platydemus manokwari , also known as the new guinea flatworm , is a large predatory land flatworm that has become an invasive species in many countries .

native to new guinea , it was accidentally introduced to the soil of many countries .

it was also deliberately introduced into two pacific islands in an attempt to control an invasion of the giant east african snail .

it eats a variety of invertebrates including land snails , and has had a significant negative impact on the rare endemic land snail fauna of some pacific islands .

it has become established in a wide variety of habitats .

it was recorded in 2014 from a hothouse in caen , france , its first finding in europe , and in 2015 from new caledonia , wallis and futuna islands , singapore , solomon islands , puerto rico ( first record in the caribbean ) , and florida , usa .

the researchers said that " while most of the infected territories reported until now were islands , the newly reported presence of the species in mainland us in florida should be considered a potential major threat to the whole us and even the americas " .

platydemus manokwari as an invasive species

platydemus manokwari as an invasive species <EOT> 100 of the world’s worst invasive alien species . a selection from the global invasive species database .

100 of the world’s worst invasive alien species . a selection from the global invasive species database .

species which are introduced into a new ecosystem have the potential to become invasive . some of the qualities that define an invasive species are :

recommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : platydemus manokwari . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .

just as the environment can help push out an invasive species , so too can a well adapted native on rare occasions .

platydemus manokwari ( new guinea flatworm ) ; on an empty shell of the giant african snail , lissachatina fulica .

my ' the invasive land planarian platydemus manokwari . . . ' article was published 2 years ago today in @ thepeerj urltoken

platydemus manokwari ( new guinea flatworm ) ; translucent cocoon , with young about to hatch .

richardson dm ( 1998 ) forestry trees as invasive aliens . conserv biol 12 : 18–26

the global invasive species database is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the iucn species survival commission . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the global invasive species programme ( gisp ) and is supported through partnerships with the national biological information infrastructure , manaaki whenua - landcare research and the university of auckland . conditions of use .

auckland : iucn / ssc invasive species specialist group ( issg ) ; 2000 .

when both native and introduced species use the same resource , introduced species can competitively exclude native species . in hawaii , an introduced passerine bird ,

sugiura s . seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species .

eldredge , l . g . and smith , b . d . 1994 . introductions and transfers of the triclad flatworm platydemus manokwari . tentacle 4 : 8 . summary : details of spread of platydemus manokwari

the platydemus manokwari , commonly known as the flatworm , grows to about two inches long , and has a greenish backside with a light underbelly— an underbelly that contains a mouth right in the middle .

in fact , there are even books devoted to taking advantage of the potential of using invasive species as a potential food source .

for full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .

sugiura s , tsuru t , yamaura y ( 2013 ) effects of an invasive alien tree on the diversity and temporal dynamics of an insect assemblage on an oceanic island . biol invasions 15 : 157–169 . doi :

informations on platydemus manokwari has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .

rt @ plathelminthe4 : my ' the invasive land planarian platydemus manokwari . . . ' article was published 2 years ago today in @ thepeerj https : / / t…

sugiura , s . & y . yamaura . 2009 . potential impacts of the invasive flatworm platydemus manokwari on arboreal snails , biol invasions 11 : 737 - 742 .

food habit of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1962 ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) , known . . .

the international union for conservation of nature included the worm on its most recent list of the 100 worst invasive alien species . the usda classifies invasive species as plants , animals or pathogens that are non - native to an ecosystem , " whose introduction causes or is likely to cause harm . "

the occurrence of the invasive flatworm platydemus manokwari in the jardin des plantes , caen , in the department of basse - normandie ( normandy , france ) , is the first record of the species in europe .

platydemus manokwari has been recorded to feed mainly on land gastropod molluscs , and also on earthworms , insects and nemerteans .

lemos vs , canello r , leal - zanchet am . carnivore mollusks as natural enemies of invasive land flatworms .

secretariat of nobanis 2012 . riskmapping for 100 nonnative species in europe . copenhagen : nobanis—european network on invasive alien species . available at urltoken .

chiba s ( 2010a ) invasive non - native species’ provision of refugia for endangered native species . conserv biol 24 : 1141–1147 . doi :

invasive species might be bad for the environment , but many of them are good enough to eat .

, as well as other plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .

sugiura s ( 2009 ) seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species . biol conserv 142 : 3013–3019

in some cases , the best policy for dealing with invasive species is just to leave them alone , particularly if they occupy a crucial ecological niche that they or other invasive plants and animals forced another species to vacate .

lowe s , browne m , boudjelas s , de poorter m ( 2000 ) 100 of the world ' s worst invasive alien species a selection from the global invasive species database . issg , ssc , iucn , auckland

convention on biological diversity what are invasive alien species ? 2009 . available at urltoken ( accessed 6 february 2014 )

) . thus , resource competition with introduced plant species has negatively impacted native plant species .

sugiura s ( 2009 ) seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species . biol conserv 142 : 3013–3019 . doi :

the global invasive species database was developed and is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the erstwhile global invasive species programme ( gisp ) in 2000 . the gisd over the past two years and has been redesigned with support from the abu dhabi environment agency , the italian ministry of environment and ispra - the institute for environmental protection and research , italy . terms and conditions of use

one common tactic for reducing populations of invasive species is simply to make their importing them from their native habitat illegal .

the worm ( platydemus manokwari ) is on the " 100 worst invasive alien species " list , and is now newly located in new caledonia , singapore , the solomon islands , puerto rico and florida , according to the study , which is published in peerj .

platydemus manokwari has been recorded from more than 15 different territories , in asia and oceania ; our record in france is the first for europe .

de beauchamp , p . 1963 . platydemus manokwari in . sp . , planaire terrestre de la nouvelle - guin�e hollandaise . bulletin de la soci�t� zoologique de france 87 ( 5 - 6 , december 1962 issue ) : 609 - 615 . summary : the original description of platydemus manokwari .

) , an invasive alien species on the ogasawara islands . in : kawakami k , okochi i ( eds ) restoring the oceanic island ecosystem . springer , tokyo , pp 145–152 . doi :

platydemus manokwari is able to prey on a variety of gastropod molluscs , on nemerteans , earthworms and woodlice , and on other species of land planarians . all reports of prey refer to adults .

sugiura , s . 2009 . seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species , biological conservation 142 : 3013 - 3019 .

depending upon the outcome of an environmental risk assessment and related investigations , threats from platydemus manokwari may need to be responded to in a similar manner to the invasive new zealand flatworm arthurdendyus triangulatus . this species is now subject to an eppo standard regarding import requirements ( eppo , 2000a ) and nursery inspection , exclusion and treatment ( eppo , 2000b ) for the flatworm ( murchie , 2010 ) . the problem with p . manokwari is that even though it is primarily an environmental threat , it does not “indirectly affect plants through the effects on other organisms” . consequently there is the possibility that responsibility for managing this invasive species may fall between the remits of agricultural and environmental regulatory bodies . this could delay effective management of p . manokwari .

p . manokwari is a large predatory flatworm , originally discovered in new guinea , which has been deliberately introduced into some pacific islands in an attempt to control an invasion of the giant east african s . . .

until now , platydemus manokwari was confined to the indo - pacific region . the present record in france is a significant westerly extension of the occurrence of p . manokwari from the indo - pacific region to europe .

a worm called one of the world ' s " worst " invasive species by conservationists has been found in the united states for the first time , an international team of researchers announced on tuesday .

the land planarian platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1963 or “new guinea flatworm” is an invasive species , recorded in 15 countries in the world , and recently in france in a hothouse ( justine et al . , 2014 ) . platydemus manokwari is the only flatworm listed in the “100 world’s worst invasive alien species” ( lowe et al . , 2000 ) ; it is a predator of land snails and is considered a danger to endemic snails wherever it has been introduced . its distribution records , reproduction , biology , prey lists , impacts , and possible control options were recently reviewed ( justine et al . , 2014 ) .

winsor l . the new guinea flatworm— platydemus manokwari : predator of land snails . 1999 . terrestrial flatworms infosheet no . 6 . james cook university .

p . manokwari feeds on live land snails of an endemic species of the ogasawara islands , japan ( mandarina aureola ) under laboratory conditions ( okochi et al . , 2004 ) . p . manokwari also feeds on live snails of the predatory species euglandina rosea as well as other snail and slug species ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) . furthermore , p . manokwari feeds on dead earthworms , and thus can survive in areas where snails have been absent since their invasion ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ; sugiura et al . , 2006 ) . p . manokwari feeds on live flatworms of other species ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) .

with it . genetic testing reveals that there are two different geographic lineages but areas where the beetle is invasive , they have hybridized . the two lineages may be considered as two separate species .

state fish and wildlife departments monitor the potential introduction of invasive plants and animals from outside their jurisdictions . alligatorweed , for example , is an invasive aquatic plant that originated in south america and can not only endanger native species , but also put humans at risk by reducing water quality .

the serious negative environmental impacts of platydemus manokwari on the biodiversity of native land snails in the indo - pacific are well documented . the risks posed by the incursion of this species in france have not yet been assessed . the european union has recently proposed new legislation to prevent and manage the rapidly growing threat to biodiversity from invasive species ( european commission , 2013 ) . the proposal centres on a list of invasive alien species of concern for europe , which will be drawn up with the member states using risk assessments and scientific evidence . whether or not platydemus manokwari will be included on this list remains to be seen .

eldredge lg , smith bd , 1994 . introductions and transfers of the triclad flatworm platydemus manokwari . tentacle , 4 : 8 ( also reprinted as ‘triclad flatworm tours the pacific’ in alien , 2 : 11 , 1995 ) .

kawakatsu , m . , m . nishino & a . ohtaka . 2007 . platydemus manokwari , used previously as a biological control agent abroad for the giant african snail , japanese journal of limnology 68 : 461 - 46 .

) , other snail - eating flatworm species ( e . g . , unidentified species of the genus

disturbance by introduced species ( e . g . , disturbance of seabird colonies by goats ) is an important factor leading to the local extinction of native species ( chiba et al .

provide an overview of the spread of the flatworm to islands in the pacific .

bad news : notorious invasive worm just found in u . s . - seeker

our promise peerj promises to address all issues as quickly and professionally as possible . we thank you in advance for your patience and understanding .

justine jl , winsor l , gey d , gros p , thévenot j , 2014 . the invasive new guinea flatworm platydemus manokwari in france , the first record for europe : time for action is now . peerj , 2 : e297 . urltoken

) . for extinct and declining native species at local sites and / or islands , i considered studies that reported direct observations of feeding on native species by introduced species as evidence of predation and herbivory impacts . gut content analysis that documented feeding on native species by introduced species was also considered evidence of predation . native species that are in decline can share resources ( e . g . , foods ) with introduced species . i considered such resource sharing between native and introduced species a competition impact .

easin ( european alien species information network ) terrestrial alien species in europe . 2014 . available at urltoken .

jessica thévenot analyzed the data , reviewed drafts of the paper , provided administrative contacts and information concerning regulation of invasive species , made maps .

gurevitch j , padilla dk ( 2004 ) are invasive species a major cause of extinctions ? trends ecol evol 19 : 470–474 . doi :

predation of terrestrial flatworms by herpetofauna has also been investigated . the flatworm bipalium adventitium hyman , 1943 , invasive in north america , was offered by ducey et al . ( 1999 ) to six species of salamanders and two species of snakes ; none of the herpetofaunal species tested treated bipalium adventitium as a potential prey item .

, an endemic land snail of the ogasawara islands . glob environ res 17 : 29–37

winsor l , 1999 . the new guinea flatworm - platydemus manokwari : predator of land snails . terrestrial flatworm infosheet no 6 . townsville , australia : james cook university .

uh oh ! invasive asian carp shown to have reproduced in great lakes . . .

the distribution and food habit of the flatworm species platydemus manokwari which is known to be a predator of land snails , were examined on chichijima island of the ogasawara ( bonin ) islands , japan . p . manokwari was distributed over a wide area of the island . few live land snails were found in the area where p . manokwari was distributed . further , it was revealed that p . manokwari fed not . . . [ show full abstract ]

waterhouse & norris ( 1987 ) considered that p . manokwari appeared to be an opportunistic carnivore and generally unselective in the choice of prey . success of platydemus manokwari as a biological control agent for achatina fulica can be attributed to its polyphagy , resistance to starvation , ability to survive and reproduce on alternative prey and potential to reproduce rapidly in synchrony with prey populations ( winsor , johns & barker , 2004 ) .

invasive species specialist group ( issg ) a specialist group of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the world conservation union ( iucn ) ; 2000 . 12pp first published as special lift - out in aliens 12 , december 2000 updated and reprinted version : november 2004 .

it’s very flat , it’s two inches long and less than a quarter inch wide . it’s black and olive in color with a stripe down its back ; it has an elongated head with big black eyes and mouth in the middle of its belly . it’s name is platydemus manokwari and although on first glance it just seems a harmless ground - dwelling worm , in fact it can climb trees . which it does to eat snails , and eat them it does . the new guinea flatworm , as p . manokwari is commonly called , consumes snails with voracity and endangers endemic species . it is considered such a threatening invasive species that it holds the distinction of being the only land planarian ( flatworm ) to be included in “100 worst invasive alien species” list .

we recently identified non - indigenous terrestrial flatworms found in a hothouse in caen ( france ) as the new guinea flatworm platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1963 . the identity of these flatworms was subsequently confirmed by molecular analysis of coi sequences . platydemus manokwari is among the “100 world’s worst invader alien species” ( lowe et al . , 2000 ) . in this paper , we present evidence for the identification of the species in france , the first record in europe , and provide a brief review of the records of the species in the world , lists of its known prey , and possible control options .

just posted on eddmaps tools & training page is a pdf for " eddmaps : using the bugwood smartphone apps " . this pdf provides an easy to use guide for collecting and reporting data on invasive species with the bugwood smartphone apps .

the status of invasive plants , vertebrates , arthropods , molluscs , and crustaceans , and options for a regional invasive species strategy for the south pacific are presented in this series of articles from the south pacific regional environment programme , 2000 .

. . . the introduction of the snail - eating flatworm platydemus manokwari ( tricladida : rhynchodemidae ) has been considered a cause of the extinction of native land snails on several pacific islands . although p . manokwari is known to attack land snails on the ground , whether p . manokwari attacks snails on trees remains unclear . to clarify the effect of p . manokwari on arboreal snails , we examined survival . . .

shimizu y ( 1988 ) vegetation of mt . kuwanoki in the bonin ( ogasawara ) islands with reference to the invasion of an introduced tree species (

winsor l , 1998 . the role of the atrial diverticulum in the copulatory apparatus of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola ) . hydrobiologia , 383 : 83 - 89 .

zavaleta es , hobbs rj , mooney ha ( 2001 ) viewing invasive species removal in a whole - ecosystem context . trends ecol evol 16 : 454–459

i would suggest that anyone interested in invasive species should check out their local eppc , ipc , or equivalent organization to learn how they can participate .

is a serious concern in the conservation of the land snails . accidental introductions as well as intentional ones should be actively prevented . artificial removal in japan of

platydemus manokwari occurs at pindaunde station , mt . wilhelm at 3625 m altitude ( de beauchamp , 1972 ; winsor , 1990 ) , where it was found under stones together with platydemus longibulbus ( de beauchamp , 1972 ) and platydemus pindaudei ( de beauchamp , 1972 ) , and at kainantu at 1558 m altitude in the eastern highlands of new guinea ( winsor , 1990 ) . the natural range of this upland species has yet to be determined .

as yet there are no known specific biological control methods for platydemus manokwari . terrestrial flatworms are considered to be top - level predators in the soil ecosystem ( sluys , 1999 ) . although nothing appears to be known about natural enemies of platydemus manokwari , examples of predation on other species of land planarians by soil and associated fauna are known , mostly under laboratory conditions . they include an instance of predation of the neotropical species obama trigueira ( e . m . froehlich , 1955 ) by enterosyringia pseudorhynchodemus ( riester , 1938 ) ( froehlich , 1956 ) , and predation of five species of land planarians by p . manokwari ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) . a chance field observation led to laboratory findings that arthurdendyus triangulatus was eaten by larvae and adults of species of a carabid and a staphylinid beetles ( gibson , cosens & buchanan , 1997 ) .

beauchamp p de , 1962 . platydemus manokwari n . sp . planaire terrestre de la nouvelle - guinée hollandaise . bulletin de la société zoologique de france , 87 : 609 - 616 .

invasion of a site by platydemus manokwari may directly and indirectly impact on native and introduced arboreal , terrestrial soil and to a much lesser extent semi - aquatic slow - moving invertebrate fauna .

is considered to have competitively excluded native trees . other introduced plants , such as

european commission press release 09 / 09 / 2013 . environment : new eu action to protect biodiversity against problematic invasive species . 2013 . available at urltoken .

) . each cocoon contained an average of 5 . 2 juveniles ( 3 to 9 ) (

, on an oceanic island after feral goat extermination . weed res 50 : 472–480 . doi :

abe t , wada k , kato y , makino si , okochi i ( 2011b ) alien pollinator promotes invasive mutualism in an insular pollination system . biol invasions 13 : 957–967 . doi :

the platydemus manokwari , also called the new guinea flatworm , poses a major threat to the planet ' s snail biodiversity , according to an article published in the scientific journal peerj . " it is considered a danger to endemic snails wherever it has been introduced , " the report states .

iwai n , sugiura s , chiba s . prey - tracking behavior in the invasive terrestrial planarian

is it time to start thinking of recipes for new guinea flatworm ? ( see why here : cooking invasive species may be the new ethical food frontier . )

in a series of trials by lemos , canello & leal - zanchet ( 2012 ) the native neotropical carnivorous mollusc rectartemon depressus ( heynemann , 1868 ) was found to successfully predate upon specimens of at least 10 species of geoplanid terrestrial flatworms as well as five undescribed species of geoplana , and also the introduced species bipalium kewense . whether other species of carnivorous molluscs successfully predate upon flatworms is not yet known . platydemus manokwari predates upon at least two species of carnivorous molluscs observed in the field ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) : the rosy wolf snail euglandina rosea ( de férussac , 1821 ) and gonaxis quadrilateralis ( preston , 1901 ) ; both these mollusc species were introduced in an attempt to control the giant african snail achatina fulica in the pacific region ( davis & butler , 1964 ; lydeard et al . , 2004 ) .

a study by princeton researchers in 2011 found that invasive ship rats brought to new zealand ' s north island when europeans first arrived devastated local populations of birds and bats . as pollinators , the native species were an important part of the ecosystem , but the ship rats have filled that role . as one of the researchers explained in a press release , " the killer stepped in to do the job of its victim . "

bugwood ' s invasive species coordinator and eddmaps data coordinator were in chapel hill , nc for the joint southeast exotic pest plant council and north carolina invasive plant council meeting . it was held at the north carolina botanical garden and was attended by representatives of the southeastern u . s . from all fields concerned with invasive species : industry / commercial agents , university researchers and staff , state and federal agency employees , etc .

anonymous . 2000 . flatworm ( platydemus manokwari ) in samoa . sapa newsletter april - june 2000 - issue 2 / 00 3 - 4 . summary : records presence in samoa . good illustration .

platydemus manokwari with white pharynx protruding from the underside , ingesting soft tissues of a specimen of the mediterranean snail . ( photo : pierre gros ) / cc by - nc - sa 4 . 0

but even getting to an airport could be risky , u . s . officials warned . the u . s . state department issued an alert sunday urging its citizens on the island to shelter in place and not to go to an airport unless travelers had confirmed their departing flight was taking off .

representative examples of top - down impacts by introduced species on native species in the ogasawara islands . a introduced green anole lizard , anolis carolinensis ; b introduced flatworm , platydemus manokwari ; c introduced goat , capra aegagrus ; d endemic butterfly , celastrina ogasawaraensis ; e endemic snail , boninosuccinea ogasawarae ; f endemic plant , lobelia boninensis

hot water tolerance of p . manokwari has been reported , but sugiura ( 2008 ) reports that immersion in water at ≥ 43°c for 5 min ) kills p . manokwari .

) . these impacts were not included in this survey . additionally , positive impacts of introduced species on native organisms and negative impacts of native species on introduced species were excluded from this study .

extremes in the density of dorsal pigmentation may cause p . manokwari to be confused with platydemus bivittatus recorded from milne bay , new guinea , and platydemus quadristriatus from the tonga islands . specimens with heavily pigmented dorsal stripes , as may occur in old individuals , could approach the external appearance of p . bivittatus , but would lack the fine dark median pre - ocular stripe present in the latter species . also the distance between the mouth and gonopore in p . bivittatus is considerably less than in a similar sized specimen of p . manokwari . the two species can be readily distinguished on the basis of their internal anatomy . similarly , specimens of p . manokwari in which only the margins of the brown dorsal stripes are evident on a lighter ground colour ( as in a specimen from lockhart river , queensland , australia ) approach p . quadristriatus , although may be distinguished from this species by a pale dorsal median stripe present in p . manokwari .

barker , g . m . 2002 . molluscs as crop pests . cabi publishing .

australopacifica sp . , bipalium kewense , bipalium sp . , platydemus sp . 1 ; p . sp . 2

compiled by : dr . robert h . cowie , center for conservation research and training , university of hawaii & iucn / ssc invasive species specialist group ( issg )

molluscs are very uncommon in human - modified habitats in northern australia . the accidental spread of the species can readily occur . one such transfer of the species in australia is reported ; the flatworm harboured in the hollow tuber of a houseplant alocasia sent from cardwell , queensland , to weipa , cape york peninsula ( waterhouse and norris , 1987 ) . the invasiveness of the species in some pacific countries is probably further promoted by the deliberate introduction as a biocontrol agent by humans , and the ready availability of preferred prey , such as achatina and native mollusc species . the proximity of agricultural land to native forest in these areas may also facilitate the spread of the species . the occurrence of the species in native cloud forest at 675 metres altitude on pohnpei ( eldredge and smith , 1994 ) , and in forest at 365 metres altitude on anatahan island ( kawakatsu and ogren , 1994 ) , together with the arboreal habits and fecundity of p . manokwari are particular causes for concern . p . manokwari is included in the 100 worst invasive species in the global invasive species programme ( gisp ) database urltoken

to celebrate , uab sustainability held an electric car show “to help people see the different options that are out there if they wanted to purchase an electric vehicle , ” said julie price , uab sustainability manager .

yamashita n , ishida a , kushima h , tanaka n ( 2000 ) acclimation to sudden increase in light favoring an invasive over native trees in subtropical islands , japan . oecologia 125 : 412–419 . doi :

the garlic mustard , a noxious plant that spreads rapidly , is evolving a counter - resistance , setting off a kind of chemical warfare among the native and invasive species .

predation by platydemus manokwari on acusta despecta sieboldiana and bradybaena similaris eggs did not occur during the experiment . some p . manokwari individuals were observed crawling on the eggs , but they did not seem to recognize them as food . however , once snails hatched , p . manokwari individuals of various sizes ( 5–270 mg ) preyed on hatchlings of a . d . sieboldiana , although the smallest p . manokwari specimen ( 2 mg ) did not . predation behaviours were not observed , but one p . manokwari individual was found holding a cleared snail shell , covering it with its ventral body near the pharynx . platydemus manokwari should be able to move small snails to its pharynx using its muscular body ; thus , no ‘gape limit’ for predation on land snail hatchlings should exist . although insufficient number of b . similaris hatchlings prevented us from conducting predation experiments on hatchlings of this species , hatchlings of b . similaris were also predated right after hatching , indicating that our result should be robust for multiple species of snails .

the 2 - mg p . manokwari specimen did not feed on hatchlings of a . d . sieboldiana . this individual may have been too small to attack a snail by itself . as gregarious attacks by p . manokwari allow them to prey on larger land snails ( sugiura , 2010 ) , small p . manokwari individuals may only be able to feed on land snails when joining larger p . manokwari in attacking snails . kaneda et al . ( 1990 ) reported that the size of p . manokwari hatchlings ranged from 0 . 8 to 26 . 4 mg ( mean ± sd , 11 . 77 ± 6 . 56 ) , and extremely small hatchlings usually died within a few days . in our experiment , the smallest p . manokwari individual that preyed on snail hatchlings was 5 mg , which suggests that almost all active p . manokwari , regardless of size , could prey on snails as small as 2 mm .

. it is an effective predator that poses a serious threat to native snails . vulnerable native snails threatened by

platydemus manokwari has been used as a biological control agent for the giant african snail . alien soil animals can be unintentionally introduced by commercial trade among islands and continental landmasses ( sugiura 2008 ) . globalisation of commercial trade may have helped the transfer to non - invaded areas ( sugiura 2009 ) . movement of ornamental plants , potted plants , and other materials with soil can transfer p . manokwari to new areas ( sugiura 2009 ) . quarantine procedures for potted plants and other soil containing materials that can carry invasive flatworms are needed to protect against invasions in warming temperate areas ( sugiura 2008 , in sugiura 2009 ) . platydemus manokwari can readily be transported by soil on construction machines ( okochi et al . 2004 ) .

a university of georgia study conducted in 2012 found that some native clearweed plants in the peach state have evolved resistance to garlic mustard , an invasive plant first introduced 150 years ago to the united states from europe .

platydemus manokwari has a most unpleasant astringent taste ( l winsor , pers . obs . , 1994 ) , just as has been noted for other species ( dendy , 1891 ) . bellwood ( d bellwood , pers . comm . to lw , 1997 ) in his private urban garden , remarked that free - range domestic bantams that noticed p . manokwari on an upturned log pecked at , took the flatworms into their mouths , then immediately rejected them ; when at a much later time p . manokwari was subsequently noticed by the bantams they refused to peck at the flatworms . this is similar to behaviour of domestic fowls offered caenoplana spenceri ( dendy , 1891 ) . predation of flatworms by native species of birds has not been reported .

freed la , cann rl ( 2009 ) negative effects of an introduced bird species on growth and survival in a native bird community . curr biol 19 : 1736–1740 . doi :

bowdich and other achatinidae as pests in tropical agriculture . in : barker gm , editor .

first - person essays , features , interviews and q & as ; about life today .

did you know that there is an interactive database of invasive species eradications on islands ? the database of island invasive species eradications has compiled information worldwide for islands that have eradication programs for invasive species . you can click on any of the marked islands and a details box will popup and show what the target species are , what stage the program is in ( in progress , successful , or failed ) , and the last date of progress update . many of the islands off of the u . s . coast have eradicated ungulates ( sheep , goats , deer , etc . ) , rabbits , dogs , cats , and rodents . you can also search by a few different filters if you are interested in a certain species , place , or eradication status or method .

an undesirable consequence of globalization , a relatively modern phenomenon , has been an increase in the number of biological invasions that challenge the conservation of biodiversity and natural resources ( secretariat of nobanis , 2012 ; simberloff , 2014 ) . invasive alien species ( ias ) have been defined as “plants , animals , pathogens and other organisms that are non - native to an ecosystem , and which may cause economic or environmental harm or adversely affect human health . in particular , they impact adversely upon biodiversity , including decline or elimination of native species–through competition , predation , or transmission of pathogens–and the disruption of local ecosystems and ecosystem functions” ( convention on biological diversity , 2009 ) .

a number of species of terrestrial flatworms will , when moisture conditions are right , seek prey above the ground . platydemus manokwari has been observed feeding on both juvenile and adult partulid snails at heights above one metre in trees , and in captivity the flatworm fed on specimens of partula sp . and pythia sp . ( eldredge & smith , 1995 ; hopper & smith , 1992 ) . experimentally , p . manokwari has been shown to track artificially created snail scent trails on the ground ( iwai , sugiura & chiba , 2010 ) , and up trees , supporting the hypothesis that the introduction of p . manokwari is an important cause in the rapid decline or extinction of native arboreal snails as well as ground - dwelling snails on pacific islands ( sugiura & yamaura , 2008 ) .

satoshi , c . 2003 . species diversity and conservation of mandarina , an endemic land snail of the ogasawara islands . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 4 march 2006 ]

tiger prawns in the gulf , asian carp in the great lakes and many other species have been put on the menu in their respective locales in an attempt to thin their numbers .

in france , the current situation is that p . manokwari is confined to a single hothouse in the jardin des plantes in caen , but is not eradicated . eradication is still an issue of concern , because the species could be a major threat to various soil invertebrates , especially snails , including endemic species ( justine et al . , 2014 ) .

jones hd . the african and european land planarians faunas , with an identification guide for field workers in europe .

jones hd . the african and european land planarian faunas , with an identification guide for field workers in europe .

this invasive plant is swallowing the u . s . at the rate of 50 , 000 ba . . .

corlett rt ( 2010 ) invasive aliens on tropical east asian islands . biodivers conserv 19 : 411–423 . doi :

to find final - stage eggs , p . manokwari might have to cross over an egg by chance , because no trail would exist for the flatworm to follow . platydemus manokwari and land snails are often found beneath stones or logs , sharing microhabitats that are close to each other ( winsor et al . , 2004 ) , and encounters between p . manokwari and land snail eggs should occur frequently . as eggs cannot escape , predation by p . manokwari on final - stage eggs should have a strong influence on snail mortality rates . moreover , invasive flatworms have been found in many pacific islands , where minute genera , whose shells are less than 10 mm , constitute 60 % of the snail fauna ( vagvolgyi , 1976 ) . for effective conservation of land snails , we need to recognize that flatworms can act as significant predators on them , including small - bodied snails and hatchlings , leaving only early - stage eggs free from predation .

mean survival rates of eggs ( a , experiment 1 ) and hatchlings ( b , experiment 3 ) of acusta despecta sieboldiana under predation by platydemus manokwari ( flatworm ) and without predation ( control ) . five eggs or hatchlings were placed in a container with one individual p . manokwari on day 0 . bars indicate se .

many diurnal insect populations have been declining as a result of predation by introduced lizards ( fig .

in this study , i investigated intratrophic and intertrophic interactions by introduced species that have had significant negative impacts on native species in the ogasawara islands . many native species have been negatively impacted by introduced predators and herbivores ( table

pennsylvania is enlisting the help of the public to fight the spread of aquatic invasive species . two signs they are posting to help increase public awareness of the problems caused by aquatic invasives .

kaneda m , kitagawa k , ichinohe f , 1990 . laboratory rearing method and biology of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) . applied entomology and zoology , 25 ( 4 ) : 524 - 528 .

kaneda m , kitagawa k , nagai h , ichinohe f , 1992 . the effects of temperature and prey species on the development and fecundity of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) . research bulletin of the plant protection service , japan , no . 28 : 7 - 11 .

p . manokwari invasion can affect human health , because p . manokwari is a paratenic host of the nematode angiostrongylus cantonensis which causes ‘angiostrongyliasis’ ( asato et al . , 2004 ) . fresh vegetables contaminated with infected p . manokwari can be a source of human infection ( asato et al . , 2004 ) .

justine j - l , winsor l , gey d , gros p , thévenot j . the invasive new guinea flatworm

nutrition terrestrial flatworms ( land planarians ; terricola ) are predators of various soil invertebrates , such as earthworms , land snails , slugs , and arthropods ( ogren 1995 , winsor et al . 2004 , in sugiura 2009 ) . it was revealed that in the chichijima island , japan , p . manokwari fed not only on live land snails including predatory species , but also on other food resources such as live flatworms or a land nemertean species and the carcasses of slugs and earthworms ( ohbayashi et al . 2005 ) . while p . manokwari feeds on slow - moving soil animals such as earthworms , it prefers live snails over other organisms ( sugiura 2010 ) .

ohbayashi t , okochi i , sato h , ono t , 2005 . food habit of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1962 ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) , known as a predatory flatworm of land snails in the ogasawara ( bonin ) islands , japan . applied entomology and zoology , 40 ( 4 ) : 609 - 614 .

p . manokwari , described by beauchamp in 1962 , was first found at the dutch new guinea agricultural research station in the coastal town manokwari , northwestern irian jaya , indonesia . it is the " rhynchodemid turbellarian " considered to be responsible for the disappearance of the giant african snail in some parts of manokwari ( schreurs , 1963 ; mead , 1979 ) . the species platydemus joliveti , collected in 1969 from pindaude station on mt wilhelm , new guinea , was considered to be a neo - adult p . manokwari by winsor ( 1990 ) . flatworm specimen numbers 2078 and 2080 identified as " microplaninae sp . " from anatahan island , northern mariana islands ( kawakatsu and ogren , 1994 ) , are also considered to be p . manokwari ( l winsor , james cook university , townsville , australia , personal communication , 2004 ) .

, from a specimen collected in brest ( france ) and kept in the mnhn collection as mnhn jl95 , was used as outgroup for the nj tree . for several specimens only “short” sequences were obtained (

platydemus manokwari ( new guinea flatworm ) ; ( a ) dorsolateral aspect showing typical pattern of markings ; ( b ) anterior end showing eyes ; ( c ) ventrolateral aspect showing typical pattern of markings . ( drawings not to scale . )

kaneda , m . , kitagawa , k . , ichinohe , f . 1990 . laboratory rearing method and biology of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) , applied entomology and zoology 25 ( 4 ) : abstract .

as humans have spread across the islands of the world we have taken with us , either purposefully or inadvertently , a remarkable array of plant and animal species ( see box 11 . 2 ) . these anthropogenic introductions are variously called exotic , alien or non - native species . some species persist simply as domesticated ( animal ) or cultivated ( plant ) species , while others become naturalized , i . e . they form self - sustaining populations within modified habitats ( henderson et al . 2006 ) . of these , some become feral or invasive , expanding into intact or semi - intact habitats . of this subset , a few species cause serious ecological impacts . these species are termed ecosystem transformers ( henderson et al . 2006 ) . based on a review of numerous case studies , williamson ( 1996 ) has suggested that only about 10 % of introduced species become established , with in turn about 10 % of these species achieving pest status .

) . additionally , intense herbivory by introduced mammals such as goats has caused the extinction of or decline in native plant species on islands ( e . g . , campbell and donlan

three of the chargers are in the hourly section , and six are in an area used for long - term parking .

the introduction of the snail - eating flatworm platydemus manokwari ( tricladida : rhynchodemidae ) has been considered a cause of the extinction of native land snails on several pacific islands . although p . manokwari is known to attack land snails on the ground , whether p . manokwari attacks snails on trees remains unclear . to clarify the effect of p . manokwari on arboreal snails , we examined survival rates of land snails experimentally placed on tree trunks ( 0 . 5–2 . 0 m above the ground ) in a forest on chichijima , ogasawara ( bonin ) islands , in the northwestern pacific ocean . the survival of snails experimentally placed on tree trunks with artificially created snail scent trails rapidly decreased for 7 days , and the mortality was caused by p . manokwari predation . however , snails placed on tree trunks without snail scent trails were not attacked by p . manokwari . therefore , p . manokwari climbed tree trunks , likely tracking the snail scent . we found that over 40 % of the snails placed on tree trunks with snail scent trails were eaten by p . manokwari within 7 days . this experiment supports the hypothesis that p . manokwari predation is an important cause of the rapid decline or extinction of native arboreal snails on pacific islands .

some species of terrestrial planarians ( flatworms ) are among the predators of land snails , but their predatory impacts have not been sufficiently studied . flatworms are known to follow snail trails to find prey and enter shells to consume snails ; however , eggs ( which do not have trails to follow ) and snails whose shells are too small for flatworms to enter may not be eaten . to determine whether an invasive flatworm , platydemus manokwari , preys on snail eggs or small land snails , we conducted a laboratory experiment in which we fed five eggs or five hatchlings ( 2 mm in diameter ) of a common land snail species found in japan to p . manokwari individuals of various sizes . egg predation did not occur within 10 days , but hatchling predation commenced on the first night ; only 9 % of the hatchlings remained on day 10 . platydemus manokwari did not recognize early - stage eggs as food , but started preying on eggs just before they hatched . flatworms can therefore be a significant predator on land snails , preying on even tiny land snails , leaving only early - stage eggs free from predation .

until now , platydemus manokwari was confined to the indo - pacific region within the bounds of the ogasawara islands , japan in the north ; near mackay in queensland , australia to the south ; french polynesia to the east ; with the most westerly extent of the flatworm in the maldives . the caen record of this species is a significant westerly extension of the occurrence of p . manokwari from the indo - pacific region to europe .

) , but generally are not collected from soil or litter using dry extraction methods such as berlese - funnel extractors . extracting terricola from soil samples using wet extractors such as those of macfayden or kempson ( in

historic biological invasions include the passive dispersal of terrestrial flatworms , also known as land planarians . the main driver for this was probably horticulturalists of the 19th century using the then recently invented wardian cases to safely transport back to the hothouses and gardens of europe rare plants , together with soil containing cryptic exotic animal species ( winsor , johns & barker , 2004 ) . as a consequence , over 30 species of land planarians have established themselves as non - indigenous species in various countries outside their native range ( winsor , johns & barker , 2004 ) .

muniappan r , duhamel g , santiago rm , acay dr , 1986 . giant african snail control in bugsuk island , philippines , by platydemus manokwari . . oléagineux , 41 ( 4 ) : 183 - 188 ; [ 5 pl . ] .

muniappan , r , g . duhamel , r . m . santiago & d . r . acay . 1986 . giant african snail control in bugsuk island , philippines , by platydemus manokwari , oleagineux 41 ( 4 ) : 183 - 188 .

) is an invasive species found primarily in the southwest u . s . , though it has been documented in several counties across the whole southeast . the biggest concern with buffelgrass is that it can transform a shrub and scrub habitat into a grassland , crowding out all the native vegetation , and can rapidly deplete the soil of nutrients . it is prized as a pasture grass in many areas due to the same reasons that make it a successful invasive ; rapid establishment , high yield , high nutrient load , and adaptability to many weather conditions and environments .


the volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) , also known as teporingo or zacatuche , is a small rabbit that resides in the mountains of mexico .

it is the world 's second smallest rabbit , second only to the pygmy rabbit .

it has small rounded ears , short legs , and short , thick fur and weighs approximately 390 – 600 g ( 0.86 – 1.3 lb ) .

it has a life span of 7 to 9 years .

the volcano rabbit lives in groups of 2 to 5 animals in burrows ( underground nests ) and runways among grass tussocks .

the burrows can be as long as 5 m and as deep as 40 cm .

there are usually 2 to 3 young per litter , born in the burrows .

unlike many species of rabbits ( and similar to pikas ) , the volcano rabbit emits very high-pitched sounds instead of thumping its feet on the ground to warn other rabbits of danger .

it is crepuscular and is highly active during twilight , dawn and all times in between .

populations have been estimated to have approximately 150 – 200 colonies with a total population of 1,200 individuals over their entire range .

volcano rabbit

volcano rabbit <EOT> in addition to the volcano rabbit of mexico , pygmy rabbits are the only north american rabbit that dig their own burrows .

the volcano rabbit is one of the smallest species of rabbit in the world and is believed to be one of the most primitive rabbit species in the world . the volcano rabbit’s name is derived from its unique environment as they are only found around four prominent volcanoes in mexico , the volcano rabbit is not found anywhere else in the world .

fine structure of the parotid gland in the pika and the volcano rabbit . - pubmed - ncbi

the volcano rabbit weighs 390 - 600 g ( 0 . 86 - 1 . 3 lb ) .

the endangered volcano rabbit is endemic to the mountainous areas lying directly to the south of mexico city .

volcano rabbits tend to be found in the dense pin forests and undergrowth that covers the volcano slopes and usually at around 3000 meters in elevation .

millburn , naomi . " reasons why the volcano rabbit might be extinct " accessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken

1987 . the volcano rabbit : a shrinking distribution and a threatened habitat . oryx 21 : 85 - 91 .

the tiny volcano rabbit , also known as the zacatuche or teporingo , is an endangered lagomorph native to mexico .

unlawful hunting activities are also a prominent factor in the endangered population status of volcano rabbits . although strictly forbidden in mexico , volcano rabbit hunting still takes place within the species ' range . some parks are even specifically designated as protective sanctuaries for their volcano rabbit residents . the hunting is common both for sustenance and target purposes .

millburn , naomi . " reasons why the volcano rabbit might be extinct . " animals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / reasons - volcano - rabbit - might - extinct - 4855 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .

millburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . reasons why the volcano rabbit might be extinct . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / reasons - volcano - rabbit - might - extinct - 4855 . html

volcano rabbits breed throughout the year with a peak during the warm summer . after a

on el pelado volcano , méxico . journal of mammalogy 75 : 743 - 749 .

the most serious threats to the volcano rabbit are habitat degradation and target shooting . hunters looking for game birds ( such as quail ) will use the rabbit for target practice . the people living in the mountains consider it vermin to be killed off . neither the hunters or the natives eat the volcano rabbit .

sadly the volcano rabbit population is currently in decline mostly because of their habitat being so close to mexico city . due to being so close to humans the volcano rabbit’s are losing their habitat to human expansion and are often hunted for food or even just target practice .

because of the dense undergrowth on the volcanic slopes the volcano rabbit’s can spend most of their time actually up on the surface although they will occasionally shelter in burrows that have been dug by other animals as the volcano rabbit’s do not have the means to dig burrows .

the volcano rabbit occurs in the mexican pine - oak forests global 200 ecoregion . ( olson & dinerstein 1998 , olson & dinerstein 1999 )

the volcano rabbit is the second smallest of all rabbit and hares . it lives near the only four volcanoes in mexico , which are popocatepet , izacchihtal , el palado , and tlaloc .

the volcano rabbit lives in mexico . the rabbit has been pushed into areas on the slopes of the iztaccíhuatl , pelado , popocatepetl , and tlaloc volcanoes . the volcano rabbit is generally found between elevations of 2800 m and 4250 m in pine forests with a dense undergrowth of bunch grass and rocky terrain called the transverse neovolcanic axis .

embed this arkive thumbnail link ( " portlet " ) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href = " urltoken " title = " arkive species - volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) " > < img src = " urltoken " alt = " arkive species - volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) " title = " arkive species - volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) " border = " 0 " / > < / a >

oryx _ 2014 _ 148 _ hunter _ cresswell _ volcano _ rabbit _ final _ authors _ accepted _ version . pdf ( 724 . 1kb )

upon first inspection the volcano rabbit may just look like any other type of rabbit with thick dark brown fur and a gray underside , however on closer inspection characteristics like small round ears , almost no tail and very short legs define this unique type of rabbit .

hunter , m & cresswell , w 2015 , ' factors affecting the distribution and abundance of the endangered volcano rabbit romerolagus diazi on the iztaccihuatl volcano ' oryx , vol 49 , no . 2 , pp . 366 - 375 . doi : 10 . 1017 / s0030605313000525

the volcano rabbit is small with short , round ears and small legs . their fur is usually dark brown or black with grey underneath their stomach . they also have yellow on the back and sides of their body . they do not have a visible tail . an average volcano rabbit weighs at least a pound or less . it is approximately 9 - 12 inches in height and has one inch ears . volcano rabbit are herbivores , this includes grass and the bark of alder trees .

although the volcano rabbits are not found outside of mexico there are a handful of isolated populations away from the slopes of the volcanoes but these are very few and far between . the four volcano slopes where these unique rabbits reside are the

the volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) , also known as teporingo or zacatuche , is a small rabbit that resides in the mountains of mexico . it is the world ' s second smallest rabbit , second only to the pygmy rabbit . it has small rounded ears , short legs , and short , thick fur and weighs approximately 390–600 g ( 0 . 86–1 . 3 lb ) . it has a life span of 7 to 9 years . the volcano rabbit lives in groups of 2 to 5 animals in burrows ( underground nests ) and runways among grass tussocks .

one of the tiniest rabbits in the world , the furry volcano rabbit makes itself comfortable in the home of mexico . it is given the name " volcano rabbit " for a reason as it nestles on the slopes of volcanoes , but it doesn ' t stay put ! hopping to various different biomes including forests , it mainly resides in the tropical grassland biome where it has become endangered .

the volcano rabbit feeds on green leaves in zacaton grasses , the undeveloped leaves of spiny herbs and the bark of alder trees . during the rainy season , it will also eat oats and corn from crops .

living in family groups of up to five individuals the volcano rabbit’s feed mostly on leaves , bark and herbs and are nocturnal which means most activities take place during the night . not much is known about the breeding cycle of the volcano rabbits but it is known that females generally give birth to a litter of 2 or 3 young after successful mating .

the volcano rabbit has traditionally been hunted for food and sport . although laws have been passed outlawing the hunting of the animals , they are seldom enforced . forest fires , the conversion of forest land into farmland , the overgrazing of cattle and sheep , and the cutting of trees for timber have all contributed to the destruction of volcano rabbit habitat . many of the forest fires result when farmers burn bunchgrass areas in hopes of promoting new growth for their livestock ( a process known as slash - and - burn agriculture ) . each of the remaining volcano rabbit populations lies within a 45 - minute drive of mexico city . now the world’s largest city , it has a rapidly growing population of 20 , 000 , 000 people . as the city and rural settlements around it continue to expand , volcano rabbit habitat continues to decrease . as of 1998 , only 16 patches of suitable habitat exist . part of the volcano rabbit’s present - day range lies within the izta - popo and zoquiapan national parks . however , habitat destruction continues even with these protected areas .

the volcano rabbit feeds on the green leaves of zacaton grasses , the young leaves of spiny herbs and the bark of alder trees . during the rainy season , it may also eat oats and corn from crops .

volcano rabbits feed on zacaton grasses , herbs and the bark of alder trees . during the rainy season they will also eat corn and oats .

studies conducted on the pelado volcano , one of the four core areas of zacatuche rabbit , indicated that densities estimated using line transects ranged from 0 . 11 to 1 . 20 rabbits / ha according to habitat characteristics (

the volcano rabbit , also known as the mexican pygmy rabbit , has short , thick dark brown hair . it is one of the few species of short - eared rabbits . its rounded ears measure just 1 . 6 inches ( 4 centimeters ) long . the animal also has short hind legs and feet and a very short tail . an average volcano rabbit has a head and body length of 10 . 5 to 13 inches ( 26 . 5 to 33 centimeters ) and weighs between 14 and 18 ounces ( 397 and 510 grams ) . active mainly during the day , the volcano rabbit feeds on the tender young leaves of zacaton or bunchgrass ( various wiry grass species that grow in low clumps in mexico and the southwestern united states ) . its main predators are long - tailed weasels , bobcats , and rattlesnakes . a volcano rabbit blending in with its surroundings . volcano rabbits construct elaborate burrows in deep sandy soil . entrances are hidden in the base of grass clumps . for temporary shelter during the day , the animals sometimes use abandoned pocket - gopher burrows or the hollows between rocks and boulders . scientists know little about the social structure of volcano rabbits . groups of two to seven animals have been observed in the wild . male and female volcano rabbits mate primarily between january and april . after a gestation ( pregnancy ) period of 38 to 40 days , a female gives birth to a litter of one to five infants .

* * * the volcano rabbit is restricted to the volcanic slopes near mexico city , within a 45 minute drive of 17 million people . as a result it is subjected to the pressures of habitat degradation , tourism and hunting .

there are no established conversations for volcano rabbits . there are laws in mexico that make hunting them illegal , but enforcement of the law is difficult . some zoos in the americas have bred them in captive to help increase their population . organizations teach the public about volcano rabbits and how to help protect them .

an initial robotic testing phase has nearly been completed on the piano del lago area of the volcano , a desolate stretch of terrain buffeted by strong winds .

) found in central mexico ( durrell and mallinson 1970 ) . pygmy rabbit burrows

the volcano rabbit ( scientific name romerolagus diazi ) is more commonly called zacatuche or teporingo by the locals living in the mountainous regions of mexico where these tiny animals are found . easily identified by their minute appendages ( ears , legs , feet , tail ) and thick stubby fur , volcano rabbits are rather small mammals with , adult individuals weighing only 1 . 3 lbs , making them the second smallest rabbit in the world , following only the pygmy rabbit . these animals are equipped with two upper incisors designed specifically for gnawing , a body feature which sets them apart from rodents .

unlike other rabbits , who warn others of danger by thumbing their feet , volcano rabbits emit very high - pitched sounds and whistles when they are aware of danger approaching .

the young volcano rabbits are born in an underground nest . they remain in the nest for 2 weeks and begin to eat solid food and move about after 3 weeks .

volcano rabbits ( romerolagus diazi ) are diminutive mammals that are native to mexico , where they have an extremely limited geographic scope . outside of mexico , they are not found anywhere else on earth . though volcano rabbits still exist and are not considered to be extinct , they are indeed an endangered species , with an array of different risk factors .

livestock grazing may be compatible with pygmy rabbit conservation efforts over the long - term .

pygmy rabbits are on average the smallest rabbit , with large individuals weighing about 1 pound .

what really needs to be addressed though is the purposeful burning of the forests in which they live . humans shouldn’t simply be allowed to burn forests down for the purpose of creating more pastures . this does not just hurt the volcano rabbit , but anything and everything that was living there .

the volcano rabbit is found only in central mexico on the slopes of four volcanoes : popocatepetl , iztaccihautl , el pelado , and tlaloc . the animal inhabits pine forests on those slopes at elevations between 9 , 000 and 14 , 000 feet ( 2 , 740 and 4 , 270 meters ) . these areas are often dry in the winter and rainy in the summer . biologists ( people who study living organisms ) are unsure of the total number of volcano rabbits currently in existence .

it is ironic that rabbits are a symbol of fertility throughout the world . recent estimates suggest that 25 % of rabbit species worldwide are declining or endangered . examples of declining rabbit species include :

not all rabbit populations are under threat - - some threaten other species . read more here .

volcano rabbits are , as of the official 2008 iucn red list of threatened species determination , not yet extinct . however , the wee rabbits are considered to be " endangered " animals , which indicates that , without intervention and management , extinction may be an imminent possibility for the future . as of the assessment , numbers for volcano rabbits were believed to be going up , rather than dropping .

the most serious threats to the volcano rabbit are habitat degradation and target shooting . a variety of factors appear to be responsible for the continued degradation of the rabbit ' s forest / zacaton habitat . these include forest fires , overgrazing by cattle and sheep , encroachment by development ( both from the expansion of mexico city as well as additional rural settlements near the rabbit ' s core habitat ) and agriculture , over - exploitation of timber and cutting of zacaton grasses for thatch and brush manufacture .

issue 6 : we received a number of comments and questions concerning how we determined the historic range of the pygmy rabbit , what the abundance and status of various pygmy rabbit populations are , how abundance estimates are determined , and the causes behind the recent declines in the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .

volcano rabbits are the second smallest rabbit in the world , only the pygmy rabbit is smaller . they have a body length between 23 and 32 cms ( 9 - 12 . 5 inches ) , a tail length between 1 and 3 cms ( 0 . 4 - 1 . 2 inches ) and they weigh between 375 and 600 g ( 13 . 2 - 21 . 2 oz ) .

these robots are roaming mount etna on the island of sicily , italy . they pair are using the volcano as a testing ground for future missions to the lunar surface . ( antonio parrinello / reuters )

the volcano rabbit is endemic to mexico and is restricted to the central part of the mexican transverse neovolcanic belt ( tnb ) . populations are currently restricted to three patchily distributed areas on the slopes of just four volcanoes ( popocatepetl , iztaccihuatl , el pelado and tlaloc ) ( 1 ) ( 6 ) .

as you could have probably have guessed judging by the lack of size and no adaptations to harm others , the volcano rabbit falls prey to vicious secondary consumers such as bobcats , coyotes , and long - tailed weasels . the only thing that this innocent rabbit harms is the vegetation as it consumes various grasses ( since it is a herbivore ) such as stipa ichu grass which is a type of zacaton grass .

fa , j . e . and bell , d . j . ( 1990 ) the volcano rabbit romerolagus diazi . in : chapman , j . a . and flux , j . e . c . ( eds ) rabbits , hares and pikas : status survey and conservation action plan . iucn , gland , switzerland .

the volcano rabbit is generally found between 2800 and 4250 m ( 9200 - 13 , 900 ' ) in pine forests with a dense undergrowth of bunch grass ( " zacaton " ) and rocky substrates . it is also found in secondary alder forests with a heavy grass - shrub understory . most of the areas where the rabbit is found have winter drought and summer rains with a mean annual precipitation of about 1500 mm ( 60 in ) .

other skills that i have gained as a result of doing this project are how to create a wikispace and use it . i learnt about both african and mexican tropical grassland animals and how they differ from each other . i also learnt how tricky it is to distinguish where exactly my volcano rabbit lives at it likes to live in various different habitats .

unlike many species of rabbits ( and similar to pikas ) , the volcano rabbit utters very high - pitched sounds instead of thumping its feet on the ground to warn other rabbits of danger . it is nocturnal and is highly active during twilight , dawn and all times in between . as of 1969 , there were 1000 to 1200 in the wild .

) . the top of the highest volcano the rabbit inhabits is 5452 m and the other volcano is 5222 m . climatically , it would therefore have some room to move upwards . however , according to the static vegetation cover map we used , suitable habitat does not currently reach to the very top , so any movement upslope , as predicted by our models , corresponds to a loss of range . although this may be an overly conservative assumption , vegetation may be constrained by other factors such as soil type and moisture availability , or shifts in suitable vegetation may simply lag behind climate change .

the unique life history and specialized habitat requirements of this species have made conserving and restoring this small rabbit especially challenging .

) is a small rabbit that resides in the mountains of mexico . it is the world ' s second smallest rabbit , second only to the pygmy rabbit . it has small rounded ears , short legs , and short , thick fur and weighs approximately 390–600 g ( 0 . 86 - 1 . 3 lb ) . it has a life span of approx . 7 to 9 years . the volcano rabbit lives in groups of 2 to 5 animals in burrows ( underground nests ) and runways among grass tussocks . the burrows an be as long as 5m ( 16 ' ) and as deep as 40 cm ( 1 . 3 ' ) . there are usually 2 to 3 young per litter , born in the borrows .

a robot wheels across a rocky , windswept landscape that looks like the surface of some distant planet from a science fiction film . but it is not in outer space , it ' s on the slopes of europe ' s most active volcano .

then there are rabbits that may be endangered , but have no recognized protection . one of these is a cottontail rabbit (

hayward af ( 1966 ) an electron microscopic study of developing gall bladder epithelium in the rabbit . j anat 100 : 245–259

the volcano rabbit romerolagus diazi is an endangered species endemic to mexico , with a range of < 400 km2 . we investigated threats from destruction , fragmentation and degradation of habitat , hunting , and cattle grazing intensity in relation to the distribution and abundance of the volcano rabbit on the iztaccihuatl volcano . faecal pellet counts were taken as a proxy for rabbit abundance in 1 , 718 random 0 . 2 m2 quadrats at 859 sampling points along 25 transects , covering an area of c . 100 km2 at altitudes of 3 , 400–4 , 000 m . presence of the species was significantly associated with absence of closed forest , absence of long grass types ( not bunchgrass ) , shallow inclines , absence of cattle grazing , lower altitude , low hunting pressure ( measured by proximity to ranger station ) , absence of bare ground and , contrary to previous findings , increased frequency of fire . the species was significantly more abundant in habitats with a greater percentage cover of zacaton ( bunchgrass ) and short grass types . it was significantly less abundant in areas with more hunting ( measured by proximity to ranger station ) and cattle grazing . key conservation priorities are therefore the protection of the subalpine zacaton bunchgrass - dominated habitat type , strict enforcement of hunting laws and the removal of livestock from relevant national park boundary areas . however , the results suggest that frequent fires have a significant positive effect on the occurrence of the volcano rabbit as a result of habitat improvement and this is often a consequence of anthropogenic management of land for cattle grazing .

the parotid glands of the pika and the volcano rabbit were examined by light and transmission electron microscopy . the acinar cells of the pika consisted of light cells containing basophilic granules of low density , while in the volcano rabbit the acinar cells consisted of light and dark cells containing acidophilic granules of moderate density . intercalated duct cells were composed of light cells containing a few granules of moderate density . these segments of the two animals were similar in morphology . the striated duct cells in both species were composed of light and dark cells . most of those in the pika contained a few moderately dense granules . in both animals , no myoepithelial cells were detected around the acini , intercalated ducts or striated ducts , while nerve terminals were observed among the adjacent acinar cells .

volcano rabbits can be found on the volcanic slopes in central mexico . they have a restricted range and they are usually found in pine forests at elevations between 2 , 800 and 4 , 250 m ( 9 , 186 - 13 , 944 ft ) .

to remedy the situation , ruedas suggests that more attention needs to be paid to documenting the number of rabbit species in the world and performing long term studies on populations to determine whether or not certain rabbit populations are naturally low or truly in a decline .

our response : we concur with these clarifications and continue to consider disease a significant potential threat to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .

rouco , c . , g . norbury , and d . ramsay . 2014 . kill rates by rabbit hunters before and 16 years after introduction of rabbit haemorrhagic disease in the southern south island , new zealand . wildlife research 41 : 136 - 140 .

we chose two lagomorph species with contrasting geographic patterns as study systems : the range - restricted r . diazi ( volcano rabbit ) and the locally abundant british metapopulation of the relatively widespread l . timidus ( european mountain hare ; see the electronic supplementary material for details ) . spatially explicit metapopulation models were developed for r . diazi and l . timidus separately , using a three - step process .

meanwhile , australians wrestle with an overabundance of rabbits . english landowners introduced the european rabbit to the continent in 1859 , seeking game animals for sport hunting . with no natural predators in their new homeland , european rabbit populations soon spiraled out of control in australia .

those with suitable habitat where rabbits were sighted and traces ( pellets ) were found . the results presented here clearly meet these criteria , therefore indicating that the cobioch must be also considered a core area of the zacatuche rabbit . added to that , our result regarding the estimated annual density also provides evidence that the cobioch is one of the most important habitats for zacatuche rabbit populations . density estimated is higher than the only previous report of 1 . 2 rabbits / ha for the area of the pelado volcano using a similar methodology (

the volcano rabbit is mostly nocturnal and crepuscular , although it can also be active by day , particularly when the sky is overcast . it lives in runways and burrows among grass tussocks . the burrows can be as long as 5 m ( 16 ' ) and as much as 40 cm ( 1 . 3 ' ) underground . the burrow entrance is concealed at the base of a grass tussock .

tormey j mcd , diamond jm ( 1967 ) the ultrastructural route of fluid transport in rabbit gallbladder . j gen physiol 50 : 2031–2060

sanchez - trocino , m . , g . d . mendoza , f . gual - sill , f . x . plata , j . a . martinez , h . lee , and m . m . crosby . 2013 . the effect of muhlenbergia macroura dietary level on intake , digestibility and weight changes in volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) . journal of applied animal research 41 : 234 - 239 .

in addition , most remaining pygmy rabbit habitat—throughout its range—is currently grazed by livestock , which may reduce habitat quality for pygmy rabbits . in some areas , wildfires have destroyed remaining pockets of pygmy rabbit habitats . the temperature and frequency of these fires may increase by the invasion of the exotic annual grass , cheatgrass ; thus , it is more likely to destroy sagebrush stands . coyotes—important rabbit predators—have increased in number over the last few decades , presumably because of habitat changes . in addition , diseases like tularemia and sylvatic plague can decimate rabbit populations periodically .

due to the combined influence of the above threats , extirpation of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit from the wild may occur at any time ( wdfw 2001b ) . in addition , the risks to the captive portion of the population , and the potential for extinction of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , remain high . we have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial information available regarding the past , present , and potential future threats faced by the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . based on our evaluation of the five threat factors discussed above , we have determined that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is in danger of extinction . as such , we are listing the columbia basin pygmy rabbit as endangered .

in relatively large , well distributed pygmy rabbit populations , the above threats are not likely to represent a significant risk to their long - term security . however , due to the extremely small size and localized occurrence of both the wild and captive portions of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit

castellucci m , caggiati a ( 1980 ) surface aspects of the rabbit gallbladder mucosa and their functional implications . j submicrosc cytol 12 : 375–390

hoehn , m . , p . kerr , and t . strive . 2013 . in situ hybridisation assay for localisation of rabbit calicivirus australia - 1 ( rcv - a1 ) in european rabbit ( oryctolagus cuniculus ) tissues . journal of virological methods 188 : 148 - 152 .

mutze , g . j . , r . g . sinclair , d . e . peacock , 2014 . is increased juvenile infection the key to recovery of wild rabbit populations from the impact of rabbit haemorrhagic disease ? european journal of wildlife research 60 : 489 - 499 .

these furry creatures , as their names convey , live amidst volcanoes , specifically those of the chichinautzin volcanic field roughly 200 miles away from mexico city . volcano rabbits usually weigh between 14 and 21 ounces and are usually 9 to 13 inches long . their thick , short coats are a blend of black , gray and deep brown . their tiny tails are practically impossible to make out . volcano rabbits tend to remain in social units of two to five individuals . they are mostly nocturnal and are especially busy in the times leading up to daybreak and immediately following nightfall .

hunting of the volcano rabbit is now illegal under mexican law , but enforcement remains difficult . the species is found within two protected areas , izta - popo and zoquiapan national parks , but habitat destruction nevertheless continues to occur even within these areas ( 1 ) ( 6 ) . in 1990 , the world conservation union species survival commission ( iucn / ssc ) lagomorph specialist group created an action plan for this rabbit , focusing on the need to manage burning and overgrazing and to enforce laws prohibiting the capture , sale and hunting of the animal ( 6 ) . as a result , the population of volcano rabbits is higher now than a decade ago ( 7 ) . captive breeding colonies exist at los coyotes park and the chapultepec zoo in mexico city , but there are currently no plans to reintroduce captive - bred individuals into the wild ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .

volcano rabbits are endangered because their habitat get destroyed by fires and pollution . they are also hunted for food and practice by humans . they are preyed on by predators in the region , such as the komodo dragon . the volcanoes they live by are active , which contributes to thier endangerment .

the volcano rabbit plays an easy game of hide and seek as it has a distinct dark colour to its fur that allows it to blend in with volcanic soils . this structural adaptation proves to be very useful as it helps protect them from predators with its camouflage as well . these cute creatures are also considered to be the second smallest breed of rabbit in the whole world ! this comes to be a great advantage for them as this is another factor that helps them stay very well hidden from predators . while most rabbits stomp their feet to warn their fellow allies of danger , the volcano rabbits make high - pitched sounds and whistles instead , knowing that they can potentially be eaten at any moment . that would be an example of a behavioural adaptation as it finds tricky ways to out - smart the carnivores that wish to consume them . other important characteristics of this rabbit is that they have small and rounded ears , short legs , and a barely visible tail where as most rabbits have large ears with a matching fluffy tail .

" the words endangered and rabbit don ' t come easily together in people ' s minds because they have such a reputation as being pests in people ' s minds , " said bell . " in reality a number of rabbit species are endangered . it is important to recognize that . "

issue 13 : concern was expressed regarding our use and incorporation of information from other pygmy rabbit populations in the background biological discussions and other sections of the emergency and proposed listing rules . in addition , questions were raised regarding whether this information is appropriate or applicable to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .

an endangered columbia basin pygmy rabbit juvenile born at the captive breeding facility at washington state university , pullman , washington , usa . photo : tara davila

the columbia basin pygmy rabbit has been physically discrete from the remainder of the taxon for several millennia ( see distribution and status , above ) . in addition , there is current evidence that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is genetically and ecologically discrete from the remainder of the taxon ( see significance , below ) . based on this information , we find that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit population segment is discrete from the remainder of the taxon pursuant to the act . physiological , behavioral , or morphological differences between the columbia basin pygmy rabbit and populations throughout the remainder of the species ' range are not known at this time .

volcano rabbits are primarily herbivores , meaning to say they feed mostly on plants , especially grasses , that abound within their natural habitats . examples of their grassy food sources are the leaves and twigs of such plants as eryngium rosei , muhlenbergia macroura , and stipa ichu . those kept in captivity are typically fed with corn , apples , and oats , while those found living in forests are able to survive on tree bark , herbs , and other greenery . volcano rabbits prefer to forage for food during dusk or dawn , although some individuals , especially those belonging to the same burrows , have been observed to be active during the daytime as well .

our response : this final rule lists as endangered the pygmy rabbit in the columbia basin of central washington ( figure 2 ) . appropriate sites within this region that could potentially be used for reintroduction efforts will be identified as our recovery program is further developed . pygmy rabbit populations in other states throughout the species ' historic range are not included in this listing action , nor will any areas outside of the historic range of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit population be considered for any recovery actions .

» hays , d . 2001 . 2001 addendum : washington state recovery plan for the pygmy rabbit . washington department of fish and wildlife olympia , washington . 24pp .

issue 8 : the suggestion was made that the status of the pygmy rabbit as a monotypic genus could be a consideration regarding the potential significance of its discrete populations .

issue 3 : we received a number of comments concerning critical habitat and how it relates to the emergency , proposed , and final rules for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .

( 3 ) washington state legislation ( hb 1309 ) provides measures with regard to conservation of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . see summary of factors affecting the dps section .

results from recent genetic analyses indicate that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is markedly different from other pygmy rabbit population segments ( wdfw 2001c ; k . warheit , pers . comm . 2001 , 2002 ) . these differences are consistent in both mitochondrial dna and nuclear dna indices , and between current ( washington versus idaho and montana ) and museum ( washington versus idaho , montana , oregon ) samples . the genetic results suggest that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit diverged ( i . e . , was genetically isolated ) from the remainder of the taxon at least 10 , 000 to 25 , 000 years bp , and possibly as long as 40 , 000 to 115 , 000 years bp ( wdfw 2001c ; k . warheit , pers . comm . 2001 , 2002 ) . the genetic differences that have so far been identified between the columbia basin pygmy rabbit and other pygmy rabbit populations are similar in nature to subspecific differences recognized in other mammal species . however , potential taxonomic reorganization of the pygmy rabbit species will require additional study ( wdfw 2001c ) .

unfortunately , these vulnerable creatures fall victim to the symbiotic relationship known as parasitism . these small rabbits act as a host to many different endoparasites which include roundworms , whipworms , and flatworms . as if that wasn ' t enough , they also act as a host to numerous ectoparasites such as various species of fleas , ticks , and flies . although there are many examples to choose from , the main focus is going to be on the whipworm . this thin parasite has eggs that enter the volcano rabbit through the consumption of grains . there , they enter the small intestine and after awhile , the eggs will develop and grow into full whipworms which then make their way over to the large intestine where they start to cause harm . even though this parasite benefits , the volcano rabbit is harmed as the whipworm makes itself comfortable in the home of the large intestine and begins to bite the tissue of of the large intestine , sucking blood . this not only leads to blood loss from my animal , but can also cause infection in a messy case of diarrhea !

» mcallister , k . r . 1995 . washington state recovery plan for the pygmy rabbit . wildlife management program , washington department of fish and wildlife , olympia , wa .

issue 12 : concerns were expressed regarding the potential impacts to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit from various ongoing research and conservation activities , and our potential actions to address these concerns .

issue 10 : we received a number of comments regarding the captive propagation program established by the wdfw and our potential management activities to address recovery of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . these comments addressed a wide variety of issues and questions , including the health and breeding success of captive pygmy rabbits , impacts to pygmy rabbit populations associated with research or conservation efforts , other potential differences between the various pygmy rabbit populations ( e . g . , physiological , behavioral , morphological ) , the survival characteristics of captive bred versus wild individuals , habitat enhancement or restoration standards for mitigation efforts , federal recovery policy for down - listing or delisting the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , and reintroduction protocols and potential release sites for the recovery program .

volcano rabbits are mostly crepuscular ( 4 ) , although they can also be active by day , particularly when the sky is overcast ( 8 ) . the diet includes the tender green leaves of grasses , the young leaves of spiny herbs , the bark of alder trees and , during the rainy season , also the oats and corn from cultivated crops ( 4 ) .

issue 5 : it was emphasized that a successful captive propagation program should be considered extremely important for the conservation and management of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit ' s unique genetic profile .

kaye gi , wheeler ho , whitlock rt , lane n ( 1966b ) fluid transport in the rabbit gallbladder . a combined physiological and electron microscopic study . j cell biol 30 : 237–268

volcanic rabbits are only found on the rainy mountainous areas of mexico . specifically , these are the wet inclines of tlaloc , popocatepetl , el pelado and iztaccihuatl , to where they are considered endemic . hunting and selling of these endangered mammals is prohibited , although the mexican government is facing substantial challenges in implementing these restrictions . large scale destruction of their natural habitats , such as by logging and burning of the forests to make way for agriculture , has greatly decreased the population of the volcano rabbits , although many conservation parks like the zoquipan national park have made significant progress in breeding their colonies . as of yet , no proposal has been set forth by the mexican government to introduce captive colonies of the volcano rabbit into the wild . their populations are affected by climate change as well , and they are classified as an " endangered ' species by the international union for the conservation of nature ' s ( iucn ' s ) red list of threatened species .

issue 7 : we received a large number of comments concerning our interpretation of the available information with regard to livestock grazing and the potential effects it has on the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . some comments suggested that we were overly critical concerning the negative effects of livestock grazing and did not adequately address its potential benefits to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . in contrast , other comments suggested that we down - played the negative effects of livestock grazing and implied that regulatory restrictions should be placed on grazing activities in all areas currently or potentially used by the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .

issue 14 : several commenters expressed concern regarding the area affected by the listing , and the potential extent of reintroduction efforts that may be undertaken to address recovery of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .

it is appropriate to propose a species for listing at the time when sufficient information is available . for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , when we had sufficient information we took the appropriate action .

( 1 ) the common raven is a significant potential predator of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , and we also discuss wdfw ' s past and ongoing management efforts to address this threat factor .

kaye gi , maenza rm , lane n ( 1966a ) cell replication in rabbit gallbladder . an autoradiographic study of epithelial and associated fibroblast renewal in vivo and in vitro . gastroenterology 51 : 670–680

although the volcano rabbit is a greatly adorable animal , humans have caused much destruction among their home , the topical grasslands . one major problem is loss of vegetation . as the population doesn ' t cease to increase , this causes for more of the precious grassland to be cleared for agriculture to feed this increasing population , which can cause soil erosion due to over - cultivation . as more people start to pile in around these grassland areas , they begin to raise more and more animals as well for more food for their stomachs , which can also cause soil erosion due to the excessive amount of animals over eating the vegetation . over population has lead people to use these grasslands for urban development and construct buildings and houses in replacement of the natural habitat that was once lively . did you know that about 16 percent of tropical grasslands have been converted for urban development and agriculture ? much of the land is cleared for crops which leads to a loss in habitat for not just the volcano rabbit , but for the other organisms living in this biome as well ! you will see that this affects my rabbit tremendously as the growth of mexico city threatens it to leave its habitat . the destruction of habitat plays a huge role in why my animal is endangered , but hunting also poses a threat as well ! people have actually been hunting down this furry creature for sport and for sale !

) . based on this , the zacatuche rabbit is considered a habitat specialist . its habitat has been severely fragmented due to factors such as urbanization , agricultural conversion , illegal logging , and wildfires (

as well as its annual density within the cobioch and its influence area . the outcomes are further discussed in the light of the relevance of this protected area for conservation of the endangered zacatuche rabbit .

a pygmy rabbit hops out of its artificial burrow during a pilot reintroduction experiment conducted by washington state university designed to develop methods suitable for restoring extirpated populations . photo : rodney sayler , washington state university

» hays , d . , and k . warheit . 2004 . columbia basin pygmy rabbit captive breeding and genetic management plan . washington department of fish and wildlife . olympia , washington . 29pp .

it is unlikely that any of the above activities alone has played a significant role in the long - term population decline and range reduction of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . however , due to the current vulnerability of both the wild and captive portions of this population segment , any additional source of mortality may now play a significant role and could impair efforts to conserve the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .

. within this , four core and 12 peripheral areas were recognized . this information was used to do the distributions maps for the zacatuche rabbit that are now available in the literature and on web pages (

our response : the available information we have regarding the biology and ecology of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , impacts to the populations , and mitigation efforts is referenced within the preamble to this final rule .

planillo , a . , and j . e . maio . 2013 . motorway verges : paradise for prey species ? a case study with the european rabbit . mammalian biology 78 : 187 - 192 .

in washington , management efforts by a number of agencies have included acquiring and restoring potential habitat for the endangered columbia basin pygmy rabbit—a slow and expensive task . because some pygmy rabbit habitat is contained within private lands , agencies have attempted to work with local ranchers and farmers to develop mutually beneficial resource management plans and safe harbor agreements . many private landowners are wary of having endangered species on their land and mistrust state and federal natural resource agencies , however , so this work has been sensitive and arduous . as a parallel course of action , and perhaps the last chance for saving the columbia basin pygmy rabbit 4 , washington department of fish and wildlife initiated a program in 2001 for captive breeding and restoration of pygmy rabbits , which is now a key component of the federal recovery plan for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .

genetic indices indicate that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit had less genetic diversity historically than the remainder of the taxon . in addition , this population segment has undergone further loss of genetic diversity since roughly the mid - 1900s . severe loss of genetic diversity may make the columbia basin pygmy rabbit more susceptible to extinction due to inbreeding depression or , assuming inappropriate introduction of other pygmy rabbit genes , swamping of their unique genetic profile . reduced genetic diversity , and the relatively few family lineages remaining in the columbia basin pygmy rabbit population , may also complicate captive breeding strategies conducted to reestablish a minimum effective population size . ultimately , an appropriate effective population size will help ensure the maintenance and enhancement of the genetic heterogeneity that is still present within this population segment ( k . warheit , pers . comm . 2001 , 2002 ) .

during the fall of 2000 , the wdfw , in cooperation with the oregon zoo , initiated a study of husbandry techniques for pygmy rabbits ( wdfw 2001a ) . this study used five pygmy rabbits captured in idaho and was undertaken to improve the information base for proposed captive propagation and release efforts for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . due to the continuing decline of pygmy rabbit subpopulations and active burrows in washington , the wdfw , in cooperation with wsu , expedited their captive propagation efforts for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit during the spring of 2001 ( wdfw 2001b ; d . hays , pers . comm . 2001 ) .

research and management activities for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit will be regulated under the section 10 permitting process . the wdfw has closely coordinated its management activities to conserve the columbia basin pygmy rabbit with us . in addition , in cooperation with the wdfw , wsu , and the oregon zoo , we have developed a number of appropriate measures to avoid or reduce the risk of take of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . these measures were made conditions of the december 18 , 2001 , recovery permit and its revisions that we issued for the captive propagation program and ongoing management activities at the sagebrush flat site ( see previous federal action , above ) . we will continue to work cooperatively with interested parties on activities conducted for scientific purposes or to enhance the propagation or survival of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit under section 10 of the act .

our response : neither our emergency , proposed , nor this final rule designates critical habitat for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . we find that designation of critical habitat for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is not determinable at this time because information sufficient to perform the required analyses of the impacts of the designation is lacking ( see critical habitat , below ) . we will continue to protect the columbia basin pygmy rabbit and its habitat through section 7 consultations on federal actions that may affect this population segment , through the recovery process , through hcps under section 10 , and through enforcement of take prohibitions under section 9 of the act .

with regard to the past distribution and abundance of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , we assume that this population was more broadly distributed and had a greater abundance of individuals within this region historically . this assumption is based on the available information addressing other pygmy rabbit populations , the population dynamics of other leporid species , and the general concepts and theory of minimum viable populations . given this available information , it is unlikely that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit would have persisted within this region for thousands of years with such a limited distribution and at such minimum abundance levels . nevertheless , the available information only indicates the occurrence of several small subpopulations in portions of five counties in central washington since the early 1900s . as such , the historic distribution and abundance of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit that we report in this final rule represent minimum estimates .