the grotto salamander ( eurycea spelaea ) — also called the ozark blind salamander — is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae .

it is now considered a member of the genus eurycea , but was originally described as typhlotriton speleus .

it is endemic to the united states , specifically the karst regions beneath the springfield and salem plateaus of the ozark mountains part of arkansas , kansas , missouri , and oklahoma .

its natural habitats are freshwater springs , inland karsts , and caves .

it is not currently threatened , but vulnerable to changes in groundwater quality and reduction in bat population .

the grotto salamander was discovered in 1891 on the ozark plateau , and described by leonhard hess stejneger in 1892 .

this plateau remains the only area in which grotto salamanders have been found .

grotto salamander

grotto salamander <EOT> grotto salamander ( typhlotriton spelaeus ) = kansas : endangered federal : n / a grotto salamander photo by suzanne l . more

jim stout has discovered that a rare species of grotto salamander has a diet much different from what was expected . more

grotto salamanders can be found from southern missouri south to adjacent northern arkansas and west to northeast oklahoma and extreme southeast kansas . within the midwest the grotto salamander is only found in missouri . more

the grotto salamander population was larger than we thought the cave could support , " stout said . " things didn ' t add up at first . " the researchers also noticed a significant drop in the grotto salamander population when the migrating bats were not there . more

the grotto salamander is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .

the only known kansas populations of grotto salamanders are found in the ozark plateau region of cherokee county .

the grotto salamander ( typhlotriton spelaeus ) is a species of salamander in the plethodontidae family . it is monotypic within the genus typhlotriton . it is endemic to the united states . its natural habitats are freshwater springs , inland karsts , and caves . more

and the grotto salamander , typhlotritron spelaeus . there is some question whether the southern redback in caves is just a confusion with the ozark zigzag salamander , plethodon dorsalis , as the outward appearances of the two are similar , and they are closely related . more

grotto salamander typhlotriton spelaeus photo by cryptobranchidae " . . . . when the adult cave salamanders disappear , their larva soon appear in the same mud filled pools that the adults were previously in . more

fenolio db , niemiller ml , bonett rm , graening go , collier ba , stout jf . life history , demography , and the influence of cave - roosting bats on a population of the grotto salamander (

bowles bd , sanders ms , hansen rs . ecology of the jollyville plateau salamander (

chippindale pt , price ah , hillis dm . a new species of perennibranchiate salamander (

georgetown : williamson county conservation foundation ; 2012 . ecological studies of the georgetown salamander (

tumlison r , cline gr . further notes on the habitat of the oklahoma salamander ,

mcallister , c . t . , bursey , c . r . , trauth , s . e . , and fenolio , d . b . ( 2006 ) . ' ' helminth parasites of the grotto salamander ,

only at grotto falls can you actually walk behind the cascading waterfall , one of the most unique views and photo opportunities in the great smoky mountains national park . take the roaring fork motor nature trail and then follow the trillium gap trailhead to reach grotto falls .

the grotto salamander is most abundant in caves that harbor high numbers of bats ( hendricks and kezer 1958 ; bonett and chippindale 2004 ; brandon 1971 ) . from late april to october , and particularly during the summer , gray bats (

lowe wh . linking dispersal to local population dynamics : a case study using a headwater salamander system .

a roundtrip hike to grotto falls measures 2 . 6 miles and generally takes the average hiker about two to three hours—allowing for a casual stroll to enjoy nature and the scenic landscape . during your time on the grotto falls trail , you will cross four small streams without the help of a bridge .

pierce ba , mcentire kd , wall ae . population size , movement , and reproduction of the georgetown salamander ,

us fish and wildlife service endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; 4 ( d ) rule for the georgetown salamander .

diaz ph , fries jn , bonner th , alexander ml , nowlin wh . mesohabitat associations of the threatened san marcos salamander (

hillis dm , chamberlain da , wilcox tp , chippindale pt . a new species of subterranean blind salamander ( plethodontidae : hemidactyliini :

this is the only species of blind salamander in missouri . adults are true troglobites , living in total darkness and requiring caves with a spring or stream running through them . the delicate balance of cave ecosystems , grotto salamanders and their spring and cave habitats need to be protected from disturbance , including water and groundwater pollution .

steffen m , irwin k , blair a , bonett r . larval masquerade : a new species of paedomorphic salamander ( caudata : plethodontidae :

besharse , j . c . , and brandon , r . a . ( 2005 ) . ' ' postembryonic eye degeneration in the troglobitic salamander

stejneger , l . ( 1892 ) . ' ' preliminary description of a new genus and species of blind cave salamander from north america . ' '

dyer , w . g . ( 1975 ) . ' ' parasitism as an indicator of food sources in a cave - adapted salamander habitat . ' '

bendik nf , morrison ta , gluesenkamp ag , sanders ms , o’donnell lj . computer - assisted photo identification outperforms visible implant elastomers in an endangered salamander ,

haurwitz rkm . amphibian finds itself in middle of austin debate : endangered or not , the tiny barton springs salamander is becoming center of urban - growth argument .

martin sd , harris ba , collums jr , bonett rm . life between predators and a small space : substrate selection of an interstitial space - dwelling stream salamander .

the cave salamander inhabits underground fresh and well - oxygenated water systems in karst formations , where the water temperature is cool ( between 6ºc and 12ºc ) ( 3 ) .

grotto salamanders are 3 - 5 inches long and have a brownish purple to pinkish white body color . adults are blind and are found only in cave interiors . larvae of this species have functional eyes and live in streams or spring flows near cave openings .

hendricks , l . j . , and kezer , j . ( 1958 ) . ' ' an unusual population of a blind cave salamander and its fluctuation during one year . ' '

a popular scientific film dealing with our studies of biological peculiarities of endemic cave salamander supports this presentation and was recently created in collaboration with national tv of slovenia ( bulog et al . 2003 ) .

in the peculiar ecosystem within a cave , grotto salamanders function as predators to insects and other small prey . meanwhile , they and their larvae serve as prey to larger creatures , such as mammals venturing into caverns . even their bodies , after they die , serve as nutrients for future cave life .

schegel , p . ; bulog , b . ( 1997 ) . " population - specific behavioral electrosensitivity of the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus " . journal of physiology ( paris ) 91 : 75–79 .

durand , j . p . ( 1976 ) . ' ' ocular development and involution in the european cave salamander , proteus anguinus laurenti . ' ' the biologial bulletin , 151 ( 3 ) , 450 - 466 .

schlegel p . ( 1996 ) . ' ' behavioral evidence and possible physical and physiological mechanisms for earth magnetic orientation in the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus . ' ' mémoires de biospéologie , 23 , 5 - 16 .

schlegel p . ( 1996 ) . ' ' behavioral evidence and possible physical and physiological mechanisms for earth magnetic orientation in the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus . ' ' mã©moires de biospã©ologie , 23 , 5 - 16 .

the grotto falls hike is definitely worth your time ! the beautiful trail winds uphill through lush vegetation and past mountain streams . since the hike to the fall is uphill , your return trip is completely down hill . don’t miss your opportunity to walk behind a waterfall – you may get a little wet , but you won’t get drenched .

) make use of caves as maternity roosts ( hendricks and kezer 1958 ; bonett and chippindale 2004 ; brandon 1971 ) . bats deposit feces ( guano ) within the cave , leading to an increase in invertebrates associated with the guano . grotto salamander larvae eat isopods , fly larvae , and snails ( brandon 1971 ; petranka 1998 ) , but in a highly unusual move for animals that are normally thought of as strictly carnivorous , grotto salamander larvae also consume bat guano ( fenolio et al . 2006 ) . bat guano is a source of high nutrition in a resource - poor environment ( the cave ) since bats have short digestive tracts and fast digestion times and do not extract the full nutritive value of food items . guano has been found to contain twice the protein content and about two - thirds the calories of an equivalent volume of big mac hamburger . microbial biofilms on the guano may provide extra nutritive value . the nutritive value of guano was found to be higher in terms of protein content , caloric density , and essential mineral content than a potential prey item , cave - dwelling gammarid amphipods ( fenolio et al . 2006 ) .

you’ll enjoy the soothing sounds of the falling water and maybe catch sight of a salamander or two at this natural oasis . many visitors describe the experience of walking behind the thunderous power of waterfall to be the highlight of the trip .

en route to the 25 - foot waterfall , be prepared for a gentle , but steady ascent—an elevation gain of 585 feet . the trail is considered an easy to moderate hike , requiring sturdy shoes and the ability walk along an uneven , unpaved nature trail . at the end of the grotto falls trail , you will reach the magnificent waterfall !

gorički , s . , and trontelj , p . ( 2006 ) . ' ' structure and evolution of the mitochondrial control region and flanking sequences in the european cave salamander proteus anguinus . ' ' gene , 378 , 31 - 41 .

schegel , p . , and bulog , b . ( 1997 ) . ' ' population - specific behavioral electrosensitivity of the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus . ' ' journal of physiology ( paris ) , 91 , 75 - 79 .

) . inclusion of ca and mh categorical site - level covariates improved upon the continuous covariates model , decreasing the aic value by over 8 units . mh was positively correlated with salamander presence , while ca was negatively correlated , though not significantly (

the species authority is : stejneger , l . ( 1892 ) . ' ' preliminary description of a new genus and species of blind cave salamander from north america . ' ' proceedings of the united states national museum , 15 , 115 - 117 .

istenič , l . and bulog , b . ( 1984 ) . ' ' some evidence for the ampullary organs in the european cave salamander proteus anguinus ( urodela , amphibia ) . ' ' cell and tissue research , 235 , 393 - 402 .

istenič , l . ; bulog , b . ( 1984 ) . " some evidence for the ampullary organs in the european cave salamander proteus anguinus ( urodela , amphibia ) " . cell tissue res 235 : 393–402 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00217865 .

bizjak - mali , l . and bulog , b . ( 2004 ) . ' ' histology and ultrastructure of the gut epithelium of the neotenic cave salamander , proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) . ' ' journal of mophology , 259 , 82 - 89 .

the cave salamander is dependent on large aquatic cave systems . tourism , economic changes and industrial pollution are the main threats to this species as the caves are affected by the land - use above . its populations are also under pressure from collectors for the aquarist trade ( 3 ) .

grotto salamanders are most active during spring and summer months when moisture levels in caves are high , food is abundant , and courtship is taking place . adults feed on aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates , including flies , mosquito larvae and beetles . adults may function as a top predator in some cave systems . predators have not been reported although larvae are likely to be vulnerable to crayfish ( brandon 1971 ; petranka 1998 ) .

guillaume , o . ( 2000 ) . ' ' role of chemical communication and behavioral interactions among conspecifics in the choice of shelters by the cave - dwelling salamander proteus anguinus ( caudata , proteidae ) . ' ' canadian journal of zoology , 78 ( 2 ) , 167 - 173 .

kos , m . ; bulog , b . et al . ( 2001 ) . " immunocytochemical demonstration of visual pigments in the degenerate retinal and pineal photoreceptors of the blind cave salamander ( proteus anguinus ) " . cell tissue res 303 : 15–25 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s004410000298 .

grotto salamanders are protected by the kansas nongame and endangered species conservation act and administrative regulations applicable thereto . any time an eligible project is proposed that will impact the species’ preferred habitats within its probable range , the project sponsor must contact the ecological services section , kansas department of wildlife , parks and tourism , 512 se 25th ave . , pratt , kansas 67124 - 8174 . department personnel can then advise the project sponsor on permit requirements .

fenolio , d . b . , graening , g . o . , collier , b . a . , and stout , j . f . ( 2006 ) . ' ' coprophagy in a cave - adapted salamander ; the importance of bat guano examined through nutritional and stable isotope analyses . ' '

guillaume , o ( 2000 ) . " role of chemical communication and behavioural interactions among conspecifics in the choice of shelters by the cave - dwelling salamander proteus anguinus ( caudata , proteidae ) " . can . j . zool . 78 ( 2 ) : 167–173 . doi : 10 . 1139 / z99 - 198 .

the trillium gap trail leading to grotto falls offers views of vibrant foliage , including large hemlock trees and a variety of wildflowers . you’ll see both yellow and white trillium , from which the trail takes its name as well as snowy white violets and the delicate blooms of stitchwort . dutchman’s breeches also can be found along this trail . look for the white blooms that resemble men’s pants hanging by their cuffs from a clothesline . the wildflowers are especially vibrant in may ( late spring ) .

caves represent a fragile ecosystem vulnerable to disturbance and pollution . long - term monitoring will be needed to determine population trends of these animals ( petranka 1998 ) . this species occurs within several protected areas , but local threats include degradation of ground water quality and forest clear - cutting , which indirectly affects the salamander by changing bat populations ( hammerson 2004 ) .

) . it is unclear whether this demographic pattern is due to dispersal from their natal site , as eggs were not observed during our study ( and are rarely observed in the wild ; n bendik , pers . obs . , 2015 ) . juveniles may actively avoid adults to escape predation or drift downstream in the current after hatching from their natal sites , as in other aquatic salamander larvae (

bulog b . , schlegel p . et al . ( 2002 ) . non - visual orientation and light - sensitivity in the blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) . in : latella l . , mezzanotte e . , tarocco m . ( eds . ) . 16th international symposium of biospeleology ; 2002 sep 8–15 ; verona : societé internationale de biospéologie , pp . 31–32 .

proteus anguinus lives in the subterranean fresh water biotopes of the dinaric karst , from the isonzo - soca river in south - eastern venezia guilia , italy through the southern half of slovenia , southern croatia , and parts of bosnia and herzegovina to the trebisnjica river in eastern herzegovina ( sket 1997 ) . it has been introduced in the parolini grotto , vicenza , northern italy and tular near kranj in slovenia . it may occur in montenegro but this has not yet been confirmed ( kalezic and dzukic 2001 ) . the variant known as the black olm ( formerly described as the subspecies proteus anguinus parkelj ; see comments ) is found in bela krajina , southeast slovenia ( stet and arntzen 1994 ; griffiths 1996 ) .

was 0 . 92 and 0 . 74 , respectively . model - averaged estimates of bi - weekly survival and detection probability based on mean body length ( 24 . 8 mm ) ranged from 0 . 61–0 . 66 and 0 . 11–0 . 55 , respectively . movement probability , corrected for imperfect detection , was 0 . 15 ( se = 0 . 07 ) for an average length salamander . a full list of model selection results and model - averaged parameter estimates for both capture - recapture analyses are provided in

a cave - dwelling salamander . this is the only known blind , troglobitic salamander which undergoes a complete metamorphosis . adults are white , pinkish white , or light brown on the dorsum and venter . the reduced eyes are dark spots visible through the partially fused eyelids . adults are 36 - 70 mm snout to vent length ( 75 - 135 mm total length ) with 16 - 19 costal grooves . sexually mature males have a slightly swollen upper lip and a pair of cirri ( papilla - like extensions from the upper lip ) . like many other plethodontid salmanders , males also have a mental gland , a raised area on the chin used in courtship . hatchlings are 13 mm snout to vent length ( 17 mm total length ) . the larvae have bushy gills and a moderately high dorsal tail fin . larvae are lightly pigmented ( tan dorsally , often weakly stippled or mottled ) and have functional eyes . the eyes become atrophied and the eyelids fuse at metamorphosis ( brandon 1970 ; 1971 ; petranka 1998 ; besharse and brandon 2005 ) .

proteus anguinus lives in subterranean waters , and is therefore a difficult subject for field observations . it does occur in caves that are accessible to humans , but as these contain hardly any adults , these accessible parts of caves must be seen as marginal parts of the biotope . most observations on the life history of this salamander have been made in captivity . they have been bred in the subterranean laboratory of the cnrs , in the french pyrenees ( station d ' ecologie expérimental du cnrs , at moulis , france ) for more than 50 years , since 1955 . the following life history account is made using data from observations on captive salamanders .

proteus anguinus is thought to be the longest - lived amphibian species . using data spanning more than 50 years from a 400 - animal captive breeding colony at the cnrs in moulis , france , the predicted maximum lifespan is over a century , and the average adult olm lifespan is 68 . 5 years ( voituron et al . 2010 ) . if the predicted maximum lifespan is accurate , it is more than double that of the next longest - lived species , the japanese giant salamander ( andrias japonicus , at 55 years . individual specimens have been kept under semi - natural conditions in concrete basins for up to 70 years ( prof . b . bulog , personal communication ) . this species reaches sexual maturity at 15 . 6 years and lays 35 eggs every 12 years , on average ( voituron et al . 2010 ) .

we performed two studies to examine e . tonkawae ecology at the individual , population and metapopulation scale to understand surface habitat use of this threatened , aquatic salamander endemic to the metropolitan area of austin , texas . our first study was motivated by the surface critical habitat initially proposed for this and two similar species , which was based on the maximum distance ( 50 m ) e . naufragia had been recorded to move during a single study near a spring ( us fish and wildlife service , 2012 ) . using data from repeated capture - recapture surveys during a single season , we generated estimates of superpopulation size at various distances upstream and downstream from the spring , quantified the movement of individuals between these areas , and documented the demographic structure of the population to determine whether the proposed critical habitat boundaries adequately reflect habitat used or potentially used by e . tonkawae .

the cave salamander is a rare amphibian with an unusual appearance , shaped by several million years of living in dark , subterranean caves in central europe ( 2 ) . its skin lacks pigment , giving its body a white , pasty appearance . it also has a pink hue due to blood capillaries near the skin , and as its translucency shows the contours of the internal organs . this strange fleshy skin led to this species ' common name , the human fish , as people thought this bizarre amphibian resembled a small human ( 3 ) . this cave dwelling amphibian ' s four limbs are short and feeble , and its eyes are so poorly developed that it is blind ( 2 ) . its head is elongated with a round snout , and on each side of the head there are three distinctive scarlet gill tufts that are used in respiration , although adults develop lungs as well ( 2 ) . males are smaller than females , and can be distinguished from females during breeding season by their larger cloaca ( 3 ) .

elongate and slender salamander with small , thin extremities . the front legs bear three toes , the rear legs two toes . the flattened tail is markedly shorter than the trunk . the head is elongated with a rounded snout . eyes are poorly developed and covered by skin in the nominate subspecies . there are three pink external gills on each side of the head . the translucent skin also shows the contours of the internal organs on the ventral site of the body , making it easy to determine the sex of adults . juveniles sometimes show a faded spotting . dark pigmentation can be induced by exposure to light . this shows that these animals do not display albinism , as commonly thought , because they still possess the ability to produce melanin . the variant previously described as a subspecies ( p . anguinus parkelj , the black olm , now shown to be phylogenetically nested well within p . anguinus ; see comments ) has a permanent dark pigmentation of the skin , and probably functional eyes . it also has a shorter head than p . a . anguinus .

critical habitat for many species is often limited to occupied localities . for rare and cryptic species , or those lacking sufficient data , occupied habitats may go unrecognized , potentially hindering species recovery . proposed critical habitat for the aquatic jollyville plateau salamander ( eurycea tonkawae ) and two sister species were delineated based on the assumption that surface habitat is restricted to springs and excludes intervening stream reaches . to test this assumption , we performed two studies to understand aspects of individual , population , and metapopulation ecology of e . tonkawae . first , we examined movement and population demographics using capture - recapture along a spring - influenced stream reach . we then extended our investigation of stream habitat use with a study of occupancy and habitat dynamics in multiple headwater streams . indications of extensive stream channel use based on capture - recapture results included frequent movements of > 15 m , and high juvenile abundance downstream of the spring . initial occupancy of e . tonkawae was associated with shallow depths , maidenhair fern presence and low temperature variation ( indicative of groundwater influence ) , although many occupied sites were far from known springs . additionally , previously dry sites were three times more likely to be colonized than wet sites . our results indicate extensive use of stream habitats , including intermittent ones , by e . tonkawae . these areas may be important for maintaining population connectivity or even as primary habitat patches . restricting critical habitat to occupied sites will result in a mismatch with actual habitat use , particularly when assumptions of habitat use are untested , thus limiting the potential for recovery .

although adults aggregate in suitable spots as in cracks and under rocks , males establish a territory when breeding , which is furiously protected from competing males . when a female enters such a territory , the courtship begins . the male fans with his tail in the direction of the female ' s head . the male touches the female ' s cloaca with his snout . the female then touches the male ' s cloaca with her snout and then follows the male who walks 5 - 10 cm forward after which the male deposits a spermatophore . the pair then moves forward again until the female can take up the spermatophore with her cloaca . courtship can be repeated several times within a few hours . after leaving the male ' s territory , the female establishes an egg - laying territory . after 2 - 3 days the female starts to lay eggs and can continue doing so for up to 25 days , laying a total of up to 70 eggs under rocks . eggs are guarded by the female . the diameter of the eggs directly after laying is 4 - 5 mm and can increase through water uptake to 8 - 9 mm . unconfirmed historical observations of vivipary exist ; it was long thought that female proteus gave birth to only two well - developed young at lower temperatures and laid eggs at higher temperatures , but this has not been confirmed by rigorous observations . the eggs develop in 182 days at 8ºc , 140 days at 10ºc , 123 days at 11ºc , and in 86 days at 15ºc . development of larvae is highly temperature - dependent . at 10ºc it takes another 14 years to reach sexual maturity . there is no clear metamorphosis ; p . anguinus is a neotenic salamander , maintaining external gills , tail fin and other juvenile characteristics throughout its life .

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justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .

this species can be found in the salem and springfield plateaus in the ozark region of missouri , oklahoma , arkansas , and kansas , usa ( conant and collins 1991 , collons 1993 , johnson 2000 ) .

johnson ( 2000 ) mapped occurrences in 25 counties in missouri . most of the rest of the range is in arkansas , where an out - of - date review by brandon ( 1970 ) indicated 12 locations ( he showed 15 in missouri ) .

adults inhabit caves . larvae are found in surface spring runs as well as in cave waters . most abundant in caves that have a large number of bats . probably attaches eggs to rocks in or near water .

it is unthreatened range wide , but vulnerable to factors that degrade ground water quality or that negatively impact bat populations ( such as water pollution , and clear - cutting of forest ) .

long - term monitoring is needed to assess the viability of populations ( petranka 1998 ) . it occurs in several protected areas .

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find local mdc conservation agents , consultants , education specialists , and regional offices .

adults are beige to pink . a cave - dweller , this species lacks gills and is partly or completely blind . the head is rather wide and flat . the tail is long , rounded and finless . there are 16–19 grooves along the side . eyes are small , reduced and covered or partially covered by a fusion of the eyelids . the eyes may appear sunken . larvae have gills , functional eyes , broad tail fins and more pigment , being brown to dark gray , sometimes with spots or streaking on the sides and tail .

adults eat mainly small insects . they occur in greater abundance in caves with many bats , probably because they feed on insects attracted to the bat guano . larvae probably eat tiny freshwater amphipods and other small aquatic invertebrates .

the survival of this species requires healthy cave ecosystems , which in turn require clean groundwater and lack of disturbance by humans . a species of conservation concern .

this species breeds during the period of greatest food supply , which for them is in winter and early spring . fertilization is internal ( as with most salamanders ) , and the eggs are probably attached to stones in or near water in caves . the larvae are aquatic and inhabit cave streams and sometimes also springs or streams that flow out of caves or grottoes . they may take 2–3 years to transform into adults .

the smooth gracefulness of these vulnerable pink salamanders , reminds us of the overall delicacy of their cave ecosystem . it is important to be extremely careful to respect caves , their inhabitants and the archaeological artifacts they contain . “walk softly , and leave no trace . ”

missouri’s herptiles comprise 43 amphibians and 75 reptiles . amphibians , including salamanders , toads , and frogs , are vertebrate animals that spend at least part of their life cycle in water . they usually have moist skin , lack scales or claws , and are ectothermal ( cold - blooded ) , so they do not produce their own body heat the way birds and mammals do . reptiles , including turtles , lizards , and snakes , are also vertebrates , and most are ectothermal , but unlike amphibians , reptiles have dry skin with scales , the ones with legs have claws , and they do not have to live part of their lives in water .

we protect and manage the fish , forest , and wildlife of the state . we facilitate and provide opportunity for all citizens to use , enjoy , and learn about these resources .

restricted to two plateaus in the ozark region of southern missouri , extreme southeastern kansas , and adjacent areas in arkansas and oklahoma . missouri distributions in 25 counties were mapped by johnson ( 2000 ) . adults are not known outside of the twilight and dark zones of caves and sinkholes , but larvae are found in cave entrances and springs as well as nearby creeks . adults may be found in water or on moist vertical rock walls which extend out of the water . sandy or gravelly substrates are preferred by the larvae ( hendricks and kezer 1958 ; brandon 1970 , 1971 ; petranka 1998 ; trauth et al . 2004 ) .

courtship has not been described . mating occurs from late spring through summer . oviposition likely occurs from late summer to fall when females disappear from the surface . oviposition sites have not been documented , but presumably are in rocky crevices . female attendance of eggs is likely . clutch size from one female was 13 ( brandon 1971 ; petranka 1998 ) .

the larval period lasts from 1 - 3 years ( brandon 1971 ) or 2 - 6 years or longer depending on locality and conditions . adults are known to live for at least 12 years in captivity , but their lifespan in the wild is unknown . if

is comparable to cave fish and crayfish their lifespan may be considerably longer , 20 - 25 years , than terrestrial salamanders as a response to energy resource limitations ( fenolio et al . 2014 , fenolio , personal communication ) .

this species is unique in that it starts life as a fully sighted larva but then metamorphoses underground into a terrestrial adult that loses its pigment and becomes blind , with the eyelids eventually fusing ( brandon 1970 ; 1971 ; petranka 1998 ; besharse and brandon 2005 ) . however , it is likely that some light sensitivity remains in the eye structures because adults have photophobic behavior . there three main hypotheses explaining why the eye forms but then becomes vestigial and loses its color . the first is that there is a link between the genes that code for skin pigment and eye pigment . however , this would not explain the loss of the structure in the eye . the second hypothesis is that early development of the eye plays a role in skull development . this hypothesis is supported by the fact that many blind cavefish also have eyes early in development that are completely loss after the skull is formed . the third hypothesis is that the loss of the eye helps the species conserve energy ( fenolio personal , communication ) . the energy economy hypothesis for loss of eyes was reviewed by jeremy niven ( 2015 ) , who argued that the cost of developing and maintaining eyes is substantial as illustrated by a positive correlation in eye and brain size in fish in comparisons of cave , intermediate / hybrid , and terrestrial fish , which indicates that when eyes are present a substantial portion of the brain is needed for visual processing , and oxygen consumption rates . energy savings from loss of eyes could reduce the amount of time needed for foraging and allow energy to be re - invested in other physiological processes , including reproduction . this hypothesis is reasonable for

considering the resource limitation it experiences . lastly , hypotheses two and three are not mutually exclusive and may both be accurate explanations ( fenolio , personal communication ) .

could be retained as a clade name , for example in phylocode . because mitochondrial dna sequence divergence within

bonett , r . , and chippindale , p . t . ( 2004 ) . ' ' speciation , phylogeography , and evolution of life history and morphology in plethodontid salamanders of the

american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , 84 . 1 - 84 . 2 .

( caudata : plethodontidae ) , from northern arkansas and southern missouri , u . s . a . ' '

trauth , s . e . , robison , h . w . , and plummer , m . v . ( 2004 ) .

meredith j . mahoney , additions by david b . wake and k . whittaker ( molge at yahoo . com ) , museum of vertebrate zoology , uc berkeley

edited by kellie whittaker ; updated by ann t . chang ( 2016 - 02 - 22 )

> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .

> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .

statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan ( s . c . o . r . p )

as defined by kansas administrative regulations , critical habitats include those areas documentedas currently supporting self - sustaining population ( s ) of any threatened or endangered species of wildlife as well as those areas determined by the kansas department of wildlife , parks and tourism to be essential for the conservation of any threatened or endangered species of wildlife .

all caves and associated spring flows within that portion of cherokee county lying south and east of a line beginning at the kansas - missouri border junction with u . s . highway 66 at sec . 13 , t34s , t25e , then extending westerly and southerly along u . s . 66 to the kansas - oklahoma border at sec . 14 , t35s , r24e .

recent molecular studies have shown that it is a close relative of species of the genus eurycea that occur nearby . it differs strikingly from these species in its larger size and cave - related features , but because it is phylogenetically nested within the euryea multiplicata complex , bonett and chippindale placed it in eurycea . thus its name was change from typhlotriton spelaeus to eurycea spelaea ( bonett and chippindale 2004 ) .

in an alternative to linnean classification , the name typhlotriton could be retained as a clade name , for example in phylocode . because mitochondrial dna sequence divergence within e . spelaea is relatively great , some of the populations might be recognized as distinct species ( two additional species were described in the past but now included within e . spelaea ; bonett and chippindale 2004 ) .

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behler , j . l . , and f . w . king . 1979 ( 1987 ) . the audubon society field guide to north american reptiles and amphibians . 3rd ed . alfred a . knopf , new york . 743 pp .

conant , r . , and j . t . collins . 1998 . a field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central north america . 3rd ed . , expanded . houghton mifflin co . , boston . 616 pp .

trauth , s . e . , h . w . robison , and m . v . plummer . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of arkansas . university of arkansas press , fayetteville . 421 pp .

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visitors have the opportunity to hear the fall’s power and see the water cascaded into the pool in front of them . walking behind a large waterfall is an experience like none other and not to be missed !

after the waterfall , if you wish to continue to the summit of mount leconte , use our trillium gap trail hike review .

the most authoritative source for restaurants , attractions , & cabin rentals in the smoky mountains .

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the average total length lies between 23 - 25 cm . they may grow up to 30 cm and rarely more than 30 cm . black proteus can grow up to 40 cm or more . males are somewhat smaller than females . other sexually dimorphic characteristics include the shape and size of the cloaca during breeding activity , with the males having a larger and more elongated swollen cloaca than the females .

sket and arntzen ( 1994 ) described black populations of proteus as a separates subspecies , and defended this taxonomic decision based on the limited amount of morphological ( morphometric ) differentiation that arntzen and sket ( 1997 ) observed between the two subspecies . however , goricki and tronteltj ( 2006 ) found little differentiation between the two subspecies at the molecular level and questioned whether the designation of subspecies was appropriate . subsequently tronteltj et al . ( 2007 ) reported that both " subspecies " were nested within a southeastern slovenian clade of p . anguinus and that the division was in fact simply intra - lineage diversity .

proteus is the only cave - adapted vertebrate in europe . current genetic research under the direction of dr . boris sket of the university of ljubljana suggests that proteus anguinus is actually a complex of several species , with phylogenetic analysis revealing six cryptic lineages ( see trontelj et al . 2007 ) .

functional - morphological and environmental studies of proteus have been performed at the department of biology , biotechnical faculty ( bf ) , university of ljubljana , slovenia for more than thirty years , with the most recent twenty years under the guidance of prof . dr . boris bulog .

arntzen , j . w . , and sket , b . ( 1997 ) . ' ' morphometric analysis of black and white european cave salamanders , proteus anguinus . ' ' journal of zoology ( london ) , 241 ( 4 ) , 699 - 707 .

bizjak - mali , l . ( 1995 ) . histological , histochemical and ultrastructural analysis of the digestive tract of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) , master of science thesis . university of ljubljana , biotechnical faculty , department of biology , slovenia .

boehme , w . , grossenbacher , k . , and thiesmeier , b . ( 1999 ) . handbuch der reptilien und amphibien europas , band 4 / i : schwanzlurche ( urodela ) . aula - verlag , wiesbaden .

bons , j . and beniez , p . ( 1996 ) . amphibiens et reptiles du maroc ( sahara occidental compris ) . asociacion herpetologica española , barcelona .

bulog b . ( 1989 ) . ' ' differentiation of the inner ear sensory epithelia of proteus anguinus ( urodela , amphibia ) . ' ' journal of morphology , 202 , 325 - 338 .

bulog b . et al . ( 2003 ) . black proteus : mysterious dweller of the karst in bela krajina . ljubljana : tv slovenia , video tape

bulog b . , and schlegel , p . ( 2000 ) . ' ' functional morphology of the inner ear and underwater audiograms of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , urodela ) . ' ' pflügers archive , 439 ( 3 ) , 165 - 167 .

bulog , b . , mihajl , k . , jeran , z . , and toman , m . ( 2002 ) . ' ' trace element concentrations in the tissues of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) and the surrounding environment . ' ' water , air , and soil pollution , 136 ( 1 - 4 ) , 147 - 163 .

dumas , p . and chris , b . ( 1998 ) . ' ' the olfaction in proteus anguinus . ' ' behavioural processes , 43 , 107 - 113 .

gasc , j . - p . ( 1997 ) . atlas of amphibians and reptiles in europe . societas europaea herpetologica , bonn , germany .

griffiths , r . a . ( 1996 ) . newts and salamanders of europe . t . and a . d . poyser , london .

honegger , r . e . ( 1981 ) . threatened amphibians and reptiles in europe . akademische verlagsgesellschaft , wiesbaden .

istenič , l . and bulog , b . ( 1979 ) . ' ' the structural differentiations of the buccal and pharyngeal mucous membrane of the proteus anguinus laur . ' ' biološki vestnik , 27 , 1 - 12 .

istenič , l . and sojar , a . ( 1974 ) . ' ' oxygen consumption of proteus anguinus . ' ' acta carsologica , 6 , 299 - 305 .

istenic , l . and ziegler , i . ( 1974 ) . ' ' riboflavin as ' ' pigment ' ' in the skin of proteus anguinus l . ' ' naturwissenschaften , 12 , 686 - 687 .

kalezic , m . , and dzukic , g . ( 2001 ) . ' ' amphibian status in serbia and montenegro ( fr yugoslavia ) . ' ' froglog , 45 .

kos , m . ( 1992 ) . ' ' fine structure of of the skin of proteus anguinus laurenti ( urodela , amphibia ) and comparison of the skin of the pigmentless and pigmented specimen . unpublished dissertation . ' '

kos , m . , bulog , b . , szél , a . , and röhlich p . ( 2001 ) . ' ' immunocytochemical demonstration of visualpigments in the degenerate retinal and pineal photoreceptors of the blind cavesalamander ( proteus anguinus ) . ' ' cell and tissue research , 303 ( 1 ) , 15 - 25 .

nöllert , a . and nöllert , c . ( 1992 ) . die amphibien europas . franckh - kosmos verlags - gmbh and company , stuttgart .

schlegel p . a . , briegleb w . , bulog b . , steinfartz s . ( 2006 ) . ' ' revue et nouvellesdonnées sur la sensitivité a la lumiere et orientation non - visuelle chez proteus anguinus , calotriton asper et desmognathus ochrophaeus ( amphibiens urodeles hypogés ) . ' ' bulletin de la société herpétologique de france , 118 , 1 - 31 .

sket , b . ( 1997 ) . ' ' distribution of proteus ( amphibia : urodela : proteidae ) and its possible explanation . ' ' journal of biogeography , 24 , 263 - 280 .

stet , b . , and arntzen , j . w . ( 1994 ) . ' ' a black , non - troglomorphic amphibian from the karst of slovenia : proteus anguinus parkelj n . ssp . ( urodela : proteidae ) . ' ' bijdragen tot de dierkunde , 64 ( 1 ) , 33 - 53 .

stuart , s . , hoffmann , m . , chanson , j . , cox , n . , berridge , r . , ramani , p . , and young , b . ( eds ) ( 2008 ) . threatened amphibians of the world . lynx edicions , iucn , and conservation international , barcelona , spain ; gland , switzerland ; and arlington , virginia , usa .

stumpel - rieks , s . e . ( 1992 ) . nomina herpetofaunae europaeae . aula - verlag , wiesbaden .

trontelj , p . , douady , c . , fišer , c . , gibert , j . , gorički , s . , lefébure , t . , sket , b . , and zakšek , v . ( 2007 ) . ' ' a molecular test for cryptic diversity in ground water : how large are the ranges of macro - stygobionts ? ' ' freshwater biology , 54 , 727 - 744 .

uiblein , f . , durand , j . p . , juberthie , c . , and parzefall , j . ( 1992 ) . ' ' predation in caves : the effects of prey immobility and darkness on the foraging behaviour of two salamanders , euproctus asper and proteus anguis . ' ' bahavioural processes , 28 , 33 - 40 .

voituron , y . , de fraipont , m . , issartel , j . , guillaume , o . , and clobert , j . ( 2010 ) . ' ' extreme lifespan of the human fish ( proteus anguinus ) : a challenge for ageing mechanisms . ' ' biology letters , published online before print july 21 , 2010 , doi : 10 . 1098 / rsbl . 2010 . 0539 .

bons , j . and beniez , p . ( 1996 ) . amphibiens et reptiles du maroc ( sahara occidental compris ) . asociacion herpetologica espaã±ola , barcelona .

bulog b . , and schlegel , p . ( 2000 ) . ' ' functional morphology of the inner ear and underwater audiograms of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , urodela ) . ' ' pflã¼gers archive , 439 ( 3 ) , 165 - 167 .

istenič , l . and bulog , b . ( 1979 ) . ' ' the structural differentiations of the buccal and pharyngeal mucous membrane of the proteus anguinus laur . ' ' bioloå¡ki vestnik , 27 , 1 - 12 .

kos , m . , bulog , b . , szã©l , a . , and rã¶hlich p . ( 2001 ) . ' ' immunocytochemical demonstration of visualpigments in the degenerate retinal and pineal photoreceptors of the blind cavesalamander ( proteus anguinus ) . ' ' cell and tissue research , 303 ( 1 ) , 15 - 25 .

nã¶llert , a . and nã¶llert , c . ( 1992 ) . die amphibien europas . franckh - kosmos verlags - gmbh and company , stuttgart .

schlegel p . a . , briegleb w . , bulog b . , steinfartz s . ( 2006 ) . ' ' revue et nouvellesdonnã©es sur la sensitivitã© a la lumiere et orientation non - visuelle chez proteus anguinus , calotriton asper et desmognathus ochrophaeus ( amphibiens urodeles hypogã©s ) . ' ' bulletin de la sociã©tã© herpã©tologique de france , 118 , 1 - 31 .

trontelj , p . , douady , c . , fiå¡er , c . , gibert , j . , gorički , s . , lefã©bure , t . , sket , b . , and zakå¡ek , v . ( 2007 ) . ' ' a molecular test for cryptic diversity in ground water : how large are the ranges of macro - stygobionts ? ' ' freshwater biology , 54 , 727 - 744 .

the species is restricted to subterranean aquatic habitats within the dinaric alps , ranging from southern slovenia and adjoining north - east italy through coastal croatia and karst regions of bosnia and herzegovina . it has yet to be officially recorded in western parts of montenegro despite considerable anecdotal evidence of its presence ( kalezic and dzukic , 2001 ) . the species has been introduced to a cave of the subterranean laboratory of the cnrs france in the pyrenees ( c . miaud pers . comm . ) , and one of the north - eastern italian populations ( in the vicenza area ) was introduced in the 1800s ( p . edgar pers . comm . ) .