the black slug ( also known as black arion , european black slug , or large black slug ) arion ater l. is a large terrestrial gastropod mollusk in the family arionidae — the round back slugs .

land slugs lack shells like other terrestrial mollusks ( such as snails ) .

without such shells , slugs produce unappetizing mucus — that may also contain toxins — to deter predators .

additionally , terrestrial slugs produce two other forms of mucus that facilitate locomotion and prevent death from drying .

such mollusks are hermaphroditic preferring to find mates .

slugs most often function as decomposers but are also often omnivores .

arion ater is one such slug , decomposing organic matter , preying on other organisms , and consuming vegetative matter — including agricultural crops .

native to europe , the black slug is an invasive species in australia , canada ( british columbia , newfoundland , quebec ) , and the united states — pacific northwest .

black slug

black slug <EOT> the african black slug is a slimy , black mollusk about an inch long with a distinctive white mark on its back , unlike several harmless species of black slugs native to the lower rio grande valley that are solid black .

the black velvet leatherleaf slug doesn ' t closely resemble any native terrestrial slugs .

the large black slug archived march 3 , 2016 , at the wayback machine .

one tweeted : “watching jeremy kyle - what the hell is a black slug . ”

description : true to its name , the giant black slug usually is jet black . other than in the red slug , the foot seam is also black . especially conspicuous are the juveniles - those are ivory coloured with a black head ( see also : black arion juvenile on urltoken ) . but they become grey quite fast with advancing age , adolescent slugs quite often are already black . in contrary , the young of lusitanian slugs are quite characteristically banded .

three types of banana slugs include the california banana slug , the pacific banana slug and the slender banana slug .

there is much debate concerning black slug effect upon plant species diversity . slug impacts change over successional stages , and alaska conservationists observed the black slug’s impact on species diversity depends upon community composition . [ 16 ] if a system is composed of sensitive species , the black slug will likely have a negative impact by pressuring said species . if a system presents more evenness with less sensitive species , the black slug may promote species diversity and encourage healthy succession rates . [ 16 ]

vinegar is a good ingredient for slug sprays , and for removing slug slime .

walls jg . 2009 . just a plain black slug : belocaulus angustipes . american conchologist 37 : 28 - 29 .

garry oak ecosystem recovery team . “black slug . ” urltoken archived march 21 , 2014 , at the wayback machine . .

world’s longest list of slug remedies loads of helpful tips for dealing with the slug menace .

used black slugs to smear on the frying pan when they made pancakes . butter

giant red slug or chocolate slug ( arion rufus ) from belgium . picture : hans hillewaert .

but lucy didn ' t believe her and called serena a “black slug” twice on monday’s episode , much to the amusement of viewers .

only seen from the outside , the giant red slug , the giant black slug and the lusitanian slug are only very hard to tell apart . all three species have red , black ( with the exception of the lusitanian slug ) and brown specimens . the red slug and the black slugs can even be white . without an anatomical examination at the cost of the slug ' s life , the species cannot usually be determined with certainty . the best way usually is to have a look at the juveniles , which are quite conspicuous in all three species .

black slug latin name : arion rufus native region : europe introduced region : southern bc reason for introduction : unknown threats : destruction of plant - life , displacement of native slug species many cachers have probably stepped on a black slug at some point on the local trails . they ' re also the bane of gardeners . is

a third joked : “black slug ? are they worse than the orange ones ? all slugs are equal . # endmolluscracism # jeremykyle . ”

eruopean black slug , photo by hugh griffith [ editor ' s note : a . k . a . chocolate arion , arion rufus ]

a large roundback slug varying in colour through browns to black , with a similarly coloured , dull foot fringe and exhibiting a strong rocking response when stimulated . ubiquitous up to moderate altitudes . a jet black form occurs on peatlands .

lucy has been with kyle for six months but thinks serena is after him , prompting her to tell jeremy : “she’s a black slug . ”

the unusual insult returned later on when serena joined lucy on stage - and lucy even treated the audience to an impression of a black slug .

“i walk all pretty , you walk like a black slug ! ” said lucy , shimmying across the stage as jezza looked on utterly baffled .

incredibly , the slimy black slug peterson pulled from the water was on the small side for its species , weighing a comparatively paltry 10 pounds .

a black specimen of the giant red slug from hesse in germany . well visible : the red foot seam in both specimens . [ rn ]

giant black slug ( arion ater ) from the island of bornholm ( denmark ) . picture : francisco welter - schultes ( animal base ) .

most conspicuous on wet days , the black slug is an important , but often overlooked , part of the woodland floor fauna in the caledonian forest .

due to its huge size the black slug often accepts the blame for most garden carnage , but actually its three smaller cousins wreak the most havoc .

outrageous sights are normal on itv’s the jeremy kyle show , but one guest’s impression of a ‘black slug’ may have emerged victorious in the hilarious stakes .

when picked up or touched , the black slug will contract into a hemispherical shape and begin to rock from side to side . this behaviour confuses predators .

researching the black slug has provided human and ecological value . for example , a 1996 study investigated the bioaccumulation of mercury in black slugs and determined these slugs could be used to monitor levels of heavy metals in terrestrial systems—similar to how ecologists use aquatic mollusks . [ 25 ] and a 2014 study researched the black slug gut’s microbiology in hopes of catalyzing other studies of cellulolytic activity that could improve biofuel technology . [ 17 ]

the slimy insult wasn’t a one - time slip however , later in the show lucy proceeded to demonstrate how a ‘black slug’ would walk in its natural surroundings .

to us , slug mucous is horrible , but to the slug , this valuable substance is their arms and legs .

like other members of the family arionidae , the black slug has a pneumostome ( breathing hole ) on the right side of its mantle through which it breathes . this mantle is the part in snails that secretes a shell , but in the black slug , the mantle contains a resilient protective structure of calcareous granules . [ 1 ]

another said : “ ' i walk all pretty , you walk like a black slug ' couldn ' t make this s * * t up ! # jeremykyle . ”

the black slug is generally deep black , with some adults being brown or even white . generally , pigmentation darkens directly with increasing latitude . young specimens tend to be brown or ivory whitish , turning to grey before becoming characteristically black at maturity . [ 1 ] rust - brown individuals are arguably classified as a separate species arion rufus ( red slug ) . [ 5 ] the two can only be distinguished by dissecting the reproductive anatomy . [ 6 ]

large red slug and black slug ( arion ater ) this is widespread and common throughout the uk in most terrestrial habitats . it can reach up to 12cm in length . body is uniform in colour but can be either orange - red or black . when alarmed it contracts into a spherical shape and may rock from side to side . mucus is colourless . this slug is rarely a problem in arable crops .

in contrary to the giant red slug , the black slug is distributed more to the north of europe : its distribution area covers north and northwest europe , in scandinavia beyond the 61st degree of latitude , it remain confined to the coast .

the canola variety , thunder , was sown on the 14 th may into burnt wheat stubble . sowing rate of 3 . 5 / ha broadcast and prickle chained . the slug species identified in this trial were the grey field slug ( deroceras reticulatum ) and the black keeled slug ( milax gagates ) .

slug bait should be applied at a rate to provide sufficient bait points per m 2 relative to slug populations in the paddock .

internal : gray - black with two darker stripes on each side , and black mantle ( kerney & cameron 1979 ) ; orange - red forms sometimes occur ( wiktor 1996 ) ; no spots on mantle ( wiktor 1983 ) ; keel pale , reaches 2 / 3 length between tail tip and mantle ; coarse tubercles ; black spots on tentacles ; white sole with longitudinal side sections of gray to black ; clear mucus ( kerney & cameron 1979 ) .

the uk’s largest slug , ash - black slugs can grow to 25cm long ! they have a keel down their back , and a white stripe down the middle of their foot .

caught in a fiery rant with serena , she said : ‘how do you walk ? i walk all pretty , you walk like a black slug , ’ with accompanying hilarious impression .

coyote peterson , who hosts the discovery network ' s youtube series brave wilderness , had a camera rolling when he encountered the world ' s largest slug - the black sea hare .

the african black slug is endemic to asia and the caribbean . it was recently found in harligen and is considered an invasive species . credit : agrilife extension photo by rod santa ana

habitat and distribution : the black slug prefers humid habitats , mostly closer in more rugged landscapes than arion rufus , and it mainly occurs in forests . in spain the black slug also lives as a commensal species and may become a garden pest in some places . black slugs live on green and decaying plant matter , so their diet is similar to that of the red slug . black slugs lay about 150 eggs per batch , which they place under moss , only rarely also in the earth . later in the year , the egg count may decline to about 20 eggs per batch . after almost a month , the juveniles hatch , and like in the red slug , it is them who hibernate , while the adults die .

so remember the old saying : if it’s black , put it back . if it’s grey , keep it at bay .

elsewhere in its range in britain , the black slug is considered to be a pest , especially by gardeners , but in the caledonian forest it is a vital but often overlooked part of the ecosystem .

european great grey slug , photo by hugh griffith [ editor ' s note : a . k . a . giant garden slug , limax maximus ]

i analyze slugs collected from several regions in sweden to investigate genetic diversity and activity of different genes . i would also like to know if there is hybridization with our native black slug ( arion ater ) .

arita , l . h . 1990 . control of the black slug , veronicella leydigi ( simroth ) and the veronicellid slug , veronicella cubensis ( pfeiffer ) on chrysanthemums . horticulture digest , no 92 . university of hawaii college of tropical agriculture and human resources , department of horticulture : honolulu .

african black slugs feed on plants at night to avoid the heat of the sun , which can quickly dry them out , villanueva said .

veronicellid slugs are tropical ( deisler & stange , 1984 ) . the black slug was described from queensland , australia , and was introduced into honolulu in the early 1900ős ( hawaii dept . of agriculture , unpublished ) .

in the past , slugs were sometimes used as a cure for warts . an artifact in the pitt rivers museum in oxford consists of a glass jar containing a slug impaled on a thorn , the label on the jar gives the following instructions : charm for warts , oxfordshire . go out alone & find a large black slug . secretly rub the underside on the warts and impale the slug on the thorn . as the slug dies the warts will go .

of all the common garden slugs , the field slug probably causes most damage .

one individual field slug has the potential to produce about 90 , 000 grandchildren .

slug was found in henry cowell redwood state park after a day of rain .

if you go down to the woods tonight you might come face to face with one of the world’s largest land slugs ! most ash - black slugs ( limax cinereoniger ) are between 10 and 20cm long , but larger ones have been recorded . this nocturnal slug is only found in ancient woodlands . on damp nights the slugs emerge to feed on fungi , lichens and algae and can be found on the woodland floor , on stumps or up trees . during the day they hide under large pieces of dead wood . adult ash - black slugs can be found all year round . ash - black slugs are one of the keeled slugs – they have a ridge or keel running along their back . the keel is pale in comparison to the dark grey body colour . some ash - black slugs have thick black and grey stripes along their bodies . if you turn an adult ash - black slug over you will see that the underside of the foot is dark grey with a white stripe down the middle .

slug slime comes in two varieties : a thin slippery mucous used to lubricate the slug as it moves , and a thicker type used for a variety of purposes .

the black slug is omnivorous , and its diet includes fungi , carrion , earthworms , leaves , stems , dead plant material and dung . the food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes .

these slugs might endanger sensitive ecosystems , especially as an invasive species , and it is yet unclear how drastically these slugs might alter plant community compositions . the black slug is a voracious seedling predator . terrestrial slugs are considered to be especially dangerous because they alter plant species abundance , adult plant fecundity , and the production of plant defensive compounds . black slugs are of special concern in fragmented ecosystems and areas with high shrub and tree cover . in alaska , the black slug threatens seedling populations of lilies and orchids after already having diminished sensitive populations of deltoid balsamroot and yellow montane violet in bc canada . [ 6 ]

the black slug has a soft , unsegmented body . the back is covered by a tough , leathery mantle skin with a yellow line down the middle . the head has 2 pair of tentacles . the upper pair have eyes and can be pulled back toward the head , while the shorter pair below have organs of smell ( williams , 1931 ) . like all of its slug relatives , the black slug is a hermaphrodite , having both male and female reproductive parts in the same animal ( crowell et al . , 1986 ; yates , 1988 ) . fertilization , however , is always by another slug ( yates , 1988 ) .

when disturbed , the black slug contracts itself into a slimy hemispherical hump , making itself difficult to be pecked up by a hungry bird . it sometimes rocks from side to side ; thought to be an attempt to confuse its predator .

, the keelback slugs . this is the largest land slug species in the world .

this slug is native to europe . it is recorded in most of europe , including

with a maximum length exceeding 20 centimeters , this species is the largest land slug .

a slug has approximately 27 , 000 teeth – that’s more teeth than a shark .

like other terrestrial slugs , the black slug is a hermaphrodite , preferring to find a mate—often several—but can self - fertilize . after mating , the black slug seeks a dark , moist environment such as beneath mosses—occasionally within topsoil—to lay its eggs about 5mm ( 0 . 2 in ) in diameter . between august and october , an individual slug lays up to 150 eggs every one to three weeks—clutches diminishing to 20 eggs late in the season . juveniles hatch after at least twenty - seven days , hatching later under cold temperatures . [ 7 ] maturation takes up to nine months , enabling mating in early summer . black slugs die shortly after laying its last clutch , rarely surviving into a second year . [ 7 ]

the black slug is native to western and central europe , from scandinavia to spain and from ireland to austria and the czech republic . it has been introduced to southeastern australia and to some part of north america ( newfoundland , alaska ) .

may into burnt barley stubble . sowing rate of 4 . 2kg / ha on a 300mm row spacing . the slug species identified in this trial were the grey field slug (

the black slug prefers a diet of rotting vegetation , fungi , manure , and even the odd decomposing dead animal . only during springtime when these aren’t so abundant , and tender young seedlings are , does it cause most damage in the garden .

the black slug is omnivorous , and its diet includes fungi , carrion , earthworms , leaves , stems , dead plant material and dung . the food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes . reference : urltoken

protective position of the giant red slug ( arion rufus ) . picture : martina eleveld .

a slug is basically a muscular foot , and the name ‘gastropod’ literally means stomach foot .

lore , they were used in certain plays accompanied with a rhyme to the slug . this

invasive species , which in many cases have been introduced by man , are an increasing threat to today’s ecosystems . the iberian slug arion vulgaris ( previously regarded as a . lusitanics ) is an invasive species dispersing through large parts of europe and causing considerable damage to gardens , horticulture and agriculture . it is possible that this slug displaces or hybridizes with native species such as the black slug , arion ater . the invasive nature of this slug species calls for research into its taxonomy and biology as well as its natural enemies .

this terrestrial slug is from the family veronicellidae ( leatherleaf slugs ) andcan grow up to 3 . 5 inches in length . as the common name suggest , this slug is typically jet black with an inconspicuous tan stripe down the underside . they have two ocular tentacles that are also black . the velvety / wrinkled mantle covers the entire length of the body . both the breathing pore ( pneumostome ) and anus are located posteriorly . young slugs are not as dark , and their underside is much lighter .

the black slug is the ‘grand - daddy’ of garden slugs , reaching lengths of 20cm ( 8” ) , although up to 13cm ( 5” ) is more typical . the skin is coarse and granular and the sole is pale , often fringed with orange .

this is only the second find ever of the african black slug in the u . s . , villanueva said . the first find , also in the lower rio grande valley , occurred in the 1980s , but was eradicated with chemical pesticide baits called molluscicides .

is a terrestrial slug , common in england and the pacific northwest . ( bbc 2000 ) .

slug eggs can lay dormant in the soil for years and then hatch when conditions are right .

managing slug populations is unlikely to be successful unless both cultural and chemical control strategies are used .

may into burnt wheat stubble which was grazed . sowing rate of 4 . 0kg / ha on a 220mm row spacing . the slug species identified in this trial was the grey field slug (

the field slug is another small slug , growing up to 4cm ( 1½” ) in length . it’s lighter coloured than the garden slug , usually grey or fawn with dark speckles . it has a whitish sole and a short ‘keel’ , or ridge , on the back of the tail end .

before heading out to the field i had to find the best sampling technique to study european black slugs in eshamy bay . i reviewed a vast amount of literature on various study methods and invasive slug removal . i learned that there are several ways invasive species are managed :

leopard slug ( limax maximus ) this is a large slug - up to 16cm in length - which has distinctive black leopard like marking on its upper body . its underside is white . it has a pronounced keel along the rear of its body . mucus is sticky and colourless . widespread and common in the uk favouring woodland and gardens . low risk to agricultural crops .

the role of parasites and predators in regulating iberian slug populations - the hypothesis that slug - parasitic nematodes reduce or regulate a . vulgaris populations in a chosen area will be tested . we will test the hypothesis that naturally occurring predatory beetles and snails are significant predators of the iberian slug . we will also test if measures to increase predator and parasite abundance leads to reduced populations of the iberian slug .

especially in the northern parts of europe , the black slug sometimes maintains its juvenile pale colour even in the adult stage . so adult specimens might be encountered with cream or ivory coloured bodies and foot seams . the appearance of such a slug with a pale body and a dark head allows the assumption ( ! ) that here the juvenile colour might have been kept in adulthood .

the keel slug , as its name suggests , has a keel , with a yellow or orange stripe along the ridge . this is a larger slug , up to 6cm ( 2½” ) long and dark grey or olive in colour . when contracted , the keel slug often curls into a ‘sickle’ shape .

two juveniles of the lusitanian slug ( arion vulgaris ) feeding on a smaller conspecific . [ rn ]

a slug’s slime absorbs water , which is why it’s nearly impossible to wash it off your hands .

when a slug loses one of its sensory tentacles it grows another , usually within a few months .

identify slug species present in a paddock for the most effective control . different species demonstrate different behaviours .

figure 2 . effect of each treatment on the plants displaying any slug damage ( inverleigh trial ) .

figure 3 . effect of each treatment on the plants displaying any slug damage ( skipton trial ) .

figure 4 . effect of each treatment on the plants displaying any slug damage ( hamilton trial ) .

slug and snail control . natural , organic ways to deter and kill snails and slugs in the garden

do whole seedlings disappear in a night ? read on for expert slug and snail control . . .

slug sex , which can take several hours , is as fascinating and spectacular as it is repellent .

the only solution to the problem is a technique called apophallation - the chewing off of the other slug ' s penis using the same razor - sharp teeth with which the slug can decimate your cabbages .

having lost its penis , the castrated slug is then only able to copulate using its female organs .

nickel , june 1998 . the slimy , yet special slug . natural history , 107 : 18 .

the banana slug’s mating behavior , and its slime , have evolved over millions of years . after all this time , the banana slug is very well adapted to the redwood forest environment , scientists say .

iron phosphate : also known as ferric phosphate , this popular and effective slug and snail bait is sold as organic under names such as garden safe slug & snail bait , and sluggo and other commercial names .

slugs are easy to identify , but not always easy to find . they are basically snails without their protective shells . depending on the species , slugs range in size from less than an inch to 10 inches long , such as the banana slug , native to the west coast . one of the most common slug species found in iowa gardens is the gray garden slug . they are typically less than an inch long and their plump , slimy bodies range in color from light gray to brownish black .

similar species the only large keeled slug with which it might be confused is the common tiger slug or great grey slug limax maximus . in limax maximus the keel is usually shorter and similar in shade to the ground colour of the slug rather than being conspicuously paler . tiger slugs often have a series of broad dark lateral bands along the back rather than being uniformly dark and juveniles are very similar , not undergoing the obvious colour change seen in limax cinereoniger as it matures . the tiger slug always has a uniformly pale sole .

chris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens

most animals prefer not to prey upon the black slugs because of the taste of its mucus and because this mucus can make them slippery and consequently difficult to capture ; however , this slug does have some natural predators , including the hedgehog , badger , shrew , mole , mouse , frog , toad , snake , carnivorous beetle , and some birds . [ 19 ] when picked up or touched , the black slug will contract to a hemispherical shape and begin to rock from side to side . this defensive behavior confuses predators , and is unique in the family arionidae . [ 20 ]

the black slug plays an important role in a natural ecosystem such as the caledonian forest . by processing decaying plant and fecal material , it helps to recycle the organic matter and nutrients back into a form that can be used by other organisms . this also aids in the maintenance of soil fertility .

australia [ invasive ] : the museum victoria reports the black slug to have been first documented in australia in 2001 with multiple reports of these slugs in cultivated gardens and farms since , but as of 2009 , the species was still not considered to be an established species in australia . [ 14 ]

this slug is common and widespread throughout scotland and the rest of the uk . it occurs in most terrestrial habitats , including grasslands , hedgerows and woodlands . two closely - related species are arion rufus and arion lusitanicus , and they can only be told apart from the black slug by dissection . however those other species are restricted to the south of the uk , so arion ater is easy to identify in scotland .

facilitating a study on european black slugs’ presence or absence in eshamy bay , in west prince william sound ( a newly reported area where slugs were observed in 2012 ) with alaska geographic’s youth group .

black slug is often a host of small mites . mites eat mucus of slugs . there are predators which eat it . for example the urchin , the badger , the fox and various birds . seeds and spores are dispersed by slugs , as they get caught in the mucus or slime as a slug moves and are transported for varying distances before being deposited in new sites when the accumulated debris falls off the animal .

the moth genus monema is represented by medium - sized yellowish species . the genus belongs to the limacodidae family also known as the slug moths due to the distinct resemblance of their caterpillars to some slug species . . . .

winter mortality - we will investigate the hypothesis that the iberian slug experiences high mortality when overwintering in agricultural fields .

gulp . just look at how ridiculous this thing looks . it’s a giant black sea slug known as a sea hare and it’s freaking monstrous . you don’t really hold it in your hand as much as the sea hare , which can grow up to over 3 feet long and weigh over 30 pounds , just swallows your entire arm . brave wilderness found the black sea hare in the tide pools off the coast of the pacific ocean in san pedro , ca and described holding it as super slimy and unbelievably slippery .

the european black slug is native to western and central europe , from scandinavia to spain and from ireland to austria and the czech republic . it has been introduced to southeastern australia and to north america , where it occurs in newfoundland , southern british columbia , the pacific northwest of the usa and some parts of alaska .

the black slug is omnivorous , and its diet includes fungi , carrion , earthworms , leaves , stems , dead plant material and dung . recent research has also shown that it eats seedlings of scots pine ( pinus sylvestris ) . the food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes .

the grey field slug or reticulated slug ( deroceras reticulatum ) is mainly surface active and can have up to three generations a year . it will generally breed in autumn and spring however , if conditions are favourable this species will breed any time , and therefore , a pair can produce up to 1000 eggs a year . the second species identified at these two sites was the black keeled slug ( milax gagates ) . this species can burrow up to 20 centimetres underground to escape the heat . a breeding pair can lay up to 200 eggs a year .

the orange and red forms have been considered a separate species – the red slug – but this classification is debatable .

a slug’s slime enables it to glide without difficulty over glass shards , or even the edge of a razor blade .

a slug can stretch out to 20 times its normal length , enabling it to squeeze through the smallest of openings .

use of molluscicides – we will test the impact of iron phosphate baited molluscides on slug pest populations in agricultural fields .

most molluscs have shells , like snails . a slug ' s shell is hidden inside itself and is very small .

" the african black slug originated in africa and is now endemic to asia and several islands in the caribbean , " villanueva said . " how it got here is anybody ' s guess . it could have come in on imported plants , turf , produce— who knows ? it hides very well among all those products . "

the rich chestnut coloured slugs ( see picture below ) one finds in the garden or on the verges differ only very slightly from the large black and the two are regarded as varieties of the same species .

black slugs get puberty at the age of 1 year . it’s a hermaphrodite , produces sperm and ovum as well , but for reproduction breeding is needed . slugs lay their eggs in nodes below the soil .

whilst arion ater is a very common slug , it belongs to a species complex that can only be 100 % differentiated by dissecting the genitalia so it is usual to record them as part of this aggregate group . there are three species in this complex ( arion ater group ) : arion ater , a . rufus and a . vulgaris . these slug species range from 75 - 180 mm in length at maturity . they may be dark brown , black , grey , orange or reddish in color . they are large and bulky with long , coarse tubercles on the side and back . the juveniles of these species have an even wider range of colors and can be distinguished from mature adults by the presence of lateral stripes . juveniles of the arion ater - complex may be confused with adults of other arion species . the contracted body is bell - shaped . the sole of the foot may be black or tripartite ( pale with a black vertical line down the center ) . the foot fringe may possess any of the following colors with vertical black bands : red , orange , yellow or grey . the mucus of this slug group is colourless , though very sticky , and they lack a keel .

besides the usefulness of the trace of mucus , it jeopardizes the animal as some predators follow the trace and eat up the slug ; however , subsistence of the genus is not endangered . it’s not protected , rather proliferated and gnaw the parts of plants . due to its harmful behavior , black slugs are often killed by gardeners .

if you ever wondered what a slug the size of a household pet would look like , today is your lucky day .

paddocks with a previous history of slug damage are always a good place to start monitoring in a susceptible crop like canola .

below the majestic trees and prehistoric ferns that grace california’s redwood forests lives a weird and slimy creature : the banana slug .

are orange when hatched , have a " straw " coloration until aproximately one inch in length , and eventually take on a black coloration . typical slugs are about six inches long at maturity . ( branley 1996 ) .

slug locomotion is one of the triumphs of evolution . to see how it works , place a slug ( or a snail , the two groups use an identical technique ) on a sheet of glass and observe its muscular ' foot ' from underneath .

a dark red specimen of the giant red slug ( arion rufus ) from washington state , usa . picture : walter siegmund .

being boneless , the slug ' s body is highly flexible and when fully extended it can be up to 20 cm . in length , although 10 - 15 cm . is more normal . as its common name suggests , it is usually black in colour , although considerable variation does exist , ranging from chestnut brown and orange to pale grey or cream . in general , slugs in northern england and scotland are jet black , while in the south of england the orange forms appear to be more common - the colour variation is thought to be due to differences in ambient temperatures .

slime serves several other functions , including keeping the slug ' s skin moist , which is important in enabling it to breathe properly . it provides some protection from predators , as more slime is produced when the slug is threatened , and it has an unpleasant taste and texture . slime plays a role in mating , as the slug secretes a chemical in it which attracts potential mates that can follow the slime trail to meet the chemical ' s producer . a slug will also follow an old slime trail to find food .

several specimens found in march in a new residential area of harlingen have since been identified as african black slugs , said dr . raul villanueva , an entomologist at the texas a & m ; agrilife research and extension center at weslaco .

" fortunately , we have never found the nematode that can be carried by the african black slug , " he said . " these nematodes , or tiny worms , pose serious health risks to humans , including meningitis . but the nematode has never been detected here . nevertheless , it ' s a good idea to thoroughly wash fruits and vegetables before consuming them . "

like most organisms , the black slug has its own suite of predators and parasites , so that it too forms food for other species within the ecosystem . predators which will eat it in the caledonian forest include the badger ( meles meles ) , fox ( vulpes vulpes ) , hedgehog ( erinaceus europaeus ) , slow worm ( anguis fragilis ) and various birds . a parasitic nematode , french heartworm ( angiostrongylus vasorum ) , which affects dogs , has been reported as naturally occurring in the black slug in france , while a parasitic mite ( riccardoella oudemansi ) also affects arion ater . another nematode ( phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita ) is also a parasite of slugs , including arion ater . it causes a swelling of the mantle , leading to the death of the infected slug within 21 days , and it has recently been marketed commercially as a biological control for slugs in the uk .

banana slug , photo by hugh griffith [ eidtor ' s note : a . k . a . pacific bananslug , ariolimax columbianus ]

use of barriers - we will test the hypothesis that barriers can be effective in stopping the iberian slug gaining access into agricultural fields .

not only do slugs clear an area of dead and dying matter , they also help spread seeds that are present in vegetation and dung . ( see references 2 ) not all slugs are voracious garden pests . for example , the banana slug is thought to favor mushrooms . it also eats lichen , algae , fungi and dead animals . on the other hand , the garden slug , arion hortensis ; the field slug , derocereas reticulatum ; and the keel slug , tandonia budapestensis , can wreak havoc in gardens . ( see resources 1 )

predation in the field by carabid beetles is most significant in spring and seems to be density dependent without any clear preferences between slug species .

the size of the slug is from 10 to 15 cm . the colour variation is due to the differences in temperatures . usually black coloured but sometimes happed to be red , dark - brown , light - orange and even white . young specimens of black slug do have a brown colour , which is later lost . it has two sets of tentacles : the larger , upper tentacles are sensitive to light , but they cannot differentiate colours ; the smaller , lower tentacles are used for smell . both tentecles can be retracted when the slug is danger . the mouth is on the underside of the head , and it contains a toothed tongue ( radula ) , that has up to 27000 teeth on it . the radula is used to rasp food into the slug ' s mouth . behind the head , the smooth area is called the mantle , and it contains a breathing hole on the right hand side ( pneumostone ) . it protects the rest of the organs . its leg is muscular and covered by mucus . slugs do wavy movements for getting forward .

lemon slug ( limax tenellus ) this is a small ( max 4cm ) , bright yellow slug which has dark tentacles . it is scarce and almost always found in woodland . it is a good indicator of ancient sites . feeds on fungi . very low risk to agricultural crops .

the distribution of the iberian slug in hordaland - the current distribution will be explored , as an example of anthropological spreading of an invasive species .

one reason humans do not much care for slugs is undoubtedly their sliminess . a large tiger slug can produce several teaspoonfuls of slime a day .

when it senses danger the black slug retracts its tentacles and pulls its body back into a compact half - round shape . it also often sways from side to side , although the reason for that behaviour is not entirely clear . slugs possess the ability to re - grow a tentacle which has been lost , and for arion ater this process of regeneration takes 1 - 2 months to be completed .

juveniles : pale and translucent at hatching , then becoming opaque brown and black , with the sides of the foot becoming pigmented last ( quick 1960 ) . resemble adult lehmannia , and can be distinguished by the absence of a caecum ( wiktor 1996 ) .

the european black slug is an invertebrate ( i . e . an animal without a backbone ) and is classified as a mollusc , the group of mainly marine organisms that includes whelks , mussels and squid . it is a gastropod , the class of molluscs that includes snails and slugs , and is defined by the presence of an unsegmented soft body , a large foot and a well - developed head .

the slug pictured above is the largest member of the round - backed type of slug . the round backed slugs have no keel , although they often bear numerous rows of elongated tubercles . the breathing pore is near the front of the right hand edge of the mantle ( see picture below ) .

while creating this website i discovered many fascinating – and some truly bizarre – facts about the humble slug . it really is a remarkable little creature .

the humble slug has few friends , but as she / he is munching through your prized vegetables , these little creatures will not care one jot .

the black sea hare gets its deep , dark color from its diet of algae and seaweed and gets it name from the two tentacles sticking out of its head that look like rabbit ears . where it gets it comical size is probably some prehistoric alien energy source .

because of its dependence on staying moist , the black slug is most active at night and on wet days , when numbers in the forest can be prolific . by contrast , none will be visible on a dry sunny day , when they will rest out of sight , to conserve moisture . similarly , they will stay deep in the soil on cold days , only becoming active when the temperature exceeds 5 degrees celsius .

for the past two weeks my role in the wildlife devision of the u . s . forest service changed temporarily from studying dusky canada geese to european black slugs . i spent several weeks learning all about the slugs , and wishing that more was known about the species .

common keeled slug ( tandonia budapestensis ) this is the most common of the keeled slugs . it is relatively small reaching around 6cm at maturity . it is typically black or grey in colour with a yellow - orange ridge along its length . it remains mostly underground and will feed on newly drilled seeds which will have a serious effect on emergence . if populations are large it can lead to the need to re - seed .

i know i’ve already mentioned many of them throughout the pages of ‘slug off’ , but i’m sure you’ll love reading them all here together in one place .

the great grey slug of europe is a voracious garden pest , and the fastest of our slugs . it is able to crawl four times faster than the banana slug , perhaps 6 inches in a minute . not only will it devour many species of plant , this slug is also a predator who will stalk and eat other slugs . i have not witnessed this , but have seen footage of cheetahs chasing gazelles . it is probably similar , but much slower .

when the weather turns hot and dry , a snail can retract into its protective shell to prevent desiccation , while a slug must retreat into the soil or under vegetation to prevent drying out . it is estimated that , during warm summer months , as much as 90 % of a garden’s slug population lives underground .

species description a very large , dark slug with tripartite sole - black or dark grey on either side and white down the middle . this slug is keeled along the back , the keel occupying two - thirds or more of the distance between the mantle and the tail . the keel is whitish to yellowish and contrasts with the dark body colour . juveniles have uniformly pale soles and are coloured a warm buff with double lateral bands . like other keeled slugs , the breathing pore is at rear of the mantle and the mantle has shallow concentric grooves like fingerprints centred on the middle of the back .

of our three largest slugs , only the banana slug is native . it is the second largest species in the world and can grow to more than 20 cm . if there is a creature that truly symbolizes the great rainy northwest , i suggest it is the banana slug . it is a good slug , almost never found in gardens or crops . in natural habitats it acts as nature ' s garbage collector and recycler , consuming and further breaking down dead and decaying matter .

u . s . habitat : since they are intolerant of low humidity the sup - tropical southeastern united state are very suitable . commonly found in st . augustine grass , they can also be found under rocks , boards , flower pots , greenhouses and even in the hearts of plants such as lettuce or cabbage . with the black leatherleaf slug having such a voracious and scavenging appetite , they could establish in urban , suburban and rural areas .

" so far , there have been only a few of these african black slugs found in one localized urban area of harlingen , " villanueva said . " others have been found nearby , but they are very slow movers , so it ' s not likely they will spread . "

sanitation is vital to slug control . slugs escape hot , dry conditions by hiding between the soil surface and any material on the soil during the daytime . removing boards , pots , and debris from growing areas will reduce slug cover and breeding areas thinning dense foliage will allow sun to reach the soil ( yates , 1988 ) . weather affects slug populations . hot dry weather or excessive flooding reduce populations , while cool , damp weather boosts populations ( crowell et al . , 1986 ) .

the ash - black slug is a large keeled slug i . e . it has a sharp ridge or keel running along the middle of the back . in adult slugs the keel is whitish and contrasts with the generally dark ground colour . ash - black slugs can grow to 20 cm ( 8 in . ) and live in undisturbed mature broadleaf woods or , in the west , on open hillsides and marine cliffs feeding on lichens and algae on bare rocks . this species is widespread but very local in n . ireland . there is no evidence at present of a decrease and it has been encountered more frequently in some localities than formerly . this in sharp contrast to experience in southern ireland where it is declining sharply . irish forestry policy is almost certainly implicated , particularly the clear felling of old broadleaf woodland and replacement with conifers and the practice of under - planting with conifers in established broadleaf woods .

the field slug only feeds on the surface but will virulently munch its way through most vegetation , and is often found nestling among the leaves of lettuces and cabbages .

description : like its name states , the giant red slug usually is red . there are also brown and black specimens , but those have a red foot seam ( f in the picture above ) . the foot sole , in contrary is light grey , cream coloured or reddish . the tentacles are blackish brown and can be palely striped . the juveniles , contrary to the adults , are of a pale yellowish colour or light orange with a dark head .

the foot - fringe is black , the tubercles are large and elongate , and the sole is blackish grey . the atrium and vagina ( genitalia ) are considerably narrower than is the spermatheca ( organ for storing sperm ) . the oviduct is narrow while the spermatheca is spherical . [ 7 ]

slugs eat dead organic matter as well as living vegetation . various species will feed on rotting plants , leaves , dead animals and even animal droppings . for example , the european black slug , arion ater , eats dung and also lays its eggs in it . after hatching , the larvae live in the dung for three to four weeks . as decomposers , the slugs break down organic matter , thereby releasing nutrients which enrich the soil . ( see references 1 )


the rufous-tailed jacamar ( galbula ruficauda ) is a near-passerine bird which breeds in the tropical new world in southern mexico , central america and south america as far south as southern brazil and ecuador .

the jacamars are elegant brightly coloured birds with long bills and tails .

the rufous-tailed jacamar is typically 25 centimetres ( 10 in ) long with a 5 centimetres ( 2 in ) long black bill .

the subspecies g. r. brevirostris has , as its name implies , a shorter bill .

this bird is metallic green above , and the underparts are mainly orange , including the undertail , but there is a green breast band .

sexes differ in that the male has a white throat , and the female a buff throat ; she also tends to have paler underparts .

the race g. r. pallens has a copper-coloured back in both sexes .

this species is a resident breeder in a range of dry or moist woodlands and scrub .

the two to four rufous-spotted white eggs are laid in a burrow in a bank or termite mound .

this insectivore hunts from a perch , sitting with its bill tilted up , then flying out to catch flying insects .

one commonly preyed upon insect is the social wasp agelaia vicina .

further , the bird distinguishes between edible and unpalatable butterflies mainly according to body shape .

the rufous-tailed jacamar 's call is a sharp pee-op , and the song a high thin peeo-pee-peeo-pee-pe-pe , ending in a trill .

rufous - tailed jacamar

rufous - tailed jacamar <EOT> protection / threats / status : rufous - tailed jacamar is common and widespread in its range . the major threats for this species are deforestation and habitat loss . rufous - tailed jacamar populations are not threatened at this moment .

a lateral view of a perched male ' rufous - and - green jacamar ' .

the commonest species is the rufous - tailed jacamar ( galbula ruficauda ) , 25 cm ( 10 inches ) long , found from southern mexico to argentina .

the rufous - tailed jacamar inhabits a range from central america to south america as far as brazil and northern argentina . the beauty of its shimmering green upperparts and rufous underparts cannot be overlooked . while the male’s throat is white , the female’s is rufous .

range : rufous - tailed jacamar is widespread on a large range , from southern mexico to northern argentina , including mexico , costa rica , ecuador , colombia , brazil , argentina , and trinidad and tobago .

behaviour : rufous - tailed jacamar feeds mainly on insects caught on the wing , by flycatching , aerial sallies or pursuit in the air . when the prey is caught , the bird beats it against a branch or other hard surface , in order to kill it , and to remove the more resistant parts of the body and the wings . then , the prey is swallowed whole . this behaviour is observed only for relatively large preys . rufous - tailed jacamar hunts from an exposed perch .

habitat : rufous - tailed jacamar frequents several kinds of habitats , such as shrubby forest edges , gallery forests , second - growth thickets , streams and rivers’ banks , marshes and savannahs with scattered trees . it may be seen from lowlands up to 900 metres of elevation , rarely up to 1300 metres .

flight : rufous - tailed jacamar has swift flight , fairly brief when pursuing preys . if the bird needs to fly long distances , for escaping a danger or between two feeding areas , it flies with bursts of rapid wing beats and glides . at this moment , the flight seems to be undulating .

some might say that the rufous - tailed jacamar ( galbula ruficacauda ) is reminiscent of a green - and - rufous kingfisher for its similar color patterns and heavy bill whereas others might see this bird and think of it as an oversized hummingbird . whatever side you fall on it’s a species that you can’t seem to get enough of and is hard to turn away from for its brilliant colors and sassy attitude .

description : rufous - tailed jacamar is a brightly coloured bird . adult male has shining metallic coppery - green plumage on upperparts . on the wings , the primaries are blackish . the long , graduated tail shows two longer rectrices . the other tail feathers are cinnamon . on the underparts , chin and throat are white . breast shows a broad metallic coppery - green band . belly , vent and undertail are rufous - chestnut . underwing coverts are cinnamon and flight feathers are dark grey .

diet : rufous - tailed jacamar feeds mainly on insects caught by flycatching and sallies . the diet includes a wide variety of insects , even wasps . the bird perches 1 to 3 metres above the ground on relatively exposed perch . when the prey is caught , it beats it several times against the branch , in order to kill it and to remove the indigestible parts before swallowing .

earlier this month at springhill , a high - pitched call of pee - pee - pee alerted us to the presence of a rufous - tailed jacamar nearby . turning out to be just in front of springhill’s main house , employees and guests alike were delighted to spot trinidad and tobago’s only representative of the galbulidae ( jacamar ) family . jacamars are neotropical birds which are similar to old world bee - eaters . they look like oversized hummingbirds and share a few characteristics with ‘hummers’ . they have iridescent feathers , long , thin bills and a fullness of energy .

there are 15 species of jacamar in tropical america which belong in their own family galbulidae situated between the puffbirds and toucans . all belong to the order piciformes along with woodpeckers and honeyguides . there are two species found here in costa rica , the great jacamar ( jacamerops aurea ) found on the caribbean slope and the rufous - tailed jacamar found at low elevations on both caribbean and pacific slopes . they are fairly common here on the osa peninsula mainly found along forest edges , streams and the open understory of tall second growth forests . it is also known to frequent cocoa plantations . we recently saw one perched along a road near one of our avian monitoring points on friends of the osa property in an area that we know as arbolito . it is not as abundant as some species and so it is a special moment to come across one .

voice : sounds by xeno - canto rufous - tailed jacamar’s call is a sharp , thin “peeup” repeated 3 to 10 times by both sexes . it also utters a rapid trill . song is a rapid phrase of several notes ending in trill “peeo - peeo - peea - pee - pee - pe - pe - pe - pe - pe - illllll” . this prolonged song uttered by the male may vary , including melodious or buzzy parts , twittering , ascending trills and low “pee - pee - pee” .

rufous - tailed jacamars breed , in trinidad , from february to june and in tobago , from february to august , where i might add , they are quite common . both sexes share nesting duties and interestingly , during courtship males remove the insects’ wings to feed them to females . clutches of two to four white eggs with cinnamon spots , are laid .

rufous - tailed jacamar nests in burrows excavated by both sexes . it is situated in sandy banks or termitary , and even in higher roots of fallen trees , from the ground up to three metres high . the burrow is usually straight , and the nest - chamber is sometimes partially visible . if there is any obstruction such as roots , the angle may deviate as sideway or downwards . the entrance is usually rectangular with vertical sides . the burrow is about 20 to 50 cm deep , with terminal cavity for the nest - chamber which is unlined .

locally called the ‘king hummingbird’ , the rufous - tailed jacamar is common in humid lowlands – on forest edges , in clearings and in secondary forest . it often perches a few metres above ground alongside a road , narrow stream or other type of clearing . there , it waits for prey , mostly flying insects , for which it hawks then thrashes against a branch in order to de - wing . these lively birds are regularly seen dust bathing on gravel roads . they measure 26 cm in length and usually nest in short tunnels on earth banks or even in termite nests .

rufous - tailed jacamars dig long burrows ( 11 - 20” ) in a bank , the root mass of an upturned tree or a termitary in which to put their nest . parents feed their 2 – 4 young during a 3 week nestling period by regurgitating insect parts . by the time the nestlings are ready to fledge the nest can look like a tomb of glittery insect wings and chitinous body parts .

it is highly sedentary , only performing some short dispersal , but it does not migrate . rufous - tailed jacamar is very active , often seen in pairs in shrubs , hunting for insects . during breeding season , the male performs regular courtship - feeding . it catches insects for its mate , offered without wings or hard parts . both mates perch close to each other while the male bobs its head upwards , downwards and sideways , and swings the tail up and down . at this moment , the male utters low notes and female gives trills . at other moment , always perched side to side , both mates fan their tails and bow together .

vary slightly in the amounts of black on the chin and in the number of green central rectrices , but in general males are an iridescent coppery / golden green above with a white throat and cinnamon - rufous underparts . females are a slightly duller green and have a cinnamon - buff throat .

feed almost exclusively on flying insects , especially dragonflies , butterflies and moths . these birds forage from a perch on an exposed branch 1 to 3 meters from the ground , and sally out to catch insects on the wing . after the jacamar has caught an insect it beats it several times against a branch to stun it and remove the insect ' s wings before it swallows .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en " " urltoken "

thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .

justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .

partners in flight estimate the total population to number 500 , 000 - 4 , 999 , 999 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) . trend justification : despite this species tolerance of degraded and man - made habitats declines have been reported in panama and costa rica owing to hunting pressure , human interference and habitat loss ( del hoyo et al . 2002 ) .

to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .

cuvier 1816 ) is a beautiful inhabitant of forest edges and clearings of central and south america . it occurs in several disjunct populations : from eastern mexico south to western panama ; from eastern panama south to western ecuador , colombia and venezuela ; in guyana ; and from bolivia east to eastern brazil . the six recognized subspecies of

) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .

hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .

no flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .

josep del hoyo , pieter de groot boersma , greg baker , carlos gussoni , david ascanio , lucas andrei campos - silva , keith blomerley , antonio silveira , max roth , alex garcía · videoaves , thore noernberg , peter nash , keith and lynn youngs , jacob . wijpkema , cedric prys - roberts , pere sugranyes , richard garrigues , manakincarmelo , daniêl jimenez , mauricio rueda , rigdon currie , yaiza aragón , yoël jimenez , eldert groenewoud , monicayhector , pedro h ramos , rodrigo y castro , sidnei sampaio , agustin carrasco .

margareta wieser , carlos gussoni , lars petersson , luis r figueroa , antonio silveira , lmarce , richardgreenhalgh031 , manakincarmelo , lsargentini , phillip edwards , steve garvie , sanjiv parasram , joe tobias , philgunson , stephen romany , josep del hoyo , kperezleon , jacqueserard , rolando chavez , lutz duerselen , ian barker , anselmo d affonseca , mikko pyhälä , miriam bauman , paul van giersbergen , róger rodríguez , netosevero , nimali digo and thilanka edirisinghe , delareina , hal and kirsten snyder , mauricio rueda , orlando jarquín g . , nigel lallsingh , eduardo freitez gassan , gustavo a . rodríguez , marco valentini , markus lilje , digitalbcon , sirroyalty , hector ceballos - lascurain , jacob . wijpkema , josé frade , luca boscain , nelsonlage , sam shaw , anderson rosado gomez , horacio luna , carlos ruiz . - guerra , marianhw , juanjaimemg , marinês eiterer , aisse gaertner , stu elsom , daniêl jimenez , dubi shapiro , pedro h ramos , frédéric pelsy , zanon , michaelp , andre zambolli , juan carlos marín , kevin b agar , bjørn kjellemyr , roger ahlman , samantha klein , erkki lehtovirta , holger teichmann , luis eduardo urueña , ken havard , mattias hofstede , dusan m . brinkhuizen , sebastian duque , sam , tomas grim , joselito nardy ribeiro , daniel avendaño , tadeusz stawarczyk , lindolfo souto , greg baker , josef widmer .

josep del hoyo , joe klaiber , peter boesman , noé eiterer , antonio silveira , dusan m . brinkhuizen .

male heard of forest edge of tropical dry forest . recording distance was 15 meters .

one individual seen and heard on forest edge of secondary vegetation at understory near a pasture . it was catching insects at fly . recording distance was 6 meters .

heard on forest interior at understory of lowland rain forest . recording distance was 10 meters or more .

probably a male at understory into forest interior of dry forest . different individual from xc382459 .

a single individual perched and flying for catching cicadas on forest edge of dry forest . recording distance was 8 meters .

recorded in the edge of vereda at if ' s school farm , in the company of ruan henrique silveira martins .

grabación hecha en el marco del proyecto " estudio técnico y participativo de la biodiversidad aviar del municipio de ibagué – tolima , como estrategia para la consolidación del ecoturismo de aves , la conservación de sus hábitats y el desarrollo de procesos de educación ambiental " universidad de ibagué - rednatur - colciencias .

singing while perched about 12 m from me . this was more than 2 km from my other recording of this species in this area ( xc402069 ) , so it is a different bird .

a pair , singing together . these three recordings were taken from about 1 - 1 / 2 hours of following these birds and attempting to get good recordings ; wind , some children , a photographer , and chickens caused me to not include many others .

original recording . habitat riparian strip of forest along arroyo de coloso at ecoparque ecoloso .

sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en " " urltoken "

these colours fit right in with christmastime , so we presume that the bird’s unusual appearance at asa wright was a fitting start to the holiday season .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en " " urltoken "

myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .

there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .

there are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .

howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :

you must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .

avibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 257 times since 24 june 2003 . © denis lepage | privacy policy

this is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .

horse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , …

animal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from…

female resembles male , but she has cinnamon - buff chin and throat . she is slightly paler and duller than male .

juvenile has shorter bill and tail than adults . the upperparts are duller , and the breast band is less regular and broader than in adults .

head is metallic green . the long , sharp black bill is about 4 to 5 cm length . eyes are dark brown with bare greyish eye - rings and lores . legs and feet are yellowish - brown .

we find six subspecies : g . r . melanogenia ; g . r . pallens ; g . r . brevirostris ; g . r . ruficauda ; g . r . rufoviridis ; g . r . heterogyna . they differ in varying amount of colours in plumage and bill size .

female lays 2 to 4 white eggs . incubation lasts about 19 to 23 days , shared by both parents , and female mainly at night . calls and displays occur at each change of incubating bird . at hatching , the chicks are covered with long whitish down . they are fed by both adults with insects caught around the nest - site , within 50 metres from the burrow . young fledge about 20 to 26 days after hatching . adults and youngs roost at night in the burrow after fledging , and during about 8 weeks . this species produces one brood per season , but probably two .

they measure in at about 9 inches ( 23 cm ) long and weight approximately 27 g . those long bills are used for capturing insects . they perch on horizontal branches swaying their bill back and forth in search of flying insects . they are known to capture bees and beetles as well as large brilliantly colored butterflies such as morpho and swallowtails . their long beak allows them to grab hold of butterfly bodies while keeping flapping wings as well as bee stings at bay .


the scarlet finch ( carpodacus sipahi ) is a small passerine bird in the finch family fringillidae .

it is found in the himalayas from central nepal eastwards to vietnam and is found spottily in the adjacent hills of northeast india and southeast asia as far south as thailand .

it is resident in the himalayas , but many birds winter to the immediate south .

its natural habitat is temperate forests .

it was described by the british naturalist brian houghton hodgson in 1836 under the binomial name corythus sipahi .

the species name sipahi comes from the hindi word sipāhi for a soldier .

the scarlet finch was formerly placed in the monotypic genus haematospiza but was moved to the rosefinch genus carpodacus based on the results of molecular phylogenetic studies .

scarlet finch

scarlet finch <EOT> split gran canaria blue finch from [ tenerife ] blue chaffinch ( sangster et al . 2015 )

clement , p . ( 2018 ) . scarlet finch ( carpodacus sipahi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .

18–19 cm ; 38–42·5 g . medium - sized to large , large - billed and thickset finch with short wings and tail . male has entire head , upperparts and underparts bright . . .

przevalski ' s finch , previously called pink - tailed rosefinch , is a relict member of an ancient separate lineage that is as old as , or older than other families of finches ; it belongs in its own monotypic family urocynchramidae , with a name change ( groth 2000 , päckert et al . 2016 )

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en " " urltoken "

ioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2

classification of fringillidae revised for v3 . 3 ; see especially zuccon et al . 2012

europe ( except british isles , sardinia ) to c asia , w , n turkey , c and e caucasus and nw iran .

( zuccon et al . 2012 , cf kirwan & gregory 2005 , bli , hbw )

( tietze et al . 2013 , cf rasmussen & anderton 2005 , ioc 3 . 5 ) . restore english name to great rosefinch

has priority for species name . change english name to pink - rumped rosefinch ( hbw , clements , h & m 3 )

( wu et al . 2011 , tietze et al . 2013 ; cf collar 2004 )

hawaiian honeycreepers resequenced following pratt 2005 , lerner et al . 2011 ; see also nacc 2015 . needs review of oversplit genera .

island populations of the akepa are recognized as separate species ( nacc 2015 - b - 4c ) ; add island name ( hawaii ) to akepa .

based on lerner et al . ( 2011 ) phylogeny ; see also pratt 2005 .

, is preoccupied by a subspecies of greater akialoa . that conflict no longer exists with placement of kauai amakihi in

( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 )

( tschusi , 1901 ) as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .

( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 , nacc )

recognized by bou ( ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 )

pending future analyses ( knox 2001 , ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 , mason & taylor 2015 , bou , h & m4 , nacc 2017 - b - 7 )

se siberia , ne china , korea , sakhalin and kuril is . and japan

( weir and schluter 2004 , smith et al . 2005 ; nacc 2017 - c - 5 )

preliminary genetics suggest that megaplaga and leucoptera are sisters and that bifasciata should be split to avoid paraphyly ( parchman et al . 2007 ) . see also elmberg 1993 re song differences

taczanowski , 1879 as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .

( zuccon et al . 2012 , also arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , ryan et al . 2004 )

sa : n colombia to trinidad and the guianas , south to n argentina , se brazil , e paraguay .

from thraupidae to a new monotypic family rhodinocichlidae , which follows calcariidae ( barker et al . 2013 , 2015 ; nacc 2017 - b - 6 ) . eng [ 8 . 1 ] = lower case ' tanager '

previously separated in monospecific haematospiza , but moved here based on genetic data # r . monotypic .

uttarakhand , and c nepal e to bhutan and ne india ( e arunachal pradesh , and assam s to meghalaya and lushai hills ) , s & se china ( se xizang and w & s yunnan ) and w & ne myanmar ; in winter also nw thailand , n laos and nw vietnam ( w tonkin ) .

song a clear and liquid , upslurred " par - ree - reeeeeee " . call a loud " too - eee " , " pleeau " or " kwee - i - . . .

variety of seeds , buds , berries , and occasionally small insects . plants exploited include raspberry (

season may–jul . nest a large or bulky cup of twigs , plant fibres , roots and grasses , placed 7–12 m above ground in fork of tree . . .

not well known . partial or altitudinal migrant . moves between nov and mid - may to lower levels in . . .

not globally threatened . generally uncommon to scarce ; fairly common in w & c parts of range . precise extent of breeding range in himalayas poorly known ; may reach w in . . .

only subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !

only members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !

forms three well - defined subfamilies # r , including euphoniinae , previously placed in thraupidae . also includes drepanidini , sometimes treated as a separate family ( as in hbw ) , but here considered merely a tribe of carduelinae . extensive phylogenetic data available , and comparatively few species remain wholly unscreened ; nonetheless , study of internal relationships has been confounded by recurring plumage patterns and use of similar feeding niches by taxa that prove to be far from closely related .

previously considered to include species now in agraphospiza , procarduelis and haemorhous ( see all three , below ) ; now in different tribes . as traditionally constituted , was extensively polyphyletic , and in response now restricted to old world species . in order to resolve paraphyly , present genus expanded to incorporate : two monospecific genera considered basal within this lineage , chaunoproctus ( † carpodacus ferreorostris ) and haematospiza # r ; three other monospecific genera , kozlowia , uragus and pyrrhospiza # r # r ; one species from leucosticte # r ; and one hitherto placed in pinicola or propyrrhula ( as in hbw ) # r # r . some authors have isolated c . erythrinus in erythrina # r .

get access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .

also available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 € ( instead of 59 . 90 € ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 € ( instead of 89 . 85 € )

supporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .

view more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .

also available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 € ( instead of 89 . 9 € ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 € ( instead of 134 . 85 € )

there is a registration fee of 20€ . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won’t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .

if you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .

this map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .

hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .

no flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .

josep del hoyo , christian boix hinzen , pieter de groot boersma , sonam dorji .

josep del hoyo , nimali digo and thilanka edirisinghe , tanakorn , markus lilje , morten venas , regis nossent , yu ching tam , paul van giersbergen , lei zhu , urltoken , arthur grosset .

sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .

myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .

there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .

there are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .

howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :

you must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .

avibase has been visited 263 , 292 , 790 times since 24 june 2003 . © denis lepage | privacy policy

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en " " urltoken "

thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .

justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .

the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as scarce or uncommon ( clement 1999 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .

to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en "


arends 's golden mole ( carpitalpa arendsi ) is a species of mammal in the family chrysochloridae .

it is found in mozambique and zimbabwe .

its natural habitats are temperate forests , subtropical or tropical dry forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , temperate grassland , subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland , arable land , pastureland , plantations , rural gardens , urban areas , and introduced vegetation .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

it is the only species in the genus carpitalpa .

it was elevated from the genus chlorotalpa .

it was first described by lundholm , who named it for nicolas arends , taxidermist at the kaffrarian museum ( now the amathole museum , in king william 's town , south africa ) who captured the specimen .

arends ' s golden mole

arends ' s golden mole <EOT> juliana’s golden mole ( neamblysomus julianae ) is a golden mole endemic to south africa . it is listed as an endangered species due to habitat loss and a restricted range . golden moles are an ancient group of mammals that live mostly below ground .

the species occurs in the inyanga highlands of eastern zimbabwe between latitudes 18° s and 20° s , and altitudes of 850–2 , 000 m , with a marginal intrusion into the vila perey district of western mozambique .

they have shiny coats of dense fur and a streamlined , formless appearance . they have no visible eyes or ears ; in fact , they are blind - the small eyes are covered with hairy skin . the ears are small and are hidden in the animal ' s fur . juliana ' s golden mole weighs 21–75 g ( 0 . 75–2 . 7

van zyl ' s golden mole ( cryptochloris zyli ) is a golden mole endemic to the western cape province , south africa . it is listed as an endangered species due to habitat loss . golden moles are an ancient group of mammals who live mostly below ground . they have shiny coats of dense fur and a streamlined , formless appearance . they have no visible eyes or ears ; in fact , they are blind – the small eyes are covered with hairy skin . the ears are small and are hidden in the animal ' s fur . [ 2 ]

van zyl ' s golden mole was initially known only from compagnies drift , 16 km ( 9 . 9 mi ) inland from lambert ' s bay , northwestern cape province , south africa . another specimen was collected at groenriviermond , approximately 150 km ( 93 mi ) farther north along the namaqualand coast , in 2003 . van zyl ' s golden mole is threatened by continued loss of habitat . for example , mining of coastal dunes for alluvial diamonds could lead to habitat degradation . habitat alteration associated with tourism developments along the west coast could also pose a problem for this species . the international union for conservation of nature now rates this species as " endangered " . [ 1 ]

chrysochloris asiatica cape golden mole adult , showing the digging claw , absence of external eye and a hint of the iridescence of the fur . the rhinarium is not obvious in this photograph

it lives in the coastal dune belt and adjacent sandy areas . usually two young are born , sometimes one . van zyl ' s golden mole eats various invertebrates , as well as legless lizards , which grow to a length of about 20 cm ( 8 " ) . the young of golden moles are born in a grass - lined cavity in the ground . they usually dig their tunnels just below the ground . [ 2 ]

of the 21 species of golden mole , no fewer than 11 are threatened with extinction . the primary causes are sand mining , poor agricultural practices , increasing urbanisation , and predation by domestic cats and dogs .

. where it occurs , juliana’s golden mole can be locally common . however , its occurrence is extremely patchy within its limited geographic range . there are no data on population size . the population on bronberg ridge , pretoria east , is severely affected by ongoing intensive urbanization and a mining operation , and it is considered to be critically endangered . the nylsvley population in limpopo occurs in farmlands ( adjoining the nylsvley nature reserve ) that are subject to habitat alteration and potential degradation . another threat is habitat fragmentation which causes obstruction to animal movement ; this results in in - breeding which increases the possible risk of extinction . the

van zyl ' s golden mole is about 80–90 mm ( 3–3 . 5 " ) long and weighs about 20–30 g ( 0 . 71–1 . 06 oz ) . the face has white markings . the dorsal fur is short and dense and is a dark lead - grey colour , the under - layer of fur being pale grey . the underparts are a uniform drab colour . the claw on the third digit on the forefoot is about 10 mm ( 0 . 4 in ) long and 4 mm ( 0 . 2 in ) wide at the base . claw one and two are slightly shorter making a pointed digging tool . [ 2 ]

golden moles are small , insectivorous burrowing mammals endemic to southern africa , where their afrikaans names are gouemolle or kruipmolle ( singular gouemol or kruipmol ) . they comprise the family chrysochloridae and as such they are taxonomically distinct from the true moles , family talpidae , and other mole - like families , all of which , to various degrees , they resemble as a result of evolutionary convergence .

it is confined to sandy soils , often pockets along weathered rocky ridges of quartzite or granite . it is also common in well - irrigated gardens . usually two young are born , sometimes one . golden moles eat

most other species construct both foraging superficial burrows and deeper permanent burrows for residence . residential burrows are relatively complex in form , and may penetrate as far as a metre below ground and include deep chambers for use as bolt - holes , and other chambers as latrines . they push excavated soil up to the surface as mole - hills , or compact it into the tunnel walls . they feed on small insects and earthworms or small vertebrates such as lizards or burrowing snakes . they depend on their sense of hearing to locate much of their prey , and the cochleas of a number of golden mole species have been found to be long and highly coiled , which may indicate a greater ecological dependence on low frequency auditory cues than we see in talpid moles . [ 5 ]

such as insects , earthworms and snails . their young are born in a grass - lined cavity in the ground . golden moles usually dig their tunnels just below the surface of the ground . the main feeding activity is in the late afternoon and at night . they exhibit

most species of chrysochloridae live almost exclusively underground in their respectively preferred environments , beneath either grassveld , forest , swamps , deserts , or mountainous terrain . however , chrysospalax species tend to forage above ground in leaf litter in forests or in meadows . eremitalpa species such as grant ' s golden mole live in the sandy namib desert , where they cannot form tunnels because the sand collapses . instead during the day , when they must seek shelter , they literally swim through the loose sand , using their broad claws to paddle , and dive down some 50 cm to where it is bearably cool . there they enter a state of torpor , thus conserving energy . [ 4 ] at night they emerge to forage on the surface rather than wasting energy shifting sand . their main prey are termites that live under isolated grass clumps , and they might travel for 6 kilometres a night in search of food . they seek promising clumps by listening for wind - rustled grass - root stresses and termites ' head - banging alarm signals , neither of which can be heard easily above ground , so they stop periodically and dip their heads under the sand to listen . [ 4 ]

like most burrowing mammals with similar habits , the chrysochloridae have short legs with powerful digging claws , very dense fur that repels dirt and moisture , and toughened skin , particularly on the head . their eyes are non - functional and covered with furred skin . the external ears are just tiny openings . in particular , golden moles bear a remarkable resemblance to the marsupial moles of australia , family notoryctidae , which they resemble so suggestively that at one time , the marsupial / placental divide not withstanding , some workers argued that they were related . considerations that influenced the debate might have included the view that the chrysochloridae are very primitive placentals and the fact that they have many mole - like specializations similar to specializations in marsupial moles . the rhinarium is a greatly enlarged , dry leathery pad that protects their nostrils while the animal digs . in this respect too , they resemble the marsupial moles . some authors claim that their primary sense is that of touch , and they are particularly sensitive to vibrations that may indicate approaching danger . [ 3 ] note below however , the observations on the malleus in the middle ear .

the taxonomy of the chrysochloridae is undergoing a review in the light of new genetic information . they have traditionally been listed with the shrews , hedgehogs and a grab - bag of small , difficult - to - place creatures as part of the order insectivora . some authorities retain this classification , at least for the time being . others group the golden moles with the tenrecs in a new order , which is sometimes known as tenrecomorpha , while others call it afrosoricida and reserve tenrecomorpha for the family tenrecidae .

at one time the chrysochloridae were regarded as primitive . supporting arguments included : that they were thought to have originated in gondwana , that they had a low resting metabolic rate , and that they could switch off thermoregulation when inactive . furthermore , like the tenrecs , they possess a cloaca , and males lack a scrotum . however , such points are no longer regarded as strongly suggestive that golden moles are undeveloped " reptilian mammals " ; some are seen rather as adaptations to regional climatic conditions . going into a torpor when resting or during cold weather , enables them to conserve energy and reduce urgent requirements for food . similarly , they have developed particularly efficient kidneys and most species do not need to drink water at all ; in fact they tend to drown easily if they fall into water .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en " " urltoken "

thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

monotypic . lundholm ( 1955 ) described this taxon as a subgenus of chlorotalpa , as well as the subgenus kilimatalpa for c . stuhlmanni from east africa . simonetta ( 1968 ) elevated carpitalpa to generic rank to include kilimatalpa . meester ( 1974 ) instead assigned c . arendsi to chlorotalpa and c . stuhlmanni to chrysochloris , commenting that differences between the chlorotalpa species did not warrant subgeneric separation . phylogenetic analyses of morphometric data ( bronner 1995 ) , and recent phylogenetic analyses based on both morphological and genetic data ( asher et al . 2010 ) confirm that c . arendsi has diverged considerably from the chlorotalpa species and chrysochloris ( kilimatalpa ) stuhlmanni , necessitating its allocation to a distinct genus ,

. habitat alteration / degradation as a result of political instability and poorly - managed land transformation initiatives in eastern zimbabwe , together with limited policing and management of conservation areas ( particularly nyanga national park , which includes much of this species range ) , have resulted in rapid and extensive environmental damage from annual wildfires that destroy its preferred forest habitats and local biodiversity ; uncontrolled timber harvesting ; overgrazing by cattle and poaching . habitat modifications are thus inferred to be major potential threats to the survival of this species , given its restricted range , and are reasons to confirm its vulnerable status .

favours loamy soils in montane grasslands and the fringes of rainforests , but is dependent on areas with less cover ( lundholm 1955 ) , and does not penetrate deep into forests ( smithers and lobao - tello 1976 , smithers and wilson 1979 ) . also common in cultivated lands and gardens .

habitat modifications associated with political instability and poorly - managed land transformation initiatives in zimbabwe , together with limited conservation management in protected areas , an increase in the frequency and intensity of wildfires , uncontrolled timber harvesting and overgrazing by livestock are likely to be major threats . the extent and intensity thereof , and impacts on this species , are not well documented . predation by domestic cats and dogs probably represents a more localized threat .

occurs in the following conservation areas : nyanga national park ; mtarazi falls national park ; chimanimani national park ; vumba botanical reserve ; and bunga forest reserve . however , recent reports suggest that baseline management and policing of these conservation areas has collapsed owing to political and economic instability , leading to habitat alteration associated with uncontrolled wildfires , overgrazing by cattle and poaching , so the extent of protection these areas afford is uncertain .

to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .

jonathan kingdon ; david happold ; thomas butynski ; michael hoffmann ; meredith happold ; jan kalina ( 2013 ) .

. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m .

this article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 7 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .

html public " - / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en " " urltoken "

the source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .

would you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .

it will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .

i use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .

of perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .

( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . p . 79 .

this page was last edited on 22 march 2018 , at 10 : 01 .

basis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .

the species range in size from about 8 to about 20 cm . they have muscular shoulders and the forelimbs are radically adapted for digging ; all the toes on the forefeet have been reduced , except for a large , pick - like third claw on the third toe . the fifth digit is absent and the first and fourth digits are vestigial . the adaptations of the hind feet are less dramatic , they retain all five toes and are webbed as an adaptation to efficient backward shovelling of soil loosened by the front claws .

some species also have hypertrophied middle ear ossicles , in particular the malleus , which apparently is adapted towards the detection of seismic vibrations . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] in this respect there is some apparent convergent evolution to burrowing reptiles in the family amphisbaenidae .

females give birth to one to three hairless young in a grass - lined nest within the burrow system . breeding occurs throughout the year . the adults are solitary , and their burrowing territory may be aggressively defended from intruders , especially where resources are relatively scarce . [ 3 ]

( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 77–81 .

crumpton , nick ; kardjilov , nikolay ; asher , robert j . ( 2015 - 08 - 01 ) .

mason , matthew j . ; narins , peter m . ( 2001 - 01 - 01 ) . " seismic signal use by fossorial mammals " .