the apennine yellow-bellied toad ( bombina pachypus ) is a species of toad in the bombinatoridae family endemic to italy .

its natural habitats are temperate forests , temperate grassland , swamps , freshwater marshes , intermittent freshwater marshes , arable land , pastureland , ponds , open excavations , irrigated land , and seasonally flooded agricultural land .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

apennine yellow - bellied toad

apennine yellow - bellied toad <EOT> fire - bellied toad & apennine yellow - bellied toad . george boulenger , tailless batrachians of europe , vol . 1 ( 1897 ) .

genetic diversity and phylogeography of the apennine yellow - bellied toad bombina pachypus , with implications for conservation .

minden pictures stock photos - apennine yellow - bellied toad ( bombina pachypus ) showing yellow underside , acqua cheta river , foreste casentinesi nation . . .

genetic diversity and phylogeography of the apennine yellow - bellied toad bombina pachypus , with implications for conservation . - pubmed - ncbi

historical sciart on twitter : " fire - bellied toad & apennine yellow - bellied toad . george boulenger , tailless batrachians of europe , vol . 1 ( 1897 ) . urltoken urltoken "

reversing the decline of the endangered apennine yellow - bellied toad in liguria ( northern italy ) through site restoration and population reinforcement .

the yellow - bellied toad ( bombina variegata ) on the green moss . brown frog with yellow belly with green and brown backgroun .

information on the appenine yellow - bellied toad is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .

321 " yellow _ bellied _ toad " stock photos , vectors , and illustrations are available royalty - free .

cesbin srl , 2017 . reversing the decline of the endangered apennine yellow - bellied toad in liguria ( northern italy ) through site restoration and population reinforcement . final report .

the apennine yellow - bellied toad ( also called bombina pachypus ) is a species of toad in the bombinatoridae family endemic to italy . content licensed under creative commons attribution . source : urltoken pictures sources : urltoken urltoken

the european fire - bellied toad ( bombina bombina ) captured close up in moss .

canestrelli , d . , cimmaruta , r . , constantini , v . , and nascetti , g . ( 2006 ) . ' ' genetic diversity and phylogeography of the apennine yellow - bellied toad

embed this arkive thumbnail link ( " portlet " ) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href = " urltoken " title = " arkive species - appenine yellow - bellied toad ( bombina pachypus ) " > < img src = " urltoken " alt = " arkive species - appenine yellow - bellied toad ( bombina pachypus ) " title = " arkive species - appenine yellow - bellied toad ( bombina pachypus ) " border = " 0 " / > < / a >

the toad’s odd coloring on its underbelly—black and white with large spots of yellow—serves a very distinct purpose . it is a warning to predators that the apennine yellow - bellied toad is poisonous and not to be messed with . it secretes a toxic substance when it is threatened . the substance is not all bad ; it is also antimicrobial and antifungal .

stagni , g . , dall ' olio , r . , fusini , u . , mazzotti , s . , scoccianti , c . , and serra , a . ( 2004 ) . ' ' declining populations of apennine yellow bellied toad

cartoon frog prince with golden crown and blue mantle . green toad with yellow belly . character of children s fairy tale . colorful flat vector design

barberio , c . , delfino , g . , and mastromei , g . ( 1987 ) . ' ' a low molecular weight protein with antimicrobial activity in the cutaneous ' venom ' of the yellow - bellied toad (

di cerbo , a . r . and ferri , v . 1996 . preliminary data on the ecological observations of the appennine yellow - bellied toad ( bombina pachypus ) in abruzzo , central italy . naturschutzreport 11 ( 1 ) : 91 - 99 .

guarino , f . m . , picariello , o . and pellegrini , m . 2006 . bombina pachypus ( bonaparte , 1838 ) . ululone appenninico / apennine yellow - bellied toad . in : sindaco , r . , doria , g . , razzetti , e . and bernini , f . ( eds ) , atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili d’italia . , pp . 272 - 277 . societas herpetologica italica , edizioni polistampa . , firenze .

( fire - bellied toad ) hybridise in overlapping areas in austria , hungary , bulgaria and western ukraine . the high proportion of hybrids , although often not abundant , demonstrates the ongoing speciation process in the basin .

) are found in the south with abundances decreasing from south to north . the natterjack toad occurs regularly along the river . the

stagni , g . , dall’olio , r . , fusini , u . , mazzotti , s . , scoccianti , c . and serra , a . 2005 . declining populations of apennines yellow - bellied toad bombina pachypus ( bonaparte , 1838 ) in northern appennines , italy : is batrachochytrium dendrobatidis the main cause ? . ital . j . zool . 71 ( suppl . 2 ) : 151 - 154 .

) are typical mediterranean species and occur from the delta marshes to montélimar . common frog populations have decreased since the 1950s . the midwife toad (

hofman , s . , spolsky , c . , uzzell , t . , cogălniceanu , d . , babik , w . , and szymura , j . m . ( 2007 ) . ' ' phylogeography of the fire - bellied toads

hofman , s . , spolsky , c . , uzzell , t . , cogălniceanu , d . , babik , w . and szymura , j . 2007 . phylogeography of the fire - bellied toads , bombina : independent pleistocene histories inferred from mitochondrial genomes . molecular ecology 16 : 2301 - 2316 .

is endemic to italy . it ranges from the southern tip of the italian mainland , north through the apennine region ( or in italian , appenine ) , where it stops just south of the po river valley ( dimartino and ferri 2002 ) . this species occurs in both terrestrial and freshwater habitats ( andreone and corti 2006 ) . it is commonly found in unshaded pools in forests and open areas ( andreone and corti 2006 ) , including pools formed in ditches , irrigation areas , farmland , or pasture land ( guarino et al . 1998 ) .

, is toxic . the secretions are discharged through the skin when the animal is threatened or stimulated ( barberio et al . 1987 ) . these secretions have also been found to be antimicrobial and antifungal ( barberio et al . 1987 , mastromei et al . 1991 ) . when threatened , the animal will arch its back in response to expose its colorful yellow and black underside as a warning of its toxicity to possible predators ( bajger 1980 ) . this arching of the body is known as the " unken reflex " and the behavior is found throughout the genus

the dorsal surface can range from a dark - tan to a dark - gray color , and the surface of the skin is tubercular . the eye has a triangular pupil . this species is regarded by some workers as a subspecies of

is diurnal , when it is active . hibernation takes place from november to late april . this species typically becomes active in may and begins breeding almost immediately , with the period of activity and breeding lasting until september . although

is considered a prolonged breeder due to the long breeding period , a single animal does not reproduce continuously within that period . multiple distinct periods of calling and oviposition alternate with non - reproductive activity . this reproductive plasticity presumably allows

populations to make maximum use of the temporary pools preferred for breeding ( guarino et al 1998 ) . in addition , sperm was found to be constantly present in male testes , but the testes do not always exhibit all stages of spermatogenesis . males apparently use sperm from the preceding fall for the earlier periods of breeding ( guarino et al . 1998 ) .

the clutch size ranges from a few eggs to a few tens of eggs . it is thought that each female lays a few eggs during each wave of reproduction , but in different temporary pools . however , it is not clear how often females reproduce in the wild . female frogs in captivity showed varying reproductive activity , with one female laying several eggs multiple times during the month of june , and a few eggs during a short period in september ; another female laid a few eggs during a single short period in july ; a third captive female did not lay any eggs ( guarino et al . 1998 ) .

this species is relatively long - lived , with an average lifespan of 8 years , and an apparent maximum lifespan of 16 years . sexual maturity is attained during the third year of life ( guarino et al . 1995 ) .

this species is thought to be common in suitable habitat ( iucn 2008 ) but has also been reported as becoming increasingly rare in some parts of its range in southern italy ( caputo et al . 1992 ) .

faces a threat from chytrid fungus . this species was the first italian amphibian to be confirmed with chytrid infection , in the summer of 2001 ( stagni et al . 2004 ) . neometamorph

collected from the hills in the province of bologna experienced high mortality , dying within one or two weeks from collection and a few days after experiencing symptoms ( skin desquamation , locomotor difficulties , dry skin , anorexia , hyperaemia of fingers ) . in captivity the infection was nearly always fatal for newly metamorphosed

froglets , but only sometimes for subadults and adults . in contrast , neometamorphs collected from tuscan - romagna areas during the same time period did not show infection or symptoms ( stagni et al . 2004 ) .

the species may be declining due to the loss of wetland habitat as a result of agricultural damage ( canestrelli et al . 2006 ) . it occurs in several protected areas in italy , including parco nazionale d ' abruzzo , parco nazionale pollino and parco nazionale del gran sasso e monti della laga ( iucn 2008 ) . parco nazionale del gran sasso e monti della laga national park began a long - term monitoring program for this species in 1999 ( ferri 2000 ; dimartino and ferri 2002 ) .

which were associated with man - made aquatic environments ( eg . troughs or washtubs ) underwent greater decline than those in natural habitats . maintenance and cleaning by agricultural workers had previously made these ideal for

reproductive success , by removing shading and vegetation conducive to tadpole predators such as dragonflies and newts . inland depopulation and agricultural abandonment since the 1960 ' s , however , has resulted in the overgrowth or complete loss of these cultivated habitats , resulting in decline of

man - made , regularly maintained water bodies in cultivated environments have become successful breeding sites for this species , as they provide a sustained , unshaded , vegetation free habitat for tadpole development ( stefano canessa , froglog 2012 ) .

by lanza and vanni ( 1991 ) due to genetic distance based on allozymes ( nascetti et al . 1982 ) and morphological differences ( vaccaneo 1931 ) . canestrelli et al . ( 2006 ) have argued for maintaining it as a separate species , based on analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear markers , and that calabrian populations deserve special conservation status as the reservoir of significant genetic diversity for this species however , phylogenetic analysis by hofman et al . ( 2007 ) , using mitochondrial cyt b sequences , found that italian populations were nested within

di martino , v . , and ferri , v . ( 2002 ) .

proceedings of third conference , save the amphibians , lugano , june 23 - 24 , 2000 , penne ( pescara ) .

nel parco nazionale del gran sasso e monti della laga . indicazioni per la conservazione .

ente parco nazionale gran sasso e monti della laga . relazione per l ' ente gestore , italia .

fromhage , l . , vences , m . , and veith , m . ( 2004 ) . ' ' testing alternative vicariance scenarios in western mediterranean discoglossid frogs . ' '

guarino , f . m . , angelini , f . , and cammarota , m . ( 1995 ) . ' ' a skeletochronological analysis of three syntopic amphibian species from southern italy . ' '

iucn ( 2008 ) . 2008 iucn red list of threatened species . www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded on 10 october 2008 .

iucn 2008 . 2008 iucn red list of threatened species . www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded on 27 november 2008 .

lanza , b . , and corti , c . ( 1993 ) . ' ' erpetofauna italiana : acquisizioni ed estinzioni nel corso del novecento . ' '

lanza , b . , and vanni , s . ( 1991 ) . ' ' notes on the biogeography of the mediterranean island amphibians . ' '

mastromei , g . , barberio , c . , pistolesi , s . , and delfino , g . ( 1991 ) . ' ' a bactericidal protein in

nascetti , g . , vanni , s . , bullini , l . , and lanza , b . ( 1982 ) . ' ' variabilità e divergenza genetica in popolazioni italiane del genere

simoncelli , f . , fagotti , a . , dall ' olio , r . , vagnetti , d . , pascolini , r . , and di rosa , i . ( 2005 ) . ' ' evidence of

bollettino dei musei di zoologia e di anatomia comparata della r . universitá di torino , series iii

dustin guericke , john cavagnaro ( dustingrey at gmail . com ) , black hills state university

> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .

> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .

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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

frost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .

a number of authors consider bombina pachypus to be a subspecies of bombina variegata ( bologna et al . 2000 ; ohler 1997 ; hofman et al . 2007 ) . the taxon was elevated to species level by lanza and vanni ( 1991 ) mainly through the use of preliminary electrophoretic data published in the form of a congress summary ( nascetti et al . 1982 ) and also on the basis of old morphological evidence ( vaccaneo 1931 ) .

justification : listed as endangered because of a population decline , estimated to be more than 50 % ( but presumably lower than 80 % ) inferred from a decline in the area of occupancy , and significant reduction in mature individuals , in the past 10 years , possibly because of susceptibility of this species to the chytridiomycosis pathogen .

this species is endemic to italy , where it occurs south of the po valley , through the appenine region , south to the southern tip of the italian mainland . it ranges from 20 m asl up to almost 1 , 700 m asl ( in latium ) .

it was formerly common in suitable habitat . however , the species has declined in almost all of its range ( with the exception of calabria , where populations remain stable ) over the last 10 years . a survey of representative sites across the species ' range showed that the species disappeared from > 50 % of surveyed sites between 1996 and 2004 ( 55 occupied sites in 1996 versus 23 occupied sites in 2004 ; barbieri et al . 2004 ) . significant recent declines in the populations of this species have been recorded from the province of siena ( piazzini et al . 2005 ) ; abruzzo ( ferri et al . 2007 ) ; ancona ( fiacchini 2003 ) ; lazio ( bologna et al . 2000 , bologna et al . 2007 ) and emilia - romagna ( stagni et al . 2005 ) .

the species occurs in shallow , unshaded pools in forests and open areas . spawning and larval development takes place in these pools . it also occurs in modified habitats , such as low - intensity farmland , pastureland , ditches , irrigations areas , drinking troughs , and ponds .

threats to this species are presumed to largely include loss and fragmentation of wetland habitat to drainage for intensive agricultural purposes . however many populations appear to have declined in areas of presumably intact habitat . in some places it may have very small populations ( 10 - 12 individuals ; mattoccia et al . 2005 ) ; these small populations are highly subject to stochastic extinctions . this species might also be threatened with chytridiomycosis , which has been associated with the deaths of several captive animals ( stagni et al . 2002 , stagni et al . 2005 ) , and further research into the possible impacts of this disease on populations of this species is needed . the cause of recent serious population declines remains incompletely known , but it has been speculated that chytridiomycosis is responsible .

this species is listed on appendix ii of the bern convention , and on annexes ii and iv of the eu habitats directive , in both cases under bombina variegata . it is known to occur in many protected areas including several national parks . the cause of recent severe declines in this species requires urgent investigation and action .

reformatted names of assessor ( s ) , reviewer ( s ) , contributor ( s ) , facilitator ( s ) and / or compiler ( s ) .

( errata version published in 2016 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2009 : e . t54450a86629977 .

to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .

1 . forest - > 1 . 4 . forest - temperate suitability : suitable 4 . grassland - > 4 . 4 . grassland - temperate suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 4 . wetlands ( inland ) - bogs , marshes , swamps , fens , peatlands suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 7 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent freshwater marshes / pools ( under 8ha ) suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 8 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent freshwater marshes / pools ( under 8ha ) suitability : suitable 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 1 . artificial / terrestrial - arable land suitability : marginal 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 2 . artificial / terrestrial - pastureland suitability : suitable 15 . artificial / aquatic & marine - > 15 . 2 . artificial / aquatic - ponds ( below 8ha ) suitability : suitable 15 . artificial / aquatic & marine - > 15 . 5 . artificial / aquatic - excavations ( open ) suitability : suitable 15 . artificial / aquatic & marine - > 15 . 7 . artificial / aquatic - irrigated land ( includes irrigation channels ) suitability : suitable 15 . artificial / aquatic & marine - > 15 . 8 . artificial / aquatic - seasonally flooded agricultural land suitability : marginal

2 . agriculture & aquaculture - > 2 . 1 . annual & perennial non - timber crops - > 2 . 1 . 3 . agro - industry farming

2 . agriculture & aquaculture - > 2 . 3 . livestock farming & ranching - > 2 . 3 . 3 . agro - industry grazing , ranching or farming

8 . invasive and other problematic species , genes & diseases - > 8 . 1 . invasive non - native / alien species / diseases - > 8 . 1 . 1 . unspecified species

8 . invasive and other problematic species , genes & diseases - > 8 . 1 . invasive non - native / alien species / diseases - > 8 . 1 . 2 . named species

8 . invasive and other problematic species , genes & diseases - > 8 . 2 . problematic native species / diseases - > 8 . 2 . 1 . unspecified species

1 . research - > 1 . 1 . taxonomy 1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats 1 . research - > 1 . 6 . actions 3 . monitoring - > 3 . 1 . population trends

barbieri , f . , bernini , f . , guarino , f . m . and venchi , a . 2004 . distribution and status of bombina variegata in italy . italian journal of zoology suppl . 1 : 83 - 90 .

bologna , m . a . , capula , m . and carpaneto , g . m . 2000 . anfibi e rettili del lazio . fratelli palombi editori , roma .

bologna , m . a . , salvi , d . and pitzalis , m . 2007 . atlante degli anfibi e rettili della provincia di roma . gangemi editore , roma .

bonato , l . , fracasso , g . , pollo , r . , richard , j . and semenzato , m . 2007 . atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili del veneto . associazione faunisti veneti , nuovadimensione .

caputo , v . , guarino , f . m . , trecroci , t . and tripepi , s . 1992 . amphibian species of campania and calabria : their distribution , ecology and conservation . in : ferri , v . ( ed . ) , atti i convegno italiano sulla salvaguardia degli anfibi . 19 : 109 - 118 .

dupré , e . and la posta , a . 2008 . la direttiva habitat e lo stato di conservazione dell ' erpetofauna in italia . in : corti , c . ( ed . ) , herpetologia sardiniae . , pp . 235 - 240 . societas herpetologica italica / edizioni belvedere , latina , “le scienze” .

emanueli , l . 1994 . ululone dal ventre giallo bombina variegata ( linneaeus 1758 ) . in : doria , g . and salvidio , s . ( eds ) , atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili della liguria . , pp . 50 - 51 . regione liguria , genova .

ferri , v . , di tizio , l . and pellegrini , m . r . 2007 . atlante degli anfibi d’abruzzo . ianieri - talea edizioni , pescara .

fiacchini , d . 2003 . atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili della provincia di ancona . assessorato all ' ambiente della provincia di ancona . nuove ricerche editore .

fiacchini , d . 2008 . primo contributo per una “lista rossa” dell ' erpetofauna marchigiana ( italia centrale ) : amphibia . in : corti , c . ( ed . ) , herpetologia sardiniae . , pp . 258 - 261 . societas herpetologica italica / edizioni belvedere , latina , “le scienze” .

fromhage , l . , vences , m . and veith , m . 2004 . testing alternative vicariance scenarios in western mediterranean discoglossid frogs . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 31 ( 1 ) : 308 - 322 .

guarino , f . m . , bellini , l . , mazzarella , g . and angelini , f . 1998 . reproductive activity of bombina pachypus from southern italy . the italian journal of zoology 65 ( 4 ) : 335 - 342 .

iucn . 2009 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2009 . 1 ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 22 june 2009 ) .

iucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 1 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 30 june 2016 ) .

lanza , b . , andreone , f . , bologna , m . a . , corti , c . and razzetti , e . 2007 . fauna d ' italia amphibia . vol . xlii . edizioni calderini de il sole 24 ore editoria specializzta s . r . l . , bologna .

lanza , b . and vanni , s . 1991 . notes on the biogeography of the mediterranean islands amphibians . atti conv . lincei , roma . 85 : 335 - 344 .

mattoccia , m . , cari , b . , romano , a . and angelini , c . 2006 . osservazioni sull’ecologia di alcune popolazioni di bombina pachypus ( amphibia : bombinatoridae ) nei monti lepini ( lazio ) . proceedings v congresso nazionale della societas herpetologica italica : 161 - 166 .

nascetti , g . , vanni , s . , bullini , l . and lanza , b . 1983 . variabilità e divergenza genetica in popolazioni italiane del genere bombina ( amphibia , discoglossidae ) . boll zool . 49 ( suppl . ) : 134 - 135 .

ohler , a . 1997 . supplement to the list of european amphibians . in : gasc , j . - p . et al . ( ed . ) , atlas of amphibians and reptiles in europe , pp . 404 - 40 . societas europea herpetologica & muséum national d’histoire naturelle ( iegp / spn ) .

piazzini , s . , favilli , l . and manganelli , g . 2005 . atlante degli anfibi della provincia di siena ( 1999 - 2004 ) . quaderni naturalistici 1 .

scillitani , g . , rizzi , v . and gioiosa , m . 1996 . atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili della provincia di foggia . gitto , foggia .

sindaco , r . , doria , g . , razzetti , e . and bernini , f . 2006 . atlas of italian amphibians and reptiles \ \ atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili d ' italia . societas herpetologica italica - edizioni polistampa , firenze .

stagni , g . , scoccianti , c . and fusini , r . 2002 . segnalazione di chytridiomicosi in popolazioni di bombina pachypus ( anura , bombinatoridae ) dell ' appennino tosco - emiliano . iv congresso della societas herpetologica italica , a ercolano .

vaccaneo , r . 1931 . ricerche sui caratteri morfologici dei bombinator italiani . bolletino dei musei di zoologia ed anatomia comparata della università di torino 41 ( 5 ) : 1 - 47 .

vanni , s . and nistri , a . 2006 . atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili della toscana . regione toscana & museo di storia naturale dell’università degli studi di firenze , sezione di zoologia “la specola” .

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kda ) , is the first amphibian member of the bv8 - prokineticin family . homologs of bv8 are present in the skin secretions of other amphibians such as

. the striking characteristics of these proteins are their identical n - terminal sequence , avitg , and the presence of 10 cysteines with identical spacing , which define a five - disulfide - bridged motif called a colipase fold .

the high degree of identity between amphibian bv8 peptides , fish peptides , and mamba mit - 1 ( 58 % ) suggested that similar peptides could also be present in other species , including mammals . in the mouse , rat , cattle , monkey , and human , cdna cloning identified orthologs of bv8 (

) . the two mammalian proteins similar to bv8 were named prokineticin 1 ( pk1 or eg - vegf ) and prokineticin 2 ( pk2 or mbv8 ) . a second form of pk2 has been identified and named pk2b ( because of an insert of 21 basic amino acids in its sequence ) . the name prokineticin refers to the ability of these peptides to contract guinea pig ileum , a property shared with amphibian bv8 .

expression patterns of rodent and human mrnas for pk1 and pk2 ( prok1 and prok2 ) have been reported in peripheral tissues ( dorsal root ganglia ( drg ) , gastrointestinal tract , endocrine glands , spleen , and human and murine leukocytes ) and the cns .

prokineticins are also expressed in the neurons of the medial preoptic area , nucleus of solitary tract , trigeminal and facial nuclei , and drg .

the two g - protein - coupled receptors for bv8 - pks , prokineticin receptor 1 ( pkr1 ) and prokineticin receptor 2 ( pkr2 ) have an overall identity in their amino acid sequences of 85 % , with most differences at the n - terminal , and are approximately 80 % identical to the previously described mouse orphan receptor gpr73 . in specific endothelial cells , neurons , and transfected cells expressing these receptors , bv8 - induced pkr activation stimulates ca 2 + mobilization and phosphoinositol turnover , indicating a g q / o - protein coupling . receptor binding studies showed that pkr2 is a mit - preferring receptor ; indeed , the affinity of mit for pkr2 ( in the picomolar range ) is approximately 10 times higher than that of pk2 and 50 times higher than that of pk1 . pkr1 is a mit - and pk2 - preferring receptor ; the affinity of mit for pkr1 ( ∼5–10 times lower than for pkr2 ) is comparable to that of pk2 and 60 times higher than that of pk1 . the affinity of bv8 for the receptors is comparable to that of pk2 and is approximately 40 times higher than that of pk1 .

human kallmann syndrome ( ks ) , which combines anosmia , related to defective olfactory bulb morphogenesis , with hypogonadism due to gonadotropin - releasing hormone deficiency , appears to be related to mutations in the genes coding for pk2 and pkr2 . in a cohort of 192 patients affected by ks , 10 different point mutations were identified in the genes encoding pkr2 and four were identified in the genes encoding pk2 . the mutations in pk2 were detected in the heterozygous state , whereas pkr2 mutations were found in the heterozygous , homozygous , or compound heterozygous state . in addition , one of the patients heterozygous for a pkr2 mutation also carried a missense mutation in kal1 , thus indicating a possible digenic inheritance of the disease in this individual . these findings reveal that insufficient prokineticin - signaling through pkr2 leads to the abnormal development of the olfactory system and reproductive axis also in humans .

pkr1 and pkr2 mrnas are expressed in the drg of neonatal and adult rats . pkr1 is mainly expressed in small and medium - size neurons and pkr2 in large neurons . pkr proteins are present in the drg , in the outer layers of the dorsal horns of the spinal cord , and in the peripheral terminals of nociceptor axons . activation of nociceptor pkrs by bv8 in rats and mice produces nociceptive sensitization to thermal and mechanical stimuli , without inducing any spontaneous , overt nocifensive behavior or local inflammation . a physiological role of bv8 - prokineticins as peripheral and central pain modulators is supported by the observation that mice lacking the pkrs or pk2 are less sensitive to noxious heat ( hot - plate test ) than are wild - type mice . pkr1 - null mice also exhibited impaired development of hyperalgesia after tissue injury . the inflammatory agents cfa and mustard oil produced comparable paw edema in wild - type and pkr1 - null mice , but induced inflammatory nociceptive sensitization to heat and pressure significantly lower in pkr1 - knockout than in wild - type mice , demonstrating a role of prokineticins and their receptors in inflammatory pain .

in situ mrna hybridization experiments demonstrated that pk2 is expressed by inflammatory cells , predominantly neutrophils , in the human inflamed tonsil and appendix and in the rat inflamed paw . pk2 released by inflammatory cells can bind and activate pkrs on the primary sensitive neurons contributing to inflammatory pain . neutrophil extracts , fractionated using ionic exchange chromatography , gel filtration , and reverse phase ( rp ) chromatography , displayed bv8 - like activity , displaced 125 i - mit binding from pkr1 - transfected chinese hamster ovary ( cho ) cell membranes and produced the bv8 - characteristic hyperalgesia when injected intrathecally in rats .

prokineticin receptors are potential targets for drugs which block the nociceptive information before it reaches the brain . identifying of the structural determinants required for receptor binding and hyperalgesic activity of bv8 - prokineticins is thus mandatory for the design of pkr antagonists . the highly conserved n - terminal sequence avitga and the triptophan residue in position 24 in all members of the bv8 / pk family are required for biological activity ; deletions and substitutions in these conserved residues produce antagonist molecules . preclinical studies are currently being carried out on these mutated pk peptides as pkr antagonists endowed with analgesic properties .

kda ) . the amino acid sequence was established by automated edman degradation and analysis of proteolytic fragments as well as by cdna cloning . homologs of bv8 have been predicted ( but not yet isolated ) in skin secretions of

( bm8a ) . these proteins are derived from simple precursors composed of a putative 19 - residue signal peptide and the mature protein . bo8 and bm8a show 96 % and 92 % sequence identity with bv8 . moreover , the putative signal peptides in all three proproteins are 100 % identical (

) . the primary sequence of bv8 is similar to mit ( mamba intestinal toxin ) , a constituent of the venom of the snake black mamba . the amphibian and snake proteins share the same pattern of cysteine distribution , and their overall identity is 58 % . cdna cloning showed the existence of mouse ( mbv8 ) and human ( hbv8 ) homologs of amphibian bv8 .

) . a similar cys - motif is also present in mammalian colipase and in the carboxy - terminal region of members of the dickkopf family of extracellular signaling proteins . however , the frog protein does not stimulate the activity of pancreatic lipase , and it is also inactive in an assay for dickkopf functions . starting from the 3d - structure of mammalian colipase , a model was built for frog bv8 in which the hydrophobic amino terminal sequence avitg forms a sort “beak” exposed at the surface of the tightly folded rest of the protein .

two forms of mbv8 and hbv8 have been characterized in the mouse and human testis . these forms differ in an exon coding for 21 amino acids , the majority of which are basic (

) . the predominant site of bv8 expression in both humans and mice is primary spermatocytes in the seminiferus tubules of the testis . the genomic structure of these murine and human bv8 genes has been determined , and the chromosomal localization was identified near a synteny breakpoint of mouse chromosome 6 and human 3p21 .

identified two human est sequences , one encoding the human protein already described and the other encoding a slightly different bv8 - like protein . the two proteins were named prokineticin 2 ( pk2 ) and prokineticin 1 ( pk1 ) (

) . the name prokineticin refers to the ability of these peptides to contract gpi , a property shared with amphibian bv8 .

identified a protein that induced proliferation , migration , and fenestration in the endothelial cells of steroid synthesizing glands ( ovary , testis , adrenals ) and named it endocrine - gland - derived vascular endothelial growth factor ( eg - vegf ) . eg - vegf and pk1 are the same protein and have an overall identity of 58 % and homology of 76 % with human pk2 and murine bv8 and 43 % identity with amphibian bv8 . pk1 / eg - vegf has been isolated and sequenced also from bovine milk . rat and human mrnas for pk1 and pk2 have been cloned and their expression patterns reported in peripheral tissues and the central nervous system .

the distribution of murine bv8 - like proteins , pk1 and pk2 , and their mrnas has been reported in the brain ( olfactory bulb , cerebral cortex , hippocampus , some thalamic and hypothalamic nuclei , purkinje cells of the cerebellum , many nuclei of the brain stem ) , spinal cord , gastrointestinal tract , endocrine glands , and other peripheral organs .

( being the lowest in the dark phase ) and is severely blunted in mutant mice deficient in clock or cryptochrome genes . pk2 / bv8 , constitutively expressed in cells and organs of myeloid origin , is dramatically upregulated by inflammatory processes .

receptors for pk1 and pk2 have been identified in humans , mice , and rats . these receptors , named prokineticin receptor 1 and 2 ( pkr1 and pkr2 ) , belong to the family of g protein - coupled receptors , share approximately 85 % amino acid identity , and are about 80 % identical to the previously described mouse orphan receptor gpr73 . in a study aimed to map the expression of pkr1 and pkr2 in rat and mouse nervous system , we

detected pkr2 mrna in the brain ( olfactory bulbs , scn , hippocampus , paraventricular thalamic and hypothalamic nuclei , nucleus arcuatus , subfornical organ ( sfo ) , amygdala , caudate putamen , and cortex ) and in dorsal root ganglia ( drg ) . pkr1 is mainly expressed outside the mammalian central nervous system , with the highest density in the neurons of drg . pkr1 is also expressed by murine macrophages . mice lacking the pkr2 show a dramatic reduction in olfactory bulbs ( ob ) size , and they do not survive ; mice lacking pkr1 are severely deficient in their responses to noxious thermal and chemical ( capsaicin , protons ) stimuli .

intensive investigation of the bv8 / prokineticin system over the past decade has revealed a dazzling array of physiological functions including the regulation of circadian rhythms , metabolism , angiogenesis , neurogenesis , muscle contractility , hematopoiesis , immune response , reproduction , and pain perception . in addition , the disruption of prokineticin system has been implicated in several pathological conditions , including cancer , immunological response , mood disorder ( anxiety / depression ) ,

cardiomyopathy , and persistent pain . point mutations in the genes encoding for prokineticins and / or prokineticin receptors are involved in human kallmann’s syndrome and hirschprung’s disease .

the isolation of an adequate amount of the amphibian bv8 protein has provided valuable research tools for characterizing the prokineticin pharmacology .

mm . in cell - based assays , bv8 and eg - vegf / pk1 induce proliferation , migration , and survival of primary adrenal cortical capillary endothelial ( ace ) cells . delivery of bv8 or eg - vegf to the mouse testis results in a potent angiogenic response resulting from activation of pkrs on vascular endothelial cells within the interstitial space .

pmol ) into the lateral ventricles of the rat brain suppress diurnal , nocturnal , deprivation - induced , and neuropeptide y - stimulated feeding . bv8 injected icv also stimulates drinking in a dose - dependent manner . we showed that bv8 stimulates drinking through its receptors in the sfo and inhibits feeding after injection into the arcuate nucleus . rat sensitivity to the bv8 - induced anorexogenic response increases significantly during the dark phase of the circadian cycle ,

in accordance with the physiological role of bv8 / pk2 in controlling circadian rhythm from the scn .

in rats , icv and sc injections of bv8 induce antidiuresis dependent on vasopressin release . bv8 injected sc also induces the release of oxytocin and corticosterone .

) , and intrabrain administration of amphibian bv8 induces hyperalgesia activating the prokineticin receptors that are present on peripheral nociceptors and in regions of the central nervous system associated with pain .

translocation , and sensitization of the vanilloid receptor trpv1 , hence decreasing the nociceptive threshold to mechanical and thermal stimuli .

amphibian bv8 injected into the periaqueductal gray ( pag ) exerts a pronociceptive action by increasing the intrinsic gabaergic tone which , in turn , is responsible for the inhibition of pag antinociceptive output neurons demonstrating that the bv8 / pkr system may also intervene in modulating central pain mechanisms .

we have shown that amphibian bv8 activates macrophages to migrate and to produce proinflammatory cytokines . it is also able to affect the t lymphocyte population , because the administration

of amphibian bv8 skews the th1 / th2 balance toward a th1 response . all these effects depend on the activation of pkr1 because they lack in the lymphocytes and macrophages from pkr1 - ko mice .

endogenous bv8 / pk2 is overexpressed in inflamed tissues and in animal and human neoplastic tissue , predominantly in infiltrating neutrophils . these cells can secrete it , since the sequence of the precursors contains the typical signal peptide for secretion .

ferrara’s group showed that bv8 regulates myeloid - cell - dependent tumor angiogenesis . we showed that bv8 has a crucial role in neutrophil - dependent inflammatory hypernociception .

to develop pkr antagonists as novel analgesic and antiinflammatory drugs , structural determinants required for the biological activity of bv8 must be identified .

studies from our group suggested that avitga family members could interact with pkr1 / pkr2 by orienting the protein region that comprises the avitga sequence and the conserved tryptophan residue in position 24 . the n - terminal deletion of the first two amino acids in amphibian bv8 molecule ( dav - bv8 ) yield an analog lacking any biological activity but still able to bind the receptors . dav - bv8 is a short acting antagonist

. substituting trp with ala in position 24 yields a molecule , a - 24 , that preferentially binds and activates pkr2 . it displays weak affinity and efficacy on pkr , acting as an antagonist . a - 24 has an extraordinary , long - lasting antihyperalgasic effect in animal models of postsurgical and inflammatory pain .

some nonpeptide molecules , triazine - guanidine derivatives , seem very promising . local or systemic injection of the lead compound , pc1 , abolishes the hyperalgesia in animal models of inflammatory

and postsurgical pain and speeds up the paw healing being , on a molar base , about a thousand times more potent than indomethacin ( unpublished ) . our results also show an important role for the bv8 / pkr in neuropathic pain at least in rodents . if this role is confirmed in humans , reducing bv8 levels in damaged tissues or antagonizing pkrs might be an innovative strategy to control persistent , invalidating pain .

) , well - distributed along the rhône river , has disappeared in the swiss rhône downstream of lake léman since 1980 , despite multiple re - introductions ( geneva herpetological society ) .

some amphibians are mainly found in the northern part of the rhône . smooth newt (

) are rare in the french upper rhône and lower rhône floodplains upstream of montélimar but are absent downstream . south great crested newts (

) are scarce because of the lack of reproduction areas . backwaters around arles have been identified as the last southern reproduction areas for this species . around geneva , south great crested newt populations have been declining since 1987 because of the non - native italian great crested newt (

) is found as far as montélimar . other amphibians are mainly present in the south part of the rhône river . the mediterranean tree frog (

is commonly found in camargue and in the lower rhône floodplain . until recently , the mediterranean tree frog and common tree frog co - occurred between lyon and valence but river regulation and the loss of wetlands led to their quasi - extinction . the western spadefoot is present from the delta to valence , and the parsley frog (

has disappeared in the mediterranean part of the rhône since the early 20th century . most amphibian species are protected .

, which is endangered also because of habitat reduction in many areas . among amphibians , the endemic sardinian brook newt (

) is present in the flumendosa basin , and the few populations are considered endangered .

there are four species of salamanders , the most widespread being the fire salamander ( salamandra salamandra ) , common in mountain ranges of continental and peninsular italy . the alpine salamander ( s . atra ) is still frequent in the upper ranges of the central - eastern alps , while the endemic lanza ' s salamander ( s . lanzai ) is restricted to a few locations in the headwaters of the po basin , in the western alps . lastly , the spectacled salamander ( salamandrina terdigitata ) is common along all the apennines , mostly between 300 and 900 m asl . the most common newts are : the alpine newt ( mesotriton alpestris ) , mostly in the western alps and northern apennines , the italian crested newt ( triturus carnifex ) widely distributed throughout italy , except the islands , the italian newt ( lissotriton italicus ) , endemic of the central and southern apennines , and the smooth newt ( l . vulgaris ) , common from the central apennines to the lower ranges of the alps .

) in the apennines . there also are some endemic frogs , including the tyrrhenian painted frog (

, which are common in other parts of northern italy , have reduced populations . the only priority species , according to the habitat directive , is the

) , still present along the whole adige valley but endangered because of a reduction in their specific habitats , represented by small , temporary pools in the river floodplains . reptiles associated with freshwater habitats include the common grass and dice snakes (

( stebbins & cohen 1995 ) . habitat loss and drought may have also contributed to the decline of these species . recent biomolecular research (

) . amphibian richness within a given habitat was significantly related to distance from islands , fish density and water temperature . vegetated islands and large woody debris played pivotal roles , directly and indirectly , in maintaining both habitat and amphibian diversity in this gravel - bed river .

) . two thirds of the amphibians and 1 / 3 of the reptiles prefer riverine landscape elements ; the remaining species occur in adjacent hillslope and upland areas . only three reptiles are truly aquatic :

despite the enormous interest in keeping exotic amphibians and reptilians as pets , which can result in abandoned or escaped animals , no introduced alien species have established reproducing populations in the basin until now . nevertheless , there are problems with the ongoing introduction of trachemys scripta elegans and other pond turtles , especially in germany and austria , because they most likely compete with the native turtle emys orbicularis .

) . many species are protected also by national laws ( e . g . ,

) . destruction of wetlands is the most serious threat to amphibian populations . even common species like

is locally threatened due to drainage , pollution , and destruction of breeding ponds and adjacent terrestrial habitats . in recent years ,

and called it ranatensin . in the same year , and shortly thereafter , erspamer

by 1978 , similar peptides had been isolated from other amphibians : the nonapeptide ( 9 amino acid peptide ) litorin , the undecapeptide ranatensin c , and the heptadecapeptide ( 17 amino acid peptide ) ranatensin r .

from porcine non - antral gastric tissue . the sequence of this peptide was identified by the same group in the next year ,

and because of the most prominent function of this peptide , which is stimulation of gastric acid secretion due to the release of gastrin , the peptide was given the name gastrin - releasing polypeptide . the next year , the same group identified grp in the chicken proventriculus as another 27 - amino acid peptide .

characterized three forms of grp ( 27 , 23 , and 10 ) from canine intestinal extracts .

) in the porcine spinal cord ; the next year , the same group identified grp - 10 in the porcine spinal cord , calling it nmc .

in 1984 , grp - 27 was isolated and characterized from human pulmonary carcinoid cells .

later on , similarity was found between the two classes of peptides , the amphibian peptides and grp , especially at the biologically active cooh - terminal . however , because the nh

the highest amphibian diversity is found in the floodplain areas and small waterbodies of the upper and middle rhine . in recent gravel ponds , rare species such as

in the northern middle rhine . in reed belts and willows of lake constance and floodplains of the upper rhine , tree frogs (

) can be heard during summer . early studies reported populations of the european water turtle

) . rare recent sightings of this species are due to the release of aquarium specimens . several non - native reptiles ( mostly the painted turtle

and other turtles , but even caimans and alligators ) are observed for the same reason ; however they rarely find suitable wintering conditions to maintian populations .

) . due to land - use changes and river regulation , many amphibian populations declined or gone extinct in floodplains along the rhine tributaries in the netherlands ( delta rhine ) . however , several common amphibian species still occur , such as

complex . the frequencies of occurrence and densities are still rather low in comparison with pristine areas .

hibernate in meadows , thickets and bushes on sand or clay in the higher as well as lower parts of floodplains .

clearly prefer sandy habitats in the higher parts of floodplains . the ringed snake snake is still frequently observed in floodplains along the nederrijn and ijssel (

the views of darwin , wallace , rensch , and mayr that geographic replacement forms , subspecies and semispecies , are in fact incipient species , has few critics today . most geographic replacement species ( i . e . , “semispecies , ” which intergrade only rarely when they meet ) must indeed have evolved from previously interbreeding subspecies . modern genetic data have done nothing to cast doubt on this idea . meanwhile , superspecies became a term reserved for groups of semispecies that intergraded little at their boundaries .

however , under the trinominal approach , taxonomists were now required to describe subspecies , which has never been seen as a particularly noble activity in comparison to the description of species , especially recently . a strong attack on the zoological subspecies was mounted by

. both were systematists working on ants , a group particularly riddled with poorly conceived trinominals and other named varieties at the time . wilson and brown argued that subspecies rarely , if ever , could be justified on the basis of multiple characters , and that therefore they were not “real taxa . ” the only “real taxa” were species , which in a sense were self - defining because interbreeding prevented divergent genes from flowing from one species to another . subspecies that interbred at their boundaries , on the other hand , were not so endowed , so that genes and morphological characters could flow between them . good examples of subspecies were put forward which undoubtedly would be hard to justify on multiple character grounds . this single paper was enormously influential on systematics in the united states , and generations of insect systematists trained at harvard and cornell , where wilson and brown worked , and their own many intellectual descendants , and their students’ students in turn , have eschewed the practice of naming subspecies .

across a broad front in europe . the two forms hybridize freely in the contact zone—although the hybrids can be shown to suffer some inviability—and so should really be classified as members of the same species under polytypic or biological species concepts . however , it has always seemed natural to place such well - defined forms in separate species in spite of the fact they have not truly “speciated . ” the two taxa differ strongly in call , morphology , skin thickness , the sizes of water bodies used for breeding , and egg size , as well as in mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid ( dna ) and protein sequence . the levels of differentiation suggest that the

taxa have evolved separately for many millions of years . this situation of multiple character changes has now been shown to be true across many examples of subspecies as well as species separated by hybrid zones . gene flow can be shown to be almost completely blocked by hybrid zones such as these , even if hybridization is frequent (


the yellowhead jawfish ( opistognathus aurifrons ) is a species of jawfish native to coral reefs in the caribbean sea .

it is found at depths of from 3 to 40 metres ( 9.8 to 131.2 ft ) .

the head and upper body are a light , but brilliant , yellow color slowly fading to a pearlescent blue hue .

it can reach a length of 10 centimetres ( 3.9 in ) tl .

it remains near its relatively small territory , and is typically seen with only the head and upper section of its body protruding from its burrow , although it sometimes can be found hovering nearby .

it is able to arrange material using its mouth , carrying sand , shells , or small rocks from one location to another .

it is a mouthbrooder , with the male carrying the eggs in its mouth until they hatch .

yellowhead jawfish

yellowhead jawfish <EOT> stratton , richard f . 1993 . the yellowhead jawfish . tfh 3 / 93 .

the species opistognathus aurifrons is known under several different names in english , including yellowhead jawfish , yellow - head jawfish , yellow - headed jawfish , pearly jawfish , and yellow headed pearly jawfish .

the largest scientifically measured yellowhead jawfish was 10 . 0 cm / 3 . 9 in .

several other species of jawfish changes colour during the period period , but this is not the case for the yellowhead jawfish .

the depth range for the yellowhead jawfish is 3 - 40 meters / 10 - 131 feet .

lobel , phil s . 1982 . the yellowhead jawfish ; opistognathus aurifrons . fama 4 / 82 .

noyes , john c . 1974 . yellowhead jawfish . marine aquarist 5 ( 2 ) : 74 .

the yellowhead jawfish can be bred in captivity , with the yellowhead jawfish being the easiest jawfish to breed . however the survival rate of their fry in the home aquarium is fairly low . first off you will need to get a pair .

a yellowhead jawfish peeks out of its burrow in a home aquarium . ( image credit : robert harman )

young , forrest a . 1982 . the yellowhead jawfish ; breeding the marine mouthbrooder in captivity . fama 4 / 82 .

the yellowhead jawfish is easy to feed , as they will accept prepared foods without hesitation . there is however a different issue to face when feeding

young , forrest a . 1982 . the yellowhead jawfish : breeding in captivity . freshwater and marine aquarium magazine , 5 : 4 , april 1982 .

the yellowhead jawfish is generally a peaceful species that can be kept with other peaceful species of similar size in the community aquarium . aggressive species should be avoided and it is also safest to avoid other burrowing fishes that may bully the docile jawfish . as mentioned above , you can find large colonies of yellowhead jawfish in the wild and you can keep a colony if your aquarium is big enough . an entire colony of yellowhead jawfish hovering above their burrows is a fascinating sight . sticking to one species of jawfish is safer than trying to combine several species .

yellowhead jawfish are found in the shallow seas of florida , the caribbean and elsewhere in the western central atlantic ocean , and are often seen in the aquarium trade .

since i first set eyes on a wild specimen while scuba diving in the florida keys , i’ve been enamored with the yellowhead , a . k . a . pearly , jawfish (

if you’re going to maintain large saltwater aquarium tank then yellowhead jawfish is one good choice . it is one beautiful fish that burrows in the aquarium sand . you’ll find this fish a good tank - mate with other non - aggressive saltwater fishes . yellowhead jawfish is usually found in sandy and rubble - strewn reef environments . they make a perfect pet for saltwater aquarium .

the yellowhead jawfish may nip at and even eat small crustaceans in the aquarium . the recommended water temperature when keeping yellowhead jawfish is 75 - 82° f / 25 - 28° c . the ph - value should be in the 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 range , the carbonate hardness at 8 - 12° dkh , and the specific gravity at 1 . 020 - 1 . 023 .

being a relatively small , burrowing species , the yellowhead jawfish does not require an especially large aquarium . a 30 - gallon tank will more than suffice provided enough open bottom real estate is available .

the yellowhead jawfish is not typically aggressive towards its own species , however territorial disputes can occur if the tank is too small . i would recommend at least 30 gallons per jawfish , with 3 - 4 jawfish being the limit on how many you should have . keeping additional jawfish is typically an attempt to form a mated pair , so more than a few should not be necessary .

colin , pl . 1971 . interspecific relationships of the yellowhead jawfish , opistognathus aurifrons ( pisces , opistognathidae ) . copeia 1971 ( 3 ) : 469 - 473 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1442443

any fishes that share your yellowhead jawfish’s tank must be relatively small , peaceful , and sedate . large or highly energetic species constantly swooping overhead will keep your jawfish perpetually concealed in its burrow , so all you’ll ever see is a pair of bulging eyes glancing nervously about .

the yellowhead jawfish is a small carnivore who creates a small cavern underneath the sand bed . they fortify their new burrow with larger pieces of rock , sand and miscellaneous debris , creating a solid tunnel for their home .

colin , patrick l . 1972 . daily activity patterns and effects of environmental conditions on the behavior of the yellowhead jawfish opistognathus aurifrons , with notes on its ecology . zoologica 57 ( 4 ) : 37 - 169 .

the yellowhead jawfish is a pushover when it comes to other fish . they are not suited to tanks with any aggressive tank mates and are easy targets as they create a burrow from which they cannot escape . be wary of any opportunistic feeders , such as emerald crabs who can easily corner the jawfish .

being a bottom dweller and more of burrower and peaceful fish they’re preferred for non - aggressive saltwater tank . so if you’re keeping non - aggressive fishes in your saltwater tank consider getting atleast 2 - 3 yellowhead jawfish for your tank .

the deep sandbed required is the main topic here . the yellowhead jawfish requires no less than 5″ of sand . this can create plenty of toxic air traps , meaning your filtration , flow and sand sifting become twice as essential as the normal tank .

size & color : yellowhead jawfish can grow upto size of 10cm and has lifespan of about 5 years or more . yellowhead jawfish has bright yellow head and light blue or white body . on the chin you can see the pair of black dots . ph & temperature : you need to maintain ph range of about 8 . 1 – 8 . 4 . yellowheads jawfish requires temperature in the range 25°c – 28°c that means they require normal room temperature . hardness in the range of 8 – 12dkh should be maintained . you need atleast 30 gallons of tank and it should be at least 90cm in length .

food : yellowhead jawfish can accept itamin enriched flake foods , frozen and live foods . being a carnivore , it requires meaty food in the aquarium . you can occasionally give them brine shrimp , mysis shrimp , bloodworms and small pieces of clam flesh . food rich with vitamins is suggested for them so you can give them flake food or fresh food regularly other than live food . many times yellowhead jawfish don’t leave it’s home and that’s why it is necessary to drop food that can sink to the bottom and they can catch it .

jawfish are named for their humorously large mouths , which serve several important functions .

the yellowhead jawfish is an egg - laying species where the male fish broods the offspring inside his mouth . this is called paternal mouth - brooding . the eggs will hatch inside his mouth and the offspring will not be released until they are large enough to be free swimming .

the yellow - headed jaw is hard to distinguish as male / female , but other species ( blue - spotted , the atlantic yellowhead opistognathus gilberti ) males show marked color changes at breeding times .

the yellowhead jawfish is a carnivore that in the wild feeds on detrius and plankton . in the home aquarium , it feeds on meaty foods including brine shrimp , mysis , and even flake an pellet once it realizes that those are food items . if your jawfish refuses to come out to eat , food can be placed near it ' s burrow using a pipette .

if you wish to keep yellowhead jawfish , you need an aquarium of at least 30 gallons / 115 litres . the aquariums should ideally be at least 3 feet / 90 cm in length . a secure lid is strongly recommended since this fish is an agile jumper , especially if frightened .

the yellowhead jawfish is a wonderful looking fish with a bright yellow head and a white or light blue body . the yellowhead jawfish likes to burrow in the substrate and prefer a deeper sand bed with crushed coral and various grades of sand , at least 3 to 5 inches . they have the incredible ability to quickly dart back into their burrow tail first when spooked . you usually won ' t see them swimming around alot . they like to hang vertically above the burrow or in the burrow with only their yellow heads poking out . it ' s really neat to see a colony of them in a tank hanging vertically above their holes watching you .

the shy yellowhead jawfish doesn’t like to venture far from its burrow , especially not when newly introduced to a new aquarium , and it is therefore advisable to place the food near the opening of the burrow . when it feels safer in the aquarium it will dare to swim further and further away from its home to find food .

the yellowhead jawfish should do well with other peaceful marine fish and you should be able to keep multiple yellow jawheads in the same tank , provided that there is enough territory for each . however , the different jawfish species may not co - exist peacefully in the same tank . they have been known to jump out of tanks when first introduced , so you ' ll need a good tight fitting hood with no possible escape points .

opistognathus sp . u2 gold specs jawfish . mabul malaysia . a male with a mouthful of eggs .

noyes , john c . 1987 . the dusky jawfish , opistognathus whitehurstii . fama 4 / 87 .

the yellowhead jawfish’s natural diet consists primarily of zooplankton that drifts close to its burrow . in captivity , it will accept a wide range of fare . items such as mysis shrimp , plankton , chopped clams or shrimp , and other small , meaty foods will be accepted with gusto . your specimen may even learn to accept dry pellets and flakes .

the yellowhead jawfish is primarily a carnivore and need meaty foods in their diet . at first , you may need to deposit the food near the burrow opening to entice them to eat . after they become acclimated they may become less shy and may come out of the burrow to eat . be warned , they may nip at and eat small crustaceans .

but jawfish are also mouthbrooders , meaning a parent fish will use their mouth to hold eggs until they hatch . yellowhead jawfish are known to be monogamous , with pairs digging adjacent burrows and sometimes sharing or switching burrows ( hess 1993 ) . males are the responsible brooder , and will hold a clutch of eggs in their mouth for 5 to 7 days ( hess 1993 ) — all the while looking like a chump with a mouth full of sticky marbles .

with their bug - like eyes and bucket - like mouths , jawfish win their way into most hobbyists ' hearts . their personality and hardiness are commendable . all too often , however , jawfish take the rap for destructive tendencies . in most cases the destructive habits are the fault of the hobbyist ignoring the needs of the jawfish .

jawfish have slender bodies that let them slink in and out of their burrows . ( image credit : unknown )

there are other species collected for the hobby from the atlantic like the mottled jawfish ( opistognathus maxillosus ) that are generally offered as " miscellaneous " jawfish . i have yet to find any that did not do well in captivity .

the yellowhead jawfish will gladly accept frozen foods and can be trained to eat pellets with relative ease . simply introduce pellets along with the frozen foods . they will pick on the food , as they understand you are feeding them . after this they will either ignore the food for now or eat it . continue doing this , scooping out any excess food to prevent an algae bloom .

straughan , robert p . l . 1965 . the pearly jawfish , a sea nymph . tfh 1 / 65 .

published on aug 27 , 2012 a most cooperative , friendly , entertaining and beautiful yellowhead jawfish at the blue heron bridge on august 25 , 2012 . the " autofocus " on a digital rebel isn ' t yet ready for prime time , so using a macro lens for something like this leaves a bit to be desired . sorry about that . : - ) a new one from jan 2013 : urltoken

when the fish is not hiding , you can see it hover vertically in close vicinity to its burrow , often straight above it . if anything frightens it , it will instantly dart back to its protective burrow tail first . this fish will not swim around much , because it wants to stay close to its burrow at all times . in the wild , you can find large colonies of yellowhead jawfish .

mating , spawning , and the rearing of jawfish fry has been successful in home aquariums . a 4 ' tank is recommended for the pair in so much as natural territories of jawfish range from 1 - 3 ' . in spawning season ( spring through fall ) , sexual dichromatism is present in some species . the yellow head jawfish gains black spots on the ventral side of the head , while the blue spot jawfish ' s posterior becomes white . outside of spawning season there is no sexual dichromatism .

when the jawfish is not comfortable with their environment , they will be unlikely to leave the burrow , sitting inside with their head poking out like an eel . comfortable jawfish will dart out of their burrow for feeding time , have their fill and then return to business as usual . uncomfortable jawfish , on the other hand , will need the food to be delivered to their home .

kerstitch , alex . 1979 . the first record of the courtship behavior of the blue spot jawfish . fama 9 / 79 .

jawfish will only spawn in the middle of their life span . those too young or too old will not attempt to spawn , with the age of two being the average time where spawning no longer occurs . this is frighteningly early for those looking to keep a bloodline of jawfish running in their tank . likewise those with well established jawfish may have missed their chance to breed the fish .

the blue spot jawfish . one look and you can understand why some hobbyist don ' t balk at the $ 200 price tag .

the yellowhead jawfish inhabits the western central atlantic . its native range stretches from florida , usa down to the northern parts of south america . this is a reef associated species that live inside burrows made of crushed coral and sand . it is typically found in sandy and rubble - strewn reef environments . these fishes enter the burrow tail first and you can often see their head stick up from the whole while the rest of the body remains hidden .

the jawfish should be some of the first fishes introduced , especially if you are crowding them population wise ; and introduced all at once .

if you’ve heard that the yellowhead jawfish is a good jumper , you’ve not been misinformed ! this species is a true acrobat ! once while giving a specimen a freshwater dip , i watched in disbelief as it “tail walked” like a dolphin across the water surface and flipped right out of the container . fortunately , i was right there on hand to pick it up and return it . needless to say , a good tank cover is a must if you plan to keep this species .

this is helpful when large predators try to flush them out of their burrows . nassau groupers ( ephinephelus striatus ) have been observed to fan their tails to cover jawfish burrows with sand , in hopes of forcing the jawfish to burrow back out and show their heads… and get eaten . but the jawfish seem to be able to play the waiting game , and can wait up to 10 hours before attempting to reopen their burrows ( colin 1971 ) .

the family opistognathidae , otherwise commonly known as jawfish , is comprised of three genera and nearly 40 described species with possibly another 30 un - described .

the bottom of the aquarium should be covered in a deep ( at least 3 in / 7 . 5 cm ) layer of sand since the yellowhead jawfish needs to dig out a burrow . ideally use various grades of sand ( not only soft sand ) and include crushed corals . also use large amounts of rock for the set up to mimic the natural environment of this species . various size rocks among the soft substrate can be necessary to help reinforce the burrows and rockpiles will be highly appreciated .

yellowhead jawfish stkg . 12 / 27 / 07 dear crew , thank you for all the help you have i given me in the past . you don ' t know how much you have helped me . unfortunately a new problem arises . i have been interested in opistognathus aurifrons for some time now and have been planning to convert my 55 gallon freshwater tank into a saltwater tank for the soul purpose of keeping these jawfish . my question is if i kept nothing but jawfish and some liverock in this tank could i fit four ? < mmm , possibly . . . but all would be happier / better with just two or three . . . > the reason i would like four is because i would like to obtain a pair for breeding purposes . any suggestions ? thanks , tuscan thompson < take a bit of time reading accounts of jawfish spawning , aquaculture . . . maybe start at the breeders registry ( . com ) . bob fenner >

to : henry c . schultz iii hi henry , my name is loong fat ho and i am an undergraduate marine biology student at roger williams university . i work as a project leader in rwuã¢â¬â¢s marine ornamentals research laboratory . i am in the process of starting a new project involving the captive breeding yellowhead jawfish . there is very little information out there on jawfish and one of the articles published by fresh and marine aquarium magazine is very important for my project . this is the article : young , forrest a . 1982 . the yellowhead jawfish : breeding in captivity . freshwater and marine aquarium magazine , 5 : 4 , april 1982 . i ' ve read your article " lets jaw about jawfish " and ive seen that you ' ve cited this article . i have gone through our university ' s inter - library loan system and they could nopt deliver . i can ' t get a hold of fma magazine . is there any posibility that you might still acces to this specific article ? they referencing is extemly important to my research proposal , without it i can hardly substantiate any of my experiments . how can i get a hold of this article and how much will it cost ? i need it as soon as possible as it is crucial to my experiment . thank you , loong fat ho

the two most commonly kept jawfish are o . rosenblatti and o . aurifrons . i will concentrate my discussion on these two fish . from here on in the discussion , when i refer to " jawfish , " i will mean these two species . i will touch on a few additional species at the end .

jawfish are very difficult to sex , with the most reliable method being the shape of their head . those with more pointy heads and smaller bodies are typically female while the larger , flat large headed jawfish are much more likely to be male . additionally females will frequently have a more rounded abdomen than their male counterparts .

opistognathus whitehursti ( longley 1927 ) , the dusky jawfish . to 14 cm . western atlantic : southern florida , usa and bahamas to northern south america . urltoken

dusky jawfish , opistognathus whitehurstii are camouflaged beauties that deserve more attention . their brown mottled bodies are accentuated with glowing red to aqua eyes . to 3 . 2 inches .

the substrate must be at least four inches deep to accommodate this species’ burrowing behavior , and it should include material of varying grain sizes as well as larger rubble pieces that your jawfish can use to stabilize its home . burrows constructed in substrate consisting entirely of fine - grain sand are likely to collapse ( on top of your jawfish ! ) .

definitely , these are the species you want to keep it you ' re into studying overt intra - species behavior ; and it should be just one jawfish species per system .

several jawfish are commonly referred to as " dusky jawfish . " these would include opistognathus macrognathus , opistognathus maxillosus , opistognathus scops , and opistognathus whitehursti . unlike the jawfishes discussed above , these are not planktonic feeders . they will consume small fish or shrimp if they fit into their mouths . also , unlike their cousins , they lack attractive patterns or colors .

choosing the appropriate tank mates for your jawfish is a task not to be taken lightly . with the wrong mix , you ' ll either kill the fish or never see it .

another jawfish commonly referred to as the " dusky " is o . whitehursti . it is the smallest opistognathus at 3 " and thus requires a quieter tank than the others . like all other jawfish sold under the " dusky " name , it is not a planktonic feeder . shrimp should probably not be added to their aquarium unless they are intended as a meal .

keep a close eye when the jawfish is first building their home , as their digging can easily cause rock slides . once their burrow is complete this should no longer be an issue .

while this may seem silly on its own , there is a lot of reasoning behind it . first off the jawfish loves to eat small crustaceans such as copepods and amphipods . these however are hard to keep in stock in the tank . to replicate them you can simply freeze a table shrimp , without its shell , and grind it with a grater . this will produce small shrimp pieces which are close enough to copepods for the jawfish to attack . using this method you will easily be able to get any picky jawfish back on track to a healthy diet .

lately , it seems there has been a lot of confusion about jawfish in reef aquariums . with the advent of live sand substrates and today ' s popularity of oolitic or " southdown " sand , many hobbyists are left with a feeling that jawfish are no longer a great reef community fish . i completely disagree with this notion , and will explain why as this article progresses .

dusky jawfish like this one rarely hover above their burrow . instead , they sit with just their head exposed , watching the world go by , and waiting for a meal to pass overhead .

when appropriate conditions prevail , a den in the open substrate will be formed . this is obviously a good sign that your jawfish is acclimating well and that you have supplied a suitable habitat .

breeding : yellowfish is known to be one of the mouth brooder , it means that they keep eggs in their mouth till they hatch . once fry is ready to swim it is released from the mouth . variety of jawfish are known to change the color during the period of spawning . many aquarist report that jawfish can breed in captivity so you can breed them in your home aquarium .

the yellowhead jawfish feeds chiefly on zooplankton and detritus in the wild . since it is primarily a carnivore , it needs to be provided with meaty foods in the aquarium . you can for instance give it brine shrimp , mysis shrimp , bloodworms and small pieces of clam flesh . it can be trained to accept fresh , frozen and dried food in addition to live food . to make sure it gets everything they need , it is recommended to feed it high - quality flake food ( with vitamins ) as well . most specimens will start eating dry food eventually but it can take some time for the fish to realise that it is actually food .

first the jawfish must be given adequate room . this means a large tank with a fair amount of room around their burrows . this is more easily obtained using a breeder than a standard fish tank .

opistognathus rhomaleus jordan & gilbert 1882 , the giant jawfish . eastern central pacific ; baja to the islas revillagigedos . to eighteen inches in length . here at the birch aquarium , san diego , california .

this is the most common caribbean jawfish in the aquarium trade , however , it is not in great demand and only small numbers are collected ( w . smith - vaniz pers . comm . 2012 ) .

behavior : they go quite well with other peaceful saltwater aquarium fish . they don’t usually fight with their own kind as well so you can keep multiple jawfish in the same tank as well if you’ve lot of space in the tank . yellowhead jawfish is also known for jumping out of the tank so you need to keep the tank sealed just to ensure that they don’t jump out . they enter the burrow tail first and you’ll find their head while rest of the body remained in the sand . they’re bottom dwellers so you can find them dwelling near sand or stone , marbles etc if they’re not hiding . if they get frightened they immediately get to the burrow and often don’t come out unless they need food . you can add various grades of sand and coral for them to burrow easily . also rocks , marbles and small stones can be placed inside the tank in order to let them have natural environment .

as noted above , a jawfish prefers to have a 360° view of its surroundings . given the confines of our small tanks , this is rarely possible . as a result , one of two types of dens is constructed :

baensch , h . a . , 1994 . jawfish . pp . 1158 - 1167 . baensch marine atlas , volume 1 . microcosm . shelburne . 1215 pp . burgess , w . e . , et al , 1991 . jawfish . pp . 507 - 509 . dr . burgess ' s mini - atlas of marine aquarium fishes mini - edition . t . f . h . publications . neptune city . 1023 pp . lieske , e . and myers , r . , 1996 . jawfish . pp . 113 & 167 . coral reef fishes . princeton university press . princeton . 400 pp . michael , s . w . , 1999 . jawfish . pp . 131 - 134 . marine fishes : 500 + essential - to - know aquarium species . microcosm . shelburne . 447 pp . michael , s . w . , 2000 . the whimsical jawfishes . aquarium fish monthly , 12 : 8 , august 2000

second you will need to keep the jawfish well fed and stress free . when the male is stressed he will not call out to the female for mating . likewise a stressed female will ignore any mating rituals started by the male .

also called a spotfin , o . scops is imported from the east pacific , baja california , and the galapagos . overall , it is brown , with white spots throughout the body and a black spot encircled with white on the dorsal fin . these jawfish can get larger , up to 6 " . if you ' re looking for a jawfish to house with moderately more aggressive fish than that of the yellow head or blue spot , then this one is for you .

assuming we are planning ahead , the ideal sandbed for a jawfish will be at least 10 - 12 " deep . emphasis on " ideal . " sometimes " ideal " is not always realistic . in such cases when 12 " of sandbed is not realistic , i would consider 6 " as being the absolute minimum . this is a personal observation only . others have recommended a 3 " sandbed as a minimum ( fenner , wet web media ) . when you take into consideration that the minimum depth for a jawfish ' s den in the wild is 4 " , a 3 " sandbed seems extremely inadequate . you can use fine grain , or " southdown " sand , but be prepared for the jawfish to clear away a large area on his first night . when i say , " be prepared , " i mean with appropriately sized rubble for the jawfish to use in building its den . this includes most any rubble larger than 10mm in width . don ' t forget to include plenty of broken coral branches , pieces of coral limestone , bivalve and snail shells . as time goes by the jawfish will construct a den for itself , slowly using the rubble you supply to build its new home . as the rubble gets used , keep replacing it with more . soon enough , you ' ll have your sandbed back in order , and the jawfish will have it ' s home constructed . a nice finishing touch on the den is usually a snail shell or its equivalent being used as a " roof " of sorts . the jawfish will pull this " roof " over the den entrance when it retires for the evening , and remove it when it wakes in the morning !

fast or active swimming fish should also be avoided . all surgeonfish , angelfish , and butterflies fit into this category . additionally , certain wrasses will fall into this category . any larger fish that darts or becomes hyperactive during feeding may potentially cause problems . if you want to keep your jawfish with any fish that fit into this category , it is highly recommended that you never remove your cover from the aquarium . otherwise , in time , you will find your jawfish on the floor .

one common myth regarding jawfish care in our tanks , is that strong lighting should be avoided . since jawfishes are found throughout reef flat depths , most any aquarium lighting will be sufficient . it is improbable that strong lighting has any negative effects .

opistognathus aurifrons ( jordan & thompson 1905 ) , the pearly or yellow head jawfish is one of the most popular aquarium fishes collected in the tropical west atlantic . it deserves it ' s status as the most collected and used jawfish species ; being a light blue anteriorly , grading to creamy white and yellow toward the rear half , and spending more time outside of it ' s tunnels than other jaws once established . to four inches in length . note gravel at wholesalers in this image .

after i settled down on the seafloor and stopped moving , the jawfish would slink out of its burrow and resuming its vertical pose , hovering just above its “doorstep” , revealing the rest of its petite body , just shy of 4 inches ( 10 cm ) .

[ … ] here is a little link i found a little while back when doing my tank stocking research . urltoken … - overview - 608 / 90 gallon tank fish : skunk clowns , starry blenny , 6 firefish , bullseye jawfish , blue gudgeon [ … ]

jawfish exhibit oblong body shapes , long continuous dorsal and anal fins and way - too big mouths ( " opisto " = behind , " gnath " = mouth , is in reference to their receding jaws ) and enormous , all - seeing eyes make them unmistakable .

since the jawfish consumes a great deal of zooplankton , feeding is easy . enriched brine , mysis , plankton , and formula i should be readily accepted . if newcomers are finicky eaters , it may take live brine or live blackworms to entice a feeding response . in passive tanks the jawfish will become an aggressive eater , actively roaming around the tank in search of its next tasty morsel . however , in a tank with active fish , especially those that are hyperactive at feeding time , spot feeding with a turkey baster is most likely going to be required .

picky eaters : we have all been here . our fish should be eating . the tank is stress free , there are no predators and the fish is happy in their home . yet for some reason the fish completely avoids our foods . for jawfish there is an easy fix .

nearly an identical twin to o . rosenblatti is opistognathus panamensis , or the panamanian jawfish . it differs from o . rosenblatti only by the blue spots and locale . in most cases , these spots are actually stripes , and , as the name suggests , it originates from panama .

small gobies might be best kept in a different tank unless they establish a homestead and don ' t wander far from it . a jawfish does like to keep a perimeter around its den , and will usually defend this perimeter against small gobies . in my own observations , this occurred with my white - rayed shrimp goby , ( stonogobiops , sp . ) . occasionally , my shrimp goby would venture nearby the den of my jawfish . each time , the jawfish would delicately grab the goby in its mouth and remove it from his territory . usually , this was roughly 12 " away from the opening of the den . the first time i saw this , i was astounded , fearing the un - timely death of my rare goby ! when the goby swam away , i began to breath easier . this wasn ' t any easier to watch the second , third , or fourth time , either . eventually , it grew on me , and i found it comical . although not as often , yet often enough to note , the jawfish would grab mouthfuls of sand and spit them at the " attacking " goby . again , no harm was done .

opistognathus macrognathus poey 1863 , the banded jawfish . tropical west atlantic . to eight inches in length . here doing what the family does most all the time . lie in wait for a food item or territorial challenger to come / happen by . photo taken in st . lucia , caribbean .

so what fish make good tank mates for jawfish ? cardinalfish , anthias , assessors , blennies , pipefish , and dragonettes will do well . most gobies and some wrasses will also do well . the general criteria would be a passive , slow moving fish that is nearly equal in size or smaller .

breeding jawfish dear mr . fenner , < john > recently , i noticed one of my jawfish carrying eggs in its mouth . i have read the faq ' s page discussing jawfish breeding but still have many questions . my questions are geared toward the raising of the yellowheaded jawfish ( opistognathus aurifrons ) from eggs to larva to adults . currently the pair is being housed in a 90 gallon display tank , with wet / dry filtration , powerheads , and a skimmer . i don ' t think the larva will survive the display tank but i ' ve been thinking of setting up a twenty gallon species tank , for the purpose of breeding . i would appreciate any thoughts and recommendations on equipment for this set - up . < a twenty might do . . . you should ( quickly ) read through frank hoff ' s works on food culture , start your gear going for same . . . see florida aquafarm ' s site re > also , i have no idea what the requirements for caring for and feeding the larva and on to the fry ( hoping they make it that far ) should be . i would appreciate any advice you can give me , and any references to web sites or books where this may be discussed . also , i was wondering if many people have had success raising jawfish to adulthood . thank you for your time , john < there are a few protocols . take a look on the " breeder ' s registry " . . . bob fenner >

when the jawfish is happy and free of predators and other stressors you can expect them to swim around the tank a little bit and spend the rest of their time peeking out of their burrow and watching other fish . their faces are highly expressive and they will often interact with any passing tank mates .

a major concern for the newly acquired jawfish is their tendency to jump from open top aquariums . it is absolutely imperative that the home of a newly acquired jawfish is covered ! some will use glass tops , but this is usually frowned upon in the hobby for various reasons . so some others , myself included , will use egg crate fitted over the top of the tank . egg crate can be found in the lighting department of most any home improvement store . since the holes in the egg crate are large enough for a jawfish to slip through , it is necessary for you to use some sort of screening or netting laid over the egg crate . i use window screening , though most any type of screen or net could work . if your tank has appropriately selected tankmates , this is only temporary . if you have a full canopy that covers the tank , then additional measures are not required . just make sure there are not even the smallest of holes available for it to slip out of . most enclosed canopies still have an open back . make sure this is covered . once the jawfish ' s burrow is constructed , the likelihood of jumping dramatically decreases , and with the appropriate tankmates , it is virtually non - existent .

it’s important to ensure that any foods you offer actually drift within reach of your jawfish , however , as this species prefers to dine fairly close to home . target feeding ( e . g . , with a turkey baster ) just “upstream” from a specimen may be necessary to ensure it’s getting enough to eat .

opistognathus sp . u1 . one of many as - yet undescribed jawfish species . dr . randall ( pers . corr . ) told me once that he had backlogged at least a dozen or so in this family . . . let ' s hope he gets around to them soon . n . sulawesi pix .

natural predators should be avoided at all costs . this includes groupers , lionfish , adult tilefish , and any large piscivore . immature tilefish , halichoeres gamoti , and h . bivittatus will all pester and steal from the jawfish ( michael , coral realm ) . all predatory starfish should be avoided , including the genus ophiarachna .

so what does all this mean ? plan ahead . jawfish should be the first fish added to the home aquarium . it is harder to get them acclimated once other fish are established . this does not mean if your aquarium already has inhabitants that you cannot keep these fish , but it does make it tougher to acclimate them .

if you do not keep a cover on your tank , just take the jawfish and throw it on the floor because thats where it will be tomorrow . i have had many of them and besides being easy to keep alive ( as long as they stay submerged ) they have all bought a ticket and flew out of the tank .

sexing jawfishes 2 / 6 / 04 hi ( love you ' re site ! ) i was wondering if you new how to tell how to tell the difference of the yellowheaded jawfish . < the one that won ' t stop to ask for directions is the male . . . > i couldn ' t find it on your fish articles all it says is that it ' s hard to tell the with the yellowheaded jawfish . < true . its not reliable , and best done with a group to compare to . males have larger skulls , thicker lips and larger buccal cavities ( chin - pouch so - to - speak ) . rather like sexing fw cichlids . anthony >

lately , jawfish have been getting a bad rap when it comes to the current trend of a deep , live sand bed . many hobbyists complain of these fish constantly moving sand , always building new borrows , digging to the bottom of the tank , clearing the sand away from ½ of a tank , or even eating the life of the sandbed . the latter is a completely unfounded belief , and simply not true . when added to a sandbed comprised of sand < 5mm in diameter , a jawfish will do exactly as hobbyists otherwise complain . the hobbyist is left in buyer ' s remorse because the fish wreaks havoc on the sandbed , largely due to the hobbyist not supplying the fish with adequate den building materials .

thank - you , i was getting a bit concerned , you have put my mind at ease . < ah good > i am looking at rearing the young when i have mastered culturing rotifers and brine shrimp ! < i see > have you any advise on raising the young ? your help is appreciated . < just what is posted on wwm . cheers , bobf > re : yellow headed jawfish

the blue - spotted jawfish , opistognathus rosenblatti allen & robertson 1991 , of mexico ' s sea of cortez ( gulf of california in older , less pc texts ) is a real striker , with brilliant blue dots over it ' s overall dark brownish body . the males become bright white in the front half of their bodies during spawning and courtship . to six inches total length . this one in captivity .

to properly house these fish you must have a large , clear space in the tank , preferably in the center , where the jawfish can create a cave . additionally they will need a sandbed substrate , along with small rocks , rubble or crushed coral . these will be the building bricks of the jawfishes new home . i highly recommend crushed coral , as it is the easiest to obtain without spending a whole lot .

second to o . aurifrons in popularity only because of price , is the blue spot jawfish , opistognathus rosenblatti . in general , expect a $ 100 price tag or more for these beauties . the blue spot is found in the gulf of california , usually at the base of cliffs . they reach 4 " in length . the mating ritual of these jawfish begins when the posterior half of the fish becomes white . the male makes repeated dashes into its den . to the on - looking diver , only bright white flashes are seen . when not in spawning season , the background color of the fish is generally brown , and in some cases , a dirty yellow . blue spots adorn the entire length of the fish . these species are slightly more aggressive towards each other , and a larger aquarium is recommended if you ' re trying to keep a pair . in the wild , the pair can be up to 10 ' apart from each other .

your deep sandbed is ready , rockwork is stable and supported , and you have plenty of excess rubble on hand . once you have the fish , follow typical acclimation procedures . if you introduce the fish during the daylight photoperiod , you can expect the fish to dart for rockwork . it will usually remain hidden in the rocks for the first day , though on occasion the daring jawfish will begin its burrow construction . this is more common when it is the first fish into the tank .

the other type of den , what i like to call a " security den , " occurs when the jawfish digs under some rocks and usually remains tucked into his hole with only his head or half of its body showing . this results from any number of factors ranging from : inadequate sand and rubble composition , not enough open sandbed , or even inappropriate tank mates . when this type of den occurs it is best to re - evaluate the habitat you ' re supplying and make sure you are not overlooking something .

a source for brachionus rotundiformis for feeding pearly jawfish larvae . - 10 / 06 / 2009 hi , i have been searching for a source for brachionus rotundiformis , the s - type rotifer strain . all of the online vendors seem to only sell the l - type strain ( brachionus plicatilis ) . do you happen to know a place i could order the s / ss strain from ? < mmm , yes : urltoken > i am using them to feed opistognathus aurifrons ( pearly / yellowheaded jawfish ) larvae . also , would you suggest any particular enrichment to feed the rotifers ? < do ask the folks at seahorsesource re . . . i would do a bit more looking about in the scientific literature if this is an important project > i lost my first batch of larvae either to fact that l type rotifers are to big for them to eat , lack of nutritional value , or rotifer culture contamination / crash . thanks , landon < do keep good records . . . consider making your results , investigations more widely known . bob fenner >

roughly 23 described species bear the opistognathus name . opisto comes from the greek word opisthen , meaning ' behind , ' and gnathus meaning jaw . these species are the ones that are most often of interest to the hobbyist due to size , availability , and coloration . opistognathids can be found in the western and central atlantic , indian , and both coasts of the pacific oceans . they sport a long , continuous dorsal fin of 9 - 12 spines , and a spine made of three weak - branched inner rays and two stout , un - branched rays on either end . all jawfish are mouth brooders , and all live in a den that they dig with their mouths .

as noted earlier , opistognathus aurifrons , or the yellow head jawfish , is the most popular among hobbyists . they are , after all , attractive , hardy , and inexpensive . the attractiveness comes from the baby blue coloration throughout their body and their beautiful yellow head . reaching a maximum size of 4 " , they originate from the tip of florida and are found throughout the caribbean . in most cases they will not bother invertebrates , although smaller ornamental shrimp may be eaten . when spawning , the male will hover in the open water and spread his fins wide and arch his body . perhaps to show his readiness to the female , he opens his large mouth , and his head enlarges .

captive care should mirror their natural environment as much as possible . this is not possible in most home aquariums due to size restraints , but with good planning , a close replica can be achieved . jawfish are always located on reef flats at depths ranging from 10 feet to 150 feet . they prefer to hover up to 5 ' above their den , always having a 360° view of their surroundings . without an extensive view in all directions , they will hang lower than usual or may only extend their head outside their den . this reclusive behavior also occurs when actively swimming fish are present . their dens range from 4 - 9 " deep , extend nearly 9 " wide , are 2 . 5 " tall , and are comprised of mostly broken coral branches , pieces of coral limestone , bivalve and snail shells , and assorted pieces of hard material ( michael , coral realm ) . they feed entirely from the water column with roughly 85 % of their diet being zooplankton ( randall , ' 67 ) .

the mating ritual is different in each species . however , the process usually begins in the dawn or dusk of a full or new moon , with the male gaining the attention of the female ( michael , coral realm ) . if accepted , the female will follow her male counterpart into his cave , or in some cases a third , neutral cave built for the mating ritual . the egg clutch is first laid by the female , then fertilized by the male . much like banggai cardinals ( pterapogon kauderni ) , male jawfish are mouth brooders . the eggs are easily seen bulging from the male ' s mouth . when opistognathus aurifrons was studied , the eggs were roughly . 8mm in size , with an estimated 300 - 500 eggs in the male ' s mouth . he incubates these eggs in his mouth for 7 - 9 days , after which time he releases the 4mm long fry . shortly after the male releases the fry , the ritual can be repeated . at 15 days from release and 1 . 5cm long , the fry take to the sand and begin digging their den . within one year they are full grown ( baensch , ' 94 ) .


holoptygma lingunca is a species of moth of the family tortricidae .

it is found in the western cordillera of colombia .

the wingspan is about 24.5 mm .

the ground colour of the forewings is yellow , with slight rust orange admixture sparsely dotted rust and brown .

the hindwings are pale orange yellow , darker posteriorly than basally and spotted grey .

holoptygma lingunca

holoptygma lingunca <EOT> this is the place for lingunca definition . you find here lingunca meaning , synonyms of lingunca and images for lingunca copyright 2017 © urltoken

this is the place for holoptygma definition . you find here holoptygma meaning , synonyms of holoptygma and images for holoptygma copyright 2017 © urltoken

here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word lingunca . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word lingunca and , of course , lingunca synonyms and on the right images related to the word lingunca .

here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word holoptygma . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word holoptygma and , of course , holoptygma synonyms and on the right images related to the word holoptygma .

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