taenia asiatica , commonly known as asian taenia or asian tapeworm , is a parasitic tapeworm of humans and pigs .

it is one of the three species of taenia infecting humans and causes taeniasis .

discovered only in 1980s from taiwan and other east asian countries as an unusual species , it is so notoriously similar to taenia saginata , the beef tapeworm , that it was for a time regarded as a slightly different strain .

but anomaly arose as the tapeworm is not of cattle origin , but of pigs .

morphological details also showed significant variations , such as presence of rostellar hooks , shorter body , and less number of body segments .

the scientific name designated was then asian t. saginata .

but the taxonomic consensus turns out to be that it is a unique species .

it was in 1993 that two korean parasitologists , keeseon s. eom and han jong rim , provided the biological bases for classifying it into a separate species .

the use of mitochondrial genome sequence and molecular phylogeny in the late 2000s established the taxonomic status .

t. asiatica causes intestinal taenisis in humans and cysticercosis in pigs .

there is a suspicion that it may also cause cysticercosis in human .

like other taenids , humans are the definitive hosts , but in contrast , pigs , wild boars , as well as cattle can serve as intermediate hosts .

moreover , scid mice and mongolian gerbil can be experimentally infected .

the life cycle is basically similar to those of other taenids .

humans contract the infection by eating raw or undercooked meat – a practice common in east and southeast asia – which are contaminated with the infective larva called cysticercus .

cysticercus develops into adult tapeworm in human intestine , from where it releases embryonated eggs along faeces into the external environment .

pigs acquire the eggs from vegetation .

the eggs enter the digestive tract , which they penetrate to migrate to other body organs .

unlike other taenia they preferentially settle in the liver , where they form cysticerci .

asian taeniasis is documented in nine countries in asia , including taiwan , south korea , indonesia , the philippines , thailand , south-central china , vietnam , japan and nepal .

the rate of a prevalence is estimated to be up to 21 % and resulting in annual economic losses of about us$ 40,000,000 in these regions .

praziquantel is the drug of choice for treating the infection .

as the latest addition to human taeniasis , misidentified for over two centuries , still complete lack of systematic diagnosis , and no control programmes , it is regarded as the most neglected human taenid .

taenia asiatica

taenia asiatica <EOT> developmental stages of taenia spp . ( taenia solium , taenia saginata , taenia asiatica ) and associated diseases .

geographical origin of the 6 taenia saginata and 13 taenia asiatica samples analyzed a .

three tapeworm species cause taeniasis in humans , taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . only t . solium causes major health problems .

taeniasis is an intestinal infection caused by 3 species of tapeworm : taenia solium ( pork tapeworm ) , taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) and taenia asiatica .

taenia solium , taenia saginata , taenia asiatica , their hybrids and other helminthic infections occurring in a neglected tropical diseases ' highly endemic area in lao pdr .

leo shapiro added text to " general ecology " on " taenia asiatica " .

leo shapiro added text to " life cycle " on " taenia asiatica " .

the life cycle of taenia asiatica is complex . eggs or gravid . . .

morphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia .

lights and shadows of the taenia asiatica life cycle and pathogenicity . - pubmed - ncbi

no one has contributed data records for taenia asiatica yet . learn how to contribute .

ebscohost | 92947864 | lights and shadows of the taenia asiatica life cycle and pathogenicity .

taenia asiatica and taenia saginata : genetic divergence estimated from their mitochondrial genomes . jeon hk , et al . exp parasitol 2006 may

morphologic and genetic identification of taenia tapeworms in tanzania and dna genotyping of taenia solium .

[ first discovery of taenia saginata asiatica infection in yunnan province ] . - pubmed - ncbi

taenia saginata asiatica : epidemiology , infection , immunological and molecular studies . - pubmed - ncbi

three species of the taenia genus are intestinal parasites of humans , taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . however , only two of them , t . solium and t . saginata , have been considered for centuries , t . asiatica remained undiscovered until recently . [ 1 ]

the cestode taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) ( along with t . saginata [ beef . . .

[ survey of the number of eggs in taenia asiatica gravid proglottids in dali prefecture of yunnan province ] .

morphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia . - pubmed - ncbi

complete sequence of the mitochondrial genome of taenia saginata : comparison with t . solium and t . asiatica .

leo shapiro set " life cycle of taenia spp . " as an exemplar on " taenia saginata " .

the cestodes taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) , t . solium ( pork tapeworm ) and t . asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) . taenia solium can also cause cysticercosis .

taenia is an important pathogenic tapeworm genus including some important parasites such as taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica , etc . members of the genus are responsible for taeniasis and cysticercosis in humans and other livestocks . till now , more than 100 species were recorded . taenia is morphologically characterized by a ribbon - like body composed of a series of segments called proglottids ; hence the name taenia .

molecular analyses reveal two geographic and genetic lineages for tapeworms , taenia solium and taenia saginata , from ecuador using mitochondrial dna .

[ survey of the number of eggs in taenia asiatica gravid proglottids in dali prefecture of yunnan province ] . - pubmed - ncbi

a taenia asiatica patient , mr . chen chin - fu , with 24 strobilae that were purged from him after using atabrine .

10 . jeon hk , eom ks . taenia asiatica and taenia saginata : genetic divergence estimated from their mitochondrial genomes . exp parasitol 2006 ; 113 : 58 - 61 . pmid : 16546174 .

a volunteer , dr . chung wc , trying to infect himself with taenia asiatica by eating raw wild boar liver that contained cysticerci .

13 . eom ks , rim hj . epidemiological understanding of taenia tapeworm infections with special reference to taenia asiatica in korea . korean j parasitol 2001 ; 39 : 267 - 283 . pmid : 11775327 .

19 . eom ks , rim hj . epidemiological understanding of taenia tapeworm infections with special reference to taenia asiatica in korea . korean j parasitol 2001 ; 39 : 267 - 283 . pmid : 11775327 .

complete sequence of the mitochondrial genome of taenia saginata : comparison with t . solium and t . asiatica . | ghl - scientific and technical literature

since the 1990s , various researchers have developed and applied molecular methods for distinguishing t . asiatica from other taenia spp . , and , subsequently , for studying the relationship of t . asiatica with other taenia spp . , in particular t . saginata , and for examining the genetic variability within t . asiatica . the availability of the complete mitochondrial genome of t . asiatica [ 27 ] , and the access to published sequences through genbank , has greatly contributed to the understanding of the genetic diversity of t . asiatica .

species that can affect animals and humans include tapeworms in the taenia genus . different types of taenia are associated with different types of meat . taenia saginata is the beef tapeworm ; taenia solium is the pork tapeworm ; and taenia asiatica is the asian pork tapeworm . dipylidium caninum mainly infects dogs and cats , while echinocococcus granulosus , which infects people and livestock , is rare in the united states . taenia species are longer than dipylidium species ; they can grow up to 1 yard ( nearly a meter ) in length .

taenia saginata and t . solium are worldwide in distribution . taenia solium is more prevalent in poorer communities where humans live in close contact with pigs and eat undercooked pork . taenia asiatica is limited to asia and is seen mostly in the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia , and thailand .

non - protease homologues in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .

not only taenia solium and taenia saginata , but also taenia asiatica infects humans . the last species is not included in the evaluation of the specificity of the immunodiagnostic techniques for taeniasis / cysticercosis . there is currently no specific immunodiagnostic method for t . asiatica available . therefore , due to the fact that molecular techniques ( the only tool to distinguish the 3 taenia species ) are normally not employed in routine diagnostic methods , the 2 questions concerning t . asiatica ( its definite geographic distribution and its ability to cause human cysticercosis ) , remain open , turning t . asiatica into the most neglected agent of human taeniasis - cysticercosis .

before exposing the lights and shadows of t . asiatica , it would be worthwhile to briefly summarize some historical and phylogenetic remarks on the three human taenia species .

complete sequence and structure of the mitochondrial genome of the human tapeworm , taenia asiatica ( platyhelminthes ; cestoda ) . jeon hk , et al . parasitology 2005 jun

humans are definitive hosts of two well - known species of the taenia genus , taenia solium ( the pig tapeworm ) and taenia saginata ( the cattle tapeworm ) . in the 1990s , a third species , taenia asiatica , was discovered , sharing features with the other two since the adult morphology is similar to that of t . saginata , but its life cycle is like that of t . solium…

coenurosis ( taenia multiceps , t . serialis , or t . brauni infection )

harrison ljs , delgado j , parkhouse rme . differential diagnosis of taenia sagianta and

taeniasis in humans is a parasitic infection caused by the tapeworm species taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) , taenia solium ( pork tapeworm ) , and taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) . humans can become infected with these tapeworms by eating raw or undercooked beef ( t . saginata ) or pork ( t . solium and t . asiatica ) . people with taeniasis typically have mild gastrointestinal symptoms or may be asymptomatic .

the number of eggs in different gravid proglottids of t . asiatica is evidently different .

with the advent of molecular techniques , it became clear that the asian taenia is genetically much more related to t . saginata than it is to t . solium [ 13 - 17 ] . this led the earlier protagonists to declare the asian taenia as a strain or subspecies of t . saginata , designated taenia saginata taiwanensis , or , in line with its geographical distribution , taenia saginata asiatica [ 18 ] .

5 . eom ks , rim hj . morphologic descriptions of taenia asiatica sp . n . korean j parasitol 1993 ; 31 : 1 - 6 . pmid : 8512894 .

18 . eom ks , rim hj . morphologic descriptions of taenia asiatica sp . n . korean j parasitol 1993 ; 31 : 1 - 6 . pmid : 8512894 .

it was determined to examine whether rats injected with non - viable oncospheres of asian taenia or taenia saginata became resistant to challenge infection with eggs of taenia taeniaeformis , since ( a ) metacestodes of asian taenia and t . taeniaeformis develop in the liver of pigs and rats , respectively , and ( b ) asian taenia and t . saginata have human origins . rats injected intravenously or . . . [ show full abstract ]

eom ks , rim hj . epidemiological understanding of taenia tapeworm infections with special reference to

taenia infections . institute for international cooperation in animal biologics . 2005 ( . pdf )

evidence on the epidemiology and genetic diversity of t . asiatica was obtained through a systematic search of national and international peer - reviewed literature . given the relatively limited number of papers on t . asiatica , a general search phrase was used consisting of the different synonyms of t . asiatica , i . e . , taenia saginata asiatica , asian taenia and taiwan taenia . manuscript titles were retrieved through searching pubmed , asia journals online ( asiajol ) , african journals online ( ajol ) , latin american journals online ( lamjol ) , who global health library , and indmed . the searches were performed on 20 september 2013 .

go enrichment analysis of heterozygous genes in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .

taeniasis in humans is a parasitic infection caused by the tapeworm species taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) , taenia solium ( pork tapeworm ) , and taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) . humans can become infected with these tapeworms by eating raw or undercooked beef ( t . saginata ) or pork ( t . solium and t . asiatica ) . people with taeniasis may not know they have a tapeworm infection because symptoms are usually mild or nonexistent .

the cestode taenia asiatica , also known as asian taenia or asian tapeworm , is a parasite of humans and pigs that is thought to be restricted to asia . humans contract infection by eating eating raw or undercooked meat and this causes intestinal taeniasis which is usually asymptomatic .

in the early 1990s , a group of korean parasitologists , led by dr keeseon eom , performed various experimental infections using korean specimens of the asian taenia . their observation that the cysts of the asian taenia preferably develop in viscera of pigs , made them propose the name cysticercus viscerotropica [ 11 ] . in 1993 , they described the morphology of the asian taenia , and declared it as a new species , designated taenia asiatica [ 12 ] .

2 . flisser a , craig ps , ito a . in palmer sr , soulsby l , torgerson pr , brown dwg eds , cysticercosis and taeniosis : taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . oxford textbook of zoonoses , biology , clinical practice and public health control . 2011 , oxford , uk . oxford university press . pp 627 - 644 .

complexities in using sentinel pigs to study taenia solium transmission dynamics under field conditi . . .

identification of species and genetic variation in taenia isolates from human and swine of north india .

30 . eom ks , jeon hk , rim hj . geographical distribution of taenia asiatica and related species . korean j parasitol 2009 ; 47 : s115 - s124 . pmid : 19885327 .

29 . rim hj , joo kh , park hs . anthelmintic effect of albendazole against taenia saginata and taenia solium infections . j korean soc chemother 1989 ; 7 : 29 - 39 .

t _ asiatica _ south _ korea _ v1 _ 0 _ 4 , gca _ 000951535 . 1

cross - sections of taenia spp . stained with hematoxylin and eosin ( h & e ) .

cross protection against taenia taeniaeformis in rats vaccinated with non - viable oncospheres of asia . . .

of the 32 recognized species of taenia , only taenia solium and taenia saginata are medically important . however , recent epidemiologic studies in southeast asia have identified a third taenia species in humans , known as t asiatica . [ 1 , 2 ] cysticercosis is the development of extraintestinal encysted larval forms of t solium in various organs ( see cysticercosis ) . the cns is involved in 60 - 90 % of cases ; this condition is termed neurocysticercosis ( ncc ) . for more information , see neurocysticercosis .

. . . human taeniasis is acquired by eating uncooked or poorly cooked pork or beef infected with the larval form of the human taeniid tapeworms , taenia solium , or taenia asiatica ( from pigs ) , or taenia saginata ( from bovids ) ( schantz et al . , 1993 ; fan and chung , 1998 ) . the adult tapeworms grow ( 2–8 m ) in the human small intestine , with spontaneous elimination of proglottids from the anus especially for t . saginata or t . asiatica carriers . . . .

in the 1980s fan came up with the idea that the species found in several asian countries ( taiwan , korea , indonesia ) could be a new one . [ 16 ] this taenia was known as taiwan taenia or the asian taenia until , in 1993 , when eom and rim proposed to definitely consider it a new species , namely t . asiatica . [ 1 ] lately , and due to its molecular similarities to t . saginata , fan et al . proposed considering this asian taenia as a subspecies of t . saginata , i . e . , t . saginata asiatica , [ 17 ] leading to contrary opinions on its systematic status until t . asiatica was finally considered a valid species . [ 18 ]

the in - paralog pairs showing differential evolution rates in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .

potential nuclear molecular markers to differentiate t . saginata ( tsa ) and t . asiatica ( tas ) .

taenia saginata taeniasis produces only mild abdominal symptoms . the most striking feature consists of the passage ( active and passive ) of proglottids . occasionally , appendicitis or cholangitis can result from migrating proglottids . taenia solium taeniasis is less frequently symptomatic than taenia saginata taeniasis . the main symptom is often the passage ( passive ) of proglottids . the most important feature of taenia solium taeniasis is the risk of development of cysticercosis .

taenia infection has been recognized since biblical times . a detailed history on human taenia is described by grove , [ 5 ] cox , [ 6 ] or wadia and singh , [ 7 ] among others .

20 . fan pc , chung wc , lin cy , wu cc . pig as a favorable animal for taenia saginata asiatica infection . kaohsiung j med sci 2006 ; 22 : 1 - 13 . pmid : 16570562 .

20 . chung wc , lin cy , fan pc . ectopic locations of taenia saginata asiatica in the abdominal cavity of domestic pig and monkey . j parasitol 1996 ; 82 : 1032 - 1034 . pmid : 8973419 .

figure a : taenia saginata adult worm . the adult in this image is approximately 4 meters in length .

willms k . morphology and biochemistry of the pork tapeworm , taenia solium . curr top med chem . 2008

epidemiology of taenia solium in nepal : is it influenced by the social characteristics of the popula . . .

an adult taenia scolium , the pork tapeworm . humans become infected by ingesting raw or undercooked infected meat .

among taeniid tapeworms infecting humans through pork or beef , taenia solium linnaeus 1758 and taenia saginata goeze 1782 have already been known . based on the morphologic characteristics of adult and metacestodes of asian taenia saginata , the third kind of human taeniid tapeworm known to distribute in asian countries , a new species name of taenia asiatica is proposed . in addition to the known biology in their intermediate hosts , t . asiatica was different morphologically from taenia saginata goeze 1782 in having the unarmed rostellum on the scolex of adult , the large number of ' uterine twigs ' and the existence of ' posterior protuberance ' . these structures in the gravid proglottids were used as taxonomic keys in taeniid tapeworms for the first time . t . asiatica metacestode ( cysticercus viscerotropica ) was different morphologically from t . saginata metacestode ( cysticercus bovis ) in having wartlike formations on the external surface of the bladder wall .

9 . jeon hk , eom ks . complete sequence of the mitochondrial genome of taenia saginata : comparison with t . solium and t . asiatica . parasitol int 2007 ; 56 : 243 - 246 . pmid : 17499016 .

taenia asiatica is a recently described species known to cause intestinal teniasis in humans and cysticercosis in animals . this species has close morphological resemblance to taenia saginata and has a life cycle resembling taenia solium , hence has been posing diagnostic dilemma and had been the reason for its comparatively late discovery . recent diagnostic tools such as serological and molecular techniques have thrown light on its exact prevalence in the endemic countries . hence introduction of utilization of these techniques in addition to the routine morphological analysis would be helpful in diagnosis of t . asiatica infections and early implementation of preventive measures .

go enrichment analysis of the genes containing peak - 2 introns in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .

the taeenid tapeworms known to cause zoonotic infections in humans are taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . the first two species are well known agents causing cysticercosis and intestinal taeniasis respectively . [ 1 ] t . asiatica was discovered when epidemiological inconsistency was observed between the species ratio of tapeworms and the eating habits of hosts in south korea . [ 2 ] t . asiatica has equivocal features of t . saginata but recent deoxyribonucleic acid ( dna ) studies , molecular and epidemiologic characteristics had made the taxonomic conversion of t . saginata subsp . asiatica to the current separate species t . asiatica . t . asiatica has been identified to parasitise human intestinal lumen in eight asian countries i . e . china , korea , indonesia , philippines , taiwan , thailand , vietnam and japan , with the prevalence being as high as 21 % causing significant economic burden . [ 3 ] this unique species exhibits a morphology resembling t . saginata and life cycle resembling t . solium infection , pigs being the main intermediate host . [ 4 ] although t . asiatica is well - known to cause intestinal teniasis , less is known about its role in causation of cysticercosis in humans .

bowles j , mcmanus dp . genetic characterization of the asian taenia , a newly described taeniid cestode of humans .

9 . huang sw . studies on taenia species prevalent among the aborigines in wulai district taiwan . part ii . on the species of taenia . bull inst zool ( acad sin ) 1967 ; 6 : 29 - 34 .

taenia genome project including the genome assembly and transcriptome analysis of several taenia species was first lanched in beijing institute of genomics , cas and lanzhou veterinary research institute , caas since 2010 . taenia have relative large and complex genome . this comprehensive website is designed to help the pathogen researchers for a better use of genome information and transcriptome comparison .

taenia asiatica differs from taenia saginata and t . solium in 4 aspects [ 2 ] ; 1 ) the scolex has 2 rows of rudimentary hooklets , which is considered as a wart - like formation . 2 ) the number of the lateral branches of the uterus is different and allows identifying if the proglottids belong to t . solium ( 7 - 11 branches ) , t . saginata ( 14 - 32 branches ) , or t . asiatica ( 12 - 26 branches ) . 3 ) t . asiatica cysticerci in pigs are not found in muscles , they can be recovered from the liver , omentum , serosa , and lung . 4 ) t . asiatica does not cause ncc in humans .

however , this purely molecular view was soon contrasted to an epidemiological and public health perspective . galan - puchades and mas - coma opened the debate , and made the case for t . asiatica as a separate species [ 19 ] . the debate continued , with different phylogenetic studies considering the asian taenia either as t . saginata asiatica [ 20 , 21 ] or t . asiatica [ 22 - 27 ] , depending on the research group involved . the identification of t . saginata / t . asiatica hybrids in china and thailand [ 28 - 30 ] , may reopen this debate , as reproductive isolation has historically been an important criterion for considering t . asiatica and t . saginata as distinct biological entities [ 24 ] . although the current literature seems to favor t . asiatica at the species level , it is clear that the taxonomy of the asian taenia remains as complex and controversial as it was two decades ago [ 31 ] .

t . asiatica is still present in taiwan today but in only some aborigines who live in the mountainous areas . however , the cases are getting rarer with the improvement of rural medical health services . taenia asiatica has always been there and has come a long way for its recognition . we just need to train our eyes to see in different dimension .

4 . fan pc , lin cy , chen cc , chung wc . morphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia . j helminthol 1995 ; 69 : 299 - 303 . pmid : 8583124 .

17 . fan pc , lin cy , chen cc , chung wc . morphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia . j helminthol 1995 ; 69 : 299 - 303 . pmid : 8583124 .

1 . do humans act as intermediate hosts of t . asiatica as they do in the case of t . solium ?

both taenia and d . latum infections can be prevented by adequate cooking or freezing of beef , pork , or fish

species of taenia were among the earliest recognized helminths in humans , with written records of their occurrence extending into antiquity .

t . asiatica as a separate species was discovered relatively recently . it had been mistaken for taenia saginata goeze ( 1782 ) for more than 200 years and later was classified as subspecies of t . saginata . however , extensive epidemiological , molecular , comparative morphology and phylogenetic analyses have indicated the independent and specific status of t . asiatica ( eom & rim 1993 ) .

11 . jeon hk , chai jy , kong y , waikagul j , insisienhmay b , rim hj , eom ks . differential diagnosis of taenia asiatica using multiplex pcr . exp parasitol 2009 ; 121 : 151 - 156 . pmid : 19017531 .

23 . chang sl , ooi hk , nonaka n , kamiya m , oku y . development of taenia asiatica cysticerci to infective stage and adult stage in mongolian gerbils . j helminthol 2006 ; 80 : 219 - 223 . pmid : 16923263 .

hence , in absence of a specific immunological test for t . asiatica , only the post - mortem molecular analysis of the extracted cysticerci can be used to assess the species causing pig cysticercosis . as a consequence , t . asiatica may be misdiagnosed as t . solium not only in humans but also in pigs . therefore , any pig cysticercosis around the world diagnosed only by immunological methods could be produced also by t . asiatica , so we propose that it should be named t . solium / asiatica cysticercosis .

the cestode taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) ( along with t . saginata [ beef tapeworm ] and t . solium [ pork tapeworm ] ) causes intestinal taeniasis in infected humans . taenia asiatica is limited to asia and is seen mostly in the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia , and thailand . genetic studies by eom et al . ( 2009 ) indicated that t . asiatica occurs in japan , the philippines , and vietnam as well ( t . saginata and t . solium have a worldwide distribution ) . ( centers for disease control parasites and health website ) genetically , t . asiatica is far more similar to t . saginata ( to which it is also morphologically very similar ) than it is to t . solium ( jeon et al . 2007 ; eom et al . 2009 ) . taenia asiatica shares its intermediate host association ( i . e . , pigs ) with t . solium , not with its closer relative t . saginata ( which use cattle as the intermediate host ) . thus , it appears that the divergence of t . asiatica and t . sagitata was associated with a host shift .

there are three species of taenids that use humans as definitive hosts : taenia solium , t . saginata , an t . asiatica . in addition , taenia solium can also use humans as intermediate hosts causing cysticercosis . this ability makes this parasite especially important . other species of taenids circulate in wild animals and infect humans only occasionally causing cysticercoses / coenuroses as well as taenoses .

to investigate the aetiology , species and epidemiological factors of taenia infection in a pilot area of lanping county , yunnan province .

garcia hh et al . diagnosis , treatment and control of taenia solium cysticercosis . curr opin infect dis . 2003 oct .

taenia solium , t . saginata , and t . asiatica are 3 zoonotic tapeworms which induce human infections through pigs and cattle as intermediate hosts . among them , t . asiatica is the last known species found in asian countries where rural people eat undercooked visceral organs of pigs , i . e . , the liver , omentum , serosa , and lung [ 1 - 4 ] .

among coproantigen - detection methods ( only genus specific ) , a coproantigen elisa for t . solium was tested with t . asiatica but did not cross - react [ 19 ] . therefore , this is the only 100 % specific immunological method currently available to identify t . solium carriers , but not t . asiatica carriers . even a positive result for t . solium in this elisa would not exclude t . asiatica since dual human infection with t . solium and t . asiatica has been reported in thailand [ 10 ] .

life cycles of the 3 human taenia tapeworms ( this figure has been modified from fig . 1 . 2 of flisser et al . , biology of taenia solium , t . saginata , and t . asiatica . in murrell kd ed , who / fao / oie guidelines for the surveillance , prevention , and control of taeniosis / cysticercosis . 2005 , pp 1 - 9 ) .

ohnishi k , sakamoto n , kobayashi k , iwabuchi s , nakamura - uchiyama f . therapeutic effect of praziquantel against taeniasis asiatica .

t . asiatica is limited to asia and is seen mostly in the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia and thailand .

6 . zarlenga ds , george m . taenia crassiceps : cloning and mapping of mitochondrial dna and its application to the phenetic analysis of a new species of taenia from southeast asia . exp parasitol 1995 ; 81 : 604 - 607 . pmid : 8543003 .

garcía hh at al . taenia solium cysticercosis . lancet . 2003 aug 16 ; 362 ( 9383 ) : 547 - 56 .

studies on the diversification times of the different taenia species indicate that t . asiatica fully diverged from a common t . saginata / asiatica ancestor in the late pleistocene , ~ 40 , 000 years ago . this diversification might have co - occurred with the arrival of homo sapiens in asia , and the introduction of new wild boar populations and / or new breeding and husbandry practices in this region [ 63 , 95 ] . again , these results indicate a closer relatedness of t . asiatica with t . saginata than with t . solium .

8 . jeon hk , lee kh , kim kh , hwang uw , eom ks . complete sequence and structure of mitochondrial genome of the human tapeworm , taenia asiatica ( platyhelminthes ; cestoda ) . parasitology 2005 ; 130 : 717 - 726 . pmid : 15977909 .

geographical information of taenia asiatica is reviewed together with that of t . solium and t . saginata . current distribution of t . asiatica was found to be mostly from asian countries : the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia , and thailand . molecular genotypic techniques have found out more countries with t . asiatica from japan , the philippines , and vietnam . specimens used in this paper were collected from around the world and mostly during international collaboration projects of korean foundations for parasite control activities ( 1995 - 2009 ) in developing countries .

31 . flisser a . in farthing mjg , keusch gt , walekin d eds , taenia solium , taenia saginata and hymenolepis nana . enteric infections . 2 : intestinal helminths . 1995 , london , uk . chapman and hall medical . pp 173 - 189 .

further experimental studies on t . saginata - like tapeworms from south korea , indonesia , thailand , and the philippines showed similar results , leading the authors to rename their taiwan taenia into asian taenia , denoting its more diverse geographical distribution [ 7 - 10 ] .

t . asiatica is generally neglected in the global elimination context of human taeniasis - cysticercosis . we assume that t . asiatica remains ignored mainly for 2 reasons ; first , its supposedly non - cosmopolitan character , being restricted to asian countries , and second , its close molecular similarities to t . saginata , suggesting that t . asiatica probably does not cause human cysticercosis since t . saginata eggs do not infect humans .

figure c : iodine - stained wet mount of a taenia sp . egg . image courtesy of the oregon state public health laboratory .

figure d : iodine - stained wet mount of a taenia sp . egg . image courtesy of the oregon state public health laboratory .

eom ks . what is asian taenia ? parasitol int . 2006 ; 55 suppl : s137 - 41 . epub 2006 jan 4 .

avila g et al . laboratory animal models for human taenia solium . parasitol int . 2006 ; 55 suppl : s99 - s103 .

taenia solium tapeworm infections can lead to cysticercosis , which is a disease that can cause seizures , so it is important seek treatment .

only 2 types of taeniases ( t . saginata and t . solium ) were recognized morphologically in korea up to 1992 until t . asiatica being newly described in 1993 as the third type . the prevalence of taeniasis in korea was considered to be caused only by infection with t . saginata or t . solium until eom and rim revised the identification of the korean taenia tapeworms to establish a new species , t . asiatica [ 1 ] . in order to understand distribution of human taenia tapeworms in korea , 68 taenia specimens were analyzed by morphology and nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial cox1 gene and its2 region . the distribution ratio of t . solium : t . asiatica : t . saginata was 3 : 51 : 14 ( or approximately 1 : 18 : 5 ) from 9 provinces in korea between 1935 and 2005 [ 37 ] .

t . asiatica has been misdiagnosed as t . saginata for more than 200 years in asia [ 16 ] and the same might currently occur in the rest of the world , since the morphology of t . asiatica ' s gravid proglottids is practically indistinguishable from that of t . saginata .

the remainder of this systematic review will provide an update of our current understanding of the transmission , risk factors , geographical distribution and genetic diversity of t . asiatica . for a review on the history , taxonomy and morphology of t . asiatica , we refer to eom [ 32 ] .

due to ( i ) the alomst impossibility to distinguish the morphology of t . asiatica and t . saginata gravid proglottids , ( ii ) current immunodiagnostic techniques that can not identify t . asiatica ( adult / cysticerci ) carriers ( humans or pigs ) , and ( iii ) the fact that molecular techniques ( the only tool to distinguish the 3 taenia species ) are normally not employed in routine diagnostic methods , the 2 questions concerning t . asiatica ( its definite geographical distribution and its ability to cause human cysticercosis ) remain open , turning t . asiatica into the most neglected agent of human taeniasis - cysticercosis . these knowledge gaps should first be assessed before strategies of global taeniasis - cysticercosis elimination are implemented , since t . asiatica is not only a potential candidate to produce human cysticercosis but , as well , a modulating factor in the epidemiology of t . solium .

willingham al 3rd , engels d . control of taenia solium cysticercosis / taeniosis . adv parasitol . 2006 ; 61 : 509 - 66 .

t . asiatica is a recently identified zoonotic human parasite causing intestinal taeniosis , which closely resembles t . saginata . although slight differences in morphology isslight differences in morphology are noted between the species , they cannot be used solely for the diagnosis and differentiation of species . hence , supplementation of serological and more promising molecular methods in addition to morphological study would help in differentiation of the species accurately . t . asiatica has been identified only from few regions of the world and introduction of diagnostic protocols in countries endemic to taenia can reveal the true prevalence of t . asiatica world - wide .

19 . leon wu . taeniasis asiatica in the philippines . taeniasis / cysticercosis and echinococcosis international symposium and the 3rd congress of fap 2005 . 82 .

leon wu . taeniasis asiatica in the philippines . taeniasis / cysticercosis and echinococcosis international symposium and the 3rd congress of fap 2005 ; p . 82 .

( a ) homologous genes shared between t . asiatica and other tapeworms ( that is , t . saginata , t . solium , e . multicularis and h . microstoma ) . ( b ) gene block linkages between t . asiatica and t . saginata . the collinear gene blocks determined by mcscan between genome scaffolds ( > 1 mb ) represent 7 , 212 and 7 , 201 genes for t . asiatica and t . saginata , respectively .

t . asiatica tapeworms range in size from 4 - 8 m , produce 700 proglottids / worm and may produce 80 , 000 eggs per proglottid .

jeon hk , chai jy , kong y , waikagul j , insisiengmay b , rim hj , eom ks : differential diagnosis of taenia asiatica using multiplex pcr . exp parasitol . 2009 , 121 : 151 - 156 . 10 . 1016 / j . exppara . 2008 . 10 . 014 .

. . . human taeniasis results from intestinal infection with parasitic tapeworms of the genus taenia . the most common are taenia saginata and taenia solium , but another species , taenia saginata asiatica , has been relatively recently described ( fan , 1988 ; fan and chung , 1998 ; zarlenga , 1991 ) . whereas the first two species have a worldwide distribution , t . saginata asiatica has been reported primarily in taiwan , korea , thailand , indonesia , china , malaysia , and the philippines ( fan et al . , 1990 ; eom and rim , 1993 ; bowles and mcmanus , 1994 ; fan et al . , 1995 ; simanjuntak et al . , 1997 ; fan and chung , 1998 ; eom and rim , 2001 ; eom et al . , 2002 ) , with sporadic cases in other countries such as spain ( velez and camacho , 1997 ) . . . .

taenia asiatica has made a remarkable journey through the scientific literature of the past 50 years , starting with the paradoxical observation of high prevalences of t . saginata - like tapeworms in non - beef consuming populations , to the full description of its mitochondrial genome . experimental studies conducted in the 1980s and 1990s have made it clear that the life cycle of t . asiatica is comparable to that of t . saginata , except for pigs being the preferential intermediate host and liver the preferential location of the cysts . whether or not t . asiatica can cause human cysticercosis , as is the case for taenia solium , remains unclear . given the specific conditions needed to complete its life cycle , in particular the consumption of raw or poorly cooked pig liver , the transmission of t . asiatica shows an important ethno - geographical association . so far , t . asiatica has been identified in taiwan , south korea , indonesia , the philippines , thailand , south - central china , vietnam , japan and nepal . especially this last observation indicates that its distribution is not restricted to south - east - asia , as was thought so far . indeed , the molecular tools developed over the last 20 years have made it increasingly possible to differentiate t . asiatica from other taeniids . such tools also indicated that t . asiatica is related more closely to t . saginata than to t . solium , feeding the debate on its taxonomic status as a separate species versus a subspecies of t . saginata . furthermore , the genetic diversity within t . asiatica appears to be very minimal , indicating that this parasite may be on the verge of extinction . however , recent studies have identified potential hybrids between t . asiatica and t . saginata , reopening the debate on the genetic diversity of t . asiatica and its status as a separate species .

an overview of the epidemiological , biological , and clinical studies of taenia and taeniasis in taiwan for the past century is presented . the phenomenal observations that led to the discovery of taenia asiatica as a new species , which differ from taenia solium and taenia saginata , are described . parasitological surveys of the aborigines in taiwan revealed a high prevalence of taeniasis , which might be due to the culture of eating raw liver of hunted wild boars . chemotherapeutic deworming trials involving many patients with taeniasis were discussed . praziquantel was found to be very effective , but sometimes complete worms could not be recovered from the feces after treatment , probably due to the dissolution of the proglottids . atabrine , despite some side effects , can still be used , in properly controlled dosages , as the drug of choice for human t . asiatica infection if we need to recover the expelled worms for morphological examinations . research results on the infection of t . asiatica eggs from taiwan aborigines in experimental animals were also noted . since the pig serve as the natural intermediate host of t . asiatica and the predilection site is the liver , a differential comparison of other parasitic pathogens that might cause apparently similar lesions is also presented .

figure e : unstained taenia sp . egg , teased from a proglottid of an adult . four hooks can easily be seen in this image .

hoberg ep . phylogeny of taenia : species definitions and origins of human parasites . parasitol int . 2006 ; 55 suppl : s23 - 30 .

t . asiatica cysticerci show a clear liver tropism in pigs which indicates that t . asiatica may mainly cause hepatic cysticercosis in humans [ 27 ] . currently , there is no specific immunological method for t . asiatica cysticercosis , and , as already mentioned , t . asiatica cross - reacts even in the most specific serological test for t . solium cysticercosis . therefore , the application of serological approaches only can certainly not demonstrate whether t . asiatica is or is not involved in human cysticercosis cases . we have already suggested the use of liver ultrasonography to investigate the possible presence of cysticerci in patients harbouring t . saginata - like adults [ 28 ] . just as in pigs , only the molecular analysis of the extracted cysticerci could assess the species causing human cysticercosis .

phylogenetic resolution for human taenia indicates independent origins for t . solium and t . asiatica + t . saginata . hence , although discovered only 20 years ago , it is estimated that the divergence of t . saginata and t . asiatica took place 0 . 78 - 1 . 71 mybp in africa or eurasia . [ 18 ] the biotic expansion from africa into eurasia may have resulted in isolation and later divergence of t . asiatica in asia . a total of eight extant boar species have been identified in south - east asia . this diversity of potential intermediate hosts in this area may have influenced the switch of intermediate host for t . asiatica from herbivore to swine . therefore , the association of t . asiatica with swine may have been established in asia following divergence of host populations that later expanded into europe , being consistent with a dominant distribution of this species in asian countries . [ 18 , 19 ]

22 . chang sl , nonaka n , kamiya m , kanai y , ooi hk , chung wc , oku y . development of taenia saginata asiatica metacestodes in scid mice and its infectivity in human and alternative definitive hosts . parasitol res 2005 ; 96 : 95 - 101 . pmid : 15812671 .

taenia saginata , the beef tapeworm , and taenia solium , the pork tapeworm , are the most common tapeworms affecting humans . infection follows consumption of undercooked beef or pork containing cysts . t . saginata cysts may occur in other domestic bovines and a closely related asian species has been shown to infect pigs , ungulates and monkeys . t . solium cysts also occur in dogs and cats . a third species of human taenia , t . asiatica , which is also transmitted in pigs , has recently been described in asia where prevalence rates of up to 20 % have been documented among indonesian villagers .

the limited amount of genetic variation within t . asiatica has also been observed for other genes . indeed , sequence divergences of 0 . 1 to 2 . 1 % were found in t . asiatica hdp2 fragments [ 69 ] , while no divergence was found in the 18 kda gene sequence [ 91 ] .

human taeniases had been not uncommon in the republic of korea ( = korea ) until the 1980s . the prevalence decreased and a national survey in 2004 revealed no taenia egg positive cases . however , a subsequent national survey in 2012 showed 0 . 04 % ( 10 cases ) prevalence of taenia spp . eggs suggesting its resurgence in korea . we recently encountered 4 cases of taenia saginata infection who had . . . [ show full abstract ]

t . asiatica used to be called " taiwan taenia " . two of our collection demonstrated this tapeworm also with analysis of cox1 sequencing ( table 1 ) [ 11 ] . taiwanese dr . p . c . fan made orchid island ( lanyu island ) very well known among cestodologists and parasitologists while he was pioneering the research works on taiwan taenia , as one of the endemic areas of the tapeworm as well as the mainland taiwan . this small island is a land of the yami tribe who moved from south - east asia via the philippines 2 hundred years ago . the natural intermediate host of t . asiatica was also confirmed in lanyu native pigs for the first time . yeh et al . [ 22 ] described that " food - borne parasitic zoonosis such as infections with angiostrongylus cantonensis , clonorchis sinensis , and t . saginata asiatica ( taenia asiatica ) are not rare , but the former is seasonal and the latter 2 are ethnically and geographically associated " . t . saginata and t . solium are also prevalent in taiwan by consuming undercooked beef or pork .

the journey of taenia asiatica , as documented by scientific literature , started in taiwan in the late 1960s . several authors reported on the paradox of observing a high prevalence of taenia saginata - like tapeworms in the native aboriginal population living in mountainous areas of taiwan , while these populations restrained from beef consumption ( reviewed by [ 1 , 2 ] ) , and meat inspection for bovine cysticercosis had been negative for some time [ 3 ] . dr ping - chin fan , a taiwanese parasitologist , conducted various studies on this taiwan taenia in the late 1980s and early 1990s ( reviewed by [ 1 , 4 - 6 ] ) . through observational and experimental studies , he and his team observed the morphology and researched the epidemiology of the taiwan taenia , which diverged from that of t . saginata . this led fan to raise the possibility of the taiwan taenia being a new species [ 4 ] .

unless multiplex pcr [ 20 ] or pcr - rflp [ 8 ] are used , any t . saginata - like gravid proglottids expelled by humans around the world could indeed be t . saginata or t . asiatica [ 10 ] , thus we propose that it should be named t . saginata / asiatica taeniasis .

mayta h , talley a , gilman rh , jiménez j , verastegui m , ruiz m , garcia hh , gonzalez ae : differentiating taenia solium and taenia saginata infections by simple hematoxylin - eosin staining and pcr - restriction enzyme analysis . j clin microbiol . 2000 , 38 : 133 - 137 .

an adult taenia saginata , the beef tapeworm . the ruler at the bottom is about 11 . 5 centimeters ( 4 . 5 inches ) long .

regarding taeniases in other asian countries , intestinal parasite control among primary school children have been performed in cambodia by korea association of health promotion and national center for parasitology , entomology , and malaria control since 2006 . taenia tapeworm eggs were collected from 21 taenia tapeworm carriers in koh kong inhabitants [ 23 ] . the taenia eggs were isolated from the stools and placed in dna sequencing and multiplex pcr for differentiated diagnosis . all of the 21 taenia specimens from koh kong in cambodia were identified as t . saginata ( n = 19 ) and t . solium ( n = 2 ) by cox1 sequencing and multiplex pcr .


the cuban crow ( corvus nasicus ) is one of four species of crow that occur on a few key islands in the caribbean .

it is closely related to the white-necked crow ( c. leucognaphalis ) and jamaican crow ( c. jamaicensis ) , with which it shares similar features .

the fourth caribbean crow , the palm crow ( c. palmarum ) , is a later arrival in evolutionary terms and shows characteristics more akin to north american species such as the fish crow ( c. ossifragus ) , which it is probably closely related to .

a stocky , medium-sized ( 40 – 42 centimetres or 16 – 17 inches in length ) forest crow , this sociable bird can be found quite commonly over most of the large island of cuba and on the nearby isla de la juventud in woodland and areas that have been cleared for agriculture .

it is frequently found around farms and villages where it seems to have adapted quite well to living in relatively close contact with man .

the bill of this species is long and deep with a gentle curve towards the tip giving a large headed profile .

the nasal bristles sweep forward then upward and frequently reveal the nostrils which are hidden in almost all other members of the genus corvus .

there is a patch of dark grey bare skin behind the browinsh-red eye and at the base of the lower mandible .

the black plumage has a bluish-purple gloss in good light .

the bill , legs and feet are black .

food consists of fruit and insects though it does appear to take human food readily and will scavenge for scraps where the opportunity arises .

large noisy flocks can be seen feeding in trees and it will also readily feed on the ground especially where grain and other seeds have been spilt or left unprotected on the surface of a field .

the voice is quite remarkable and is rather un-crow like , with strange liquid bubbling notes and high ringing sounds produced in various combinations .

it also produces a thin screeched " aaaaauh " that rises in inflection .

the nest is built in tall trees , though little further information about breeding is recorded as yet .

cuban crow

cuban crow <EOT> cuban crow - corvus nasicus the cuban crow is found in cuba and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

the thumbnail photo of the crow links to a video clip of a cuban crow that objected to me being too close to the tree where he and his mate were nesting .

palm crow - corvus palmarum the palm crow is found in cuba , the dominican republic , and haiti . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

the cuban crow is common on middle caicos and has become a kind of mascot for our trips there . beside the familiar crow call , they have a turkey - like gobble . we always feel we ' re being welcomed back to the island when we hear it .

most frequently located by its liquid bubbling and gurgling calls , which somewhat resemble a parrot’s vocalizations , the cuban crow is present locally over much of the main island of cuba , as well as the isle of youth , and three islands in the southern bahamas . it is by the far more widespread and abundant of cuba’s two corvids , although the two species are difficult to distinguish , except vocally , and frequently flock together in the few areas where the palm crow ( corvus palmarum ) also occurs . the cuban crow is a large , all - black crow with rather longer wings and deeper wingbeats than the palm crow , but other differences ( such as the relative length of the nasal bristles ) are much more difficult to appreciate . it inhabits semi - open and wooded areas , included agricultural regions , and feeds both on the ground and arboreally , on invertebrates and fruits . the cuban crow builds a rough stick nest , often in a palm tree , and usually high above the ground ; a typical clutch is 3–4 eggs , and the nesting season lasts from march to july at least .

cuban vireo - vireo gundlachii the cuban vireo is only found in cuba . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

cuban martin - progne cryptoleuca the cuban martin is only found in cuba . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

cuban solitaire - myadestes elisabeth the cuban solitaire is only found in cuba . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

the heads of the cuban delegation do not expect him to return , reports say .

siverio was not in the cuban team list published by the us organisers on wednesday .

cuban gnatcatcher - polioptila lembeyei the cuban gnatcatcher is only found in cuba . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

cuban sparrow - torreornis inexpectata the cuban sparrow is found in three locations in cuba . source : birdlife international intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no

cuban pewee - contopus caribaeus the cuban pewee is found in the bahamas and cuba . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

cuban sparrow - torreornis inexpectata the cuban sparrow is also know as the zapata sparrow . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

cuban bullfinch - melopyrrha nigra the cuban bullfinch is found in the cayman islands and cuba . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

cuban sparrow - torreornis inexpectata the cuban sparrow has short , round wings and is a weak flier . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

he was contacted by a man from florida who recognised the design as being similar to cuban refugee boats .

cuban grassquit - tiaris canorus the cuban grassquit is found in the bahamas , cuba , and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

40–42 cm ; 330–510 g . a moderate - sized crow with upturned nasal bristles that do not cover nostrils ; relatively long bill . plumage is deep black with slight blue - . . .

guillen ' s poem refers to cuban independence hero jose marti , the inspirational figure in castro ' s own political life .

for cuban poet nicolas guillen , there was a direct link between two of the biggest figures in his nation ' s history .

but there have been further celebrations in the us city of miami where many anti - castro cuban exiles and their families have settled .

marzluff , j . ( 2018 ) . cuban crow ( corvus nasicus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .

while the fate of those on board may never be known , the discovery has helped to bring the story of the cuban refugees to people thousands of miles away .

fidel castro was a towering presence in cuba for more than 50 years . dr stephen wilkinson , editor of the international journal of cuban studies , assesses his legacy .

the 24 - year - old pitcher misael siverio is said to have disappeared from the hotel where the cuban national team had been staying in the us state of iowa .

cuban authorities say the ladies in white are in the pay of the united states and form part of washington ' s " decades - old effort to undermine cuba ' s socialist revolution " .

castro ' s revolution remains very much unfinished business . his long years in power perhaps stem in part from the fact that unlike many revolutions , the cuban one did not lead to a bloodbath .

he is sure the boat washed up in ireland is what is known as a cuban " chug " - named after the sound of the crude motors as they make the slow journey across the sea .

there are some two million people of cuban descent now living in the united states . how far cuba is a country that is therefore for the good of all cubans is very much a moot point .

this battle was part of a chain of events that led to talks between south africa , angola and cuba on the cuban withdrawal from angola , the independence of namibia and the dismantling of apartheid in south african .

he managed to remove direct us influence on cuban internal politics and inspired leaders such as bolivian president evo morales and the late hugo chavez in venezuela , who picked up the torch of opposing and resisting us hegemony in the region .

this scientific advance , generosity and solidarity with the poor and disadvantaged is attributed to castro ' s vision - sometimes to the annoyance of cuban citizens who can often be heard complaining that the help given abroad represents a spending on resources that could be better invested at home .

this compilation of images represents an archive of photos taken by cultural anthropologist , kamari maxine clarke as well as contributions of oyotunji practitioners from a range of archives taken over a forty year period . from the formation of the oyotunji orisa - voodoo movement to its contemporary manifestations , the imagery of the periods represented here ranges from 1960 - 1970 ; 1971 - 1980 ; 1981 - 1990 ; 1991 - 2000 ; to 2001 - 2008 . all of these periods represent the formation of its making , marking a period in which it emerged out of united states jim crow segregation , black power protests , civil rights possibilities , and various cultural heritage movements that resonate today with its transnational linkages with west african orisa practices , cuban and us santeria / lukumi , brazilian condomble , and the trinidadian orisha traditions . visit site . . .

within two years of taking power , he declared the revolution to be marxist - leninist in nature and allied cuba firmly to the soviet union - a move that led to the missile crisis in 1962 , bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war before the soviet union abandoned its plan to put missiles on cuban soil .

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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .

justification : although this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .

this species is resident on cuba and the isle of pines , and in the turks and caicos islands ( to uk ) on north caicos and grand caicos ( bond 1979 ) .

the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .

the species inhabits forest and wooded areas , but appears to be remarkably tolerant of habitat degradation ( madge and burn 1993 ) , occurring frequently in semi - cleared forest and sparsely - wooded cultivation , as well as villages and settlements with numerous trees ( bond 1979 , madge and burn 1993 ) . birds tend to gather in flocks , separating into pairs in the breeding season ( raffaele et al . 1998 ) . it is omnivorous , eating a variety of fruits , seeds , crops , reptiles , frogs and other items ( raffaele et al . 1998 ) . the nest is built high among palm fronds , and breeding takes place primarily in april and may ( raffaele et al . 1998 ) .

( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22706010a118781571 .

to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .

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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :

hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .

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josep del hoyo , greg baker , eduardo tejeda lima , adolfo aragüés , pascal vagner , desmond allen .

petemorris , ken havard , dubi shapiro , david lingard , yvonne stevens , dusan m . brinkhuizen , holger teichmann .

forms a clade with c . jamaicensis and c . leucognaphalus # r . monotypic .

cuba , i of pines , and turks and caicos is ( mainly providenciales , north caicos , middle caicos ) .

forests and woodlands , including villages and towns with substantial tree cover . uses edges and . . .

omnivorous . feeds in trees and on ground on invertebrates , fruits and berries . formal dietary studies lacking . often observed in small , . . .

season mar–jul . nest a coarse stick platform lined with dry grasses , feathers and other soft materials , placed in palm , among tree . . .

not globally threatened . common to locally abundant . often persecuted by man , and may have been reduced in numbers as extensive forests have been cleared . use of partially . . .

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this map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .

recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : corvus nasicus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .

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there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .

there are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .

howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :

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perching birds have three unwebbed toes in the front and one strong , flexible toe in the back called the hallux , that lets them perch on tree branches . most species of perching birds have 12 tail feathers . perching birds are found in all parts of the world and they come in a wide variety of colors , patterns , shapes , and sizes . most chicks in this order are completely featherless and helpless when they hatch and must be fed by their parents .

the passeri are the songbirds . they are different from other birds because of the complex set of four muscles in their voice box or syrinx . these muscles allow songbirds to make complex songs and calls . the birds in this suborder can also learn songs . they learn their songs by listening to other birds in their species . the tyranni suborder is made up of over 1 , 000 species of tropical birds . most are found in south america . the birds in this suborder also have songs , but they don ' t learn them . they are born knowing their songs .

least concern near threatened vulnerable endangered critically endangered extinct in the wild extinct status and range is taken from icun redlist . if no status is listed , there is not enough data to establish status .

great crested flycatcher - myiarchus crinitus the great crested flycatcher is found in southern canada and the eastern half of the u . s . south to mexico , central america , the caribbean and northern south america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

great crested flycatcher - myiarchus crinitus the great crested flycatcher is a neotropical migrant . it breeds in canada and the u . s . and winters in central america , south america , and the caribbean . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

la sagra ' s flycatcher - myiarchus sagrae la sagra ' s flycatcher is found in the bahamas , the cayman islands , cuba , and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

gray kingbird - tyrannus dominicensis the gray kingbird breeds in southern alabama and mississippi , florida , the bahamas , cuba , and jamica and winters in northern south america . it lives year - round in parts of the caribbean and in central america . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

gray kingbird - tyrannus dominicensis the gray kingbird perches in trees and snaps up flying insects . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

loggerhead kingbird - tyrannus caudifasciatus the loggerhead kingbird is found in the bahamas , the cayman islands , cuba , the dominican republic , haiti , jamaica , puerto rico , and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

giant kingbird - tyrannus cubensis the giant kingbird is only found in cuba . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

white - eyed vireo - vireo griseus the white - eyed vireo is found from nebraska east to massachusetts and south to central america and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

white - eyed vireo - vireo griseus the white - eyed vireo is usually found in brushy habitats near a water source . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

thick - billed vireo - vireo crassirostris the thick - billed vireo is found in the bahamas , the cayman islands , cuba , haiti , and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

yellow - throated vireo - vireo flavifrons the yellow - throated vireo breeds in the eastern half of the u . s . and winters in mexico , central america , south america , and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

black - whiskered vireo - vireo altiloquus the black - whiskered vireo breeds in the florida and the caribbean and winters in south america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

tree swallow - tachycineta bicolor in north america , the tree swallow breeds from alaska east to newfoundland and south to california , colorado , nebraska , and maryland . it winters from southern california , the gulf coast , and the carolinas to central america and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

tree swallow - tachycineta bicolor in north america , the tree swallow breeds from alaska east to newfoundland and south to california , colorado , nebraska , and maryland . it winters from southern california , the gulf coast , and the carolinas to central america and the caribbean . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

cave swallow - petrochelidon fulva the cave swallow is found in texas , new mexico , florida , the caribbean , and mexico . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

zapata wren - ferminia cerverai the zapata wren is only found in the zapata swamp in cuba . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

blue - gray gnatcatcher - polioptila caerulea the blue - gray gnatcatcher breeds across much of the u . s . with the exception of areas of the great plains , the rocky mountain region and the pacific northwest . it is a permanent resident in the southern part of its range , and it winters in mexico , central america , and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

gray - cheeked thrush - catharus minimus the gray - cheeked thrush breeds in the arctic tundra of canada , alaska , and russia . it winters in the caribbean and central and south america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

gray - cheeked thrush - catharus minimus an omnivore , the gray - cheeked thrush eats mostly insects like beetles , weevils , ants , wasps and caterpillars . it may eat spiders , crayfish , sow bugs and earthworms . in addition , the gray - cheeked thrush eats grapes , wild cherries , blackberries , raspberries and other fruit . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

swainson ' s thrush - catharus ustulatus swainson ' s thrush breeds in canada and the northern u . s . it winters in mexico , central america , and south america . it winters in the caribbean and central and south america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

swainson ' s thrush - catharus ustulatus swainson ' s thrush breeds in coniferous forests and winters in tropical forests . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

american robin - turdus migratorius the american robin is found in all of the united states and canada , except for hawaii and the northern most parts of alaska and canada . it is also found in parts of mexico and central america . the american robin is migratory and populations move south in the winter , although some populations stay in place . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

american robin - turdus migratorius the american robin lives in open woodlands , fields , gardens , and yards . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

american robin - turdus migratorius the male robin uses its voice to protect its territory and to attract a mate . it is often one of the first birds heard in the spring . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

red - legged thrush - turdus plumbeus the red - legged thrush is found in the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

gray catbird - dumetella carolinensis the gray catbird breeds across southern canada and most of the u . s . , except for parts of the west . it winters along the gulf coast , in florida , and in mexico , central america , northern south america , and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

gray catbird - dumetella carolinensis the gray catbird can make more than 100 different types of sounds . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

northern mockingbird - mimus polyglottos the northern mockingbird is found in most of the continental united states south to mexico . it is also found in the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

northern mockingbird - mimus polyglottos the mockingbird was given its name because of its ability to mimic the calls of dozens of other bird species . in fact , the mockingbird ' s latin name , mimus polyglottos , means many - tongued mimic . the mockingbird has even been known to mimic the sounds of dogs and sirens . the mockingbird is especially vocal on moonlit spring nights . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

bahama mockingbird - mimus gundlachii the bahama mockingbird is found in the bahamas , the cayman islands , cuba , jamaica , and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

cedar waxwing - bombycilla cedrorum the cedar waxwing ' s face has a narrow black mask outlined in white . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

cedar waxwing - bombycilla cedrorum the cedar waxwing is only found in north america . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

cedar waxwing - bombycilla cedrorum cedar waxwings eat some insects , but are primarily fruit - eaters . source : seattle audubon intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

ovenbird - seiurus aurocapilla the ovenbird breeds in canada and the eastern united states . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

ovenbird - seiurus aurocapilla the ovenbird walks on the forest floor hunting insects , spiders , snails , and worms . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

worm - eating warbler - helmitheros vermivorus the worm - eating warbler breeds in the eastern united states and winters in the caribbean , mexico , and central america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

prairie warbler - dendroica discolor the prairie warbler is found in the eastern united states . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

louisiana waterthrush - seiurus motacilla the louisiana waterthrush breeds in the eastern united states and winters in mexico , the caribbean , and central and south america . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

louisiana waterthrush - seiurus motacilla the louisiana waterthrush is found near forest streams . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

northern waterthrush - seiurus noveboracensis the northern waterthrush breeds in canada and the northern united states . it winters in southern florida , mexico , the caribbean , central america , and south america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

blue - winged warbler - vermivora pinus the blue - winged warbler breeds in the eastern united states and winters in central america and the caribbean . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

blue - winged warbler - vermivora pinus the blue - winged warbler breeds at forest and field edges . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

black - and - white warbler - mniotilta varia the black - and - white warbler breeds in canada and the eastern united states . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

swainson ' s warbler - limnothlypis swainsonii swainson ' s warbler breeds in the southeastern united states . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

red - legged honeycreeper - cyanerpes cyaneus the red - legged honeycreeper is found in mexico , central america , south america , and the caribbean . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

yellow - faced grassquit - tiaris olivaceus the yellow - faced grassquit is found in mexico , central america , south america , and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

western spindalis - spindalis zena " the western spindalis is found in southern florida and the caribbean . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no

chipping sparrow - spizella passerina the chipping sparrow is found in most of the united states , canada , and mexico . it is also found in the caribbean and central america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

chipping sparrow - spizella passerina the chipping sparrow is found in a variety of habitats including open woodlands , marshes , deserts , fields , gardens , and farmland . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

savannah sparrow - passerculus sandwichensis the savannah sparrow is found across much of canada , the u . s . , mexico and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

grasshopper sparrow - ammodramus savannarum the grasshopper sparrow is found across most of the u . s . it is also found in southern canada , mexico , central america , and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

grasshopper sparrow - ammodramus savannarum the grasshopper sparrow gets its names from its buzzy grasshopper - like call . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes

the eastern meadowlark male can sing many versions of its song . in new york , a male was observed to sing over 100 different song patterns !

the eastern meadowlark inhabits wide open spaces like farm fields , grassland and wet fields .

the eastern meadowlark builds its nest on the ground and sings on perches such as treetops , fence posts , and power lines .

the red - shouldered blackbird was once thought to be a subspecies of the red - winged blackbird .

the red - shouldered blackbird is found in scattered locations in central and western cuba .

is found in the bahamas , cuba , and the turks and caicos islands .

our family ' s dream for the future has found a home : middle caicos in the turks and caicos islands . it ' s part ecotourism , part reality show adventure , and part time travel .

with an area of 48 square miles and a population of less than 300 , middle caicos is a place where we can create our own vacation world around us . we explore the beaches , cliffs , hills and caves . we swim the reefs with sharks , cudas , lobsters , and innumerable reef fish . we watch the birds and lizards . and we can come close to knowing every person on the island .

our site was created to share some of what we find so enjoyable about middle caicos , to introduce you to our friends there , and to help future island visitors know what to expect . browse the menu at the left to read about our trips and see our photos .

this naturally landscaped scene is one of the well - kept secrets of middle caicos . i didn ' t find it until our sixth trip to the island . i ' m looking forward to finding new surprises on our next trip .

you ' ll find more photos like this throughout our website . click on the thumbnail photo to view a larger image . depending on the technological advances of my electronic toys , many of the photos also include the date and time or even the latitude and longitude of the photo ' s location . when the latitude and longitude are shown , click the link to see the location overlayed on a satellite photo of middle caicos .

looking for a brochure to share with your friends or family ? here are two that you can download and print .

this handy guide has a map on one side that identifies some of the major attractions on middle caicos . on the other side is brief island history , a directory of guides , merchants and other services and a greeting from the district commissioner . print the

i created a one page flyer to introduce the caribbean tourism organization to middle caicos . when your friends ask where you ' re going , this might be the quickest way to share your excitement .

no one website can show you everything there is to know about a place like middle caicos . so we founded the middle caicos webring to help you visit other sites dedicated to the island . you ' ll find many of the vacation villas , local guides and other informational sites on the ring . visit other middle caicos webring sites using the following links . [ previous | next ] [ skip previous | skip next ] [ random site | list sites ]

we belong to the turks and caicos national trust . you can join and help preserve treasures like middle caicos .

on a sandy beach on the west coast of ireland lies the remains of a strange looking boat .

it is made from a metal frame partly covered in yellow tarpaulin , with expanded foam and water bottles used for buoyancy .

a closer inspection beneath the overturned hull , now covered in barnacles , reveals a car engine connected to a broken propeller .

the boat caught the interest of gordon fallis , who saw it as he was walking his dogs along the beach .

" i didn ' t really know what it was to be honest , so i took a few photographs of it and when i got home i posted it on a facebook page called lost at sea which tracks marine debris and cargo spills and things that get washed up on beaches , " he said .

" he advised me to have a look at the bottles again to see where they came from so i came back down and looked at the labels and indeed they were from cuba , exactly the same brand that he had predicted , so it seems that it is actually a boat that the refugees have used to try and get to america from cuba , " he said .

since 1995 , under a policy known as " wet foot , dry foot " , if cubans are picked up at sea they are returned home or taken to a third country , but if they make it to american soil they get the opportunity to stay and become legal residents .

between november 2015 and october 2016 the us coast guard apprehended 5 , 263 cubans at sea .

it is thought that hundreds of thousands of cubans attempted the journey before the policy was ended last month just before president obama left office .

american photographer bill klipp has seen many similar boats that have been abandoned on small remote islands around the florida keys .

" they ' re surely not moving very fast and i think it just comes from that notion that they ' re just barely making it , they ' re chugging as best as they can to get across the ocean , " he said .

" key west , where i live , is only 90 miles for havana so it ' s a relatively short distance to landfall although the florida straits can be a pretty treacherous body of water to cross . "

while it is possible that the occupants of this vessel were picked up at sea and the boat was left to drift , bill klipp believes it is more likely that the weather and ocean currents took it off course .

the uscg painted on this vessel in florida means the occupants were found by the us coastguard . the vessel in ireland was too badly damaged to tell if there was ever a similar marking

" if that boat could tell its story it would tell a story of real despair and desperation , that ' s for sure , " he said .

" obviously the occupants didn ' t make it and that ' s kind of a sad story there but that ' s unfortunately a story that ' s happened too much over the last couple of decades . "

it is the first time such a vessel has been recorded being washed up in europe according to curtis ebbesmeyer , a retired oceanographer based in seattle who tracks ocean debris .

he said it could take months or years for it to make the journey of more than 4 , 000 miles across the atlantic .

" the drift rate depends on how much the vessel is sticking out of the water and the rate could be a matter of six months or it could be a matter of years depending on whether the vessel drifted around some of the garbage patches in the atlantic or made a straight journey across , " he said .

mr ebbesmeyer said the vessels " symbolise what price people are willing to pay to gain their freedom in the united states " .

" i would reflect on questions . did the people make it ? are they in the united states ? did they die ? did they perish a terrible death out in the middle of the atlantic ? "

" they ' re really worth moments of reflection as you walk by , " he said .

standing on cliffoney beach as the waves of the north atlantic break beneath a grey sky , gordon fallis said he is glad he discovered more about the boat .

" it ' s just great to be able to contact people who are able to identify it for me otherwise i would have just walked on past it thinking " that ' s a strange boat on the beach " and that would have been the last i would have heard of it , " he said .

theresa may moves to shore up her position after a day of high profile resignations over her brexit strategy .

cuba ' s most prominent dissident group has called off its traditional protest for the first time in 13 years following the death of the country ' s revolutionary leader fidel castro .

the group , founded by wives of jailed dissidents , has long defied a protest ban in cuba with a weekly march .

castro died on friday at the age of 90 . flags are flying at half mast as the country observes nine days of mourning .

from monday , people will be able to pay their respects at memorials and rallies before castro ' s ashes are taken to santiago de cuba where he launched his bid for power .

and a mass public ceremony is planned at havana ' s revolutionary square on tuesday .

the cause of death has not yet been revealed but castro had been in poor health since he nearly died of an intestinal illness in 2006 .

the mood in the capital remains subdued , the bbc ' s barbara plett - usher in havana says , with people still absorbing the news .

supporters say he returned cuba to the people , and praise him for some of his social programs , such as public health and education .

but critics call him a dictator , who led a government that did not tolerate opposition and dissent , accused of numerous alleged human rights abuses .

the regular sunday march of the ladies in white is a rare expression of dissent largely tolerated by the government .

but police have clamped down in recent months , our correspondent in havana adds .

the women march in silence through the streets of havana following mass at a roman catholic church , asking for the release of political prisoners and for human rights to be respected .

" we ' re not going to march today [ sunday ] so that the government does not take it as a provocation and so that they can pay their tributes , " the group ' s leader , berta soler , said .

" we respect the mourning of others and will not celebrate the death of any human being . "

throughout the cold war , fidel castro was a thorn in washington ' s side .

an accomplished tactician on the battlefield , he and his small army of guerrillas overthrew the military leader fulgencio batista in 1959 to widespread popular support .

despite the constant threat of a us invasion as well as the long - standing economic embargo on the island , castro managed to maintain a communist revolution in a nation just 90 miles ( 145km ) off the coast of florida .

despised by his critics as much as he was revered by his followers , he maintained his rule through 10 us presidents and survived scores of attempts on his life by the cia .

he established a one - party state , with hundreds of supporters of the batista government executed . political opponents have been imprisoned , the independent media suppressed . thousands of cubans have fled into exile .

many world leaders have paid tribute to castro . russian president vladimir putin described him as a " reliable and sincere friend " of russia , while chinese president xi jinping said his people had " lost a good and true comrade " .

the soviet union ' s last leader , mikhail gorbachev , said : " fidel stood up and strengthened his country during the harshest american blockade , when there was colossal pressure on him . "

however , us president - elect donald trump said castro had been a " brutal dictator " .

canadian prime minister justin trudeau came under fire on social media and from political opponents for describing castro as a " remarkable leader " , who despite being a " controversial figure " made significant improvements to the education and healthcare of cubans .

un secretary general ban ki - moon acknowledged advances in education , literary and health under castro , but said he hoped cuba would " continue to advance on a path of reform , greater prosperity and human rights " .

pope francis , who met castro , an atheist , when he visited cuba in 2015 , called his death " sad news " .

in venezuela , cuba ' s main regional ally , president nicolas maduro said " revolutionaries of the world must follow his legacy " .

the foreign secretary quits , telling theresa may " needless self - doubt " is leading to " semi - brexit " .

in a poem from 1977 , he wrote : " lo que marti prometio , fidel lo cumplio " ( " what marti promised , fidel delivered " ) .

marti promised a cuba free of us interference and , famously , a republic that would be as he put it : " for all cubans and the good of all cubans . "

castro ' s legacy will be judged against how successful or not he was in fulfilling that dream .

that cuba , a nation of only 11 million today ( and fewer than six million when castro came to power ) should produce two of the most notable statesmen in latin american history is an extraordinary feat in itself .

if his seizing of power in a popular revolution at the age of 33 was a startlingly precocious act , his maintenance of his position through five decades , 10 american presidencies ( and 638 assassination attempts ) is proof of his staying power and determination .

but like a small moon in the orbit of a much larger planet , the sheer force of economic and political gravity has prevented cuba from escaping the indirect influence of the us , especially the state of florida where castro ' s enemies hold sway .

there were political prisoners , with arbitrary detentions continuing to this day , but castro was able to export many of his opponents to the us where they built a weighty presence and an almost impenetrable bulwark against a change in washington ' s embargo .

undoubtedly , life for most cubans on the island ( and that means the vast majority poor when castro came to power ) improved dramatically under his leadership .

despite what his enemies say , cuba under castro built one of the most impressive public health systems and achieved educational results that are the envy of the developing world .

the statistics prove that cuba , with a fraction of the per capita income , has infant mortality and longevity rates that rival those of western europe .

thousands of medical practitioners graduate in cuba every year and cuba sends them to more than 60 countries across the globe to provide aid and assistance .

cuba has a world class biotech industry that is saving millions of lives through dispensing vaccines and drugs to needy countries at a fraction of the cost that large multinationals would charge .

for some , castro is regarded as a failure because he was unable to develop cuba ' s economy to an extent commensurate with its expenditure on health and social welfare .

though fidel castro cannot be wholly to blame for the strains on cuba ' s economy , the structural and infrastructural deficiencies that his brother raul is now addressing were undoubtedly his responsibility .

possibly , beside his fanatical supporters in cuba , fidel castro will be most fondly remembered in africa and latin america where his influence and example were for some inspirational .

this is particularly true in southern africa where cuba ' s intervention in angola in 1975 repelled a south african invasion and ensured that the mpla , rather than its rival unita , took control of the capital luanda .

more than a decade later , castro personally masterminded the strategy during the last major confrontation with the south african army at cuito cuanavale in 1988 .

nelson mandela himself attributed his release from jail and the ultimate defeat of apartheid to the events at cuito cuanavale .

as chilean poet pablo neruda commented , castro broke the mould of latin american politicians who promised much and delivered little .

ultimately , if castro failed to fulfil marti ' s promise completely it was not through want of trying .

whether one agrees or not with his politics , it has to be accepted that through all his long years in power , castro stayed true to his convictions to the end .