither species of apalharpactes has yet been sampled in a phylogenetic analysis . new world trogons ( trogon , pharomachrus , priotelus , and euoptilotus ) may be paraphyletic to the old world trogons , though these basal relationships have been contradictory among studies ( johansson and ericson 2004 , moyle 2005 ) . all genera are apparently monophyletic , pending data on apalharpactes .

despite it being only a ten minute drive from the discovery centre , the orangutan rehabilitation centre appears to be less diverse than its neighbouring reserve . reports show than a total of 35 more species have been recorded at the discovery centre , however this is most likely a result of the dense vegetation at the orangutan rehabilitation centre . nevertheless , it remains the best place to view bornean falconet , grey - and - buff woodpecker , white - bellied woodpecker , olive - backed woodpecker , bornean bristlehead , black - and - yellow broadbill , rhinoceros hornbill , bushy - crested hornbill , violet cuckoo , crimson - winged woodpecker , orange - backed woodpecker , great slaty woodpecker , verditer flycatcher , great argus , large - hawk cuckoo and diard ' s trogon ( as well as many more ) . it was placed lower down on this list only because most of its species can be observed at the discovery centre , however it is still an incredible birdwatching site .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en " " urltoken "

rarest bird in the world : the cone - billed tanager , the mystery .

atlapetes blancae , 8 years later , still not found . wish or species ?

the trogons are split into three subfamilies , each reflecting one of these splits , aplodermatinae is the african subfamily and contains a single genus , apaloderma ; harpactinae is the asian subfamily and contains two genera , harpactes and apalharpactes . apalharpactes , consisting of two species in the java and sumatra , has only recently been accepted as a separate genus from harpactes . harpactes is a genus of birds found in forests in south and southeast asia , extending into southernmost china . they are strongly sexually dimorphic , with females generally being duller than males . the two members of the genus apalharpactes are sometimes included in harpactes .

oriental region : malay peninsula , borneo . harpactes orrhophaeus is known from peninsular thailand , sabah , sarawak and peninsular malaysia , singapore , kalimantan and sumatra , indonesia and brunei

this species occurs in the lower storey of humid evergreen forest to 1 , 500 m . in peninsular thailand and malaysia , it is largely restricted to closed - canopy lowland forest ( up to 180 m ) , whilst on borneo it occurs mainly in submontane slope forest at 1000 – 1400 m . it is predominantly recorded from tall primary forests , although there are records from logged dipterocarp forest .

builds nest in cavity about 1 . 5 meter above ground . clutch size is 2 eggs .

primarily insects , a still - hunter in dense understorey 2 - 3 meter above ground .

same bird as on xc68454 . this bird was in a small patch of trees in a large clearing , presumably traveling between forest patches

previously published on avocet as av5198 . certainty : 100 % . id determined by : seen ; this bird seems to be a full adult but has no blue patch around the eye . age : ( determined by plumage ) . gps : rough estimate from google earth . recorded september 1990

previously published on avocet as av5197 . certainty : 100 % . id determined by : seen ; this bird seems to be a full adult but has no blue patch around the eye . age : ( determined by plumage ) . gps : rough estimate from google earth . recorded september 1990

same bird as on xc68454 , xc96129 . this male is giving the four note call in the foreground that starts half way through . i suspect the other quiet 4 - 5 note series , which starts at the beginning of the cut , may be a female : one was seen with the male .

sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .

this species and h . duvaucelii have sometimes been placed in separate genus , duvaucelius . species name sometimes misspelt as orrophaeus . two subspecies recognized .

( cabanis & heine , 1863 ) – peninsular thailand , peninsular malaysia and sumatra .

25 cm ; 45–61 g . male of nominate race has black hood , blue bill , eyebrow and narrow orbital ring , pale brown upperparts and uppertail ; pinkish - red underparts ; undertail . . .

middle and lower storeys of forest in the lowlands and hills , to 180 m in peninsular malaysia and . . .

stick - insects and leaf - insects recorded in stomachs . still - hunts in fairly dense understorey , 2–3 m up . has been seen in a mixed - . . .

mar–apr and jun in peninsular malaysia ; in borneo , male and female in breeding condition in mar . nest in cavity 1–1·5 m up in . . .

not globally threatened . currently considered near - threatened . rare and local resident in peninsular thailand , where now threatened by habitat loss and known from only three . . .

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this forest - dependent species is listed as near threatened because it is suspected to be undergoing a moderately rapid decline throughout its range as a result of habitat loss and degradation .

recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : harpactes orrhophaeus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .

whats wrong with secretary kim 영준이 재능교육 시작했니 ? ( 자기의 일은 스스로 . . . 하지마 . . . ) 180704 ep . 9

this article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .

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original description clearly treats species name as adjectival ; hence this becomes masculine to agree with genus name . present species sometimes considered conspecific with t . citreolus ; genetic data indicate that these two form a sister - group to t . viridis and t . bairdii # r . populations of w costa rica described as race illaetabilis on basis of paler belly , but this character apparently not constant . monotypic .

atlantic slope of se mexico ( including islands off quintana roo ) , n guatemala , belize , n honduras and nicaragua ; also pacific slope from el salvador to n costa rica .

27 cm ; 69–91 g . male with bill pale blue - grey , orbital ring pale blue ; head and breast dull blackish ; white breastband , yellow rest of underside ; wings greyish - black , . . .

song a series of quickening clear barks , falling in pitch and stopping rather abruptly , “ . . .

species of natural open and secondary formations . usually fairly low in open deciduous woodland and . . .

insects and fruits . animal food includes orthoptera ( grasshoppers ) , mantises , dragonflies , large caterpillars ( smooth and hairy , including . . .

may–jun in belize , mar–jul in costa rica . nest an unlined chamber in an occupied termitarium 1·5–8 m up in tree , on fence . . .

resident in mexico . in costa rica , strays s to head of golfo dulce and e to grecia along river . . .

trogons are residents of tropical forests worldwide , with the greatest diversity in the neotropics . the genus

they feed on insects and fruit , and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits . although their flight is fast ,

they are reluctant to fly any distance . trogons are generally not migratory , although some species undertake partial local movements .

trogons have soft , often colourful , feathers with distinctive male and female plumage . they are the only type of animal with a

the trogons are insectivorous , usually hunting from a perch . they nest in holes dug into trees or termite nests , laying 2 - 4 white or

the majority of trogons are birds of tropical and subtropical forests . they have a cosmopolitan distribution in the worlds wet

tropics , being found in the americas , africa and asia . a few species are distributed into the temperate zone , with one species ,

to fairly open savannah , and from the equator to southern south africa . it is the most widespread and successful of all the trogons .

the eared quetzal of mexico is also able to use more xeric habitats , but preferentially inhabits forests . most other species are

more restricted in their habitat , with several species being restricted to undisturbed primary forest . within forests they tend to be

some species , particularly the quetzals , are adapted to cooler montane forest . there are a number of insular species ; these include

cuba and hispaniola respectively . outside of south asia and the caribbean , however , trogons are generally absent from islands ,

of its range , for example birds of zimbabwe ' s plateau savannah depart after the breeding season . a complete picture of these

movements is however lacking . trogons are difficult to study as their thick tarsi ( feet bones ) make ringing studies difficult .

unable to walk beyond a very occasional shuffle along a branch . they are even incapable of turning around on a branch without

using their wings . the ratio of leg muscle to body weight in trogons is only 3 percent , the lowest known ratio of any bird .

being the outer hind toe , an arrangement that is referred to as heterodactylous . the strong bill is short and the gape wide ,

particularly in the fruit eating quetzals , with a slight hook at the end . the african trogons are generally green on the back with red

bellies . the new world trogons similarly have green or deep blue upperparts but are more varied in their lowerparts . the asian

the wings are short but strong , with the wing muscle ratio being around 22 % of the body weight . in spite of the strength of

their flight , trogons do not fly often or for great distances , generally flying no more than a few hundred metres at a time .

only the montane species tend to make long distance flights . shorter flights tend to be direct and swift , but longer flights are

slightly undulating . their flight can be surprisingly silent ( for observers ) , although that of a few species is reportedly quite noisy .

panama ( unlike the other quetzals of the genus pharomachrus , which are found in south america and eastern panama ) . it is well

this quetzal plays an important role in mesoamerican mythologies . the resplendent quetzal is guatemala ' s national bird , and an

image of it is on the flag and coat of arms of guatemala . it is also the name of the local currency ( abbreviation gtq ) .

this species is 3640 cm long , plus up to 65 cm of tail streamer for the male , and weighs about 210 g . it is the largest representative

resplendent quetzals have a green body ( showing iridescence from green - gold to blue - violet ) and red breast . their green upper tail

coverts hide their tails and in breeding males are particularly splendid , being longer than the rest of the body . the primary wing

coverts are also unusually long and give a fringed appearance . the male has a helmet - like crest . the bill , which is partly covered by

their habitat is montane cloud forests of central america ( from southern mexico to panama ) .

resplendent quetzals are weak fliers . their known predators include the ornate hawk - eagle and owls as adults ,

emerald toucanets , brown jays , long - tailed weasels , squirrels , and the kinkajou as nestlings or eggs .

larvae ) , frogs and lizards . particularly important are wild avocados and other fruit of the laurel family , which the birds swallow

resplendent quetzals usually live alone when not breeding . they are monogamous territorial breeders , with the territory size being

measured in guatemala as 6 - 10 ha . they are also seasonal breeders , with the breeding season being march to april in mexico ,

may to june in el salvador and march to may in guatemala . when breeding , females lay two pale blue eggs in a nest placed in

a hole which they carve in a rotten tree . a tree in the required stage of decomposition is susceptible to weather damage , and the

where they tend to look like a bunch of fern growing out of the hole . the incubation period lasts about 18 days , during which

the male generally incubates the eggs during the day while the female incubates them at night . when the eggs hatch , both parents

take care of the young , feeding them fruit , berries , insects , lizards , and small frogs . however , the female often neglects and even

mid - sized bird with yellow belly and bill , pale bluish eye - ring , and black and white barred tail ; male with green head , chest , and back , and black throat ; female with brownish head , chest , and back .

low and some middle elevation wet forests , caribbean and southern pacific slopes ; found in forest interior and more open areas such as forest edge , near rivers and streams , and around tree plantations .

black - throated trogons feed on insects , often taken in flight , and fruit . seems to be less dependent on fruit than other species of the genus . will follow troops of monkeys , ant swarms mixed - species flocks . their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits . although their flight is fast , they are reluctant to fly any distance . they typically perch upright and motionless .

this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern . resident on the caribbean slope of honduras and nicaragua , on both slopes of costa rica and panama . in south america from colombia , venezuela , and the guianas south , west of the andes to western ecuador and east of the andes to central peru , amazonian and southeastern brazil , extreme northeastern argentina , and eastern paraguay .

it nests 1 - 6 m high in an unlined shallow cavity built in dead wood stubs . also noted nest in old termite hills . clutch size is 2 eggs incubated for 18 - 19 days . young fledge after 14 - 15 days , male can breed after 2 years .

avibirds , almere , netherlands 2001 - 2012 - your source to the birds of europe . contact ? mail us : info { @ } avibirds . com

fowler , me ; miller , re . 2003 . zoo and wild animal medicine . philadelphia : w . b . saunders co .

, back , chest and head , with a red belly . they are strongly

are brown or grey . these largely solitary birds feed on fruits , berries , insects and small

( such as frogs ) . even with their famous bright plumage , they can be hard to see in their natural wooded habitats .

= " stand up " used to refer to an upstanding plume of feathers .

the word " quetzal " was originally used for just the resplendent quetzal , the famous long - tailed quetzal of southern mexico and central america , which is the national bird and the name of the currency of guatemala . it still often refers to that bird specifically but now also names all the species of the genera pharomachrus and euptilotis .

pharomachrus is from ancient greek pharos , " mantle " , and makros , " long " , referring to the wing and tail coverts of the resplendent quetzal ( the second h is unexplained ) .

restall , r . l . , c . rodner , & m . lentino ( 2006 ) . birds of northern south america . christopher helm . isbn 0 - 7136 - 7243 - 9 ( vol . 1 ) . isbn 0 - 7136 - 7242 - 0 ( vol . 2 ) .

ridgely , r . s . , & j . a . gwynne , jr . ( 1989 ) . a guide to the birds of panama with costa rica , nicaragua , and honduras . 2nd edition . princeton university press . isbn 0 - 691 - 08529 - 3

for " nibbling " and refers to the fact that these birds gnaw holes in trees to make their nests .

they feed on insects and fruit , and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits . although their flight is fast , they are reluctant to fly any distance . trogons are generally not migratory , although some species undertake partial local movements . trogons have soft , often colourful , feathers with distinctive male and female plumage . they are the only type of animal with a heterodactyl toe arrangement . they nest in holes dug into trees or termite nests , laying 2–4 white or pastel - coloured eggs .

the position of the trogons within the class aves has been a long - standing mystery .

a variety of relations have been suggested , including the parrots , cuckoos , toucans , jacamars and puffbirds , rollers , owls and nightjars . more recent morphological and molecular evidence has suggested a relationship with the

notwithstanding the current richness of the family , which is more diverse in the neotropical new world . dna evidence seemed to support an african origin for the trogons , with the african genus

seemingly basal in the family , and the other two lineages , the asian and american , breaking off between 20–36 million years ago . more recent studies

show that the dna evidence gives contradictory results concerning the basal phylogenetic relationships ; so it is currently unknown if all extant trogons are descended from an african or an american ancestor or neither .

the tendons of the foot , showing the arrangement with a reversed second toe . the plantar tendon on the front (

some species , particularly the quetzals , are adapted to cooler montane forest . there are a number of insular species ; these include a number of species found in the greater sundas , one species in the philippines as well as two monophyletic genera endemic to cuba and hispaniola respectively . outside of south asia and the caribbean , however , trogons are generally absent from islands , especially oceanic ones .

in the plumage . the female is on the left , male on the right .

the wings are short but strong , with the wing muscle ratio being around 22 % of the body weight . in spite of the strength of their flight , trogons do not fly often or for great distances , generally flying no more than a few hundred metres at a time . only the montane species tend to make long distance flights . shorter flights tend to be direct and swift , but longer flights are slightly undulating . their flight can be surprisingly silent ( for observers ) , although that of a few species is reportedly quite noisy .

of trogons are generally loud and uncomplex , consisting of monosyllabic hoots and whistles delivered in varying patterns and sequences .

, are remarkably uniform . in addition to the territorial and breeding calls given by males and females during the breeding seasons , trogons have been recorded as having aggression calls given by competing males and alarm calls .

trogons are generally inactive outside of infrequent feeding flights . among birdwatchers and biologists it has been noted that " [ a ] part from their great beauty [ they ] are notorious . . . for their lack of other immediately engaging qualities " .

their lack of activity is possibly a defence against predation ; trogons on all continents have been reported to shift about on branches to always keep their less brightly coloured backs turned towards observers , while their heads , which like owls can turn through 180 degrees , keep a watch on the watcher . trogons have reportedly been preyed upon by hawks and predatory mammals ; one report was of a

trogons feed principally on insects , other arthropods , and fruit ; to a lesser extent some small vertebrates such as lizards are taken .

among the insect prey taken one of the more important types are caterpillars ; along with cuckoos , trogons are one of the few birds groups to regularly prey upon them . some caterpillars are known to be poisonous to trogons though , like

the extent to which each food type is taken varies depending on geography and species . the three african trogons are exclusively insectivorous , whereas the asian and american genera consume varying amounts of fruit . diet is somewhat correlated with size , with larger species feeding more on fruit and smaller species focusing on insects .

. frogs , lizards and large insects on the ground may also be pounced on from the air . more rarely some trogons may shuffle along a branch to obtain insects , insect eggs and very occasionally nestling birds .

. males will respond quickly to playbacks of their calls and will repel other members of the same species and even other hole - nesting species from around their nesting sites . males attract females by singing ,

some species have been observed in small flocks of 3–12 individuals prior to and sometimes during the breeding season , calling and chasing each other , but the function of these flocks is unclear .

nest cavities can either be deep upward slanting tubes that lead to fully enclosed chambers , or much shallower open niches ( from which the bird is visible ) . nests are dug with the beak , incidentally giving the family its name . nest digging may be undertaken by the male alone or by both sexes . in the case of nests dug into tree trunks , the wood must be strong enough not to collapse but soft enough to dig out . trogons have been observed landing on dead tree trunks and slapping the wood with their tails , presumably to test the firmness .

the nests of trogons are thought to usually be unlined . between two to four eggs are laid in a nesting attempt . these are round and generally glossy white or lightly coloured ( buff , grey , blue or green ) , although they get increasingly dirty during

with the male taking one long incubation stint a day and the female incubating the rest of the time . incubation seems to begin after the last egg is laid . the incubation period varies by species , usually lasting between 16–19 days . on hatching the chicks are

, blind and naked . the chicks acquire feathers rapidly in some of the montane species , in the case of the

, which may take twice as long . the nestling period varies by species and size , with smaller species generally taking 16 to 17 days to

, whereas larger species may take as long as 30 days , although 23–25 days is more typical .

yet they are also often reclusive and seldom seen . little is known about much of their biology , and much of what is known about them comes from the research of neotropical species by the

johansson , ulf s . & ericson , per g . p . ( 2003 ) . " molecular support for a sister group relationship between pici and galbulae ( piciformes sensu wetmore 1960 ) " . journal of avian biology 34 ( 2 ) : 185–197 . doi : 10 . 1034 / j . 1600 - 048x . 2003 . 03103 . x .

mccormack , john e . ; harvey , michael g . ; faircloth , brant c . ; crawford , nicholas g . ; glenn , travis c . ; brumfield , robb t . ( 2013 ) . " a phylogeny of birds based on over 1 , 500 loci collected by target enrichment and high - throughput sequencing " . plos one 8 ( 1 ) : e54848 . arxiv : 1210 . 1604 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0054848 . pmc 3558522 . pmid 23382987 .

hackett , s . j . ; kimball , r . t . ; reddy , s . ; bowie , r . c . k . ; braun , e . l . ; braun , m . j . ; chojnowski , j . l . ; cox , w . a . ; han , k . - l . ( 2008 ) . " a phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history " . science 320 ( 5884 ) : 1763–1768 . doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 1157704 . pmid 18583609 .

collar , n . j . ( 2001 ) . " family trogonidae ( trogons ) " , pp . 80–129 in del hoyo , j . ; elliot , a . & sargatal , j . ( eds . ) . ( 2001 ) handbook of the birds of the world , vol . 6 mousebirds to hornbills . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain . isbn 84 - 87334 - 30 - x

mayr , gerald ( 2005 ) . " new trogons from the early tertiary of germany " . ibis 147 ( 3 ) : 512–518 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1474 - 919x . 2005 . 00421 . x .

moyle , robert g . ( 2005 ) . " phylogeny and biogeographical history of trogoniformes , a pantropical bird order " . biological journal of the linnean society 84 ( 4 ) : 725–738 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1095 - 8312 . 2005 . 00435 . x .

johansson , u . s . ; ericson , p . g . p . ( 1 may 2005 ) . " a re - evaluation of basal phylogenetic relationships within trogons ( aves : trogonidae ) based on nuclear dna sequences " . journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 43 ( 2 ) : 166–173 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1439 - 0469 . 2004 . 00292 . x .

wheelwright n . t . ( 1983 ) . " fruits and the ecology of resplendent quetzals " . auk 100 ( 2 ) : 286–301 .

remsen j . v . , jr . ; hyde m . a . and chapman a . ( 1993 ) . the diets of neotropical trogons , motmots , barbets and toucans " the diets of neotropical trogons , motmots , barbets and toucans " . condor 95 ( 1 ) : 178–192 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1369399 . jstor 1369399 .

windsor , d . m . ( 1976 ) . " birds as predators on the brood of polybia wasps ( hymenoptera : vespidae : polistinae ) in a costa rican deciduous forest " . biotropica 8 ( 2 ) : 111–116 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 2989631 . jstor 2989631 .

skutch a . f . ( 1944 ) . life history of the quetzal " life history of the quetzal " . condor 46 ( 5 ) : 213–235 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1364045 . jstor 1364045 .

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trogons are residents of tropical forests worldwide . the greatest diversity is in the neotropics , where four genera , containing 24 species occur . the genus apaloderma contains the three african species . the genera harpactes and apalharpactes , containing twelve species , are found in southeast asia .

they feed on insects and fruit , and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits . although their flight is fast , they are reluctant to fly any distance . trogons are generally not migratory , although some species undertake partial local movements . ( wikipedia with editing )

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kento furui added the japanese common name " ズグロキヌバネドリ " to " harpactes orrhophaeus ( cabanis & heine , 1863 ) " .

kari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name " kaneliperätrogoni " from " harpactes orrhophaeus ( cabanis & heine , 1863 ) " as trusted .

one molecular study found this species to be sister to h . diardii and h . erythrocephalus # r . five subspecies recognized .

rand & rabor , 1952 – luzon ( except ne ) , marinduque and catanduanes .

rand & rabor , 1959 – samar , biliran , leyte and bohol , in ec philippines .

( temminck , 1826 ) – dinagat , mindanao and basilan , in se philippines .

29–30 cm ; 82–114 g . male nominate race has bill yellow with bright green base , head and throat black with violet - blue facial skin , crown suffused maroon ; neck and . . .

lower and middle strata of primary forest of all types ( including on ultrabasic rock ) except mossy . . .

grasshoppers recorded . on mindanao , a bird in flight seen plucking a 20 - cm stick - insect off a branch , then flying off to eat it nearby .

mar–may ; nestlings and juveniles in apr–jun . nest in hole in tree ; 1 located 6 m up in dead tree . eggs 3 . no other information .

not globally threatened . may have declined substantially since 19th century , when said by explorers to be abundant from luzon to basilan , whereas today it is very common only . . .

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a world heritage site , located in northern sabah , mount kinabalu is the tallest mountain in borneo , and is home to some of the world ' s most unique species of birds . in 1964 , 754 square kilometres of land of varied vegetation was protected and the flora and fauna in the park is now being comprehensively researched , as scientists attempt to develop their understanding of this incredible oasis . of the 59 endemics in borneo , 31 have been recorded in the park . some of which include two endemic partridges , two endemic laughingthrushes , the illusive whitehead ' s trio , bornean whistler , bornean green magpie , bornean treepie , mountain black - eye , pygmy white - eye , eyebrowed jungle flycatcher and bornean flowerpecker . visiting the park is a must for any birder going to sabah .

male yellow - green head and blue - green upperparts . wingpanel yellowish barred . chestnut rump and a blue tail . yellow throat and belly , grey - green breastband . red bill , blue eye ring and orange feet . female has different wing - barring more narrow and more buff .

forages mostly for insects of all kinds . also fruit and on occasion small reptiles .

this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern . it is endemic to the indonesian island of sumatra .

it feeds on a variety of invertebrates taken by aerial sallying or by perch - gleaning . also feeds on fruit and will occasionally join mixed - species flocks .

this species is considered to be endangered because it has a very small population which is likely to be declining owing to habitat loss . forest loss , degradation and fragmentation , through widespread agricultural encroachment and localised development ( e . g . holiday resorts and geothermal projects ) , is becoming an increasing threat in the altitudinal range of the species

little known ; breeding reported april through december ; lays one to three eggs .

range : oriental region : java . apalharpactes reinwardtii is known from just six forested mountains in west java , indonesia : gunung halimun , gunung salak , gunung gede - pangrango , gunung patuha - tilu , gunung wayang and gunung papandayan . there are only recent records from three of these ( halimun , salak and gede - pangrango ) . the historical range totals 11600 km2 . although it has been stated to occur from 800 - 2600 m , little forest remains below 1000 m away from halimun , and the species appears to be rarer at higher elevations . the only site where the species appears to be common now is gunung halimun , but only at lower elevations . the population size of this species may be as low as a few hundred pairs

it has been reported from sea level to the highest peaks though it only rarely occurs at lower elevations . it occurs at 500 - 3000 meter , but there is apparently some altitudinal migration with birds observed at lower elevations in winter . it inhabits rain , dry and pine forests , but requires large , old decayed trees for nesting

known to mainly eat insects though also takes small vertabrates and fruit , especiallly those of the parrot tree , brunellia comocladifolia .

builds nest in a tree cavity , often an abandoned nest of a woodpecker . clutch size is 2 eggs .

range : north america : hispaniola . priotelus roseigaster is endemic to haiti , where habitat loss has been extensive and it is now restricted to the massifs de la hotte and de la selle , and the dominican republic where it is still quite common , especially in the relatively undisturbed sierra de baoruco , although there has been a moderately rapid population reduction , owing to deforestation