History.

Today's Parliament of the United Kingdom largely descends, in practice, from the Parliament of England, through the Treaty of Union of 1706 and the Acts of Union that ratified the Treaty in 1707 and created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland.  The House of Lords developed from the "Great Council" ("Magnum Concilium") that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, and representatives of the counties of England and Wales (afterwards, representatives of the boroughs as well). The first English Parliament is often considered to be the "Model Parliament" (held in 1295), which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs.  The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined. For example, during much of the reign of Edward II (1307–1327), the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, but by an authoritative statute, passed by Parliament itself.  During the reign of Edward II's successor, Edward III, Parliament clearly separated into two distinct chambers: the House of Commons (consisting of the shire and borough representatives) and the House of Lords (consisting of the bishops, abbots and peers). The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and during the early 15th century both Houses exercised powers to an extent not seen before. The Lords were far more powerful than the Commons because of the great influence of the great landowners and the prelates of the realm.  The power of the nobility declined during the civil wars of the late 15th century, known as the Wars of the Roses. Much of the nobility was killed on the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown. Moreover, feudalism was dying, and the feudal armies controlled by the barons became obsolete. Henry VII (1485–1509) clearly established the supremacy of the monarch, symbolised by the "Crown Imperial". The domination of the Sovereign continued to grow during the reigns of the Tudor monarchs in the 16th century. The Crown was at the height of its power during the reign of Henry VIII (1509–1547).  The House of Lords remained more powerful than the House of Commons, but the Lower House continued to grow in influence, reaching a zenith in relation to the House of Lords during the middle 17th century. Conflicts between the King and the Parliament (for the most part, the House of Commons) ultimately led to the English Civil War during the 1640s. In 1649, after the defeat and execution of King Charles I, the Commonwealth of England was declared, but the nation was effectively under the overall control of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.  The House of Lords was reduced to a largely powerless body, with Cromwell and his supporters in the Commons dominating the Government. On 19 March 1649, the House of Lords was abolished by an Act of Parliament, which declared that "The Commons of England [find] by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England." The House of Lords did not assemble again until the Convention Parliament met in 1660 and the monarchy was restored. It returned to its former position as the more powerful chamber of Parliament—a position it would occupy until the 19th century.

Functions.

Legislative functions.

Legislation, with the exception of money bills, may be introduced in either House.  The House of Lords debates legislation, and has power to amend or reject bills. However, the power of the Lords to reject a bill passed by the House of Commons is severely restricted by the Parliament Acts. Under those Acts, certain types of bills may be presented for the Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords (i.e. the Commons can override the Lords' veto). The House of Lords cannot delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month.  Other public bills cannot be delayed

Relationship with the government.

The House of Lords does not control the term of the prime minister or of the government. Only the lower house may force the prime minister to resign or call elections by passing a motion of no-confidence or by withdrawing supply. Thus, the House of Lords' oversight of the government is limited.  Most Cabinet ministers are from the House of Commons rather than the House of Lords. In particular, all prime ministers since 1902 have been members of the lower house. (Alec Douglas-Home, who became prime minister in 1963 whilst still an earl, disclaimed his peerage and was elected to the Commons soon after his term began.) In recent history, it has been very rare for major cabinet positions (except Lord Chancellor and Leader of the House of Lords) to have been filled by peers.  Exceptions include Lord Carrington, who was the Secretary of State for Defence from 1970 to 1974, Secretary of

Former judicial role.

Historically, the House of Lords held several judicial functions. Most notably, until 2009 the House of Lords served as the court of last resort for most instances of UK law. Since 1 October 2009 this role is now held by the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.  The Lords' judicial functions originated from the ancient role of the Curia Regis as a body that addressed the petitions of the King's subjects. The functions were exercised not by the whole House, but by a committee of "Law Lords". The bulk of the House's judicial business was conducted by the twelve Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, who were specifically appointed for this purpose under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876.  The judicial functions could also be

Membership.

Lords Spiritual.

Members of the House of Lords who sit by virtue of their ecclesiastical offices are known as Lords Spiritual. Formerly, the Lords Spiritual were the majority in the English House of Lords, comprising the church's archbishops, (diocesan) bishops, abbots, and those priors who were entitled to wear a mitre. After the English Reformation's highpoint in 1539, only the archbishops and bishops continued to attend, as the Dissolution of the Monasteries had just disproved of and suppressed the positions of abbot and prior. In 1642, during the few Lords' gatherings convened during English Interregnum which saw periodic war, the Lords Spiritual were excluded altogether, but they returned under the Clergy Act 1661.  The number of Lords Spiritual was further restricted by the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847, and

Lords Temporal.

Hereditary peers.

Since the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the Lords Temporal have been the most numerous group in the House of Lords. Unlike the Lords Spiritual, they may be publicly partisan, aligning themselves with one or another of the political parties that dominate the House of Commons. Publicly non-partisan Lords are called crossbenchers. Originally, the Lords Temporal included several hundred hereditary peers (that is, those whose peerages may be inherited), who ranked variously as dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, and barons (as well as Scottish Lords of Parliament). Such hereditary dignities can be

Lords of Appeal in Ordinary.

Until 2009, the Lords Temporal also included the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, more commonly known as Law Lords, a group of individuals appointed to the House of Lords so that they could exercise its judicial functions. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary were first appointed under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. They were selected by the Prime Minister of the day, but were formally appointed by the Sovereign. A Lord of Appeal in Ordinary had to retire at the age of 70, or, if his or her term was extended by the government, at the age of 75; after reaching such an age, the Law Lord could not hear any further cases in the House of Lords.  The number of Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (excluding those who were no longer able

Life peers.

The largest group of Lords Temporal, and indeed of the whole House, are life peers. As of June 2019 there are 661 life peers. Life peerages rank only as barons or baronesses, and are created under the Life Peerages Act 1958. Like all other peers, life peers are created by the Sovereign, who acts on the advice of the Prime Minister or the House of Lords Appointments Commission. By convention, however, the Prime Minister allows leaders of other parties to nominate some life peers, so as to maintain a political balance in the House of Lords. Moreover, some non-party life peers (the number being determined by the Prime Minister) are nominated by the independent House of Lords Appointments Commission.  In 2000, the government announced it would set up an Independent Appointments Commission, under Lord Stevenson of Coddenham, to select fifteen so-called "people's peers" for life peerages. However, when the choices were announced in April 2001, from a list of 3,000 applicants, the choices were treated with criticism in the media, as all were distinguished in their field, and none were "ordinary people" as some had originally hoped.

Qualifications.

Several different qualifications apply for membership of the House of Lords. No person may sit in the House of Lords if under the age of 21. Furthermore, only United Kingdom, Irish and Commonwealth citizens may sit in the House of Lords. The nationality restrictions were previously more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, and prior to the British Nationality Act 1948, only natural-born subjects qualified.  Additionally, some bankruptcy-related restrictions apply to members of the Upper House. A person may not sit in the House of Lords if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt

Cash for Peerages.

The Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925 made it illegal for a peerage, or other honour, to be bought or sold. Nonetheless, there have been repeated allegations that life peerages (and thus membership of the House of Lords) have been made available to major political donors in exchange for donations. The most prominent case, the 2006 Cash for Honours scandal, saw a police investigation, with no charges being brought. A 2015 study found that of 303 people nominated for peerages in the period 2005–14, a total of 211 were former senior figures within politics (including former MPs), or were non-political appointments. Of the remaining 92 political appointments from outside public life, 27 had made significant donations to political parties. The authors concluded firstly that nominees from outside public life were much more likely to have made large gifts than peers nominated after prior political or public service. They also found that significant donors to parties were far more likely to be nominated for peerages than other party members.

Removal from House membership.

Traditionally there was no mechanism by which members could resign or be removed from the House of Lords (compare the situation as regards resignation from the House of Commons). The Peerage Act 1963 permitted a person to disclaim their newly inherited peerage (within certain time limits); this meant that such a person could effectively renounce their membership of the Lords. This might be done in order to remain

Officers.

Traditionally the House of Lords did not elect its own speaker, unlike the House of Commons; rather, the "ex officio" presiding officer was the Lord Chancellor. With the passage of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the post of Lord Speaker was created, a position to which a peer is elected by the House and subsequently appointed by the Crown. The first Lord Speaker, elected on 4 May 2006, was Baroness Hayman, a former Labour peer. As the Speaker is expected to be an impartial presiding officer, Hayman resigned from the Labour Party. In 2011, Baroness D'Souza was elected as the second Lord Speaker, replacing Hayman in September 2011. D'Souza was in turn succeeded by Lord Fowler in September 2016, the incumbent Lord Speaker.  This reform of the post of Lord Chancellor was made due to the perceived constitutional anomalies inherent in the role. The Lord Chancellor was not only the Speaker of the House of Lords, but also a member of the Cabinet; his or her department, formerly the Lord Chancellor's Department, is now called the Ministry of Justice. The Lord Chancellor is no longer the head of the judiciary of England and Wales. Hitherto, the Lord Chancellor was part of all three branches of government: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial.  The overlap of the legislative and executive roles is a characteristic of the Westminster system, as the entire cabinet consists of members of the House of Commons or the House of Lords; however, in June 2003, the Blair Government announced its intention to abolish the post of Lord Chancellor because of the office's mixed executive and judicial responsibilities. The abolition of the office was rejected by the House of Lords, and the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 was thus amended to preserve the office of Lord Chancellor. The Act no longer guarantees that the office holder of Lord Chancellor is the presiding officer of the House of Lords, and therefore allows the House of Lords to elect a speaker of their own. The Lord Speaker may be replaced as presiding officer by one of his or her deputies. The Chairman of Committees, the Principal Deputy Chairman of Committees, and several Chairmen are all deputies to the Lord Speaker, and are all appointed by the House of Lords itself at the beginning of each session. By custom, the Crown appoints each Chairman, Principal Deputy Chairman and Deputy Chairman to the additional office of

Procedure.

The House of Lords and the House of Commons assemble in the Palace of Westminster. The Lords Chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modestly furnished Commons Chamber. Benches in the Lords Chamber are coloured red. The Woolsack is at the front of the Chamber; the Government sit on benches on the right of the Woolsack, while members of the Opposition sit on the left. Crossbenchers, sit on the benches immediately opposite the Woolsack.  The Lords Chamber is the site of many formal ceremonies, the most famous of which is the State Opening of Parliament, held at the beginning of each new parliamentary session. During the State Opening, the Sovereign, seated on the Throne in the Lords Chamber and in the presence of both Houses of Parliament, delivers a speech outlining the Government's agenda for the upcoming parliamentary session.  In the House of Lords, members need not seek the recognition of the presiding officer before speaking, as is done in the House of Commons. If two or more Lords simultaneously rise to speak, the House decides which one is to be heard by acclamation, or, if necessary, by voting on a motion. Often, however, the Leader of the House will suggest an order, which is thereafter generally followed. Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole ("My Lords") rather than to the presiding officer alone (as is the custom in the Lower House). Members may not refer to each other in the second person (as "you"), but rather use third person forms such as "the noble Duke", "the noble Earl", "the noble Lord", "my noble friend", "The most Reverend Primate", etc.  Each member may make no more than one speech on a motion, except that the mover of the motion may make one speech at the beginning of the debate and another at the end. Speeches are not subject to any time limits in the House; however, the House may put an end to a speech by approving a motion "that the noble Lord be no longer heard". It is also possible for the House to end the debate entirely, by approving a motion "that the Question be now put". This procedure is known as Closure, and is extremely rare. Six closure motions were passed on 4 April 2019 to significant media attention as part of consideration of a private member's bill concerning the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union.  Once all speeches on a motion have concluded, or Closure invoked, the motion may be put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and the Lords respond either "content" (in favour of the motion) or "not content" (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his assessment is challenged by any Lord, a recorded vote known as a division follows.  Members of the House enter one of two lobbies (the "content" lobby or the "not-content" lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the Lords. The Lord Speaker may not take part in the vote. Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results thereof to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House.  If there is an equality of votes, the motion is decided according to the following principles: legislation may proceed in its present form, unless there is a majority in favour of amending or rejecting it; any other motions are rejected, unless there is a majority in favour of approving it. The quorum of the House of Lords is just three members for a general or procedural vote, and 30 members for a vote on legislation. If fewer than three or 30 members (as appropriate) are present, the division is invalid.

Committees.

Unlike in the House of Commons, when the term committee is used to describe a stage of a bill, this committee does not take the form of a public bill committee, but what is described as Committee of the Whole House. It is made up of all Members of the House of Lords allowing any Member to contribute to debates if he or she chooses to do so and allows for more flexible rules of procedure. It is presided over by the Chairman of Committees.  The term committee is also used to describe Grand Committee, where the same rules of procedure apply as in the main chamber, except that no divisions may take place. For this reason, business that is discussed in Grand Committee is usually uncontroversial and likely to be agreed unanimously.  Public bills may also be committed to pre-legislative committees. A pre-legislative Committee is specifically constituted for a particular bill. These committees are established in advance of the bill being laid before either the House of Lords or the House of Commons and can take evidence from the public. Such committees are rare and do not replace any of

Current composition.

There are currently sitting members of the House of Lords. As of June 2019, 661 are life peers. An additional Lords are ineligible from participation, including eight peers who are constitutionally disqualified as members of the Judiciary.  The House of Lords Act 1999 allocated 75 of the 92 hereditary peers to the parties based on the proportion of hereditary peers that belonged to that party in 1999:  Of the initial 42 hereditary peers elected as Conservatives, one, Lord Willoughby de Broke, defected to UKIP, though he left the party in 2018.  Fifteen hereditary peers are elected by the whole House, and the remaining hereditary peers are the two royal office-holders, the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain, both of whom are currently on leave of absence.  A report in 2007 stated that many members of the Lords (particularly the life peers) do not attend regularly; the average daily attendance was around 408.  While the number of hereditary peers is limited to 92, and that of Lords spiritual to 26, there is no maximum limit to the number of life peers who may be members of the House of Lords at any time.  Special arrangements were made during the Coronavirus Pandemic in 2020 to allow some duties online.  Baroness Vere of Norbiton – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Transport

The House of Lords, also known as the House of Peers and domestically usually referred to simply as the Lords, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Membership is granted by appointment or else by heredity or official function. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster.

英国上议院(英语:House of Lords of the United Kingdom),直译为贵族院,是英国国会的上议会。英国国会同时也由英国君主与下议院组成。上议院有大约700多名非选举产生之议员,当中包括英国国教会的26名大主教或主教(即灵职议员)以及600多名贵族(即俗职议员,Lords Temporal)。灵职担任者于其保有神职身份时续任,而俗职为终身职。


Geography and demographics.

As of October 1, 2010, the city had an estimated population of 419,429 with a population density of 1,118 persons per km2.<ref name="city.takamatsu.kagawa.jp/english/profile/population"></ref> The total area is following the September 26, 2005, and January 10, 2006, expansions.

History.

The city was officially founded on February 15, 1890. It had been a political and economic center in this area since the Edo period when the Matsudaira clan made Takamatsu the capital of their han.  Takamatsu was selected as a target by the United States' XXI Bomber Command because the city was thought to be an important focal point of Shikoku's rail and road transit systems, and containing some industry vital to supporting the war effort.  On July 3, 1945, towards the end of World War II, at 6:40 PM (JST) 128 B-29 aircraft took off to bomb Takamatsu. Over 800 tons of incendiary bombs were dropped on Takamatsu, destroying 78% of the built-up areas of the city.

Main sights.

The city's major tourist attraction is Ritsurin Garden, a feudal lord garden created in the Edo period. Designated as a Special Place of Scenic Beauty by the Japanese government, Ritsurin Garden is especially popular during spring and autumn where night-time illuminations showcase cherry blossoms and autumn colours respectively.  Takamatsu Castle is known for using seawater in its moat and recently the old keep of the castle was successfully restored and opened for public viewing.  In the east of Takamatsu City lies the Yashima lava plateau which is home to various sightseeing spots. At the base of the mountain is the open air museum Shikoku Mura where aspects of regional history and culture are exhibited. On the mountain itself is Yashima-ji, number 84 of the Shikoku 88 temple pilgrimage. At the top of the mountain there is also an observation deck which offers views across the Seto Inland Sea.  Takamatsu also acts as a hub to access various islands of the Seto Inland Sea. These include, Megijima, Ogijima, Naoshima, Teshima and Shōdoshima. Since 2010, Takamatsu, along with these islands and more, has been host to the Setouchi Triennale, a contemporary art festival with many outdoor exhibitions by prominent artists from across the world.

Economy.

Companies headquartered in the city include:  Asiana Airlines operates a sales office on the twelfth floor of the Nihon Seimei Ekimae Building in Takamatsu.

Transportation.

The main train station is Takamatsu Station, operated by JR Shikoku. Trains from here run to destinations around Shikoku, as well as Okayama Station on Honshū via the Seto-Ōhashi Bridge. The private Kotoden railway connects much of Takamatsu, with a hub and department store at Kawaramachi Station, and Takamatsu-Chikko Station nearby Takamatsu Station.  Long-distance coach services operate from the city to destinations such as Ōsaka, Kyoto, Tokyo, and Hiroshima.  Buses and trains operated by Kotoden accept a contactless payment card for travel called an IruCa.

Crime and safety.

The Shinwa-kai yakuza syndicate is based in Takamatsu. The Shinwa-kai is the only designated yakuza group based in the Shikoku region.  In October 2017, "Japan Today" reported 5 people received minor injuries when a wild boar entered a local Aeon mall.

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Takamatsu is twinned with:

Friendship cities.

Takamatsu has friendship arrangements with:

Climate.

Takamatsu has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfa") with hot summers and cool winters. Some rain falls throughout the year, but the months from May to September have the heaviest rain.

The Sunport Takamatsu covers the area of the Symbol Tower, the JR Clement Hotel, and a miniature mall called Maritime Plaza. The Takamatsu Bus station is also located right next to Maritime Plaza. Various Buses including the Kotoden Bus run through town, to Ritsurin Park, and to the airport. Sunport Takamatsu is also connected to the ports of Takamatsu. Takamatsu Airport is located in Takamatsu.

高松市()是位于日本四国地方东北部香川县中部的城市,也是香川县县厅所在地,目前是中核市。高松市位于赞岐平原,临濑户内海,是一座港口城市。


History.

Double-lens cameras were first developed around 1870. In the earlier plate cameras the photographer first viewed the image on a screen of ground glass. After adjusting the camera and closing the objective aperture the ground glass screen was swapped for the photographic plate, and finally the picture could be taken. (Some cameras used this layout as late as the 1960s, for example the Koni-Omegaflex.) The additional viewfinding optics made it possible for a photographer to snap a picture immediately after focussing the image. This advantage of course applies to SLR cameras as well, but early SLR cameras caused delays and inconvenience to move the mirror needed for viewfinding out of the optical path to the photographic plate. When this process was automated, the movement of the mirror could cause shake in the camera and blur the image. Using a mirror to allow viewing from above also enabled the camera to be held much more steadily against the body than a camera held with the hands only.  The London Stereoscopic Co's "Carlton" model, dating from 1885, is claimed to be the first off-the-shelf TLR camera. A major step forward to mass marketing of the TLR came with the Rolleiflex in 1929, developed by Franke & Heidecke in Germany. The Rolleiflex was widely imitated and copied and most mass-market TLR cameras owe much to its design. It is said that Reinhold Heidecke had the inspiration for the Rollei TLRs while undertaking photography of enemy lines from the German trenches in 1916, when a periscopic approach to focusing and taking photos radically reduced the risk to the photographer from sniper fire.  TLRs are still manufactured in Germany by DHW Fototechnik, the successor of Franke & Heidecke, in three versions.

Features.

Higher-end TLRs may have a pop-up magnifying glass to assist the user in focusing the camera. In addition, many have a "sports finder" consisting of a square hole punched in the back of the pop-up hood, and a knock-out in the front. Photographers can sight through these instead of using the matte screen. This is especially useful in tracking moving subjects such as animals or race cars, since the image on the matte screen is reversed left-to-right. It is nearly impossible to accurately judge composition with such an arrangement, however.  Mamiya's C-Series, introduced in the 1960s, the C-3, C-2, C-33, C-22 and the Mamiya C330 and Mamiya C220 along with their predecessor the Mamiyaflex, are the main conventional TLR cameras to feature truly interchangeable lenses. "Bayonet-mount" TLRs, notably Rolleis & Yashicas, had both wide-angle and tele supplementary front add-ons, with Rollei's Zeiss Mutars being expensive but fairly sharp. Rollei also made separate TLRs having fixed wide-angle or tele lenses: the Tele Rollei and the Rollei Wide, in relatively limited quantities; higher sharpness, more convenient (faster than changing lenses) if one could carry multiple cameras around one's neck, but much more costly than using 1 camera with supplements. The Mamiya TLRs also employ bellows focusing, making extreme closeups possible.  Many TLRs used front and back cut-outs in the hinged top hood to provide a quick-action finder for sports and action photography. Late model Rollei Rolleiflex TLRs introduced the widely copied additional feature of a second-mirror "sports finder". When the hinged front hood knock-out is moved to the sports finder position a secondary mirror swings down over the view screen to reflect the image to a secondary magnifier on the back of the hood, just below the direct view cutout. This permits precise focusing while using the sports finder feature. The magnified central image is reversed both top-to-bottom and left-to-right. This feature made Rolleis the leading choice for press photographers during the 1940s to 1960s.

Advantages.

A primary advantage of the TLR is in its mechanical simplicity as compared to the more common single-lens reflex cameras (SLR) cameras. The SLR must employ some method of blocking light from reaching the film during focusing, either with a focal plane shutter (most common) or with the reflex mirror itself. Both methods are mechanically complicated and add significant bulk and weight, especially in medium-format cameras. Because of their mechanical simplicity, TLR cameras are considerably cheaper than SLR cameras of similar optical quality, as well as inherently less prone to mechanical failure.  TLRs are practically different from SLR in several respects. First, unlike virtually all film SLRs, TLRs provide a continuous image on the finder screen. The view does not black out during exposure. Since a mirror does not need to be moved out of the way, the picture can be taken much closer to the time the shutter is actuated by the photographer, reducing so-called shutter lag. This trait, and the continuous viewing, made TLRs the preferred camera style for dance photography. The separate viewing lens is also very advantageous for long-exposure photographs. During exposure, an SLR's mirror must be retracted, blacking out the image in the viewfinder. A TLR's mirror is fixed and the taking lens remains open throughout the exposure, letting the photographer examine the image while the exposure is in progress. This can ease the creation of special lighting or transparency effects. Models with leaf shutters within the lens, rather than focal-plane shutters installed inside the camera body, can synchronize with flash at higher speeds than can SLRs. Flashes on SLRs usually cannot synchronize accurately when the shutter speed is faster than 1/60th of a second and occasionally 1/125th. Some higher quality DSLRs can synchronize at up to 1/500th of a second. Leaf shutters allow for flash synchronization at all shutter speeds. SLR shutter mechanisms are comparatively noisy. Most TLRs use a leaf shutter in the lens. The only mechanical noise during exposure is from the shutter leaves opening and closing.  TLRs are also ideal for candid camera shots where an eye-level camera would be conspicuous. A TLR can be hung on a neck strap and the shutter fired by cable release. Owing to the availability of medium-format cameras and the ease of image composition, the TLR was for many years also preferred by many portrait studios for static poses.  Extreme dark photographic filter like the opaque Wratten 87 can be used without problems, as they cover and thus darken only the taking lens. The image in the viewfinder stays bright.

Disadvantages.

Few TLR cameras offered interchangeable lenses and none were made with a zoom lens. In systems with interchangeable lenses, such as the Mamiya, the fixed distance between the lenses sets a hard limit on their size, which precludes the possibility of large aperture long-focus lenses. The lenses are also more expensive because the shutter mechanism is integrated with the lens, not the camera body, so each lens pair must include a shutter. Because the photographer views through one lens but takes the photograph through another, parallax error makes the photograph different from the view on the screen. This difference is negligible when the subject is far away, but is critical for nearby subjects. Parallax compensation may be performed by the photographer in adjustment of the sight line while compensating for the framing change, or for highly repeatable accuracy in tabletop photography (in which the subject might be within a foot (30 cm) of the camera), devices are available that move the camera upwards so that the taking lens goes to the exact position that the viewing lens occupied. [Mamiya's very accurate version was called the Para-mender, and mounted on a tripod.] Some TLRs like the Rolleiflex (a notable early example is the Voigtländer Superb of 1933) also came with - more or less complex - devices to adjust parallax with focussing. It is generally not possible to preview depth of field, as one can with most SLRs, since the TLR's viewing lens usually has no diaphragm. Exceptions to this are the Rolleiflex, the Mamiya 105 D and 105 DS lenses, which have a depth of field preview.  As the viewfinder of a TLR camera requires the photographer to look down toward the camera, it is inconvenient to frame a photo with a subject that requires the camera to be positioned above the photographer's chest unless a tripod is used. In these cases, the camera may be positioned with the lenses oriented horizontally. Due to the TLR's square format, the composition need not be altered. The image in the waist-level finder is reversed 'left to right' which can make framing a photograph difficult, especially for an inexperienced user or with a moving subject. With high-quality TLRs like the Rolleiflex and the Mamiya C220/C330 the waist-level finder can be replaced by an eye-level finder, using a roof pentaprism or pentamirror to correct the image while making it viewable through an eyepiece at the rear of the camera.  The design of the leaf shutter limits almost all TLRs to a maximum shutter speed between 1/100th and 1/500th of a second.  Certain photographic filters are inconvenient without line of sight through the taking lens - notably, graduated neutral density filters are hard to use with a TLR, as there is no easy way to position the filter accurately.

Film formats.

6×6 format.

The typical TLR is medium format, using 120 roll film with square images. Presently, the Chinese Seagull Camera is still in production along with Lomography's Lubitel, but in the past, many manufacturers made them. DHW-Fototechnik GmbH continues to make the Rolleiflex TLR as well. The Ciro-flex, produced by Ciro Cameras Inc., rose dramatically in popularity due in large part to the inability to obtain the German Rollei TLRs during World War II. The Ciro-flex was widely accessible, inexpensive, and produced high quality images. Models with the Mamiya, Minolta and Yashica brands are common on the used-camera market, and many other companies made TLRs that are now classics. The Mamiya C series TLRs had interchangeable lenses, allowing focal lengths from 55 mm (wide angle) to 250 mm (telephoto) to be used. The bellows focusing of these models also allowed extreme closeups to be taken, something difficult or impossible with most TLRs. The simple, sturdy construction of many TLRs means they have tended to endure the years well. Many low-end cameras used cheap shutters however, and the slow speeds on these often stick or are inaccurate.

127 format.

There were smaller TLR models, using 127 roll film with square images, most famous the "Baby" Rolleiflex and the Yashica 44. The TLR design was also popular in the 1950s for inexpensive fixed focus cameras such as the Kodak Duaflex and Argus 75.

35 mm format.

Though most used medium format film, a few 35 mm TLRs were made, the very expensive Contaflex TLR being the most elaborate, with interchangeable lenses and removable backs. The LOMO Lubitel 166+, a natively medium format camera, comes with an adapter for 35 mm film.

Instant film format.

The only twin lens reflex camera that uses instant film is Instantflex TL70 manufactured by MiNT Camera which is compatible with Fuji instax mini film (film size, picture size ). It is the world's first instant twin lens reflex camera.

Subminiature format.

Gemflex is a subminiature twin lens reflex camera made by Showa Optica Works (昭和光学精機) in occupied Japan in the 50s. Gemflex resembles the well known Rolleiflex 6×6 twin lens reflex, but much smaller in size. The body of Gemflex is die cast from shatter proof metal.  The smallest photography TLR camera using 35 mm film is the Swiss-made Tessina, using perforated 35 mm film reloaded into special Tessina cassette, forming images of.  Goerz Minicord twin lens reflex made format on double perforated 16 mm film in metal cassette. 6 Element Goerz Helgor F2 lens, metal focal plane shutter B, 10, 25, 50, 100, and 400. Viewing lens uses pentaprism reflex optics for the viewing lens. Picture format on double perforated 16 mm film.  Minox rebadged Sharan Rolleflex 2.8F classic retro TLR film camera, 1/3 scale 6x6 Rolleiflex TLR, using Minox cassette image size, 15 mm F5.6 glass triplet lens, mechanical shutter 1/250 sec.  Japan made Gemflex, a twin lens reflex using 17.5 mm paper back roll film.  It has been argued that the medical gastroscopy camera, the Olympus Gastro Camera is technically the smallest TLR device.

A twin-lens reflex camera (TLR) is a type of camera with two objective lenses of the same focal length. One of the lenses is the photographic objective or "taking lens" (the lens that takes the picture), while the other is used for the viewfinder system, which is usually viewed from above at waist level.

双反相机(TLR, Twin-Lens Reflex),全称为双镜头反光镜取景照相机,与单反相机(SLR, Single Lens Reflex)同属反光取景式相机。


Background.

The origins of the Shuttle–Mir Program can be traced back to the 1975 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, that resulted in a joint US/Soviet mission during the détente period of the Cold War and the docking between a US Apollo spacecraft and a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft. This was followed by the talks between NASA and Intercosmos in the 1970s about a "Shuttle-Salyut" program to fly Space Shuttle missions to a Salyut space station, with later talks in the 1980s even considering flights of the future Soviet shuttles from the Buran programme to a future US space station – this "Shuttle-Salyut" program never materialized however during the existence of the Soviet Intercosmos program.  This changed after the Dissolution of the Soviet Union: the end of Cold War and Space Race resulted in funding for the US modular space station (originally named "Freedom"), which was planned since the early 1980s, being slashed. Similar budgetary difficulties were being faced by other nations with space station projects, prompting American government officials to start negotiations with partners in Europe, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative, multi-national, space station project. In the Russian Federation, as the successor to much of the Soviet Union and its space program, the deteriorating economic situation in the post-Soviet economic chaos led to growing financial problems of the now Russian space station program. The construction of the Mir-2 space station as a replacement for the aging Mir became illusionary, though only after its base block, DOS-8, had been built. These developments resulted in bringing the former adversaries together with the Shuttle–Mir Program, which would pave the way to the International Space Station, a joint project with several international partners. In June 1992, American President George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to co-operate on space exploration by signing the "Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes". This agreement called for setting up a short, joint space project, during which one American astronaut would board the Russian space station "Mir" and two Russian cosmonauts would board a Space Shuttle.  In September 1993, American Vice-President Al Gore, Jr., and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station, which eventually became the International Space Station. They also agreed, in preparation for this new project, that the United States would be heavily involved in the Mir project in the years ahead, under the code name "Phase One" (the construction of the ISS being "Phase Two").  The first Space Shuttle flight to Mir was a rendezvous mission without docking on STS-63. This was followed during the course of the project by a total of 9 Shuttle-Mir docking missions, from STS-71 to STS-91. The Shuttle rotated crews and delivered supplies, and one mission, STS-74, carried a docking module and a pair of solar arrays to Mir. Various scientific experiments were also conducted, both on shuttle flights and long-term aboard the station. The project also saw the launch of two new modules, "Spektr" and "Priroda", to "Mir", which were used by American astronauts as living quarters and laboratories to conduct the majority of their science aboard the station. These missions allowed NASA and the Roskosmos to learn a great deal about how best to work with international partners in space and how to minimize the risks associated with assembling a large space station in orbit, as would have to be done with the ISS.  The project also served as a political ruse on the part of the American government, providing a diplomatic channel for NASA to take part in the funding of the cripplingly under-funded Russian space program. This in turn allowed the newly fledged Russian government to keep "Mir" operating, in addition to the Russian space program as a whole, ensuring the Russian government remained (and remains) friendly towards the United States.

Timeline.

New cooperation begins (1994).

Phase One of the Shuttle–Mir Program began on February 3, 1994, with the launch of Space Shuttle "Discovery" on its 18th mission, STS-60. The eight-day mission was the first shuttle flight of that year, the first flight of a Russian Cosmonaut, Sergei Krikalev, aboard the American shuttle, and marked the start of increased cooperation in space for the two nations, 37 years after the Space Race began. Part of an international agreement on human space flight, the mission

America arrives at "Mir" (1995).

1995 began with the launch of the Space Shuttle "Discovery" on February 3. Discovery's mission, STS-63, was the second Space Shuttle flight in the program and the first flight of the shuttle with a female pilot, Eileen Collins. Referred to as the "near-"Mir"" mission, the eight-day flight saw the first rendezvous of a Space Shuttle with "Mir", as Russian Cosmonaut Vladimir Titov and the rest of "Discovery"'s crew approached within of "Mir". Following the rendezvous, Collins performed a flyaround of the station. The mission, a dress rehearsal for the first docked mission in the program, STS-71, also carried out testing of various techniques and pieces of equipment that would be used during the docking missions that followed. Five weeks after "Discovery"'s flight, the March 14 launch of Soyuz TM-21 carried expedition EO-18 to "Mir". The crew consisted of Cosmonauts Vladimir Dezhurov and Gennady Strekalov and NASA Astronaut Norman Thagard, who became the first American to fly into space aboard the Soyuz spacecraft. During the course of their 115-day expedition, the "Spektr" science module (which served as living and working space for American astronauts) was launched aboard

"Priroda" (1996).

Continuous US presence aboard "Mir" started in 1996 with the March 22 launch of "Atlantis" on mission STS-76, when the Second Increment astronaut Shannon Lucid was transferred to the station. STS-76 was the third docking mission to "Mir", which also demonstrated logistics capabilities through deployment of a Spacehab module, and placed experiment packages aboard "Mir"'s docking module, which marked the first spacewalk which occurred around docked vehicles. The spacewalks, carried out from "Atlantis's" crew cabin, provided valuable experience for astronauts in order to prepare for later assembly missions to the International Space Station.  Lucid became the first American woman to live on station, and, following a six-week extension to her Increment due to issues with Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, her 188-day mission set the US single spaceflight record. During Lucid's time aboard "Mir", the "Priroda" module, with about of US science hardware, was docked to "Mir".

Fire and collision (1997).

In 1997 STS-81 replaced Increment astronaut John Blaha with Jerry Linenger, after Blaha's 118-day stay aboard "Mir". During this fifth shuttle docking, the crew of "Atlantis" moved supplies to the station and returned to Earth the first plants to complete a life cycle in space; a crop of wheat planted by Shannon Lucid. During five days of mated operations, the crews transferred nearly of logistics to "Mir", and transferred of materials back to "Atlantis" (the most materials transferred between the two spacecraft to that date).  The STS-81 crew also tested the Shuttle Treadmill Vibration Isolation and Stabilization System (TVIS), designed for use in the "Zvezda" module of the International Space Station. The shuttle's small vernier jet thrusters were fired during the mated operations to gather engineering data for "reboosting" the ISS. After undocking, "Atlantis" performed a fly-around

Phase One closes down (1998).

The final year of Phase One began with the flight of Space Shuttle "Endeavour" on STS-89. The mission delivered Cosmonaut Salizhan Sharipov to "Mir" and replaced David Wolf with Andy Thomas, following Wolf's 119-day Increment.  During his Increment, the last of the program, Thomas worked on 27 science investigations into areas of advanced technology, Earth sciences, human life sciences, microgravity research, and ISS risk mitigation. His stay on "Mir", considered the smoothest of the entire Phase One program, featured weekly "Letters from the Outpost"

Phases Two and Three: ISS (1998–2024).

With the landing of "Discovery" on June 12, 1998, the Phase One program concluded. Techniques and equipment developed during the program assisted the development of Phase Two: initial assembly of the International Space Station (ISS). The arrival of the "Destiny" Laboratory Module in 2001 marked the end of Phase Two and the start of Phase Three, the final outfitting of the station, completed in 2012. In 2015, a reconfiguration of the American segment was completed to allow its docking ports to accommodate NASA-sponsored commercial crew vehicles, that were expected to start visiting the ISS in 2018. , the ISS has a pressurized volume of, and its pressurized modules total in length, plus a large truss structure that spans, making it the

Controversy.

Safety and scientific return.

Criticism of the program was primarily concerned with the safety of the aging "Mir", particularly following the fire aboard the station and collision with the Progress supply vessel in 1997.  The fire, caused by the malfunction of a backup solid-fuel oxygen generator (SFOG), burned for, according to various sources, between 90 seconds and 14 minutes, and produced large amounts of toxic smoke that filled the station for around 45 minutes. This forced the crew to don respirators, but some of the respirator masks initially worn were broken. Fire extinguishers mounted on the walls of the modules were immovable. The fire occurred during a crew rotation, and as such there were six men aboard the station rather than the usual three. Access to one of the docked Soyuz lifeboats was blocked, which would have prevented escape by half of the crew. A similar incident had occurred on an earlier "Mir" expedition, although in that case the SFOG burned for only a few seconds.  The near-miss and collision incidents presented further safety issues. Both were caused by failure of the same piece of equipment, the TORU manual docking system, which was undergoing tests at the time. The tests were called in order to gauge the performance of long-distance docking in order to enable the cash-strapped Russians to remove the expensive "Kurs" automatic docking system from the Progress ships.  In the wake of the collision NASA and the Russian Space Agency instigated numerous safety councils who were to

Attitudes.

Attitudes of the Russian space program and NASA towards Phase One were also of concern to the astronauts involved. Because of Russia's financial issues, many workers at the TsUP felt that the mission hardware and continuation of "Mir" was more important than the lives of the cosmonauts aboard the station. As such the program was run very differently compared to American programs: cosmonauts had their days being planned for them to the minute, actions (such as docking) which would be performed manually by shuttle pilots were all carried out automatically, and cosmonauts had their pay docked if they made any errors during their flights. Americans learned aboard "Skylab" and earlier space missions that this level of control was not productive and had since made mission plans more flexible. The Russians, however, would

Finances.

Since the breakup of the Soviet Union a few years earlier, the Russian economy had been slowly collapsing and the budget for space exploration was reduced by around 80%. Before and after Phase One, a great deal of Russia's space finances came from flights of astronauts from Europe and other countries, with one Japanese TV station paying $9.5 million to have one of their reporters, Toyohiro Akiyama, flown aboard "Mir". By the start of Phase One, cosmonauts regularly found their missions extended to save money on launchers, the six-yearly flights of the Progress had been reduced to three,

The Shuttle–"Mir" program was a collaborative 11-mission space program between Russia and the United States, which involved American Space Shuttles visiting the Russian space station "Mir", Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft to engage in long-duration expeditions aboard "Mir".

航天飞机-和平号计划(英语:Shuttle–Mir Program)是一个美国和俄罗斯合作的太空计划,其中涉及美国航天飞机访问俄罗斯和平号空间站,俄罗斯宇航员乘坐航天飞机飞行,和一名美国宇航员乘坐联盟号宇宙飞船前往和平号进行长期考察。


History and landmarks.

According to the legend the place’s name is due to a fig tree, which stood at the quay of Salmanha, where the fishermen used to tie up their boats. The historian Nelson Borges said, however, that Figueira comes from the word "fagaria", which means "opening, huge mouth". Foz comes from the Latin word "fouces" = "mouth of a river", and Mondego comes from the pre-romanic expressions "mond" = "mouth" and "aec"= "river". That means, Figueira da Foz would be "the river’s mouth opening". Some historical traces show that people were settling in this region since the Neolithic age. The oldest known document, however, dates from the year 1096. In this an abbot named Pedro donates estates, which belonged to the church of S. Julião, to the cathedral Sé Velha of Coimbra.  Knowing the great importance rivers had in the development of cities and of ancient civilizations, the mouth of the Mondego must have played a central role for the fixation of men in this region and for the formation of settlements, which were the beginning of the city of Figueira da Foz. Figueira da Foz had a huge development during the 18th and 19th centuries due to the immense port movements and the expansion of the shipbuilding and cod drying industry, supplying the city with new communication routes, housing and other facilities. It was elevated to "vila" (small town) on 12 March 1771 and turned city ("cidade") on 20 September 1882. Discovered as a sea resort by the end of the 19th century, it gained great reputation in the 1920s and 1930s. The city had the Portuguese nickname of "Rainha das Praias" (Queen of the Beaches).  The municipality has some noted landmarks like the Sotto Mayor Palace, the old fishing village of Buarcos, the Serra da Boa Viagem – a small forested mountain by the Atlantic Ocean, several beaches, and its large seaside promenade paved with typical Portuguese pavement. Figueira da Foz has several Churches, many of them in the rich Baroque style, a Municipal Museum with archaeological, ethnographic and artistic collection, the Santa Catarina Fort and the old Buarcos Fortress, the "Relógio Tower" by the main sandy beachy, several archaeological vestiges throughout the municipality, several Palaces and Manor Houses (like the Sotto Mayor Palace), as well as several green spaces and small gardens like those in the area of "Abadias".

Economy.

The city is an important industrial centre, producing wood pulp and paper (Soporcel – a Portucel Soporcel company; CELBI – an Altri company) and glass (Saint-Gobain Mondego – a Saint-Gobain company). It also has notable naval construction and fish industries, as well as a factory of the CIMPOR Group installed in the Mondego Cape "(Cabo Mondego)". The seaport and the fishing harbour are also important for its economy.  With its old and renowned casino ("Casino da Figueira"), the marina, several hotels, restaurants and other tourist facilities, Figueira is actually a very important Atlantic beach resort, in the center of Portugal's Silver Coast/"Costa de Prata" tourism region.

Education.

The city has well-equipped kindergartens, schools and high schools. It had two private universities: the Catholic University of Portugal (Figueira da Foz branch) and the Internacional University (Figueira da Foz branch) but they were closed in 2009 due to lack of funds and academic integrity.

Parishes.

Administratively, the municipality is divided into 14 civil parishes ("freguesias"):

Climate.

Figueira da Foz has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csb) characterized by mild, rainy winters and dry, warm summers. The annual average temperature is around and the annual average rainfall is about. The sea surface temperature varies from in January and February to in the August and September. In the summer afternoons moderate to (occasionally) strong north-westerly winds are common.

Sports.

Figueira da Foz is home to Associação Naval 1o Maio, best known for its football team which spent six seasons between 2005 and 2011 in the national top tier, the Primeira Liga. The city is also the home of the basketball department of Ginásio Clube Figueirense which competes in the Portuguese basketball league, adding rowing and swimming to their more notorious activities.  The "Tennis Club da Figueira da Foz" was founded 1917 and is still located next to the Santa Catarina Fort at the mouth of the Mondego River today.  The city hosted the Mundialto international beachsoccer tournament from 1997 to 2004.  International surf competitions frequently take place in Figueira like the World Surf Championship 2010 or the IFCA Slaloms Worlds 2008

International Relations.

Figueira da Foz is twinned with:

Figueira da Foz (), also known as Figueira for short, is a city and a municipality in the Coimbra District, in Portugal. Practically at the midpoint of the Iberian Peninsula's Atlantic coast, it is located at the mouth of the Mondego River, 40 km west of Coimbra and sheltered by hills (Serra da Boa Viagem), sharing about the same latitude with Philadelphia on the other side of the ocean. The population in 2011 was 62,125, in an area of 379.05 km2. The city of Figueira da Foz proper has a population of 46,600. It is the second largest city in the district of Coimbra.

菲盖拉-达福什(Figueira da Foz)位于葡萄牙大西洋岸、蒙德古河河口北侧,是科英布拉区的一座城市。2004年城区人口27,742人,全市62,601人。


Attestations.

"Poetic Edda".

According to the "Poetic Edda", the spear was fashioned by the Dwarves; Loki discovers the Spear whilst visiting the Dwarves (on an errand to commission golden hair for Sif). Loki flatters the Dwarves and asks the Spear of them, which they give him. In the Poetic Edda poem "Völuspá", the Æsir-Vanir War is described as officially starting when Odin throws a spear over the heads of an assembly of Vanir gods. Whether or not this was specifically Gungnir is, however, unstated. In "Sigrdrífumál", the valkyrie Sigrdrífa advises Sigurd on the magical application of runes. She gives Sigurd advice and shares with him lore, including that runes were carved on the tip of Gungnir.

"Prose Edda".

According to chapter 51 of the "Prose Edda" book, "Gylfaginning", Odin will ride in front of the Einherjar while advancing on to the battle field at Ragnarök wearing a gold helmet, an impressive cloak of mail and carrying Gungnir. He will then attack the wolf Fenrir with it.  In "Skáldskaparmál", more information regarding the spear is presented. The spear was fashioned by the dwarves known as the Sons of Ivaldi under the mastery of the blacksmith dwarf Dvalin. The spear was obtained from the dwarves by Loki, the result of a scheme he concocted as a partial reparation for his cutting of the goddess Sif's hair. The spear is described as being so well balanced that it could strike any target, no matter the skill or strength of the wielder.

Archaeological record.

If the rider on horseback on the image on the Böksta Runestone has been correctly identified as Odin, then Odin is shown carrying Gungnir while hunting a moose.

In the "Ring of the Nibelung".

In Richard Wagner's opera cycle, "Der Ring des Nibelungen", Wotan's (Odin's) spear is made from the wood of the world tree Yggdrasil and engraved with the contracts from which Wotan's power derives. He uses the spear to break the sword of Siegmund, leading to Siegmund's death. When he tries to bar the eponymous hero of the opera, "Siegfried" (Siegmund's son), from awakening Brünnhilde from her magic sleep, Siegfried breaks the spear in two and Wotan flees. It is implied that this is also the end of Wotan's power and he never appears onstage again.

In Norse mythology, Gungnir (Old Norse "swaying one", possibly related to the obscure Danish verb "gungre", meaning 'to tremble') is the spear of the god Odin.

永恒之枪()也译作昆古尼尔、冈格尼尔,此枪是北欧主神奥丁的所有物。至于英语:Gungnir之名的由来,有人认为是以声音表现出「贯穿」这个动作的说法最为可靠。 阿萨神族和华纳神族开战时,就是由奥丁拿着此枪投出第一击。相传维京人在作战时,会由指挥官先向敌人投掷长枪,就是承袭自此。


莫斯科斯巴达克足球俱乐部

History.

Foundation.

In the early days of Soviet football, many government agencies such as the police, army and railroads created their own clubs. So many statesmen saw in the wins of their teams the superiority over the opponents patronising other teams. Almost all the teams had such kind of patrons — Dynamo Moscow with the militsiya, CSKA Moscow with the Red Army and Spartak, created by a trade union public organization was considered to be "the people's team".  The history of the football club and sports society "Spartak" originates from the Russian Gymnastics Society (), which was founded on May 4, 1883. The society was founded under the influence of the Pan-Slavic "Sokol movement" with the aim of promoting the "Sokolsk gymnastics" and then other sports: fencing, wrestling, figure skating, skating, football, hockey, lawn tennis, boxing, skis, Athletics, cycling... In the spring of 1922 the RGO "Sokol" was renamed into MKS. (Moscow Sport Circle).  In 1922, the Moscow Sport Circle (Moscow sport club of Krasnopresnensky district) (), later named Krasnaya Presnya (Red Presnya), was formed by Ivan Artemyev and involved Nikolai Starostin, especially in its football team. Presnya is a district of Moscow renowned for the radical politics of its inhabitants. For example, it was the centre of the Moscow uprising of 1905.  The team grew, building a stadium, supporting itself from ticket sales and playing matches across the Russian SFSR. As part of a 1926 reorganization of football in the Soviet Union, Starostin arranged for the club to be sponsored by the food workers union and the club moved to the 13,000 seat Tomsky Stadium, known as Pishcheviki. The team changed sponsors repeatedly over the following years as it competed with Dinamo Moscow, whose 35,000 seat Dynamo Stadium lay close by.  As a high-profile sportsman, Starostin came into close contact with Alexander Kosarev, secretary of the Komsomol (Communist Union of Youth) who already had a strong influence on sport and wanted to extend it. In November 1934, with funding from Promkooperatsiia, Kosarev employed Starostin and his brothers to develop his team to make it more powerful. Again the team changed its name, this time to "Spartak Moscow" (the name "Spartak" means "Spartacus", a gladiator who led an uprising against Ancient Rome).  The club founders, four Starostin brothers, played a big role in the formation of the team. The Starostins played for the red-whites in the 1930s but right before World War II they were subjected to repression as the leaders of the most hated team by the state authorities. Elder brother Nikolai Starostin wrote in his books that he had survived in the State Prison System due to his participation in football and with Spartak. After the political rehabilitation, in 1954, he would later return to the team as the squad's manager.

Soviet period.

In 1935, Starostin proposed the name "Spartak". It was inspired by the Italian novel "Spartaco", written by Raffaello Giovagnoli, and means Spartacus ("Spartak" in Russian), a gladiator-slave who led a rebellion against Rome. Starostin is also credited with the creation of the Spartak logo. The same year, the club became a part of newly created Spartak sports society.  Czechoslovak manager Antonin Fivebr is credited as the first head coach of Spartak, though he worked as a consultant in several clubs simultaneously. In 1936, the Soviet Top League was established, where its first championship was won by Dynamo Moscow while Spartak won its second, which was held in the same calendar year. Before World War II, Spartak earned two more titles. In 1937 Spartak won the football tournament of Workers' Olympiad at Antwerp.  During the 1950s, Spartak, together with Dynamo, dominated the Soviet Top League. When the Soviet national team won gold medals at the Melbourne Olympics, it consisted largely of Spartak players. Spartak captain Igor Netto was the captain of the national team from 1954 to 1963. In the 1960s, Spartak won two league titles, but by the mid-1960s, Spartak was no more regarded as a leading Soviet club. The club was even less successful in the 1970s and in 1976 Spartak was relegated into the lower league.  During the following season, the stadium was still full as the club's fans stayed with the team during its time in the lower division. Konstantin Beskov, who became the head coach (as a footballer Beskov made his name playing for Spartak's main rivals, Dynamo), introduced several young players, including Rinat Dasayev and Georgi Yartsev. Spartak came back the next year and won the title in 1979, beating Dynamo Kyiv and thanks to Spartak supporters, the period is considered to be the start of the modern-style fans' movement in the Soviet Union.  On 20 October 1982, disaster struck during the UEFA Cup match between Spartak and Dutch club HFC Haarlem. Sixty-six people died in a stampede during the match, making it Russia's worst sporting disaster.  In 1989, Spartak won its last USSR Championship, rivals Dynamo Kyiv 2–1 in the closing round. Spartak's striker Valery Shmarov scored the "golden" free kick with almost no time left. The next season, Spartak reached the European Cup semi-final, consequently eliminating Napoli on penalties and Real Madrid (with 3–1 away victory), but losing to Marseille.

Modern period.

A new page in the club's history began when the Soviet Union collapsed and its championship ceased to exist. In the newly created Russian league, Spartak, led by coach and president Oleg Romantsev, dominated and won all but one title between 1992 and 2001. Year-after-year the team also represented Russia in the Champions League.  Problems began in the new century, however. Several charismatic players (Ilya Tsymbalar and Andrey Tikhonov among others) left the club as a result of conflict with Romantsev. Later, Romantsev sold his stock to oil magnate Andrei Chervichenko, who in 2003 became the club president. The two were soon embroiled in a row that would continue until Romantsev was sacked in 2003 with the club suffering several sub-par seasons until Chervichenko finally sold his stock in 2004. The new ownership made a number of front office changes with the aim of returning the team to the top of the Russian Premier League.  In the 2005 season, Spartak, led by Aleksandrs Starkovs, finished second in the league following an impressive run to beat Lokomotiv Moscow, Zenit Saint Petersburg and Rubin Kazan to the last Champions League place.  Following a mixed start to the 2006 season and public criticism from Dmitry Alenichev, the team's captain and one of its most experienced players, Starkovs left his position to Vladimir Fedotov.  Spartak has been entitled to place a golden star on its badge since 2003 to commemorate winning five Russian championships in 1992, 1993, 1994, 1996 and 1997. They have won the championship another four times since 1997. Since 2013, the club have added another three stars as rules allowed teams to include titles won during the Soviet era. In the 2012–13 season, Spartak qualified for the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League group stage and finished last after disappointing performances against FC Barcelona, Celtic and Benfica. In the league, Spartak finished in fourth place while in the cup it was eliminated in the round of 16 by FC Rostov 0–0, completing a disappointing season. The next 3 seasons (2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16) were somewhat similar as Spartak finished 6th, 6th and 5th accordingly while the club did not qualify for European Competitions.

Revival of Spartak.

By the beginning of the 2016-17 season, Spartak had acquired a strong squad consisting of talented foreign players such as Quincy Promes, Fernando, Zé Luís, Lorenzo Melgarejo and noteworthy Russians such as Denis Glushakov, Roman Zobnin and Ilya Kutepov. As a result, Spartak won the 2016–17 Russian Premier League after a spectacular performance and the club won most derbies and finished with a difference of 7 points. In the 2016–17 Russian Cup, Spartak was eliminated in the round of 32 and in the 2016–17 UEFA Europa League Spartak was eliminated in the third qualifying round by AEK Larnaca FC 2–1 on aggregate and did not qualify for European Competitions. However, Spartak will be participating in the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League group stage. On 6 December 2017, Spartak suffered the biggest defeat in its history, losing 0–7 in an away UCL group match against Liverpool F.C., though they earlier defeated Sevilla FC 5–1.

UEFA club coefficient ranking.

"As of 14.12.2018, Source: "

League history.

Most league goals for Spartak.

"As of 23 September 2018 (min. 50)"

Nickname.

The team is usually called "red-and-whites," but among the fans "The Meat" (, "Myaso") is a very popular nickname. The origins of the nickname belong to the days of the foundation of the club; in the 1920s, the team was renamed several times, from "Moscow Sports Club" to "Red Presnya" (after the name of one of the districts of Moscow) to "Pishcheviki" ("Food industry workers") to "Promkooperatsiya" ("Industrial cooperation") and finally to "Spartak Moscow" in 1935, and for many years the team was under patronage of one of the Moscow food factories that dealt with meat products.  One of the most favourite slogans of both the fans and players is, "Who are we? We're The Meat!" (? Мясо!", "Kto my? Myaso!")

Kits and crests.

FC Spartak Moscow's main colour is red. In 2014, Nike unveiled kit inspired by the club's new home.

Rival teams and friendships.

At present, Spartak's archrival is CSKA Moscow, although this is a relatively recent rivalry that has only emerged after the collapse of the USSR. Seven of ten matches with the largest audience in Russian Premier League (including top three) were Spartak-CSKA derbies. Historically, the most celebrated rivalry is with Dynamo Moscow, a fiercely contested matchup which is Russia's oldest derby. Matches against Lokomotiv Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg attract thousands of people as well, almost always resulting in packed stadia. Upon the collapse of the Soviet Union, Spartak's rivalry with Dynamo Kyiv, one of the leaders of the USSR championship, was lost. Since Dynamo Kyiv now plays in the Ukrainian Premier League, both teams must qualify for UEFA tournaments to meet each other.  Since the mid-2000s the supporters of Spartak maintain brotherhood relations with Red Star Belgrade and Olympiacos ultras – a friendship based on common Orthodox faith and same club colours. Also fans of Spartak have generally friendly relationships with Torpedo Moscow supporters.

Stadium.

Until 2014, Spartak had never had its own stadium, with the team historically playing in various Moscow stadia throughout its history, even once playing an exhibition match in Red Square. The team played home games at various Moscow stadiums - especially at the Locomotiv and Luzhniki stadiums. After the purchase of the club by Andrei Chervichenko in the early 2000s, several statements were made about the speedy construction of the stadium, but construction did not begin.  After a controlling stake in the club was bought by Leonid Fedun, real steps were taken to promote the stadium project, and in 2006, the Government of Moscow allocated land at Tushino Aeropol at a size of 28.3 hectares for the construction of the stadium. The project involved the main arena of 42,000 people with natural lawn, sports, and an entertainment hall for tennis, handball, basketball and volleyball for 12,000 spectators. The ceremony of laying the first stone took place on June 2, 2007.  In February 2013, it was announced that as a result of a sponsorship deal with Otkritie FC Bank ("Discovery"), the stadium will be called Otkritie Arena for 6 years. The opening match at the new stadium took place on September 5, 2014, when Spartak drew with the Serbian side Red Star Belgrade (1-1). The first competitive match took place on September 14, 2014, in which Spartak defeated Torpedo Moscow 3-1 in the 7th round of the championship.

Notable players.

Had international caps for their respective countries, or held any club record. Players whose name is listed in bold represented their countries while playing for Spartak. For further list, see List of FC Spartak Moscow players.

FC Spartak Moscow ( ) is a Russian professional football club from Moscow. Having won 12 Soviet championships (second only to Dynamo Kyiv) and a record 10 Russian championships, it is the country's most successful club. They have also won a record 10 Soviet Cups, 3 Russian Cups and one Russian Super Cup. Spartak have also reached the semi-finals of all three European club competitions.

莫斯科斯巴达克足球俱乐部(俄语:)是一支俄罗斯足球会,在苏联时期乃至俄罗斯足球历史上都是一支劲旅。曾经 12 次捧起苏联联赛冠军奖杯(仅次于基辅迪纳摩),9 次获得俄罗斯足球超级联赛冠军,10 次获得苏联杯赛冠军,3 次赢得俄罗斯杯赛冠军。


Overview.

SPSS is a widely used program for statistical analysis in social science. It is also used by market researchers, health researchers, survey companies, government, education researchers, marketing organizations, data miners, and others. The original SPSS manual (Nie, Bent & Hull, 1970) has been described as one of "sociology's most influential books" for allowing ordinary researchers to do their own statistical analysis. In addition to statistical analysis, data management (case selection, file reshaping, creating derived data) and data documentation (a metadata dictionary is stored in the datafile) are features of the base software.  Statistics included in the base software:  The many features of SPSS Statistics are accessible via pull-down menus or can be programmed with a proprietary 4GL "command syntax language". Command syntax programming has the benefits of reproducible output, simplifying repetitive tasks, and handling complex data manipulations and analyses. Additionally, some complex applications can only be programmed in syntax and are not accessible through the menu structure. The pull-down menu interface also generates command syntax: this can be displayed in the output, although the default settings have to be changed to make the syntax visible to the user. They can also be pasted into a syntax file using the "paste" button present in each menu. Programs can be run interactively or unattended, using the supplied Production Job Facility.  Additionally a "macro" language can be used to write command language subroutines. A Python programmability extension can access the information in the data dictionary and data and dynamically build command syntax programs. The Python programmability extension, introduced in SPSS 14, replaced the less functional SAX Basic "scripts" for most purposes, although SaxBasic remains available. In addition, the Python extension allows SPSS to run any of the statistics in the free software package R. From version 14 onwards, SPSS can be driven externally by a Python or a VB.NET program using supplied "plug-ins". (From Version 20 onwards, these two scripting facilities, as well as many scripts, are included on the installation media and are normally installed by default.)  SPSS Statistics places constraints on internal file structure, data types, data processing, and matching files, which together considerably simplify programming. SPSS datasets have a two-dimensional table structure, where the rows typically represent cases (such as individuals or households) and the columns represent measurements (such as age, sex, or household income). Only two data types are defined: numeric and text (or "string"). All data processing occurs sequentially case-by-case through the file (dataset). Files can be matched one-to-one and one-to-many, but not many-to-many. In addition to that cases-by-variables structure and processing, there is a separate Matrix session where one can process data as matrices using matrix and linear algebra operations.  The graphical user interface has two views which can be toggled by clicking on one of the two tabs in the bottom left of the SPSS Statistics window. The 'Data View' shows a spreadsheet view of the cases (rows) and variables (columns). Unlike spreadsheets, the data cells can only contain numbers or text, and formulas cannot be stored in these cells. The 'Variable View' displays the metadata dictionary where each row represents a variable and shows the variable name, variable label, value label(s), print width, measurement type, and a variety of other characteristics. Cells in both views can be manually edited, defining the file structure and allowing data entry without using command syntax. This may be sufficient for small datasets. Larger datasets such as statistical surveys are more often created in data entry software, or entered during computer-assisted personal interviewing, by scanning and using optical character recognition and optical mark recognition software, or by direct capture from online questionnaires. These datasets are then read into SPSS.  SPSS Statistics can read and write data from ASCII text files (including hierarchical files), other statistics packages, spreadsheets and databases. SPSS Statistics can read and write to external relational database tables via ODBC and SQL.  Statistical output is to a proprietary file format (*.spv file, supporting pivot tables) for which, in addition to the in-package viewer, a stand-alone reader can be downloaded. The proprietary output can be exported to text or Microsoft Word, PDF, Excel, and other formats. Alternatively, output can be captured as data (using the OMS command), as text, tab-delimited text, PDF, XLS, HTML, XML, SPSS dataset or a variety of graphic image formats (JPEG, PNG, BMP and EMF). Several variants of SPSS Statistics exist. SPSS Statistics Gradpacks are highly discounted versions sold only to students. SPSS Statistics Server is a version of SPSS Statistics with a client/server architecture. Add-on packages can enhance the base software with additional features (examples include complex samples which can adjust for clustered and stratified samples, and custom tables which can create publication-ready tables). SPSS Statistics is available under either an annual or a monthly subscription license.  SPSS Statistics launched version 25 on Aug 08, 2017. SPSS v25 adds new and advanced statistics, such as random effects solution results (GENLINMIXED), robust standard errors (GLM/UNIANOVA), and profile plots with error bars within the Advanced Statistics and Custom Tables add-on. V25 also includes new Bayesian Statistics capabilities, a method of statistical inference and publication ready charts, such as powerful new charting capabilities, including new default templates and the ability to share with Microsoft Office applications.

Versions and ownership history.

The software was released in its first version in 1968 as the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) after being developed by Norman H. Nie, Dale H. Bent, and C. Hadlai Hull. Those principals incorporated as SPSS Inc. in 1975. Early versions of SPSS Statistics were written in Fortran and designed for batch processing on mainframes, including for example IBM and ICL versions, originally using punched cards for data and program input. A processing run read a command file of SPSS commands and either a raw input file of fixed format data with a single record type, or a 'getfile' of data saved by a previous run. To save precious computer time an 'edit' run could be done to check command syntax without analysing the data. From version 10 (SPSS-X) in 1983, data files could contain multiple record types.  Prior to SPSS 16.0, different versions of SPSS were available for Windows, Mac OS X and Unix.  SPSS Statistics version 13.0 for Mac OS X was not compatible with Intel-based Macintosh computers, due to the Rosetta emulation software causing errors in calculations. SPSS Statistics 15.0 for Windows needed a downloadable hotfix to be installed in order to be compatible with Windows Vista.  From version 16.0, the same version runs under Windows, Mac, and Linux. The graphical user interface is written in Java. The Mac OS version is provided as a Universal binary, making it fully compatible with both PowerPC and Intel-based Mac hardware.  SPSS Inc announced on July 28, 2009 that it was being acquired by IBM for US$1.2 billion. Because of a dispute about ownership of the name "SPSS", between 2009 and 2010, the product was referred to as PASW (Predictive Analytics SoftWare). As of January 2010, it became "SPSS: An IBM Company". Complete transfer of business to IBM was done by October 1, 2010. By that date, SPSS: An IBM Company ceased to exist. IBM SPSS is now fully integrated into the IBM Corporation, and is one of the brands under IBM Software Group's Business Analytics Portfolio, together with IBM Algorithmics, IBM Cognos and IBM OpenPages.  Companion software in the "IBM SPSS" family are used for data mining and text analytics (IBM SPSS Modeler), and realtime credit scoring services (IBM SPSS Collaboration and Deployment Services).  SPSS Data Collection and SPSS Dimensions were sold in 2015 to UNICOM Systems, Inc., a division of UNICOM Global, and merged into the integrated software suite UNICOM Intelligence (survey design, survey deployment, data collection, data management and reporting).

(Interactive Data Analysis).

IDA (Interactive Data Analysis) was a software package that originated at what formerly was the National Opinion Research Center (NORC), at the University of Chicago. Initially offered on the HP-2000, somewhat later, under the ownership of SPSS, it was also available on DEC's DECSYSTEM-20.

- Conversational / Columnar SPSS.

SCSS was a software product intended for online use of IBM mainframes. Although the "C" was for Conversational, it also represented a distinction regarding how the data was stored: it used a column-oriented rather than a row-oriented (internal) database.  This gave good interactive response time for the SPSS Conversational Statistical System (SCSS), whose strong point, as with SPSS, was Cross-tabulation.

SPSS Statistics is a software package used for interactive, or batched, statistical analysis. Long produced by SPSS Inc., it was acquired by IBM in 2009. The current versions (2015) are named IBM SPSS Statistics.

SPSS是统计产品与服务解决方案(英语:Statistical Product and Service Solutions)的简称,为IBM公司的一系列用于统计学分析运算、数据挖掘、预测分析和决策支持任务的软件产品及相关服务的总称,有Windows和macOS等版本。


Etymology.

Soma is a Vedic Sanskrit word that literally means "distill, extract, sprinkle", often connected in the context of rituals.  Soma, and its cognate the Avestan "haoma". The word is derived from an Indo-Iranian root "*sav-" (Sanskrit "sav-/su") "to press", i.e. "*sau-ma-" is the drink prepared by pressing the stalks of a plant.

Vedic soma.

In the Vedas, the same word (soma) is used for the drink, the plant, and its deity. Drinking "soma" produces immortality ("Amrita", Rigveda 8.48.3). Indra and Agni are portrayed as consuming soma in copious quantities. In the vedic mythology, Indra drank large amounts of soma while fighting the serpent demon Vritra. The consumption of soma by human beings is well attested in Vedic ritual.  The "Rigveda" (8.48.3) says: Ralph T.H. Griffith translates this as: Swami Dayanand Saraswati explains this as: The references to immortality and light are characteristics of an entheogenic experience. (Michael Wood (historian))(The Story of India)  Also, consider Rigveda (8.79.2-6) regarding the power of Soma: "...He covers the naked and heals all who are sick. The blind man sees; the lame man steps forth...Let those who seek find what they seek: let them receive the treasure...Let him find what was lost before; let him push forward the man of truth..." Such is indicative of an experience with an entheogen of some source...(Michael Wood (historian)).("The Story of India")

Avestan haoma.

The finishing of "haoma" in Zoroastrianism may be glimpsed from the Avesta (particularly in the "Hōm Yast", Yasna 9), and Avestan language "*hauma" also survived as Middle Persian "hōm". The plant "haoma" yielded the essential ingredient for the ritual drink, "parahaoma".  In Yasna 9.22, haoma grants "speed and strength to warriors, excellent and righteous sons to those giving birth, spiritual power and knowledge to those who apply themselves to the study of the nasks". As the religion's chief cult divinity he came to be perceived as its divine priest. In Yasna 9.26, Ahura Mazda is said to have invested him with the sacred girdle, and in Yasna 10.89, to have installed haoma as the "swiftly sacrificing "zaotar"" (Sanskrit "hotar") for himself and the Amesha Spenta.

Candidates for the plant.

There has been much speculation as to the original "Sauma" plant. Candidates that have been suggested include honey, mushrooms, psychoactive and other herbal plants.  When the ritual of somayajna is held today in South India, the plant used is the "somalatha" (Sanskrit: soma creeper, "Sarcostemma acidum") which is procured as a leafless vine.  Since the late 18th century, when Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron and others made portions of the Avesta available to western scholars, several scholars have sought a representative botanical equivalent of the "haoma" as described in the texts and as used in living Zoroastrian practice. In the late 19th century, the highly conservative Zoroastrians of Yazd (Iran) were found to use ephedra, which was locally known as "hum" or "homa" and which they exported to the Indian Zoroastrians.  During the colonial British era scholarship, cannabis was proposed as the soma candidate by Joseph Chandra Ray, "The Soma Plant" (1939) and by B. L. Mukherjee (1921).  In the late 1960s, several studies attempted to establish "soma" as a psychoactive substance. A number of proposals were made, including one in 1968 by the American banker R. Gordon Wasson, an amateur ethnomycologist, who asserted that "soma" was an inebriant but not cannabis, and suggested fly-agaric mushroom, "Amanita muscaria", as the likely candidate. Since its introduction in 1968, this theory has gained both detractors and followers in the anthropological literature. Wasson and his co-author, Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, drew parallels between Vedic descriptions and reports of Siberian uses of the fly-agaric in shamanic ritual.  In 1989 Harry Falk noted that, in the texts, both "haoma" and "soma" were said to enhance alertness and awareness, did not coincide with the consciousness altering effects of an entheogen, and that "there is nothing shamanistic or visionary either in early Vedic or in Old Iranian texts", (Falk, 1989) Falk also asserted that the three varieties of ephedra that yield ephedrine ("Ephedra gerardiana", "E. major procera" and "E. intermedia") also have the properties attributed to "haoma" by the texts of the Avesta. (Falk, 1989) At the conclusion of the 1999 Haoma-Soma workshop in Leiden, Jan E. M. Houben writes: "despite strong attempts to do away with ephedra by those who are eager to see sauma[sic] as a hallucinogen, its status as a serious candidate for the Rigvedic Soma and Avestan Haoma still stands" (Houben, 2003).  The Soviet archeologist Viktor Sarianidi wrote that he had discovered vessels and mortars used to prepare soma in Zoroastrian temples in Bactria. He said that the vessels have revealed residues and seed impressions left behind during the preparation of soma. This has not been sustained by subsequent investigations. Alternatively Mark Merlin, who revisited the subject of the identity of soma more than thirty years after originally writing about it stated that there is a need of further study on links between soma and "Papaver somniferum". (Merlin, 2008)  In his book "Food of the Gods", ethnobotanist Terence McKenna postulates that the most likely candidate for soma is the mushroom Psilocybe cubensis, a hallucinogenic mushroom that grows in cow dung in certain climates. McKenna cites both Wasson's and his own unsuccessful attempts using "Amanita muscaria" to reach a psychedelic state as evidence that it could not have inspired the worship and praise of soma. McKenna further points out that the 9th mandala of the Rig Veda makes extensive references to the cow as the embodiment of soma.

Transcendental Meditation movement.

The Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's Transcendental Meditation-Sidhi Program involves a notion of "soma", said to be based on the Rigveda.

In Vedic tradition, soma () is a ritual drink of importance among the early vedic Indians. The Rigveda mentions it, particularly in the Soma Mandala.

苏摩(梵语:सोम)是早期印度婆罗门教仪式中饮用的一种饮料,得自于某种至今未知的植物(或真菌)的汁液。在伊朗的拜火教中有一种完全对应的饮料,称为“豪麻”。这两种饮料的来源是相同的,来自早期雅利安人的文化习俗。在梨俱吠陀的一些颂歌中,苏摩被人格化,成为代表这种饮料的神祇的名字。因此吠陀中的苏摩一词既可指饮料本身也可指主管该饮料的神。梨俱吠陀中有大量颂歌是单独献给苏摩的,其数量仅次于因陀罗和阿耆尼。有一首关于婚礼的颂歌是讲到他与苏利亚(娑维陀利或苏利耶的女儿)的婚姻的。后来,苏摩的形象进一步人格化,成为月神的一个别名。在梨俱吠陀里,众神尤其是因陀罗和阿耆尼经常豪饮苏摩汁,以增强他们的神力。