the crescent-tail hogfish , bodianus sepiacaudus , is a species of wrasse native to the pacific ocean from sulawesi to the line islands .

it can be found in groups at depths from 20 to 75 m ( 66 to 246 ft ) .

this species can reach 8.7 cm ( 3.4 in ) in standard length .

juveniles are white and black .

adults are white with four broad red stripes , suffused with black on caudal peduncle and caudal fin .

it can be found in the aquarium trade .

the crescent-tail hogfish differs from bodianus masudai by having white pelvic fins .

crescent - tail hogfish

crescent - tail hogfish <EOT> the crescent - tail hogfish differs from bodianus masudai by having white pelvic fins .

the holotype of the crescent - tail hogfish , bodianus sepiacaudus , possibly from bali , indonesia , 70 . 0 mm sl , nmv a18420 . source : s . michael , in gomon 2006 a revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus , rec aus mus , suppl 30 . license : all rights reserved

a small slender hogfish with red and white stripes , the broader reddish stripes becoming blackish towards the rear , and a black spot on the gill cover . the pelvic fins are whitish and the tail has a large black spot often followed by white , yellow , red and / or black crescent - shaped bands posteriorly .

hogfish are quite hardy and in time eat all the most common available fish foods . they do however , demand plenty of space to swim and for concealment .

name from latin nouns ' sepia ' for ink and ' cauda ' for tail , refers to the inky black caudal peduncle and base of the caudal fin that distinguish this species .

the specific name sepiacaudus : is from the latin ' sepia ' ( ink ) and ' cauda ' ( tail ) in reference to the inky black caudal peduncle and base of the caudal fin that distinguish this species .

hogfish ( bodianus ) get their name from the way they look for food in the substrate using their snout . they can regularly be seen blowing water down into the sand and in their natural habitat they often follow other fish which have disturbed it .

they can hide for long periods of time if kept with more aggressive species . hogfish can also be aggressive towards more docile species or those that resembles themselves . when fully grown they can become a threat to various invertebrates , e . g . worms , snails , small bivalves and crustaceans amongst others .

bodianus after bodiano or pudiano , from the portuguese pudor , meaning modesty ( jordan & evermann , 1896 ) .

marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 20 - 75 m ( ref . 90102 ) , usually 20 - 50 m ( ref . 75973 ) . tropical

maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 8 . 7 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 75973 )

this species has been photographed at depths of 25 - 50 m , with adults occurring in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m , and juveniles observed at about 50 m ( ref . 75973 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .

gomon , m . f . , 2006 . a revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus with descriptions of eight new species . rec . aust . mus . suppl . 30 : 1 - 133 . ( ref . 75973 )

phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .

bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .

trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives

resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .

vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 19 of 100 ) .

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justification : little is known of population and life history characteristics of this species . it has a widespread distribution but is only known from a few scattered localities in the pacific . it is found in deeper water and is uncommon so it has likely not been discovered in between areas . it sought by aquarium fish collectors . the population status is unknown . it is listed as data deficient .

this species is known conclusively from indonesia : sulawesi ( near maluku ) and flores ( pomana besar ) , in the western pacific , and fiji and kiritimati atoll , line islands in the central pacific ( b . russell pers . comm . 2008 ) . it was recorded from sogod , cebu , philippines ( b . stockwell pers . comm . 2009 ) . the photograph was confirmed by m . gomon ( r . myers pers . comm . 2009 ) .

there is no population information avaiable for this species . this is an uncommon species .

a small species to at least 87 mm sl . it has photographed it at depths of 25 - 50 m , noting that adults occur in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m , with juveniles observed at about 50 m ( b . russell pers comm . 2008 ) .

there are no known threats to this species . however , species is sought after by aquarium trade collectors .

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from the day we opened the first store in maidenhead , we’ve firmly believed that one key to our success is employing fish keepers .

holmes reef in the coral sea . the species occurs elsewhere in the tropical west - central pacific , from indonesia , the philippines , fiji , kiritimati atoll and the line islands .

differs from the similar bodianus masudai ( not found in australian waters ) in having white pelvic fins , white interspaces , whereas they are yellow to white in b . masudai .

bodianus sepiacaudus gomon 2006 , rec . aust . mus . suppl . 30 : 33 , fig . 16 , pl . 2g - h . type locality : bali ( ? ) , indonesia .

. the iucn red list of threatened species 2010 : e . t187576a8573103 . urltoken downloaded on 27 november 2015 .

this species searches through the sand for food , which can make the water cloudy and shakes up detritus .

when a male is needed , a female changes sex and takes on the role .

wrasses are nearly always seen in reef aquaria , since many of the species are both attractive and useful in battling a range of unwanted invertebrates like i . e . flatworms , pyramide snails . these fish live of everything from zooplankton to large crustaceans , sea urchins and the like .

the needs and behaviour of wrasses vary greatly , so it is vital to familiarize oneself with the specific species before buying one .

bob fenner . the wrasses we call hogfishes - wet web media - ( english ) scott michael . 2002 . aquarium fish : the hogfishes , family labridae - advanced aquarist - ( english )

scott w . michael . 2009 . wrasses and parrotfishes ( reef fishes series book 5 ) - tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english )

froese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .

" minimum volume " indicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .

this is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .

" hardiness " indicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .

in this case , a " normal " aquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26°c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .

special aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .

always reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .

often reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .

reef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .

reef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .

not reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .

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eastern indian ocean , western pacific : bali ( indonesia ) , line islands ( kiribati ) ; probably more widespread .

8 . 7 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 75973 ) )

reef - associated ; marine ; depth range 20 - 75 m ( ref . 90102 ) , usually 20 - 50 m ( ref . 75973 )

. it can be found in groups at depths from 20 to 75 m ( 66 to 246 ft ) . this species can reach 8 . 7 cm ( 3 . 4 in )

juveniles are white and black . adults are white with four broad red stripes , suffused with black on

russell , b . ( 2010 ) . bodianus sepiacaudus . in : iucn 2014 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 2 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 22 august 2014 .

froese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2014 ) . " bodianus sepiacaudus " in fishbase . august 2014 version .

martin f . gomon ( 2006 ) . " a revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus with descriptions of eight new species " . records of the australian museum , supplement 30 : 1–133 .

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it was described by miller in 1994 .

the length of the forewings is 9 – 10 mm .

oroya aurora

oroya aurora <EOT> type - species : oroya aurora miller , 1994 . descr . phys . répub . argent . 5 : 427 . [ bhl ]

the genus name refers to la oroya , peru , the type locality of the type species . the species name refers to the orange colour of a sunrise and is derived from latin aurora . [ 2 ]

oroya fever and verruga peruana : bartonelloses unique to south america . - pubmed - ncbi

oroya aurora is a moth in the dalceridae family , and the only species in the genus oroya . it was described by miller in 1994 . [ 1 ] it is found in southern peru and adjacent bolivia . the habitat consists of tropical premontane wet , tropical premontane moist and subtropical ( lower ) montane wet forests .

" well , apparently you’ve attracted a blood disease rarely seen in the united states , oroya fever . "

genus : oroya miller , 1994 . bull . mus . comp . zool . harv . 153 ( 4 ) : 382 . [ bhl ]

oroya fever is another name for what is known as carrion ' s disease , which belongs to a set of bacteria - related diseases known as bartonellosis .

oroya fever is a deadly blood disease that is rare in the united states , but more common in continents such as south ameria and africa . it is transmitted through the bite of a sand fly .

biostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .

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the length of the forewings is 9–10 mm . adults are orange , with uniform deep orange forewings . adults are on wing in january , march , may and from october to december .

basis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .

piper halliwell contracted the disease in 2000 . she was bitten in the shoulder by a sand fly that had survived the transport of a batch of kiwano fruit from south america . she eventually fainted and was taken to the hospital , where she was questioned by dr . curtis williamson . he prescribed her antibiotics and wanted to run more tests and blood work .

piper later slipped into a coma and her sisters asked leo to heal her . when he informed them that he couldn ' t help , the sisters cast a spell that transported the disease into a doll . this caused the doll to come alive and spread the disease across the hospital . the sisters eventually reversed the spell to save the lives of others , causing piper to slip back into her coma . when piper was about to die and move on into the afterlife , leo healed her after all . [ 1 ]

the dvd subtitles and various websites incorrectly spell the disease name as either oroyo or arroyo fever .

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plos negl trop dis . 2014 jul 17 ; 8 ( 7 ) : e2919 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pntd . 0002919 . ecollection 2014 jul .

minnick mf 1 , anderson be 2 , lima a 2 , battisti jm 1 , lawyer pg 3 , birtles rj 4 .

division of biological sciences , university of montana , missoula , montana , united states of america .

department of molecular medicine , morsani college of medicine , university of south florida , tampa , florida , united states of america .

laboratory of parasitic diseases , national institute of allergy and infectious diseases , national institutes of health , bethesda , maryland , united states of america .

school of environment and life sciences , university of salford , salford , united kingdom .

( a ) erythrocyte infection during of , as observed in a blood smear stained with wright ' s stain ( reprinted by permission from ) . ( b ) vp lesions on a child in peru ( reproduced from future microbiology 4 ( 6 ) : 743–758 ( 2009 ) with permission of future medicine , ltd ) .

plos negl trop dis . 2014 jul ; 8 ( 7 ) : e2919 .

( a ) female l . verrucarum at 16 h post - feeding with an artificial blood feeder containing human blood and gfp - expressing b . bacilliformis ( low - passage strains 14866 and 14868 ) . ( b ) light micrograph of l . verrucarum midgut at five days post - feeding on human blood containing gfp + b . bacilliformis . central brown area is residual blood meal . ( c ) corresponding uv light micrograph of ( b ) . note the gfp + b . bacilliformis in residual blood meal and elsewhere in the midgut .

monthly sand fly collection results from three villages in the cusco region , peru .

results show a unimodal annual population distribution pattern with : ( a ) corresponding mean morning ( blue line ) and evening ( pink line ) temperatures and ( b ) corresponding mean morning ( green line ) and evening ( red line ) relative humidity . collections were made during two nights per month at case homesteads from march 2001 to august 2004 . the data gap between october 2001 and january 2002 is due to a cessation of activity mandated by the peruvian ministry of health .

results of collection - bottle - rotator ( cbr ) trap collections of sand flies in peru .

results show that : ( a ) nightly sand fly activity is limited to early evening ( 1800–2000 hrs ) from march through july , the coldest part of the year , which represents the peruvian winter , and ( b ) as nighttime temperatures increase in late august through november ( late winter and spring ) , sand fly activity extends throughout the night . “inside” and “outside” refer to trap locations within and outside a domicile , respectively .

bacteria were grown three days on heart infusion agar containing 4 % sheep erythrocytes and 2 % sheep serum at 30°c and 100 % relative humidity . cells were subsequently fixed in 2 % glutaraldehyde in cacodylate ( ph 7 . 2 ) , epoxy embedded by standard methods , then sectioned and stained with uranyl acetate ( ua ) and lead citrate stains . micrographs show b . bacilliformis ( strain kc583 ) : ( a ) from a thin section ; ( b ) applied directly to a grid stained with ua to show flagella . scale bars represent 100 nm in ( a ) and 500 nm in ( b ) .

has the lowest gc % ( 35 . 7 % ) . several virulence - related orfs have been used to infer phylogeny (

) and black circles indicate their presence in a particular species . ( b ) multiple alignment of seven complete genomes using pm . location , orientation and position of

locks ( lcbs ) shared amongst all chromosomes are color - coded and connected by lines . user can analyze location , orientation , and size of lcbs in multiple chromosomes simultaneously ( red arrowheads ) . local rearrangements , duplications , and inversions are easily identified . abbreviations correspond to the

b . bacilliformis colonization of cell membrane deformations is readily apparent . reprinted by permission from .

type specimens : type ( s ) peru : ? locality , ( ? depository ) . .

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this is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .

aids , transmissible disease of the immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus ( hiv ) . hiv…

a generalized , acute , febrile , endemic , and systemic form of bartonellosis ; marked by high fever , rheumatic pains , progressive , severe anemia , and albuminuria . synonym ( s ) : carrión disease .

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parasesarma leptosoma ( hilgendorf , 1869 ) , aka the arboreal crab , is an arboreal , leaf-eating mangrove crab , found on rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorhiza , but not on avicennia marina , and occupying an ecological niche similar to that of another sesarmid , aratus pisonii , from the americas .

crabs of the family sesarmidae are some of the most diverse and important components of mangrove estuary communities in the tropics and are not found in europe .

two genera common in african , asian and australian mangroves are parasesarma ( 26 species ) and perisesarma ( 23 species ) .

often colourful , they have a squarish appearance and have two transverse pectinated crests on the upper edge of the male chelar carpus .

the two genera are separated by the absence in parasesarma or presence in perisesarma of an anterolateral tooth .

parasesarma leptosoma occurs in mangrove estuaries along the coasts of kenya , tanzania , mozambique and south africa .

in order to escape low tide predators , this species twice daily climbs mangrove stems to the canopy and feeds on fresh leaves , and is commonly found on rhizophora mucronata , but studies suggest that it prefers the foliage of bruguiera gymnorhiza .

its diet also includes algae , mollusks , insects and annelids .

its aversion to avicennia marina may be due to its secreting salt from its leaves , while both r. mucronata and b. gymnorhiza are salt excluders .

distinguishing characters are its propodus being three times the length of its dactylus , and the carapace width only some 2 cm .

females carry the eggs , which remain attached to the swimming legs or pleopods until hatching .

important physiological adaptations enable these crabs to feed on leaves , with no evidence of fermentation in the gut , a solution common in other animals .

parasesarma leptosoma

parasesarma leptosoma <EOT> remark also subgenus parasesarma in dahdouh , 1994 < 247 > . [ details ]

morphological differences among described zoeal stages of the genera perisesarma and parasesarma [ perisesarma fasciatum , this study ; perisesarma guttatum ( pereyra lago , 1993 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) * ; perisesarma bidens ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ) ; perisesarma messa ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) ; parasesarma leptosoma ( flores et al . , 2003 ) ; parasesarma acis ( terada , 1976 ) ; parasesarma catenata ( pereyra lago , 1987 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) * ; parasesarma pictum ( pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ) ; parasesarma erythrodactyla ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) ; parasesarma plicatum ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; selvakumar , 1999 ) * ]

emmerson , w . , cannicci , s . , porri , f . , 2003 . new records for parasesarma leptosoma ( hilgendorf , 1869 ) ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from mangroves in mozambique and south africa . african zoology 38 ( 2 ) : 351 - 355 .

vannini , m . and r . k . ruwa , 1994 . vertical migrations in the tree crab sesarma leptosoma ( decapoda , grapsidae ) . marine biology 118 : 271 - 278 .

( of sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf , 1869 ) hartnoll , r . g . ( 1975 ) . the grapsidae and ocypodidae ( decapoda : brachyura ) of tanzania . j . zool . london 177 , 305 - 328 [ details ]

vannini , m . , s . cannicci and r . k . ruwa , 1995 . effect of light intensity on vertical migration of the tree crab , sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf ( decapoda , grapsidae ) . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 185 : 181 - 189 .

it has already been observed that the conserved morphological characteristics of the larvae of sesarmidae make differentiation at generic levels difficult in this family ( cuesta , 1999 ) . likewise , differentiation at species level are only possible , if at all , using a combination of several morphological features ( schubart and cuesta , 1998 ; cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . tables i and ii summarize the morphological differences of all described zoeal stages and the megalopa stage among species of perisesarma and parasesarma . we here included the larvae of the genus parasesarma because p . fasciatum was originally described as a member of parasesarma and because of the morphological similarity of the two genera ( see introduction ) . preliminary molecular comparisons also suggest a close phylogenetic relationship of these genera ( fratini et al . , 2004 ) . in the present study , we provide evidence that larval stages of perisesarma and parasesarma are very similar , to the point that it is impossible to distinguish the larvae consistently at the generic level . the first zoeal stage of parasesarma species bears five setae on the coxal endite of the maxillule ( table i ) , while p . fasciatum and perisesarma guttatum bear six setae on the coxal endite ( cf . pereyra lago , 1993 ) . however , the first zoeal stages of perisesarma messa and perisesarma bidens bear five setae , as the species of parasesarma ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) . it needs to be taken into account that the number of larval stages is variable ( 4–5 zoeal stages ) in both genera , and part of the variability in the setation of appendages could be due to this variability . for example , the number of scaphognathite setae on the maxilla of the zoea iv is reduced in species with five zoeal stages as compared with species with four zoeal stages ( table i ) . the zoea iv of p . guttatum is the only fourth stage with five setae on the distal segment of the endopod of the first maxilliped ; the sixth seta does not appear before the last zoeal stage ( zoea v ) . in contrast , parasesarma erythrodactyla and parasesarma plicatum , both species with five zoeal stages , show the sixth seta on the distal segment of the endopod of the first maxilliped already in stage iv . overall , the larval data ( zoea and megalopa ) support previous morphological and molecular indications and confirm a very close relationship between the genera perisesarma and parasesarma .

( of sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf , 1869 ) ruwa , r . k . ( 1989 ) . macrofaunal composition and zonation on sandy beaches at gazi , kanamai and malindi bay , kenya . kenya journal of sciences ( series b ) 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 31 - 45 [ details ]

the complete larval development of the sesarmid crab perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) from singapore was obtained from laboratory culture . all four zoeal stages , the megalopa and the first crab stage are described and illustrated . the morphological characteristics of the larvae of p . fasciatum are compared with those of other known larvae of the genera perisesarma and parasesarma . the larval morphology of p . fasciatum clearly presents the typical combination of features that characterize sesarmid larvae . overall , larval stages are very similar in perisesarma and parasesarma and it is impossible to distinguish these two genera by larval morphology .

guillermo guerao , klaus anger , u . w . e . nettelmann , christoph d . schubart ; complete larval and early juvenile development of the mangrove crab perisesarma fasciatum ( crustacea : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from singapore , with a larval comparison of parasesarma and perisesarma , journal of plankton research , volume 26 , issue 12 , 1 december 2004 , pages 1389–1408 , urltoken

two of the more conspicuous and species - rich genera of african , asian and australian mangroves are parasesarma ( 26 species ) and perisesarma ( 23 species ) . they are often colourful crabs , similar in their overall squarish appearance and even sharing the defining morphological characteristic of two transverse pectinated crests on the upper border of the male chelar carpus . the only distinguishing characteristic between the two genera is the absence ( parasesarma ) or presence ( perisesarma ) of an anterolateral tooth . in american sesarmid crabs , it has been shown that the anterolateral tooth is not a very consistent characteristic and it is often weakly pronounced or absent in some of the species ( von hagen , 1978 ; abele , 1992 ) . also in one asian species of perisesarma , perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) , the anterolateral tooth is not always clearly defined . therefore , lanchester ( 1900 ) originally placed this species in the subgenus parasesarma , however , noticing that one of the females has ‘indications of a tooth behind the orbital angle’ . also tweedie ( 1936 ) states that the ‘epibranchial tooth is always low and obtuse , often obscure , and in one adult male , scarcely indicated’ .

ecological notes : adapted an aerial strategy where they can climb trees to avoid the incoming tide ; never seen on the forest floor . both true arboreal species , the american aratus pisonii milne - edwards , 1837 and the east african s . leptosoma , show morphological adaptations to life in the trees , namely a flat carapace , relatively long walking leg carpus and propodus and short dactylus ( hartnoll , 1988 ; vannini et al . , 1997 ) .

in this study , we newly describe the complete larval and early juvenile development of p . fasciatum from singapore and compare it with other published larval descriptions of species of parasesarma and perisesarma to test whether there are consistent larval differences between these two genera ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; terada , 1976 ; pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ; pereyra lago , 1987 , 1993 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ; selvakumar , 1999 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) . this is only the fourth species of the genus perisesarma for which zoeal stages are described , the third megalopal description , and the second which includes the first juvenile .

sesarmid crabs are among the most diverse and important faunal components of mangrove forest communities worldwide . their importance for ecological processes related to leaf turnover is only recently being revealed ( macintosh , 1988 ; lee , 1989 , 1998 ; emmerson and mcgwynne , 1992 ; micheli , 1993a , b ; schrijvers et al . , 1996 ) . otherwise , very little is known about the biology of most of these tropical crabs , and even the systematic classification is far from being resolved . for a long time , most of the sesarmids were included in the genus sesarma say , 1817 . in 1895 , de man ( de man , 1895 ) introduced three subgenera ( i . e . episesarma , parasesarma and perisesarma ) based on the presence or absence of an anterolateral tooth and the type of tuberculation on the chelar carpus . serène and soh ( serène and soh , 1970 ) elevated these subgenera to full genus level and created a large number of new genera , thereby establishing a taxonomic system which even today is not fully accepted , only slowly adopted and still being revised ( davie , 1992 , 1994 ; ng and schubart , 2003 ) .

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according to the new taxonomy of serène and soh ( serène and soh , 1970 ) , the genus sesarma is now restricted to the american continent , which has an impoverished sesarmid fauna compared to the indo - westpacific ( < 30 species in america as compared with > 200 species in the indo - westpacific ) . there are no sesarmid crabs in europe . many larval stages of sesarma and its sister genera aratus h . milne edwards , 1853 and armases abele , 1992 have been described over the past 50 years from american waters ( costlow and bookhout , 1960 , 1962 ; díaz and ewald , 1968 ; warner , 1968 ; fransozo and hebling , 1986 ; schubart and cuesta , 1998 ; cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . in contrast , there are only very few larval descriptions of sesarmid crabs from africa , asia and oceania ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; terada , 1976 ; krishnan and kannupandi , 1987 ; pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ; pereyra lago , 1987 , 1993 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ; selvakumar , 1999 ; flores et al . , 2003 ; schubart et al . , 2003 ) , especially considering the large number of species that are present in the mangroves of these continents .

perisesarma fasciatum is a relatively small and rounded representative of its genus . it lives in the upper , often dry , fringes of mangroves on relatively hard and sandy substratum and was repeatedly observed scurrying on mounds of the burrowing decapod thalassina ( c . d . schubart , personal observation ) . the known distribution of this species ranges from thailand [ rathbun , 1909 as sesarma ( chiromantes ) siamense ] , malaysia ( sasekumar , 1972 ) , singapore ( tweedie , 1936 ) and indonesia ( serène and moosa , 1971 ) to hong kong ( soh , 1978 ) . otherwise , there is no published information on the biology of this crab species .

several adult specimens of p . fasciatum were collected in the lim chu kang mangroves in singapore in january 2002 . they were transported alive to regensburg ( germany ) where they were slowly acclimated to fresh water . two females and two males were transported to the biologische anstalt helgoland ( germany ) in july 2002 , where they were maintained at a salinity of 5 ( 24°c ) and in an artificial 12 : 12 h light : dark cycle . the extrusion and incubation of eggs took place at the same conditions . larval rearing of one hatch was carried out at identical conditions of temperature and light , but at a salinity of 25 . the larvae were fed freshly hatched nauplii of artemia sp . ( great salt lake ) . water and food were changed daily . exuviae and specimens of each developmental stage were preserved in 70 % alcohol . first zoeal stages from three additional females were obtained in regensburg and barcelona ( spain ) for comparative purposes .

a wild binocular microscope , equipped with an ocular micrometer , was used for the dissection and measurements of individuals ( 10 individuals of each hatch and larval stage were measured ) . an olympus microscope was used for the determination of the setal formula and measurements of the appendages . the following measurements were taken : total length ( tl ) as the distance between the tips of the dorsal and rostral spines ; carapace length ( cl ) from the base of the rostral spine to the posterolateral carapace margin ; antennal exopod length ( el ) from the base of the antennal exopod to the distal margin ( without setae ) ; protopodal process length ( pl ) from the base of the antennal exopod to the tip of the protopodal process ; furcal length ( fl ) from an imaginary line across the base of the outer seta on the posterior margin of the telson to the furcal tip ; and basal telson length ( bt ) , from a line across the anterior margin to the posterior margin of the telson ( base of the outer seta ) . the proportions of the zoeal measurements el , pl , fl and bt were shown to be useful for separating species and genera of the sesarmidae ( cuesta , 1999 ) . for the megalopa , cl was measured as the distance from the frontal margin to the posterior margin of the carapace ; carapace width ( cw ) as the greatest distance across the carapace .

all drawings were made with the aid of a camera lucida and microscope photography . the number of individuals of each larval stage examined to describe the morphology varied between 5 and 10 . the long aesthetascs of the antennules and the long plumose setae on the distal exopod of the maxillipeds and pleopods are not fully illustrated and are drawn truncated , instead . larval descriptions followed the basic malacostracan body pattern , and setal armature on appendages is described from proximal to distal segments and from endopod to exopod ( clark et al . , 1998 ) .

samples of all larval stages were deposited in the biological collections of reference of the institut de ciències del mar ( csic ) in barcelona , under the catalogue numbers icmd 52 - 56 / 2004 .

the larval development of p . fasciatum was found to consist of four zoeal stages and one megalopa . the development through the zoea i stage lasted on average 4 . 6 ± 1 . 2 d , the zoea ii stage took 3 . 7 ± 0 . 7 d , the zoea iii 3 . 4 ± 0 . 5 d , the zoea iv 4 . 7 ± 0 . 5 and the megalopa 8 . 0 ± 0 . 7 d ( values are mean ± sd ; initial n = 100 ) . total larval development from hatching to metamorphosis lasted 23 . 9 ± 1 . 2 d . the comparison of zoeae i from four different hatches allowed to determine morphological and morphometric homogeneity ( i . e . no significant differences ) . the first zoeal stage is described in detail , while in subsequent stages only differences and changes are described .

globose , smooth and without tubercles . dorsal spine present , well developed and strongly curved posteriorly with sparsely minute protuberances . rostral spine present , straight and similar in length to spinous process of the antenna . lateral spines absent . pair of setae on the posterodorsal and anterodorsal regions . posterior and ventral margin without setae . eyes sessile .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . total animal , lateral view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . ( a 1 ) detail of the dorsal spine . scale bars = 0 . 15 mm .

uniramous . endopod absent . exopod unsegmented with three terminal aesthetascs and two terminal seta .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . antennule . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iv ; ( d ) megalopa ; ( e ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .

similar in size to rostral spine . protopodal process with one row of 12–15 spines of different size . exopod elongated , with two terminal simple setae ( one long and one medium - sized ) and two minute spines . pl / el = 2 . 35–2 . 40 .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . antenna . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv ; ( e ) megalopa ; ( f ) first crab . ( e 1 ) modified basal segment ; ( e 2 ) modified basal segment . mandible . ( g ) zoea i ; ( h ) zoea iv ; ( i ) megalopa . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .

exopod and epipod seta absent . coxal endite with six setae . basial endite with five setae and with two teeth . endopod two - segmented , with one seta on the proximal segment and one subterminal seta and four terminal setae on the distal segment .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxillule . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .

coxal endite bilobed , with 5 + 3 setae , distal lobe terminates in a spine . basial endite bilobed with 5 + 4 setae . endopod unsegmented , bilobed , with 2 + 3 long setae on the proximal and distal lobe respectively . scaphognathite ( exopod ) with four plumose marginal setae and long setose posterior process .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxilla . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . ( a 1 ) detail of the distal lobe of the coxal endite . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .

coxa with one seta . basis with 10 medial setae arranged 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 on the inner side , and a mat of long dorsobasal microtrichiae on the outer side . endopod five - segmented , with 2 , 2 , 1 , 2 , 5 ( one subterminal and four terminal ) . exopod two - segmented ( incipient ) ; distal segment with four long plumose natatory setae .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . first maxilliped . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea iii , endopod ; ( c ) zoea iv , endopod ; ( d ) megalopa ; ( e ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .

coxa without setae . basis with four medial setae arranged 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 . endopod three - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 6 setae . exopod two - segmented ( incipient ) ; distal segment with four long plumose natatory setae .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . second maxilliped . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea iv ; ( c ) megalopa ; ( d ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .

five somites . somites 2 and 3 with pairs of dorsolateral processes . somites 3–5 with posterolateral processes . somites 2–5 with pairs of posterodorsal setae .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . abdomen , dorsal view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv ; ( e ) megalopa ; ( f ) first crab . ( a 1 ) detail of the furca ; ( e 1 ) modified telson ; ( e 2 ) modified telson . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . abdomen , lateral view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .

lateral and dorsal medial spines absent . furca large , slightly divergent with three pairs of serrate setae on the posterior margin . two rows of arrow - shaped small spines on the margins of furcal arms . fl / bt ≤ 2 ( 1 . 8–2 . 0 ) .

two pairs of anterodorsal setae . each lateroventral margin with two setae . eyes stalked .

scaphognathite with eight ( 3 + 5 ) plumose marginal setae , without long setose posterior process present in zoea 1 .

basis without a mat of long dorsobasal microtrichiae . exopod distal segment with six long plumose natatory setae .

segments 2 and 3 of endopod with additional setae ( 2 , 2 + 1 , 2 , 2 , 1 + 4 ) . exopod distal segment with eight long plumose natatory setae .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . pereiopods 1–5 . ( a ) zoea iii ; ( b ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .

protopodal process with one row of 15–19 spines of different size . exopod with two terminal setae ( one long and one medium - sized ) . endopod segmented , slightly more than half the length of spinous process . pl / el = 2 . 0–2 . 1 .

coxal endite bilobed , with 6 + 4 setae . basial endite bilobed with 6 + 5 setae . scaphognathite with 20 plumose marginal setae .

fifth segment of endopod with an additional subterminal seta ( 2 + 4 ) . exopod distal segment with nine long plumose natatory setae .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . third maxilliped . ( a ) zoea iv ; ( b ) megalopa ; ( c ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .

longer than broad . with two lateral and longitudinal carinae . rostrum ventrally deflected with median cleft . setal arrangement as figured .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . ( a ) megalopa , lateral view ; ( b ) megalopa , detail of frontal view of the rostrum ; ( c ) megalopa , dorsal view ; ( d ) first crab , dorsal view . scale bars = 0 . 2 mm .

peduncle three - segmented , with 2 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . endopod absent . exopod three - segmented , with 0 , 4 and 3 aesthetascs , respectively , and 0 , 1 , 2 setae .

peduncle three - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . in several cases , exopod and spinous process present in different degrees of development . flagellum six - segmented , with 0 , 2 , 0 , 5 , 0 , 3 setae respectively .

coxal endite with 10 setae . basial endite with 17 ( 15 + 2 ) −18 ( 16 + 2 ) setae . endopod two - segmented , proximal segment with two setae , distal segment with three setae . two setae on the outer propodal margin .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxillule . ( a ) megalopa ; ( b ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .

coxal endite bilobed , with always 8 + 4 setae . basial endite bilobed with 8–9 + 6–7 setae . endopod unsegmented , with variable setation ( 2 + 3 , 1 + 3 , 2 + 2 , 0 + 0 setae ) . scaphognathite with 29–33 plumose marginal setae and two anterior setae and one posterolateral seta .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxilla . ( a ) megalopa ; ( b ) first crab . ( a 1 ) modified endopod . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .

epipod with four long setae . coxal endite with seven to eight setae . basial endite with 10–11 setae . endopod very variable and different degrees of reduction with zero to nine setae ( 0 , 3 , 4 , 9 setae ) . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with three distal setae , distal segment with five long terminal plumose setae .

epipod rudimentary . coxa and basis not differentiated , with three to four setae . endopod four - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 4 , 7 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with one medial seta , distal segment with seven terminal plumose setae .

epipod elongated with 12 long setae . coxa and basis not differentiated with nine setae . endopod five - segmented , ischium , merus , carpus , propodus and dactylus with 8–9 , 7 , 3 , 3–4 , 4 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment without seta and distal segment with three long terminal plumose setae and one simple seta .

all segments well differentiated , chelipeds and pereiopods 2–4 without spines . dactylus of fifth pereiopod with three long terminal setae and one short terminal spine . setal arrangement as figured .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . pereiopods 1–5 . ( a – e ) megalopa ; ( f – j ) first crab . ( e 1 ) detail of the distal part of dactyl of the fifth pereiopod ; ( j 1 ) detail of the distal part of dactyl of the fifth pereiopod . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .

somites 2–5 each with pairs of biramous pleopods , endopod unsegmented , with two terminal hooks ; exopod unsegmented with 13 , 13 , 13 , 10 long marginal plumose natatory setae respectively .

perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . ( a ) megalopa , pleopod 1 ; ( b ) megalopa , pleopod 4 ; ( c ) megalopa , uropod ; ( d ) carapace of crabs 1–3 . scale bars of a and b , 0 . 1 mm ; scale bar of d , 0 . 5 mm .

uropods two - segmented on somite 6 , proximal segment with one and distal segment with five long plumose setae respectively .

square - shaped , setation as figured . in two examined individuals , telson with two to three pairs of long setae and furcal branches present in two different degrees of development ( fig . 14 e 1 and e 2 ) .

longer than broad . frontal region broad , measuring one half of carapace width . anterolateral margins with three teeth , first largest and third smallest . setal arrangement as figured .

peduncle three - segmented , with 5 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . endopod absent . exopod three - segmented , with 0 , 0 and 2 aesthetascs , respectively , and 0 , 0 , 2 setae .

peduncle four - segmented , with 1–2 , 1 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . flagellum five - segmented , with 0 , 2 , 0 , 4–5 , 3 setae respectively .

coxal endite with 11 setae . basial endite with 19 setae . endopod two - segmented , proximal segment with two setae , distal segment with three setae .

coxal endite bilobed with 7 + 1 seta . basial endite bilobed with 6–7 + 6 setae . endopod unsegmented , without setae . scaphognathite with 34–36 plumose marginal setae and eight lateral setae .

epipod with 6–7 long setae . coxal endite with 10 setae . basial endite with 11–12 setae . endopod with six setae . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with one distal seta , distal segment with four long terminal plumose setae .

coxa and basis undifferentiated , with 1–2 setae . endopod four - segmented with 0–2 , 1 , 4–5 , 7 setae respectively . exopod three - segmented , proximal segment with five setae , second segment without setae and distal segment with five terminal plumose setae .

epipod elongated with 20 long setae . coxa and basis undifferentiated with 14 setae . endopod five - segmented with 14 , 8 , 4 , 4–5 , 4 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with seven setae and distal segment with four long terminal plumose setae .

setation as figured . propodus of pereiopods 2–5 with one long seta . dactylus of fifth pereiopod with one long terminal plumose seta .

second to fourth crab stages are similar in morphology to the first stage , differing only in size ( fig . 16 d ) and in most of the setal counts .

overall , the zoeal morphology of p . fasciatum is similar to that known of other sesarmid species . it conforms very closely to the characteristic listed by rice ( rice , 1980 ) and cuesta ( cuesta , 1999 ) for sesarmid larvae : ( 1 ) carapace without lateral spines ; ( 2 ) a 2 , 3 setation of the maxillar endopod ; ( 3 ) a 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 setation of the first maxilliped basis ; ( 4 ) a 0 , 1 , 6 setation of the second maxilliped endopod ; and ( 5 ) an abdomen with dorsolateral processes in somites 2 and 3 .

likewise , the morphology of the megalopal stage is similar to that known from the other species of the family sesarmidae ( cuesta , 1999 ) : ( 1 ) antennule without endopod ; ( 2 ) an antennular flagellum with 5–6 segments ; ( 3 ) a 0 , 4 mandibular palp setation ; ( 4 ) scaphognathite with 25–50 marginal plumose setae ; ( 5 ) endopod of the pleopods with two terminal hooks and exopod with seven and 14 plumose setae ; ( 6 ) propodus of the uropod with one seta and exopod with ≤7 setae .

for a species–specific identification , there is one very useful characteristic by which megalopae of p . fasciatum can be distinguished from those of all other so - far described sesarmid megalopae : the presence of only five setae on the exopod of the uropod ( table ii ) . this is a useful characteristic , since these setae can be observed and counted easily with a microscope and since the uropod setation normally is characterized by low intraspecific variability ( cuesta , 1999 ) .

some megalopal features described in the present study for p . fasciatum appear to represent remnants of zoeal morphology : ( 1 ) the first segment of the antennular peduncle with a rudimentary exopod and / or spinous process in different stages of reduction ; ( 2 ) the bilobed endopod of the maxilla with a similar setation as in the zoeal stages ( 2 + 3 , 1 + 3 , 1 + 2 ) ; ( 3 ) the telson with a rudimentary furca and / or with three pairs of serrulate setae on the posterior margin in different stages of reduction . these features have been observed in only some of the studied individuals . similar traits were also found in the megalopae of other grapsoid species : aratus pisonii ( warner , 1968 ) , sesarma reticulatum ( costlow and bookhout , 1962 ) , p . plicatum ( selvakumar , 1999 ) , p . erythrodactyla ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) and armases angustipes ( cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . cuesta and anger ( 2001 ) suggested that retainment of zoeal characteristics in the megalopa could be due to unfavourable conditions during larval culturing . however , this still remains to be tested .

knowledge of the first juvenile of sesarmid crabs is very limited . the first crab stage was previously only described for p . bidens ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ) . the overall morphology of p . fasciatum and p . bidens is very similar , and some morphometric and meristic features are summarized in table iii .

this study confirms that there is a useful set of morphological characteristics that allows to distinguish larvae of the crab family sesarmidae sensu ( schubart et al . , 2002 ) from all other decapod larvae , and these characteristics are shared by the asian mangrove crab p . fasciatum , as described here . however , for the identification of larval stages from the plankton at a genus and species level , descriptions of many more larvae of sesarmid crabs will be necessary and taxonomic revisions of the genera currently comprised within this family will need to be continued .

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journal of plankton research vol . 26 no . 12 © oxford university press 2004 ; all rights reserved

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zone : rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorrhiza forests - very common in dabasso kenya ( mida creek ) .

habitat : climbs on rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorrhiza trees ; strictly mangrove dependent .

food : consumes fresh leaves from the tree . usually found on rhizophora mucronata ( vannini and ruwa , 1994 ) , but a preliminary experiment hints that they prefer bruguiera gymnorrhiza leaves ( gillikin , 2000 ) . also eats algae , mollusks , insects and annelids ( dahdouh - guebas et al . , 1999 ) .

distinguishing characteristics : found climbing trunks of trees to canopy ; propodus three times longer than dactylus , carpace width ~ 2 cm .

geographical range : east africa , including mozambique and south africa ( emmerson et al . , 2003 ) .

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this research was funded by a national research foundation ( nrf ) natural resources , utilisation , ecology and management grant ( gun number 2050973 ) . the assistance of tshawe makanandana , mzo nkaitshana and sintu hola in the field and for collecting additional soil and leaf samples for analysis is greatly appreciated . this paper is for thandi my post - graduate student , friend and colleague who died tragically in october 2003 .

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database contains : 10 . 643 species ( 763 with photo ) , 1 . 682 genera , 124 families

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