History.

HEC Montréal was founded in 1907 by the Board of Trade of Metropolitan Montreal. As of 2017, the school had over 87,900 alumni. Since 1921, the HEC Montréal Alumni Association represents the school's graduates throughout Canada and the rest of the world.

Programs and trainings.

HEC Montréal offers undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate programs, along with executive training and a platform for online courses.  PROGRAMS  HEC Montréal's BBA is offered in 3 different formats:  – French: core courses in French, followed by options which may be in French, English or Spanish. A semester abroad is optional but encouraged. – Bilingual: core courses in French and in English, followed by options in French, English or Spanish. A semester abroad (or Campus Abroad program) is optional but encouraged.  – Trilingual: core courses in French, Spanish and English, followed by a mandatory semester abroad (or Campus Abroad program), and options in any of the three.  The degree lasts 3 years for students from the province of Quebec (as they have completed a mandatory 2-year generalist college education before attending the school), or 4 years for foreign students, who need to take a preparatory year consisting of classes in calculus, algebra, languages and an introduction to the business world and economics. The preparatory year may just be taken in French.  After a series of core courses (microeconomics, macroeconomics, sociology, statistics, math, accounting, etc.) students can choose to take a specialization, a joint major (choice of 2 specializations) or a personalized major.  Student exchanges are very popular: over 450 students attend some of the 127 partner universities in 40 countries (Australia, Argentina, Brazil, France, Germany, UK, Spain, Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand, China, Japan, Sweden, etc.) and another 450+ students come from these universities to HEC Montreal.  International students make up a significant proportion of the student population (around 35%), and the most common origins are Europe, Northern Africa and Latin America.  Certificates are professional development programs lasting at least one year. They are diplomas in a specialized field of management, worth 30 North American university credits. HEC Montréal offers more than 25 certificates.  The MSc degree usually lasts between 18 and 24 months, and it can be taken with a research thesis or with a supervised project and additional courses. Candidates should hold a bachelor's degree (Master 2/Bac +5 for French candidates, exceptionally students with a Master 1/Bac +4 can be admitted, but not with just a Licence) in a field such as management, mathematics, engineering, psychology, economics or another field. Most students need to complete a few additional "preparation courses" from the final year of the BBA in order to prepare for their option.  Compared to most European master's degrees in business schools, the degree at HEC Montréal tends to be more focused on research and detailed understanding of the theory, and can be both a preparation for jobs as an analyst/consultant, as well as a preparation to pursue a PhD.  MSc students at HEC Montréal have a choice of 2 specializations in English, and 18 in French. For the specializations offered in English, students enrol in the thesis stream, consisting of 7 courses and a major research paper.  -Specializations in French: Affaires internationales, Analytique d'affaires, Comptabilité professionnelle, Contrôle de gestion, Développement organisationnel, Économie appliquée, Économie financière appliquée, Finance, Gestion des opérations, Gestion des ressources humaines, Gestions en contexte d'innovations sociales, Ingénierie financière, Intelligence d'affaires, Logistique internationale, Management, Marketing, Stratégie, Technologies de l'information -Specializations in English: Global Supply Chain Management, International Business  Students enrolled in the Global Supply Chain Management may enroll in a double-degree with the Melbourne Business School: after 1 year spent at each institution, they obtain both the M.Sc. Global Supply Chain Management and a M.Sc. in International Business from Melbourne.  HEC Montréal offered four professional Masters, all in French:  -Maîtrise en droit, option fiscalité (LL. M.)" (Master of Laws, Taxation option)  -Maîtrise en management (M.M.) des entreprises culturelles (Master of Management in Cultural Enterprises)  -Maîtrise en management (M.M.) et développement durable (Master of Management in Sustainable Development)  -Maîtrise ès sciences (M. Sc.) en commerce électronique (Master of Science (MSc) in Electronic Commerce)  The Masters in International Arts Management is jointly delivered by HEC Montréal, SDA Bocconi (Milan) and Southern Methodist University (Dallas). Students begin at SMU, studying international cultural policy, law and the economics of arts markets. They then continue at HEC Montréal, learning about project management, arts branding, marketing for cultural industries and other aspects of the arts business. Finally, they study strategy for the arts business and complete a masters thesis at SDA Bocconi. The program lasts one year.  The school also offers specialized, one-year graduate diplomas called D.E.S.S (diplômes d'études supérieures spécialisées) in French, for people who already hold a bachelor's degree and a small amount of work experience. Compared to the Master of Science degrees, the D.E.S.S tend to be more applied and focused on professional skills, whereas the MSc combines these with an extensive study of theory. The D.E.S.S are offered in E-Business, Financial Professions, Management, Management and Sustainable Development, Management of Cultural Organizations, Marketing Communication, Professional Accounting – CPA, Supply Chain Management, Human Resources and Taxation.  Two D.E.S.S. are offered overseas: -D.E.S.S. in Management of the Energy Sector, offered together with the Sichuan Electric Power Corporation in China, entirely in English, exclusively for candidates who hold a bachelor's degree, have 2+ years of experience in the energy sector, and are sponsored by their employer. In 2014, the degree was also offered in Brazzaville (Congo) with support from the Congolese government. -D.E.S.S. in Management, offered in Lebanon, taught in the facilities of USEK (Université du Saint-Esprit de Kaslik). Students can take additional credits after finishing the D.E.S.S. and obtain an MBA from USEK as well.  The HEC Montréal Short Graduate Programs (in French only) answer the needs of the business community by focusing on practical training and developing skills specific to a profession or field. These programs consist of 15 credits and are recognized with an attestation of studies. -Microprogramme en amélioration de la performance des processus du système de santé et des services sociaux (Process Performance Improvement – Health and Social Services System) -Microprogramme en analytique d'affaires – Énergie (Business Analytics – Energy Sector) -Microprogramme en expérience utilisateur dans un contexte d'affaires (User Experience) -Microprogramme en exploitation de données en intelligence d'affaires (Business Intelligence Data Applications) -Microprogramme en gestion – Entrepreneuriat/Introduction or Avancé (Management – Entrepreneurship/Introduction or Advanced) -Microprogramme en gestion de la chaîne logistique (Supply Chain Management) -Microprogramme en gestion des arts et de la culture (Arts and Culture Management) -Microprogramme en gestion des ressources humaines (Human Resources) -Microprogramme en gestion et développement durable (Management and Sustainable Development) -Microprogramme en internationalisation des affaires (Business Internationalisation)  The CPA Canada Professional Education Program (PEP) is offered by the Ordre des comptables professionnels agréés du Québec (CPA) in partnership with HEC Montréal and the Faculté des sciences de l’administration at Université Laval (FSA ULaval). It is a graduate-level university course lasting 16 to 24 months, and equips students to write the Common Final Examination to become CPAs. They can study part-time while continuing to work.  The École des dirigeants HEC Montréal offers five types of programs: -Degree programs (MBA, EMBA McGill-HEC Montréal, MBA-ITC) -Qualifying programs (MBA essentials, "Parcours Experts" series) -Short training programs on a range of themes -Customized training programs -Customized lectures and support programs  The school offers MBA programs in French (full and part-time) as well as in English (full-time).  The Executive MBA Program is delivered for executives with over 15 years of experience, in collaboration with McGill University.  Offered in collaboration with Polytechnique Montréal, the MBA-ITC is exclusively for engineers.  POSTGRADUATE PROGRAMS HEC Montréal offers a bilingual PhD program jointly with three other Montreal universities (McGill, Concordia and UQAM). The School PhD program offers 10 specializations: Accounting Studies, Applied Economics, Finance, Human Resources Management, Information Technologies, International Business, Logistics and Operations Management, Management, Management Sciences, Marketing  EDU"lib" is an online platform of free courses available to everyone around the world. Polytechnique Montréal and Université de Montréal are teaming up with HEC Montréal to produce and distribute open courses on health, educational studies, sciences, engineering, management and other subject matters.

Accreditations and distinctions.

ACCREDITATIONS  DISTINCTIONS  -Since the Commerce Games ("Jeux du commerce"), an inter-university competition, were founded in 1989, HEC Montréal's students have brought home first place thirteen times, second place four times and third place four times. -HEC Montréal students also stand out at many international inter-university competitions, in all areas of management.

HEC Montréal Rankings.

CANADIAN BUSINESS  FORBES  BLOOMBERG BUSINESSWEEK  THE ECONOMIST  QS GLOBAL 200 BUSINESS SCHOOLS REPORT  INTERNATIONAL NEW YORK TIMES

Buildings.

The Decelles Campus : 1970–today.

In 1970, Robert Bourassa inaugurated the Decelles building of HEC Montreal, named "the School on the mountain". The students sometimes use the expression "Bunker" to refer to it. Indeed, its form, the (some say excessive) use of concrete for the exterior facade, and the absence of windows, quickly imposed this expression in the vocabulary of the students.  In 1976, the PhD program was proposed, in collaboration with McGill University. The MSc program was created the same year. This was perceived as a major evolution for the students and professors of HEC Montreal.  Under the presidency of Pierre Harvey (HEC 1948), the 75th anniversary of the School was celebrated in 1982 with René Lévesque, then Premier of Quebec, in attendance. The 7th floor of the Decelles building was inaugurated on this occasion.  In 2012, the entire building was renovated.

The Côte-Sainte-Catherine Campus: 1996–today.

HEC Montréal's main building was constructed in 1996 and has since won an award for "institutional architecture". The building was designed by Dan Hanganu and Jodoin, Lamarre, Pratte and Associates and is situated at 3000 Côte-Sainte-Catherine (Map), next to the Université-de-Montréal Metro Station. The former main building at 5255 Decelles (Map) is now used as a secondary building. The first building used by HEC Montréal was located in downtown Montreal but is no longer used by the school.  The trading floor of the School was inaugurated in 1997: it was conceived to be usable in case the Montreal Stock Exchange ever had major engineering problems. Now known as the Salle des marchés Financière Banque Nationale, it was renovated in 2007 in order to remain technologically avant-garde.

HEC Montréal (formerly ) is a Canadian business school located in Montreal, Canada. Founded in 1907, HEC Montréal is the graduate business school of the Université de Montréal and known as the first established school of management in Canada.

蒙特利尔高等商学院(法语:École des Hautes Études commerciales de Montréal,简称HEC Montréal)是蒙特利尔大学的附属商学院,也是加拿大第一所专业的管理学院。该学院在AACSB International(美国)、EQUIS(欧洲)和AMBA(英国)都有备案,是北美仅有的两家获得三重认证的学院之一。蒙特利尔高等商学院在2002年重新命名为HEC Montréal,以示与法国巴黎高等商学院(HEC Paris)和瑞士洛桑高等商学院(HEC Lausanne)两者之间的区别。


Plot.

It is about a pastor who adopts a young blind girl whom his daughter, Charlotte, names "Gertrude". The title refers to Beethoven's Sixth Symphony (also known as the "Pastoral" Symphony) which the pastor takes Gertrude to hear. It also refers to the pastor's own symphony with Gertrude. His wife, Amélie, resents Gertrude because the pastor dedicates more attention to Gertrude than to their five children. She tries to prompt him to a recognition of the true nature of his feelings for the young woman in his care. Her ability to "see" is contrasted with the "blindness" of the pastor in this regard and the reader is invited to judge him on his intellectual dishonesty. As a religious man, the pastor takes the Bible very seriously and tries to preserve Gertrude's innocence by protecting her from the concept of sin.  Because the pastor is really the main character in Gertrude's limited world, she feels herself to be in love with him and to some extent he has similar feelings toward her. When his eldest son Jacques, who is about the same age as Gertrude, asks to marry her, and the pastor becomes jealous and refuses despite the fact that Jacques is obviously in love with her.  Gertrude eventually gets an operation to repair her eyesight and, having gained the ability to see, realizes that she loves Jacques and not the pastor. However, Jacques has renounced his love for her, converted to Catholicism and become a monk. Gertrude attempts suicide by jumping into a river, but this fails and she's rescued and contracts pneumonia. She realizes that the pastor is an old man, and the man she pictured when she was blind was Jacques. She tells the pastor this shortly before her death.

Adaptations.

The work was made into a film in 1946 by Jean Delannoy, with Michèle Morgan in the principal role as Gertrude. A version was produced for Australian television in 1958.

Thematic analysis.

The story deals with the idea of blindness; although Gertrude is evidently blind physically, the pastor himself is blind in his morality, seemingly unaware of the full extent of his sinfulness in his obsession for Gertrude.  As well as blindness, sin is a prevalent concept in the novel. The pastor treats the love that Jacques feels for Gertrude as a sin without taking into account that he himself, as a married man and a religious figure, has profound emotional sentiments for a young girl whom he adopted almost as a daughter. He also fails to take into account the fact that as a pastor he would inevitably be viewed by his congregation to be someone who should present himself as an example of strong virtues and high moral values.

La Symphonie pastorale is a French novella written by André Gide first published in October and November of 1919 in La Nouvelle Revue Française N°73 and N°74.

《田园交响曲》("La Symphonie pastorale")是法国作家安德烈·纪德的一部中篇小说,发表于1919年10月和11月。


Education.

Chaovarat graduated from Thammasat University in 1966 with a degree in economics.

Political career.

After spending many years in the public sector, he joined the government in 1994 as Deputy Minister of Finance, his tenure lasted till 1997. In 2008 he rejoined the government as Minister of Public Health and later Deputy Prime Minister of Thailand.  On 2 December 2008, the Constitutional Court ordered the dissolution of the People's Power Party and other coalition parties, at the same time banning their chief executives. The incumbent Prime Minister, Somchai Wongsawat, was then removed along with several other members of the Cabinet. Chaovarat, however, was the only senior Cabinet figure who was not a party executive and was therefore the only viable candidate. Either the House of Representatives of Thailand had to confirm him as the new Prime Minister, or the new political grouping must vote for a new leader and submit his name for approval. There has been some questions - even a letter submitted to the Constitutional Court by Senators - concerning the legality of his temporary appointment as Prime Minister (even in a caretaker capacity). This is because the 2007 Constitution of Thailand states that the Prime Minister must be a member of the House of Representatives; Chaovarat was not an MP. Chaovarat was replaced by Abhisit Vejjajiva on 15 December 2008. He was appointed Minister of Interior of Thailand in the Abhisit cabinet, a post which he held until the government's electoral defeat in 2011. On 14 February 2009, Chaovarat has been the leader of the Bhumjaithai Party until 4 September 2012 the successor is his son, Anutin Charnvirakul.

Chavarat Charnvirakul (,, ; born 7 June 1936 in Bangkok) is a Thai politician. He had served as an Acting Prime Minister of Thailand as a result of the 2008 Thai political crisis.

差瓦拉·参威拉恭(,;1936年-6月7日)泰国的政治家。泰籍华人,汉名陈景镇,籍贯广东新会牛湾,2008年泰国政治危机时他曾担任代理总理。


Early life and education.

Murray was born in London, England, to Elaine and English actor Billy Murray. Just before taking her A Levels, Murray was diagnosed with dyslexia. She briefly studied philosophy and psychology at the London School of Economics, but dropped out to train at the Drama Centre London, where she graduated in 2000.

Acting.

Murray's first taste of stardom was miming the lyrics in the original video of Stretch & Vern's dance track "I'm Alive"(1996). Some of her early television appearances included minor guest roles in BBC One's "Casualty", "The Bill", "Love Soup", and "ShakespeaRe-Told: The Taming of the Shrew".  Murray starred as Stacie Monroe in series 1 through series 4 of "Hustle". In one episode, Murray so impressed her co-star Robert Vaughn with her modelling of a Wonder Woman costume that, according to several online sources, he showed it to studio executives in Hollywood. On the strength of this, Murray was invited to audition for the title part of the "Wonder Woman" (2009) movie. Later, Murray reprised her role as Stacie Monroe in "Hustle", series 8.  Relocating to Los Angeles, Murray starred in "Dexter" as Lila West, Dexter Morgan's Narcotics Anonymous sponsor and the main antagonist in Season 2. Dexter spends one night in a hotel with Lila without any sexual contact, the revelation of which leads to his break-up with his girlfriend Rita Bennett. Lila and Dexter have a brief relationship, but he eventually comes to believe that Lila is in fact a sociopath who hangs out in support groups in an attempt to vicariously experience emotions she herself is incapable of feeling. She becomes obsessed with Dexter, believing that she sees through Dexter's "mask", and he is her soulmate.  In mid-2008, Murray joined the cast of The CW's series "Valentine", playing the lead character, Grace Valentine. The show began airing in October 2008 but was cancelled by the end of the month.  Murray was cast in another CW show, "", as a wardrobe stylist, but the show was cancelled before she was able to appear.  Murray finished shooting "Possessions" in 2010 and soon thereafter began shooting "The Rapture". She starred in the horror film "Devil's Playground" (2010), directed by Mark McQueen, and then appeared as Helena G. Wells on the Syfy series "Warehouse 13". Murray's portrayal of Helena G. Wells received critical praise. Her portrayal was described as "saucy", "superb", as able to "anchor a series", and "endlessly fascinating". Her absence as the villainess in the season 3 Christmas episode, "The Greatest Gift", was bemoaned with the lamentation "she would have done it better". Murray was nominated for a 2012 Portal Award for her portrayal of Helena G. Wells on "Warehouse 13".  Murray also made a guest appearances on the Fox series "The Finder", where she played a drug co-ordinator. Murray starred in the Starz miniseries "", as Gaia, a longtime friend of Lucretia. Murray also had a guest appearance in 2009 on CBS series NCIS, playing ICE Agent Julia Foster-Yates.  Murray made an appearance on the "Partially Examined Life" philosophy podcast, playing a part in Sartre's "No Exit", alongside Lucy Lawless, Mark Linsenmayer, and Wes Alwan.  From 2013, she portrayed the character of Stahma Tarr in the Syfy series "Defiance", which aired its final episode in August 2015. Murray had a recurring role in the sixth season of "Once Upon a Time" as the Black Fairy.  She has recently been cast in "The Originals" final season as Antoinette, a vampire Elijah meets soon after losing his memories.  Murray also appeared in the fifth and final season of "Gotham" as Nyssa al Ghul.

Modeling.

Murray modelled clothing in television advertisements for Debenhams department store. She is signed to Models 1 in London and has appeared in men's magazines such as "GQ", "Mayfair", and "FHM", as well as women's magazines such as "Hello!", "Cosmopolitan", and "OK!".

Personal life.

Murray married Bernie Cahill, a partner in an entertainment management company, in May 2014.

Jaime Murray (born 21 July 1976) is an English actress, known for playing Stacie Monroe in the BBC series "Hustle" (2004–2012), Lila West in the Showtime series "Dexter" (2007), Gaia in the Starz miniseries "" (2011), Olivia Charles in The CW series "Ringer" (2011–2012), Helena G. Wells in the Syfy series "Warehouse 13" (2010–2014), Stahma Tarr in the Syfy series "Defiance" (2013–2015), Fiona/the Black Fairy in the ABC series "Once Upon a Time" (2016–2017), Antoinette in The CW series "The Originals" (2018), and Nyssa al Ghul in "Gotham".

洁咪·莫瑞 (英语:Jaime Murray,1976年-7月21日) 英国女演员,饰演过BBC电视剧《飞天大盗》中的Stacie Monroe和Showtime电视网电视剧《梦魇杀魔》中的Lila West。她也饰演过Starz电视剧《斯巴达克斯:竞技场之神》中的Gaia,CW电视网电视剧《替身姐妹》中的Olivia Charles,Syfy剧集《第十三号仓库》中的海伦 G. 威尔士和《地球异世界》中的Stahma Tarr。


Career.

Shin began appearing in commercials in 1986 at the age of 13, and made her television debut in 1988 on KBS. Throughout the late eighties and early nineties, she acted in a great number of films and TV dramas (notably in the 2001 medical drama "General Hospital"), garnering fame for her warm screen presence. In 1997, however, she took on her most daring role as a prostitute in veteran director Im Kwon-taek's "Downfall". The film was a box-office success, leading her to star status.  In 1999, she starred in two films, including the Korean-Japanese co-produced horror film "The Ring Virus", based on the novel by Koji Suzuki. Her success in this role led to her being cast in a small role for a Japanese film, "Uzumaki" (also known as "Spiral"). Around this time, Shin was also working as an MC for a television game show.  In 2002, Shin starred in her most famous role as a tough, female gang boss in "My Wife Is a Gangster". The film drew more than 5 million spectators and became a strong hit throughout Asia. She also appeared in the sequel, "My Wife Is a Gangster 2", but the film faltered at the box office in 2003. Other roles Shin starred in around this time were as a detective in "This Is Law" (also known as "Out of Justice"), as a professional matchmaker in the romantic comedy "A Perfect Match", and as a naval officer in the box office bomb "Blue".  Shin went on a short hiatus after she married and had a baby, and returned to acting in 2005, starring in films such as "Bystanders" and "Mr. Housewife", and television series such as "Bad Couple", "Mom's Dead Upset", "White Lie", "Still You", and "The Scandal". She gained praise for her impassioned portrayals of ruthless and ambitious women in the 2010 melodrama "Flames of Desire" and the 2014 revenge thriller "The Plan".

Other activities.

Shin has been a professor at Seoul Hoseo Art College's Department of Performing Arts since 2011.

Personal life.

On 22 September, 2003, Shin married Kim Jung-soo, who was then the CEO of her talent agency Good Player Entertainment. The following year, she gave birth to a son, who was later diagnosed with hydrocephalus. On August 24, 2007, Shin filed for divorce when she learned that Kim had used her private seal without her permission to misappropriate () for his business after its merger with Fantom Entertainment and the box office failure of several films he'd produced. In November, Shin sued Kim for forgery of private documents. In a separate case, she was sued by KM Culture, the company from whom Kim had taken a loan which amounted to (). On December 28, 2008, the court ruled that Shin was not liable for her ex-husband's debts, stating that although Shin's seal is on the loan contract, Shin had not seen any of the money loaned, had not authorized her seal's use, and is therefore not responsible for the debt.  She again landed in the entertainment headlines in 2011 when she underwent bimaxillary osteotomy surgery (or jaw realignment surgery), reportedly because she felt making her strong jawline "slimmer and more rounded" would give her a "younger, softer, more feminine" look, which would result in more acting roles. Shin later spoke candidly that she regretted having undergone the procedure for pure cosmetic purposes, saying the public should be better informed about the pain and danger associated with the invasive surgery. In 2012, she sued an oriental medicine clinic for violating her portrait rights and privacy after it posted false ads on the internet without her permission, featuring her photo and treatment process; she had gone to the clinic to decrease the swelling of her face, a side effect of her jaw reconstruction surgery, but the clinic's treatments proved ineffective. The court ruled in Shin's favor and awarded her damages amounting to.

Shin Eun-kyung (born 15 February 1973) is a South Korean actress. She is best known for her leading roles in "Downfall" (1997) and "My Wife Is a Gangster" (2001).

申恩庆(,1973年-2月15日),韩国女演员。现任韩国艺术综合专门学校演技艺术学部教授。


Creation.

In fiction writing, authors create dynamic characters by many methods. Sometimes characters are conjured up from imagination; in other instances, they are created by amplifying the character trait of a real person into a new fictional creation. An author or creator basing a character on a real person can use a person they know, a historical figure, a current figure who they have not met, or on themselves, with the latter being either an author-surrogate or an example of self-insertion. An author can create a character using the basic character archetypes which are common to many cultural traditions: the father figure, mother figure, hero, and so on. An author can also create a fictional character using generic stock characters, but these are flat, simplified characters that tend to be used for supporting or minor characters. Nevertheless, some significant authors have used stock characters as the starting point for building richly detailed characters, such as Shakespeare's use of the boastful soldier character as the basis for Falstaff.

Types.

Round vs. flat.

In his book "Aspects of the Novel", E. M. Forster defined two basic types of characters, their qualities, functions, and importance for the development of the novel: flat characters and round characters. Flat characters are two-dimensional, in that they are relatively uncomplicated. By contrast, round characters are complex figures with many different characteristics, that undergo development, sometimes sufficiently to surprise the reader.  Stock characters are usually one-dimensional and thin. Mary Sues are characters mainly appearing in fan fiction. They are virtually devoid of flaws, and are therefore considered flat characters.

Dynamic vs. static.

Dynamic characters are those that change over the course of the story, while static characters remain the same throughout. An example of a popular dynamic character in literature is Ebenezer Scrooge, the protagonist of "A Christmas Carol". At the start of the story, he is a bitter miser, but by the end of the tale, he transforms into a kind-hearted, generous man.

Regular, recurring and guest characters.

In television, a regular, main or ongoing character is a character who appears in all or a majority of episodes, or in a significant chain of episodes of the series. Regular characters may be both core and secondary ones.  A recurring character or supporting character often and frequently appears from time to time during the series' run. Recurring characters often play major roles in more than one episode, sometimes being the main focus.  A guest or minor character is one who acts only in a few episodes or scenes. Unlike regular characters, the guest ones do not need to be carefully incorporated into the storyline with all its ramifications: they create a piece of drama and then disappear without consequences to the narrative structure, unlike core characters, for which any significant conflict must be traced during a considerable time, which is often seen as an unjustified waste of resources. There may also be a continuing or recurring guest character. Sometimes a guest or minor character may gain unanticipated popularity and turn into a regular or main one; this is known as a breakout character.

Classical analysis.

In the earliest surviving work of dramatic theory, "Poetics" (c. 335 BCE), the Classical Greek philosopher Aristotle deduces that character ("ethos") is one of six qualitative parts of Athenian tragedy and one of the three objects that it represents (1450a12). He understands character not to denote a fictional person, but the quality of the person acting in the story and reacting to its situations (1450a5). He defines character as "that which reveals decision, of whatever sort" (1450b8). It is possible, therefore, to have stories that do not contain "characters" in Aristotle's sense of the word, since character necessarily involves making the ethical dispositions of those performing the action clear. If, in speeches, the speaker "decides or avoids nothing at all", then those speeches "do not have character" (1450b9—11). Aristotle argues for the primacy of plot ("mythos") over character ("ethos"). He writes:  Aristotle suggests that works were distinguished in the first instance according to the nature of the person who created them: "the grander people represented fine actions, i.e. those of fine persons" by producing "hymns and praise-poems", while "ordinary people represented those of inferior ones" by "composing invectives" (1448b20—1449a5). On this basis, a distinction between the individuals represented in tragedy and in comedy arose: tragedy, along with epic poetry, is "a representation of serious people" (1449b9—10), while comedy is "a representation of people who are rather inferior" (1449a32—33).  In the "Tractatus coislinianus" (which may or may not be by Aristotle), Ancient Greek comedy is defined as involving three types of characters: the buffoon ("bômolochus"), the ironist ("eirôn"), and the imposter or boaster ("alazôn"). All three are central to Aristophanes' "old comedy".  By the time the Roman comic playwright Plautus wrote his plays two centuries later, the use of characters to define dramatic genres was well established. His "Amphitryon" begins with a prologue in which Mercury claims that since the play contains kings and gods, it cannot be a comedy and must be a tragicomedy.

In fiction, a character (sometimes known as a fictional character) is a person or other being in a narrative (such as a novel, play, television series, film, or video game). The character may be entirely fictional or based on a real-life person, in which case the distinction of a "fictional" versus "real" character may be made. Derived from the ancient Greek word χαρακτήρ, the English word dates from the Restoration, although it became widely used after its appearance in "Tom Jones" in 1749. From this, the sense of "a part played by an actor" developed. Character, particularly when enacted by an actor in the theatre or cinema, involves "the illusion of being a human person". In literature, characters guide readers through their stories, helping them to understand plots and ponder themes. Since the end of the 18th century, the phrase "in character" has been used to describe an effective impersonation by an actor. Since the 19th century, the art of creating characters, as practiced by actors or writers, has been called characterisation.

角色(-{zh-cn:拼音:jué sè或jiǎo sè;zh-tw:注音:ㄐㄧㄠˇ <unk>ㄜˋ或ㄐㄩ<unk>ˊ <unk>ㄜˋ;}-),或称虚构角色。是在叙事艺术作品描绘的人,演员根据剧本演绎的人物或漫画作品中的登场人物往往也被称作人物。故事的载体可以是小说、戏剧、动漫、电子游戏等。一个角色可以是演员根据剧本演绎的虚构人物,或漫画作品中的其中一个登场人物。


Plot.

Fujimoto, a once-human wizard/scientist, lives underwater along with his daughter, Brunhilde, and her numerous smaller sisters. While she and her siblings are on an outing with their father in his four-flippered submarine, Brunhilde sneaks off and floats away on the back of a jellyfish. After an encounter with a fishing trawler, she becomes trapped in a glass jar and drifts to the shore of a small fishing town where she is rescued by a five-year-old boy named Sōsuke. Shattering the jar with a rock, Sōsuke cuts his finger in the process. Brunhilde licks his wound causing it to heal almost instantly. Sōsuke names her Ponyo and promises to protect her. Meanwhile, a distraught Fujimoto searches frantically for his lost daughter whom he believes to have been kidnapped. He calls his wave spirits to recover her, leaving Sōsuke heartbroken and confused by what happened.  Ponyo and Fujimoto have an argument, during which Ponyo refuses to let her father call her by her birth name. She declares her desire to be known as 'Ponyo' and to become human. Using her magic, she forces herself to grow leg- and arm-like appendages and start changing into a human, a power granted to her by the human blood she ingested when she licked Sōsuke's finger. Her alarmed father forces her to change back into her true form and leaves to summon Ponyo's mother, Gran Mamare. Meanwhile, Ponyo, with the help of her sisters, breaks away from her father and inadvertently uses his magic to make herself fully human. The huge amount of magic that she releases into the ocean causes an imbalance in the world, resulting in a tsunami, leaving ships stranded at sea. Ponyo goes back to Sōsuke, who is amazed and overjoyed to see her. He tells his mother, Lisa, that Ponyo has returned as a little girl. Lisa allows Ponyo to stay at their house for the time being, and they wait out the storm together at Sōsuke's house. Worried about the residents of the nursing home where she works, Lisa leaves to check up on them, promising Sōsuke that she will return home as soon as possible.  Gran Mamare arrives at Fujimoto's submarine. Sōsuke's father, Kōichi, sees her traveling and recognizes her as the Goddess of Mercy. Fujimoto notices the moon appears to be falling out of its orbit and satellites are falling like shooting stars, symptoms of the dangerous imbalance of nature that now exists. Gran Mamare declares that if Sōsuke can pass a test, Ponyo can live as a human and that the order of the world will be restored. A still-worried Fujimoto reminds her that if Sōsuke fails the test, Ponyo will turn into sea foam.  Sōsuke and Ponyo wake up to find that most of the land around the house has been covered by the ocean. Since it is impossible for Lisa to come home, the two children decide to find her. With the help of Ponyo's magic, they make Sōsuke's toy pop pop boat life-size and set out across the swollen ocean.  When Ponyo and Sōsuke make it to the forest, however, Ponyo tires and falls asleep only to be woken by Sōsuke, who implores her to ignite a second candle as the one powering their boat is about to go out. Ponyo then dozes off multiple times before concentrating enough to make the candle, which then goes out. She then passes out, and Sōsuke has to push the boat to shore, only to find that the boat is reverting to its toy size. Sōsuke drags Ponyo to the shore, where he finds Lisa's abandoned car. Ponyo then wakes up, and the two decide to continue looking for her.  Ponyo and Sōsuke head into a tunnel, where Ponyo mysteriously reverts to her fish form. Meanwhile, Lisa and the residents of the nursing home, who are temporarily able to breathe water because of Gran Mamare, are waiting excitedly below the surface for Ponyo and Sōsuke to arrive. Sōsuke and Ponyo encounter Fujimoto, who warns the boy that the balance of nature is in danger and begs Sosuke to return Ponyo to him. Sōsuke doubts Fujimoto and attempts to flee, but the two children are quickly captured and Fujimoto takes them down to the protected nursing home.  Sōsuke is reunited with Lisa and meets Gran Mamare, with whom Lisa has just had a long private conversation. Gran Mamare asks Sōsuke if he can love Ponyo whether she is a fish or human. Sōsuke replies that he "loves all the Ponyos." Gran Mamare then tells her daughter that if she chooses to become human once and for all, she will have to give up her magical powers. Ponyo agrees to this, so Gran Mamare encases her in a bubble and gives her to Sōsuke. She tells him that kissing the bubble will complete Ponyo's transformation. The balance of nature is thus restored and the previously stranded ships head back to port. Fujimoto respects his daughter's choice to become a human, having decided he can trust Sōsuke. Ponyo then joyfully jumps high in the air and kisses Sōsuke, completing her transformation as a human.

Cast.

The cast also includes Nippon Television announcer Shinichi Hatori as The Announcer, a television news reporter who relays information about the hurricane; he is voiced by Kurt Knutsson in Disney's English adaptation. Emi Hiraoka and Nozomi Ōhashi voice Kumiko and Karen, attendants of Himawari Nursery School; their respective English voice actresses are Jennessa Rose and Colleen O'Shaughnessey, who are also credited.

Production.

Hayao Miyazaki, the film's director and writer, was prompted to create "Ponyo" after producer Toshio Suzuki suggested he make a film aimed at children, noting the success of "Howl's Moving Castle" (2004). The film would be created from a mixture real-world and fictional influences, combined with a desire to implement new art and animation approaches developed by other Studio Ghibli staff in a feature length film. In 2004 and 2005, Miyazaki spent time in Tomonoura, a seaside town in Setonaikai National Park, where he familiarised himself with its community and environment. His experience in Tomonoura would later influence many of the settings in the film. During his time there, he also drew influence from reading the complete works of Natsume Sōseki, with particular interest in "The Gate", a book involving a character named Sōsuke who lived at the bottom of a cliff. Initially, Miyazaki solely considered the concept of a film that would depict a stormy sea with "waves higher than the house on a hillside". He later created the character Ponyo, a name he thought of as an onomatopoeia of what "soft, squishy softness" feels like when touched. Miyazaki recalled that as a nine-year-old he borrowed a copy of Hans Christian Andersen's "The Little Mermaid" from his neighbour, and that while he was reading it he had difficulty accepting its premise that its protagonist did not have a soul.  When preparing pre-production materials, Miyazaki hit a creative block before visiting the Tate Britain art museum, where he found himself startled by an 1852 painting named "Ophelia" and its attention to detail. He remarked, "I thought, my work is shoddy compared to those artists. I was just astonished. At that point, it became clear to me. Our animation style could not go on as before." At the time Katsuya Kondō, Miyazaki's colleague, had been the animation director of "House Hunting" (2006), a 12 minute short film made for screening at the Ghibli Museum. The short used solid and simple lines, and largely used hand-drawn animation. During the production of the short, Kondō had discussed the possibility of producing a feature length film like this. Kondō accepted an offer to work on the next Studio Ghibli feature film soon after completing the short, identifying an opportunity to progress the ideas behind "House Hunting" with more consideration to story.  Production of "Ponyo" began in May 2006. Kondō was given the role of animation supervisor, and worked closely with Miyazaki in outlining a set of goals that defined the direction of the project, including the use of traditional animation throughout production. Borrowing from Kondō's experience in animating "House Hunting", "Ponyo" would use solid and simple lines; in isolating basic animation elements, the film would aim to demonstrate the advantages of hand drawn animation through the depiction of motion that cannot be reproduced in any other medium. In normal productions, animating a sailing ship would usually involve drawing one cel and sliding it across the frame, which would fix it in a predefined perspective and direction. Miyazaki, however, wanted the ships that appeared in "Ponyo" to be drawn frame-by-frame. A few previous Studio Ghibli films used computer-generated imagery (CGI), the earliest being "Princess Mononoke" (1997). For the production of "Ponyo" however, the computer graphics section at the studio was closed to prioritize hand-drawn animation.  Some elements of the film was inspired by Richard Wagner's opera "Die Walküre". The music also makes reference to Wagner's opera. The character of Sōsuke is based on Miyazaki's son Gorō Miyazaki when he was five. The name of the ship on which Sōsuke's father works is "Koganei Maru", a reference to Studio Ghibli's location in Koganei, Tokyo. is a common ending for ship names.  Miyazaki wanted his next film to be "Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea 2", but producer Toshio Suzuki convinced him to make "The Wind Rises" instead.

Distribution.

Japan.

The film was released by Toho on July 19, 2008, in theatres across Japan on 481 screens—a record for a domestic film. As it had beaten "" (which had opened on the same day). It grossed ¥10 billion ($91 million) in its first month of release, and a total of ¥15.0 billion ($153.1 million) as of November 9, 2008.  Tokyo Anime Fair chose "Ponyo" as Animation of the Year of 2008, as revealed in a press release by Anime News Network.

International.

"Ponyo" was released in the U.S. and Canada on August 14, 2009 by Walt Disney Pictures and The Kennedy/Marshall Company, opening at a wide release at 927 theaters across America, which is by far the widest release for a Studio Ghibli film ever in the U.S, as compared to other Miyazaki films ("Spirited Away" opened in 26 theaters, "Howl's Moving Castle" opened in 36 theaters, and "Princess Mononoke" opened in 38 theaters).  The film's English dub was directed by John Lasseter, Brad Lewis and Peter Sohn of Pixar and produced by Frank Marshall, Hayao Miyazaki, John Lasseter, Steve Alpert, and Kathleen Kennedy; the English script was written by Melissa Mathison.  In July 2009, there were multiple pre-screenings of the film in California. Miyazaki traveled to America to promote this film by speaking at the University of California, Berkeley and the San Diego Comic-Con.  GKIDS re-issued the film on Blu-ray and DVD on October 17, 2017 under a new deal with Studio Ghibli.  Ponyo was released in Southeast Asia on January 1, 2009.  The film was re-released from March 25 to 28, 2018 for its 10th anniversary.

Reception.

Box office.

On its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, it made $3,585,852 on 927 screens, which is a per screen average of $3,868. It also opened at number nine at the United States and Canada box office. The film made a total of $15,743,471 in the United States and Canada and $187,461,411 in other countries for a worldwide total of $203,204,882. It was released on DVD and Blu-ray, as well as a DVD/Plush Toy pack, on March 2, 2010.

Critical response.

"Ponyo" has received widespread acclaim from film critics. Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92% "Certified Fresh", based on 165 reviews with an average score of 7.6/10, stating "While not Miyazaki's best film, "Ponyo" is a visually stunning fairy tale that's a sweetly poetic treat for children and Miyazaki fans of all ages." Metacritic reported a Metascore of 86 based on 29 reviews, signifying "universal acclaim".  "The Japan Times" gave the film four out of five stars, and praised the film's simple thematic elements and its visual scheme, and compared the film to Miyazaki's classic animation "My Neighbor Totoro".  "Anime Diet" cited the quality of the translation, noting, "The story and the core of the film was communicated more than adequately through the professional dub and it did not get in the way of the sheer delight and joy that Miyazaki wanted to convey." Citing "slight pacing problems," it gave "Ponyo" a rating of 88%.  Critics at the Venice International Film Festival generally had high praise. Wendy Ide of "The Times" said "Ponyo" "is as chaotic and exuberant as a story told by a hyperactive toddler," and gave it 4 stars out of 5. Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film a full four stars, the highest rank on his review scale, stating that, "There is a word to describe "Ponyo", and that word is magical. This poetic, visually breathtaking work by the greatest of all animators has such deep charm that adults and children will both be touched. It's wonderful and never even seems to try: It unfolds fantastically."

Awards.

The film was rated #2 on Dentsu's list of "2008 Hit Products in Japan", after the Wii console.  "Ponyo" was an entrant in the 65th Venice International Film Festival. It received a special mention in the Bologna Future Film Festival, for "the high artistic and expressive quality of animation able to give form to wonderful imagination of the worldwide cinema master".  In 2009, "Ponyo" won five awards at the 8th annual Tokyo Anime Awards. The awards included "Anime of the year" and "Best domestic feature". Miyazaki received the award for best director and best original story, and Noboru Yoshida received the award for best art direction.  The film won the awards for Animation of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Music at the 32nd Japan Academy Prize.

Soundtrack.

"Ponyo"'s eponymous theme song, "Gake no Ue no Ponyo", was released ahead of the film on December 5, 2007, performed by Fujioka Fujimaki (a duo consisting of Takaaki Fujioka and Naoya Fujimaki who are known for their underground band "Marichans" from the 1970s) and eight-year-old Nozomi Ōhashi. It entered the top 100 on the Oricon Weekly Charts on July 14, then rose to 24th on (July 21), then 6th on (July 28), and after the release of the film it ranked 3rd (August 4). By the end of 2008, it was ranked as the 14th highest selling single on the Oricon Yearly Charts. Ōhashi was also the youngest participant in the 59th NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen, beating Cute's Mai Hagiwara's record at age 11. Afterward, Ōhashi announced her unit with Fujioka Fujimaki was disbanding.  An English-translated pop version of the theme was recorded by Frankie Jonas and Noah Cyrus, the voices of Sōsuke and Ponyo in the North American dub, to tie in with the film's English release. The theme plays over the second half of the English version's closing credits; the first half is merely a translated version of the theme rather than remix.  The film score of "Ponyo" was composed by Joe Hisaishi, Miyazaki's regular collaborator. The score album, published on compact disc in Japan by Tokuma Japan Communications, in South Korea by Pony Canyon Korea and throughout Europe by Germany-based label Colosseum, received a great deal of press in the West, including positive reviews from several veteran film music reviewers.

The film was originally released in Japan on July 19, 2008 by distributor Toho. It was a major commercial success, with a total gross of over 203 million US dollars worldwide, becoming the fourth-highest-grossing anime film of all time. It was critically acclaimed for its uplifting themes, visual design, and simultaneous appeal towards young children and all audiences.

《崖上的波儿》()是由宫崎骏导演、编剧,吉卜力工作室制作的长篇动画电影,于2008年7月19日在日本首映。


1917–1932.

The Vesenkha of the first period was the supreme organ of the management of the economy, mainly of the industry.

Foundation.

The Vesenkha was launched on December 5, 1917 through a decree of the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) and All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. Its stated purpose was to "plan for the organization of the economic life of the country and the financial resources of the government". It was subordinated to the Sovnarkom. The recently established All-Russian Council for Workers' Control was dissolved into the new organisation. It had rights of confiscation and expropriation. The first Chairman was Osinsky and with Bukharin, Georgy Oppokov (Lomov), Milyutin, Sokolnikov, and Vasili Schmidt also appointed to the Council.

Reorganisation.

After the creation of the Soviet Union in 1923 it was transformed into the joint all-Union and republican People's Commissariat. In 1932, it was reorganized into three People's Commissariats: of heavy industry, light industry and forestry.  In each of the union republics of the Soviet Union, subordinate organisations existed. These were referred to as "ВСНХ" followed by their union republic acronym. (for example: "ВСНХ БССР" (VSNKh BSSR) for the Belarusian SSR). The all-union council could be referred to as "ВСНХ СССР" (VSNKh SSSR). The republican VSNKhs had control over small scale, minor industries which used local materials and supplied local markets and which were referred to as "enterprises of republican subordination". Large scale industrial enterprises ("enterprises of union subordination") were controlled by one of the industrial sector departments of the all-union VSNKh.

Organisational structure.

Within the VSNKh, departments were split into two types.

Functional sector departments.

Departments within the functional sector dealt with decisions relating to finance, planning, economic policy, and research and development.

Industrial sector departments.

Departments of this type were created by decree in 1926 and consisted of "chief departments", known as "glavki" ("glavnye upravlenija").  Heads of all the departments in this sector formed the council of the all-union "VSNKh" together with representatives from the union republics.

1963–1965.

Vesenkha was reestablished by Nikita Khrushchev when he introduced decentralization of the management of industry by means of sovnarkhozes. It was subordinated to the Council of Ministers of the USSR and managed industry and construction.  Sovnarkhozes were introduced by Nikita Khrushchev in July 1957 in an attempt to combat the centralization and departmentalism of ministries. The USSR was initially divided into 105 economic regions, with sovharknozes being operational and planning management. Simultaneously, a large number of ministries were shut down.

Supreme Board of the National Economy, Superior Board of the People's Economy, Vesenkha (Высший Совет Народного Хозяйства, ВСНХ, "Vysshiy sovet narodnogo khozyaystva", VSNKh) was the superior state institution for management of the economy of the RSFSR and later of the Soviet Union. There were two institutions with this name, at different times, 1917–1932 and 1963–1965.

最高国民经济会议()是苏联管理经济的最高国家机构,分别存在于1917年至1932年和1963年至1965年。1917年12月15日,根据全俄中央执行委员会与苏俄人民委员会的法令,成立最高国民经济会议,在苏俄人民委员会之下负责组织管理国民经济。1923年苏联成立后成为全联盟人民委员会。1932年,重组为重工业、轻工业和林业人民委员会。


Geography.

Normanton is in the Gulf Country region of northwest Queensland, just south of the Gulf of Carpentaria, on the Norman River.  An unusual feature 106 km southwest of Normanton is Bang Bang Jump Up, one of the few hills located in the middle of an expansive, flat grassland.

History.

The town takes its name from the Norman River, which was named in honour of William Henry Norman of the Victorian Naval Force, who commanded a ship in the search for the explorers Burke and Wills and also conducted hydrographic surveys of the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Torres Strait to identify reefs and other marine hazards.  The site for the town was selected because Burketown was abandoned owing to fever and flooding. Settlers moved into the town in 1867. Normanton attracted people from a variety of cultures, including Chinese drawn to the gold fields.  Norman River Post Office opened on 13 June 1868 and was renamed Normanton by 1872.  The town contains the longest intact and operating Burns Philp store in Queensland. The general mercantile store and agency office was opened in 1884.  The population reached 1,251 by 1891. The gold boom was short-lived. By 1947 the town's population had declined to 234.  In the early years there was a large Aboriginal population as well. Some Aboriginal people were moved to Mornington Island and Doomadgee in the early 20th century.  The Normanton library was opened in 2004.  In 2006 census, the town's population was 1,100, 60 per cent of whom were Indigenous Australians.

Heritage listings.

Normanton has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:

Industry.

Like other Gulf communities the prawning industry makes an important economic contribution to the town. Tourism has recently become an important part of the economy of Normanton, with Gulflander a significant draw-card.

Facilities.

Normanton has a sports centre, golf course, bowling green, gun club, racecourse, rodeo ground, and an aerodrome. Normanton public library and visitor information services are located in the historic Burns Philp Building at the corner of Caroline and Landsborough Streets.  The Normanton branch of the Queensland Country Women's Association has its rooms in Landsborough Street.

Education.

Normanton State School opened on 8 September 1882. The school celebrated its centenary in 1982.

Transport.

Six kilometres south of the town is the start of the Gulf Developmental Road, part of the Savannah Way tourist drive.  A 151 km remnant of historical railway operates weekly to Croydon. The Normanton railway station features a large steel frame with an open canopy to provide shade.

Climate.

Normanton has a tropical savanna climate with two distinct seasons. There is a hot, humid and extremely uncomfortable wet season from December to March and a hot and generally rainless dry season usually extending from April to November. During the wet season most roads in the area are usually closed by heavy rainfall, which on several occasions has exceeded in a month or in a day from tropical cyclones. On occasions, as with all of Queensland, the wet season may fail and deliver as little as between December 1934 and March 1935  Temperatures are uniformly hot, ranging from in November just before the wet season begins to at the height of the dry season in July. In the wet season, temperatures are marginally lower, but extremely high humidity means conditions are very uncomfortable and wet bulb temperatures averages and can reach. In the dry season, lower humidity, cloudless days and cool nights provides for more pleasant conditions.

Normanton is a small cattle town and coastal locality in the Shire of Carpentaria in Queensland, Australia. In the 2016 census, Normanton had a population of 1,210 people of whom 743 were Indigenous Australians.

诺曼顿市(英语:Normanton)位于澳大利亚昆士兰州西北部的诺曼河岸的小城镇,就在卡奔塔利亚湾以南,是卡奔塔利亚郡议会的行政中心所在地。当地人口只有1100,当中有60%是澳大利亚的原住民。养牛业是当地的经济命脉,现任市长是乔伊斯·萨内尔。


History.

Pe Romeu had the idea to open Els Quatre Gats, drawing inspiration from a French café called Le Chat Noir, where he had previously worked. Le Chat Noir translates to “The Black Cat” in English, but the name is a little different in Catalan. Els Quatre Gats means “The Four Cats,” which is derived from a Catalan expression which means “only a few people.” The phrase is usually used to describe people who are a bit strange, or perceived as outsiders. Romeu was taken with this Parisian café and decided to model the décor of his café after it. Romeu was financially supported by three of his friends, Ramon Casa i Carbó, Santiago Rusiñol and Miguel Utrillo, three major modernist Spanish artists of the time. Casas even painted something specifically for the interior of the café, his famous painting called, "Ramon Casas and Pere Romeu on a Tandem". The painting depicts both Casas and Romeu riding on a bike together with the Barcelona skyline visible in the background. On the right side of the painting there is an inscription which reads, “To ride a bike, you can’t go with your back straight.” This quote reflects the attitude of the founders that in order to make progress and make something great, you must break tradition. As the original is in a museum, a copy of the painting now hangs in the café.  The café opened on June 12, 1897 in Casa Martí, an important modernist building designed by the Barcelona architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch. The four men wanted the café to be known not only for having good food and drink, but also, as Rusiñol described it, for having “food of the spirit,” or an ambiance where artists could meet to discuss their work and the news of the day. The bar was also characterized by piano music and quickly became a popular haunt for important modernist and bohemian artists of the day, including Casas and Rusiñol, but also architects such as Antoní Gaudí and sculptors such as Julio González. As the café increasingly grew more popular among young modernist artists, it began to frequently play host to other intellectuals from the new Bohemian and modernist Barcelona, who attended performances, concerts, art exhibitions and literary gatherings within its walls. In 1899, at 17 years old, Pablo Picasso began frequenting Els Quatre Gats and even held his first solo exhibition in the main room. The poster that now stands on the corner of the street outside the café was designed by Picasso. Unfortunately, Romeu was not a very savvy businessman and would often allow his friends to order food at discounted prices, sometimes not requiring them to pay at all. Because of this, Els Quatre Gats went out of business in June 1903. The legacy of the café lived on, however, thanks to the efforts of Ramon Casas and Miguel Utrillo. The two men continued to write a literary review inspired by the café for five years after the café closed. Eventually, after the death of Francisco Franco and the arrival of democracy in Spain in the 1970s, three prominent businessmen, Pere Moto, Ricard Alsina, and Ana Verdeguer began efforts to restore the café to its original glory with a new proposal to the Spanish government. The proposal made the argument that the restoration of the café would benefit the cultural environment of Barcelona, which was of great importance after the oppression the land of Catalonia had suffered under Franco. In 1978, the famous café was finally reopened to the public and Casa Martí was restored to its former glory in 1991.

Modernist aspects of the building.

Els Quatre Gats is located on the ground floor of the famous modernist building Casa Marti, designed by Josep Puig i Cadafalch in 1896. The café appears to be situated in a medieval castle, with the façade where the entrance of the café is located drawing inspiration from the European Gothic style. The overall style of the building appears more Northern European than Catalan. However, the building is decorated with the classic ornamental elements of Catalan Art-Nouveau, or Catalan modernism. These elements include the iron elements of the building, the stained glass windows and the sculptures found on the corner of the building. The wrought iron work is a product of Manuel Ballerín, and the sculpture of the narrative capitals is by famous Barcelona sculptor Eusebi Arnau while the sculpture of Saint Joseph is by Josep Llimona, another famous Spanish sculptor. Unfortunately, the statue of Saint Joseph is a reproduction of the original, as the original work was destroyed during the Spanish Civil War.  The balconies of the building were designed in the Catalan Art-Nouveau style, a name which was given to the modernist movement within Barcelona and Catalonia itself. This type of architectural style can also be seen depicted in the stained glass windows, which are contained in large pointed arches of the gothic style of architecture. The furniture of the building was actually funded by Ramón Casa, but is of a medieval architectural style rather than modernist. The mixture of all of these distinct types of architectural styles, such as gothic, medieval and the many modernist elements of Catalan Art-Nouveau that can be found on the façade of the building, are what makes this building an incredible example of modernist architecture. The building was declared an Asset of Natural Cultural Interest on the ninth of January in 1976.

Literary review.

In 1899, a literary review of the same name as the café was published for the first time. The magazine contained articles from many different modernists, with the majority written by two of the founders of the café, Ramon Casas and Miguel Utrillo. The review, much like the café itself, was modeled after Le Chat Noir, and would become the artistic and literary platform of Catalan modernism. The purpose of this literary review was to inform the general public of Barcelona about the thoughts and ideas of the Barcelona modernist artists and to talk frankly about their works. The articles in the magazine were both serious and humorous, and the majorities were written with the intention of defending the modernist’s works of art to the people of Barcelona. After the review ended, publishing only fifteen issues, the new magazine "Pel y Ploma" continued the tradition of "Els Quatre Gats". "Pel y Ploma", in English "Hair and Feather", ran from 1899 until 1903 and then was replaced with a third magazine, "Forma". Ramon Casas and Miguel Utrillo continued to be main contributors to the two magazines that followed the original "Els Quatre Gats", and kept the legacy of the café alive after it closed down. The third magazine lacked subscriptions and was ended in 1908.

Els Quatre Gats (; ) is a café in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain that famously became a popular meeting place for famous artists throughout the modernist period in Catalonia, known as "Modernisme". The café opened on June 12, 1897 in the famous Casa Martí, and served as a hostel, bar and cabaret until it eventually became a central meeting point for Barcelona’s most prominent modernist figures, such as Pablo Picasso and Ramon Casas i Carbó. The bar closed due to financial difficulties in June 1903, but was reopened and eventually restored to its original condition in 1989.

四只猫(加泰罗尼亚语为 Els Quatre Gats)是巴塞罗那的一个咖啡馆,位于巴塞罗那老城Montsió街()3号的马蒂之家(),由建筑师Josep Puig i Cadafalch 于 1895 年设计,四只猫于1897年6月12日开业,也充当宾馆,夜总会,酒吧和餐厅。四只猫曾是巴塞罗那现代主义运动的主要中心之一。艺术家拉蒙·卡萨斯曾大笔资助这个咖啡馆。帮助拉蒙·卡萨斯经营四只猫的是佩雷·罗梅乌。


Observations.

Ordinary gravitational waves frequencies are very low and much harder to detect, while higher frequencies occur in more dramatic events and thus have become the first to be observed.  In addition to a merger of black holes, a binary neutron star merger has been directly detected: a gamma-ray burst (GRB) was detected by the orbiting Fermi gamma-ray burst monitor on 2017 August 17 12:41:06 UTC, triggering an automated notice worldwide. Six minutes later a single detector at Hanford LIGO, a gravitational-wave observatory, registered a gravitational-wave candidate occurring 2 seconds before the gamma-ray burst. This set of observations is consistent with a binary neutron star merger, as evidenced by a multi-messenger transient event which was signalled by gravitational-wave, and electromagnetic (gamma-ray burst, optical, and infrared)-spectrum sightings.

High frequency.

In 2015, the LIGO project was the first to directly observe gravitational waves using laser interferometers. The LIGO detectors observed gravitational waves from the merger of two stellar-mass black holes, matching predictions of general relativity. These observations demonstrated the existence of binary stellar-mass black hole systems, and were the first direct detection of gravitational waves and the first observation of a binary black hole merger. This finding has been characterized as revolutionary to science, because of the verification of our ability to use gravitational-wave astronomy to progress in our search and exploration of dark matter and the big bang.  There are several current scientific collaborations for observing gravitational waves. There is a worldwide network of ground-based detectors, these are kilometre-scale laser interferometers including: the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), a joint project between MIT, Caltech and the scientists of the LIGO Scientific Collaboration with detectors in Livingston, Louisiana and Hanford, Washington; Virgo, at the European Gravitational Observatory, Cascina, Italy; GEO600 in Sarstedt, Germany, and the Kamioka Gravitational Wave Detector (KAGRA), operated by the University of Tokyo in the Kamioka Observatory, Japan. LIGO and Virgo are currently being upgraded to their advanced configurations. Advanced LIGO began observations in 2015, detecting gravitational waves even though not having reached its design sensitivity yet. The more advanced KAGRA is scheduled for 2018. GEO600 is currently operational, but its sensitivity makes it unlikely to make an observation; its primary purpose is to trial technology.

Low frequency.

An alternative means of observation is using pulsar timing arrays (PTAs). There are three consortia, the European Pulsar Timing Array (EPTA), the North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves (NANOGrav), and the Parkes Pulsar Timing Array (PPTA), which co-operate as the International Pulsar Timing Array. These use existing radio telescopes, but since they are sensitive to frequencies in the nanohertz range, many years of observation are needed to detect a signal and detector sensitivity improves gradually. Current bounds are approaching those expected for astrophysical sources.

Intermediate frequencies.

Further in the future, there is the possibility of space-borne detectors. The European Space Agency has selected a gravitational-wave mission for its L3 mission, due to launch 2034, the current concept is the evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (eLISA). Also in development is the Japanese Deci-hertz Interferometer Gravitational wave Observatory (DECIGO).

Scientific value.

Astronomy has traditionally relied on electromagnetic radiation. Originating with the visible band, as technology advanced, it became possible to observe other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio to gamma rays. Each new frequency band gave a new perspective on the Universe and heralded new discoveries. During the 20th century, indirect and later direct measurements of high-energy, massive, particles provided an additional window into the cosmos. Late in the 20th century, the detection of solar neutrinos founded the field of neutrino astronomy, giving an insight into previously inaccessible phenomena, such as the inner workings of the Sun. The observation of gravitational waves provides a further means of making astrophysical observations.  Russell Hulse and Joseph Taylor were awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics for showing that the orbital decay of a pair of neutron stars, one of them a pulsar, fits general relativity's predictions of gravitational radiation. Subsequently, many other binary pulsars (including one double pulsar system) have been observed, all fitting gravitational-wave predictions. In 2017, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Rainer Weiss, Kip Thorne and Barry Barish for their role in the first detection of gravitational waves.  Gravitational waves provide complementary information to that provided by other means. By combining observations of a single event made using different means, it is possible to gain a more complete understanding of the source's properties. This is known as multi-messenger astronomy. Gravitational waves can also be used to observe systems that are invisible (or almost impossible to detect) to measure by any other means. For example, they provide a unique method of measuring the properties of black holes.  Gravitational waves can be emitted by many systems, but, to produce detectable signals, the source must consist of extremely massive objects moving at a significant fraction of the speed of light. The main source is a binary of two compact objects. Example systems include:  In addition to binaries, there are other potential sources:  Gravitational waves interact only weakly with matter. This is what makes them difficult to detect. It also means that they can travel freely through the Universe, and are not absorbed or scattered like electromagnetic radiation. It is therefore possible to see to the center of dense systems, like the cores of supernovae or the Galactic Centre. It is also possible to see further back in time than with electromagnetic radiation, as the early universe was opaque to light prior to recombination, but transparent to gravitational waves.  The ability of gravitational waves to move freely through matter also means that gravitational-wave detectors, unlike telescopes, are not pointed to observe a single field of view but observe the entire sky. Detectors are more sensitive in some directions than others, which is one reason why it is beneficial to have a network of detectors.

In cosmic inflation.

Cosmic inflation, a hypothesized period when the universe rapidly expanded during the first 10 seconds after the Big Bang, would have given rise to gravitational waves; that would have left a characteristic imprint in the polarization of the CMB radiation.  It is possible to calculate the properties of the primordial gravitational waves from measurements of the patterns in the microwave radiation, and use those calculations to learn about the early universe.

Development.

As a young area of research, gravitational-wave astronomy is still in development; however, there is consensus within the astrophysics community that this field will evolve to become an established component of 21st century multi-messenger astronomy.  Gravitational-wave observations complement observations in the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves also promise to yield information in ways not possible via detection and analysis of electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves can be absorbed and re-radiated in ways that make extracting information about the source difficult. Gravitational waves, however, only interact weakly with matter, meaning that they are not scattered or absorbed. This should allow astronomers to view the center of a supernova, stellar nebulae, and even colliding galactic cores in new ways.  Ground-based detectors have yielded new information about the inspiral phase and mergers of binary systems of two stellar mass black holes, and merger of two neutron stars. They could also detect signals from core-collapse supernovae, and from periodic sources such as pulsars with small deformations. If there is truth to speculation about certain kinds of phase transitions or kink bursts from long cosmic strings in the very early universe (at cosmic times around 10 seconds), these could also be detectable. Space-based detectors like LISA should detect objects such as binaries consisting of two white dwarfs, and AM CVn stars (a white dwarf accreting matter from its binary partner, a low-mass helium star), and also observe the mergers of supermassive black holes and the inspiral of smaller objects (between one and a thousand solar masses) into such black holes. LISA should also be able to listen to the same kind of sources from the early universe as ground-based detectors, but at even lower frequencies and with greatly increased sensitivity.  Detecting emitted gravitational waves is a difficult endeavor. It involves ultra stable high quality lasers and detectors calibrated with a sensitivity of at least 2·10 Hz as shown at the ground-based detector, GEO600. It has also been proposed that even from large astronomical events, such as supernova explosions, these waves are likely to degrade to vibrations as small as an atomic diameter.

Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging branch of observational astronomy which aims to use gravitational waves (minute distortions of spacetime predicted by Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity) to collect observational data about objects such as neutron stars and black holes, events such as supernovae, and processes including those of the early universe shortly after the Big Bang.

引力波天文学(英语:Gravitational-wave astronomy)是观测天文学20世纪中叶以来逐渐兴起的一个新兴分支,其发展基础是广义相对论中引力的辐射理论在各类相对论性天体系统研究中的应用。传统天文学主要是使用电磁波来观测各种天体系统,而引力波天文学则是通过引力波来观测发出引力辐射的天体系统。由于万有引力相互作用和电磁相互作用相比强度十分微弱,引力波的直接观测需要利用到当今最高端科技。


Etymology and scope.

The word "agriculture" is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin "agricultūra", from "ager", "field", and "cultūra", "cultivation" or "growing". While agriculture usually refers to human activities, certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle

History.

Origins.

The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be sustained by hunting and gathering. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa, in at least 11 separate centres of origin. Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Rice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago.

Civilizations.

In Eurasia, the Sumerians started to live in villages from about 8,000 BC, relying on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear in pictographs around 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs. Ancient Egyptian agriculture relied on the Nile River and its seasonal flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the Paleolithic, after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and

Revolution.

In the Middle Ages, both in the Islamic world and in Europe, agriculture transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees (such as the orange) to Europe by way of Al-Andalus. After 1492 the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice and turnips, and livestock (including horses, cattle, sheep and goats) to the Americas.An example of an advancement in the field of agriculture was the introduction of

Types.

Pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals. In nomadic pastoralism, herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practised in arid and semi-arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India.  In shifting cultivation, a small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees. The cleared land is used for growing crops for a few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the

Contemporary agriculture.

Status.

From the twentieth century, intensive agriculture increased productivity. It substituted synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labor, but caused increased water pollution, and often involved farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash against the environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic, regenerative, and sustainable agriculture movements. One of the major forces behind this movement has been the European Union, which first certified organic food in 1991 and began reform of its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies, also known as decoupling. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as integrated

Workforce.

Following the three-sector theory, the number of people employed in agriculture and other primary activities (such as fishing) can be more than 80% in the least developed countries, and less than 2% in the most highly developed countries. Since the Industrial Revolution, many countries have made the transition to developed economies, and the proportion of people working in agriculture has steadily fallen. During the 16th century

Safety.

Agriculture, specifically farming, remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized farms, injuries frequently involve the use of agricultural machinery, and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is tractor rollovers. Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects. As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death. Ages 0–6 may be an especially vulnerable population in agriculture; common causes of

Production.

Overall production varies by country as listed.

Crop cultivation systems.

Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer.  Shifting cultivation (or slash and burn) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period of several years. Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10–20). This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or manure) and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even

Livestock production systems.

Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk, eggs, or wool, and for work and transport. Working animals, including horses, mules, oxen, water buffalo, camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys, and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers.  Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless., 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050. Aquaculture or fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975

Production practices.

Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or harrow to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.  Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects, mites, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, culling, cover crops, intercropping, composting, avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.  Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of utilization of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs

Crop alteration and biotechnology.

Plant breeding.

Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist Gregor Mendel. His work on dominant and recessive alleles, although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits, self-pollination and cross-pollination, and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism.  Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop

Genetic engineering.

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms whose genetic material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available to breeders to utilize in creating desired germlines for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred into crops through genetic engineering. For some, GMO crops cause food safety and food labeling concerns. Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops. Currently a global treaty, the Biosafety Protocol, regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not.  Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene

Environmental impact.

Effects and costs.

Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially herbicides and insecticides), nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and loss of natural environment. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208 per hectare. A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million. Both studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society.  Agriculture seeks to increase yield and to reduce costs. Yield increases with inputs such as fertilisers and removal of pathogens, predators, and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with increasing scale of farm

Livestock issues.

A senior UN official, Henning Steinfeld, said that "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems". Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of

Land and water issues.

Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is considered the driving force in the loss of biodiversity. Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%. Land degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland overrepresented. The UN-FAO report cites land management as the driving factor behind degradation and reports that 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, mineral depletion, or chemical degradation (acidification and salinization).  Eutrophication, excessive nutrients in aquatic ecosystems resulting in algal bloom and anoxia, leads to fish kills, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive

Pesticides.

Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant. The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that three million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths. Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.  An alternative argument

Global warming.

Global warming and agriculture are interrelated on a global scale. Global warming affects agriculture through changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and weather extremes (like storms and heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods; and changes in sea level. Global warming is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world. Future climate change will probably negatively affect crop production in low latitude

Sustainability.

Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests. Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.  Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and

Energy dependence.

Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from fossil fuel sources. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area) as world population doubled. Heavy reliance on petrochemicals has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output.

Disciplines.

Agricultural economics.

Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services". Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century. Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from tenant farmers and sharecropping in the post-American Civil War Southern United States to the European feudal system of manorialism. In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to food processing, distribution, and agricultural marketing, sometimes referred to as the value chain, have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of value addition (e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain. Market concentration has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely

Agricultural science.

Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, plant pathology, crop modelling, soil science, entomology, production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation, waste management, and bioremediation.  The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when Johann Friedrich

Policy.

Agricultural policy is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters), economic stability (including policies related to taxes), natural resources and environmental sustainability (especially water policy), research and development, and market access for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries). Agricultural policy can also touch on food quality, ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and conservation. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.  There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy, including consumers, agribusiness, trade lobbies and other groups. Agribusiness interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making, in the form of lobbying and campaign contributions. Political action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and labor unions, also provide influence, as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Dr. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure.

Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. The history of agriculture began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers began to plant them around 11,500 years ago. Pigs, sheep and cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output, though about 2 billion people still depended on subsistence agriculture into the twenty-first.

农业是第一级产业,在现代有广狭之分。广义上的农业是种植业、林业、畜牧业、渔业的总称,而狭义上的农业则是纯粹指种植业(而这亦符合中文里「农」字的意思)。依据现代中华人民共和国农业法第二条定义,本法所称农业,是指种植业、林业、畜牧业和渔业。农业的产品一般会是食物、纤维、生物燃料、药物或是其他利用自然资源而来,可以维持或提升人类生活的物品。此专页的内容为广义上的农业。