Name.

Belgravia takes its name from one of the Duke of Westminster's subsidiary titles, Viscount Belgrave, which is in turn derived from Belgrave, Cheshire, a village on land belonging to the Duke.

Geography.

Belgravia is near the former course of the River Westbourne, a tributary of the River Thames. The area is mostly in the City of Westminster, with a small part of the western section in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea.  The district lies mostly to the south-west of Buckingham Palace, and is bounded notionally by Knightsbridge (the road) to the north, Grosvenor Place and Buckingham Palace Road to the east, Pimlico Road to the south, and Sloane Street to the west. To the north is Hyde Park, to the northeast is Mayfair and Green Park and to the east is Westminster.  The area is mostly residential, the particular exceptions being Belgrave Square in the centre, Eaton Square to the south, and Buckingham Palace Gardens to the east.  The nearest London Underground stations are Hyde Park Corner, Knightsbridge and Sloane Square. Victoria station, a major National Rail, tube and coach interchange, is to the east of the district. Frequent bus services run to all areas of Central London from Grosvenor Place. The A4, a major road through West London, and the London Inner Ring Road run along the boundaries of Belgravia.

History.

The area takes its name from the village of Belgrave, Cheshire, two miles (3 km) from the Grosvenor family's main country seat of Eaton Hall. One of the Duke of Westminster's subsidiary titles is Viscount Belgrave.  During the Middle Ages, the area was known as the Five Fields and was a series of fields used for grazing, intersected by footpaths. The Westbourne was crossed by Bloody Bridge, so called because it was frequented by robbers and highwaymen, and it was unsafe to cross the fields at night. In 1728, a man's body was discovered by the bridge with half his face and five fingers removed. In 1749, a muffin man was robbed and left blind. Five Fields' distance from London also made it a popular spot for duelling.  Despite its reputation for crime and violence, Five Fields was a pleasant area during the daytime, and various market gardens were established. The area began to be built up after George III moved to Buckingham House and constructed a row of houses on what is now Grosvenor Place. In the 1820s, Richard Grosvenor, 2nd Marquess of Westminster asked Thomas Cubitt to design an estate. Most of Belgravia was constructed over the next 30 years; it attempted to rival Mayfair in its prestige.  Belgravia is characterised by grand terraces of white stucco houses, and is focused on Belgrave Square and Eaton Square. It was one of London's most fashionable residential districts from its beginnings. After World War II, some of the largest houses ceased to be used as residences, or townhouses for the country gentry and aristocracy, and were increasingly occupied by embassies, charity headquarters, professional institutions and other businesses. Belgravia has become a relatively quiet district in the heart of London, contrasting with neighbouring districts, which have far more busy shops, large modern office buildings, hotels and entertainment venues. Many embassies are located in the area, especially in Belgrave Square.  In the early 21st century, some houses are being reconverted to residential use, because offices in old houses are no longer as desirable as they were in the post-war decades, while the number of super-rich in London is at a high level not seen since at least 1939. The average house price in Belgravia, as of March 2010, was £6.6 million, although many houses in Belgravia are among the most expensive anywhere in the world, costing up to £100 million, £4,671 per square foot (£50,000 per m).  As of 2013, many residential properties in Belgravia were owned by wealthy foreigners who may have other luxury residences in exclusive locations worldwide; so many are temporarily unoccupied because their owners are elsewhere. The increase in land value has been in sharp contrast to UK average and left the area empty and isolated.

Squares and streets.

Belgrave Square.

Belgrave Square, one of the grandest and largest 19th-century squares, is the centrepiece of Belgravia. It was laid out by the property contractor Thomas Cubitt for the 2nd Earl Grosvenor, later to be the 1st Marquess of Westminster, beginning in 1826. Building was largely complete by the 1840s.  The original scheme consisted of four terraces, each made up of eleven grand white stuccoed houses, apart from the south-east terrace, which had twelve; detached mansions were in three of the corners and there was a private central garden. The numbering is anti-clockwise from the north: NW terrace Nos. 1 to 11, west corner mansion No. 12, SW terrace 13–23, south corner mansion No. 24, SE terrace Nos. 25–36, east corner mansion No. 37, NE terrace Nos. 38–48.  There is also a slightly later detached house at the northern corner, No. 49, which was built by Cubitt for Sidney Herbert in 1847. The terraces were designed by George Basevi (cousin of Benjamin Disraeli). The largest of the corner mansions, Seaford House in the east corner, was designed by Philip Hardwick, and the one in the west corner was designed by Robert Smirke, completed around 1830.  The square contains statues of Christopher Columbus, Simón Bolívar, José de San Martín, Prince Henry the Navigator, the 1st Marquess of Westminster, a bust of George Basevi and a sculpture entitled "Homage to Leonardo, the Vitruvian Man", by Italian sculptor Enzo Plazzotta.

Eaton Square.

Eaton Square is one of three garden squares built by the Grosvenor family, and is named after Eaton Hall, Cheshire, the family's principal seat. It is longer but less grand than Belgrave Square, and is an elongated rectangle. The first block was laid out by Cubitt in 1826, but the square was not completed until 1855, the year of his death. The long construction period is reflected in the variety of architecture along the square.  The houses in Eaton Square are large, predominantly three bay wide buildings, joined in regular terraces in a classical style, with four or five main storeys, plus attic and basement and a mews house behind. The square is one of London's largest and is divided into six compartments by the upper end of Kings Road (northeast of Sloane Square), a main road, now busy with traffic, that occupies its long axis, and two smaller cross streets.  Although not as fashionable as some of the other squares in London, Eaton Square was home to several key figures. George FitzClarence, 1st Earl of Munster, the illegitimate son of William IV, lived at No. 13, while Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain lived at No 93 and No. 37 respectively. Since World War II, Eaton Square has become less residential; the Bolivian Embassy is at No. 106 while the Belgian Embassy is at No. 103.  At the east end of the square is St Peter's Church. It was designed by Henry Hakewill and built between 1824 and 1827 during the first development of Eaton Square. The first church was destroyed by fire in 1836 and rebuilt by Hakewill, and again in 1987, when it was restored by the Braithwaite Partnership. It is a Grade II* listed building, in a Greek revival style featuring a six-columned Ionic portico and a clock tower.  Eaton Place is an extension to the square, developed by Cubitt between 1826 and 1845. The scientist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin lived here, as did the Irish Unionist Edward Carson. Sir Henry Wilson, 1st Baronet was assassinated by Irish Republicans in 1922 as he was leaving No. 36.

Upper Belgrave Street.

Upper Belgrave Street was constructed in the 1840s to connect King's Road with Belgrave Square. It is a wide one-way residential street with grand white stuccoed buildings. It stretches from the south-east corner of Belgrave Square to the north-east corner of Eaton Square. Most of the houses have now been divided into flats and achieve sale prices as high as £3,500 per square foot. Many of the buildings were constructed by Cubitt in the 1820s and 1830s.  Walter Bagehot, a writer, banker and economist, lived at No. 12 during the 1860s. Alfred, Lord Tennyson lived at No 9 in 1880–1881. John Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan lived at No. 46, and disappeared without trace from there in 1974 after his children's nanny was found murdered.

Chester Square.

Chester Square is a smaller, residential garden square, the last of the three garden squares built by the Grosvenor family. It is named after the city of Chester, near Eaton Hall. Members of the family also represented Chester as Members of Parliament. The garden, just under in size, is planted with shrubs and herbaceous borders. It was refurbished in 1997, to the layout that appears in the Ordnance Survey map of 1867. Past residents include the poet Matthew Arnold (1822–88) at No. 2, Mary Shelley (1797–1851) at No. 24, John Liddell (1794–1868) at No. 72, Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013) at No. 73, and Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (1880–1962) resided at No. 77 from 1940 until 1945.

Wilton Crescent.

Wilton Crescent was created by Thomas Cundy II, the Grosvenor family estate surveyor, and was drawn up with the original 1821 Wyatt plan for Belgravia. It is named after the 2nd Earl of Wilton, second son of the 1st Marquess of Westminster. The street was built in 1827 by William Howard Seth-Smith.  In the 19th and 20th centuries, it was home to many prominent British politicians, ambassadors and civil servants. Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma lived at No. 2 for many years and Alfonso López Pumarejo, twice President of Colombia, lived and died at No. 33 (which is marked by a blue plaque).  Like much of Belgravia, Wilton Crescent has grand terraces with lavish white houses which are built in a crescent shape, many of them with stuccoed balconies, particularly in the southern part of the crescent. The houses to the north of the crescent are stone clad, and five storeys high, and were refaced between 1908 and 1912. Most of the houses had originally been built in the stucco style, but such houses became stone clad during this renovation period. Other houses today have black iron balconies.  Wilton Crescent lies east of Lowndes Square and Lowndes Street, to the northwest of Belgrave Square. It is accessed via Wilton Place, constructed in 1825 to connect it to Knightsbridge. It is adjacent to Grosvenor Crescent to the east, which contains the Indonesian Embassy. Further to the east lies Buckingham Palace. The play "Major Barbara" is partly set at Lady Britomart's house in Wilton Crescent. In 2007, Wilton Garden, in the middle of the crescent, was awarded a bronze medal by the London Gardens Society.

Lowndes Square.

Lowndes Square is named after the Secretary to the Treasury William Lowndes. Like much of Belgravia, it has grand terraces with white stucco houses. To the east lie Wilton Crescent and Belgrave Square. The square runs parallel with Sloane Street to the east, east of the Harvey Nichols department store and Knightsbridge Underground station. It has some of the most expensive properties in the world. Russian businessman Roman Abramovich bought two stucco houses in Lowndes Square in 2008. The merged houses, with a total of eight bedrooms, are expected to be worth £150 million, which exceeds the value of the previous most expensive house in London.  George Basevi designed many of the houses in the square. Mick Jagger and James Fox once filmed in Leonard Plugge's house in Lowndes Square. The square was used as a setting for the Edward Frederic Benson novel "The Countess of Lowndes Square".

Cultural references.

The novels of Anthony Trollope (1815–1882): "The Way We Live Now", "Phineas Finn", "Phineas Redux", "The Prime Minister", and "The Duke's Children" all give accurate descriptions of 19th-century Belgravia.  In "Brideshead Revisited", a novel by Evelyn Waugh, Belgravia's Pont Street is eponymous with the idiosyncrasies of the British upper classes. Julia, one of the main protagonists, tells her friends, "It was "Pont Street" to wear a signet ring and to give chocolates at the theatre; it was "Pont Street" to say, 'Can I forage for you?' at a dance."  "Flunkeyania or Belgravian Morals", written under the pseudonym "Chawles", was one of the novels serialised in "The Pearl", an allegedly pornographic Victorian magazine.  In the popular British television series "Upstairs, Downstairs" (1971–1975), the scene is set in the household of Richard Bellamy (later 1st Viscount Bellamy of Haversham) at 165 Eaton Place, Belgravia (65 Eaton Place was used for exterior shots; a "1" was painted in front of the house number). It depicts the lives of the Bellamys and their staff of domestic servants in the years 1903–1930, as they experience the tumultuous events of the Edwardian era, World War I and the postwar 1920s, culminating with the stock market crash of 1929, which ends the world they had known. In 2010, filming began on a mini-series intended to pick up the story of one of the main characters, Rose Buck, in 1936, as she returns to 165 Eaton Place to serve as the Holland family's housekeeper.  In "Downton Abbey" Lady Rosamund Painswick, sister of Lord Grantham, lives in Belgrave Square.  The first episode of the second series of the television programme "Sherlock" is "A Scandal in Belgravia", loosely based on the Arthur Conan Doyle short story "A Scandal in Bohemia".  "Belgravia" is a period television series, broadcast in 2020, based on a novel of the same name by Julian Fellowes, published in 2016, which Fellowes adapted himself for the series.

Belgravia () is an affluent district in Central London, shared within the authorities of both the City of Westminster and the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea.

贝尔格莱维亚(英语:Belgravia,)是伦敦市中心以西的一个区,属于西敏市和肯辛顿-切尔西区。该区以非常昂贵的高尚住宅物业著称,是世界上最富裕的地区之一。此区大部分由西敏公爵的格罗夫纳集团所有,被称为格罗夫纳地产(Grosvenor Estate)。


Induction and recursion.

An important reason that well-founded relations are interesting is because a version of transfinite induction can be used on them: if ("X", "R") is a well-founded relation, "P"("x") is some property of elements of "X", and we want to show that  it suffices to show that:  That is,  Well-founded induction is sometimes called Noetherian induction, after Emmy Noether.  On par with induction, well-founded relations also support construction of objects by transfinite recursion. Let ("X", "R") be a set-like well-founded relation and "F" a function that assigns an object "F"("x", "g") to each pair of an element "x" ∈ "X" and a function "g" on the initial segment {"y": "y" "R" "x"} of "X". Then there is a unique function "G" such that for every "x" ∈ "X",  That is, if we want to construct a function "G" on "X", we may define "G"("x") using the values of "G"("y") for "y R x".  As an example, consider the well-founded relation (N, "S"), where N is the set of all natural numbers, and "S" is the graph of the successor function "x" ↦ "x"+1. Then induction on "S" is the usual mathematical induction, and recursion on "S" gives primitive recursion. If we consider the order relation (N, <), we obtain complete induction, and course-of-values recursion. The statement that (N, <) is well-founded is also known as the well-ordering principle.  There are other interesting special cases of well-founded induction. When the well-founded relation is the usual ordering on the class of all ordinal numbers, the technique is called transfinite induction. When the well-founded set is a set of recursively-defined data structures, the technique is called structural induction. When the well-founded relation is set membership on the universal class, the technique is known as ∈-induction. See those articles for more details.

Examples.

Well-founded relations which are not totally ordered include: Examples of relations that are not well-founded include:

Other properties.

If ("X", <) is a well-founded relation and "x" is an element of "X", then the descending chains starting at "x" are all finite, but this does not mean that their lengths are necessarily bounded. Consider the following example: Let "X" be the union of the positive integers and a new element ω, which is bigger than any integer. Then "X" is a well-founded set, but there are descending chains starting at ω of arbitrary great (finite) length; the chain ω, "n" − 1, "n" − 2,..., 2, 1 has length "n" for any "n".  The Mostowski collapse lemma implies that set membership is a universal among the extensional well-founded relations: for any set-like well-founded relation "R" on a class "X" which is extensional, there exists a class "C" such that ("X", "R") is isomorphic to ("C", ∈).

Reflexivity.

A relation "R" is said to be reflexive if "a"R"a" holds for every "a" in the domain of the relation. Every reflexive relation on a nonempty domain has infinite descending chains, because any constant sequence is a descending chain. For example, in the natural numbers with their usual order ≤, we have formula_5 To avoid these trivial descending sequences, when working with a partial order ≤, it is common to apply the definition of well foundedness (perhaps implicitly) to the alternate relation < defined such that "a" < "b" if and only if "a" ≤ "b" and "a" ≠ "b". More generally, when working with a preorder ≤, it is common to use the relation < defined such that "a" < "b" if and only if "a" ≤ "b" and "b" <unk> "a". In the context of the natural numbers, this means that the relation <, which is well-founded, is used instead of the relation ≤, which is not. In some texts, the definition of a well-founded relation is changed from the definition above to include these conventions.

In mathematics, a binary relation "R" is called well-founded (or wellfounded) on a class "X" if every non-empty subset "S" ⊆ "X" has a minimal element with respect to "R", that is, an element "m" not related by "sRm" (for instance, ""s" is not smaller than "m"") for any "s" ∈ "S". In other words, a relation is well founded if Some authors include an extra condition that "R" is set-like, i.e., that the elements less than any given element form a set.

在数学中,类 "X" 上的一个二元关系 "R" 被称为是良基的,当且仅当所有 "X" 的非空子集都有一个 "R"-极小元;就是说,对 "X" 的每一个非空子集 "S",存在一个 "S" 中的元素 "m" 使得对于所有 "S" 中的 "s",二元组 ("s","m") 都不在 "R" 中。


Design.

The "Königsberg" -class ships were designed to serve both as fleet scouts in home waters and in Germany's colonial empire. This was a result of budgetary constraints that prevented the "Kaiserliche Marine" from building more specialized cruisers suitable for both roles.  "Stuttgart" was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of forward. She displaced at full combat load. Her propulsion system consisted of two 3-cylinder triple expansion engines powered by eleven coal-fired Marine-type boilers. These provided a top speed of and a range of approximately at. "Stuttgart" had a crew of 14 officers and 308 enlisted men.  The ship was armed with ten 10.5 cm SK L/40 naval guns in single pedestal mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, six were located amidships, three on either side, and two were side by side aft. The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees, which allowed them to engage targets out to. They were supplied with 1,500 rounds of ammunition, for 150 shells per gun. The ship was also equipped with eight 5.2 cm SK L/55 guns with 4,000 rounds of ammunition. She was also equipped with a pair of torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside. The ship was protected by an armored deck that was thick amidships. The conning tower had thick sides.

Service history.

"Stuttgart" was ordered under the contract name "O" and was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1905. She was launched on 22 September 1906, after which fitting-out work commenced. She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 February 1908. After her commissioning into the High Seas Fleet, "Stuttgart" was used as a gunnery training ship for the Fleet's gunners. At the outbreak of World War I, she was mobilized and served with the Fleet, along with the other gunnery ships like the armored cruiser. After the outbreak of war, she and several other cruisers were tasked with patrol duties in the Heligoland Bight. The cruisers were divided with the torpedo boat flotillas, and assigned to rotate through nightly patrols into the North Sea. As part of this operation, "Stuttgart" conducted a patrol on the night of 15 August with and the I and II Torpedo-boat Flotillas, without incident.  On 15–16 December, "Stuttgart" participated in the bombardment of Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby. She was assigned to the cruiser screen of the High Seas Fleet, which was providing distant cover to Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper's battlecruisers while they were conducting the bombardment. Following reports of British destroyers from the German screen, Admiral von Ingenohl ordered the High Seas Fleet to turn to port and head for Germany. At 06:59, "Stuttgart", the armored cruiser, and the light cruiser encountered Commander Jones' destroyers. Jones shadowed the Germans until 07:40, at which point "Stuttgart" and "Hamburg" were detached to sink their pursuers. At 08:02, however, "Roon" signaled the two light cruisers and ordered them to abandon the pursuit and retreat along with the rest of the High Seas Fleet.  On 7 May 1915, the IV Scouting Group, which by then consisted of "Stuttgart", "Stettin",, and, and twenty-one torpedo boats was sent into the Baltic Sea to support a major operation against Russian positions at Libau. The operation was commanded by Rear Admiral Hopman, the commander of the reconnaissance forces in the Baltic. The IV Scouting Group was tasked with screening to the north to prevent any Russian naval forces from moving out of the Gulf of Finland undetected, while several armored cruisers and other warships bombarded the port. The Russians did attempt to intervene with a force of four cruisers: "Admiral Makarov", "Bayan", "Oleg", and "Bogatyr". The Russian ships briefly engaged "München", but both sides were unsure of the others' strength, and so both disengaged. Shortly after the bombardment, Libau was captured by the advancing German army, and "Stuttgart" and the rest of the IV Scouting Group were recalled to the High Seas Fleet.

Battle of Jutland.

"Stuttgart" was assigned to the IV Scouting Group during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916. The IV Scouting Group, under the command of Commodore Ludwig von Reuter, departed Wilhelmshaven at 03:30 on 31 May, along with the rest of the fleet. Tasked with screening for the fleet, "Stuttgart" and the torpedo boat were positioned at the rear of the fleet, astern of the II Battle Squadron. "Stuttgart" and the IV Scouting Group were not heavily engaged during the early phases of the battle, but around 21:30, they encountered the British 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron (3rd LCS). Reuter's ships were leading the High Seas Fleet south, away from the deployed Grand Fleet. Due to the long range and poor visibility, only "München" and "Stettin" were able to engage the British cruisers. "Stuttgart" was the fourth ship in the line, and her gunners could only make out one British ship in the haze. Since that ship was already being engaged by the other German cruisers, "Stuttgart" held her fire. Reuter turned his ships hard to starboard, in order to draw the British closer to the capital ships of the German fleet, but the 3rd LCS refused to take the bait and disengaged.  During the ferocious night fighting that occurred as the High Seas Fleet forced its way through the British rear, the IV Scouting Group encountered the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron at close range in the darkness. As the two squadrons closed on each other, the Germans illuminated and and concentrated their fire on the two ships. "Stuttgart" and fired on "Dublin". During this period, "Dublin" was hit by eight shells, probably all from "Stuttgart", though these hits did not do serious damage. The two British ships were badly damaged and set on fire and forced to retreat, while the Germans also fell back in an attempt to bring the British closer to the battlecruisers and. In the melee, the cruiser was hit and sunk by a torpedo launched by "Southampton"; this forced "Stuttgart" to haul out of line to starboard. She then lost contact with the rest of the IV Scouting Group, so she fell in with the I Battle Squadron. She was present during a later encounter with British light forces around midnight. She remained concealed in the darkness and observed the I Battle Squadron dreadnoughts hammering several British destroyers. The British meanwhile launched torpedoes at the German line, which forced it to turn away. "Stuttgart" had to thread her way in between the battleships and in the darkness.  By 02:30, "Stuttgart" was steaming at the head of the German line, ahead of, the leading battleship. She led the I Battle Squadron back to port, and later assisted the III Battle Squadron and the fleet flagship,. In the course of the battle, "Stuttgart" had fired 64 rounds, the least of all of the German cruisers in the battle. She emerged from the battle unscathed, unlike many of the other German cruisers.

Conversion and fate.

Earlier in the war, the German Navy had experimented with converting steamers into seaplane tenders. They were too slow to operate with the fleet, however, and so a faster alternative was needed. By 1918, the Navy had decided to convert "Stuttgart", which was fast enough to steam with the fleet; conversion work started in February 1918. The work was done at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven, and was completed in May. As a seaplane tender, her forward and rear 10.5 cm guns, and the two rearmost broadside guns were removed, leaving only four broadside guns remaining. Two 8.8 cm SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns were installed forward; she retained her submerged torpedo tubes. Two large hangars were installed aft of the funnels, with space for two seaplanes; a third seaplane was carried on top of the hangars. Since "Stuttgart" could carry only three aircraft, a number which was deemed insufficient to support the entire High Seas Fleet, plans were drawn up to convert "Roon" into a seaplane carrier as well. Neither ship was ever used operationally. "Stuttgart" survived the war, and was stricken from the naval register on 5 November 1919. She was surrendered to the United Kingdom on 20 July 1920, as the war prize "S" and subsequently broken up for scrap.

SMS "Stuttgart" was a light cruiser of the Kaiserliche Marine, named after the city of Stuttgart. She had three sister ships:,, and. "Stuttgart" was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1905, launched in September 1906, and commissioned in February 1908. Like her sisters, "Stettin" was armed with a main battery of ten guns and a pair of torpedo tubes, and was capable of a top speed in excess of.

陛下之舰斯图加特号()是德意志帝国所建造的四艘柯尼斯堡级小巡洋舰的三号舰,以符腾堡城市斯图加特命名。它由但泽的但泽帝国船厂承建,于1905年开始、1906年9月、至1908年2月投入舰队使用。其舰炮包括有十门105毫米40倍径速射炮和两具450毫米水下鱼雷发射管,最高速度可达24.1节。


Examples.

Most light verb constructions in English include a noun and are sometimes called stretched verbs. Some light verb constructions also include a preposition, e.g.  The light verbs are underlined, and the words in bold together constitute the light verb constructions. Each of these constructions is the (primary part of the) main predicate of the sentence. Note that the determiner "a" is usually NOT part of the light verb construction. We know that it is not part of the light verb construction because it is variable, e.g. "I took a long/the first/two/the best nap". The light verb contributes little content to its sentence; the main meaning resides with the noun in bold.

Alternative constructions with full verbs.

Many light verb constructions are closely similar in meaning to a corresponding full verb, e.g.  Alternative formulations such as these lead to the insight that light verb constructions are predicates just like the corresponding full verb alternatives. There can be, however, nuanced differences in meaning across these alternative formulations. The light verb constructions produce possibilities for modification that are less available with the corresponding full verb alternatives.

Contrasted with auxiliary verbs and full verbs.

Many verbs that serve as light verbs can also serve as auxiliary verbs and/or full verbs depending on the context in which they appear. Light verbs are similar to auxiliary verbs insofar as they contribute mainly functional content (as opposed to semantic content) to the clauses in which they appear. Light verbs, however, are not auxiliary verbs, nor are they full verbs. Light verbs differ from auxiliary verbs in English insofar as they do not pass the syntactic tests that identify auxiliary verbs. The following examples illustrate that light verbs fail the inversion and negation diagnostics that identify auxiliary verbs:  Light verbs differ from full verbs in that light verbs lack the semantic content that full verbs have. Full verbs are the core of a predicate, whereas light verbs form a predicate with another expression (often a noun) with full semantic content. This distinction is more difficult to illustrate, but it can be seen in the following examples involving reflexive pronouns:  The indices indicate coreference, i.e. the two coindexed words denote the same person. The reflexive pronoun must appear with the light verb, whereas the full verb allows the simple pronoun to appear as well. This distinction has to do with the extent of the predicate. The main predicate reaches down into the noun phrase when the light verb appears, whereas it excludes the noun phrase when the full verb is present.

Compositionality in terms of catenae.

Light-verb constructions present the same difficulty associated with idiosyncratic expressions of every sort: the meaning is not compositional in a straightforward way. This fact is evident in the examples above, inasmuch as the words that constitute a light-verb construction often do "not" qualify as a constituent in any sense. These constructions do, however, form catenae (= chains). This fact is illustrated with the following dependency grammar trees:  The words of each light-verb construction form a catena. In this regard, the words in green qualify as the main predicate of the clause each time. If an auxiliary verb is present (as in trees b and d), it is included in the main predicate because like the light verb, it contributes functional meaning only.

In other languages.

Examples in other languages include the Yiddish "geb" in "geb a helf" (literally give a help, "help"); the French "faire" in "faire semblant" (lit. make seeming, "pretend"); the Hindi "nikal paRA" (lit. leave fall, "start to leave"); and the "bǎ" construction in Chinese. Light verbs are extremely common in modern Indo-Iranian languages, Japanese, Basque and other languages in which verb compounding is a primary mechanism for marking aspectual distinctions. Light verbs are also equivalent to inherent complement verbs in many Kwa languages, e.g. "jo" in "jo foi" "run" (Ga), "tu" in "tu fo" "advise" (Akan).

Australian Languages.

A significant proportion of Australian Aboriginal languages have verbal systems involving light verbs. Many Australian inflecting-verb classes are closed classes and very few in membership. Thus, in order to express more intricate assertions, matrix verbs are combined with coverbal elements such as preverbs to form complex verbal predicates. In such instances, the matrix verb typically still bears all of the tense–aspect–mood inflection but contributes little to the sentence semantically (i.e. is more of a function word); as noted above, however, they are still distinct from traditional auxiliary verbs.

Bardi.

One such Australian language with prevalent uses of light verbs is Bardi, a Nyulnyulan language spoken in the north of Australia. Although its inflecting-verb class is comparatively large with respect to some other Australian languages (~230 members), a number of these appear often as light verbs. Comprising the most frequent of these light verbs are the verb roots "-ju-" 'do/say' and "-ma-" 'put.' En example of the latter in use is:  In a case such as the above, "liyan" 'heart' is the preverb containing most of the semantic content. Likewise with "goo" 'hit' in the following example:

Jingulu.

Typically, in languages with coverb+light-verb predicates, these words must be directly adjacent; however, in extremely rare cases in languages such as Jingulu, there can be intervening elements between the semantically-rich preverb and the inflected matrix verb. See the following example where the subject "ngaya" appears between the preverb "ambaya"'speak' and the inflected main verb "nu" 'do.'  This rare but significant phenomenon provides evidence that, even in more heavily agglutinating languages like Jingulu wherein the main verb may not be morphologically independent from the preverb, these are in fact light verbs and not inflectional affixes.

Diachronic considerations.

Light verbs are interesting to linguists from a variety of perspectives, including those of diachronic linguistics and computational linguistics. From the diachronic perspective, the light verb is said to have evolved from the "heavy" verb through semantic bleaching, a process in which the verb loses some or all of its original semantics. In this sense, the light verb is often viewed as part of a cline:  However, the light verb → auxiliary path is disputed, since a) light verbs can remain stable for very long periods (cf. Butt and Lahiri (2013), and b) since both light verbs and auxiliaries can exist in the same languages, descended from the same full lexical verb, but with different meanings.  In computational linguistics, a serious challenge is that of identifying light verb constructions, which require marking light verbs.

In linguistics, a light verb is a verb that has little semantic content of its own and forms a predicate with some additional expression, which is usually a noun. Common verbs in English that can function as light verbs are "do", "give", "have", "make", and "take". Other names for "light verb" include "delexical verb", "vector verb", "explicator verb", "thin verb", "empty verb" and "semantically weak verb" (a "semantically weak" verb is not to be confused with a weak verb of the Germanic weak inflection, however). While light verbs are similar to auxiliary verbs regarding their contribution of meaning to the clauses in which they appear, light verbs fail the diagnostics that identify auxiliary verbs and are therefore distinct from auxiliaries.

功能动词,也叫轻动词(Light verb),是一些普通动词在某些情况下独立出来拥有新的用法的一类特殊的动词,这类动词在句子中丢失了其自身的含义,而是需要与另一个实义动词性质的成分组合在一起构成复合动词,才能表现出完整的谓语意义。从功能动词的另一名字“轻动词”也可以看出它在构成复合动词的作用。


Construction.

The church of the Saints Ambrogio and Carlo al Corso is the national church of the Lombards, to whom in 1471 Pope Sixtus IV gave, in recognition of their valuable construction work of the Sistine Chapel, the small church of S. Niccolò del Tufo, which was first restored and then dedicated to S. Ambrogio, the patron saint of Milan.  Its construction was begun in honour of the canonization of St. Charles Borromeo in 1610, under the direction of Onorio Longhi and, after his death, of his son Martino Longhi the Younger. The site was that of the former church of "San Nicola de Tofo". The ground plan is based on the Latin cross. The dome, resembling that of Santi Luca e Martina, was designed by Pietro da Cortona (1668), who was also responsible for the apse and rich internal decorations. The façade was designed by Cardinal Luigi Alessandro Omodei, who financed the completion of the church, and did not like the project prepared by Carlo Rainaldi.

Decoration.

The central vault is frescoed with a "Fall of the Rebel Angels" (1677–1679) by Giacinto Brandi. The altarpiece, depicting the "Saints Ambrose and Charles Borromeo with the Virgin and Jesus", was painted around 1685–1690 by Carlo Maratta. The stucco decoration was by Giacomo and Cosimo Fancelli. The statue of the saints were by Francesco Cavallini. Frescos of Justice and Peace were painted by Girolamo Troppa. There are also paintings by the baroque painter Giovanni Battista Beinaschi.  In the ambulatory behind the sanctuary is a niche where a reliquary containing the heart of St Charles is kept. It was donated to the church in 1614 by Cardinal Federico Borromeo, a cousin of the saint.  The 16th-century oratory of St. Ambrose is beyond the left transept.  The first chapel on the right is dedicated to the Crucifixion and has a fresco of "Vigilance" by Paolo Albertoni.  The second chapel, on the right is dedicated to "Mary, Aid of Christians" (Maria Auxilium Christianorum), has an image of the Virgin donated by St Vincent Pallotti in the 19th century.  The third chapel on the right is dedicated to the Holy Family. On its left side is a depiction of "The Redemptor and Sts Ambrose and Charles" as well as the sepulchral monument of Federico Borromeo.  On the exterior, to the sides of the apse and facing the ancient Mausoleum of Augustus, are two giant statues of the titular saints, among the largest in Rome.  Other artists active in the church include Pasquale de' Rossi, Luigi Garzi, Francesco Rosa, Giovanni Battista Buonocore, and Fabbrizio Chiari.

Chapel of St. Olav.

The Chapel of St. Olav of Norway, to the left of the nave, is dedicated to the martyr king who converted to Christianity and was slain in the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. The chapel was inaugurated by Cardinal Lucido Maria Parocchi on 9 April 1893, on the 50th anniversary of the first Mass celebrated legally in Norway since the Reformation.  The painting, by the Polish artist, depicts the Viking king's victory over his own pagan past, which is represented by a dragon. It was a gift, presented on 3 March 1893, to Pope Leo XIII for the 50th anniversary of his episcopal ordination. Bishop Johannes Olav Fallize, then the Vicar Apostolic of Norway, had asked that it be placed in this chapel and it was unveiled by the Papal chamberlain, Baron Wilhelm Wedel-Jarlsberg. The Pope supported the idea of a Norwegian chapel in Rome.  A smaller picture on the altar shows St. Anne and her daughter, the Blessed Virgin. St Anne was a very popular saint in pre-Reformation Norway.  The relics of a Roman martyr, St. Saturninus, are interred in the altar. Nothing is known about him except his name.  The chapel was restored, and it was reinaugurated by John Willem Gran, the Bishop of Oslo, in 1980. The initiative for this restoration came from Cecilie "Ciss" Riber-Mohn (who was not herself a Catholic, and who died in 1978, before the restoration was complete), Olga Térése "Olgese" Mowinckel Ringler and her Italian husband Andrea Ringler. Rieber-Mohn had also preserved the chapel in the 1960s, when there was talk about using it for other purposes.  Mass is celebrated in Norwegian at Christmas, on 17 May (Constitution Day) and 16 October (feast of St. Olav's conversion), and many Norwegian expatriates, including non-Catholic, take part. Requiem masses are celebrated for Norwegians with connections to Rome. Norwegian pilgrim groups can make an appointment to celebrate Mass here, and at times tourist groups come here for ecumenical services.

Marriage of Liszt.

San Carlo al Corso is the church where the marriage should be solemnized between Franz Liszt and Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein. From 1849, this Polish princess granted hospitality to Liszt, her great lover, at the. In 1860 she left for Rome to dissolve her marriage with the Russian officer Nikolaus - which had already been done in Russia five years earlier. When this succeeded in January 1861, she organized her union with Liszt on 22 October 1861, Liszts 50th Birthday, in the San Carlo, her parish church. On 20 October Liszt arrives in Rome, and makes a marriage statement with Carolyne. Meanwhile, Bishop Von Hohenlohe, a brother of Carolyne's son-in-law, succeeds, with help of Carolyne's relatives, in preventing the marriage ceremony - and thus in keeping Carolyne's capital in the families: on the eve of the marriage Carolyne receives a message from the pastor of San Carlo that the request is being reconsidered and the wedding postponed. Thereupon she breaks off her relationship with Liszt - who remains in Rome, where he studies theology, becomes friendly with Von Hohenlohe, receives from him the Minor Orders, and goes through life as ‘Abbé Liszt’.

Sant'Ambrogio e Carlo al Corso (usually known simply as "San Carlo al Corso") is a basilica church in Rome, Italy, facing onto the central part of the Via del Corso. The apse of the church faces across the street, the Mausoleum of Augustus on Via di Ripetta.

圣安博及嘉禄堂("Sant'Ambrogio e Carlo al Corso")是意大利罗马的一座罗马天主教宗座圣殿,曾经作为司铎级枢机领衔圣堂,位于科尔索大道中段,供奉两位来自米兰的圣人,圣安博和。在罗马至少有三座供奉圣嘉禄的圣堂,另外两座是San Carlo ai Catinari和四泉圣嘉禄堂。


Biography.

Born in Akmolinsk, Imperial Russia (modern Nur-Sultan in Kazakhstan). He graduated from Tomsk Polytechnic University, and worked at the Soviet Research Institute of Electromechanics. Kazantsev was a member of the Soviet delegation at the 1939 New York World's Fair. When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, Kazantsev joined the army. He left military service in 1945 with the rank of colonel, and was awarded a number of orders, including Order of the Patriotic War and Order of the Red Star. From then on, Kazantsev settled in the "literary village" of Peredelkino and concentrated on his writings. He survived the dissolution of the Soviet Union and died in 2002.

Writings.

Kazantsev was an enthusiast of the unknown, and a pioneer of Soviet UFOlogy. Many of his works, both fiction and non-fiction, deal with controversial scientific theories.  He researched the Tunguska event and published a number of science fiction, as well as popular science books, on the topic. He believed the Tunguska impact was caused by an alien spacecraft that crash-landed on the Earth.  Kazantsev researched events and legends that he believed were evidences of paleocontacts with extraterrestrials. His novel "The Destruction of Faena", an adaptation of Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet", is based on the hypothetical planet Phaeton that some believe existed in the orbit of modern asteroid belt. According to the novel, Phaeton was inhabited by a developed civilisation of the "phaetae" race, who survived the destruction of their planet and brought some of their culture to the prehistorical people of Earth.  Kazantsev was also interested in the Martian canal theory, and used it in his fiction concerning Mars.  He was also a composer of chess endgame studies. In 1975 he was awarded by the Permanent Commission of the FIDE for Chess Compositions (PCCC) the title of International Master of Composition.

Bibliography.

Note: of this list, only "The Destruction of Faena" ("Faety"), "A Visitor From Outer Space", and "The Martian" have been translated into English.

Alexander Petrovitch Kazantsev (; 2 September 1906 – 13 September 2002) was a popular Soviet science fiction writer, ufologist and chess composer.

亚历山大·卡赞采夫(,1906年-9月2日-2002年-9月13日)是苏联科幻小说家、飞碟学家、军事工程专家、国际象棋排局家。


Life.

He was born in Mongolia to Taraqai and Qaraqcin. His father was Hulagu's fifth son but he was killed by lightning strike on his way to Iran. Baydu and his mother arrived at Iran with Qutui Khatun's camp alongside Tekuder and other princes in 1269. Reportedly, he never commanded an army and was considered to be easy to be controlled by Mongol emirs. He participated in Abaqa Khan's invasion of Syria in 1281. During his predecessors reigns, he was a viceroy in Jazira.

Under Gaykhatu.

He was considered as one of candidates to Ilkhanid throne after death of Arghun. Nobles like Taghachar, Qoncuqbal, Toghan and Tuqal supported Baydu, however he refused throne stating throne belongs to the brother or a son according to yassa, while Mahmud Aqsarai simply states that when Baydu didn't appear at the "quriltai", Gaykhatu was enthroned instead. Baydu stood stationed in Baghdad and even travelled to coronation feast of new khan Gaykhatu. However, after getting drunk Gaykhatu insulted Baydu telling one of his servants to hit Baydu. This grew a resentment in Baydu towards him. Baydu left hastily towards to his appanage near Baghdad leaving his son Qipchak as a hostage in Gaykhatu's court. He was supported by Oirat emir Chichak (son of Sulaimish b. Tengiz Güregen), Lagzi Küregen (son of Arghun Aqa), El-Temur (son of Hinduqur Noyan) and Todachu Yarquchi, who followed him to Baghdad. He was also aided by his vizier Jamal ud-Din Dastgerdani. According to Hamdullah Qazwini, Baydu's main motivation on moving against Gaykhatu was his sexual advances against Qipchak.

Revolt.

When son-in-law Ghurbatai Güregen brought him news of treachery, Gaykhatu ordered arrest of several amirs including his personal "keshig" Tuladai, Qoncuqbal, Tukal, Bughdai, including Kipchak and put into jail in Tabriz. While his followers Hasan and Taiju demanded their executions, Taghachar advised against it. Baydu on his side, moved to kill Muhammad Sugurchi, governor of Baghdad and arrested governor Baybuqa of Diyar Bakr. Gaykhatu sent his father-in-law Aq Buqa and Taghachar against Baydu on 17 March 1295, himself arriving at Tabriz 4 days later. Little he knew that Taghachar already shifted allegiance to Baydu who left for his encampment at night. While he wanted to flee to Anatolia, his councillors advised to fight against Baydu. Nevertheless, Gaykhatu fled to Mughan. Arriving in Tabriz, Taghachar set Qoncuqbal and Tuladai free, while Gaikhatu desperately begged for mercy. Despite his appeal, he was strangled by a bowstring so as to avoid bloodshed on 21 March 1295. However, some sources put this event on 5 March or 25 April.

Reign.

Baydu was considered easygoing and controllable, and under him, the Ilkhanate was divided among the co-conspirators. However, Gaykhatu's death wasn't without consequences, especially Prince Ghazan in Khorasan grew restless. Baydu explained the fact that Ghazan was away during events leading to Gaykhatu's fall, therefore nobles had no choice but to raise him to throne. Nevertheless, Amir Nowruz encouraged Ghazan to take steps against Baydu, because he was nothing but a figurehead under grips of nobles. Mar Yahballaha III also noted Baydu being a weak khan. Conspirators divided the empire between themselves: Taghachar took governorate of Anatolia, Tuladai gained Persian Iraq and Lorestan, while Qoncoqbal took Shiraz and Shabankara to himself Tukal went back to his ancestral lands in Georgia. Meanwhile, his mother-in-law Kurdujin Khatun was installed as governor of Kerman and had Padishah Khatun executed. Aq Buqa Jalair, chief commander of Gaykhatu was also killed on demands of Qoncuqbal.  Ghazan started to move against Baydu towards his headquarters in Azerbaijan. Baydu's forces commanded by Ildar Oghul (his cousin and Prince Ajay's son) met him near Qazvin. First battle was won by Ghazan but he had to fall back after realising Ildar's contingent was just a fraction of whole army, leaving Nowruz behind. After a short truce, Baydu offered Ghazan co-ruling of ilkhanate and Nowruz the post of sahib-i divan to which as a counter-condition Ghazan demanded the revenues of his father's hereditary lands in Fars, Persian Iraq and Kerman. Nowruz denied conditions, which led to its arrest. According to an anecdote, he promised to bring Ghazan back tied-up on condition of his release. Once he reached Ghazan, he sent back a cauldron to Baydu; a word play on the Turkish word.  Amir Nowruz promised him the throne and his help on a condition of Ghazan's conversion to Islam. Nowruz entered Qazvin with 4000 soldiers and claimed an additional number of 120.000 on his way towards Azerbaijan which caused panic among masses which was followed by defections of Taghachar's subordinates and other powerful emirs like Qurumishi and Chupan. Seeing imminent defeat, Baydu fled to Tukal in Georgia. Baydu attempted to escape and flee from Azerbaijan to Georgia, but was taken prisoner near Nakhichevan he was taken to Tabriz and executed on the 5 October 1295, ending the civil war with his successor. Relatives, including his son Qipchaq (d. 26 September 1295) and Ildar Oghul were also executed.

Personality.

Baydu had strong sympathies to Christianity, but was required to act outwardly as a Muslim. Some sources state he didn't act even as Muslim. According to Saunders in "Mongol Conquests", Baydu allowed churches on his "ordo" and wore a cross around his neck. He was urged by his followers to rid himself of Ghazan, the son of Arghun Khan, but refused out of affection.

Family.

Baydu had three consorts, two of them from Qutlugkhanid dynasty:

Baydu (Mongolian script:; ) (died 1295) was the sixth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate division in Iran. He was the son of Taraqai, who was in turn the fifth son of Hulagu Khan. He succeeded his cousin Gaykhatu as "khan" of the Ilkhanate state in 1295.

宁芙(Nymph)是希腊神话中次要的女神,有时也被翻译成精灵和仙女,也会被视为妖精的一员,出没于山林、原野、泉水、大海等地。是自然幻化的精灵,一般是美丽的少女的形象,喜欢歌舞。它们不会衰老或生病,但会死去。它们和天神结合也能生出神的不朽的后代。很多宁芙是自由的,有些宁芙会侍奉天神,如阿尔忒弥斯、狄俄尼索斯、阿波罗、赫尔墨斯、潘神。


Plot.

The Japanese fishing vessel "Yahata-Maru" is caught in strong currents off the shores of Daikoku Island. As the boat drifts into shore, the island begins to erupt, and a giant monster lifts itself out of the volcano. A few days later, reporter Goro Maki is sailing in the area and finds the vessel intact but deserted. As he explores the vessel, he finds all the crew dead except for Hiroshi Okumura, who has been badly wounded. Suddenly a giant "Shockirus" sea louse attacks him but he is saved by Okumura.  In Tokyo, Okumura realizes by looking at pictures that the monster he saw was a new Godzilla. Maki writes an article about the account, but the news of Godzilla's return is kept secret and his article is withheld. Maki visits Professor Hayashida, whose parents were lost in the 1954 Godzilla attack. Hayashida describes Godzilla as a living, invincible nuclear weapon able to cause mass destruction. At Hayashida's laboratory, Maki meets Okumura's sister, Naoko, and informs her that her brother is alive and at the police hospital.  A Soviet submarine is destroyed in the Pacific. The Soviets believe the attack was perpetrated by the Americans, and a diplomatic crisis ensues, which threatens to escalate into nuclear war. The Japanese intervene and reveal that Godzilla was behind the attacks. The Japanese cabinet meets to discuss Japan's defense. A new weapon is revealed, the Super X, a specially-armored flying fortress that will defend the capital. The Japanese military is put on alert.  Godzilla attacks the Ihama nuclear power plant in Shizuoka Prefecture. While feeding off the reactor, he is distracted by a flock of birds and leaves the facility. Hayashida believes that Godzilla was distracted instinctively by a homing signal from the birds. Hayashida, together with geologist Minami, propose to the Japanese Cabinet, that Godzilla could be lured back to Mount Mihara on Ōshima Island by a similar signal, and a volcanic eruption could be started, capturing Godzilla.  Prime Minister Mitamura meets with Soviet and American envoys and declares that nuclear weapons will not be used on Godzilla, even if he were to attack the Japanese mainland. Meanwhile, the Soviets have their own plans to counter the threat posed by Godzilla, and a Soviet control ship disguised as a freighter in Tokyo Harbor prepares to launch a nuclear missile from one of their orbiting satellites should Godzilla attack.  Godzilla is sighted at dawn in Tokyo Bay heading towards Tokyo, causing mass evacuations. The JASDF attacks Godzilla but fails to stop his advance on the city. Godzilla soon emerges and makes short work of the JSDF stationed there. The battle causes damage to the Soviet ship and starts a missile launch count-down. The captain dies as he attempts to stop the missile from launching. Godzilla proceeds towards Shinjuku, wreaking havoc along the way. There, he is confronted by four laser-armed trucks and the Super X. Because Godzilla's heart is similar to a nuclear reactor, the cadmium shells that are fired into his mouth by the Super X seal and slow down his heart, knocking him unconscious.  The countdown ends and the Soviet missile is launched, but it is destroyed by an American counter-missile. Hayashida and Okumura are extracted from Tokyo via helicopter and taken to Mt. Mihara to set up the homing device before the two missiles collide above Tokyo. The destruction of the nuclear missile produces an electrical storm and an EMP, which revives Godzilla once more and temporarily disables the Super X.  Godzilla and the Super X battle through the streets. Godzilla finally destroys the Super X and continues his rampage, until Hayashida uses the homing device to distract him. Godzilla leaves Tokyo and swims across Tokyo Bay, following the homing device to Mount Mihara. There, Godzilla follows the device and falls into the mouth of the volcano. Okumura activates detonators at the volcano, creating a controlled eruption that traps Godzilla inside.

Development.

Development.

After the box office failure of "Terror of Mechagodzilla", Toho attempted to reinvigorate the franchise several times during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first attempt was the announcement of a color remake of the original 1954 film entitled "The Rebirth of Godzilla" in 1977, but the project was shelved. A year later, it was announced that Toho would develop a film jointly with UPA studios entitled "Godzilla vs. the Devil", though this, along with UPA producer Henry G. Saperstein's proposed "Godzilla vs. Gargantua", also never materialized.  "Godzilla" series creator Tomoyuki Tanaka took charge of reviving the franchise in 1979, Godzilla's 25th anniversary, intending to return the series to its dark, anti-nuclear roots in the wake of the Three Mile Island accident. Hoping to win back adult audiences alienated by the fantastical approach to "Godzilla" films taken during the 1970s, Tanaka was further encouraged in his vision by the contemporary success of adult-oriented horror and science fiction movies like "King Kong", "Invasion of the Body Snatchers", "Alien" and "The Thing". A draft story entitled "The Resurrection of Godzilla" was submitted by Akira Murao in 1980, and had Godzilla pitted against a shape-shifting monster called Bakan in the backdrop of an illegal nuclear waste disposal site, though the project was cancelled due to budgetary concerns. In 1983, American director Steve Miner proposed directing a "Godzilla" film at his own expense. Toho approved of the project, and Miner hired Fred Dekker to write the screenplay and paleosculptor Steve Czerkas to redesign the monster. The project was however hampered by Miner's insistence on using prohibitively costly stop-motion animation and shooting the film in 3D, and was thus rejected by major American movie studios. Under pressure from a 10,000-member group of Japanese "Godzilla" fans calling themselves the "Godzilla Resurrection Committee", Tanaka decided to helm a Japanese film for "strictly domestic consumption" to be released jointly alongside Miner's movie. In an effort to disavow Godzilla's increasingly heroic and anthropomorphic depiction in previous films, Tanaka insisted on making a direct sequel to the original 1954 movie. He hired screenwriter Shuichi Nagahara, who wrote a screenplay combining elements of the previously cancelled "The Resurrection of Godzilla" and Miner's still unproduced film, including an intensification of hostilities during the Cold War and a flying fortress which fires missiles into Godzilla's mouth. Koji Hashimoto was hired as director after Ishirō Honda declined the offer, as he was assisting Akira Kurosawa with "Kagemusha" and "Ran", and felt that the franchise should have been discontinued after the death of Eiji Tsuburaya.  Composer Akira Ifukube was offered to score the film but respectfully declined. At the time, it was rumored that Ifukube refused to participate in the film due to the changes made to Godzilla, stating, "I do not write music for 80-meter monsters". However, this quote was later clarified, by Ifukube's biographer Erik Homenick and "Japanese Giants" editor Ed Godziszewski, as a joke spread by fans which was later misinterpreted as fact. Ifukube declined to score the film due to his priorities, at the time, teaching composition at the Tokyo College of Music.

Special effects.

The special effects were again directed by Teruyoshi Nakano, who had directed the special effects of several previous "Godzilla" films. The decision was made by Tanaka to increase the apparent height of Godzilla from to so that Godzilla would not be dwarfed by the contemporary skyline of Tokyo. This meant that the miniatures had to be built to a th scale, and this contributed to an increase in the budget of the film to $6.25 million. Tanaka and Nakano supervised suit-maker Noboyuki Yasumaru in constructing a new Godzilla design, incorporating ears and four toes, features not seen since "Godzilla Raids Again". Nakano insisted on infusing elements into the design that suggested sadness, such as downward-slanting eyes and sloping shoulders.  Suit construction took two months, and consisted of separately casting body-part molds with urethane on a pre-built, life-size statue of the final design. Yasumaru personally took charge of all phases of suit-building, unlike in previous productions wherein the different stages of suit-production were handled by different craftsmen. The final suit was constructed to accommodate stuntman Hiroshi Yamawaki, but he declined suddenly, and was replaced by veteran suit actor Kenpachiro Satsuma, who had portrayed Hedorah and Gigan in the Showa Era. Because the suit wasn't built to his measurements, Satsuma had difficulty performing, being able to last only ten minutes within it, and losing 12 pounds during filming. Hoping to avoid having Godzilla move in an overly human fashion, Nakano instructed Satsuma to base his actions on Noh, a traditional Japanese dance.  Taking inspiration from the publicity surrounding the 40-foot tall King Kong model from Dino De Laurentiis's 1976 film of the same name, Toho spent a reported $475,000 on a 16-foot high robotic Godzilla (dubbed "Cybot") for use in close-up shots of the creature's head. The Cybot consisted of a hydraulically-powered mechanical endoskeleton covered in urethane skin containing 3,000 computer operated parts which permitted it to tilt its head, and move its lips and arms. Unlike previous Godzilla suits, whose lower jaws consisted of wire-operated flaps, the Cybot's jaws were hinged like those of an actual animal, and slid back as they opened. A life-size, crane operated foot was also built for close-up shots of city destruction scenes.

Release.

Theatrical.

"The Return of Godzilla" was released on December 15, 1984 in Japan where it was distributed by Toho. The film's budget was $6.25 million. It was a reasonable success in Japan, with attendance figures at approximately 3,200,000 admissions, and the box office gross being.

Reception.

Despite its American re-edit receiving negative reviews, the original Japanese cut of the film has been much more well-received by critics and fans. In 1985, the film won the "Japan Academy Award" for Special Effects.

Home media.

In May 2016, Kraken Releasing revealed plans to release the original Japanese version of "The Return of Godzilla" and its international English dub on DVD and Blu-ray in North America on September 13, 2016. However, it was also revealed that the Americanized version of the film, "Godzilla 1985" would not be featured in the release due to on-going copyright issues concerning music cues that New World Pictures borrowed from "Def-Con 4" for use in "Godzilla 1985".

Alternate English versions.

Export English dub.

Shortly after the film's completion, Toho's foreign sales division, Toho International Co., Ltd, had the film dubbed into English by an unidentified firm in Hong Kong. No cuts were made, though credits and other titles were accordingly rendered in English. The International English dub features the voice of news anchor and radio announcer John Culkin in the role of Goro Maki, and actor Barry Haigh as Prime Minister Mitamura. The English version fully dubs all dialogue into English, including that of the Soviet and American characters. The International English dub was released on VHS in the UK by Carlton Home Entertainment on July 24, 1998.  In 2016, the International English dub was included on the U.S. DVD and Blu-Ray releases from Kraken, though the audio mix was not the original monaural track that was originally heard on Toho's English language prints. The English dialogue was originally mixed with an alternate music and effects track that contained different music edits and sound effects from the Japanese theatrical version, most notably a distinct "cry" produced by Godzilla during the film's ending. The U.S. home video version instead uses the conventional music and effects track used for the regular Japanese version mixed in DTS 5.1 surround sound instead of mono.

"Godzilla 1985".

After the film's lackluster performance in the Japanese box office and the ultimate shelving of Steve Miner's "Godzilla 3D" project, Toho decided to distribute the film overseas in order to regain lost profits. New World Pictures acquired "The Return of Godzilla" for distribution in North America, and changed the title to "Godzilla 1985", bringing back Raymond Burr in order to commemorate the 30th anniversary of "". Originally, New World reportedly planned to re-write the dialogue in order to turn the film into a tongue-in-cheek comedy starring Leslie Nielsen (à la "What's Up, Tiger Lily?"), but this plan was reportedly scrapped because Raymond Burr expressed displeasure at the idea, taking the idea of Godzilla as a nuclear metaphor seriously. The only dialogue left over from that script was "That's quite an urban renewal program they've got going on over there," said by Major McDonahue. All of Burr's scenes were filmed in one day to suit his schedule. He was paid US$50,000. The reverse shots, of the actors he was speaking to, were filmed the next day, and the American filming was completed in three days. One of the most controversial changes done on the film was having Soviet Colonel Kashirin deliberately launch the nuclear missile rather than die in attempting to prevent its launch. Director R. J. Kizer later attributed this to New World's management's conservative leanings.  The newly edited film also contained numerous product placements for Dr Pepper, which had twice used Godzilla in its commercials. Dr Pepper's marketing director at one point insisted that Raymond Burr drink Dr Pepper during a scene, and the suggestion was put to the actor by Kizer. Burr reportedly responded by "[fixing] me with one of those withering glares and just said nothing."  Roger Ebert and Vincent Canby gave the film negative reviews.

"The Return of Godzilla" stars Ken Tanaka, Yasuko Sawaguchi, Yosuke Natsuki, and Keiju Kobayashi, with Kenpachiro Satsuma as Godzilla. The film serves as both a sequel to the original 1954 film and a reboot of the franchise that ignores the events of every Shōwa era film aside from the original "Godzilla", placing itself in line with the darker tone and themes of the original film and returning Godzilla to his destructive, antagonistic roots. The film was released theatrically in Japan on December 15, 1984. The following year, in the United States, New World Pictures released "Godzilla 1985", a heavily re-edited American adaptation of the film which includes additional footage, and features Raymond Burr reprising his role from the 1956 film "Godzilla, King of the Monsters!".

《哥吉拉 (1984年)》(日文原名:ゴジラ (1984年の映画)


Structure.

The hamate is an irregularly shaped carpal bone found within the hand. The hamate is found within the distal row of carpal bones, and abuts the metacarpals of the little finger and ring finger.  Adjacent to the hamate on the ulnar side, and slightly above it, is the pisiform bone. Adjacent on the radial side is the capitate, and proximal is the lunate.

Surfaces.

The hamate bone has six surfaces:

Hook.

The "hook of hamate" () is found at the proximal, ulnar side of the hamate bone. The hook is a curved, hook-like process that projects 1–2 mm distally and radially. The ulnar nerve hooks around the hook of hamate as it crosses towards the medial side of hand.  The hook forms the ulnar border of the carpal tunnel, and the radial border for Guyon's canal. Numerous structures attach to it, including ligaments from the pisiform, the transverse carpal ligament, and the tendon of Flexor carpi ulnaris.  Its medial surface to the flexor digiti minimi brevis and opponens digiti minimi; its lateral side is grooved for the passage of the flexor tendons into the palm of the hand.

Development.

The ossification of the hamate starts between 1 and 12 months. The hamate does not fully ossify until about the 15th year of life.

In animals.

The bone is also found in many other mammals, and is homologous with the "fourth distal carpal" of reptiles and amphibians.

Function.

The carpal bones function as a unit to provide a bony superstructure for the hand.

Clinical significance.

The hamate bone is the bone most commonly fractured when a golfer hits the ground hard with a golf club on the downswing or a hockey player hits the ice with a slap shot. The fracture is usually a hairline fracture, commonly missed on normal X-rays. Symptoms are pain aggravated by gripping, tenderness over the hamate and symptoms of irritation of the ulnar nerve. This is characterized by numbness and weakness of the pinkie finger with partial involvement of the ring finger as well, the "ulnar 11⁄2 fingers".  The hook of hamate is particularly prone to fracture-related complications such as non-union due to its tenuous blood supply.  It is also a common injury in baseball players. Several professional baseball players have had the bone removed during the course of their careers. This condition has been called "Wilson's Wrist".  The calcification of the unciform bone is seen on X-rays during puberty and is sometimes used in orthodontics to determine if an adolescent patient is suitable for orthognathic intervention (i.e. before or at their growth spurt).

Etymology.

The etymology derives from the Latin "hamatus" "hooked," from "hamus" which means "hook".

The hamate bone or unciform bone (from Latin "uncus", "hook") is a bone in the human wrist readily distinguishable by its wedge shape and a hook-like process ("hamulus") projecting from its palmar surface.

钩骨(Hamate)或钩状骨(unciform bone)是人类手腕上的骨头,其主体成楔形,且有一钩状骨突,向掌面突出。


Background.

The idea of exploring the effects of the depopulating of the Earth is an old one, having been a regular trope in science fiction novels for decades. Post-apocalyptic literature in general had often tried to imagine the fate of civilization and its artifacts after the end of humanity. Indeed, an extremely popular 1949 novel, "Earth Abides," portrayed the breakdown of urban systems and structures after a pandemic, through the eyes of a survivor, who muses at the end of the first chapter: "What would happen to the world and its creatures without man? That he was left to see."  "The World Without Us" applies a more ecological view to "Earth Abides". Before writing it, the author, Alan Weisman, had written four books, including, "Gaviotas: A Village to Reinvent the World," in 1998, about the eco-village of Gaviotas in Colombia; and "An Echo In My Blood," in 1999, about his family's history immigrating from Ukraine to the United States. He has worked as an international journalist for American magazines and newspapers, and at the time of writing the book was an Associate Professor of Journalism and Latin American Studies at the University of Arizona. The position required him to teach only one class in the spring semester, and he was free to travel and conduct research the rest of the year.  The idea for "The World Without Us" was suggested to Weisman in 2004 by Josie Glausiusz, an editor at "Discover". She had pondered the idea for several years and asked Weisman to write a feature on the subject after she re-read "Journey through a Doomed Land", an article he published in 1994 in "Harper's Magazine" about the state of Chernobyl eight years after abandonment. His "Discover" article, "Earth Without People", published in the February 2005 issue and re-printed in "The Best American Science Writing 2006" anthology, describes how nature has thrived in the abandoned Korean Demilitarized Zone and how nature would overwhelm the built environment of New York City. Using interviews with paleoecologists, the article speculates that megafauna would return and that forest cover, like the Białowieża Forest, would spread over Europe and the eastern United States. The article raises the prospect of failing power plants, chemical plants, dams, and petroleum tanks.  To expand this into a book, Weisman's agent found an editor and publisher at St. Martin's Press. Among the 23-page bibliography are two articles he wrote for the "Los Angeles Times Magazine" ("Naked Planet" on the Antarctic ozone hole), and "The Real Indiana Jones" on the Mayan civilization) and one published in the "Condé Nast Traveler" ("Diamond in the Wild" on diamond mining encroaching on North America's largest wildlife preserve), as well as "Discover"'s "Earth Without People". Additional research saw Weisman travel to England, Cyprus, Turkey, Panama, and Kenya. Interviews with academics quoted in the book include biologist E. O. Wilson on the Korean Demilitarized Zone, archaeologist William Rathje on plastics in garbage, forest botanist Oliver Rackham on vegetative cover across Britain, anthropologist Arthur Demarest on the crash of Mayan civilization, paleobiologist Douglas Erwin on evolution, and philosopher Nick Bostrom on Transhumanism.

Synopsis.

The book is divided into 27 chapters, with a prelude, coda, bibliography and index. Each chapter deals with a new topic, such as the potential fates of plastics, petroleum infrastructure, nuclear facilities, and artworks. It is written from the point of view of a science journalist with explanations and testimonies backing his predictions. There is no unifying narrative, cohesive single-chapter overview, or thesis.  Weisman's thought experiment pursues two themes: how nature would react to the disappearance of humans and what legacy humans would leave behind. To foresee how other life could continue without humans, Weisman reports from areas where the natural environment exists with little human intervention, like the Białowieża Forest, the Kingman Reef, and the Palmyra Atoll. He interviews biologist E. O. Wilson and visits with members of the Korean Federation for Environmental Movement at the Korean Demilitarized Zone where few humans have penetrated since 1953. He tries to conceive how life may evolve by describing the past evolution of pre-historic plants and animals, but notes Douglas Erwin's warning that "we can't predict what the world will be 5 million years later by looking at the survivors". Several chapters are dedicated to megafauna, which Weisman predicts would proliferate. He profiles soil samples from the past 200 years and extrapolates concentrations of heavy metals and foreign substances into a future without industrial inputs. Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and implications for climatic change are likewise examined.  With material from previous articles, Weisman uses the fate of the Mayan civilization to illustrate the possibility of an entrenched society vanishing and how the natural environment quickly conceals evidence. To demonstrate how vegetation could compromise human built infrastructure, Weisman interviewed hydrologists and employees at the Panama Canal, where constant maintenance is required to keep the jungle vegetation and silt away from the dams. To illustrate abandoned cities succumbing to nature, Weisman reports from Chernobyl, Ukraine (abandoned in 1986) and Varosha, Cyprus (abandoned in 1974). Weisman finds that their structures crumble as weather does unrepaired damage and other life forms create new habitats. In Turkey, Weisman contrasts the construction practices of the rapidly growing Istanbul, as typical for large cities in less developed countries, with the underground cities in Cappadocia. Due to a large demand for housing in Istanbul much of it was developed quickly with whatever material was available and could collapse in a major earthquake or other natural disaster. Cappadocian underground cities were built thousands of years ago out of volcanic tuff, and are likely to survive for centuries to come.  Weisman uses New York City as a model to outline how an unmaintained urban area would deconstruct. He explains that sewers would clog, underground streams would flood subway corridors, and soils under roads would erode and cave in. From interviews with members of the Wildlife Conservation Society and the New York Botanical Gardens Weisman predicts that native vegetation would return, spreading from parks and out-surviving invasive species. Without humans to provide food and warmth, rats and cockroaches would die off.  Weisman explains that a common house would begin to fall apart as water eventually leaks into the roof around the flashings, erodes the wood and rusts the nails, leading to sagging walls and eventual collapse. After 500 years, all that would be left would be aluminum dishwasher parts, stainless steel cookware, and plastic handles. The longest-lasting evidence on Earth of a human presence would be radioactive materials, ceramics, bronze statues, and Mount Rushmore. In space, the Pioneer plaques, the Voyager Golden Record, and radio waves would outlast the Earth itself.  Breaking from the theme of the natural environment after humans, Weisman considers what could lead to the sudden, complete demise of humans without serious damage to the built and natural environment. That scenario, he concludes, is extremely unlikely. He also considers transhumanism, the Voluntary Human Extinction Movement, the Church of Euthanasia and John A. Leslie's "The End of the World: the Science and Ethics of Human Extinction". Weisman concludes the book considering a new version of the one-child policy. While he admits it is a "draconian measure", he states, "The bottom line is that any species that overstretches its resource base suffers a population crash. Limiting our reproduction would be damn hard, but limiting our consumptive instincts may be even harder." He responded to criticism of this saying "I knew in advance that I would touch some people's sensitive spots by bringing up the population issue, but I did so because it's been missing too long from the discussion of how we must deal with the situation our economic and demographic growth have driven us too (sic)".

Publication.

The book was first published on July 10, 2007, as a hardback in the United States by St. Martin's Thomas Dunne Books, in United Kingdom by Virgin Books and in Canada by HarperCollins. The paperback was released in July 2008. It has been translated and published in Denmark by Borgen as "Verden uden os", France by Groupe Flammarion as "Homo disparitus", in Germany by Piper as "Die Welt ohne uns", in Portugal by Estrela Polar as "O Mundo Sem Nós", in Italy by Einaudi as "Il mondo senza di noi", in Poland by CKA as "Świat bez nas", and in Japan by Hayakawa Publishing as "Jinrui ga kieta sekai" (人類が消えた世界 ; "A World where the Human Race has Disappeared").  Pete Garceau designed the cover art for the American release, which one critic said was "a thick layer of sugar-coated sweetness in an effort to not alarm potential readers. 'Yes, I am a book about the environment. But I'm harmless! No, really!' " The Canadian version, designed by Ellen Cipriano, is similar to the American version but with a photo illustration rather than the disarming cartoon illustration. Cover art for the international releases contrast the natural environment with a decaying built environment. Adam Grupper voiced the ten-hour-long, unabridged English language audiobook which was published by Macmillan Audio and BBC Audiobooks, and released simultaneously with the hardcover book. AudioFile gave the audio presentation its Earphones Award, called Grupper's reading sincere and balanced, and wrote, "Never veering into sensationalism, always objective and phlegmatic, Grupper takes what could be a depressing topic and makes it a book you just can't stop listening to".

Reception.

As the book was released Weisman launched his book tour with stops throughout the United States, Canada and overseas to Lisbon and Brussels. Weisman did television interviews on "The Daily Show" and "The Today Show" and radio interviews on "Weekend Edition", "Talk of the Nation", "The Diane Rehm Show", "Living on Earth", "Marketplace", and "As It Happens". Meanwhile, the book debuted on the New York Times Best Seller list for non-fiction hardcovers at #10 on July 29 and spent nine weeks in the top ten, peaking at #6 on August 12 and September 9. In the Canadian market, it spent 10 weeks on "The Globe and Mail"'s non-fiction best seller list, peaking at #3 on August 11. The book reached #1 on the "San Francisco Chronicle" Best-Sellers list for non-fiction on September 23 and spent 11 weeks on the "USA Today"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Top 150 Best-Selling Books, peaking at #48. Reviewers at the Library Journal recommended the book for all environmental collections and the audiobook for most public and academic library audiobook collections. The book ranked #1 on "Time" and "Entertainment Weekly's" top of 2007 and was listed in the Hudson Booksellers' "Best Books published in 2007". In the Amazon.com "Best Books of 2007", it placed #4 overall in the United States and #1 in the non-fiction category in Canada.  The writing style was positively received as being vivid and well-written, sometimes grim, but with appropriate language. Even an overall negative review by Michael Grunwald in "The Washington Post" remarked the writing was "always lucid, sometimes elegant". In "The New York Times Book Review" Jennifer Schuessler said Weisman has a "flirtation with religious language, his occasionally portentous impassivity giving way to the familiar rhetoric of eco-hellfire". Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" found the writing had "an arid, plain, what-if style" while being "strangely uniform in tone". On the reporting techniques, Kamiya wrote that "[Weisman's] science reporting, at once lucid and full of wonder... is the heart and soul of this book" and that it is "written as if by a compassionate and curious observer on another planet". "The Plain Dealer" book editor Karen Long said Weisman "uses the precise, unhurried language of a good science writer and shows a knack for unearthing unexpected sources and provocative facts".  Several critics found the lack of an anthropomorphic point of view hurt the book's relevance. Robert Braile in "The Boston Globe" wrote that it has "no real context... no rationale for probing this fantasy other than [Weisman's] unsubstantiated premise that people find it fascinating". Michael Grunwald in "The Washington Post" also questioned the premise: "Imagining the human footprint on a post-human planet might be fun for dormitory potheads who have already settled the questions of God's existence and Fergie's hotness, but it's not clear why the rest of us need this level of documentary evidence". On the other hand, Alanna Mitchell in the "Globe and Mail" review found relevance in the context of society's passiveness to resource depletion combined with an anthropomorphic vanity. She writes the "book [is] designed to help us find the how of survival by shaking us out of our passive dance with death".  The book's environmental focus was also criticized by some. Christopher Orlet of "The American Spectator" wrote that it is "a prime example of the wrongheaded, extremist views of the Greens". Braile agrees that the book could be "an environmentalist's nightmare, possibly fueling the cheap shots taken at the green movement... by critics who say environmentalists care more about nature than people". Environmentalist Alex Steffen found the book presents nothing new, but that using the sudden and clean disappearance of humans provides a unique framework, although extremely unlikely and insensitive. Two critics who call the book a "Jeremiad" ultimately gave it a positive review. "The Guardian" says "we learn during the course of this book, to feel good about the disappearance of humanity from the Earth".  Other critics hailed the environmental perspective. Chauncey Mabe of the "South Florida Sun-Sentinel" calls the book "one of the most satisfying environmental books of recent memory, one devoid of self-righteousness, alarmism or tiresome doomsaying". Tom Spears of the CanWest News Service concludes "it's more a portrait of ourselves, taken through an odd lens" and "[s]ometimes an obituary is the best biography".

Genre.

The book is categorized as non-fiction science but some commentators emphasize it may be better described as speculative fiction. "The World Without Us" is grounded in environmental and science journalism. Like other environmental books, it discusses the impact that the human race has had on the planet. Weisman's thought experiment removes the judgments and sufferings of humans by focusing on a hypothetical post-human world. This approach to the genre, which "throw[s] the spotlight on the earth itself", was found to be creative and objective. There have been other books that address similar topics, such as Gregory Benford's 1999 book "Deep Time: How Humanity Communicates Across Millennia". Science fiction writers such as H. G. Wells ("The War of the Worlds", 1898) and John Wyndham ("The Day of the Triffids", 1951) had earlier touched upon the possible fate of cities and other man-made structures after the sudden removal of their creators. Similar parallels in the decay of civilization are detailed in 1949 post-apocalyptic science fiction novel by Berkeley English professor George R. Stewart, "Earth Abides."  Addressing his approach, Weisman said that eliminating the human element eliminated the "fear factor" that people are doing something wrong or that they will die; it is meant to be read as a fantasy, according to the author. Josie Appleton of "Spiked" related the book to "today's romanticisation of nature" in that it linked "the decadence and detachment of a modern consumerist society" with an ignorance of the efforts required to produce products so easily disposed. Appleton also felt the book countered the "Nature knows best" notion by highlighting the randomness of natural forces.  Weisman's science journalism style uses interviews with academic and professional authorities to substantiate conclusions, while maintaining the "cool and dispassionate [tone]...of a scientific observer rather than an activist". Weisman said he purposely avoided the activist label: "Some of our finest science and nature writers only get read by people who already agree with them. It's nice to get some affirmation for whatever it is you believe is true, even if it's quite sobering, but I wanted to write something that people would read... without minimizing the significance of what's going on, nor trivializing it, nor oversimplifying it." Richard Fortey compares the book to the works of Jared Diamond, Tim Flannery and E.O. Wilson, and writes that "The World Without Us" "narrowly avoids engendering the gloom-and-doom ennui that tends to engulf the poor reader after reading a catalogue of human rapacity". Mark Lynas in the "New Statesman" noted that "whereas most environmental books sag under the weight of their accumulated bad news, "The World Without Us" seems refreshingly positive". Demonstrating the optimism on the grim subject matter Appleton quotes an ecologist from the book saying "if the planet can recover from the Permian, it can recover from the human".

In popular culture.

There have been several TV specials relating to the same topic:  The 2009 hip-hop song "The High Line" by Kinetics & One Love, inspired by "The World Without Us", is a pro-green, anti-deforestation song that paints the picture of trees and plants reclaiming the buildings of New York City long after the presence of humans. Like author Alan Weisman, rapper Kinetics uses the High Line railway in Manhattan as an example of nature’s potential for reclamation of manmade structures.  The 2013 video game "The Last of Us", which takes place twenty years after an apocalyptic event, uses "The World Without Us" as inspiration for the look of the city settings.  The 2017 video game "", which considers the Earth devoid of humanity for several hundreds of years, draws heavy inspiration from "The World Without Us"'s depictions of cities and former civilisation habitats in its level design.  In 2009 20th Century Fox purchased the rights to the book with the intent of creating a motion picture.

The World Without Us is a 2007 non-fiction book about what would happen to the natural and built environment if humans suddenly disappeared, written by American journalist Alan Weisman and published by St. Martin's Thomas Dunne Books. It is a book-length expansion of Weisman's own February 2005 "Discover" article "Earth Without People". Written largely as a thought experiment, it outlines, for example, how cities and houses would deteriorate, how long man-made artifacts would last, and how remaining lifeforms would evolve. Weisman concludes that residential neighborhoods would become forests within 500 years, and that radioactive waste, bronze statues, plastics, and Mount Rushmore would be among the longest-lasting evidence of human presence on Earth.

《没有我们的世界》(英语:The World Without Us)是一部探讨如果人类突然销声匿迹,自然和人为影响的环境将会怎样变化从而适应这个没有人类的世界的非小说图书。本书作者是美国记者艾伦·韦斯曼(英语:Alan Weisman),本书在2007年由英语:St. Martin's Thomas Dunne Books出版。《没有我们的世界》的简体中文版本由赵舒静翻译,上海科学技术文献出版社出版。


Context and origin.

The case began in 1675 after the trial of Madame de Brinvilliers, who was accused of having conspired with her lover, army captain Godin de Sainte-Croix, to poison her father Antonine Dreux d'Aubray in 1666 and two of her brothers, Antoine d'Aubray and François d'Aubray, in 1670, in order to inherit their estates. There were also rumours that she had poisoned poor people during her visits in hospitals.  After being accused she fled, but was arrested in Liège. Madame de Brinvilliers was tortured and confessed, was sentenced to death, and on 17 July was tortured with the water cure (forced to drink sixteen pints of water), beheaded, and her body burned at the stake. Her alleged accomplice Sainte-Croix did not face charges because he had died of natural causes in 1672.  The sensational trial drew attention to a number of other mysterious deaths, starting a number of rumours. Prominent people, including Louis XIV, became alarmed that they might be poisoned.

Implications and investigation.

The affair proper opened in February 1677 after the arrest of Magdelaine de La Grange on charges of forgery and murder. La Grange appealed to François Michel Le Tellier, Marquis of Louvois, claiming that she had information about other crimes of high importance. Louvois reported to the king, who told Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie, who, among other things, was the chief of the Paris police, to root out the poisoners. La Reynie sought to calm the king. The subsequent investigation of potential poisoners led to accusations of witchcraft, murder and more.  Authorities rounded up a number of fortune tellers and alchemists who were suspected of selling not only divinations, séances and aphrodisiacs, but also "inheritance powders" (a euphemism for poison). Some of them confessed under torture and gave authorities lists of their clients, who had allegedly bought poison to get rid of their spouses or rivals in the royal court.  The most famous case was that of the midwife Catherine Deshayes Monvoisin or "La Voisin", who was arrested in 1679 after she was incriminated by the poisoner Marie Bosse. La Voisin implicated a number of important individuals in the French court. These included Olympia Mancini, the Countess of Soissons, her sister the Duchess of Bouillon, François Henri de Montmorency, Duke of Luxembourg and, most importantly, the king's mistress, Madame de Montespan.  Questioned while intoxicated, La Voisin claimed that Montespan had bought aphrodisiacs and performed black masses with her in order to gain and keep the king's favour over rival lovers. She had worked with a priest named Étienne Guibourg. There was no evidence beyond her confessions, but bad reputations followed these people afterwards. Eleanor Herman, in her book "Sex with Kings", claims that the police, given reports of "babies' bones", uncovered the remains of 2,500 infants in La Voisin's garden. However, Anne Somerset disputes this in her book "The Affair of the Poisons" and states there is no mention of the garden being searched for human remains.  Also involved in the scandal was Eustache Dauger de Cavoye, the eldest living scion of a prominent noble family. Cavoye was disinherited by his family when, in an act of debauchery, he chose to celebrate Good Friday with a black mass. Upon his disinheritance, he opened a lucrative trade in "inheritance powders" and aphrodisiacs. He mysteriously disappeared after the abrupt ending of Louis's official investigation in 1678. Because of this and his name, he was once suspected of being the Man in the Iron Mask. However, this theory has fallen out of favour because it is now known that he was imprisoned by his family in 1679 in the Prison Saint-Lazare.

The end of the trial.

La Voisin was sentenced to death for witchcraft and poisoning, and burned at the stake on 22 February 1680. Marshal Montmorency-Bouteville was briefly jailed in 1680, but was later released and became a captain of the guard. Minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert helped to hush things up.  De La Reynie re-established the special court, the "Chambre Ardente" ("burning court"), to judge cases of poisoning and witchcraft. It investigated a number of cases, including many connected to nobles and courtiers in the king's court. Over the years, the court sentenced 34 people to death for poisoning or witchcraft. Two died under torture and several courtiers were exiled. The court was abolished in 1682, because the king could not risk the publicity of such scandal. To this, Police Chief Reynie said "the enormity of their crimes proved their safeguard."

Aftermath.

Perhaps the most important effect of the scandal and subsequent persecutions was the expulsion from France of the Countess of Soissons. Her son remained in France, only to find that his mother's high-profile disgrace prevented him from realising his personal ambitions, as he was effectively barred from pursuing a military career. He would eventually leave France, nurturing a profound grudge against Louis XIV, and enter the service of France's sworn enemies the Habsburgs. Prince Eugene of Savoy, or Prinz Eugen, would, in time, come to be known as one of the greatest generals of the age and one of the factors behind the failure of Louis's bid for hegemony in Europe.

Condemned in the Poison Affair.

The Poison Affair implicated 442 suspects: 367 orders of arrests were issued, of which 218 were carried out. Of the condemned, 36 were executed; five were sentenced to the galleys; and 23 to exile. This excludes those who died in custody by torture or suicide. Additionally, many accused were never brought to trial, but placed outside of the justice system and imprisoned for life by a "lettre de cachet".  Of the people who were condemned to perpetual imprisonment by "lettre de cachet", six women were imprisoned at Château de Villefranche; 18 men at Château de Salces; 12 women at Belle-Île-en-Mer; ten men at Château de Besançon; 14 women at St Andre de Salins; and five women at Fort de Bains.

Professionals.

This lists people involved in the Poison Affair by being professionally involved in criminal activity. Their punishment is mentioned after their name and role.

Clients.

This lists people involved in the Poison Affair by being clients of the professionals above. Their punishment is mentioned after their name and role.

Similar incidents.

In October 1702 Marie-Anne de La Ville was arrested for having created a new organisation similar to the one of la Voisin, but because of Affair of the Poisons, she and her colleagues were never brought to trial, but imprisoned without trial on a lettre de cachet.

In fiction.

The organisation of La Voisin and the Affair of the Poisons is portrayed in a novel by Judith Merkle Riley: "The Oracle Glass" (1994).  The Affair of the Poisons is the leading thread throughout the second season of the French-Canadian TV series "Versailles". The series shows the courtiers being intoxicated with the powders and potions; even Madame de Montespan is portrayed as having a major role in the poisonings. In the fictionalization, La Voisin was altered to the character Agathe.

The Affair of the Poisons ("L'affaire des poisons") was a major murder scandal in France during the reign of King Louis XIV. Between 1677 and 1682, a number of prominent members of the aristocracy were implicated and sentenced on charges of poisoning and witchcraft. The scandal reached into the inner circle of the king. It led to the execution of 36 people.

投毒事件(),是一桩法国高层的宫廷贵族用黑弥撒和投毒的方法企图谋害当时的法国国王路易十四事件。1677年至1682年间许多上流社会的贵族成员因涉及传递药品和迷信巫术而被牵连并被巴黎高等法院判刑。当事件调查到路易十四的情妇蒙特斯潘侯爵夫人以及相关王室成员牵涉其中后,路易十四下令掩盖。