Plot.

In April 1994, tensions between the Hutu and Tutsi peoples lead to genocide in Rwanda, where corruption and bribes between politicians are routine. Paul Rusesabagina, manager of the Hôtel des Mille Collines, is Hutu, but his wife Tatiana is Tutsi. Their marriage is a source of friction with Hutu extremists, including Georges Rutaganda, a goods supplier to the hotel who is also the local leader of Interahamwe, a brutal Hutu militia.  As the political situation in the country worsens following the assassination of the president, Paul and his family observe neighbors being killed, initiating the early stages of the genocide. Paul curries favor with people of influence, bribing them with money and alcohol, seeking to maintain sufficient influence to keep his family safe. When civil war erupts and a Rwandan Army officer threatens Paul and his neighbors, Paul barely negotiates their safety and brings them to the hotel. Upon returning with them, he finds his receptionist Gregoire occupying the Presidential suite threatening to rat them out if he is put back to work.  More evacuees arrive at the hotel from the overburdened UN refugee camp, the Red Cross, and various orphanages, among which Tatiana desperately searches for her brother, sister-in-law, and two nieces. As the situation becomes more violent, Paul must divert the Hutu soldiers, care for the refugees, protect his family, and maintain the appearance of a functioning hotel. He eventually gains the protection of the Rwandan army general Augustin Bizimungu, who threatens Gregoire back to work.  Low on supplies, Paul and Gregoire drive to collect hotel supplies from Georges Rutaganda and witnesses Tutsi hostages being treated violently by the Hutu militia. Georges explains to Paul that the "rich cockroaches'" money is going to be valueless because all of the Tutsis will be dead. Paul expresses disbelief that the Hutu extremists will wipe out all of the Tutsis, but Georges replies: "Why not? We are halfway there already."  They return to the hotel through the dark and thick fog, on a road that Georges recommends. At one point, Paul believes they have gone off the road and tells Gregoire to stop. When Paul exits the vehicle, he sees the riverside road is full of bodies and realizes that Georges was correct in his estimation that half the Tutsis are already dead.  The UN peacekeeping forces, led by Canadian Colonel Oliver, are unable to take assertive action against the Interahamwe because the peacekeepers are forbidden to intervene in the conflict and prevent the genocide. The foreign nationals are evacuated, but the Rwandans are left behind. When the UN forces attempt to evacuate a group of refugees, including Paul's family, Gregoire betrays them by informing the Interahamwe of the evacuation, and they are ambushed and forced to turn back.  In a last-ditch effort to save the refugees, Paul pleads with General Bizimungu for assistance. However, when Paul's bribes no longer work, he blackmails the general with threats of him being tried as a war criminal if he doesn't help. Soon afterward, Paul's family and the hotel refugees are finally able to leave the besieged hotel in a UN convoy. They travel through retreating masses of refugees and militia to reach safety behind Tutsi rebel lines and are reunited with their nieces.  The end title cards explain that Paul saved at least 1,200 Tutsi and Hutu refugees. He and his family, who adopted the two nieces, moved to Belgium, but Tatiana's brother Thomas and his wife were never found. The genocide came to an end in July 1994 when the Tutsi rebels drove the Hutu militia and the Interahamwe across the border into the Congo. At least one million people died in the genocide.

Production.

The film is set in 1994 during the Rwandan Genocide, in which an estimated 800,000 people, mainly Tutsi, were killed by Hutu extremists. During that year, Rwanda's population of seven million was composed of two major groups: Hutu (approximately 85%), and Tutsi (14%). In the early 1990s, Hutu extremists within Rwanda's political elite blamed the entire Tutsi minority population for the country's economic and political problems. Tutsi civilians were also accused of supporting a Tutsi-dominated rebel group, the Rwandan Patriotic Front.  On 6 April 1994, a plane carrying President Juvénal Habyarimana, a Hutu, was shot down. Following that incident, the genocide began. Hutu extremists belonging to the Interahamwe militia launched plans to destroy the entire Tutsi civilian population. Tutsi and people suspected of being Tutsi were killed in their homes and as they tried to flee the country. It is estimated that some 200,000 people participated in the perpetration of the Rwandan genocide. Hotelier Paul Rusesabagina of the Belgian owned luxury Hôtel des Mille Collines, used his power and influence to personally save both Tutsi and Hutu refugees. Rusesabagina regularly bribed Rwandan Hutu soldiers and kept militias outside the hotel's property during the hundred days of killing. Following the carnage, Rusesabagina survived along with his wife, four children, two adopted nieces; as well as most of the refugees he sheltered.  Sharing his thoughts about the lack of international intervention during the crisis, director George commented, "It's simple,... African lives are not seen as valuable as the lives of Europeans or Americans." Attempting to share the horrors of the genocide, George sought to tell the story of Rusesabagina, portrayed as a humanitarian during the relentless acts of violence. However, Rusesabagina has since come under criticism from allegations that he extorted money from hotel guests for rooms and food. It was also reported that the UN headquarters in Kigali received information that Rusesabagina had provided a Rwandan army commander with a list of hotel guests and their room numbers. UN observers managed to change the room numbers of those most threatened. The character of the Canadian Lieutenant-General is based on Senator Roméo Dallaire, now retired from the Canadian Armed Forces. He recounted his own experiences in his biography, "Shake Hands with the Devil". The book was later adapted into two feature films; a, and a 2007 dramatic motion picture.  George stated that it was important to craft the film for a mass-market audience, using the question of whether the film is "going to play in Peoria? Will it be understood? Is it main stream enough?"

Filming.

Principal filming was shot on location in Kigali, Rwanda, and Johannesburg, South Africa. Paul Rusesabagina was consulted during the writing of the film. Although the character of Colonel Oliver played by Nolte is fictional in nature, the role was inspired by the UN force commander for UNAMIR, Roméo Dallaire. Ugandan president Yoweri Museveni, then-Rwandan president Juvénal Habyarimana, and Rwandan Patriotic Front leader (now president) Paul Kagame appear in archive television footage in the film.  The producers of the film partnered with the United Nations Foundation to create the International Fund for Rwanda, which supported United Nations Development Programme initiatives assisting Rwandan survivors. "The goal of the film is not only to engage audiences in this story of genocide but also to inspire them to help redress the terrible devastation," said George.

Soundtrack.

The original motion picture soundtrack for "Hotel Rwanda" was released by the Commotion label on 11 January 2005. It features songs written by Wyclef Jean and Deborah Cox, among others. The music for the film was composed by Rupert Gregson-Williams, Andrea Guerra, and the Afro Celt Sound System, while being edited by Michael Connell.

Marketing.

Novel.

Hotelier Paul Rusesabagina's real life experience encouraged director George to produce the film. A paperback novel published by Newmarket Press, entitled "Hotel Rwanda: Bringing the True Story of an African Hero to Film", released on 7 February 2005, dramatizes the events of the Rwandan Genocide in 1994, as depicted in the film, and expands on the ideas of how Rusesabagina sheltered and saved more than 1,200 people in the hotel he managed in Kigali by summarizing three years of research, articles that chronicle the historical events, and the ensuing aftermath. A brief history and timeline, the making of the film, and the complete screenplay written by Keir Pearson and Terry George are covered in thorough detail.

Release.

Home media.

Following its cinematic release in theatres, the film was released in VHS video format on 12 April 2005, marking the final United Artists film released on the format. The Region 1 Code widescreen edition of the film was also released on DVD in the United States on 12 April 2005. Special features for the DVD include; "A Message for Peace: Making Hotel Rwanda" documentary, "Return to Rwanda" documentary, Selected scenes commentary by Don Cheadle, Audio commentary by director Terry George and real-life subject of the film–Paul Rusesabagina, along with select commentary by musician Wyclef Jean. Supplementally, the Blu-ray Disc version of the film was released on 10 May 2011. The film is available in other media formats such as Video on demand as well.

Reception.

Critical response.

Among mainstream critics in the U.S., the film received universally positive reviews. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 91% of 194 sampled critics gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 7.95/10 and the consensus calling it a "sobering and heartfelt tale about massacre that took place in Rwanda while most of the world looked away." At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average out of 100 to critics' reviews, the film received a score of 79 based on 40 reviews.  Michael Rechtshaffen, writing in "The Hollywood Reporter", said actor "Cheadle impressively carries the entire picture, delivering the kind of note-perfect performance that's absolutely deserving of Oscar consideration." Roger Ebert in the "Chicago Sun-Times" called it a "riveting drama", while exclaiming "The film works not because the screen is filled with meaningless special effects, formless action and vast digital armies, but because Cheadle, Nolte and the filmmakers are interested in how two men choose to function in an impossible situation. Because we sympathize with these men, we are moved by the film." In the "San Francisco Chronicle", Mick LaSalle wrote that the film was a "harrowing experience", and that "it documents for a mass audience what it was like. It's useful, in that it shows how it can happen. It's even hopeful, in that it shows that it's possible—not guaranteed, but possible—for people to maintain their humanity in the face of unhinged barbarism." Claudia Puig of "USA Today", said the film was "one of the year's most moving and powerful films, anchored by a magnificent performance by Don Cheadle." She declared, ""Hotel Rwanda" emerges as an African version of "Schindler's List"." The film however, was not without its detractors. Dave Sterrit of "The Christian Science Monitor", felt that although the subject matter was crucially important, he commented that "the movie dilutes its impact with by-the-numbers filmmaking, and Cheadle's one-note performance displays few of his acting gifts." Left equally unimpressed was Lisa Schwarzbaum of "Entertainment Weekly". Commenting on the character significance of the U.N. personnel, she said it was "a bad day for narrative, if not for diplomacy, when there is only one 3-D character among the entire U.N. lot, clad in their blue helmets, and that role is rasped by Nick Nolte with moral remorse rather than his more usual hint of dissolution." In her overall summation, she wrote ""Hotel Rwanda" is a strange history lesson that leaves us more overlectured than properly overwhelmed." Michael Atkinson of "The Village Voice", added to the negativity by saying the film was "told to us secondhand, or glimpsed in distant scuffles" and "Like the majority of movies about the last century of holocausts, "Hotel Rwanda" is as earnest and tasteful as its creators. To capture the white-hot terror of social calamity, someone a little more lawless and fierce might be called for."  Writing for "The New York Times", Stephen Holden said the film was "a political thriller based on fact that hammers every button on the emotional console." He commended how the film "offers a devastating picture of media-driven mass murder left unchecked" while also praising "Mr. Cheadle's magnificent, understated portrayal". James Berardinelli writing for "ReelViews", called the film "powerful" and noted that it didn't "pull as many punches as its detractors would have us believe." Berardinelli also said the film was "brutal and shocking when it needs to be, but it also has great emotional scope and power. We find ourselves enmeshed in Paul's struggle, sharing his despair at the warfare tearing apart his country, his frustration and anger at the U.N.'s inability to act, and, eventually, his hope for a better tomorrow." Describing some pitfalls, Jeff Vice of the "Deseret News" said the "decision by the filmmakers to show things from that limited viewpoint—to show how isolated and fearful the characters were of the chaos going on around them—the film feels a little dishonest and diminished. It's never quite as effective as ""The Killing Fields"" or ""Schindler's List"" in that the film's overall impact is not as great and it doesn't linger in the memory." Vice however was quick to admit ""Hotel Rwanda" does have its share of powerful moments; in particular, a scene in which Paul and another hotel employee unknowingly—due to fog—drive into a mass grave." He also expressed satisfaction with the acting saying, "Cheadle brings a needed intensity to the film; his character's fear and compassion are quite vivid. Nolte is also good in his limited screen time, as is Joaquin Phoenix, who plays a news cameraman."  Eleanor R. Gillespie of "The Atlanta Journal-Constitution", stated that "Hotel Rwanda" was an "unforgettable film" as well as being "a doubly unforgettable performance by Don Cheadle." Although mentioning "The parallels with Steven Spielberg's "Schindler's List" are obvious", she praised individual cinematic elements that made the film unique, such as "the revelation of a dark, bumpy road paved with thousands of corpses. Or in a little girl's heartwrenching plea, 'Please don't let them kill me. I promise I won't be Tutsi anymore'." She concluded her review with Cheadle's noteworthy performance, saying he gave "one of the best performances (if not the best) of last year—an Oscar-worthy portrait of a man who kept his head clear and his humanity intact in the midst of a man-made hell." Similarly, David Ansen wrote in "Newsweek" that "two performances carry the film. Cheadle, in his richest role since ""Devil in a Blue Dress"", burrows deep inside this complex man, who discovers in himself a strength he never knew he possessed, as he faces the disillusionment of all the "civilized" notions he believes in. As his strong, committed wife, Tatiana, Sophie Okonedo, barely resembling the saucy hooker she played in ""Dirty Pretty Things"", is a revelation." However, in the "Arizona Daily Star", Phil Villarreal was not moved by the lead acting of Cheadle or Nolte. He thought the characters were "cardboardish" and went further saying the "uplifting moments of rescue seem antiseptic and set up." Critic Leonard Maltin though, wrote that "Hotel Rwanda" was a "Powerful film" which he thought avoided being "overly didactic by focusing on one compelling character, believably brought to life by Cheadle." In "", drawing on the work of journalist Keith Harmon Snow and writer Edward S. Herman, author Matthew Alford called the film "sensitive, humane and powerful" but noted that it was "striking how the history of bloodshed has been spun in line with Western interests".

Accolades.

The film was nominated and won several awards in 2004–06. Various critics included the film on their lists of the top 10 best films of 2004. Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" named it ninth best, Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" named it eighth best, and Desson Thomson of "The Washington Post" named it tenth best. The film is also listed by the American Film Institute as one of the 100 most inspirational movies of all time.

Box office.

The film premiered in cinemas on 22 December 2004, in limited release throughout the US During its limited opening weekend, the film grossed $100,091 in business showing at 7 locations. Its official wide release was screened in theatres on 4 February 2005. Opening in a distant 14th place, the film earned $2,316,416 showing at 823 cinemas. The film "Boogeyman" soundily beat its competition during that weekend opening in first place with $19,020,655. The film's revenue dropped by 11.8% in its second week of release, earning $2,043,249. For that particular weekend, the romantic comedy "Hitch" unseated "Boogeyman" to open in first place with $43,142,214 in revenue, while "Hotel Rwanda" remained in 14th place not challenging a top ten position. During its final weekend in release, the film opened in 62nd place grossing $23,176 in business. The film went on to top out domestically at $23,530,892 in total ticket sales through an 18-week theatrical run. Internationally, the film took in an additional $10,351,351 in box office business for a combined worldwide total of $33,882,243. For 2004 as a whole, the film would cumulatively rank at a box office performance position of 99.

Hotel Rwanda is a 2004 drama film directed by Terry George. It was adapted from a screenplay co-written by George and Keir Pearson, and stars Don Cheadle and Sophie Okonedo as hotelier Paul Rusesabagina and his wife Tatiana. Based on the Rwandan genocide, which occurred during the spring of 1994, the film documents Rusesabagina's efforts to save the lives of his family and more than a thousand other refugees by providing them with shelter in the besieged Hôtel des Mille Collines. "Hotel Rwanda" explores genocide, political corruption, and the repercussions of violence.

《-{zh:卢旺达饭店;zh-hans:卢旺达饭店;zh-hant:卢旺达饭店;zh-hk:卢旺达饭店;zh-mo:卢旺达饭店;zh-tw:卢旺达饭店;}-》(英语:"Hotel Rwanda")是一部英国、南非、加拿大、意大利于2004年共同拍摄的电影。


Early life.

John Stark was born in Londonderry, New Hampshire (at a site that is now in Derry) in 1728. His father was born in Glasgow, Scotland, to parents who were from Wiltshire, England; Stark's father met his future wife when he moved to Londonderry in Ireland. When Stark was eight years old, his family moved to Derryfield (now Manchester, New Hampshire), where he lived for the rest of his life. Stark married Elizabeth "Molly" Page, with whom he had 11 children including his eldest son Caleb Stark.  On April 28, 1752, while on a hunting and trapping trip along the Baker River, a tributary of the Pemigewasset River, he was captured by Abenaki warriors and brought back to Canada but not before warning his brother William to paddle away in his canoe, though David Stinson was killed. While a prisoner of the Abenaki, he and his fellow prisoner Amos Eastman were made to run a gauntlet of warriors armed with sticks. Stark grabbed the stick from the first warrior's hands and proceeded to attack him, taking the rest of the warriors by surprise. The chief was so impressed by this heroic act that Stark was adopted into the tribe, where he spent the winter.  The following spring a government agent sent from the Province of Massachusetts Bay to work on the exchange of prisoners paid his ransom of $103 Spanish dollars and $60 for Amos Eastman. Stark and Eastman then returned to New Hampshire safely.

French and Indian War.

Stark served as a second lieutenant under Major Robert Rogers during the French and Indian War. His brother William Stark served beside him in Rogers' Rangers. As a member of the daring Rogers' Rangers, Stark gained valuable combat experience and a detailed knowledge of the northern frontier of the American colonies. While serving with the rangers in 1757, Stark went on a scouting mission toward Fort Carillon in which the rangers were ambushed.  General Jeffery Amherst, in 1759 ordered Rogers' Rangers to journey from Lake George to the Abenaki village of St. Francis, deep in Quebec. The Rangers went north and attacked the Indian town. Stark, Rogers' second-in-command of all ranger companies, refused to accompany the attacking force out of respect for his Indian foster-parents residing there. He returned to New Hampshire to his wife, whom he had married the previous year.  At the end of the war, Stark retired as a captain and returned to Derryfield, New Hampshire.

American Revolution.

Bunker Hill.

The Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, signaled the start of the American Revolutionary War, and Stark returned to military service. On April 23, 1775, Stark accepted a Colonelcy in the New Hampshire Militia and was given command of the 1st New Hampshire Regiment and James Reed of the 3rd New Hampshire Regiment, also outside of Boston. As soon as Stark could muster his men, he ferried and marched them south to Boston to support the blockaded rebels there. He made his headquarters in the confiscated Isaac Royall House in Medford, Massachusetts.  On June 16, the rebels, fearing a preemptive British attack on their positions in Cambridge and Roxbury, decided to take and hold Breed's Hill, a high point on the Charlestown peninsula near Boston. On the night of the 16th, American troops moved into position on the heights and began digging entrenchments.  As dawn approached, lookouts on HMS "Lively", a 20-gun sloop of war noticed the activity and the sloop opened fire on the rebels and the works in progress. This in turn drew the attention of the British admiral, who demanded to know what the "Lively" was shooting at. Subsequent to that, the entire British squadron opened fire. As dawn broke on June 17 the British could clearly see hastily constructed fortifications on Breed's Hill, and British Gen. Thomas Gage knew that he would have to drive the rebels out before fortifications were complete. He ordered Major General William Howe to prepare to land his troops. Thus began the Battle of Bunker Hill. American Col. William Prescott held the hill throughout the intense initial bombardment with only a few hundred American militia. Prescott knew that he was sorely outgunned and outnumbered. He sent a desperate request for reinforcements.  Stark and Reed with the New Hampshire minutemen arrived at the scene soon after Prescott's request. The "Lively" had begun a rain of accurate artillery fire directed at Charlestown Neck, the narrow strip of land connecting Charlestown to the rebel positions. On the Charlestown side, several companies from other regiments were milling around in disarray, afraid to march into range of the artillery fire. Stark ordered the men to stand aside and calmly marched his men to Prescott's positions without taking any casualties.  When the New Hampshire militia arrived, the grateful Colonel Prescott allowed Stark to deploy his men where he saw fit. Stark surveyed the ground and immediately saw that the British would probably try to flank the rebels by landing on the beach of the Mystic River, below and to the left of Bunker Hill. Stark led his men to the low ground between Mystic Beach and the hill and ordered them to "fortify" a two-rail fence by stuffing straw and grass between the rails. Stark also noticed an additional gap in the defense line and ordered Lieutenant Nathaniel Hutchins from his brother William's company and others to follow him down a bank to the edge of the Mystic River. They piled rocks across the beach to form a crude defense line. After this fortification was hastily constructed, Stark deployed his men three-deep behind the wall. A large contingent of British with the Royal Welch Fusiliers in the lead advanced towards the fortifications. The Minutemen crouched and waited until the advancing British were almost on top of them, and then stood up and fired as one. They unleashed a fierce and unexpected volley directly into the faces of the fusiliers, killing 90 in the blink of an eye and breaking their advance. The fusiliers retreated in panic. A charge of British infantry was next, climbing over their dead comrades to test Stark's line. This charge too was decimated by a withering fusillade by the Minutemen. A third charge was repulsed in a similar fashion, again with heavy losses to the British. The British officers wisely withdrew their men from that landing point and decided to land elsewhere, with the support of artillery.  Later in the battle, as the rebels were forced from the hill, Stark directed the New Hampshire regiment's fire to provide cover for Colonel Prescott's retreating troops. The day's New Hampshire dead were later buried in the Salem Street Burying Ground, Medford, Massachusetts.  While the British did eventually take the hill that day, their losses were formidable, especially among the officers. After the arrival of General George Washington two weeks after the battle, the siege reached a stalemate until March the next year, when cannon seized at the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga were positioned on Dorchester Heights in a deft night manoeuvre. This placement threatened the British fleet in Boston Harbor and forced General Howe to withdraw all his forces from the Boston garrison and sail for Halifax, Nova Scotia.  Among the notable men who served under Stark was Captain Henry Dearborn, who later became Secretary of War under President Thomas Jefferson. Dearborn arrived with 60 militia men from New Hampshire.

Trenton and Princeton.

As Washington prepared to go to New York in anticipation of a British attack there, he knew that he desperately needed experienced men like John Stark to command regiments in the Continental Army. George Washington immediately offered Stark a command in the Continental Army. Stark and his New Hampshire regiment agreed to attach themselves to the Continental Army. The men of the New Hampshire Line were sent as reinforcements to the Continental Army during the Invasion of Canada in the spring of 1776. After the retreat of the Continental Army from Canada, Stark and his men traveled to New Jersey to join Washington's main army. They were with Washington in the battles of Princeton and Trenton in late 1776 and early 1777.  After Trenton, Washington asked Stark to return to New Hampshire to recruit more men for the Continental Army. Stark agreed, but upon returning home, learned that while he had been fighting in New Jersey, a fellow New Hampshire Colonel named Enoch Poor had been promoted to Brigadier General in the Continental Army. In Stark's opinion, Poor had refused to march his militia regiment to Bunker Hill to join the battle, instead choosing to keep his regiment at home. Stark, an experienced woodsman and fighting commander, had been passed over for someone with no combat experience and apparently no will to fight. On March 23, 1777, Stark resigned his commission in disgust, although he pledged his future aid to New Hampshire if it should be needed.

Bennington and beyond.

Four months later, his home state offered Stark a commission as brigadier general of the New Hampshire Militia. He accepted on the strict condition that he would not be answerable to Continental Army authority. Soon after receiving his commission, Stark assembled 1,492 militiamen in civilian clothes with personal firearms. He traveled to Manchester, Vermont. At this place, he was ordered by Major General Benjamin Lincoln (of the Continental Army) to reinforce Philip Schuyler's Continental army on the Hudson River. Stark refused to obey Lincoln, who was another general whom he believed was unfairly promoted over his head. Lincoln was diplomatic enough to allow him to operate independently against the rear of General John Burgoyne's British army.  Burgoyne sent an expedition under Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich Baum to capture American supplies at Bennington, Vermont. Baum commanded 374 Brunswick infantry and dismounted dragoons, 300 Indians, loyalists, and Canadians, and two 3-pound cannons manned by 30 Hessians. Stark heard about the raid and marched his force to Bennington. Meanwhile, Baum received intelligence that Bennington was held by 1,800 men. On August 14, Baum asked Burgoyne for reinforcements but assured his army commander that his opponents would not give him much trouble. The Brunswick officer then fortified his position and waited for Lieutenant Colonel Heinrich von Breymann's 642 soldiers and two 6-pound cannons to reach him. Colonel Seth Warner also set out with his 350 men to reinforce Stark.  After waiting out a day of rain, at 3:00 PM on the 16th Stark sent 200 militia to the right, 300 men to the left, 200 troops against a position held by Tories, and 100 men on a feint against Baum's main redoubt. In the face of these attacks, the Indians, loyalists, and Canadians fled, leaving Baum stranded in his main position. As his envelopment took effect, Stark led his remaining 1,200 troops against Baum, saying, "We'll beat them before night or Molly Stark's a widow." After an ammunition wagon exploded, Baum's men tried to hack their way out of the trap with their dragoon sabers. Baum was fatally hit and his men gave up around 5:00 PM. With Stark's men somewhat scattered by their victory, Breymann's column appeared on the scene. At this moment Colonel Seth Warner's 350 Green Mountain Boys arrived to confront Breymann's men. Between Stark and Warner, the Germans were stopped and then forced to withdraw. The New Hampshire and Vermont soldiers severely mauled Breymann's command but the German officer managed to get away with about two-thirds of his force. Historian Mark M. Boatner wrote,  As a commander of New England militia Stark had one rare and priceless quality: he knew the "limitations" of his men. They were innocent of military training, undisciplined, and unenthusiastic about getting shot. With these men he killed over 200 of Europe's vaunted regulars with a loss of 14 Americans killed.  Another version has Stark rallying his troops with the cry, "There are your enemies, the Red Coats and the Tories. They are ours, or this night Molly Stark sleeps a widow!"  Stark's action contributed to the surrender of Burgoyne's northern army after the Battles of Saratoga by raising American morale, by keeping the British from getting supplies, and by subtracting several hundred men from the enemy order of battle. Stark reported 14 killed and 42 wounded. Of Baum's 374 professional soldiers, only nine men escaped. For this feat Stark won his coveted promotion to brigadier general in the Continental Army on October 4, 1777.  Saratoga is seen as the turning point in the Revolutionary War, as it was the first major defeat of a British general and it convinced the French that the Americans were worthy of military aid. After the Battle of Freeman's Farm Gen. Stark's brigade moved into a position at Stark's Knob cutting off Burgoyne's retreat to Lake George and Lake Champlain.  John Stark sat as a judge in the court martial that in September 1780 found British Major John André guilty of spying and in helping in the conspiracy of Benedict Arnold to surrender West Point to the British.  He was the commander of the Northern Department three times between 1778 and 1781 along with commanding a brigade at the Battle of Springfield in June of 1780.

Later years.

After serving with distinction throughout the rest of the war, Stark retired to his farm in Derryfield, renamed Manchester in 1810, where he died on May 8, 1822 at the age of 93.  It has been said that of all the Revolutionary War generals, Stark was the only true Cincinnatus because he truly retired from public life at the end of the war. In 1809, a group of Bennington veterans gathered to commemorate the battle. General Stark, then aged 81, was not well enough to travel, but he sent a letter to his comrades, which closed "Live free or die: Death is not the worst of evils." The motto "Live Free or Die" became the New Hampshire state motto in 1945. Stark and the Battle of Bennington were later commemorated with the tall Bennington Battle Monument and a statue of Stark in Bennington, Vermont.

Historic sites.

There is a New Hampshire historical marker (number 48) near John Stark's birthplace on the east side of New Hampshire Route 28 (Rockingham Road) in Derry, New Hampshire, just south of the intersection of Lawrence Road. There is a second stone marker at the actual homestead location.  Stark's childhood home is located at 2000 Elm Street in Manchester, New Hampshire. The home was built in 1736 by John's father Archibald. The building is now owned by the Molly Stark Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution. The property, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, is open by appointment only. Manchester's Stark Park, also a listed property, is home to his grave and is named in his honor. There is a bronze statue of General Stark in front of the New Hampshire Statehouse in Concord; it was dedicated in 1890. New Castle's Fort Stark was re-named for the General in 1900. It was one of seven forts built in the area to protect the nearby city of Portsmouth. The historic site is placed on a peninsula known as Jerry’s point (or Jaffrey’s Point) on the southeast side of the island.

See also.

Many places in the United States were named after John Stark and his wife Molly. Among them are:

Further reading.

Primary sources.

Detailed information on John Stark is not easy to find. Please add references and primary resources to this section, noting where the resources can be found.

John Stark (August 28, 1728 – May 8, 1822) was a New Hampshire native who served as an officer in the British Army during the French and Indian war and a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. He became widely known as the "Hero of Bennington" for his exemplary service at the Battle of Bennington in 1777.

约翰·史塔克(英语:John Stark,1728年-8月28日-1822年-5月8日),新罕布什尔州民兵军官,美国独立战争时期大陆军将领。新罕布什尔州的格言「不自由,毋宁死」(Live free or die)出自他手。


Governance.

There are five "closely associated institutions" that each have a "distinct role" and together form the World Bank—the IBRD, the International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), that "invests in private firms and promotes entrepreneurship", the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), that guarantees loans, and the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). Their mission is to "fight poverty and improve living standards for people in the developing world." By 2018, the World Bank Group was "one of the world's largest sources of funding and knowledge for developing countries." Of the five institutions, the IBRD and the IDA are the World Bank's two largest units. When a country reaches a GDP per person over US$1,145, they are no longer eligible for IDA financial support. For example, of the BRIC countries, China was no longer eligible in 1999 and by 2014, neither was India.  The IBRD is governed by the World Bank's Board of Governors which meets annually and consists of one governor per member country (most often the country's finance minister or treasury secretary). The Board of Governors delegates most of its authority over daily matters such as lending and operations to the Board of Directors. The Board of Directors consists of 25 executive directors and is chaired by the President of the World Bank Group. The executive directors collectively represent all 189 member states of the World Bank. The president oversees the IBRD's overall direction and daily operations.  The Bank and IDA operate with a staff of approximately 10,000 employees.  On 9 April 2019, United States President Donald Trump nominated David Malpass as the World Bank Group's President. Malpass had served as one of President Trump's economic advisers and as a senior official in the United States Treasury Department. The IBRD member nations did not sponsor a "rival candidate" and Malpass became President, in spite of the fact that he is critical of the role of the IBRD.

Background.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) were established by delegates at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 and became operational in 1946. According to a March 2012 "Washington Post" article, IBRD was the "original 'world bank'".  IBRD field offices were opened in Paris, France, Copenhagen, Denmark, and Prague in the former Czechoslovakia.  The IBRD was established with the original mission of financing the reconstruction efforts of war-torn European nations following World War II, with goals shared by the later Marshall Plan. The Bank issued its inaugural loan of $250 million ($2.6 billion in 2012 dollars) to France in 1947 to finance infrastructure projects.  In 1946, a few months after in became operational, Chile sought financial help from the IBRD—the first of the developing countries to do so.  Throughout the remainder of the 1940s and 1950s, the Bank financed projects seeking to dam rivers, generate electricity, and improve access to water and sanitation. It also invested in France, Belgium, and Luxembourg's steel industry. Following the reconstruction of Europe, the Bank's mandate has transitioned to eradicating poverty around the world.  In 1960, the International Development Association (IDA) was established to serve as the Bank's concessional lending arm and provide low and no-cost finance and grants to the poorest of the developing countries as measured by gross national income per capita.  At the time of its creation, the IBRD was the only Multilateral Development Bank. During the period of decolonization—the mid‐1950s to the mid‐1970s—a number of MDB's were created—the International Finance Corporation, the International Development Association. They were both WBG members. During this period other MDBs that were similar to the IBRD in their governance and operations, were established by countries that were not member nations of the WBG. This included the Inter‐American Development Bank (IDB), the African Development Bank (AfDB), the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the Andean Development Corporation (CAF), and the Islamic Development Bank (IsDB). Both the CAF and IsDB are "primarily owned and controlled by borrower countries."  In the early 1990s, European nations established the European Bank of Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) and expanded European Investment Bank, to foster European integration and to assist post‐communist countries to transform their economies to become more market‐oriented.  By 2012, according to "The Post", IBRD was using "its AAA credit rating to sell bonds at interest rates close to those of U.S. Treasury bonds." It loaned money to developing nations, such as China and Brazil.  According to the "Global Policy", journal, While the IBRD and the IDA historically prioritized funding infrastructure projects, since the 1990s, the Bank has directed less lending to infrastructure projects in favor of other development projects such as fighting climate change, eradicating poverty and ensuring good governance.

Financial model.

The IBRD finances its activities from the shares its members hold, as well as borrowing on international capital markets by issuing World Bank bonds. The Bank raised US$54.0 billion worth of capital in fiscal 2019 from bonds issued in 27 different currencies.  Since 1959, the IBRD, which is backed by world governments has had a triple-A credit rating since 1959, which allows it to borrow capital at lower rates.  According to a 2015 article, commissioned by the Intergovernmental Group of Twenty-Four on International Monetary Affairs and Development—also known as the Group of 24 (G-24)—multilateral development banks (MDBs)—such as the IBRD—"represent one of the most successful types of international organization created in the post-World War II era." By October 2015, although the WBG—with its lending arms—was the only "global institution, there were more than twenty operational 20 MDBs in the world. In 2016, the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and BRICs New Development Bank began operations. Like other multilateral development banks, (MDBs), the IBRD has a preferred credit treatment (PCT), through which borrowers grant the MDBs a "privileged position to be first in line for repayment, should a country face financial restrictions."  The bank also generates income from the return on its equity and from the small margins on the loans. As the IBRD does not seek profit, it transfers part of its excess income to the IDA ($259 million in fiscal 2019).  In 2011, the IBRD loaned about US$26 billion, which represented just a "fraction of the $72 billion the IMF approved as a credit line to a single nation, Mexico." In the early 2010s, the total of "capital investments in emerging markets from all sources have topped $1 trillion annually". According to the Institute of International Finance, in 2011, the "combined net investment of the World Bank and other international development banks and agencies" was about $20 billion in 2011.  According to a 2019 "The Economist" article, the IBRD is "more controversial" than the International Development Association (IDA) lending arm. With its AAA credit rating, the IBRD can "borrow money cheaply on the international financial markets". Middle-income countries, like Brazil and China that currently borrow from the IBRD, could "borrow in abundance from foreign investors" on their own.

Services.

The IBRD provides financial services as well as strategic coordination and information services to its borrowing member countries. The Bank only finances sovereign governments directly, or projects backed by sovereign governments. The World Bank Treasury is the division of the IBRD that manages the Bank's debt portfolio of over $100 billion and financial derivatives transactions of $20 billion.  The Bank offers flexible loans with maturities as long as 30 years and custom-tailored repayment scheduling. The IBRD also offers loans in local currencies. Through a joint effort between the IBRD and the International Finance Corporation, the Bank offers financing to subnational entities either with or without sovereign guarantees. For borrowers needing quick financing for an unexpected change, the IBRD operates a Deferred Drawdown Option which serves as a line of credit with features similar to the Bank's flexible loan program. Among the World Bank Group's credit enhancement and guarantee products, the IBRD offers policy-based guarantees to cover countries' sovereign default risk, partial credit guarantees to cover the credit risk of a sovereign government or subnational entity, and partial risk guarantees to private projects to cover a government's failure to meet its contractual obligations. The IBRD's Enclave Partial Risk Guarantee to cover private projects in member countries of the IDA against sovereign governments' failures to fulfill contractual obligations. The Bank provides an array of financial risk management products including foreign exchange swaps, currency conversions, interest rate swaps, interest rate caps and floors, and commodity swaps. To help borrowers protect against catastrophes and other special risks, the bank offers a Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Option to provide financing after a natural disaster or declared state of emergency. It also issues catastrophe bonds which transfer catastrophic risks from borrowers to investors. The IBRD reported $23.2 billion in lending commitments for 100 projects in fiscal year 2019. The top 10 borrowers were India, Indonesia, Jordan, Egypt, Argentina, China, Morocco, Turkey, Ukraine and Colombia. The most supported sector was Public Administration.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is an international financial institution, established in 1944 and headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States, that is the lending arm of World Bank Group. The IBRD offers loans to middle-income developing countries. The IBRD is the first of five member institutions that compose the World Bank Group. The initial mission of the IBRD in 1944, was to finance the reconstruction of European nations devastated by World War II. The IBRD and its concessional lending arm, the International Development Association (IDA), are collectively known as the World Bank as they share the same leadership and staff.

国际复兴开发银行(International Bank for Reconstruction and Development,简称IBRD)是一所国际金融机构。它给与中等收入的发展中国家提供贷款。国际复兴开发银行是世界银行集团的五个成员机构中的一个组成部分,总部设在美国华盛顿特区。国际复兴开发银行于1944年成立。


Biography.

Early life.

Born to a farming family in Mercy-le-Haut, Meurthe-et-Moselle, he attended the École Polytechnique and the École des Mines de Paris, graduating from both at the top of his class. He then became a mining engineer in Vesoul and Nancy, but left that profession at the age of 29 to enter politics.

Politics.

Lebrun gained a seat in the Chamber of Deputies in 1900 as a member of the Left Republican Party, later serving on the cabinet as Minister for the Colonies from 1912–1914, Minister of War in 1913 and Minister for Liberated Regions, 1917–1919. Joining the Democratic Alliance, he was elected to the French senate from Meurthe-et-Moselle in 1920, and served as Vice President of the Senate from 1925 through 1929. He was president of that body from 1931–1932.  Lebrun was elected president of France following the assassination of president Paul Doumer by Pavel Gurgulov on 6 May 1932. Re-elected in 1939, largely because of his record of accommodating all political sides, he exercised little power as president. On 10 July 1940, Lebrun enacted/promulgated the Constitutional Law of 10 July 1940 allowing Prime Minister Philippe Pétain to promulgate a new constitution. On 11 July, Lebrun was replaced by Pétain (although Lebrun never officially resigned) as head of state. He then fled to Vizille (Isère) on 15 July, but was captured on 27 August 1943 when the Germans moved into the region and was sent into captivity at the Itter Castle in Tyrol. On 10 October 1943 he was allowed to return to Vizille due to poor health, but was kept under constant surveillance.  On 9 August 1944, when the Allies restored the French government, Lebrun met with Charles de Gaulle and acknowledged the General's leadership, saying that he had not formally resigned as president because the dissolution of the National Assembly had left nobody to accept his resignation.

Personal life.

Lebrun was married to Marguerite Lebrun. Together they had two children: a son Jean and a daughter Marie.

Later life.

After the war, Lebrun lived in retirement. He died of pneumonia in Paris on 6 March 1950 after a protracted illness.

Albert François Lebrun (; 29 August 1871 – 6 March 1950) was a French politician, President of France from 1932 to 1940. He was the last president of the Third Republic. He was a member of the center-right Democratic Republican Alliance (ARD).

阿尔贝·弗朗索瓦·勒布伦(法语:,;1871年-8月29日-1950年-3月6日),法国政治家,法兰西第三共和国的最后一位总统(1932年-1940年)。


Early life.

Marvell was born in Winestead-in-Holderness, East Riding of Yorkshire, near the city of Kingston upon Hull, the son of a Church of England clergyman also named Andrew Marvell. The family moved to Hull when his father was appointed Lecturer at Holy Trinity Church there, and Marvell was educated at Hull Grammar School. A secondary school in the city, the Andrew Marvell Business and Enterprise College, is now named after him.  At the age of 13, Marvell attended Trinity College, Cambridge and eventually received a BA degree. A portrait of Marvell attributed to Godfrey Kneller hangs in Trinity College's collection.  Afterwards, from the middle of 1642 onwards, Marvell probably travelled in continental Europe. He may well have served as a tutor for an aristocrat on the Grand Tour, but the facts are not clear on this point. While England was embroiled in the civil war, Marvell seems to have remained on the continent until 1647. In Rome in 1645 he probably met the Villiers brothers, Lord Francis and the 2nd Duke of Buckingham, as well as Richard Flecknoe, about whom he would later on write a satirical poem. It is not known exactly where his travels took him except that Milton later reported that Marvell had mastered four languages, including French, Italian and Spanish.

First poems and Marvell's time at Nun Appleton.

Marvell's first poems, which were written in Latin and Greek and published when he was still at Cambridge, lamented a visitation of the plague and celebrated the birth of a child to King Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria. He only belatedly became sympathetic to the successive regimes during the Interregnum after Charles I's execution on 30 January 1649. His "Horatian Ode", a political poem dated to early 1650, responds with lament to the regicide even as it praises Oliver Cromwell's return from Ireland.  Circa 1650–52, Marvell served as tutor to the daughter of the Lord General Thomas Fairfax, who had recently relinquished command of the Parliamentary army to Cromwell. He lived during that time at Nun Appleton Hall, near York, where he continued to write poetry. One poem, "Upon Appleton House, To My Lord Fairfax", uses a description of the estate as a way of exploring Fairfax's and Marvell's own situation in a time of war and political change. Probably the best-known poem he wrote at this time is "To His Coy Mistress".

Anglo-Dutch War and employment as Latin secretary.

During the period of increasing tensions leading up to the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652, Marvell wrote the satirical "Character of Holland," repeating the then-current stereotype of the Dutch as "drunken and profane": "This indigested vomit of the Sea,/ Fell to the Dutch by Just Propriety."  He became a tutor to Cromwell's ward, William Dutton, in 1653, and moved to live with his pupil at the house of John Oxenbridge in Eton. Oxenbridge had made two trips to Bermuda, and it is thought that this inspired Marvell to write his poem "Bermudas". He also wrote several poems in praise of Cromwell, who was by this time Lord Protector of England. In 1656 Marvell and Dutton travelled to France, to visit the Protestant Academy of Saumur.  In 1657, Marvell joined Milton, who by that time had lost his sight, in service as Latin secretary to Cromwell's Council of State at a salary of £200 a year, which represented financial security at that time. Oliver Cromwell died in 1658. He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. In 1659 Marvell was elected Member of Parliament for Kingston upon Hull in the Third Protectorate Parliament. He was paid a rate of 6 shillings, 8 pence per day during sittings of parliament, a financial support derived from the contributions of his constituency. He was re-elected MP for Hull in 1660 for the Convention Parliament.

After the Restoration.

The monarchy was restored to Charles II in 1660. Marvell avoided punishment for his own co-operation with republicanism, and he helped convince the government of Charles II not to execute John Milton for his antimonarchical writings and revolutionary activities. The closeness of the relationship between the two former colleagues is indicated by the fact that Marvell contributed an eloquent prefatory poem, entitled "On Mr. Milton's Paradise Lost", to the second edition of Milton's epic "Paradise Lost". According to a biographer: "Skilled in the arts of self-preservation, he was not a toady."  In 1661 Marvell was re-elected MP for Hull in the Cavalier Parliament. He eventually came to write several long and bitterly satirical verses against the corruption of the court. Although circulated in manuscript form, some finding anonymous publication in print, they were too politically sensitive and thus dangerous to be published under his name until well after his death. Marvell took up opposition to the 'court party', and satirised them anonymously. In his longest verse satire, "Last Instructions to a Painter", written in 1667, Marvell responded to the political corruption that had contributed to English failures during the Second Anglo-Dutch War. The poem did not find print publication until after the Revolution of 1688–9. The poem instructs an imaginary painter how to picture the state without a proper navy to defend them, led by men without intelligence or courage, a corrupt and dissolute court, and dishonest officials. Of another such satire, Samuel Pepys, himself a government official, commented in his diary, "Here I met with a fourth Advice to a Painter upon the coming in of the Dutch and the End of the War, that made my heart ake to read, it being too sharp and so true."  From 1659 until his death in 1678, Marvell was serving as London agent for the Hull Trinity House, a shipmasters' guild. He went on two missions to the continent, one to the Dutch Republic and the other encompassing Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. He spent some time living in a cottage on Highgate Hill in north London, where his time in the area is recorded by a bronze plaque that bears the following inscription:Four feet below this spot is the stone step, formerly the entrance to the cottage in which lived Andrew Marvell, poet, wit, and satirist; colleague with John Milton in the foreign or Latin secretaryship during the Commonwealth; and for about twenty years M.P. for Hull. Born at Winestead, Yorkshire, 31st March, 1621, died in London, 18th August, 1678, and buried in the church of St. Giles-in-the-Fields. This memorial is placed here by the London County Council, December, 1898. A floral sundial in the nearby Lauderdale House bears an inscription quoting lines from his poem "The Garden".  He died suddenly in 1678, while in attendance at a popular meeting of his old constituents at Hull. His health had previously been remarkably good; and it was supposed by many that he was poisoned by some of his political or clerical enemies. Marvell was buried in the church of St Giles in the Fields in central London. His monument, erected by his grateful constituency, bears the following inscription:Near this place lyeth the body of Andrew Marvell, Esq., a man so endowed by Nature, so improved by Education, Study, and Travel, so consummated by Experience, that, joining the peculiar graces of Wit and Learning, with a singular penetration and strength of judgment; and exercising all these in the whole course of his life, with an unutterable steadiness in the ways of Virtue, he became the ornament and example of his age, beloved by good men, feared by bad, admired by all, though imitated by few; and scarce paralleled by any. But a Tombstone can neither contain his character, nor is Marble necessary to transmit it to posterity; it is engraved in the minds of this generation, and will be always legible in his inimitable writings, nevertheless. He having served twenty years successfully in Parliament, and that with such Wisdom, Dexterity, and Courage, as becomes a true Patriot, the town of Kingston-upon-Hull, from whence he was deputed to that Assembly, lamenting in his death the public loss, have erected this Monument of their Grief and their Gratitude, 1688.

Prose works.

Marvell also wrote anonymous prose satires criticizing the monarchy and Roman Catholicism, defending Puritan dissenters, and denouncing censorship.  "The Rehearsal Transpros'd", an attack on Samuel Parker, was published in two parts in 1672 and 1673.  In 1676, "Mr. Smirke; or The Divine in Mode", a work critical of intolerance within the Church of England, was published together with a "Short Historical Essay, concerning General Councils, Creeds, and Impositions, in matters of Religion."  Marvell's pamphlet "An Account of the Growth of Popery and Arbitrary Government in England", published in late 1677, alleged that: "There has now for diverse Years, a design been carried on, to change the Lawfull Government of "England" into an Absolute Tyranny, and to convert the established Protestant Religion into down-right Popery". John Kenyon described it as "one of the most influential pamphlets of the decade" and G. M. Trevelyan called it: "A fine pamphlet, which throws light on causes provocative of the formation of the Whig party".  A 1678 work published anonymously ("by a Protestant") in defense of John Howe against the attack of his fellow-dissenter, the severe Calvinist Thomas Danson, is also probably by Marvell. Its full title is "Remarks upon a late disingenuous discourse, writ by one T.D. under the pretence de causa Dei, and of answering Mr. John Howe's letter and postscript of God's prescience, &c., affirming, as the Protestant doctrine, that God doth by efficacious influence universally move and determine men to all their actions, even to those that are most wicked".

Views.

Although Marvell became a Parliamentarian and was opposed to episcopacy, he was not a Puritan. Later in life especially, he seems to have been a conforming Anglican. Marvell positively identifies himself as "a Protestant" in pamphlets. He had flirted briefly with Catholicism as a youth, and was described in his thirties (on the Saumur visit) as "a notable English Italo-Machiavellian".  His strong Biblical influence is clear in poems such as "The Garden", the "Coronet" and "The Bermudas".  Vincent Palmieri noted that Marvell is sometimes known as the "British Aristides" for his incorruptible integrity in life and poverty at death. Many of his poems were not published until 1681, three years after his death, from a collection owned by Mary Palmer, his housekeeper. After Marvell's death she laid dubious claim to having been his wife, from the time of a secret marriage in 1667.

Marvell's poetic style.

T. S. Eliot wrote of Marvell's style that 'It is more than a technical accomplishment, or the vocabulary and syntax of an epoch; it is, what we have designated tentatively as wit, a tough reasonableness beneath the slight lyric grace'. He also identified Marvell and the metaphysical school with the 'dissociation of sensibility' that occurred in 17th-century English literature; Eliot described this trend as'something which... happened to the mind of England... it is the difference between the intellectual poet and the reflective poet'. Poets increasingly developed a self-conscious relationship to tradition, which took the form of a new emphasis on craftsmanship of expression and an idiosyncratic freedom in allusions to Classical and Biblical sources.  Marvell's most celebrated lyric, "To His Coy Mistress", combines an old poetic conceit (the persuasion of the speaker's lover by means of a carpe diem philosophy) with Marvell's typically vibrant imagery and easy command of rhyming couplets. Other works incorporate topical satire and religious themes.

In popular culture.

His work is referenced in the 1997 British film "The Serpent's Kiss" and quoted in the 1946 British film "A Matter of Life and Death". It is also referenced in Audrey Niffenegger's "The Time Traveler's Wife" and Emily Colin's "The Memory Thief".  Several works of science fiction, fantasy, and mystery allude to "To His Coy Mistress".  In 2003, Christopher Peachment published "The Green and the Gold", a first-person fictional narrative following Marvell's life.

Andrew Marvell (; 31 March 1621 – 16 August 1678) was an English metaphysical poet, satirist and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1659 and 1678. During the Commonwealth period he was a colleague and friend of John Milton. His poems range from the love-song "To His Coy Mistress", to evocations of an aristocratic country house and garden in "Upon Appleton House" and "The Garden", the political address "An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland", and the later personal and political satires "Flecknoe" and "The Character of Holland".

安德鲁·马维尔(英语:Andrew Marvell 1621年-3月31日-1678年-8月16日)英国形而上诗人、讽刺作家、政治家,1659至1678年多次入选英国下院。英格兰联邦时期,是约翰·米尔顿的同事和朋友。


Geography.

Overlooking the Adriatic Sea in south-eastern Italy, the Province of Bari is located in the central part of Apulia and is bordered on the west by the provinces of Matera and Potenza, to the north by the province of Barletta-Andria-Trani, and to the south by the provinces of Taranto and Brindisi. The province of Bari was formerly a part of the region of Terra di Bari, which once included the towns of Fasano and Cisternino, now in the province of Brindisi.  The area is dominated by the Murgia hills in the inner part, a karst plateau which is the home of the Alta Murgia National Park, one of the newest national parks in Italy, established in 2004. Only the Bari hinterland and the coastal strip are flat. The north of the province, with Bari, Altamura, Bitonto, Corato, Gravina in Puglia, and Molfetta, is heavily populated. The south, on the contrary, is characterized by the absence of these large centers; the only municipality to be around 50,000 inhabitants is Monopoli. In the southern part of the province, on the border with that of Taranto, is the Itria Valley, between the towns of Alberobello, Locorotondo, Cisternino and Martina Franca. The province is largely devoid of rivers and lakes, although underground rivers in the karst landscape has formed numerous caves, including those of Castellana and Putignano.

Cities and comunes.

With the establishment of the Province of Barletta-Andria-Trani in 2004, in addition to the provincial capitals, the province of Bari lost another 4 municipalities, i.e. Bisceglie, Canosa di Puglia, Minervino Murge and Spinazzola. This left the remaining Province of Bari with 41 "comuni" and an adjusted population of 1,248,084 as of the 2005 census.

Economy.

The arable land in the Province of Bari is exploited with the cultivation of olive and grapes but also cherries, peaches, and almonds. From that agricultural activity is derived olive oil, wine and table grapes. Bitonto is especially noted for its extra virgin olive oil, and Corato (with the Coratina olive variety) and Giovinazzo are along notable producing areas. The centers of wine production are mainly concentrated in Gravina and Ruvo di Puglia, in the north of Bari, and Adelfia, Noicattaro, Rutigliano and Locorotondo, in the south of Bari. Also important is the production of cherries; the Apulian red is especially prevalent in the countryside of Turi and Putignano.

The Metropolitan City of Bari () is a metropolitan city in the Apulia region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Bari. It replaced the Province of Bari and includes the city of Bari and some forty other municipalities ("comuni"). It was first created by the reform of local authorities (Law 142/1990) and then established by the Law 56/2014. It has been operative since January 1, 2015.

巴里广域市()是意大利普利亚的一个广域市。面积3.825平方公里,2005年人口1,594,109人。首府巴里。前身为巴里省。


Generalities.

The Yoneda lemma suggests that instead of studying the (locally small) category formula_1, one should study the category of all functors of formula_1 into formula_3 (the category of sets with functions as morphisms). formula_3 is a category we think we understand well, and a functor of formula_1 into formula_3 can be seen as a "representation" of formula_1 in terms of known structures. The original category formula_1 is contained in this functor category, but new objects appear in the functor category, which were absent and "hidden" in formula_1. Treating these new objects just like the old ones often unifies and simplifies the theory.  This approach is akin to (and in fact generalizes) the common method of studying a ring by investigating the modules over that ring. The ring takes the place of the category formula_1, and the category of modules over the ring is a category of functors defined on formula_1.

Formal statement.

Yoneda's lemma concerns functors from a fixed category formula_1 to the category of sets, formula_3. If formula_1 is a locally small category (i.e. the hom-sets are actual sets and not proper classes), then each object formula_15 of formula_1 gives rise to a natural functor to formula_3 called a hom-functor. This functor is denoted: The (covariant) hom-functor formula_19 sends formula_20 to the set of morphisms formula_21 and sends a morphism formula_22 to the morphism formula_23 (composition with formula_24 on the left) that sends a morphism formula_25 in formula_21 to the morphism formula_27 in formula_28. That is,  Let formula_31 be an arbitrary functor from formula_1 to formula_3. Then Yoneda's lemma says that:  Here the notation formula_34 denotes the category of functors from formula_1 to formula_3.  Given a natural transformation formula_37 from formula_19 to formula_31, the corresponding element of formula_40 is formula_41; and given an element formula_42 of formula_40, the corresponding natural transformation is given by formula_44.

Contravariant version.

There is a contravariant version of Yoneda's lemma, which concerns contravariant functors from formula_1 to formula_3. This version involves the contravariant hom-functor which sends formula_48 to the hom-set formula_49. Given an arbitrary contravariant functor formula_50 from formula_1 to formula_3, Yoneda's lemma asserts that

Naming conventions.

The use of formula_19 for the covariant hom-functor and formula_55 for the contravariant hom-functor is not completely standard. Many texts and articles either use the opposite convention or completely unrelated symbols for these two functors. However, most modern algebraic geometry texts starting with Alexander Grothendieck's foundational EGA use the convention in this article.  The mnemonic "falling into something" can be helpful in remembering that formula_56 is the contravariant hom-functor. When the letter formula_15 is falling (i.e. a subscript), formula_56 assigns to an object formula_48 the morphisms from formula_48 into formula_15.

Proof.

The proof of Yoneda's lemma is indicated by the following commutative diagram:  This diagram shows that the natural transformation formula_62 is completely determined by formula_63 since for each morphism formula_64 one has Moreover, any element formula_66 defines a natural transformation in this way. The proof in the contravariant case is completely analogous.

The Yoneda embedding.

An important special case of Yoneda's lemma is when the functor formula_67 from formula_1 to formula_3 is another hom-functor formula_70. In this case, the covariant version of Yoneda's lemma states that  That is, natural transformations between hom-functors are in one-to-one correspondence with morphisms (in the reverse direction) between the associated objects. Given a morphism formula_72 the associated natural transformation is denoted formula_73.  Mapping each object formula_15 in formula_1 to its associated hom-functor formula_76 and each morphism formula_72 to the corresponding natural transformation formula_78 determines a contravariant functor formula_79 from formula_1 to formula_34, the functor category of all (covariant) functors from formula_1 to formula_3. One can interpret formula_79 as a covariant functor: The meaning of Yoneda's lemma in this setting is that the functor formula_86 is fully faithful, and therefore gives an embedding of formula_87 in the category of functors to formula_3. The collection of all functors formula_89 is a subcategory of formula_90. Therefore, Yoneda embedding implies that the category formula_87 is isomorphic to the category formula_92.  The contravariant version of Yoneda's lemma states that Therefore, formula_94 gives rise to a covariant functor from formula_1 to the category of contravariant functors to formula_3: Yoneda's lemma then states that any locally small category formula_1 can be embedded in the category of contravariant functors from formula_1 to formula_3 via formula_101. This is called the "Yoneda embedding".  The Yoneda embedding is sometimes denoted by よ, the Hiragana kana Yo.

Representable functor.

The Yoneda embedding essentially states that for every (locally small) category, objects in that category can be represented by presheaves, in a full and faithful manner. That is, for a presheaf "P". Many common categories are, in fact, pre-sheaves, and on closer inspection, prove to be sheaves, and, as such examples are commonly topological in nature, they can be seen to be topoi in general. The Yoneda lemma provides a point of leverage by which the topological structure of a category can be studied and understood.

In terms of (co)end calculus.

Given two categories formula_103 and formula_104 with two functors formula_105, natural transformations between them can be written as the following end.  For any functors formula_107 and formula_108 the following formulas are all formulations of the Yoneda lemma.

Preadditive categories, rings and modules.

A "preadditive category" is a category where the morphism sets form abelian groups and the composition of morphisms is bilinear; examples are categories of abelian groups or modules. In a preadditive category, there is both a "multiplication" and an "addition" of morphisms, which is why preadditive categories are viewed as generalizations of rings. Rings are preadditive categories with one object.  The Yoneda lemma remains true for preadditive categories if we choose as our extension the category of "additive" contravariant functors from the original category into the category of abelian groups; these are functors which are compatible with the addition of morphisms and should be thought of as forming a "module category" over the original category. The Yoneda lemma then yields the natural procedure to enlarge a preadditive category so that the enlarged version remains preadditive — in fact, the enlarged version is an abelian category, a much more powerful condition. In the case of a ring formula_111, the extended category is the category of all right modules over formula_111, and the statement of the Yoneda lemma reduces to the well-known isomorphism

Relationship to Cayley's theorem.

As stated above, the Yoneda lemma may be considered as a vast generalization of Cayley's theorem from group theory. To see this, let formula_1 be a category with a single object formula_117 such that every morphism is an isomorphism (i.e. a groupoid with one object). Then formula_118 forms a group under the operation of composition, and any group can be realized as a category in this way.  In this context, a covariant functor formula_119 consists of a set formula_20 and a group homomorphism formula_121, where formula_122 is the group of permutations of formula_20; in other words, formula_20 is a G-set. A natural transformation between such functors is the same thing as an equivariant map between formula_125-sets: a set function formula_126 with the property that formula_127 for all formula_25 in formula_125 and formula_130 in formula_20. (On the left side of this equation, the formula_132 denotes the action of formula_125 on formula_20, and on the right side the action on formula_135.)  Now the covariant hom-functor formula_136 corresponds to the action of formula_125 on itself by left-multiplication (the contravariant version corresponds to right-multiplication). The Yoneda lemma with formula_138 states that that is, the equivariant maps from this formula_125-set to itself are in bijection with formula_125. But it is easy to see that (1) these maps form a group under composition, which is a subgroup of formula_142, and (2) the function which gives the bijection is a group homomorphism. (Going in the reverse direction, it associates to every formula_25 in formula_125 the equivariant map of right-multiplication by formula_25.) Thus formula_125 is isomorphic to a subgroup of formula_142, which is the statement of Cayley's theorem.

History.

Yoshiki Kinoshita stated in 1996 that the term "Yoneda lemma" was coined by Saunders Mac Lane following an interview he had with Yoneda.

In mathematics, the Yoneda lemma is arguably the most important result in category theory. It is an abstract result on functors of the type "morphisms into a fixed object". It is a vast generalisation of Cayley's theorem from group theory (viewing a group as a miniature category with just one object and only isomorphisms). It allows the embedding of any category into a category of functors (contravariant set-valued functors) defined on that category. It also clarifies how the embedded category, of representable functors and their natural transformations, relates to the other objects in the larger functor category. It is an important tool that underlies several modern developments in algebraic geometry and representation theory. It is named after Nobuo Yoneda.

在范畴论中,米田引理断言一个对象formula_1的性质由它所表示的函子formula_2或formula_3决定。此引理得名于日本数学家暨计算机科学家米田信夫。


Medical uses.

Promethazine has a variety of medical uses, including:

Side effects.

Some documented side effects include:  Less frequent:  Rare side effects include:  Because of potential for more severe side effects, this drug is on the list to avoid in the elderly. In many countries (including the US and UK), promethazine is contraindicated in children less than two years of age, and strongly cautioned against in children between two and six, due to problems with respiratory depression and sleep apnea.  Promethazine is listed as one of the drugs of highest anticholinergic activity in a study of anticholinergenic burden, including long-term cognitive impairment.

Pharmacology.

Promethazine, a phenothiazine derivative, is structurally different from the neuroleptic phenothiazines, with similar but different effects. It acts primarily as a strong antagonist of the H receptor (antihistamine) and a moderate mACh receptor antagonist (anticholinergic), and also has weak to moderate affinity for the 5-HT, 5-HT, D, and α-adrenergic receptors, where it acts as an antagonist at all sites, as well.  Another notable use of promethazine is as a local anesthetic, by blockade of sodium channels.

Chemistry.

Solid promethazine hydrochloride is a white to faint-yellow, practically odorless, crystalline powder. Slow oxidation may occur upon prolonged exposure to air, usually causing blue discoloration. Its hydrochloride salt is freely soluble in water and somewhat soluble in alcohol. Promethazine is a chiral compound, occurring as a mixture of enantiomers.

History.

Promethazine was first synthesized by a group at Rhone-Poulenc (which later became part of Sanofi) led by Paul Charpentier in the early 1940s. The team was seeking to improve on diphenhydramine; the same line on medical chemistry led to the creation of chlorpromazine.

Society and culture.

As of July 2017 it was marketed under many brand names worldwide: Allersoothe, Antiallersin, Anvomin, Atosil, Avomine, Closin N, Codopalm, Diphergan, Farganesse, Fenazil, Fenergan, Fenezal, Frinova, Hiberna, Histabil, Histaloc, Histantil, Histazin, Histazine, Histerzin, Lenazine, Lergigan, Nufapreg, Otosil, Pamergan, Pharmaniaga, Phenadoz, Phenerex, Phenergan, Phénergan, Pipolphen, Polfergan, Proazamine, Progene, Prohist, Promet, Prometal, Prometazin, Prometazina, Promethazin, Prométhazine, Promethazinum, Promethegan, Promezin, Proneurin, Prothazin, Prothiazine, Prozin, Pyrethia, Quitazine, Reactifargan, Receptozine, Romergan, Sominex, Sylomet, Xepagan, Zinmet, and Zoralix.  It is also marketed in many combination drug formulations:

Recreational use.

The recreational drug Purple drank often contains a combination of promethazine with codeine containing cold medication.

Product liability lawsuit.

In 2009, the US Supreme Court ruled on a product liability case involving promethazine. Diana Levine, a woman suffering from a migraine, was administered Wyeth's Phenergan via IV push. The drug was injected improperly, resulting in gangrene and subsequent amputation of her right forearm below the elbow. A state jury awarded her $6 million in punitive damages.  The case was appealed to the Supreme Court on grounds of federal preemption and substantive due process. The Supreme Court upheld the lower courts' rulings, stating that "Wyeth could have unilaterally added a stronger warning about IV-push administration" without acting in opposition to federal law. In effect, this means drug manufacturers can be held liable for injuries if warnings of potential adverse effects, approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), are deemed insufficient by state courts.  On September 9, 2009, the FDA required a boxed warning be put on promethazine for injection, stating the contraindication for subcutaneous administration. The preferred administrative route is intramuscular, which reduces risk of surrounding muscle and tissue damage.

Promethazine is a first-generation antihistamine. It is used to treat allergies, trouble sleeping, and nausea. It may help with some symptoms associated with the common cold. It may also be used for sedating people who are agitated or anxious. It is available by mouth as a syrup, as a rectal suppository, or by injection into a muscle. Common side effects include confusion and sleepiness. Alcohol or other sedatives can make this worse. It is unclear if use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is safe for the baby. Use is not recommended in those less than two years old due to potentially negative effects on breathing. Use by injection into a vein is not recommended due to potential skin damage. It is in the phenothiazine family of medications. Promethazine was made in the 1940s by a team of scientists from Rhône-Poulenc laboratories. It was approved for medical use in the United States in 1951. It is a generic medication and is available under many brand names globally. The wholesale cost of the by mouth formulation is less than US$0.20 per dose as of 2018. In the United Kingdom this dose costs less than £0.25. In 2017, it was the 147th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than four million prescriptions.

盐酸异丙嗪(英语:Promethazine,又名盐酸普鲁米近("Promethazine Hydrochloride")或非那根("Phenergan"))是一种常见的止咳药物,为第一代抗组织胺药,能竞争性阻断组胺H1受体,对抗组胺所致之毛细血管扩张,并降低其通透性。因此,能够平复因为气管受刺激而引起的咳嗽。


凯特琳娜·桑迪诺·莫雷诺

Early life.

Sandino Moreno was born in Bogotá, Colombia. She grew up in a middle-class family, her father is a vet and her mother a pathologist. She attended Saint George's School in Bogotá, Colombia. Before becoming an actress, she studied advertising at Pontificia Universidad Javeriana in Bogotá.

Career.

2004-2010.

In 2003, casting calls for "Maria Full of Grace" were conducted in both New York and Colombia where she was initially noticed for her talent at the acting school in Bogotá. She was then referred to a casting audition where she beat over 900 girls for the lead role. She left the college to begin her first movie project. Starring Sandino Moreno as María Alvarez, a Colombian girl who works in a flower plantation when she was pregnant and then as a drug mule. Sandino Moreno's role in this movie was acclaimed, receiving positive critics form different websites and film critic's sites. This performance made her the first Colombian, the second South American, and third Hispanic actress nominated for an Academy Award. She was the first person born in the 1980s to have received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress. Also, she won the Silver Bear at Berlin International Film Festival shared with Charlize Theron and received a nomination to Screen Actors Guild Award.  In 2005, she moved to New York City to study dramatic arts and for continue with her success career at the moment, and was invited to join AMPAS. In 2006, she played roles in independent film "Fast Food Nation" with Patricia Arquette, and "Paris, je t'aime", where she starred as a young immigrant mother in the segment "Loin du 16e". In 2007, she starred Hildebranda Sánchez in "Love in the Time of Cholera", based in novel of the same name by Gabriel García Márquez, where she appeared alongside Javier Bardem and Fernanda Montenegro.  In 2008, she appeared alongside Benicio del Toro in Steven Soderbergh's "Che", playing the role of Aleida March de Guevara, the second wife of Ernesto "Che" Guevara. This film was acclaimed by the critics. She was in the premiere in 2008 Cannes Film Festival. In 2010, she played the role of female Vampire Maria in "", based on the novel of the same name by Stephenie Meyer.

2010-present.

After a break in her career, in November 2013, she returned in TV roles when it was announced she would play the title role in the forthcoming biopic "Castro's Daughter", based on Alina Fernández’s autobiography of the same name. Also she starred in films "Roa" (2013) and "A Most Violent Year" (2014) where she appeared with Oscar Isaac and Jessica Chastain. On October 20, 2014, it was announced that she would be joining the final season of "Falling Skies" in a recurring role as Isabella.  In 2016 she starred in the TV series "American Gothic" as a recurring character, Christina Morales. In the same year, she returned to the world of cinema in "Custody", where she appeared alongside Viola Davis. The film was premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival.

Personal life.

Catalina Moreno is the CEO of El Delirio Productions, a production company based in Los Angeles and Bogotá. She is working on the preproduction of El Delirio's first feature film "Gratitude", written and directed by her brother Nicolás, her business partner.  Moreno was one of People Magazine's "50 Most Beautiful People" in 2005.  According to an interview done for "The Affair", Moreno is not married.  Moreno defends her Latin origin. She reads Spanish-language books because she misses hearing the language as she did when living in Colombia.

Catalina Sandino Moreno (born 19 April 1981) is a Colombian actress. She shared the Silver Bear with Charlize Theron and received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role in "Maria Full of Grace" (2004).

凯特琳娜·桑迪诺·莫雷诺(英语:Catalina Sandino Moreno,1981年-4月19日)哥伦比亚女演员。


Geography.

Dzūkija is situated in southeastern Lithuania, and consists of Alytus County and southern Vilnius County. Historically, it extended into what is now northeastern Poland (Podlaskie Voivodeship) and northwestern Belarus (Grodno Region).  Large parts of Dzūkija have light sandy soil, unsuited for agriculture. Therefore, the region is densely covered with pine forests, one of which is Dainava Forest, the largest in Lithuania. The Čepkeliai Marsh, the largest swamp in Lithuania, is situated in the region, near the border with Belarus. Dzūkija is also the most sparsely populated region in Lithuania, with average population density dropping below 15 people per square kilometer in Varėna district municipality. Due to lower harvests in infertile soil, the region was relatively poorer than the rest of Lithuania. Farmers had to supplement their yields with edible mushrooms and berries collected in the forests. Mushroom hunting remains an important part of the local economy.  Two of the five national parks in Lithuania are to be found in Dzūkija: Dzūkija National Park east of Varėna (established there in 1991), and Trakai National Historic Park near Trakai (1992).

Language.

People in Dzūkija traditionally speak the Dzūkian dialect (also known as South Aukštaitian), which is a sub-dialect of the Aukštaitian dialect. As elsewhere in Lithuania, local dialects such as these are dying out as people adopt the standard Lithuanian through schools and mass media.  The very first Lithuanian handwritten texts from the early 16th century show traits of the Dzūkian dialect.  The north-eastern half speaks Polish and spoke Belorussian for several centuries.

Coat of arms.

The coat of arms of Dzūkija pictures a white armored warrior with a pollaxe in a blue shield. The blue color symbolizes loyalty and strength. The grand coat of arms is supported by two lynxes and has a Latin motto "Ex gente bellicosissima populus laboriosus" (Out of most warring tribe – industrious people). These symbols were created by heraldic artist Arvydas Každailis in 2003 using the historical symbols of Trakai. Dzūkija was part of the Duchy of Trakai and later Trakai Voivodeship from the 14th to late 18th century. The same image was used for the coat of arms of Alytus County, officially adopted in 2004. The coat of arms is a modified version of the coat of arms of Trakai district, which depicts a knight with a spear in a red shield. This symbol was taken from a seal used by Duke of Trakai Kęstutis (died in 1382). The motto honors the memory of the Yotvingians, one of the ancient Baltic tribes which were considered fine warriors that lived in what is now Dzūkija.

Dzūkija or Dainava is one of five ethnographic regions of Lithuania. Dzūkija is a cultural region defined by traditional lifestyles and dialects of the local Lithuanian population (mostly rural farmers) and has never been defined as a political or administrative unit. Traditionally, Alytus is regarded as the capital of the region, although it is not the largest city in Dzūkija (because Vilnius vicinities lost Lithuanian language centuries ago).

祖基亚()是立陶宛的五个传统地理分区之一,范围包括现在立陶宛的东南部地区。祖基亚地区的居民以农民为主,他们的生活方式和方言都和立陶宛其他地区不同。但祖基亚是一个文化区域,在历史上并为形成过一个独立的行政区划。祖基亚地区的中心城市是阿利图斯,但阿利图斯并不是祖基亚最大城市。祖基亚位于立陶宛东南部,在行政区划上包括了阿利图斯县和维尔纽斯县南部地区。在历史上,祖基亚还包括了现在波兰东北部和白俄罗斯西部的一些地区。祖基亚是立陶宛人口密度最低的地区,大部分地区都是沙地,不适合开展农业,却也因此拥有立陶宛最大的森林和湿地。立陶宛的五个国家公园中有两个位于祖基亚。