the chupare stingray or caribbean whiptail stingray , styracura schmardae , is a species of stingray in the family potamotrygonidae , found in the western atlantic ocean from the gulf of campeche to brazil , including the antilles .

the presence of this species in the gulf of mexico has not been confirmed .

it also occurs in the bahamas .

it usually inhabits sandy substrates , sometimes near coral reefs , and is an infrequent visitor to the amazon river estuary .

leonard compagno doubted the taxonomic validity of this species in his 1999 checklist of living elasmobranchs .

chupare stingray

chupare stingray <EOT> the chupare stingray is the only ray in the genus himantura in the caribbean .

however , ( as these images indicate ) the chupare stingray also inhabits mangrove and muddy lagoons .

the chupare stingray has also been photographed in belize and is reportedly common off the coast of cuba .

similar species : the chupare stingray is easily distinguished from other dasyatid rays by its rounded disc and tail with no finfolds . the southern stingray and atlantic stingray have distinctly romboid ( kite shaped ) discs .

pacific chupare , himantura pacifica ( beebe & tee - van , 1941 ) .

floating right along , the next fish i bumped into was this ray . known as either the chupare stingray or the caribbean whiptail stingray , is this an electric species of ray ?

a chupare stingray or caribbean whiptail stingray ( himantura schmardae ) swims over a shallow sand flat off of belize . this ray is not common and almost nothing is known about its biology .

similar species : there are no other urolophid stingray species in the caribbean . the similarly shaped chupare stingray is easily distinguishable by its larger size , plain colouration and long whiplike tail devoid of finfolds .

a chupare stingray or caribbean whiptail stingray ( himantura schmardae ) swims over a shallow sand flat off of belize . this ray is not common and almost nothing is known about its biology . stock photo

; the roughtail stingray , d . centroura ( mitchill , 1815 ) ; the wingfin stingray , d . geijskesi boeseman , 1948

bennett ' s stingray , dasyatis bennetti ( müller & henle , 1841 ) .

pale - edged stingray , dasyatis zugei ( müller & henle , 1841 ) .

; the longnose stingray d . guttata ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) ; the brazilian large - eyed stingray , d . marianae gomes , rosa & gadig , 2000

short - tail stingray or bull ray , dasyatis brevicaudata ( hutton , 1875 ) .

round stingray , taeniura grabata ( é . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1817 ) .

stingray city in grand cayman allows swimmers , snorkelers , and divers to swim with and feed the stingrays .

meyer , p . 1997 . stingray injuries . wilderness environ med 8 ( 1 ) : 24 - 8 .

a stingray buried in the sand in saba . stingrays can be hard to see when they cover themselves with substrate .

western tropical atlantic from gulf of campeche to suriname and northern brazil . the caribbean whiptail stingray is reportedly common around cuba .

the pacific chupare and the chupare stingray in the atlantic are believed to be sister species , together referred to as the " amphi - american himantura " . the two species are morphologically similar and share four - ridged shoulder tubercles . based on the details of the mandibular musculature and articulation , the amphi - american himantura are hypothesized to be most closely related to the river stingrays in the family potamotrygonidae , rather than to indo - pacific himantura species . [ 1 ] this has given rise to the theory that both the amphi - american himantura and the river stingrays are descended from euryhaline ancestors living along the northern coast of south america prior to the formation of the isthmus of panama . this interpretation was initially disputed , as parasitological evidence suggests that the river stingrays are most closely related to pacific urobatis stingrays . [ 1 ] in 2016 , a major review of " himantura " based on morphology and molecular evidence confirmed the position of the pacific chupare , and it we moved to the genus styracura ( together with the chupare stingray ) in the family potamotrygonidae . [ 3 ] [ 7 ]

have been reported for the southwestern atlantic ( in brazilian waters ) : the southern stingray , d . americana hildebrand & schroeder , 1928

photographed specimens were found foraging for food at the edge of the mangrove during the day . other individuals were startled out of their resting places under the silt and algae . implying that chupare stingrays can be nocturnal or diurnal .

reaction to divers : the yellow spotted stingray will allow a close approach with slow non threatening movements . this ray will bolt when disturbed .

a stingray in dark waters . stingrays are dangerous for humans because it is hard to see them when they ' re in dark waters .

, and the bluntnose stingray , d . say ( lesueur , 1817 ) . the other dasyatid stingrays known from brazil are : the pelagic stingray , pteroplatytrygon violacea ( bonaparte , 1832 ) and the chupare stingray , himantura schmardae ( werner , 1904 ) ( dasyatidae ) ( ribeiro , 1907 , 1923 ; figueiredo , 1977 ; charvet - almeida et . al . , 2000 , gomes & gadig , 2003 ) . the atlantic stingray d . sabina ( lesueur , 1824 ) , according to garman ( 1913 ) , has been recorded from north carolina ( usa ) to brazil . bigelow & schroeder ( 1953 : 376 ) , cited the brazilian record of this species , referring to it as " . . . probably not on good evidence " . herein we describe a new species of dasyatis

while not independently valuable as a food source , the stingray ' s capacity to damage shell fishing grounds can lead to bounties being placed on their removal .

martin , r . a . 2008 . biology of sharks and rays : stingray city limits . reefquest centre for shark research . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .

passarelli , n . , and a . piercy . 2008 . atlantic stingray . florida museum of natural history , ichthyology department . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .

↑ t . r . roberts , makararaja chindwinensis , a new genus and species of freshwater dasyatidid stingray from upper myanmar , the natural history bulletin of the siam society 54 ( 2006 ) : 285–293 .

flint , d . , and w . sugrue . 1999 . stingray injuries : a lesson in debridement . new zealand med j 112 ( 1086 ) : 137 - 8 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .

although edible , stingrays are not a dietary staple and are not considered a high - quality food . however , they are consumed , including fresh , dried , and salted ( mceachran 2004 ) . stingray recipes abound throughout the world , with dried forms of the wings being most common . for example , in singapore and malaysia , stingray is commonly barbecued over charcoal , then served with spicy sambal sauce . generally , the most prized parts of the stingray are the wings , the " cheek " ( the area surrounding the eyes ) , and the liver . the rest of the ray is considered too rubbery to have any culinary uses .

in the cayman islands , there are several dive sites called stingray city , grand cayman , where divers and snorkelers can swim with large southern stingrays ( dasyatis americana ) and feed them by hand . there is also a " stingray city " in the sea surrounding the caribbean island of antigua . it consists of a large , shallow reserve where the rays live , and snorkeling is possible . in belize , off the island of ambergris caye there is a popular marine sanctuary called hol chan . here divers and snorkelers often gather to watch stingrays and nurse sharks that are drawn to the area by tour operators who feed the animals .

↑ p . r . last , b . m . manjaji , and g . k . yearsley , pastinachus solocirostris sp . nov . , a new species of stingray ( elasmobranchii : myliobatiformes ) from the indo - malay archipelago , zootaxa 1040 ( 2005 ) : 1 - 16 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .

stingray is the common name for any of the various cartilaginous fish comprising the family dasyatidae , characterized by enlarged and flat pectoral fins continuous with the side of the head , no caudal fin , eyes on the dorsal surface , and narrow , long , and whip - like tail , typically with one or more venomous spines . marine , brackish water , and freshwater species are known .

stingrays are popular targets of ecotourism . dasyatids are not normally visible to swimmers , but divers and snorkelers may find them in shallow sandy waters . usually very docile , their usual reaction being to flee any disturbance . nevertheless , certain larger species may be more aggressive and should only be approached with caution by humans , as the stingray ' s defensive reflex may result in serious injury or even death .

dasyatids generally do not attack aggressively or even actively defend themselves . when threatened , their primary reaction is to swim away . however , when attacked by predators or stepped on , the barbed stinger in their tail is whipped up . this attack is normally ineffective against their main predator , sharks . the breaking of the stinger in defense is non - fatal to the stingray , as it will be regrown .

some adult rays may be no larger than a human palm , while other species , like the short - tail stingray , may have a body of six feet in diameter , and an overall length , including their tail , of fourteen feet . stingrays can vary from gray to bright red in color and be plain or patterned . dasyatids are propelled by motion of their large pectoral fin ( commonly mistaken as " wings " ) .

depending on the size of the stingray , humans are usually stung in the foot region . surfers or those who enter waters with large populations of stingrays have learned to slide their feet through the sand rather than stepping , as the rays detect this and swim away . stamping hard on the bottom as one treads through murky water will also cause them to swim away . humans who harass stingrays have been known to be stung elsewhere , sometimes leading to fatalities . contact with the stinger causes local trauma ( from the cut itself ) , pain and , swelling from the venom , and possible later infection from bacteria . immediate injuries to humans include , but are not limited to , poisoning , punctures , severed arteries , and possibly death . fatal stings are very rare . on september 4 , 2006 , australian wildlife expert and television personality steve irwin was pierced in the chest by a stingray barb while snorkeling in australia and died shortly after .

this stingray attains a maximum known length of 150 cm ( 59 in ) and a disk width of 60 cm ( 24 in ) . it has a rounded pectoral fin disk and a broadly angled snout with a small protuberance at the tip . the tail lacks fin folds but has a low ventral keel . the dorsal surface of the body and tail are covered with rough dermal denticles . [ 2 ] there are large tubercles with four radial ridges on the shoulder region . [ 1 ] a venomous spine is present on the tail . [ 4 ]

justification : a large ( to 200 cm disc width ) tropical stingray that is distributed in the western central and southwest atlantic ocean from mexico to brazil including the lesser and greater antilles . almost no data is available on its habitat , biology , ecology and population trends . however , it is caught as bycatch and used as a subsistence food source . base - line studies , including taxonomic aspects , need to be elucidated for this species . given its probable inshore occurrence in fished areas its conservation status will need to be reassessed once data are collected , particularly concerning catch levels . in the first instance though , the species ' taxonomic status needs resolution .

treatment for stings includes application of near - scalding water , which helps ease pain by denaturing the complex venom protein , and antibiotics . immediate injection of local anesthetic in and around the wound is very helpful , as is the use of opiates such as intramuscular pethidine . local anesthetic brings almost instant relief for several hours . any warm to hot fluid , including urine , may provide some relief . vinegar and papain are ineffective . ( urine is a folk remedy for box jellyfish stings but is ineffective for such , whereas vinegar is effective for box jellyfish stings . ) pain normally lasts up to 48 hours , but is most severe in the first 30–60 minutes and may be accompanied by nausea , fatigue , headaches , fever , and chills . all stingray injuries should be medically assessed ; the wound needs to be thoroughly cleaned , and surgical exploration is often required to remove any barb fragments remaining in the wound . following cleaning , an ultrasound is helpful to confirm removal of all the fragments ( flint and sugrue 1999 ) . not all remnants are radio - opaque ; but x - ray radiography imaging may be helpful where ultrasound is not available .

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compagno ( 1999 ) considered this a doubtful species and more studies are required to elucidate the taxonomic aspects of this species . the phylogenetic status and affinities of tropical western atlantic and eastern pacific himantura are under review .

this tropical species is reportedly found on sandy bottoms and occasionally near coral reefs ( michael 1983 ) in the gulf of campeche ( mexico ) to brazil including the lesser and greater antilles ( stehmann et al . 1978 , cervigón et al . 1992 , claro 1994 , almeida et al . in press ) . it has rarely been observed in the amazon estuary region ( almeida et al . in press ) .

this species is not very common within its range . population size , trends and dynamics remain unknown for this species .

no information was found on the habitat and ecology of this species . most citations refer only to its presence in species lists . probably occurs inshore including estuarine areas . life history parameters age at maturity ( years ) : unknown . size at maturity ( total length cm ) : unknown . longevity ( years ) : unknown . maximum size ( disc width ) : 200 cm dw ( cervigón et al . 1994 ) . size at birth ( cm ) : unknown . average reproductive age ( years ) : unknown . gestation time ( months ) : unknown . reproductive periodicity : unknown . average annual fecundity or litter size : unknown . annual rate of population increase : unknown . natural mortality : unknown .

this species is reportedly caught as bycatch in artisanal and industrial fisheries ( hooking and netting ) . this species is also taken as a subsistence food source . intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs species ( camhi et al . 1998 ) .

research actions are urgently needed for this species . preliminary base - line studies are required to obtain data on the biology , ecology , uses and fishery data of this species , and in the first instance taxonomic status . captures should also be monitored to observe if they are within a sustainable range . habitat maintenance and conservation should also be considered as conservation actions for this species . the development and implementation of management plans ( national and / or regional e . g . , under the fao international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks : ipoa - sharks ) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region . see anon . ( 2004 ) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of h . schmardae .

charvet - almeida , p . & de almeida , m . p . 2006 .

to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .

greek , iman , imantos = thong , strap + greek , oura = tail ( ref . 45335 )

western central atlantic : gulf of campeche and the west indies to suriname ( ref . 3168 ) ; including brazil ( ref . 53430 ) . validity of this species questioned in compagno ' s 1999 checklist ( ref . 35766 ) .

maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 200 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5217 ) ; common length : 100 . 0 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5217 )

disc ovate , broadly rounded . tails with blunt tubercles . upper surface dark brown , sooty olive . edges of disc darker . lower surface of disc and pelvic fins yellowish or cream white . teeth little darker than lower surface ( ref . 6902 ) .

found on sandy bottoms , occasionally near coral reefs ( ref . 12951 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . marketed salted ; also used in the preparation of gelatin and oil .

exhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding initially on yolk , then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus , fat or protein through specialised structures ( ref . 50449 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .

stehmann , m . , j . d . mceachran and r . vergara r . , 1978 . dasyatidae . in w . fischer ( ed . ) fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western central atlantic ( fishing area 31 ) . vol . 1 . [ pag . var . ] . fao , rome . ( ref . 3168 )

phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .

bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00776 ( 0 . 00306 - 0 . 01967 ) , b = 3 . 02 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 24 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .

trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 ±0 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives

resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( assuming fecundity < 100 ) .

vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : very high vulnerability ( 90 of 100 ) .

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anindobothrium n . gen . ( eucestoda : tetraphyllidea ) inhabiting marine and freshwater potamotrygonid stingrays . - pubmed - ncbi

warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .

anindobothrium n . gen . ( eucestoda : tetraphyllidea ) inhabiting marine and freshwater potamotrygonid stingrays .

anindobothrium n . gen . is proposed to accommodate caulobothrium anacolum inhabiting himantura schmardae from colombia , and 2 new species , one inhabiting potamotrygon orbigny in brazil and the other inhabiting paratrygon aereiba in venezuela . members of the new genus resemble members of pararhinebothroides , rhinebothroides , and anthocephalum by having bothridia with poorly differentiated apical suckers and vasa deferentia expanded into external seminal vesicles . it further resembles pararhinebothroides , rhinebothroides , and anthocephalum cairae by having vas deferens inserted near the poral rather than aporal end of the cirrus sac . the 3 species assigned to the new genus form an apparent monophyletic group , based on the possession of 3 putative synapomorphies : ( 1 ) genital pores in the anterior 1 / 4 of the proglottid , a trait that is unusual , but not unique , among phyllobothriids ; ( 2 ) anteroventral ovarian lobes converging to the center of the proglottid , a character not previously reported for phyllobothriids ; and ( 3 ) ovarian lobes comprising a loose network of digitiform processes .

: urltoken contains images of sharks , skates , rays , and a few chimaera ' s from around the world . elasmodiver began as a simple web based

to help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .

there are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :

flattened anterior margin . dorsum covered in small but noticeable tubercles ( enlarged dermal denticles ) . dorsal coloration grey or dark / olive brown . disc darkens towards margin . ventrum yellowish or creamy white . one or two spines on tail . tail has no fin - folds . when in tact , tail is approximately twice body length .

reaction to divers : caribbean whiptail stingrays are extremely skittish . they are very difficult to approach while on scuba or while snorkeling .

photographs : oyster bed lagoon , utila , honduras . these images were obtained through the cooperation and support of steve fox - owner of deep blue resort , utila .

p . o . box 8719 station central , victoria , bc . , v8w 3s3 , canada

found on sandy bottoms , occasionally near coral reefs ( ref . 12951 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . marketed salted ; also used in the preparation of gelatin and oil .

gulf of mexico western central atlantic : gulf of campeche and the west indies to suriname ( ref . 3168 ) ; including brazil ( ref . 53430 )

hans - martin braun added the german common name " ovaler stechrochen " to " himantura schmardae ( werner , 1904 ) " .

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ne jamaican coast , east of port antonio . 2 individuals feeding just outside the mouth of the " blue lagoon , " above the tiny island . depth approx 10 - 12 ft . | fishbase link : urltoken | uploaded by : steve shunk

comprises 37 species and occurs worldwide ( compagno , 1999a , b and gomes et al . 2000 ) . six species of dasyatis

kento furui added the japanese common name " シロエイ " to " dasyatis laevigata chu , 1960 " .

kento furui added the japanese common name " ホシエイ " to " dasyatis matsubarai miyosi , 1939 " .

kento furui added the japanese common name " アカエイ " to " dasyatis akajei ( müller and henle , 1841 ) " .

kento furui added the japanese common name " ズグエイ " to " dasyatis zugei ( müller and henle , 1841 ) " .

kento furui added the japanese common name " ヤジリエイ " to " dasyatis acutirostra nishida and nakaya , 1988 " .

identification : disc circular or slightly oval , no dorsal fin , tail shorter than disc length . dorsum pale with dark and light spots and blotches . overall appearance may be very pale or boldly patterned depending on the rays habitat .

the almost black underlying skin coloration with bright yellow dots in the lower image is very unusual . this ray was found in a dark muddy lagoon where a corresponding color would be appropriate . why this ray has accentuated yellow spots that make it stand out is unclear .

habitat : sandy areas often around coral reefs , bays , and lagoons . intertidal to 25m .

behavior : lies motionless often covered by sand . when searching for food ( crustaceans ) creates a depression in the sand by flapping its anterior disc margin .

diving logistics : this such a commonly seen species that it can be found on almost any shallow dive within its range . shore diving from the florida coast would be a good place to look . on grand cayman i found many in the lagoons inside the reefs on the north and south shores in very shallow water . inside the reef at spotts beach is a good area to snorkel . on the atlantic coast of florida i saw yellow stingrays on every shallow dive that i did during the summer .

on utila it may be possible to find this ray displaying the dark color morph in oyster bed lagoon . during a one week period while snorkeling every day i found one solitary specimen .

while diving in cuba , i encountered many fish , both common and less common . see what you can find out about the fish of the caribbean sea and use the help of the photos i took .

one of the first fish i encountered while diving was this well - known predator . usually known to ambush their prey with their powerful jaws and distinctive underbite , which scaly fish did i see ?

near the bottom of the reef we were diving across i encountered our next specimen . called a channel clinging crab or a west indian spider crab , why is this family of crabs actually known as " spider " crabs ?

still swimming along the bottom of the reef , i next encountered this species of moray eel . what is the specific or descriptive name for this ' freckled ' slithery fish ?

later on in my dive i encountered a different kind of eel , a green moray eel . despite their yellowish appearance , what is their actual skin colour ?

i was very lucky to see the next specimen , the hawksbill sea turtle . ok , it ' s not a fish , however , why was i lucky ?

one of the stranger fish you might see while diving off of cuba is the flat needlefish . what does the needlefish lack that many other fishes have ?

in the middle of a reef i noticed the next specimen , the longspine squirrelfish . it is a fiercely territorial fish , and will even defend its area from moray eels . how does it do that ?

all throughout the dive we saw sharks . yes , sharks ; nurse sharks to be exact . do nurse sharks need to stay in motion in order to be able to breathe ?

near the end of the dive , i saw this majestic ray gliding past . known as the spotted eagle ray , why was i happy not to have actually ' bumped ' into the ray ?

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scientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .

ecologically , stingrays are important components of aquatic food chains , consuming mollusks , crustaceans , tube anemones , amphipods , and small fish , while being preyed upon by a multitude of sharks , such as the white , tiger , and bull sharks , and even alligators in the case of freshwater species ( passarelli and piercy 2008 ) . while they provide some culinary value for humans , one of their chief values may be more internal—the wonder and beauty provided by their unique form , swimming behavior , and colors .

stingrays are members of the chondrichthyes or " cartilaginous fishes , " a major class of jawed fish that includes the sharks , rays , and skates . members of chondrichthyes are characterized by skeletons made of rubbery cartilage rather than bone , as in the bony fishes . the chondrichthyans have jaws , paired fins , paired nostrils , scales , and two - chambered hearts . two subclasses of chondrichthyes are recognized , elasmobranchii ( sharks , rays , and skates ) and holocephali ( chimaera , sometimes called ghost sharks ) .

taxonomy for levels between elasmobranchii and genera is unsettled , with diverse taxonomies . for example , some classifications consider the sharks a sister group with the rays and skates , placing these two groups into different superorders , while other classifications place the rays and skates as a subsection of the sharks ( mceachran 2004 ) . that is , some view sharks and rays together forming a monophyletic group , and sharks without rays a paraphyletic group , while others see sharks sharing a common ancestor with rays and skates as sister groups ( nelson 2004 ) .

the same taxonomic diversity is apparent at the level of the family dasyatidae . dasyatidae is variously placed in the order rajiformes ( agbayani 2004 ) , or in the order myliobatiformes ( passarelli and piercy , 2008 ) . this is because in some classifications the order rajiformes is split into two or three orders , with myliobatiformes being an extra order and including the traditional rajiformes families of dasyatidae ( stingrays ) , gymnuridae ( butterfly rays ) , mobulidae ( manta rays ) , myliobatidae ( eagle rays ) , and others ( itis 2004 ) .

furthermore , what genera and families are included in dasyatidae vary with taxonomic scheme . nelson ( 1994 ) recognizes two subfamilies , dasyatinae ( stingrays or whiprays ) and potamotrygoninae ( river sitngrays ) , and he recognizes nine genera , as does agbayani ( 2004 ) . itis ( 2004 ) elevates the second subfamily of river stingrays ( which are the freshwater rays in south america ) to the family level as potamotrygonidae , recognizing six genera .

unless otherwise stated , this article will follow the narrower view of dasyatidae of itis ( 2004 ) , which will be equivalent to subfamily dasyatinae of nelson ( 1994 ) .

in stingrays , as with all rays in the traditional order rajiformes , the anterior edge of the pectoral fin , which is greatly enlarged , is attached to the side of the head anterior to the gill openings ( nelson 1994 ) . they also have ventral gill openings , and the eyes and spiracles are on the dorsal surface ( nelson 1994 ) . in addition , they lack an anal fin and lack a nictitating membrane with the cornea attached directly to the skin around the eyes ( nelson 1994 ) .

in members of dasyatidae—subfamily dasyatinae , in nelson 1994—the disc is less than 1 . 3 times as broad as it is long ( nelson 1994 ) . they lack a caudal fin and the tail is long , with the distance from the cloaca to the tip much longer than the breadth of the disc ( nelson 1994 ) .

dasyatids are common in tropical coastal waters throughout the world , and there are fresh water species in asia ( himantura sp . ) , africa , and florida ( dasyatis sabina ) . nelson ( 1994 ) reports that several tropical species of dasyatidae ( subfamily dasyatinae ) are known only from freshwater , and some marine species are found in brackish and freshwater on occasion .

their stinger is a razor - sharp , barbed , or serrated cartilaginous spine , which grows from the ray ' s whip - like tail ( like a fingernail ) , and can grow as long as 37 centimeters ( about 14 . 6 inches ) . on the underside of the spine are two grooves containing venom - secreting glandular tissue . the entire spine is covered with a thin layer of skin called the integumentary sheath , in which venom is concentrated ( meyer 1997 ) . the venom contains the enzymes 5 - nucleotidase and phosphodiesterase , which breakdown and kill cells ; and the neurotransmitter serotonin , which provokes smooth - muscle contractions ( layton 2008 ) . this venomous spine gives them their common name of stingrays ( a compound of " sting " and " ray " ) , but the name can also be used to refer to any poisonous ray .

stingrays may also be called the " whip - tailed rays , " though this usage is much less common .

a group or collection of stingrays is commonly referred to as a " fever " of stingrays .

the flattened bodies of stingrays allow them effective concealment in sand . smell and electro - receptors are used to locate prey , similar to those of sharks . some sting rays ' mouths contain two powerful , shell - crushing plates , while some species only have sucking mouth parts . rays settle on the bottom while feeding , sometimes leaving only their eyes and tail visible . coral reefs are favored feeding grounds and are usually shared with sharks during high tide .

mating season occurs in the winter . when a male is courting a female , he will follow her closely , biting at her pectoral disc . during mating , the male will go on top of the female ( his belly on her back ) and put one of his two claspers into her vent ( martin 2008 ) .

most rays are ovoviviparous , bearing live young in " litters " of five to ten . the female holds the embryos in the womb without a placenta . instead , the embryos absorb nutrients from a yolk sac , and after the sac is depleted , the mother provides uterine milk ( passarelli and piercy 2008 ) .

in addition to their ecological role in aquatic food chains , stingrays offer a number of values to humans , in terms of food , various products , and ecotourism .

the skin of the ray is rough and can be used as leather ( mceachran 2004 ) . the skin is used as an underlayer for the cord or leather wrap ( ito ) on japanese swords ( katanas ) due to its hard , rough texture that keeps the braided wrap from sliding on the handle during use . native american indians used the spines of stingrays for arrowheads , while groups in the indo - west pacific used them as war clubs ( mceachran 2004 ) .

many tahitian island resorts regularly offer guests the chance to " feed the stingrays and sharks . " this consists of taking a boat to the outer lagoon reefs then standing in waist - high water while habituated stingrays swarm around , pressing right up against a person seeking food .

while most dasyatids are relatively widespread and unlikely to be threatened , there are several species ( for example , taeniura meyeni , dasyatis colarensis , d . garouaensis , and d . laosensis ) where the conservation status is more problematic , leading to them being listed as vulnerable or endangered by iucn . the status of several other species are poorly known , leading to them being listed as data deficient .

himantura hortlei last , manjaji - matsumoto & kailola , 2006 . [ 1 ]

white - edge freshwater whip ray , himantura signifer ( compagno & roberts , 1982 ) .

pastinachus solocirostris ( last , manjaji & yearsley , 2005 ) . [ 4 ]

↑ p . r . last , m . manjaji - matsumoto , and p . j . kailola , himantura hortlei n . sp . , a new species of whipray ( myliobatiformes : dasyatidae ) from irian jaya , indonesia , zootaxa 1239 ( 2006 ) : 19 - 34 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .

↑ m . manjaji - matsumoto and p . j . last , himantura lobistoma , a new whipray ( rajiformes : dasyatidae ) from borneo , with comments on the status of dasyatis microphthalmus , ichthyological research 53 ( 3 ) ( 2006 ) : 291ff . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .

agbayani , e . 2004 . family dasyatidae : stingrays . in r . froese and d . pauly ( eds . ) , fishbase . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .

integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2003a . dasyatidae jordan , 1888 . itis taxonomic serial no . : 160946 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .

integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2003b . rajiformes . itis taxonomic serial no . : 160806 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .

integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2004 . myliobatiformes . itis taxonomic serial no . : 649685 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .

layton , j . 2008 . how do stingrays kill ? how stuff works . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .

mceashran , j . d . 2004 . rajiformes . in b . grzimek , s . f . craig , d . a . thoney , n . schlager , and m . hutchins . grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2nd edition . detroit , mi : thomson / gale . isbn 0787657786 .

nelson , j . s . 1994 . fishes of the world , 3rd edition . new york : john wiley & sons . isbn 0471547131 .

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known parasites of this species include the nematode echinocephalus janzeni and the cestodes acanthobothroides pacificus and rhinebothrium geminum . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] reproduction is ovoviviparous . [ 4 ]

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marques , f . ; brooks , d . r . & ureña , h . m . ( april 1996 ) . " two new species of tetraphyllidean cestodes in himantura pacifica ( chondrichthyes : myliobatiformes : dasyatididae ) from the northwest coast of costa rica " . the journal of parasitology . 82 ( 2 ) : 302–306 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 3284165 . jstor 3284165 . pmid 8604101 .

last , p . r . ; naylor , g . j . ; manjaji - matsumoto , b . m . ( 2016 ) . " a revised classification of the family dasyatidae ( chondrichthyes : myliobatiformes ) based on new morphological and molecular insights " . zootaxa . 4139 ( 3 ) : 345–368 . doi : 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 4139 . 3 . 2 .

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9 . marine neritic - > 9 . 1 . marine neritic - pelagic suitability : marginal 9 . marine neritic - > 9 . 10 . marine neritic - estuaries suitability : marginal 10 . marine oceanic - > 10 . 1 . marine oceanic - epipelagic ( 0 - 200m ) suitability : suitable

2 . land / water management - > 2 . 1 . site / area management 3 . species management - > 3 . 1 . species management - > 3 . 1 . 1 . harvest management

5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 1 . intentional use : ( subsistence / small scale ) [ harvest ] ♦ timing : ongoing 5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 3 . unintentional effects : ( subsistence / small scale ) [ harvest ] ♦ timing : ongoing 5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 4 . unintentional effects : ( large scale ) [ harvest ] ♦ timing : ongoing

0 . root - > 100 . 1 . old 1 . 1 . 1 - policy - base actions - > management plans - > development 1 . research - > 1 . 1 . taxonomy 1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats 1 . research - > 1 . 6 . actions 3 . monitoring - > 3 . 1 . population trends 0 . root - > 4 . other

almeida , m . p . , charvet - almeida , p . , rincón , g . and barthem , r . b . in press . registro de ocorrência de himantura schmardae ( chondrichthyes : dasyatidae ) na costa norte do brasil . boletim do museu paraense emílio goeldi , ser . zoologia .

anonymous . 1979 . groot surinaams kookboek met exotische creoolse , hindoestaanse , indonesische , chinese en europese recepten . stichting eerste surinaamse huishoud en nijverheidsschool te paramaribo .

anonymous . 2004 . report on the implementation of the un fao international plan of action for sharks ( ipoa–sharks ) . ac20 inf . 5 . twentieth meeting of the cites animals committee , johannesburg ( south africa ) , 29 march–2 april 2004 .

bor , p . h . f . 2002 . nederlandse naamlijst van de recente haaien en roggen ( chondrichthyes : elasmobranchii ) van de wereld . urltoken

camhi , m . , fowler , s . , musick , j . bräutigam , a . and fordham , s . 1998 . sharks and their relatives : ecology and conservation . occasional paper of the iucn species survival commission 20 .

cervigón , f . , cipriani , r . , fischer , w . , garibaldi , l . , hendrickx , m . , lemus , a . j . and claro , r . 1994 . características generales de la ictiofauna . in : r . claro ( ed . ) ecología de los peces marinos de cuba . pp : 55–70 . instituto de oceanología de la academia de ciencias de cuba y centro de investigaciones de quintana roo .

cervigón , f . , cipriani , r . , fischer , w . , garibaldi , l . , hendrickx , m . , lemus , a . j . , márquez , r . , poutiers , j . m . , robaina , g . and rodriguez , b . 1992 . fichas fao de identificación de especies para los fines de la pesca . guía de campo de las especies comerciales marinas y de aquas salobres de la costa septentrional de sur américa . preparado con el financiamento de la comisión de comunidades europeas y de norad . food and agricultural organization of the united nations ( fao ) , rome , italy .