History.

1971–1975: Early years.

Kiss trace their roots to Wicked Lester, a New York City-based rock band led by Gene Simmons and Paul Stanley. They recorded one album, which was shelved by Epic Records, and played a handful of live shows. Simmons and Stanley, feeling a new musical direction was needed, abandoned Wicked Lester in 1972 and began forming a new group.  After abandoning the name Wicked Lester late in 1972, Simmons and Stanley came across an ad in the East Coast version of "Rolling Stone" placed by Peter Criss, a veteran drummer from the New York City scene who had previously played in the bands Lips and Chelsea. Simmons and Stanley met Criss in a nightclub where he was playing drums. After hearing Criss sing, they thought Criss should be in the new band they were forming. Criss then auditioned for, and later joined their new band. The trio focused on a much harder style of rock than what Wicked Lester played. They also began experimenting with their image, by wearing makeup and various outfits. In November 1972, the

1975–1978: Rise to prominence.

Kiss wanted to express the excitement felt at their concerts (which their studio albums had so far failed to do) with their first live album. Compiled from May–July concerts in Detroit, Cleveland and Wildwood, NJ and released on September 10, 1975, "Alive!" achieved Gold status and spawned Kiss' first top 40 single: a live version of "Rock and Roll All Nite". It was the first version of the song with a guitar solo, and this recording has become the best-known version. It is also the basis of most covers, such as the cover by Poison in 1987. In recent years the band admitted that additional audience noise had been added to the album, as

1978: Solo and film projects.

Kiss were at their commercial peak by 1978. "Alive II" was the band's fourth platinum album in just under two years, and the ensuing tour had the highest average attendance (13,550) in the group's history. In addition, Kiss' gross income for 1977 was $10.2 million. The group, along with manager Aucoin, sought to take the band to the next level of popularity. To that end, an ambitious, two-pronged strategy was devised for 1978.  The first part involved the simultaneous release of four solo albums from the members of Kiss. Although

1979–1983: Final make-up years.

Kiss' first album of new material in two years, "Dynasty" (1979), continued their platinum streak. The disco-flavored "I Was Made for Lovin' You" became one of the band's biggest hit singles to date, peaking at No. 11. Session drummer Anton Fig did almost all the percussion on the album while Criss recovered from an automobile accident. The only song to feature Criss' drumming was "Dirty Livin, on which he also sang lead.  Billed as "The Return of Kiss", the Dynasty Tour was expected by Kiss and their management to build on the success of previous tours. Plans were drawn up for a Kiss-themed traveling amusement park called "Kiss World", but were abandoned because of the immense costs involved; however, "The Return of Kiss" saw a marked decline in attendance.  The crowds on this tour were much younger than previous audiences had been, with many preadolescent children in Kiss make-up with their mothers and fathers (who were sometimes wearing the make-up themselves) in tow at most concerts. Kiss themselves did little to dissuade this new fan base, donning colorful costumes that reinforced a cartoonish image for these younger fans.  The fans were unaware of the dissension within the band. One very public indication of the heightened friction within the group was an infamous October 31, 1979 interview on Tom Snyder's late-night "The Tomorrow Show". During the episode, a visibly irritated Simmons and Stanley attempted, unsuccessfully, to contain the inebriated Frehley, whose frequent laughter and joking overshadowed the conversation between Snyder and the rest of the band. Criss made references to his large gun collection, to the chagrin of Simmons.  By the end of the "Dynasty" tour in December 1979, tensions between Criss and the rest

1983–1995: Unmasking.

Sensing it was time for a change, Kiss made the decision to abandon their trademark make-up and costumes. The band officially appeared in public without make-up for the first time since their very early days on a September 18, 1983, appearance on MTV, which coincided with the release of "Lick It Up". The tour to promote the new album and the unmasked band members began in Lisbon, Portugal, on October 11, 1983, at Pavilhão Dramático de Cascais, their first concert without make-up since early 1973. "Lick It Up" became Kiss' first gold record in three years, but the tour was even more sparsely attended than the previous one. Vincent did not get along with Simmons and Stanley, and he left the band at the conclusion of the tour in March 1984. Vincent's replacement was Mark St. John, a session player and guitar tutor.  With St. John, Kiss released the album "Animalize" on September 13, 1984. "Animalize" followed the success of

1995–2001: Reunion.

On August 9, 1995, Kiss joined the long line of musicians to perform on "MTV Unplugged". The band contacted Criss and Frehley and invited them to participate in the event. Both joined Kiss on stage for several songs at the end of the set: "Beth", "2000 Man", "Nothin' to Lose" and "Rock and Roll All Nite". The "Unplugged" appearance set off months of speculation that a possible reunion of the original Kiss lineup was in the works. In the weeks following the "Unplugged" concert, however, the band (with Kulick and Singer), returned to the studio for the first time in three years to record a follow-up to "Revenge". "" was completed in February 1996, but its release

2001–2008: Post-reunion.

On the eve of the Japanese and Australian leg of the Farewell Tour on January 31, 2001, Criss suddenly left the band once again, because he and the band could not come to agreement with his contract salary. Taking his place was previous Kiss drummer Singer who, in a move that was controversial among longtime fans, assumed Criss' Cat persona as the Farewell Tour continued.  With the band supposedly set to retire by early 2001, a career-encompassing collection entitled simply "The Box Set", consisting of 94 tracks on five CDs, was released in November of that year, while the summer saw perhaps the most outrageous item of Kiss merchandise yet – the Kiss Kasket. In introducing the Kiss Kasket, Simmons quipped, "I love livin', but this makes the alternative look pretty damn good."  On December 4, 2001, Kiss was one of the honorees at the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences ("The Recording Academy") Heroes Award ceremony, at the NARAS New York Chapter. NARAS has 12 chapters throughout the United States, hence 12 ceremonies throughout the year, with the honorees each being honored by the chapter closest to their residence. By receiving this honor, which NARAS has renamed the "Recording Academy Honors", Kiss effectively received NARAS' second-highest career honor, right behind the Lifetime Achievement Grammy Award.  Kiss was relatively quiet through the rest of the year, but 2002 started with some controversy as Simmons took part in a controversial interview on National Public Radio with host Terry Gross. In February 2002, Kiss (with Singer on drums and Frehley on lead guitar) performed during the closing ceremony of the 2002

2008–2012: "Sonic Boom" and "Monster".

More than 10 years after their last studio album, and following years of denials about ever wanting to do a new album, Stanley and Simmons changed their minds. In November 2008, Stanley stated to rock photographer Ross Halfin that a new Kiss album was in the works. Stanley himself would be the producer, and the album would have a "real 70s Kiss sound" to it. Later that month, Simmons and Stanley both publicly confirmed the information about a new Kiss album:  The band appeared on "American Idol" in May 2009, performing "Detroit Rock City" and "Rock and Roll All Nite" with Adam Lambert.  In October 2009, a new studio album, titled "Sonic Boom", was released. It included a CD of new material, re-recorded versions of famous Kiss hits (previously released as "Jigoku-Retsuden", a Japanese exclusive album in 2008) and a live DVD recorded in Buenos Aires, Argentina. "Modern Day

2013–2015: 40th anniversary, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and international collaboration.

On October 16, 2013, Kiss was again announced as a nominee for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and was subsequently announced as an inductee on December 17.  In 2013, Kiss purchased a share of an Arena Football League expansion franchise set to begin play at the Honda Center in Anaheim, California, in 2014. Simmons, Stanley and manager McGhee jointly owned the team, called the Los Angeles Kiss. Both Simmons and Stanley are known fans of the AFL. The LA Kiss offered National Football League free agent quarterback Tim Tebow a contract to join their team and play in the AFL, but he did not join. The team folded in 2016.  In 2014, Kiss toured as co-headliners with Def Leppard. After Simmons toured with Joe Elliott in South America, the two talked about their bands working together. From June 23 to August 31, 2014, the bands toured 42 cities, with a dollar per ticket donated to

2016–present: Freedom to Rock Tour, possible twenty-first album and final tour.

In 2016, Kiss conducted a summer tour, titled the Freedom to Rock Tour, of less frequented cities and smaller venues. The tour ran throughout the summer, with opening acts Caleb Johnson and the Dead Daisies. On December 13, 2016, Kiss performed during the season 11 finale of "The Voice", accompanied by the season winner Sundance Head.  There had been conflicting stories regarding whether Kiss would record another album. Simmons had said "yes" in interviews, saying that he had songs written and lined up for a new album. Stanley and Thayer dispute this however and say that they did not

Musical style.

Kiss have typically been classified under the genres of hard rock, shock rock, and heavy metal. Most of their '70s albums, particularly the first six released between 1974 and 1977 as well as 1982's "Creatures of the Night" and 1984's "Animalize", featured a hard rock or traditional heavy metal style. 1979's "Dynasty" and 1980's "Unmasked" featured a more disco/pop rock sound, and 1981's "Music from "The Elder"" found the band dabbling in progressive rock. In 1983, starting with "Lick It Up" and the removal of their trademark make-up, the band began incorporating elements of glam metal into their sound and visual image. Later, in the early 1990s, their sound grew heavier

Influences.

Kiss was strongly influenced by Alice Cooper and the New York Dolls, while Gene Simmons states "their musical heart and soul lies in England". The Beatles and the trio of rock guitarists Jimmy Page, Eric Clapton and Jeff Beck were among the British acts he praised, with Simmons stating, "I've ripped off so many English riffs, if the British influence wasn't there, we wouldn't be here. 'Rock and Roll All Nite' is a direct bastard child of Slade's 'Mama Weer All Crazee Now'". In his book, "Kiss and Make-Up", Simmons wrote of the glam rock group Slade, "...

Members.

Current

Makeup designs.

The band are famous for their iconic makeup designs, each of which represents a different character or persona. The current lineup consists of the original 4 designs: the "Starchild", the "Demon", the "Spaceman" and the "Catman". The band formerly included a practice of giving any new members a new persona, such as "The Fox" for Carr and "The Ankh Warrior" for Vincent; this practice was ended after Singer and Thayer took up Frehley's "Spaceman" and Criss's "Catman" personas. When asked on the matter, Simmons stated "Why wouldn't we use the classic makeup? We own it". Criss relinquished his rights to his makeup when he left the band in 2004, which he later regretted, saying "I'm pissed at myself that my makeup slipped through my hands"; while Frehley claims he licensed his design to the band and would get it back, a notion which Stanley has called "a fantasy".  During 1973–74, Stanley occasionally used an alternative makeup design called the "Bandit" for select photo-shoots and live shows after Neil Bogart, head of Casablanca Records, suggested to him that he use a design that was symmetrical with the rest of the band's faces. During this time, he was also still using the Starchild makeup— sometimes even using both designs at the same photo-shoots. In 1974, he stopped using the Bandit design permanently. Criss used a drastically different variation of his Catman makeup on the cover of their debut album, dubbed the "Pantomime Cat", after Criss allowed the makeup artist at the shoot to use their own ideas instead of following the usual design. Carr was originally going to be the "Hawk", a design which Simmons recalled in his autobiography looked like Big Bird from Sesame Street. One photo of Carr wearing this proposed design exists today and one of a mannequin Stanley set up wearing the proposed makeup and outfit. Unlike the Bandit and Pantomime Cat, this alternative design was never used in any official capacity. The Hawk design was also considered for Vincent and Singer.  St. John and Kulick were members of Kiss only during the non-makeup period. Kulick stated had he ever worn makeup in the band, he would have liked to have been the "Dog": "I figure that since there's already a cat in the band, I should probably be the dog. I'd have a big circle around one eye and I'd look like Petey from the Little Rascals. I've actually seen one or two fan renditions of what that might look like, so yeah, I'd be the dog." The four original makeup designs have been registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, with ownership and licensing rights held by Simmons and Stanley.

Kiss (often stylized as KI"ϟϟ") is an American rock band formed in New York City in January 1973 by Paul Stanley, Gene Simmons, Peter Criss, and Ace Frehley. Well known for its members' face paint and stage outfits, the group rose to prominence in the mid-to-late 1970s with their elaborate live performances, which featured fire breathing, blood-spitting, smoking guitars, shooting rockets, levitating drum kits, and pyrotechnics. The band has gone through several lineup changes, with Stanley and Simmons being the only members to feature in every lineup. The original and best-known lineup consists of Stanley (vocals and rhythm guitar), Simmons (vocals and bass), Frehley (lead guitar and vocals), and Criss (drums and vocals)

接吻乐团(英语:KISS)是美国的摇滚/重金属乐团,1973年成立于纽约。以其特殊的脸部妆容、舞台服装、精心制作的现场表演闻名于世,包括口中喷火、砸吉他、吐血、吊钢丝飞天、空降、冒烟吉他、飞天吉他、爆破烟火、悬浮式鼓座等。该乐团已经经历了几次阵容变更,其中保罗·史丹利和吉恩·西蒙斯是仅剩的原创成员。最初和最经典的阵容是保罗·史丹利(节奏吉他手)、吉恩·西蒙斯(贝斯手)、艾斯·弗利(主奏吉他手)以及彼得·克里斯(鼓手),每个成员都有负责歌唱的部分。他们的招牌脸部装扮和华丽服装独具风格,妆容也有个别主题(如恶魔、猫人、太空人、星之子、狐狸),给予世人不可磨灭的强烈印象。由于音乐创作上的意见分歧、乐团面临首次低潮,艾斯·弗利和彼得·克里斯在1982年离开乐团。


Life.

Early years.

Chabrier was born in Ambert, (Puy-de-Dôme), a town in the Auvergne region of central France. He was the only son of a lawyer, Jean Chabrier, and his wife, Marie-Anne-Evelina, "née" Durosay or Durozay. The Chabriers were of old Auvergne stock, originally of peasant origin (the surname comes from "chevrier" – goat-herd), but in recent generations merchants and lawyers had predominated in the family. A key member of the household was the boy's nanny Anne Delayre (whom he called "Nanine" and "Nanon"), who remained close to him throughout her life.  Chabrier began taking music lessons at the age of six; his early teachers were from cosmopolitan backgrounds: at Ambert he studied with a Carlist Spanish refugee called Saporta, and after the family moved to Clermont-Ferrand in 1852 he studied at the Lycée imperial with a Polish musician, Alexander Tarnovsky. The earliest of Chabrier's compositions to survive in manuscript are piano works from 1849. A piano piece, "Le Scalp!!!" (1856) was later modified into the "Marche des Cipayes" (1863). The first piece to which the composer gave an opus number was a waltz for piano, "Julia", op. 1, 1857.  Tarnovky advised Chabrier's parents that their son was talented enough to pursue a musical career, but Jean Chabrier was determined that his son should follow him into the legal profession. He moved the family to Paris in 1856, so that Chabrier could enrol at the Lycée Saint-Louis. From there Chabrier went on to law school, but did not neglect music, continuing his studies in composition, violin and piano. After graduating from the law school in 1861 he joined the French civil service at the Ministry of the Interior, where he worked for nineteen years.

Paris: dual harness.

Chabrier was well regarded at the ministry, but his passion was music, to which he devoted his free time. He continued his studies, with teachers including Edouard Wolff () (piano), Richard Hommer (violin), Théophile Semet () and Aristide Hignard (both composition). In a study of the composer published in 1935 Jacques-Gabriel Prod'homme commented that it would be wrong to class Chabrier as merely an amateur in this period: "For, while in quest of the technique of his art, he displayed a curiosity in the painting and literature of the'modernists' of his day that, among musicians, had few parallels."  From 1862 Chabrier was among the circle of the Parnassians in Paris. Among his friends were Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam and Paul Verlaine; with the latter he planned a comic opera in the fashionable style of Offenbach, "Vaucochard et fils Ier". He did not complete it, but four fragments (dating from about 1864 or 1865) have survived. His full-time official post severely restricted Chabrier's ability to compose large-scale works. He began an opera on a Hungarian historical theme entitled "Jean Hunyade", to a libretto by Henri Fouquier, but abandoned it, after completing four numbers, in 1867. In December 1872 he scored a success at a private theatre club, the Cercle de l'union artistique with a three-act opérette bouffe "Le Service obligatoire" written in collaboration with two other composers, and which according to Victorin de Joncières was acclaimed by the audience as undoubted proof of Chabrier's talent. Another attempt at operatic comedy, "Fisch-Ton-Kan", with Verlaine and Lucien Viotti, was performed in March 1875 at the same club with Chabrier at the piano; five fragments survive. He did not set any poems by Villiers de L'Isle Adam or Verlaine, although the latter wrote a sonnet "À Emmanuel Chabrier" (published in "Amour", 1888) as a remembrance of their friendship. There are several descriptions of Chabrier's piano-playing at around this time; many years later the composer Vincent d'Indy wrote, "Though his arms were too short, his fingers too thick and his whole manner somewhat clumsy, he managed to achieve a degree of finesse and a command of expression that very few pianists – with the exception of Liszt and Rubinstein – have surpassed." The composer and critic Alfred Bruneau said of Chabrier, "he played the piano as no one has ever played it before, or ever will..." The wife of the painter Renoir, a friend of the composer, wrote: Both Chabrier's parents died within the space of eight days in 1869. During the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) and Commune, he continued in his official post as the ministry moved from Tours to Bordeaux then to Versailles. In 1873 he married Marie Alice Dejean, the granddaughter of Louis Dejean, who had gained his fortune as founder and manager of the Cirque d'été and the Cirque Napoléon. Alice and Chabrier had three sons, one of whom died at birth. Chabrier's friends in Paris included the composers Gabriel Fauré, Ernest Chausson, and d'Indy; painters including Henri Fantin-Latour, Edgar Degas and Édouard Manet, whose Thursday soirées Chabrier attended; and writers such as Émile Zola, Alphonse Daudet, Jean Moréas, Jean Richepin and Stéphane Mallarmé.  During the 1870s Chabrier began several stage works. The first to be completed was a three-act opéra-bouffe "L'étoile" (The Star), commissioned by the Bouffes-Parisiens, the spiritual home of Offenbach. He secured the commission through his many contacts in the world of arts and letters: he had met the librettists, Albert Vanloo and Eugène Leterrier through the painter Alphonse Hirsch, whom he had got to know as a member of Manet's set. The opera was modestly successful, running for 48 performances in 1877, but was not revived in his lifetime. Nonetheless it brought him to the attention of the press and attracted the publishing firm Enoch & Costallat, who published his works during the rest of his life. Above all, as a result of " L'étoile" he ceased to be regarded as a talented amateur. The same year Saint-Saens gave the first public performance of his 1865 Impromptu, his first piano piece of real importance with his personal stamp of originality.

Full-time composer.

Like many progressively-minded French composers of the time, Chabrier was greatly interested in the music of Wagner. As a young man he had copied out the full score of "Tannhäuser" to gain an insight into the composer's creative process. On a trip to Munich with Henri Duparc and others in March 1880, Chabrier first saw Wagner's opera "Tristan und Isolde"; he wrote to the personnel director at the ministry saying he had to go to Bordeaux on private matters, but in confidence confessed that for ten years he had wanted to see and hear Wagner's opera, and promised that he would back at his desk the following Wednesday. D'Indy, who was among the group, recorded that Chabrier was moved to tears at hearing the music, saying of the prelude, "I have waited ten years of my life to hear that A in the cellos".  This event led Chabrier to conclude that he must single-mindedly pursue his vocation as a composer, and after several periods of absence he left the Ministry of the Interior in late 1880. In a 2001 study, Steven Huebner writes that there may have been additional factors in Chabrier's decision: "the growing momentum of his musical career... his high hopes for the "Gwendoline" project, and the first signs of a nervous disorder, probably the result of a syphilitic condition, that would claim his life 14 years later."  The project to which Huebner refers was the operatic tragedy "Gwendoline", on which Chabrier had begun working in 1879. The librettist was Catulle Mendès, described by the pianist and scholar Graham Johnson as "a relentlessly ambitious member of the literary establishment". Mendès wrote texts that were set by at least seven French composers, including Fauré, Massenet, Debussy and Messager; none of his operatic works were successful, and Johnson rates the libretto for "Gwendoline" as "catastrophic". Chabrier worked on the piece until 1885.  The conductor Charles Lamoureux appointed Chabrier as his chorus master and répétiteur, and included his music in the Lamoureux Orchestra's concerts. In 1881 Chabrier's piano cycle "Pièces pittoresques" was premiered. César Franck commented, "We have just heard something extraordinary: this music links our time with that of Couperin and Rameau". Chabrier travelled to London (1882) and Brussels (1883) to hear Wagner's "Ring" cycle, and in 1882 Chabrier and his wife visited Spain, which resulted in his most famous work, "España" (1883), a mixture of popular airs he had heard and his own original themes. It was premiered under its dedicatee, Lamoureux, in November 1883. It met with what Poulenc calls "immediate and rapturous success", made Chabrier's reputation, and by public demand received multiple performances over the next months. Admirers included de Falla, who stated that he did not think any Spanish composer had succeeded in achieving so genuine a version of the jota as in the piece,  The Paris Opéra declined to present "Gwendoline", which was premiered at La Monnaie in Brussels under Henry Verdhurdt in 1886. It was well received, but closed after two performances because the impresario went bankrupt. William Mann wrote of the music that "in full, rapturous cognizance of mature Wagner", Chabrier composed "great music...such as the long solo and choral ensemble, 'Soyez unis', and all the love duet music, and there is more Frenchman than Wagner in them, above all in the final Liebestod".  While striving for a staging of his opera Chabrier was also working on some of his mature songs - Sommation irrespectueuse, Tes yeux bleus, Chanson pour Jeanne, Lied, as well as a lyric scene for mezzo, women's chorus and orchestra "La Sulamite" and the piano version of the Joyeuse Marche. He then found a new lyric project to tackle – "Le roi malgré lui" (The King in Spite of Himself) – and completed the score in six months. It was premiered at the Opéra-Comique in Paris, and a favourable reception seemed to promise a successful run, but the theatre burned down after the third performance. Through Chabrier's friendship with the Belgian tenor Ernest van Dyck and subsequently the conductor Felix Mottl, directors of opera houses in Leipzig and Munich expressed interest in both works and Chabrier made several happy trips to Germany as a result; his works were given in seven German cities. In July 1888 he was appointed as a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur.  Chabrier left a rich and exuberant body of correspondence; Myers sees the "letter-writer's gift of spontaneous self-expression, with no undertones of insincerity or of writing for effect". He expressed himself in "Rabelaisian language" and "laced with a profusion of racy slang". In 1994 the musical scholar Roger Delage, with Frans Durif and Thierry Bodin, produced a 1,300 page edition of the composer's correspondence, containing 1,149 letters, ranging from those to his family and Nanine, exchanges with contemporary friends in the musical world (sometimes with musical quotations), negotiations with publishers, and one a commiseration with his son André on the death of his pet bird (with gentle reproach for having over-fed the creature).

Decline and final years.

In his final years, Chabrier was troubled by financial problems caused by the collapse of his bankers, failing health brought on by the terminal stage of syphilis, and depression about the neglect of his stage works in France. The death of his beloved "Nanine" in January 1891 greatly affected him. In 1892, he wrote to his friend Charles Lecocq, "Never has an artist more loved, more tried to honour music than me, none has suffered more from it; and I will go on suffering from it for ever". He became obsessed with the composition of his final opera "Briséïs", which was inspired by a tragedy of Goethe and has melodic echoes of Wagner; he completed only one act. The Paris première of "Gwendoline", finally took place in December 1893. The composer, ailing physically and mentally, sitting in a stage box with his family, enjoyed the music but did not realise he had written it, nor did he understand that the applause was for him.  Chabrier succumbed to general paresis in the last year of his life, dying in Paris at the age of 53. Although he had asked to be buried near the tomb of Manet in the Cimetière de Passy, a plot was not available and he was interred in the Cimetière du Montparnasse. His widow and children also suffered from probable infection: she had severe eye problems, becoming almost blind, and, after Chabrier's death, became paraplegic, dying aged 51; the eldest son, Marcel, died at 35 having also displayed related symptoms, and the second son, Charles, died after only five weeks, the youngest, André, also became paraplegic and died also aged 35.

Works.

Vincent d'Indy called Chabrier "that great primitive... a very great artist". In "The Oxford Companion to Music" (2011), Denis Arnold and Roger Nichols write that Chabrier's lack of a formal musical education at one of the major conservatoires allowed him the freedom to "bypass the normal paths of French music of the 1860s, and to explore a new harmonic idiom and especially a novel way of writing for the piano". Chabrier's musical language introduced several striking features. Among them, Huebner singles out a liking for melodies of wide range with large leaps from one note to the next; frequent doubling of melodies by the bass or in octaves; a mixture of orthodox and unorthodox chromatic decoration; and frequent use of cross-rhythms and syncopation. Chabrier is reported to have said, "My music rings with the stamp of my Auvergnat clogs", and the pianist and scholar Roy Howat points to examples of this in fast stamping rhythms in the "Bourrée fantasque", the "Joyeuse marche" and several of the "Pièces pittoresques".

Orchestral.

Duparc and Ravel both had reservations about Chabrier's skills as an orchestrator in his early works; Poulenc disagreed, feeling that Chabrier was a master of orchestration from an early stage. Poulenc wrote, "The fact that Chabrier always composed at the piano – as did Debussy and Stravinsky – did not prevent him from finding a rare orchestral colour: a unique achievement at a time when Franck, d'Indy and Saint-Saëns hardly ever emerged from well-worn paths".  The work for which Chabrier is best known is his rhapsody "España", which became popular internationally (except in Spain, where it was not a success). The rhythmic verve of "España" is found also in the "Joyeuse marche", which goes further in orchestral invention. Not all of Chabrier's orchestral pieces are in this exuberant vein: his "Lamento" (1874), unpublished in his lifetime, is an unusually poignant work.  A few of Chabrier's piano works were later orchestrated. The composer arranged the four movements of the "Suite pastorale" from the ten "Pièces pittoresques". Chabrier began an orchestration of "Bourrée fantasque" in 1891 (completed in 1994 by Robin Holloway) but his friend and champion Felix Mottl orchestrated it in 1898, proving popular; he did the same for " Trois valses romantiques" in 1900, and in 1917-18 Ravel arranged the "Menuet pompeux" from the "Pièces pittoresques".

Stage works.

Chabrier's ebullient orchestral works have always been popular with the public and critics, but there is less agreement about his serious stage works, and in particular the influence of the music of Wagner. For some critics, the Wagnerian ethos and French sensibilities are simply incompatible, and consequently much of the music of "Gwendoline" and "Briséïs" has been denigrated; others have argued that Chabrier so transformed his influences that the music does not sound especially Wagnerian. Huebner puts the truth somewhere between the two, noting Wagner's influence in the similarities between "Gwendoline" and "The Flying Dutchman" and "Tristan and Isolde", but noting Chabrier's "un-Wagnerian concision", the retention of conventional self-contained numbers, and Chabrier's recognisable melodic and instrumental characteristics. He suggests that preoccupation with supposed derivativeness has deprived the repertory of works such as "Gwendoline" "with substantial musical and dramatic interest". "L'etoile", an opéra bouffe in three acts (1877) was Chabrier's first modestly successful opera, and is the most often revived. Although the plot was described by a reviewer in 2016 as "wilfully unfathomable and illogical", the libretto was professional and polished, in contrast with other libretti set by Chabrier. The critic Elizabeth Forbes calls the score, "light as thistle-down... in the best tradition of Offenbachian opéra bouffe, with each singer perfectly characterized in his or her music".  "Une éducation manquée" (An Incomplete Education), a one-act opérette about a young couple seeking essential advice on their wedding night, received a single private performance in 1879, and was not performed in public until 1913. Forbes wrote in 1992, "Why this charming little work had to wait so many years for a public performance remains a total mystery. The subject is treated with the greatest delicacy... Musically, the piece is quite enchanting, in particular the central duet for the two high voices, while the bass has a fine comic number."  Chabrier's only completed serious opera was "Gwendoline", composed between 1879 and 1885 and premiered in 1886. Mendès's libretto was a liability: Henri Büsser commented that it lacked the verve and movement the composer needed; Poulenc was dismissive of "Mendès' ineptitudes... balderdash"; and another critic wrote in 1996, "Mendes's dramaturgy is not only painfully thin but takes a long time to get under way". Arnold and Nichols comment that the work is considerably less Wagnerian than has often been supposed: "certainly the modal, asymmetrical, loosely articulated theme of the overture is individual to a degree". The music satisfied neither the pro- nor anti-Wagner lobby: Chabrier commented, "The "wagnérien" calls me a reactionary and the bourgeois considers me a "wagnérien"". The opera has been revived from time to time, but has not gained a regular place in the international repertory.  Arnold and Nichols write that some of Chabrier's best music went into his comic opera "Le Roi malgré lui" (Opéra-Comique, 1887), "but unfortunately the work is saddled with one of the most complex and incomprehensible librettos of all time". Ravel so loved the piece that he said he would rather have written it than Wagner's "Ring" cycle; reviewing a rare revival in 2003 the critic Edward Greenfield commented that despite the plot, the music made one see Ravel's point. After the same production, the critic Rupert Christiansen wrote, ""Le Roi malgre lui" doesn't know whether it's a Carry On farce by Offenbach or a nationalist epic by Wagner. Perhaps "grand operetta" is the best way of describing this problem piece".  Chabrier's last opera was "Briséïs", to another libretto by Mendès. Mortally ill, Chabrier could only complete the first of the projected three acts, and the remaining sketches were too inconclusive for any of his colleagues to attempt a completion. It was to have been a romantic tragedy, set in Corinth during time of the Roman Empire. The existing act is rarely staged, but a recording of a concert performance in 1994 has been issued on CD. Poulenc was unimpressed by the libretto, but Messager thought the music of "Briséïs" showed what heights Chabrier might have reached had he lived.

Piano.

Although the piano works are not the best known part of Chabrier's oeuvre, Poulenc put the cycle " Pièces pittoresques" on a par with Debussy's "Preludes" in its importance for French music. In his introduction to a 1995 edition of the piano works, Howat writes that it was Chabrier, more than any other composer, who restored to French music "the essential French traits of clarity, emotional vitality, wit and tenderness" when other French composers were under the influence of Wagner or of dry academicism.  Chabrier's early works were for piano solo, and in addition to a small corpus of about twenty completed mature works, some juvenilia have survived. Most of the piano pieces were published in the composer's lifetime, but five completed works and the unfinished "Capriccio" (1883) were issued posthumously.  Some of the mature works are better known in their later orchestral versions, including the "Joyeuse marche" and the four numbers from the "Pièces pittoresques" that make up the "Suite pastorale". The trip to Spain that inspired "España" also gave Chabrier the material for a "Habanera" (1885) which became one of his most popular piano works.  Among Chabrier's works for four hands is "Souvenirs de Munich". Although Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde" had made a deep impression on him, his irreverent nature led him to arrange five themes from the opera into a comic quadrille. Poulenc called it "irresistibly funny... Tristan's principal themes with false noses and added beards."  Vincent d'Indy wrote, after studying the "Trois valses romantiques" and playing them with the composer: "I thus worked on these three waltzes "con amore", doing my best to perform all the indications marked with the greatest precision... and there are many of them! In rehearsal, which was at Pleyel's, Chabrier stopped me dead in the midst of the first waltz, and, addressing me a look that was both amazed and arch, said: "But my dear boy it's not that at all!..." And, as not quite knowing how to react, I asked for explanations, he retorted: "You play that as if it were music by a Member of the Institute!..." And than I had a marvellous lesson in playing "alla Chabrier"; contrary accents, pianissimi to the point of extinction, sudden fire-crackers bursting out in the middle of the most exquisite softness, and also indispensable gesturing, giving over the body, too, to the intention of the music".  Chabrier was an important influence on Debussy, as he was later on Ravel and Poulenc; Howat has written that Chabrier's piano music such as "Sous-bois" and "Mauresque" in the "Pièces pittoresques" explored new sound-worlds of which Debussy made effective use 30 years later.

Songs.

There are forty-three published songs by Chabrier. He began writing songs – "mélodies" – when he was about twenty-one; the first nine were written between 1862 and 1866. Johnson comments that it is strange that in all his songs Chabrier never set anything by his friend Verlaine, but among the well-known poets whose verse Chabrier set in the early songs were Théodore de Banville ("Lied") and Alfred de Musset ("Adieux à Suzon").  In 1888 Chabrier made sixteen arrangements of French folk songs for an anthology called "Le plus jolies chansons du pays de France". He was among the first important composers to work with folk songs, a pioneer for Ravel, Bartók, Britten and others. Johnson writes that Chabrier's touch in these pieces is "deceptively light and restrained", but that the piano writing continually adds enormously to the charm of the music. A later group of songs (1889) with a linking theme is what Chabrier called his "poultry farm", to lyrics by Edmond Rostand and Rosemonde Gérard, with subjects including fat turkeys, little ducklings, pink pigs and chirping cicadas.  Most of the songs are for solo voice and piano, but there is one duet (the comic "Duo de l'ouvresse de l'Opéra-Comique", 1888) and in Chabrier's setting of Baudelaire's "L'invitation au voyage" (1870), the voice and piano are joined by a solo bassoon. Chabrier's last song, "Ode à la Musique", to words by Rostand, is for solo soprano, piano and female choir.

Influence.

The musicologist David Charlton evaluated his influence by saying "While the musical language of Reyer, Massenet and Saint-Saens presented syntheses of current practice, that of Emmanuel Chabrier (1841-1894) was a catalyst: his work became the cradle of French modernism".  Debussy, Ravel and Poulenc all acknowledged Chabrier's influence on their music. Debussy wrote in 1893 "Chabrier, Moussorgsky, Palestrina, voilà ce que j'aime" – they are what I love, and said that he could not have written "La Damoiselle élue" without Chabrier's "La sulamite" as a model. Huebner remarks on echoes of Chabrier in Debussy's "La soirée dans Grenade" in "Estampes", and the piano prelude "Général Lavine – excentric". The influence on Ravel is still more marked. In a 1975 study of the two composers, Delage wrote, "In truth there are few works by Ravel which do not to some extent echo one or another work of Chabrier and of which the harmonic procedures are not derived from him". Ravel paid explicit homage to Chabrier in his "A la manière de Chabrier", based on Chabrier's piano piece "Mélancolie".  Poulenc said that he had "L'étoile" in mind while he wrote "Les mamelles de Tirésias". Huebner comments that the influence of Chabrier on Poulenc and the other members of Les Six was particularly strong, although the later composers were more often drawn to the humorous, parodic side of Chabrier's oeuvre than to the romantic and serious. Other French composers whose music shows the influence of Chabrier include Charles Lecocq, Messager and Satie.  Composers from other countries who works show the influence of Chabrier include Stravinsky, whose "Petrushka" has thematic and melodic echoes of Chabrier, and Mahler, who called "España" "the beginnings of modern music" and alluded to the "Dance Villageoise" in the "Rondo Burleske" movement of his Ninth Symphony. Richard Strauss, who was an admirer of Chabrier, conducted the first stage performance of the one act of "Briséïs", and the critic Gerald Larner comments that Strauss was evidently influenced by the work when he came to compose his "Salome" eight years later.

Chabrier and art.

Chabrier was known for his continual contacts with contemporary artists, particularly painters of the Impressionist school. He left a rich collection of paintings by contemporary French painters; Edward Lockspeiser felt that "if ever it could be reassembled [the collection] would be rivalled, among collections of other composers, only by that of Chausson, which consisted largely of Delacroix". A sale of his collection at the Hôtel Drouot on 26 March 1896 included works by Cézanne, Manet, Monet, Renoir and Sisley.  Chabrier himself was frequently painted or sketched by his artist friends. Two of these portraits are reproduced above: a drawing of Chabrier at the piano (1887) by Édouard Detaille and Manet's "Portrait de Chabrier" (oil on canvas, 1881). He is seen at the piano in "Autour du piano" by Henri Fantin-Latour (right). Other portraits of Chabrier include a crayon drawing by James Tissot (1861); in the stage box in "L'orchestre de l'Opéra" by Degas (c. 1868); on the right of "Bal masqué à l'opéra" by Manet (1873), a pastel sketch by Manet (1880), a portrait by Marcellin Desboutin (c.1881) and a bust (1886) by Constantin Meunier.  Johnson comments that although it now seems extraordinary that the owner of such magnificent works of art should have money worries, this was before Impressionist paintings became sought-after and expensive, and "in any case, this was a composer who regarded his collection as a spiritual necessity rather than a financial asset". Chabrier was also a collector of avant-garde writing; as well as Verlaine, among others he sought out the works of Régnier, Willette and Gill.

Alexis-Emmanuel Chabrier (; 18 January 184113 September 1894) was a Romantic composer and pianist, born in Ambert, central France. His bourgeois family did not approve of a musical career for him, and he studied law in Paris and then worked as a civil servant until the age of thirty-nine while immersing himself in the modernist artistic life of the French capital and composing in his spare time. From 1880 until his final illness he was a full-time composer.

亚历克西斯-艾曼纽·夏布里耶(,1841年-1月18日-1894年-9月13日),法国浪漫主义作曲家。


Early life.

Guthrie was born in the Coney Island neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York, the son of the folk singer and composer Woody Guthrie and dancer Marjorie Mazia Guthrie. His sister is the record producer Nora Guthrie. His mother was a professional dancer with the Martha Graham Company and founder of the Committee to Combat Huntington's disease (later Huntington's Disease Society of America), the illness from which Woody Guthrie died in 1967. Arlo's father was from a Protestant family and his mother was Jewish. His maternal grandmother was the renowned Yiddish poet Aliza Greenblatt.  Guthrie received religious training for his bar mitzvah from Rabbi Meir Kahane, who would go on to form the Jewish Defense League. "Rabbi Kahane was a really nice, patient teacher," Guthrie later recalled, "but shortly after he started giving me my lessons, he started going haywire. Maybe I was responsible." Guthrie converted to Catholicism in 1977, before embracing interfaith beliefs later in his life. "I firmly believe that different religious traditions can reside in one person, or one nation or even one world," Guthrie said in 2015.  Guthrie attended Woodward School in Clinton Hill, Brooklyn, from first through eighth grades and later graduated from the Stockbridge School, in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in 1965. He spent the summer of 1965 in London, eventually meeting Karl Dallas, who connected Guthrie with London's folk rock scene and became a lifelong friend of his. He briefly attended Rocky Mountain College, in Billings, Montana. He received an honorary doctorate from Siena College in 1981 and from Westfield State College in 2008.  As a singer, songwriter and lifelong political activist, Guthrie carries on the legacy of his father. He was awarded the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience award on September 26, 1992.

"Alice's Restaurant".

On Thanksgiving Day 1965, while in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, during a break from his brief stint in college, 18-year-old Guthrie was arrested for illegally dumping on private property what he described as "a half-ton of garbage" from the home of his friends, teachers Ray and Alice Brock, after he discovered the local landfill was closed for the holiday. Guthrie and his friend Richard Robbins appeared in court, pled guilty to the charges, were levied a nominal fine and picked up the garbage that weekend.  This littering charge would soon serve as the basis for Guthrie's most famous work, "Alice's Restaurant Massacree", a talking blues song that lasts 18 minutes and 34 seconds in its original recorded version. Guthrie has pointed out that this was also the exact length of one of the infamous gaps in Richard Nixon's Watergate tapes, and that Nixon owned a copy of the record. The Alice in the song is Alice Brock, who had been a librarian at Arlo's boarding school in the town before opening her restaurant. She later opened an art studio in Provincetown, Massachusetts.  The song lampoons the Vietnam War draft. However, Guthrie has stated in multiple interviews that the song is more an "anti-stupidity" song than an anti-war song, adding that it is based on a true incident. In the song, Guthrie is called up for a draft examination and rejected as unfit for military service as a result of a criminal record consisting solely of one conviction for the aforementioned littering. Alice and her restaurant are the subjects of the refrain, but are generally mentioned only incidentally in the story (early drafts of the song explained that the restaurant was a place to hide from the police). Though her presence is implied at certain points in the story, Alice herself is described explicitly in the tale only briefly when she bails Guthrie and a friend out of jail. On the DVD commentary for the 1969 movie, Guthrie stated that the events presented in the song all actually happened (others, such as the arresting officer, William Obanhein, disputed some of the song's details, but generally verified the truth of the overall story).  "Alice's Restaurant" was the song that earned Guthrie his first recording contract, after counterculture radio host Bob Fass began playing a tape recording of one of Guthrie's live performances of the song repeatedly one night in 1967. A performance at the Newport Folk Festival on July 17, 1967, was also very well received. Soon afterward, Guthrie recorded the song in front of a studio audience in New York City and released it as side one of the album, "Alice's Restaurant". By the end of the decade, Guthrie had gone from playing coffee houses and small venues to playing massive and prestigious venues such as Carnegie Hall and the Woodstock Festival.  For a short period after its release in October 1967, "Alice's Restaurant" was heavily played on U.S. college and counterculture radio stations. It became a symbol of the late 1960s, and for many it defined an attitude and lifestyle that were lived out across the country in the ensuing years. Its leisurely finger-picking acoustic guitar and rambling lyrics were widely memorized and played by irreverent youth. Many stations in the United States have a Thanksgiving Day tradition of playing "Alice's Restaurant".  A 1969 film, directed and co-written by Arthur Penn, was based on the true story told in the song, but with the addition of a large number of fictional scenes. This film, also called "Alice's Restaurant", featured Guthrie and several other figures in the song portraying themselves. The part of his father Woody Guthrie, who had died in 1967, was played by actor Joseph Boley; Alice, who made a cameo appearance as an extra, was also recast, with actress Pat Quinn in the title role (Alice Brock later disowned the film's portrayal of her).  Despite its popularity, the song "Alice's Restaurant Massacree" is not always featured on the setlist of any given Guthrie performance. Since putting it back into his setlist in 1984, he has performed the song every ten years, stating in a 2014 interview that the Vietnam War had ended by the 1970s and that everyone who was attending his concerts had likely already heard the song anyway. So, after a brief period in the late 1960s and early 1970s when he replaced the monologue with a fictional one involving "multicolored rainbow roaches", he decided to do it only on special occasions from that point forward.

Musical career and critical reception.

The "Alice's Restaurant" song was one of a few very long songs to become popular just when albums began replacing hit singles as young people's main music listening. But in 1972 Guthrie had a highly successful single too, Steve Goodman's song "City of New Orleans", a wistful paean to long-distance passenger rail travel. Guthrie's first trip on that train was in December 2005 (when his family joined other musicians on a train trip across the country to raise money for musicians financially devastated by Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita, in the South of the United States). He also had a minor hit with his song "Coming into Los Angeles", which was played at the 1969 Woodstock Festival, but did not get much radio airplay because of its plot (involving the smuggling of drugs from London by airplane), and success with a live version of "The Motorcycle Song" (one of the songs on the B-side of the "Alice's Restaurant" album). A cover of the folk song "Gypsy Davy" was a hit on the easy listening charts.  In the fall of 1975 during a benefit concert in Massachusetts, Arlo Guthrie performed with his band, Shenandoah, in public for the first time. They continued to tour and record throughout the 1970s until the early 1990s. Although the band received good reviews, it never gained the popularity that Guthrie did while playing solo. Shenandoah consisted of (after 1976) David Grover, Steve Ide, Carol Ide, Terry A La Berry and Dan Velika and is not to be confused with the country music group Shenandoah. The Ides, along with Terry a la Berry, reunited with Guthrie for a 2018 tour. Guthrie has performed a concert almost every Thanksgiving weekend since he became famous at Carnegie Hall, a tradition he announced would come to an end after the 2019 concert.  Guthrie's 1976 album "Amigo" received a five-star (highest rating) from "Rolling Stone", and may be his best-received work. However, that album, like Guthrie's earlier Warner Bros. Records albums, is rarely heard today, even though each contains strong folk and folk rock music accompanied by widely regarded musicians such as Ry Cooder.  A number of musicians from a variety of genres have joined Guthrie onstage, including Pete Seeger, David Bromberg, Cyril Neville, Emmylou Harris, Willie Nelson, Judy Collins, John Prine, Wesley Gray, Josh Ritter, and others.

Acting.

Though Guthrie is best known for being a musician, singer, and composer, throughout the years he has also appeared as an actor in films and on television. The film "Alice's Restaurant" (1969) is his best known role, but he has had small parts in several films and even co-starred in a television drama, "Byrds of Paradise".  Guthrie has had minor roles in several movies and television series. Usually, he has appeared as himself, often performing music and/or being interviewed about the 1960s, folk music and various social causes. His television appearances have included a broad range of programs from "The Muppet Show" (1979) to "Politically Incorrect" (1998). A rare dramatic film part was in the 1992 movie "Roadside Prophets". Guthrie's memorable appearance at the 1969 Woodstock Festival was documented in the Michael Wadleigh film "Woodstock".  Guthrie also made a pilot for a TV variety show called "The Arlo Guthrie Show" in February 1987. The hour-long program included story telling and musical performances and was filmed in Austin, Texas. It was broadcast nationally on PBS. Special guests were Pete Seeger, Bonnie Raitt, David Bromberg and Jerry Jeff Walker.

Politics.

In his earlier years, at least from the 1960s to the 1980s, Guthrie had taken what seemed a left-leaning approach to American politics, influenced by his father. In his often lengthy comments during concerts his expressed positions were consistently anti-war, anti-Nixon, pro-drugs and in favor of making nuclear power illegal. However, he apparently did not perceive himself as the major youth culture spokesperson he had been regarded as by the media, as evidenced by the lyrics in his 1979 song "Prologue": "I can remember all of your smiles during the demonstrations... and together we sang our victory songs though we were worlds apart." A 1969 rewrite of "Alice's Restaurant" pokes fun at then-former President Lyndon Johnson and his staff.  In 1984, he was the featured celebrity in George McGovern's campaign for the Democratic presidential nomination in Guthrie's home state of Massachusetts, performing at rallies and receptions.  Guthrie identified as a registered Republican in 2008. He endorsed Texas Congressman Ron Paul for the 2008 Republican Party nomination, and said, "I love this guy. Dr. Paul is the only candidate I know of who would have signed the Constitution of the United States had he been there. I'm with him, because he seems to be the only candidate who actually believes it has as much relevance today as it did a couple of hundred years ago. I look forward to the day when we can work out the differences we have with the same revolutionary vision and enthusiasm that is our American legacy." He told "The New York Times Magazine" that he is a Republican because, "We had enough good Democrats. We needed a few more good Republicans. We needed a loyal opposition."  Commenting on the upcoming 2016 election, Guthrie identified himself as an independent, and said he was "equally suspicious of Democrats as I am of Republicans." He declined to endorse a candidate, noting that he personally liked Bernie Sanders despite disagreeing with Sanders' platform, and he praised Donald Trump for not relying on campaign donations, stating that he thought it "wonderful" that "he's [Trump] not in anyone's pocket," but did not believe that this necessarily means that Trump has the best interests of the country in mind.  In 2018, Guthrie contacted publication Urban Milwaukee to clarify his political stance. He stated "I am not a Republican," and expressed deep disagreement with the Trump administration's views and policies on immigration. Guthrie further clarified, "I left the party years ago and do not identify myself with either party these days. I strongly urge my fellow Americans to stop the current trend of guilt by association, and look beyond the party names and affiliations, and work for candidates whose policies are more closely aligned with their own, whatever they may be.... I don't pretend to be right all the time, and sometimes I've gone so far as to change my mind from time to time."

Legacy.

Like his father, Woody Guthrie, he often sings songs of protest against social injustice. He collaborated with poet Adrian Mitchell to tell the story of Chilean folk singer and activist Víctor Jara in song. He regularly performed with folk musician Pete Seeger, one of his father's longtime partners. Ramblin' Jack Elliott, who had lived for two years in the Guthries' home before Arlo left for boarding school, had absorbed Woody's style perhaps better than anyone; Arlo has been said to have credited Elliott for passing it along to him.  In 1991, Guthrie bought the church that had served as Alice and Ray Brock's former home in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, and converted it to the Guthrie Center, an interfaith meeting place that serves people of all religions. The center provides weekly free lunches in the community and support for families living with HIV/AIDS, as well as other life-threatening illnesses. It also hosts a summertime concert series and Guthrie does six or seven fund raising shows there every year. There are several annual events such as the Walk-A-Thon to Cure Huntington's Disease and a "Thanksgiving Dinner That Can't Be Beat" for families, friends, doctors and scientists who live and work with Huntington's disease.  One of the title characters in the comic strip "Arlo and Janis" is named after Guthrie. Cartoonist Jimmy Johnson noted he was inspired by a friend who resembled Guthrie to name one of his characters Arlo.

Personal life.

Guthrie resides in the town of Washington, Massachusetts, where he and Jackie Hyde, his wife of 43 years, were long time residents. Jackie died on October 14, 2012, shortly after being diagnosed with liver cancer. He also has a home in Sebastian, Florida.  Guthrie's son Abe Guthrie and his daughters Annie, Sarah Lee Guthrie, and Cathy Guthrie are also musicians. Abe Guthrie was formerly in the folk-rock band Xavier and has toured with his father. Annie Guthrie writes songs, performs, and takes care of family touring details. Sarah Lee performs and records with her husband Johnny Irion. Cathy plays ukulele in Folk Uke, a group she formed with Amy Nelson, a daughter of Willie Nelson.

Arlo Davy Guthrie (born July 10, 1947) is an American folk singer-songwriter. He is known for singing songs of protest against social injustice, and storytelling while performing songs, following the tradition of his father Woody Guthrie. Guthrie's best-known work is his debut piece, "Alice's Restaurant Massacree", a satirical talking blues song about 18 minutes in length that has since become a Thanksgiving anthem. His only top-40 hit was a cover of Steve Goodman's "City of New Orleans". His song "Massachusetts" was named the official folk song of the state in which he has lived most of his adult life. Guthrie has also made several acting appearances. He is the father of four children, who have also had careers as musicians.

阿洛·戴维·格思里(英语:Arlo Davy Guthrie,1947年-7月10日)是一位美国民谣歌手。他和他的父亲伍迪·格思里都以演唱抗争歌曲社会不公的歌曲而闻名。格思里最知名的歌曲是18分钟长的说唱蓝调-{zh-cn:《; zh-tw:〈}-爱丽丝的餐馆-{zh-cn:》; zh-tw:〉;}-。格思里成年后,长期居住在美国马萨诸塞州;他谱曲并演唱的歌曲-{zh-cn:《; zh-tw:〈}-马萨诸塞州 (阿洛·格思里歌曲)-{zh-cn:》; zh-tw:〉;}-被立为该州的官方民谣。


Design.

The "F28 Mark 0100" “Fokker 100” is based on the Fokker F28 Mark 4000 re-engined with two Rolls-Royce RB.183 Tay high by-pass ratio turbofans and a fuselage stretched by. Its wing is wider by, has new flaps and larger ailerons, and extended leading and trailing edges improve aerodynamics and increase the wing chord. The landing gear is strengthened and has new wheels and brakes, and the horizontal stabilizer is widened by. Maximum weights are increased while fuel capacity, max speed and ceiling remain the same, and passenger capacity went from 85 to 109. The flight deck went digital with a flight management system, an autopilot/flight director including CAT III autoland, thrust management system, electronic flight instrument displays and full ARINC avionics.  The new wing was claimed to be 30% more efficient in cruise while retaining the simplicity of a fixed leading edge. The cockpit was updated with a Rockwell Collins DU-1000 EFIS. Like the Fokker Fellowship, the Fokker 100 retained the twin rear fuselage-mounted engines and T-tail configuration, like the Douglas DC-9 family. It lacks the F28 eyebrow windows above the cockpit.

Development.

A Type Certificate was applied for on 25 March 1983. The program was announced in 1983. A pair of prototypes were built. On 30 November 1986 the first prototype, "PH-MKH", flew for the first time, while the second, "PH-MKC", followed on 25 February 1987.  The variant was approved on 20 November 1987. In February 1988 the first deliveries of the Tay 620-15 powered versions started to Swissair. Major customers included American Airlines with 75 orders, TAM Transportes Aéreos Regionais with 50 and USAir with 40, their aircraft were powered by the more powerful Tay 650-15. The March 1989 American Airlines order, valued at an estimated US $3.1 billion, was not only the largest single order ever placed at Fokker but also the largest-ever order from a Netherlands company.  During the early 1990s, Fokker and DASA explored a commercial relationship for regional aircraft. DASA purchased 40% of Fokker in 1993. However, by 1995, both Fokker and DASA were suffering financial difficulties, leading to DASA leaving the regional aircraft market. In June 1996, DASA sold the majority of Dornier to Fairchild Aircraft, leading to the creation of Fairchild Dornier, emerging as the third largest regional aircraft manufacturer.  Although the Fokker 100 was successful, Fokker accumulated losses for several years, contributing to its collapse in 1996. Fokker 100 production stopped in early 1997.

Potential revival.

Discussions regarding the potential for either portions or the entirety of Fokker being purchased by Bombardier Inc. are known to have taken place, but talks ultimately fell through without a deal being reached. Dutch firm Stork B.V. has since acquired the maintenance business for the type and has since been providing services to existing operators, having adopted the name "Fokker Aviation". Like any number of regional airliner designs, the Fokker 70/100 was being increasingly squeezed from below by stretched versions of the Bombardier and Embraer regional jets; this intense competitive pressure had also been responsible for killing off plans for the Fairchild Dornier 528JET/728JET/928JET along with an unnamed design being considered by ATR. At one point, there was a proposal for a stretched version of the Fokker 100, known as the "Fokker 130", however this was never built.  In 1999 it was announced that an Amsterdam-based group, Rekkof Restart ("Rekkof" is "Fokker" spelled backwards), had entered into negotiations with the intention of reopening both the Fokker 70 and 100 lines. During the 2000s, the Netherlands Aircraft Company (otherwise known as "NG Aircraft") was formed for the purpose of restarting production. However, the ambition has suffered some delays, including some false starts. In March 2010, NG Aircraft stated that it had securing funding from the Ministry of Economic Affairs to adapt an existing Fokker 100 to serve as a prototype for a planned improved new-build series; that same month the company announced its interest in converting existing aircraft to a proposed new-build equivalent standard, in addition to its primary focus of constructing wholly new Fokker 100s. In March 2011, it was announced that the government of Brazil had formed a partnership for the revival of the Fokker 100.  In July 2014 Maarten Van Eeghen, chief executive of NG Aircraft, revealed more details about the pending revival and the new generation of aircraft that would be produced. Dubbed the "F120NG", it would be a new-build aircraft, seating a maximum of 125 to 130 passengers, that would be essentially a stretched model of the base Fokker 100. It would adopt a new powerplant, the Pratt & Whitney PurePower PW1X17G turbofan engine rated at 17,600 lb thrust, which is claimed to result in the new generation airliner burning 50 per cent less fuel per seat than the original Fokker 100. It was claimed in 2014 that the earliest entry-to-service date for the F120NG would be 2019, based on a five-year development and testing programme after obtaining official clearance to proceed.

Operational history.

By 1991, Fokker had produced 70 units and had orders for more than 230. The aircraft joined the American Airlines fleet in August 1991. In 1993, an extended-range version of the Fokker 100, outfitted with additional fuel tanks in the centre fuselage, was introduced; it was followed by a quick-change passenger/freighter version in 1994, designated as the "Fokker 100QC". In 1993, a shortened version of the airliner was introduced, designated as the Fokker 70; this aircraft was intended as a replacement for the earlier Fokker F28 and featured the removal of 4.70 m (15.42 ft) of the fuselage and reduced seating to 80. Third party aircraft companies, such as Phoenix Aero Solutions, have since offered their own conversion programs to produce freights from former airliner configuration Fokker 100s. While studies were conducted on a proposed 130-seat "Fokker 130", this proposal ultimately did not reach further stages of development.  In 2000, to counter upstart Legend Airlines, American refitted five Fokker 100s in a 56-seat all-business class configuration to circumvent Wright Amendment long-haul flight restrictions from Dallas Love Field. The airline later added a sixth 56-seat Fokker, but after the September 11 attacks, the Love Field service was canceled and these aircraft were grounded.  In 2003, a Fokker 100EJ (Executive Jet) variant was introduced, these were remanufactured aircraft produced by Fokker Services as conversions from used Fokker 100 airliners. Priced at around $12 million, the Fokker 100EJ seated between 19 and 31 passengers in three different luxury configurations, all which featured galleys, while two were outfitted with shower-equipped master suites; additional features include an auxiliary fuel system to extend the aircraft's range by roughly 1,600 km. By late 2009, a total of six Fokker 100s were in VIP service, while a further two were used in a 50-seat corporate layout.  Following the end of production in 1997, existing Fokker 100 airliners continued to be supported and used by operators. However, in late 2002, American Airlines decided to retire its entire 74-aircraft fleet early, citing high operating costs; the jets would be phased out in 2004 and replaced with smaller but more economical regional jets operated by its American Eagle regional affiliates. As a consequence of the Great Recession of the late 2000s, a large number of the type were retired from airline service, some later returned to operations while a considerable portion were broken up instead. In March 2009, Mexicana announced that the confirmation of an agreement with Boeing to lease 25 Boeing 717s as a replacement for its fleet of 25 Fokker 100s. In September 2009, one of the last Asian operators of the type, Mandarin Airlines, phased out the last of its Fokker 100. According to maintenance and servicing company Fokker Services, Fokker 100 airliners constructed during the 1990s had been anticipated to be serviceable until 2035, while the type was expected to remain competitive without modification until at least 2020.  In August 2009, Australian airline Skywest Airlines announced that it would be outfitting its fleet of Fokker 100 and Fokker 70 aircraft with a new global navigation satellite system navigational suites; these had the advantage of enabling shorter approaches at night and in bad weather, saves time and fuel, and increases safety and schedule reliability, as well as increasing the number of usable airports by the type.  From 2015, the French DGA Essais en Vol had used the Fokker 100 as a flying testbed; it is referred to as the "ABE-NG", standing for "". It has replaced the DGA's previous testbed of choice, the Dassault Falcon 20 business jet, and has been outfitted with various systems of the Dassault Rafale fighter aircraft for testing purposes, including the Rafale's nose section, Thales RBE2 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar and optronics equipment, as well as a Reco NG targeting pod under the fuselage and a complement of MBDA Mica air-to-air missiles. The first aircraft, which was formerly used by Régional, is to be followed by four more used Fokker 100s.  In June 2015, Austrian Airlines, then one of the larger operators of the Fokker 100, announced its approval of a plan to procure used Embraer 195 regional jets to replace its inventory of Fokker 100 and Fokker 70 jets, which had an average age of 21 years across the fleet. In November 2015, Alliance Airlines announced that it would acquire the entire Austrian Airlines Fokker fleet of fifteen Fokker 100 and six Fokker 70 airliners.  Shortly after the crash of Bek Air Flight 2100 on 27 December 2019, the Government of Kazakhstan indefinitely suspended Fokker 100 operations in Kazakh airspace.

Operators.

Current operators.

Airlines.

As of April 2020, 128 aircraft were still in operational use with airlines. Many of them are used in Australia by Alliance Airlines, Virgin Australia Regional Airlines and QantasLink in support of the mining industry, with low utilisation rates for an airline, around 1,200 hours per year.

The Fokker 100 is a medium-sized, twin-turbofan jet airliner from Fokker, the largest such aircraft built by the company before its bankruptcy in 1996. The type possessed low operational costs and initially had scant competition in the 100-seat short-range regional jet class, contributing to strong sales upon introduction in the late 1980s.

福克100(Fokker 100)是由福克公司所制造的双发动机中型窄体飞机。由福克F28发展而来,是福克系列中载客量最多,机身最长的飞机。


Historical development.

The Modula-3 project started in November 1986 when Maurice Wilkes wrote to Niklaus Wirth with some ideas for a new version of Modula. Wilkes had been working at DEC just prior to this point, and had returned to England and joined Olivetti's Research Strategy Board. Wirth had already moved on to Oberon, but had no problems with Wilkes's team continuing development under the Modula name. The language definition was completed in August 1988, and an updated version in January 1989. Compilers from DEC and Olivetti soon followed, and 3rd party implementations after that.  Its design was heavily influenced by work on the Modula-2+ language in use at SRC and at the Acorn Computers Research Center (ARC, later ORC when Olivetti acquired Acorn) at the time, which was the language in which the operating system for the DEC Firefly multiprocessor VAX workstation was written and in which the Acorn Compiler for Acorn C and Modula Execution Library (CAMEL) at ARC for the ARX operating system project of ARM based Acorn Archimedes range of computers was written. As the revised Modula-3 Report states, the language was influenced by other languages such as Mesa, Cedar, Object Pascal, Oberon and Euclid.  During the 1990s, Modula-3 gained considerable currency as a teaching language, but it was never widely adopted for industrial use. Contributing to this may have been the demise of DEC, a key Modula-3 supporter (especially when it ceased to maintain it effectively before DEC was sold to Compaq in 1998). In any case, in spite of Modula-3's simplicity and power, it appears that there was little demand for a procedural compiled language with restricted implementation of object-oriented programming. For a time, a commercial compiler named CM3 maintained by one of the chief implementors prior at DEC SRC who was hired before DEC being sold to Compaq, an integrated development environment (IDE) named Reactor and an extensible Java virtual machine (licensed in binary code and source code formats and buildable with Reactor) were offered by Critical Mass, Inc., but that company ceased active operations in 2000 and gave some of the source code of its products to Software Solutions GmbH. Modula-3 is now taught in universities mostly in comparative programming language courses, and its textbooks are out of print. Essentially the only corporate supporter of Modula-3 is, which inherited the sources from Critical Mass and has since made several releases of the CM3 system in source and binary code. The Reactor IDE has been open source released after several years it had not, with the new name CM3-IDE. In March 2002, also took over the repository of another active Modula-3 distribution, PM3, until then maintained at the École Polytechnique de Montréal but which later continued by the work on HM3 improved over the years later until it was obsoleted.

Syntax.

A common example of a language's syntax is the "Hello, World!" program. All programs in Modula-3 have at least a module file, while most also include an interface file that is used by clients to access data from the module. As in other languages, a Modula-3 program must export a Main module, which can either be a file named Main.m3, or a file can call codice_1 to export the Main module. MODULE Foo EXPORTS Main Module file names are advised to be the same as the name in source code. If they differ, the compiler only emits a warning.  Other conventions in the syntax include naming the exported type of an interface codice_2, since types are usually qualified by their full names, so a type codice_2 inside a module named Foo will be named codice_4. This aids in readability. Another similar convention is naming a public object codice_5 as in the OOP examples above.

Language features.

Modularity.

First and foremost, all compiled units are either codice_6 or implementation codice_7s, of one flavor or another. An interface compiled unit, starting with the keyword codice_6, defines constants, types, variables, exceptions, and procedures. The implementation module, starting with the keyword codice_7, provides the code, and any further constants, types, or variables needed to implement the interface. By default, an implementation module will implement the interface of the same name, but a module may explicitly codice_1 to a module not of the same name. For example, the main program exports an implementation module for the Main interface. Any compiled unit may codice_11 other interfaces, although circular imports are forbidden. This may be resolved by doing the import from the implementation MODULE. The entities within the imported module may be imported, instead of only the module name, using the codice_12 syntax: Typically, one only imports the interface, and uses the 'dot' notation to access the items within the interface (similar to accessing the fields within a record). A typical use is to define one data structure (record or object) per interface along with any support procedures. Here the main type will get the name 'T', and one uses as in codice_13.  In the event of a name collision between an imported module and other entity within the module, the reserved word codice_14 can be used as in codice_15

Safe vs unsafe.

Some ability is deemed unsafe, where the compiler can no longer guarantee that results will be consistent; for example, when interfacing to the C language. The keyword codice_16 prefixed in front of codice_6 or codice_7, may be used to tell the compiler to enable certain low level features of the language. For example, an unsafe operation is bypassing the type system using codice_19 to copy the bits of an integer into a floating point codice_20 number.  An interface that imports an unsafe module must also be unsafe. A safe interface may be exported by an unsafe implementation module. This is the typical use when interfacing to external libraries, where two interfaces are built: one unsafe, the other safe.

Generics.

A generic interface and its corresponding generic module, prefix the codice_6 or codice_7 keyword with codice_23, and take as formal arguments other interfaces. Thus (like C++ templates) one can easily define and use abstract data types, but unlike C++, the granularity is at the module level. An interface is passed to the generic interface and implementation modules as arguments, and the compiler will generate concrete modules.  For example, one could define a GenericStack, then instantiate it with interfaces such as codice_24, or codice_25, or even interfaces to Objects, as long as each of those interfaces defines the properties needed by the generic modules.  The bare types codice_26, or codice_20 can't be used, because they are not modules, and the system of generics is based on using modules as arguments. By comparison, in a C++ template, a bare type would be used.  FILE: IntegerElem.i3 FILE: GenericStack.ig FILE: GenericStack.mg FILE: IntegerStack.i3 INTERFACE IntegerStack = GenericStack(IntegerElem) END IntegerStack. FILE: IntegerStack.m3 MODULE IntegerStack = GenericStack(IntegerElem) END IntegerStack.

Traceability.

Any identifier can be traced back to where it originated, unlike the 'include' feature of other languages. A compiled unit must import identifiers from other compiled units, using an codice_11 statement. Even enumerations make use of the same 'dot' notation as used when accessing a field of a record. INTERFACE A;  TYPE Color = {Black, Brown, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet, Gray, White};  END A; MODULE B;  IMPORT A; FROM A IMPORT Color;  VAR  BEGIN END B.

Dynamic allocation.

Modula-3 supports the allocation of data at runtime. There are two kinds of memory that can be allocated, codice_29 and codice_30, the difference being whether the garbage collector can see it or not. codice_31 is used to allocate data of either of these classes of memory. In an codice_16 module, codice_33 is available to free untraced memory.

Object-oriented.

Object-oriented programming techniques may be used in Modula-3, but their use is not needed. Many of the other features provided in Modula-3 (modules, generics) can usually take the place of object-orientation.  Object support is intentionally kept to its simplest terms. An object type (termed a "class" in other object-oriented languages) is introduced with the codice_34 declaration, which has essentially the same syntax as a codice_35 declaration, although an object type is a reference type, whereas RECORDs in Modula-3 are not (similar to structs in C). Exported types are usually named T by convention, and create a separate "Public" type to expose the methods and data. For example: INTERFACE Person;  TYPE T <: Public;  END Person.  This defines an interface codice_36 with two types, codice_2, and codice_5, which is defined as an object with two methods, codice_39 and codice_40. codice_2 is defined as a subtype of codice_5 by the use of the codice_43 operator.  To create a new codice_44 object, use the built in procedure codice_45 with the method codice_40 as  VAR jim := NEW(Person.T).init("Jim", 25); Modula-3's codice_47 construct provides a conceptually simple and clean yet very powerful mechanism for hiding implementation details from clients, with arbitrarily many levels of "friendliness". Use codice_47 to show the full implementation of the codice_36 interface from above. MODULE Person;  REVEAL T = Public BRANDED OBJECT OVERRIDES END;  PROCEDURE Age(self: T): INTEGER =  PROCEDURE Init(self: T; name: TEXT; age: INTEGER): T =  BEGIN END Person. Note the use of the codice_50 keyword, which "brands" objects to make them unique as to avoid structural equivalence. codice_50 can also take a string as an argument, but when omitted, a unique string is generated for you.  Modula-3 is one of a few programming languages which requires external references from a module to be strictly qualified. That is, a reference in module codice_52 to the object codice_53 exported from module codice_54 must take the form codice_55. In Modula-3, it is impossible to import "all exported names" from a module.  Because of the language's requirements on name qualification and method overriding, it is impossible to break a working program simply by adding new declarations to an interface (any interface). This makes it possible for large programs to be edited concurrently by many programmers with no worries about naming conflicts; and it also makes it possible to edit core language libraries with the firm knowledge that no extant program will be "broken" in the process.

Exceptions.

Exception handling is based on a codice_56...codice_57 block system, which has since become common. One feature that has not been adopted in other languages, with the notable exceptions of Delphi, Python, Scala and Visual Basic.NET, is that the codice_57 construct defined a form of switch statement with each possible exception as a case in its own EXCEPT clause. Modula-3 also supports a codice_59...codice_60...codice_61 construct that loops until an codice_60 occurs, a structure equivalent to a simple loop inside a codice_56...codice_57 clause.

Multi-threaded.

The language supports the use of multi-threading, and synchronization between threads. There is a standard module within the runtime library ("m3core") named Thread, which supports the use of multi-threaded applications. The Modula-3 runtime may make use of a separate thread for internal tasks such as garbage collection.  A built-in data structure codice_65 is used to synchronize multiple threads and protect data structures from simultaneous access with possible corruption or race conditions. The codice_66 statement introduces a block in which the mutex is locked. Unlocking a codice_65 is implicit by the code execution locus's leaving the block. The codice_65 is an object, and as such, other objects may be derived from it.  For example, in the input/output (I/O) section of the library "libm3", readers and writers (Rd.T, and Wr.T) are derived from MUTEX, and they lock themselves before accessing or modifying any internal data such as buffers.

Summary.

In summary, the language features: Modula-3 is one of the rare languages whose evolution of features is documented.  In "Systems Programming with Modula-3", four essential points of the language design are intensively discussed. These topics are: structural vs. name equivalence, subtyping rules, generic modules, and parameter modes like codice_69.

Standard library features.

Continuing a trend started with the C language, many of the features needed to write real programs were left out of the language definition and instead provided via a standard library set. Most of the interfaces below are described in detail in  Standard libraries providing the following features. These are called standard interfaces and are required (must be provided) in the language. Some recommended interfaces implemented in the available implementations but are not required  As in C, I/O is also provided via libraries, in Modula-3 called codice_72 and codice_73. The object-oriented design of the Rd (readers) and Wr (writers) libraries is covered in detail in the book by Greg Nelson. An interesting aspect of Modula-3 is that it is one of few programming languages which standard libraries have been formally verified not to contain various types of bugs, including locking bugs. This was done under the auspices of the Larch/Modula-3 (see Larch family) and Extended static checking projects at DEC Systems Research Center.

Implementations.

Several compilers are available, most of them open source.  Since the only aspect of C data structures that is missing from Modula-3 is the union type, all extant Modula-3 implementations are able to provide good binary code compatibility with C language type declarations of arrays and structs.

Books.

None of these books are still in print, although used copies are obtainable and some are digitized, partly or fully, and some chapters of one them have prior or posterior versions obtainable as research reports from the web.

Projects using Modula-3.

Software which is programmed Modula-3 includes:

Influences on other programming languages.

Although Modula-3 did not gain mainstream status, several parts of the DEC-SRC M3 distribution did. Probably the most influential part was the Network Objects library, which formed the basis for Java's first Remote Method Invocation (RMI) implementation, including the network protocol. Only when Sun moved from the Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) standard to the IIOP based protocol was it dropped. The Java documentation on garbage collection of remote objects still refer to the pioneering work done for Modula-3 Network Objects. Python's implementation of classes was also inspired by the class mechanism found in C++ and Modula-3.

Modula-3 is a programming language conceived as a successor to an upgraded version of Modula-2 known as Modula-2+. While it has been influential in research circles (influencing the designs of languages such as Java, C#, and Python) it has not been adopted widely in industry. It was designed by Luca Cardelli, James Donahue, Lucille Glassman, Mick Jordan (before at the Olivetti Software Technology Laboratory), Bill Kalsow and Greg Nelson at the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) Systems Research Center (SRC) and the Olivetti Research Center (ORC) in the late 1980s.

在计算机科学领域中,Modula-3是一种作为Modula-2继任者的,Modula-2的升级版被誉为Modula+的编程语言。虽然它已在研究界是有影响力的(影响的语言的设计,如Java,C#和Python)还没有在工业上被广泛采用。它是由Luca Cardelli, James Donahue, Lucille Glassman, Mick Jordan (before at the Olivetti Software Technology Laboratory), Bill Kalsow and Greg Nelson在上世纪80年代末数字设备公司(DEC)系统研究中心(SRC)和Olivetti研究中心(ORC)设计.


Examples.

Seigniorage is the positive return, or carry, on issued notes and coins (money in circulation). Demurrage, the opposite, is the cost of holding currency.  An example of an exchange of gold for "paper" where no seigniorage occurs is when a person has one ounce of gold, trades it for a government-issued gold certificate (providing for redemption in one ounce of gold), keeps that certificate for a year, and redeems it in gold. That person began with and ends up with exactly one ounce of gold.  In another scenario, instead of issuing gold certificates a government converts gold into non-gold standard based currency at the market rate by printing paper notes. A person exchanges one ounce of gold for its value in currency, keeps the currency for one year, and exchanges it for an amount of gold at the new market value. If the value of the currency relative to gold has changed in the interim, the second exchange will yield more (or less) than one ounce of gold (assuming that the value, or purchasing power, of one ounce of gold remains constant through the year). If the value of the currency relative to gold has decreased, the person receives less than one ounce of gold and seigniorage occurred. If the value of the currency relative to gold has increased, the person receives more than one ounce of gold; seigniorage did not occur.

Ordinary seigniorage.

Ordinarily, seigniorage is an interest-free loan (of gold, for example) to the issuer of the coin or banknote. When the currency is worn out the issuer buys it back at face value, balancing the revenue received when it was put into circulation without any additional amount for the interest value of what the issuer received.  Historically, seigniorage was the profit resulting from producing coins. Silver and gold were mixed with base metals to make durable coins. The British pound sterling was 92.5 percent silver; the base metal added (and the pure silver retained by the government mint) was, less costs, the profit – the seigniorage. Before 1933, United States gold coins were 90 percent gold and 10 percent copper. To make up for the lack of gold, the coins were over-weighted. A one-ounce Gold American Eagle will have as much of the alloy as needed to contain a total of one ounce of gold (which will be over one ounce). Seigniorage is earned by selling the coins above the melt value in exchange for guaranteeing the weight of the coin.  Under the rules governing the monetary operations of major central banks (including the Federal Reserve), seigniorage on banknotes is the interest payments received by central banks on the total amount of currency issued. This usually takes the form of interest payments on treasury bonds purchased by central banks, putting more dollars into circulation. If the currency is collected, or is otherwise taken permanently out of circulation, the currency is never returned to the central bank; the issuer of the currency keeps the seigniorage profit by not having to buy back worn-out currency at face value.

Solvency constraints of central banks.

The solvency constraint of a standard central bank requires that the present discounted value of its net non-monetary liabilities (separate from monetary liabilities accrued through seigniorage attempts) be zero or negative in the long run. Its monetary liabilities are liabilities in name only, since they are irredeemable. The holder of base money cannot insist on the redemption of a given amount into anything other than the same amount of itself, unless the holder of the base money is another central bank reclaiming the value of its original interest-free loan.

Seigniorage as a tax.

Economists regard seigniorage as a form of inflation tax, returning resources to the currency issuer. Issuing new currency, rather than collecting taxes paid with existing money, is considered a tax on holders of existing currency. Inflation of the money supply causes a general rise in prices, due to the currency's reduced purchasing power.  This is a reason offered in support of free banking, a gold or silver standard, or (at a minimum) the reduction of political control of central banks, which could then ensure currency stability by controlling monetary expansion (limiting inflation). Hard-money advocates argue that central banks have failed to attain a stable currency. Orthodox economists counter that deflation is difficult to control once it sets in, and its effects are more damaging than modest, consistent inflation.  Banks (or governments) relying heavily on seigniorage and fractional reserve sources of revenue may find them counterproductive. Rational expectations of inflation take into account a bank's seigniorage strategy, and inflationary expectations can maintain high inflation. Instead of accruing seigniorage from fiat money and credit, most governments opt to raise revenue primarily through formal taxation and other means

Benefit to governments.

In his self-published book, "Inflation Tax: The Plan To Deal With The Debts", Pete Comley suggests a number of ways governments benefit (directly or indirectly) from inflation:  According to Comley, inflation has been used by governments since 1945 as a tool to manage debt.

Contemporary use.

The 50 State Quarters series of quarters (25-cent coins) began in 1999. The U.S. government thought that many people, collecting each new quarter as it rolled out of the United States Mint, would remove the coins from circulation. Each complete set of quarters (the 50 states, the five inhabited U.S. territories, and the District of Columbia) is worth $14.00. Since it costs the mint about five cents to produce one quarter, the government made a profit when someone collected a coin. The Treasury Department estimates that it earned about $6.3 billion in seigniorage from the quarters during the program.  Some countries' national mints report the amount of seigniorage provided to their governments; the Royal Canadian Mint reported that in 2006 it generated $93 million in seigniorage for the government of Canada. The U.S. government, the largest beneficiary of seignorage, earned about $25 billion in 2000. For coins only, the U.S. Treasury received 45 cents per dollar issued in seigniorage for the 2011 fiscal year.  Occasionally, central banks have issued limited quantities of higher-value banknotes in unusual denominations for collecting; the denomination will usually coincide with an anniversary of national significance. The potential seigniorage from such printings has been limited, since the unusual denomination makes the notes more difficult to circulate and only a relatively-small number of people collect higher-value notes.  Over half of Zimbabwe's government revenue in 2008 was reportedly seigniorage. The country has experienced hyperinflation, with an annualized rate of about 24,000 percent in July 2008 (prices doubling every 46 days).

International circulation.

The international circulation of banknotes is a profitable form of seignorage. Although the cost of printing banknotes is minimal, the foreign entity must provide goods and services at the note's face value. The banknote is retained as a store of value, since the entity values it more than the local currency. Foreign circulation generally involves large-value banknotes, and can be used for private transactions (some of which are illegal).  American currency has been circulating globally for most of the 20th century, and the amount of currency in circulation increased several-fold during World War II. Large-scale printing of the United States one hundred-dollar bill began when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991; production quadrupled, with the first trillion-dollar printing of the bill. At the end of 2008, U.S. currency in public circulation amounted to $824 billion and 76 percent of the currency supply was in the form of $100 bills (twenty $100 bills per U.S. citizen). The amount of U.S. currency circulating abroad is controversial. According to Porter and Judson, 53 to 67 percent was overseas during the mid-1990s. Feige estimates that about 40 percent is abroad. In a New York Federal Reserve publication, Goldberg writes that "about 65 percent ($580 billion) of all banknotes are in circulation outside of the country". These figures are largely contradicted by Federal Reserve Board of Governors Flow of Funds statistics, which indicate that $313 billion (36.7 percent) of U.S. currency was held abroad at the end of March 2009. Feige calculates that since 1964, "the cumulative seigniorage earnings accruing to the U.S. by virtue of the currency held by foreigners amounted to $167–$185 billion and over the past two decades seigniorage revenues from foreigners have averaged $6–$7 billion dollars per year".  The American $100 bill has competition from the €500 note, which facilitates the transport of larger amounts of money. One million dollars in $100 bills weighs 22 pounds, and is difficult to carry this much money without a briefcase and physical security. The same amount in €500 notes would weigh less than three pounds, which could be dispersed in clothing and luggage without attracting attention or alerting security devices. In illegal operations, transporting currency is logistically more difficult than transporting cocaine because of its size and weight, and the ease of transporting its banknotes makes the euro attractive to Latin American drug cartels.  The Swiss 1,000-franc note, worth slightly more than $1,000, is probably the only other banknote in circulation outside its home country. However, it does not have a significant advantage over the €500 note to the non-Swiss; there are 20 times as many €500 notes in circulation, and they are more widely recognized. As a reserve currency, it makes up about 0.1% of the currency composition of official foreign-exchange reserves.  Governments vary in their issuance of large banknotes; in August 2009, the number of Fr. 1,000 notes in circulation was over three times the population of Switzerland. For comparison, the number of circulating £50 banknotes is slightly less than three times the population of the United Kingdom; the Fr. 1,000 franc note is worth about £600. The British government has been wary of large banknotes since the counterfeiting Operation Bernhard during World War II, which caused the Bank of England to withdraw all notes larger than £5 from circulation. The bank did not reintroduce other denominations until the early 1960s (£10), 1970 (£20) and March 20, 1981 (£50).

Seigniorage, also spelled seignorage or seigneurage (from the Old French "seigneuriage", "right of the lord ("seigneur") to mint money"), is the difference between the value of money and the cost to produce and distribute it. The term can be applied in two ways:

铸币税(英文:Seigniorage)亦称货币税,指发行货币的组织或国家的政府,享有货币发行面值减去发行成本后,换取实际经济资源的利益,从中攫取发行货币所产生的特定收益。这部分由货币发行主体垄断性地享受“通用货币面价值超出生产成本”的收益,就被定义为铸币税。