阿尔弗雷德·拉塞尔·华莱士

Biography.

Early life.

Alfred Wallace was born in the Welsh village of Llanbadoc, near Usk, Monmouthshire. He was the eighth of nine children of Thomas Vere Wallace and Mary Anne Greenell. Mary Anne was English; Thomas Wallace was probably of Scottish ancestry. His family, like many Wallaces, claimed a connection to William Wallace, a leader of Scottish forces during the Wars of Scottish Independence in the 13th century. Thomas Wallace graduated in law but never practised law. He owned some income-generating property, but bad investments and failed business ventures resulted in a steady deterioration of the family's financial position. His mother was from a middle-class English family from Hertford, north of London. When Wallace was

Exploration and study of the natural world.

Inspired by the chronicles of earlier and contemporary travelling naturalists, including Alexander von Humboldt, Ida Laura Pfeiffer, Charles Darwin and especially William Henry Edwards, Wallace decided that he too wanted to travel abroad as a naturalist. In 1848, Wallace and Henry Bates left for Brazil aboard the "Mischief". Their intention was to collect insects and other animal specimens in the Amazon Rainforest for their private collections, selling the duplicates to museums and collectors back in Britain in order to fund the trip. Wallace also hoped to gather evidence of the transmutation of species.  Wallace and Bates spent most of their first year collecting near Belém, then explored inland separately, occasionally meeting to discuss their findings. In 1849, they were briefly joined by another young explorer,

Return to England, marriage and children.

In 1862, Wallace returned to England, where he moved in with his sister Fanny Sims and her husband Thomas. While recovering from his travels, Wallace organised his collections and gave numerous lectures about his adventures and discoveries to scientific societies such as the Zoological Society of London. Later that year, he visited Darwin at Down House, and became friendly with both Charles Lyell and Herbert Spencer. During the 1860s, Wallace wrote papers and gave lectures defending natural selection. He also corresponded with Darwin about a variety of topics, including sexual selection, warning colouration, and the

Financial struggles.

In the late 1860s and 1870s, Wallace was very concerned about the financial security of his family. While he was in the Malay Archipelago, the sale of specimens had brought in a considerable amount of money, which had been carefully invested by the agent who sold the specimens for Wallace. However, on his return to the UK, Wallace made a series of bad investments in railways and mines that squandered most of the money, and he found himself badly in need of the proceeds from the publication of "The Malay Archipelago".

Social activism.

John Stuart Mill was impressed by remarks criticising English society that Wallace had included in "The Malay Archipelago". Mill asked him to join the general committee of his Land Tenure Reform Association, but the association dissolved after Mill's death in 1873. Wallace had written only a handful of articles on political and social issues between 1873 and 1879 when, at the age of 56, he entered the debates over trade policy and land reform in earnest. He believed that rural land should be owned by the state and leased to people who would make whatever use of it that would benefit the

Further scientific work.

Wallace continued his scientific work in parallel with his social commentary. In 1880, he published "Island Life" as a sequel to "The Geographic Distribution of Animals". In November 1886, Wallace began a ten-month trip to the United States to give a series of popular lectures. Most of the lectures were on Darwinism (evolution through natural selection), but he also gave speeches on biogeography, spiritualism, and socio-economic reform. During the trip, he

Death.

On 7 November 1913, Wallace died at home in the country house he called Old Orchard, which he had built a decade earlier. He was 90 years old. His death was widely reported in the press. "The New York Times" called him "the last of the giants belonging to that wonderful group of intellectuals that included, among others, Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, Lyell, and Owen, whose daring

Theory of evolution.

Early evolutionary thinking.

Unlike Darwin, Wallace began his career as a travelling naturalist already believing in the transmutation of species. The concept had been advocated by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Erasmus Darwin, and Robert Grant, among others. It was widely discussed, but not generally accepted by leading naturalists, and was considered to have radical, even revolutionary connotations.  Prominent anatomists and geologists such as Georges Cuvier, Richard Owen, Adam Sedgwick, and Charles Lyell attacked it vigorously. It has been suggested that Wallace accepted the idea of the transmutation of species in part because he was always inclined to favour

Natural selection and Darwin.

By February 1858, Wallace had been convinced by his biogeographical research in the Malay Archipelago that evolution was real. He later wrote in his autobiography:  According to his autobiography, it was while he was in bed with a fever that Wallace thought about Malthus's idea of positive checks on human population and had the idea of natural selection. His autobiography says that he was on the island of Ternate at the time; but historians have said that based on his journal he was on the island of Gilolo. From 1858 to 1861, he rented a house on Ternate from the Dutchman Maarten Dirk van Renesse van Duivenbode, which he used as a base for expeditions to other islands such as Gilolo.  Wallace describes how he discovered natural selection as follows:  Wallace had once briefly met Darwin, and was one of the correspondents whose observations Darwin used to support his own theories. Although Wallace's first letter to Darwin has been lost, Wallace carefully kept the letters he received. In the first letter, dated 1 May 1857, Darwin commented that Wallace's letter of 10 October which he had recently received, as well as Wallace's paper "On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species" of 1855, showed that they thought alike, with similar conclusions, and said that he was preparing his own work for publication in about two years time. The second letter, dated 22 December 1857, said how glad he was that Wallace was theorising about distribution, adding that "without speculation there is no good and original observation" but commented that "I believe I go much further than you". Wallace believed this and sent Darwin his February 1858 essay, "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type", asking Darwin to review it and pass it to Charles Lyell if he thought it worthwhile. Although Wallace had sent several articles for journal publication during his travels through the Malay archipelago, the Ternate essay was in a private letter. Darwin received the essay on 18 June

Application of theory to humans, and role of teleology in evolution.

In 1864, Wallace published a paper, "The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of 'Natural Selection'", applying the theory to humankind. Darwin had not yet publicly addressed the subject, although Thomas Huxley had in "Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature". He explained the apparent stability of the human stock by pointing to the vast gap in cranial capacities between humans and the great apes. Unlike some other Darwinists, including Darwin himself, he did not "regard modern primitives as almost filling

Assessment of Wallace's role in history of evolutionary theory.

In many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period. Wallace

Other scientific contributions.

Biogeography and ecology.

In 1872, at the urging of many of his friends, including Darwin, Philip Sclater, and Alfred Newton, Wallace began research for a general review of the geographic distribution of animals. Initial progress was slow, in part because classification systems for many types of animals were in flux. He resumed the work in earnest in 1874 after the publication of a number of new works on classification. Extending the system developed by Sclater for birds—which divided the earth into six separate geographic regions for describing species distribution—to cover mammals, reptiles and insects as well, Wallace created the basis for the zoogeographic regions still in use

Environmental issues.

Wallace's extensive work in biogeography made him aware of the impact of human activities on the natural world. In "Tropical Nature and Other Essays" (1878), he warned about the dangers of deforestation and soil erosion, especially in tropical climates prone to heavy rainfall. Noting the complex interactions between vegetation and climate, he

Astrobiology.

Wallace's 1904 book "Man's Place in the Universe" was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets. He concluded that the Earth was the only planet in the solar system that could possibly support life, mainly because it was the only one in which water could exist in the liquid phase. More controversially he maintained that it was unlikely that other stars in the galaxy could have planets with the necessary properties (the existence of other galaxies not having been proved at the time).  His treatment of Mars in this book was

Other contributions.

Poetry.

Wallace also wrote poetic verse, an example being 'A Description of Javita' from his book "Travels on the Amazon".  The poem begins:  'Tis where the streams divide, to swell the floods  Of the two mighty rivers of our globe;  Where gushing brooklets in their narrow beds'  There is an Indian village; all around,  The dark, eternal, boundless forest spreads  Its varied foliage. Stately palm-trees

Controversies.

Spiritualism.

In a letter to his brother-in-law in 1861, Wallace wrote:  Wallace was an enthusiast of phrenology. Early in his career, he experimented with hypnosis, then known as mesmerism. He used some of his students in Leicester as subjects, with considerable success. When he began his experiments with mesmerism, the topic was very controversial and early experimenters, such as John Elliotson, had been harshly criticised by the medical and scientific establishment. Wallace drew a connection between his experiences with mesmerism and his later investigations into spiritualism. In 1893, he wrote:  Wallace began investigating spiritualism in the summer of 1865, possibly at the urging of his older sister Fanny Sims, who had been involved with it for some time. After reviewing the literature on the topic and attempting to test

Flat Earth Wager.

In 1870, a flat-Earth proponent named John Hampden offered a £500 wager (equivalent to about £ in present-day terms) in a magazine advertisement to anyone who could demonstrate a convex curvature in a body of water such as a river, canal, or lake. Wallace, intrigued by the challenge and short of money at the time, designed an experiment in which he set up two objects along a six-mile (10 km) stretch of canal. Both objects were at the same height above

Anti-vaccination campaign.

In the early 1880s, Wallace was drawn into the debate over mandatory smallpox vaccination. Wallace originally saw the issue as a matter of personal liberty; but, after studying some of the statistics provided by anti-vaccination activists, he began to question the efficacy of vaccination. At the time, the germ theory of disease was very new and far from universally accepted. Moreover, no one knew enough about the human immune system to understand why vaccination worked. When Wallace did some research, he discovered instances where supporters of vaccination had used questionable, in a few cases completely phony, statistics to support their arguments. Always suspicious of authority, Wallace suspected that physicians had a vested interest in promoting vaccination, and became convinced that reductions in the incidence of smallpox that had been attributed to vaccination were, in fact, due to better hygiene and improvements in public sanitation.  Another

Legacy and historical perception.

As a result of his writing, at the time of his death Wallace had been for many years a well-known figure both as a scientist and as a social activist. He was often sought out by journalists and others for his views on a variety of topics. He received honorary doctorates and a number of professional honours, such the Royal Society's Royal Medal and Darwin Medal in 1868 and 1890 respectively, and the Order of Merit in 1908. Above all, his role as the co-discoverer of natural selection and his work on zoogeography marked him out as an exceptional figure.  He was undoubtedly one of the greatest natural history explorers of the 19th century. Despite this, his fame faded quickly after his death. For a long time, he was treated as a relatively obscure figure in the history of science. A number of reasons have been suggested for this lack of attention, including his modesty, his willingness to champion unpopular causes without regard for his own reputation, and the discomfort of much of the scientific community with some of his

Writings.

Wallace was a prolific author. In 2002, a historian of science published a quantitative analysis of Wallace's publications. He found that Wallace had published 22 full-length books and at least 747 shorter pieces, 508 of which were scientific papers (191 of them published in "Nature"). He further broke down the 747 short pieces by their primary subjects as follows. 29% were on biogeography and natural history, 27% were on evolutionary theory, 25% were social commentary, 12% were on Anthropology, and 7% were on spiritualism and phrenology. An online bibliography of Wallace's writings has more than 750 entries.

Selected papers.

A more comprehensive list of Wallace's publications that are available online, as well as

Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 18237 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection; his paper on the subject was jointly published with some of Charles Darwin's writings in 1858." "This prompted Darwin to publish some of his own ideas in "On the Origin of Species".

亚尔佛德·罗素·华莱士 (,1823年-1月8日-1913年-11月7日),英国博物学者、探险家、地理学家、人类学家和生物学家,以「天择」独立构想进化论而闻名。他以此为主题的论文在1858年与查尔斯·达尔文的一些著作共同出版,这促使达尔文在《物种起源》中发表自己的想法。华莱士1848年在亚马逊盆地进行博物学调查,1854在马来群岛做了8年的广泛的田野调查,并在马来群岛确定了现在生物地理学中区分东洋区和澳大拉西亚区的分界线(华莱士线)。


History.

Licensing and development.

In the mid-1980s TSR, after seeing the success of the "Ultima" series and other computer role-playing games (CRPGs), offered its popular "Advanced Dungeons & Dragons" ("AD&D") property to video game companies. Ten companies, including Electronic Arts, "Ultima" creator Origin Systems, and Sierra Entertainment applied for the license. Strategic Simulations, Inc. (SSI) president Joel Billings had, along with many other companies, earlier contacted TSR about licensing "AD&D", but TSR was not interested at that time. Although smaller and less technically advanced than other bidders, SSI unexpectedly won the license in 1987 because of its computerized wargaming experience, and instead of releasing a single "AD&D" game as soon as possible, the company proposed a broad vision of multiple series of games and spinoffs that might become as sophisticated as TSR's tabletop original.  After winning the "AD&D" license, the number of SSI's in-house developers increased from seven to 25, including the company's first full-time computer-graphic artists. TSR significantly participated in the games' development, including designing a tabletop module that the first SSI game would be based on. Using "Wizard's Crowns" detailed combat system as a base for their work, the development of the Gold Box engine and the original games was managed by SSI's Chuck Kroegel and George MacDonald. Later versions were led by Victor Penman and Ken Humphries.

The series.

The first game produced in the series was "Pool of Radiance", released in 1988. This was followed by "Curse of the Azure Bonds" (1989), "Secret of the Silver Blades" (1990), and "Pools of Darkness (1991)", the games forming one continuous story rooted in the once-glorious city of Phlan, later encompassing the entire Moonsea Reaches and four outer planes: Dalelands, Cormyr, Cormanthyr (where Myth Drannor is located), and Thar. The original four titles were developed in-house at SSI, and the first three titles were the best selling Gold Box games. A series of TSR novels paralleled the stories in the games.  Released in 1990, "Champions of Krynn" was the first of SSI's Gold Box spin-offs based on TSR's very popular "Dragonlance" universe, and roughly in the novels by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman. Chronologically, it was the third Gold Box game and employed some innovations that showed up in later games, like the moon phases for mages, the choice of deities for clerics, and the level difficulty selector. The following titles were "Death Knights of Krynn" (1991) and "The Dark Queen of Krynn" (1992). While the games give players a chance to meet "Dragonlance" characters like Tanis Half-Elven and Raistlin Majere, the gameplay is far more linear.  When SSI began working on the "" game in 1989, all the programmers in-house had to stop the development of Gold Box games and start working on the Dark Sun engine. After "Secret of the Silver Blades" came out, Chuck Kroegel passed the Gold Box engine and the "Forgotten Realms" location to Beyond Software (later Stormfront Studios). They set their first "Forgotten Realms" Gold Box title, "Gateway to the Savage Frontier" (1991), in the Savage Frontier, an area to the extreme west of the previous games location. Following the events of the first game, "Treasures of the Savage Frontier" (1992) added a weather system and an innovative romance system between party members and NPCs.  SSI also adapted the Gold Box engine from fantasy to science fiction for a pair of Buck Rogers games: "" (1990) and "" (1992). They were based on the Buck Rogers XXVc tabletop RPG by TSR, with rules heavily based on those of the company's flagship game. According to Keith Brors (former technical director of SSI), the company was pressured by TSR into developing their Buck Rogers computer game against their better judgment. The games didn't performed as well as the fantasy settings, but they represent some enhancements to the Gold Box engine.  Apart from the main games, "" was launched in 1992. Based on the 2nd edition's Spelljammer rule set, it combined real-time ship combat, turn-based melee battles, and interplanetary trade. Besides the innovations, many gamers and critics took issue with its occasional bugs and lengthy load times.  Sales declined over time, as the engine—originally designed for the Commodore 64—aged, and SSI released too many games (11 Gold Box games over four years). When SSI and TSR extended the original contract expiring in January 1993 for 18 months, SSI was required to discontinue the engine, moving to new developing technologies. So, in March of the same year, SSI's last release was "", an editor that allows players to create their own games using the Gold Box engine. Game developers had access to 127 different monsters, 100 different event triggers, and a framework that could hold an adventure consisting of four different wilderness areas or 36 dungeon levels. It also included a miniadventure called "The Heirs to Skull Crag". An active community grew up around this game, including hacks that expanded its powers and its graphical capabilities.

Spin-off to MMO.

All of the online RPGs of the 1980s were text-based MUDs, describing the action in the style of "Rogue" or Will Crowther's original "Adventure" game. Stormfront's Don Daglow had been designing games for AOL for several years, and the new alliance of SSI, TSR, America On-Line, and Stormfront led to the development of "Neverwinter Nights", the first graphical MMORPG, which ran on AOL from 1991 to 1997. "NWN" was a multi-player implementation of the Gold Box engine, and was the most popular features on AOL's service, raising between US$5 million and US$7 million annually to the company from 1992 to 1997. It paved the way for later hits such as "Ultima Online" (1997) and "EverQuest" (1999).

Closure and legacy.

When SSI and TSR announced in 1994 that the latter would not renew the former's "AD&D" license, the two companies described the end of the relationship as amicable. A SSI spokeswoman said that the company disliked the license's restrictions. With the Gold Box engine's sales finally fading after a six-year run, the losses SSI absorbed during those two years of delays played a critical role in the sale of SSI to Mindscape in 1994.  Although the interest in the series eventually waned, the mantle of this genre was later assumed by more recent role-playing games such as "Baldur's Gate", "" and "Neverwinter Nights"

Features.

Interface.

The "Gold Box Engine" had two main game play modes. Outside of character creation, game play took place in a screen that displayed text interactions, the names and current status of your party of characters, and a window which displayed images of geography, pictures of characters or events. When combat occurred, the screen changes to a top-down mode that resembles the one found in the "Wizard's Crown", in which player character icons could move about to cast spells or attack icons representing the enemies. All the games typically involved long dungeon crawls, and were heavier on combat than on role-playing.  The Gold Box games formed a number of series in which you could move characters who had finished one game to the next one in the series. In addition, characters from "Pool of Radiance" could be imported into "", a game based on an entirely different engine, and then exported into "Curse of the Azure Bonds". The system was improved over time, adding better colors, graphics, more player-class levels, new story lines, and real-time multiplayer gameplay.

Platforms.

The series went through the platforms Amiga, Apple II, Apple Macintosh, Atari ST, Commodore 64, DOS, NEC PC-9800, NES and Sega Genesis.

Languages.

The C64 and Apple II versions were written completely in 6502 assembly, and were extremely advanced for the time, since those computers had around 64 KB of RAM. Most of the later ports and releases were written in Pascal. The latest official releases, "Pirates of Realmspace" and "Unlimited Adventures" were C/C++ based.

Developers and ports.

Although the engine creation and most of the games were initially developed by SSI, there were many official ports and titles from other companies. Westwood Associates was in charge of some ports for the Amiga, which added mouse support and improved the graphics well before SSI's own MS-DOS versions going to VGA display mode. MicroMagic made the only port of the series for the Atari ST home computer, "Curse of the Azure Bonds"; following this, they developed "The Dark Queen of Krynn" and the "Unlimited Adventures" for SSI. Stormfront Studios did all the development for the "Savage Frontier" series and also the remarkable "Neverwinter Nights". Also mentionable, Cybertech was responsible for the development of "Spelljammer: Pirates of Realmspace". For video game consoles, there were only two ports: "Buck Rogers: Countdown to Doomsday" for the Sega Genesis and "Pool of Radiance" for the Famicom/NES (from the Japanese company Marionette).

Titles.

Original.

Additionally, "" (1992) uses the Gold Box combat engine, and "" (1993) is an editing tool for creating adventures in the same style as the games.

Reception.

With 264,536 copies sold for computers in North America, "Pool of Radiance" became by far the most-successful game in SSI's history, outselling "Ultima V" and "Bard's Tale III". It was given a score of 90% by "Commodore User". The reviewer Tony Dillon was impressed with the features.  The next game in the series, "Curse of the Azure Bonds", was also well received. It was given a score of 90% by magazine "The Games Machine", and 89% on "CU Amiga-64". Dave Arneson, one of the creators of "Dungeons & Dragons", expressed his disappointment that the Gold Box games did not innovate enough from previous CRPGs, comparing them to "a cross... between "Questron" and "Wizard's Crown" presented in a new setting". The final Gold Box game, "The Dark Queen of Krynn" (1992), sold 40,640 copies. SSI had sold more than two million "AD&D"-licensed games when it announced the end of the TSR license.

On modern systems.

The games run well in DOSBox on modern operating systems. Also the Gold Box Companion has been developed to smooth out some of the rough edges in the programming of some of the games. Some of the early games, for instance, do not allow turning off Quick Fight, which sets characters to automatic in combat.  GOG.com released the "Pool of Radiance" and "Savage Frontier" Gold Box series digitally on August 20, 2015, as a part of ""Forgotten Realms: The Archives - Collection Two"".. Later on October 27, 2015, they released the "Dragonlance" series as part of ""Dungeons & Dragons: Krynn Series"".

Gold Box is a series of role-playing video games produced by SSI from 1988 to 1992. The company acquired a license to produce games based on the "Advanced Dungeons & Dragons" role-playing game from TSR, Inc. These games shared a common engine that came to be known as the "Gold Box Engine" after the gold-colored boxes in which most games of the series were sold.

金盒子是SSI在1980年代制作的一系列角色扮演游戏的名称。该公司赢得了TSR公司的基于高级龙与地下城角色扮演游戏开发相关游戏产品的生产许可证。他们共同使用一个游戏引擎,后来在此基础上销售了很多游戏之后,这个游戏引擎被称为"金盒子引擎"。


Early life and education.

Rodrigo de Rato was born in Madrid, into a rich textile-owning family from Asturias. He is the great-grandson of politician Faustino Rodríguez-San Pedro y Díaz-Argüelles and the son of businessman Ramón Rato who was jailed in 1967 for tax evasion to Switzerland through his Banco Siero, and of Aurora Figaredo Sela. Both the Rato and the Figaredo sides of his family owned industries and nobility titles. Rato attended a Jesuit school before studying law in the Complutense University.  In 1971 Rato went to University of California, Berkeley, and received an MBA in 1974 from the Haas School of Business.

Career.

Early beginnings.

In 1975 Rato became involved in the family business, first in Fuensanta, an Asturian mineral water company, and then in two Madrid construction firms. He also became involved in expanding the "Cadena Rato" chain of radio stations.  In 1977 Rato joined the newly formed Popular Alliance (AP), a party containing former ministers of Franco, founded by Manuel Fraga, a close personal friend of his father. In December 1979 Rato was elected to the national executive committee, and became secretary of the AP economic commission. In February 1981 he became one of the party's five Secretaries-General, and was considered to be their economic expert. He supported tight controls on public spending, and an emphasis on the supply side of economics. In October 1982 he won election as an AP member of the Congress of Deputies for Cádiz in spite of having no connection to this Andalucian town. He represented the area until 1989 and subsequently represented Madrid from 1989 to 2000.  The 1982 election handed a loss to the AP, and marked the beginning of the long rule of the PSOE and Felipe González. Until 1984 Rato was the Secretary of the parliamentary group. He then became their economic affairs spokesman where he impressed the party with his attacks on the PSOE's economic policies. He was seen to be on the liberal wing of the party.  When Fraga resigned from the leadership in December 1986 Rato backed Miguel Herrero y Rodríguez de Miñón who lost the leadership race to Antonio Hernández Mancha, but managed to keep his positions within the party. During these years he also continued his business career in Aguas de Fuensanta; having previously been the CEO of the company from 1978 to 1982, he served as chairman from 1985 to 1991. In June 1989 Fraga again became interim President after the generally acknowledged failure of the leadership of Hernández Mancha. The party became the slightly more inclusive People's Party (PP). Rato was given shared responsibility over the elections with Francisco Álvarez-Cascos Fernández, the new party Secretary General. He was a close supporter of José María Aznar, who was voted as the new PP leader on 4 September.  On 29 October, the PP lost the general election, though his role in the campaign gave him national prominence. Afterwards he was appointed party spokesman. On 2 April 1990 his father sold the family stake in "Cadena Rato" for 5 billion pesetas. In June 1991 he stopped being President of Fuensanta, but remained on the board until 1993. On 6 June that year the PP lost another general election to PSOE. In the 12th National Congress in January 1996 he was confirmed as one of the three vice secretaries of the party.

Minister of Economy and vice president.

Then on 3 March 1996 the PP won the general election. On 4 May Aznar became Prime Minister of Spain, and on 6 May Rato became both second Vice President and Minister of Economy and Finance. On 12 March 2000 the PP won again, this time with an absolute majority. His ministries were reorganised, and he gave all his responsibilities to Cristóbal Montoro Romero who became Minister of Finance. In his second term he had to fend off various charges of incompatibility between his public office and his private business interests.

Managing Director of the IMF.

Rato became the managing director of the IMF on 7 June 2004, taking over from Anne Krueger, who had been acting as temporary Managing Director after Horst Köhler, who at that time was nominated (and later elected) President of Germany, resigned the post 4 March 2004.  In June 2007 Rato announced that he would resign from his post the following October, citing personal reasons. On 28 September 2007, the International Monetary Fund's 24 executive directors elected former French Minister for Economics, Finance, and Industry, Dominique Strauss-Kahn, over former Czech Prime Minister Josef Tošovský, to be the new managing director in succession to Rato.

Career in the private sector.

Bankia.

Rato assumed the presidency of Caja Madrid in 2010, a public savings bank based in the Community of Madrid, and after a merger with other six saving banks he assumed the presidency of the new group now called Bankia. On 7 May 2012, he resigned amid growing concerns about the solvency of the bank. Although the core capital ratio was 10,4%, the Popular Party Government planned to lend about 8 billion euro to the bank to increase its solvency, as was done before throughout Europe (e.g. ING and Northern Rock crisis). Due to his political ties to the governing PP, which decided to inject the funds, Rato resigned. He had his salary cut from €2.3 million to €600,000 annually in 2011 due to new laws for rescued banks.  On 4 July 2012, Rato, along with 30 other former members of the board of directors of Bankia, were charged with accounting irregularities. Bloomberg Businessweek listed Rato as the worst CEO in 2012. In 2011, Bankia had announced profits of €309 million; after Rato resigned, the figure was amended to €3 billion in losses. In October 2014, it became known that between 24 October 2010 to 28 November 2011, Rato made 519 purchases with a secret corporate credit card, spending a total of €99,041. Among these purchases he spent in one day were €3,547 in alcoholic beverages and €1,000 in shoes, along with 16 cash withdrawals of more than €1,000, most of them during the last months of his presidential term.  After a hearing 17 October 2014, the Spanish High Court judge Fernando Andreu assigned civil responsibility for the credit card abuse to Rodrigo Rato and Miguel Blesa. Rato was ordered to pay a bond of €3 million, and was expelled from the People's Party (PP). The case went to court in 2016. On 23 February 2017, he was convicted and sentenced to four and a half years in prison.

Rodrigo de Rato y Figaredo (born 18 March 1949) is a conservative Spanish politician and banker who served in the government of Spain as Minister of Economy and as a vice president from 1996 to 2004. He was managing director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) from 2004 to 2007 and president of Bankia between 2010 and 2012.

罗德里戈·拉托(,1949年-3月18日),西班牙经济学家,曾任国际货币基金组织总裁。


Description and habits.

Chimaeras live in temperate ocean floors down to deep, with few occurring at depths shallower than. Exceptions include the members of the genus "Callorhinchus", the rabbit fish and the spotted ratfish, which locally or periodically can be found at relatively shallow depths. Consequently, these are also among the few species from the Chimaera order kept in public aquaria. They have elongated, soft bodies, with a bulky head and a single gill-opening. They grow up to in length, although this includes the lengthy tail found in some species. In many species, the snout is modified into an elongated sensory organ.  Like other members of the class Chondrichthyes, chimaera skeletons are constructed of cartilage. Their skin is smooth and naked, lacking placoid scales (except in the claspers), and their color can range from black to brownish gray. For defense, most chimaeras have a venomous spine in front of the dorsal fin.  Chimaeras resemble sharks in some ways: they employ claspers for internal fertilization of females and they lay eggs with leathery cases. They also use electroreception to find their prey. However, unlike sharks, male chimaeras also have retractable sexual appendages on the forehead (a type of tentaculum) and in front of the pelvic fins. The females lay eggs in spindle-shaped, leathery egg cases.  They also differ from sharks in that their upper jaws are fused with their skulls and they have separate anal and urogenital openings. They lack sharks' many sharp and replaceable teeth, having instead just three pairs of large permanent grinding tooth plates. They also have gill covers or opercula like bony fishes.

Classification.

In some classifications, the chimaeras are included (as subclass Holocephali) in the class Chondrichthyes of cartilaginous fishes; in other systems, this distinction may be raised to the level of class. Chimaeras also have some characteristics of bony fishes.  A renewed effort to explore deep water and to undertake taxonomic analysis of specimens in museum collections led to a boom during the first decade of the 21st century in the number of new species identified. They are 50 extant species in six genera and four families are described; an additional three genera (including the extinct genus "Ischyodus") and two families are only known from fossils):

Phylogenetics.

Tracing the evolution of these species has been problematic given the scarcity of good fossils. DNA sequences have become the preferred approach to understanding speciation.  The order appears to have originated about 420 million years ago during the Silurian. The 39 extant species fall into three families—the Callorhinchids, Rhinochimaerids and Chimaerids with the callorhinchids being the most basal clade. The families appear to have diverged during the late Jurassic to early Cretaceous (170–120 mya).

Parasites.

As other fish, chimaeras have a number of parasites. "Chimaericola leptogaster" (Chimaericolidae) is a monogenean parasite of the gills of "Chimaera monstrosa"; the species can attain in length.

Chimaeras are cartilaginous fish in the order Chimaeriformes, known informally as ghost sharks, rat fish, spookfish or rabbit fish; the last three names are not to be confused with rattails, Opisthoproctidae or Siganidae, respectively.

银鲛目(学名:)是全头类仅现存的一目。约有28个种。共分三科:银鲛科(包括称兔鱼的种类)、叶吻银鲛科及长吻银鲛科。


History.

Planning for Operation Barbarossa began in June 1940. In December 1940 Hitler began sending out vague preliminary directives to senior generals on how the war was to be conducted, giving him the opportunity to gauge their reaction to such matters as collaboration with the SS in the "rendering harmless" of Bolsheviks. The Wehrmacht was already to some extent politicised, having participated in the extra-legal killings of Ernst Rohm and his associates in 1934, communists in the Sudetenland in 1938, and Czech and German political exiles in France in 1940. On March 3, 1941 Hitler explained to his closest military advisers how the war of annihilation was to be waged. On that same day, instructions incorporating Hitler's demands went to Section L of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) (under Deputy Chief Walter Warlimont); these provided the basis for the "Guidelines in Special Areas to Instructions No. 21 (Case Barbarossa)" discussing, among other matters, the interaction of the army and SS in the theatre of operations, deriving from the 'need to neutralise at once leading bolsheviks and commissars.'  Discussions proceeded on March 17 during a situation conference, where Chief of the OKH General Staff Franz Halder, Quartermaster-General Eduard Wagner and Chief of Operational Department of the OKH Adolf Heusinger were present. Hitler declared: "The intelligentsia established by Stalin must be exterminated. The most brutal violence is to be used in the Great Russian Empire" (quoted from Halder's War Diary entry of March 17).  On March 30, Hitler addressed over 200 senior officers in the Reich Chancellery. Among those present was Halder, who recorded the key points of the speech. He argued that the war against the Soviet Union "cannot be conducted in a knightly fashion" because it was a war of "ideologies and racial differences." He further declared that the commissars had to be "liquidated" without mercy because they were the "bearers of ideologies directly opposed to National Socialism." Hitler stipulated the "annihilation of the Bolshevik commissars and the Communist intelligentsia" (thus laying the foundation for the Commissar Order), dismissed the idea of courts martial for felonies committed by the German troops, and emphasised the different nature of the war in the East with the war in the West.  Hitler was well aware that this order was illegal, but personally absolved in advance any soldiers who violated international law in enforcing this order. He claimed that the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 did not apply since the Soviets had not signed them. The Soviet Union, as a distinct entity from the Russian Empire, did not, in fact, sign the Geneva Convention of 1929. However, Germany did, and was bound by article 82, stating "In case, in time of war, one of the belligerents is not a party to the Convention, its provisions shall nevertheless remain in force as between the belligerents who are parties thereto."  The order was as follows:

Response.

The first draft of the Commissar Order was issued by General Eugen Müller on 6 May 1941 and called for the shooting of all commissars in order to avoid letting any captured commissar reach a POW camp in Germany. The German historian Hans-Adolf Jacobsen wrote:  There was never any doubt in the minds of German Army commanders that the order deliberately flouted international law; that is borne out by the unusually small number of written copies of the "Kommissarbefehl" which were distributed.  The paragraph in which General Müller called for army commanders to prevent "excesses" was removed on the request of the OKW. Brauchitsch amended the order on 24 May 1941 by attaching Müller's paragraph and calling on the army to maintain discipline in the enforcement of the order. The final draft of the order was issued by OKW on 6 June 1941 and was restricted only to the most senior commanders, who were instructed to inform their subordinates verbally.  Nazi propaganda presented Barbarossa as an ideological-racial war between German National Socialism and "Judeo-Bolshevism," dehumanising the Soviet enemy as a force of Slavic "Untermensch" (sub-humans) and "Asiatic" savages engaging in "barbaric Asiatic fighting methods" commanded by evil Jewish commissars to whom German troops were to grant no mercy. The vast majority of the Wehrmacht officers and soldiers tended to regard the war in Nazi terms, seeing their Soviet opponents as sub-human.  The enforcement of the Commissar Order led to thousands of executions. The German historian Jürgen Förster wrote in 1989 that it was simply not true that the Commissar Order was not enforced, as most German Army commanders claimed in their memoirs and some German historians like Ernst Nolte were still claiming. Every German general enforced the Commissar Order. Erich von Manstein passed on the Commissar Order to his subordinates, who executed all the captured commissars, something that he was convicted of by a British court in 1949. After the war, Manstein lied about disobeying the Commissar Order, saying he had been opposed to the order, and never enforced it. On 23 September 1941, after several Wehrmacht commanders had asked for the order to be softened as a way of encouraging the Red Army to surrender, Hitler declined "any modification of the existing orders regarding the treatment of political commissars."  When the Commissar Order became known among the Red Army it provoked stronger resistance to German forces. This unwanted effect was cited in German appeals to Hitler (e.g. by Claus von Stauffenberg), who finally cancelled the Commissar Order after one year, on 6 May 1942. The order was used as evidence at the Nuremberg Trials and as part of the broader issue of whether the German generals were obligated to follow orders from Hitler even when they knew those orders were illegal.

The Commissar Order () was an order issued by the German High Command (OKW) on 6 June 1941 before Operation Barbarossa. Its official name was Guidelines for the Treatment of Political Commissars ("Richtlinien für die Behandlung politischer Kommissare"). It instructed the Wehrmacht that any Soviet political commissar identified among captured troops be summarily executed as a purported enforcer of the "Judeo-Bolshevism" ideology in military forces. It is one of a series of criminal orders issued by the leadership.

政委命令(),全称为「政治委员处置指南」()是纳粹德国「元首」阿道夫·希特勒在第二次世界大战期间的1941年6月6日、进攻苏联的「巴巴罗萨作战」发动前不久发出的一道命令,要求德军在抓获了苏联红军中主管意识形态的政治委员后不以战俘身份对待,而是直接处决(为了保密,德军将其带到集中营去由「别动队」杀害),具有明显和活跃布尔什维克思想的一般战俘亦适用此命令。


Mathematical definitions.

Irradiance.

Irradiance of a surface, denoted "E" ("e" for "energetic", to avoid confusion with photometric quantities), is defined as where  If we want to talk about the radiant flux "emitted" by a surface, we speak of radiant exitance.

Spectral irradiance.

Spectral irradiance in frequency of a surface, denoted "E", is defined as where "ν" is the frequency.  Spectral irradiance in wavelength of a surface, denoted "E", is defined as where "λ" is the wavelength.

Property.

Irradiance of a surface is also, according to the definition of radiant flux, equal to the time-average of the component of the Poynting vector perpendicular to the surface: where  For a propagating "sinusoidal" linearly polarized electromagnetic plane wave, the Poynting vector always points to the direction of propagation while oscillating in magnitude. The irradiance of a surface is then given by where  This formula assumes that the magnetic susceptibility is negligible, i.e. that "μ" ≈ 1 where "μ" is the magnetic permeability of the propagation medium. This assumption is typically valid in transparent media in the optical frequency range.

Solar energy.

The global irradiance on a horizontal surface on Earth consists of the direct irradiance "E" and diffuse irradiance "E". On a tilted plane, there is another irradiance component, "E", which is the component that is reflected from the ground. The average ground reflection is about 20% of the global irradiance. Hence, the irradiance "E" on a tilted plane consists of three components:  The integral of solar irradiance over a time period is called "solar exposure" or "insolation".

In radiometry, irradiance is the radiant flux (power) "received" by a "surface" per unit area. The SI unit of irradiance is the watt per square metre (W⋅m). The CGS unit erg per square centimetre per second (erg⋅cm⋅s) is often used in astronomy. Irradiance is often called intensity, but this term is avoided in radiometry where such usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity. In astrophysics, irradiance is called "radiant flux".

在光学里,辐照度(英语:irradiance)是电磁辐射入射于曲面时每单位面积的功率。辐射出射度(英语:radiant emittance,英语:radiant exitance)是从每单位面积曲面辐射出的功率。采用国际单位制,这些物理量的单位为瓦特每平方米(W/m),采用CGS单位制,这些物理量的单位为尔格每平方厘米每秒(erg·cm·s,常用于天文学)。


Brief history.

The AVR architecture was conceived by two students at the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH), Alf-Egil Bogen and Vegard Wollan.  The original AVR MCU was developed at a local ASIC house in Trondheim, Norway, called Nordic VLSI at the time, now Nordic Semiconductor, where Bogen and Wollan were working as students. It was known as a μRISC (Micro RISC) and was available as silicon IP/building block from Nordic VLSI. When the technology was sold to Atmel from Nordic VLSI, the internal architecture was further developed by Bogen and Wollan at Atmel Norway, a subsidiary of Atmel. The designers worked closely with compiler writers at IAR Systems to ensure that the AVR instruction set provided efficient compilation of high-level languages.  Atmel says that the name AVR is not an acronym and does not stand for anything in particular. The creators of the AVR give no definitive answer as to what the term "AVR" stands for. However, it is commonly accepted that AVR stands for Alf and Vegard's RISC processor. Note that the use of "AVR" in this article generally refers to the 8-bit RISC line of Atmel AVR Microcontrollers.  Among the first of the AVR line was the AT90S8515, which in a 40-pin DIP package has the same pinout as an 8051 microcontroller, including the external multiplexed address and data bus. The polarity of the RESET line was opposite (8051's having an active-high RESET, while the AVR has an active-low RESET), but other than that the pinout was identical.  The AVR 8-bit microcontroller architecture was introduced in 1997. By 2003, Atmel had shipped 500 million AVR flash microcontrollers. The Arduino platform, developed for simple electronics projects, was released in 2005 and featured ATmega8 AVR microcontrollers.

Device overview.

The AVR is a modified Harvard architecture machine, where program and data are stored in separate physical memory systems that appear in different address spaces, but having the ability to read data items from program memory using special instructions.

Basic families.

AVRs are generally classified into following:

Device architecture.

Flash, EEPROM, and SRAM are all integrated onto a single chip, removing the need for external memory in most applications. Some devices have a parallel external bus option to allow adding additional data memory or memory-mapped devices. Almost all devices (except the smallest TinyAVR chips) have serial interfaces, which can be used to connect larger serial EEPROMs or flash chips.

Program memory.

Program instructions are stored in non-volatile flash memory. Although the MCUs are 8-bit, each instruction takes one or two 16-bit words.  The size of the program memory is usually indicated in the naming of the device itself (e.g., the ATmega64x line has 64 KB of flash, while the ATmega32x line has 32 KB).  There is no provision for off-chip program memory; all code executed by the AVR core must reside in the on-chip flash. However, this limitation does not apply to the AT94 FPSLIC AVR/FPGA chips.

Internal data memory.

The data address space consists of the register file, I/O registers, and SRAM. Some small models also map the program ROM into the data address space, but larger models do not.

Internal registers.

The AVRs have 32 single-byte registers and are classified as 8-bit RISC devices.  In the tinyAVR and megaAVR variants of the AVR architecture, the working registers are mapped in as the first 32 memory addresses (0000–001F), followed by 64 I/O registers (0020–005F). In devices with many peripherals, these registers are followed by 160 “extended I/O” registers, only accessible as memory-mapped I/O (0060–00FF).  Actual SRAM starts after these register sections, at address 0060 or, in devices with "extended I/O", at 0100.  Even though there are separate addressing schemes and optimized opcodes for accessing the register file and the first 64 I/O registers, all can also be addressed and manipulated as if they were in SRAM.  The very smallest of the tinyAVR variants use a reduced architecture with only 16 registers (r0 through r15 are omitted) which are not addressable as memory locations. I/O memory begins at address 0000, followed by SRAM. In addition, these devices have slight deviations from the standard AVR instruction set. Most notably, the direct load/store instructions (LDS/STS) have been reduced from 2 words (32 bits) to 1 word (16 bits), limiting the total direct addressable memory (the sum of both I/O and SRAM) to 128 bytes. Conversely, the indirect load instruction's (LD) 16-bit address space is expanded to also include non-volatile memory such as Flash and configuration bits; therefore, the Load Program Memory (LPM) instruction is unnecessary and omitted. (For detailed info, see Atmel AVR instruction set.)  In the XMEGA variant, the working register file is not mapped into the data address space; as such, it is not possible to treat any of the XMEGA's working registers as though they were SRAM. Instead, the I/O registers are mapped into the data address space starting at the very beginning of the address space. Additionally, the amount of data address space dedicated to I/O registers has grown substantially to 4096 bytes (0000–0FFF). As with previous generations, however, the fast I/O manipulation instructions can only reach the first 64 I/O register locations (the first 32 locations for bitwise instructions). Following the I/O registers, the XMEGA series sets aside a 4096 byte range of the data address space, which can be used optionally for mapping the internal EEPROM to the data address space (1000–1FFF). The actual SRAM is located after these ranges, starting at 2000.

GPIO ports.

Each GPIO port on a tiny or mega AVR drives up to eight pins and is controlled by three 8-bit registers: DDR"x", PORT"x" and PIN"x", where "x" is the port identifier.  Newer ATtiny AVR's, like ATtiny817 and its siblings, have their port control registers somewhat differently defined. xmegaAVR have additional registers for push/pull, totem-pole and pullup configurations.

EEPROM.

Almost all AVR microcontrollers have internal EEPROM for semi-permanent data storage. Like flash memory, EEPROM can maintain its contents when electrical power is removed.  In most variants of the AVR architecture, this internal EEPROM memory is not mapped into the MCU's addressable memory space. It can only be accessed the same way an external peripheral device is, using special pointer registers and read/write instructions, which makes EEPROM access much slower than other internal RAM.  However, some devices in the SecureAVR (AT90SC) family use a special EEPROM mapping to the data or program memory, depending on the configuration. The XMEGA family also allows the EEPROM to be mapped into the data address space.  Since the number of writes to EEPROM is limited Atmel specifies 100,000 write cycles in their datasheets a well designed EEPROM write routine should compare the contents of an EEPROM address with desired contents and only perform an actual write if the contents need to be changed.  Note that erase and write can be performed separately in many cases, byte-by-byte, which may also help prolong life when bits only need to be set to all 1s (erase) or selectively cleared to 0s (write).

Program execution.

Atmel's AVRs have a two-stage, single-level pipeline design. This means the next machine instruction is fetched as the current one is executing. Most instructions take just one or two clock cycles, making AVRs relatively fast among eight-bit microcontrollers.  The AVR processors were designed with the efficient execution of compiled C code in mind and have several built-in pointers for the task.

Instruction set.

The AVR instruction set is more orthogonal than those of most eight-bit microcontrollers, in particular the 8051 clones and PIC microcontrollers with which AVR competes today. However, it is not completely regular:  Additionally, some chip-specific differences affect code generation. Code pointers (including return addresses on the stack) are two bytes long on chips with up to 128 KB of flash memory, but three bytes long on larger chips; not all chips have hardware multipliers; chips with over 8 KB of flash have branch and call instructions with longer ranges; and so forth.  The mostly regular instruction set makes programming it using C (or even Ada) compilers fairly straightforward. GCC has included AVR support for quite some time, and that support is widely used. In fact, Atmel solicited input from major developers of compilers for small microcontrollers, to determine the instruction set features that were most useful in a compiler for high-level languages.

MCU speed.

The AVR line can normally support clock speeds from 0 to 20 MHz, with some devices reaching 32 MHz. Lower-powered operation usually requires a reduced clock speed. All recent (Tiny, Mega, and Xmega, but not 90S) AVRs feature an on-chip oscillator, removing the need for external clocks or resonator circuitry. Some AVRs also have a system clock prescaler that can divide down the system clock by up to 1024. This prescaler can be reconfigured by software during run-time, allowing the clock speed to be optimized.  Since all operations (excluding multiplication and 16-bit add/subtract) on registers R0–R31 are single-cycle, the AVR can achieve up to 1 MIPS per MHz, i.e. an 8 MHz processor can achieve up to 8 MIPS. Loads and stores to/from memory take two cycles, branching takes two cycles. Branches in the latest "3-byte PC" parts such as ATmega2560 are one cycle slower than on previous devices.

Development.

AVRs have a large following due to the free and inexpensive development tools available, including reasonably priced development boards and free development software. The AVRs are sold under various names that share the same basic core, but with different peripheral and memory combinations. Compatibility between chips in each family is fairly good, although I/O controller features may vary.  See external links for sites relating to AVR development.

Features.

AVRs offer a wide range of features:

Programming interfaces.

There are many means to load program code into an AVR chip. The methods to program AVR chips varies from AVR family to family. Most of the methods described below use the RESET line to enter programming mode. In order to avoid the chip accidentally entering such mode, it is advised to connect a pull-up resistor between the RESET pin and the positive power supply.

ISP.

The in-system programming (ISP) programming method is functionally performed through SPI, plus some twiddling of the Reset line. As long as the SPI pins of the AVR are not connected to anything disruptive, the AVR chip can stay soldered on a PCB while reprogramming. All that is needed is a 6-pin connector and programming adapter. This is the most common way to develop with an AVR.  The Atmel-ICE device or AVRISP mkII (Legacy device) connects to a computer's USB port and performs in-system programming using Atmel's software.  AVRDUDE (AVR Downloader/UploaDEr) runs on Linux, FreeBSD, Windows, and, and supports a variety of in-system programming hardware, including Atmel AVRISP mkII, Atmel JTAG ICE, older Atmel serial-port based programmers, and various third-party and "do-it-yourself" programmers.

PDI.

The Program and Debug Interface (PDI) is an Atmel proprietary interface for external programming and on-chip debugging of XMEGA devices. The PDI supports high-speed programming of all non-volatile memory (NVM) spaces; flash, EEPROM, fuses, lock-bits and the User Signature Row. This is done by accessing the XMEGA NVM controller through the PDI interface, and executing NVM controller commands. The PDI is a 2-pin interface using the Reset pin for clock input (PDI_CLK) and a dedicated data pin (PDI_DATA) for input and output.

UPDI.

The Unified Program and Debug Interface (UPDI) is a one-wire interface for external programming and on-chip debugging of newer ATtiny and ATmega devices.

High-voltage serial.

High-voltage serial programming (HVSP) is mostly the backup mode on smaller AVRs. An 8-pin AVR package does not leave many unique signal combinations to place the AVR into a programming mode. A 12-volt signal, however, is something the AVR should only see during programming and never during normal operation. The high voltage mode can also be used in some devices where the reset pin has been disabled by fuses.

High-voltage parallel.

High-voltage parallel programming (HVPP) is considered the "final resort" and may be the only way to correct bad fuse settings on an AVR chip.

Bootloader.

Most AVR models can reserve a bootloader region, 256 bytes to 4 KB, where re-programming code can reside. At reset, the bootloader runs first and does some user-programmed determination whether to re-program or to jump to the main application. The code can re-program through any interface available, or it could read an encrypted binary through an Ethernet adapter like PXE. Atmel has application notes and code pertaining to many bus interfaces.

ROM.

The AT90SC series of AVRs are available with a factory mask-ROM rather than flash for program memory. Because of the large up-front cost and minimum order quantity, a mask-ROM is only cost-effective for high-production runs.

aWire.

aWire is a new one-wire debug interface available on the new UC3L AVR32 devices.

Debugging interfaces.

The AVR offers several options for debugging, mostly involving on-chip debugging while the chip is in the target system.

debugWIRE.

debugWIRE is Atmel's solution for providing on-chip debug capabilities via a single microcontroller pin. It is particularly useful for lower pin count parts which cannot provide the four "spare" pins needed for JTAG. The JTAGICE mkII, mkIII and the AVR Dragon support debugWIRE. debugWIRE was developed after the original JTAGICE release, and now clones support it.

JTAG.

The Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) feature provides access to on-chip debugging functionality while the chip is running in the target system. JTAG allows accessing internal memory and registers, setting breakpoints on code, and single-stepping execution to observe system behaviour.  Atmel provides a series of JTAG adapters for the AVR:  JTAG can also be used to perform a boundary scan test, which tests the electrical connections between AVRs and other boundary scan capable chips in a system. Boundary scan is well-suited for a production line, while the hobbyist is probably better off testing with a multimeter or oscilloscope.

Development tools and evaluation kits.

Official Atmel AVR development tools and evaluation kits contain a number of starter kits and debugging tools with support for most AVR devices:

STK600 starter kit.

The STK600 starter kit and development system is an update to the STK500. The STK600 uses a base board, a signal routing board, and a target board.  The base board is similar to the STK500, in that it provides a power supply, clock, in-system programming, an RS-232 port and a CAN (Controller Area Network, an automotive standard) port via DE9 connectors, and stake pins for all of the GPIO signals from the target device.  The target boards have ZIF sockets for DIP, SOIC, QFN, or QFP packages, depending on the board.  The signal routing board sits between the base board and the target board, and routes the signals to the proper pin on the device board. There are many different signal routing boards that could be used with a single target board, depending on what device is in the ZIF socket.  The STK600 allows in-system programming from the PC via USB, leaving the RS-232 port available for the target microcontroller. A 4 pin header on the STK600 labeled 'RS-232 spare' can connect any TTL level USART port on the chip to an onboard MAX232 chip to translate the signals to RS-232 levels. The RS-232 signals are connected to the RX, TX, CTS, and RTS pins on the DB-9 connector.

STK500 starter kit.

The STK500 starter kit and development system features ISP and high voltage programming (HVP) for all AVR devices, either directly or through extension boards. The board is fitted with DIP sockets for all AVRs available in DIP packages.  STK500 Expansion Modules: Several expansion modules are available for the STK500 board:

STK200 starter kit.

The STK200 starter kit and development system has a DIP socket that can host an AVR chip in a 40, 20, or 8-pin package. The board has a clock source, 8 light-emitting diode (LED)s, 8 input buttons, an RS-232 port, a socket for a 32k SRAM and numerous general I/O. The chip can be programmed with a dongle connected to the parallel port.

AVRISP and AVRISP mkII.

The AVRISP and AVRISP mkII are inexpensive tools allowing all AVRs to be programmed via ICSP.  The AVRISP connects to a PC via a serial port and draws power from the target system. The AVRISP allows using either of the "standard" ICSP pinouts, either the 10-pin or 6-pin connector.  The AVRISP mkII connects to a PC via USB and draws power from USB. LEDs visible through the translucent case indicate the state of target power.  As the AVRISP mkII lacks driver/buffer ICs, it can have trouble programming target boards with multiple loads on its SPI lines. In such occurrences, a programmer capable of sourcing greater current is required. Alternatively, the AVRISP mkII can still be used if low-value (~150 ohm) load-limiting resistors can be placed on the SPI lines before each peripheral device.  Both the AVRISP and the AVRISP mkII are now discontinued, with product pages removed from the Microchip website. As of July 2019 the AVRISP mkII is still in stock at a number of distributors. There are also a number of 3rd party clones available.

AVR Dragon.

The Atmel Dragon is an inexpensive tool which connects to a PC via USB. The Dragon can program all AVRs via JTAG, HVP, PDI, or ICSP. The Dragon also allows debugging of all AVRs via JTAG, PDI, or debugWire; a previous limitation to devices with 32 KB or less program memory has been removed in AVR Studio 4.18. The Dragon has a small prototype area which can accommodate an 8, 28, or 40-pin AVR, including connections to power and programming pins. There is no area for any additional circuitry, although this can be provided by a third-party product called the "Dragon Rider".

JTAGICE.

The JTAG In Circuit Emulator (JTAGICE) debugging tool supports on-chip debugging (OCD) of AVRs with a JTAG interface. The original JTAGICE (sometimes retroactively referred to as JTAGICE mkI) uses an RS-232 interface to a PC and can only program AVR's with a JTAG interface. The JTAGICE mkI is no longer in production, however it has been replaced by the JTAGICE mkII.

JTAGICE mkII.

The JTAGICE mkII debugging tool supports on-chip debugging (OCD) of AVRs with SPI, JTAG, PDI, and debugWIRE interfaces. The debugWire interface enables debugging using only one pin (the Reset pin), allowing debugging of applications running on low pin-count microcontrollers.  The JTAGICE mkII connects using USB, but there is an alternate connection via a serial port, which requires using a separate power supply. In addition to JTAG, the mkII supports ISP programming (using 6-pin or 10-pin adapters). Both the USB and serial links use a variant of the STK500 protocol.

JTAGICE3.

The JTAGICE3 updates the mkII with more advanced debugging capabilities and faster programming. It connects via USB and supports the JTAG, aWire, SPI, and PDI interfaces. The kit includes several adapters for use with most interface pinouts.

AVR ONE!

The AVR ONE! is a professional development tool for all Atmel 8-bit and 32-bit AVR devices with On-Chip Debug capability. It supports SPI, JTAG, PDI, and aWire programming modes and debugging using debugWIRE, JTAG, PDI, and aWire interfaces.

Butterfly demonstration board.

The very popular AVR Butterfly demonstration board is a self-contained, battery-powered computer running the Atmel AVR ATmega169V microcontroller. It was built to show off the AVR family, especially a then new built-in LCD interface. The board includes the LCD screen, joystick, speaker, serial port, real time clock (RTC), flash memory chip, and both temperature and voltage sensors. Earlier versions of the AVR Butterfly also contained a CdS photoresistor; it is not present on Butterfly boards produced after June 2006 to allow RoHS compliance. The small board has a shirt pin on its back so it can be worn as a name badge.  The AVR Butterfly comes preloaded with software to demonstrate the capabilities of the microcontroller. Factory firmware can scroll your name, display the sensor readings, and show the time. The AVR Butterfly also has a piezoelectric transducer that can be used to reproduce sounds and music.  The AVR Butterfly demonstrates LCD driving by running a 14-segment, six alpha-numeric character display. However, the LCD interface consumes many of the I/O pins.  The Butterfly's ATmega169 CPU is capable of speeds up to 8 MHz, but it is factory set by software to 2 MHz to preserve the button battery life. A pre-installed bootloader program allows the board to be re-programmed via a standard RS-232 serial plug with new programs that users can write with the free Atmel IDE tools.

AT90USBKey.

This small board, about half the size of a business card, is priced at slightly more than an AVR Butterfly. It includes an AT90USB1287 with USB On-The-Go (OTG) support, 16 MB of DataFlash, LEDs, a small joystick, and a temperature sensor. The board includes software, which lets it act as a USB mass storage device (its documentation is shipped on the DataFlash), a USB joystick, and more. To support the USB host capability, it must be operated from a battery, but when running as a USB peripheral, it only needs the power provided over USB.  Only the JTAG port uses conventional 2.54 mm pinout. All the other AVR I/O ports require more compact 1.27 mm headers.  The AVR Dragon can both program and debug since the 32 KB limitation was removed in AVR Studio 4.18, and the JTAGICE mkII is capable of both programming and debugging the processor. The processor can also be programmed through USB from a Windows or Linux host, using the USB "Device Firmware Update" protocols. Atmel ships proprietary (source code included but distribution restricted) example programs and a USB protocol stack with the device.  LUFA is a third-party free software (MIT license) USB protocol stack for the USBKey and other 8-bit USB AVRs.

Raven wireless kit.

The RAVEN kit supports wireless development using Atmel's IEEE 802.15.4 chipsets, for ZigBee and other wireless stacks. It resembles a pair of wireless more-powerful Butterfly cards, plus a wireless USBKey; and costing about that much (under $US100). All these boards support JTAG-based development.  The kit includes two AVR Raven boards, each with a 2.4 GHz transceiver supporting IEEE 802.15.4 (and a freely licensed ZigBee stack). The radios are driven with ATmega1284p processors, which are supported by a custom segmented LCD display driven by an ATmega3290p processor. Raven peripherals resemble the Butterfly: piezo speaker, DataFlash (bigger), external EEPROM, sensors, 32 kHz crystal for RTC, and so on. These are intended for use in developing remote sensor nodes, to control relays, or whatever is needed.  The USB stick uses an AT90USB1287 for connections to a USB host and to the 2.4 GHz wireless links. These are intended to monitor and control the remote nodes, relying on host power rather than local batteries.

Third-party programmers.

A wide variety of third-party programming and debugging tools are available for the AVR. These devices use various interfaces, including RS-232, PC parallel port, and USB.

Uses.

AVRs have been used in various automotive applications such as security, safety, powertrain and entertainment systems. Atmel has recently launched a new publication "Atmel Automotive Compilation" to help developers with automotive applications. Some current usages are in BMW, Daimler-Chrysler and TRW.  The Arduino physical computing platform is based on an ATmega328 microcontroller (ATmega168 or ATmega8 in board versions older than the Diecimila). The ATmega1280 and ATmega2560, with more pinout and memory capabilities, have also been employed to develop the Arduino Mega platform. Arduino boards can be used with its language and IDE, or with more conventional programming environments (C, assembler, etc.) as just standardized and widely available AVR platforms.  USB-based AVRs have been used in the Microsoft Xbox hand controllers. The link between the controllers and Xbox is USB.  Numerous companies produce AVR-based microcontroller boards intended for use by hobbyists, robot builders, experimenters and small system developers including: Cubloc, gnusb, BasicX, Oak Micros, ZX Microcontrollers, and myAVR. There is also a large community of Arduino-compatible boards supporting similar users.  Schneider Electric used to produce the M3000 Motor and Motion Control Chip, incorporating an Atmel AVR Core and an advanced motion controller for use in a variety of motion applications but this has been discontinued.

FPGA clones.

With the growing popularity of FPGAs among the open source community, people have started developing open source processors compatible with the AVR instruction set. The OpenCores website lists the following major AVR clone projects:

Other vendors.

In addition to the chips manufactured by Atmel, clones are available from LogicGreen Technologies.  Microcontrollers using the ATmega architecture are being manufactured by NIIET in Voronezh, Russia, as part of the 1887 series of integrated circuits. This includes an ATmega128 under the designation 1887VE7T ().

External links.

Official Website  Official Community  Other

AVR is a family of microcontrollers developed since 1996 by Atmel, acquired by Microchip Technology in 2016. These are modified Harvard architecture 8-bit RISC single-chip microcontrollers. AVR was one of the first microcontroller families to use on-chip flash memory for program storage, as opposed to one-time programmable ROM, EPROM, or EEPROM used by other microcontrollers at the time.

Atmel AVR系列是一种基于改进的哈佛结构、8位元～32位元精简指令集(英语:Reduced Instruction Set Computing,RISC)的微控制器,由Atmel公司于1996年研发。AVR系列是首次采用闪存(英语:Flash Memory)作为数据存储介质的单芯片微控制器之一,同时代的其它微控制器多采用一次写入可编程ROM、EPROM或是EEPROM。


Early life.

Matthew Perry was the son of Sarah Wallace (née Alexander) (1768–1830) and Navy Captain Christopher Raymond Perry (1761–1818). He was born April 10, 1794, South Kingstown, R.I., U.S. His siblings included Oliver Hazard Perry, Raymond Henry Jones Perry, Sarah Wallace Perry, Anna Marie Perry (mother of George Washington Rodgers), James Alexander Perry, Nathaniel Hazard Perry, and Jane Tweedy Perry (who married William Butler).  His mother was born in County Down, Ireland and was a descendant of an uncle of William Wallace, the Scottish knight and landowner who is known for leading a resistance during the Wars of Scottish Independence and is today remembered as a patriot and national hero. His paternal grandparents were James Freeman Perry, a surgeon, and Mercy Hazard, a descendant of Governor Thomas Prence, a co-founder of Eastham, Massachusetts, who was a political leader in both the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies, and governor of Plymouth; and a descendant of "Mayflower" passengers, both of whom were signers of the Mayflower Compact, Elder William Brewster, the Pilgrim colonist leader and spiritual elder of the Plymouth Colony, and George Soule, through Susannah Barber Perry.

Naval career.

In 1809, Perry received a midshipman's warrant in the Navy, and was initially assigned to, under the command of his elder brother. His early career saw him assigned to several ships, including, where he served as an aide to Commodore John Rodgers. "President" was in a victorious engagement over a British vessel,, shortly before the War of 1812 was officially declared. Perry continued aboard "President" during the War of 1812 and was present at the engagement with. Rodgers fired the first shot of the war at "Belvidera". A later shot resulted in a cannon bursting, killing several men and wounding Rodgers, Perry and others. Perry transferred to, commanded by Stephen Decatur, and saw little fighting in the war afterwards, since the ship was trapped in port at New London, Connecticut.  Following the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war, Perry served on various vessels in the Mediterranean. Perry served under Commodore William Bainbridge during the Second Barbary War. He then served in African waters aboard USS "Cyane" during its patrol off Liberia from 1819 to 1820. After that cruise, Perry was sent to suppress piracy and the slave trade in the West Indies. Later during this period, while in port in Russia, Perry was offered a commission in the Imperial Russian Navy, which he declined.

Opening of Key West.

Perry commanded, a schooner with 12 guns, from 1821 to 1825. In 1763, when Britain possessed Florida, the Spanish contended that the Florida Keys were part of Cuba and North Havana. Certain elements within the United States felt that Key West (which was then named Cayo Hueso, meaning "Bone Key") could potentially be the "Gibraltar of the West" because it guarded the northern edge of the wide Straits of Florida—the deep water route between the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico.  In 1815 the Spanish governor in Havana deeded the island of Key West to Juan Pablo Salas of Saint Augustine. After Florida was transferred to the United States, Salas sold Key West to American businessman John W. Simonton for $2,000 in 1821. Simonton lobbied the U.S. Government to establish a naval base on Key West both to take advantage of its strategic location and to bring law and order to the area.  On March 25, 1822, Perry sailed "Shark" to Key West and planted the U.S. flag, physically claiming the Keys as United States territory. Perry renamed Cayo Hueso "Thompson's Island" for the Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson and the harbor "Port Rodgers" for the president of the Board of Navy Commissioners. Neither name stuck however.  From 1826 to 1827, Perry acted as fleet captain for Commodore Rodgers. Perry returned to Charleston, South Carolina for shore duty in 1828, and in 1830 took command of a sloop-of-war,. He spent the years 1833–1837 as second officer of the New York Navy Yard (later the Brooklyn Navy Yard), gaining promotion to captain at the end of this tour.

Father of the Steam Navy.

Perry had an ardent interest in and saw the need for naval education, supporting an apprentice system to train new seamen, and helped establish the curriculum for the United States Naval Academy. He was a vocal proponent of modernizing the Navy. Once promoted to captain, he oversaw construction of the Navy's second steam frigate, which he commanded after its completion. He was called "The Father of the Steam Navy", and he organized America's first corps of naval engineers, and conducted the first U.S. naval gunnery school while commanding "Fulton" in 1839–1841 off Sandy Hook on the coast of New Jersey.

Promotion to Commodore.

Perry received the title of commodore in June 1840, when the Secretary of the Navy appointed him commandant of New York Navy Yard. The United States Navy did not have ranks higher than captain until 1857, so the title of commodore carried considerable importance. Officially, an officer would revert to his permanent rank after the squadron command assignment had ended, although in practice officers who received the title of commodore retained the title for life, as did Perry.  During his tenure in Brooklyn, he lived in Quarters A in Vinegar Hill, a building which still stands today. In 1843, Perry took command of the African Squadron, whose duty was to interdict the slave trade under the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, and continued in this endeavor through 1844.

Mexican–American War.

In 1845, Commodore David Conner's length of service in command of the Home Squadron had come to an end. However, the coming of the Mexican–American War persuaded the authorities not to change commanders in the face of the war. Perry, who would eventually succeed Conner, was made second-in-command and captained. Perry captured the Mexican city of Frontera, demonstrated against Tabasco, being defeated in San Juan Bautista by Colonel Juan Bautista Traconis in the First Battle of Tabasco, and took part in the capture of Tampico (November 14, 1846). He had to return to Norfolk, Virginia to make repairs and was still there when the amphibious landings at Veracruz took place. His return to the U.S. gave his superiors the chance to finally give him orders to succeed Commodore Conner in command of the Home Squadron. Perry returned to the fleet during the siege of Veracruz and his ship supported the siege from the sea. After the fall of Veracruz, Winfield Scott moved inland and Perry moved against the remaining Mexican port cities. Perry assembled the Mosquito Fleet and captured Tuxpan in April 1847. In July 1847 he attacked Tabasco personally, leading a 1,173-man landing force ashore and attacking the city of San Juan Bautista (Villahermosa today) from land defeating the Mexican forces and taking the city.

Perry Expedition: opening of Japan, 1852–1854.

In 1852, Perry was assigned a mission by American President Millard Fillmore to force the opening of Japanese ports to American trade, through the use of gunboat diplomacy if necessary. The growing commerce between the United States and China, the presence of American whalers in waters offshore Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potential coaling stations by the British and French in Asia were all contributing factors. Shipwrecked foreign sailors were either imprisoned or executed, and the safe return of such persons was one demand. The Americans were also driven by concepts of Manifest Destiny and the desire to expand western civilization to what they perceived as more backward Asian nations. The Japanese were forewarned by the Dutch of Perry's voyage, but were unwilling to change their 250-year-old policy of national seclusion. There was considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan's economic and political sovereignty.  On November 24, 1852, Perry embarked from Norfolk, Virginia for Japan, in command of the East India Squadron in pursuit of a Japanese trade treaty. He chose the paddle-wheeled steam frigate as his flagship, and made port calls at Madeira (December 11–15), St Helena (January 10–11), Cape Town (January 24 – February 3), Mauritius (February 18–28), Ceylon (March 10–15), Singapore (March 25–29) and Macao and Hong Kong (April 7–28), where he met with American-born Sinologist Samuel Wells Williams, who provided Chinese language translations of his official letters, and where he rendezvoused with. He continued to Shanghai (May 4–17), where he met with the Dutch-born American diplomat, Anton L. C. Portman, who translated his official letters into the Dutch language, and where he rendezvoused with.  Perry then switched his flag to "Susquehanna" and made call at Naha on Great Lewchew Island (now Okinawa) from May 17–26. Ignoring the claims of Satsuma Domain to the islands, he demanded an audience with the Ryukyuan King Shō Tai at Shuri Castle and secured promises that the Kingdom would be open to trade with the United States. Continuing on to the Ogasawara islands in mid-June, Perry met with the local inhabitants and purchased a plot of land.

First visit, 1853.

Perry finally reached Uraga at the entrance to Edo Bay in Japan on July 8, 1853. His actions at this crucial juncture were informed by a careful study of Japan's previous contacts with Western ships and what he knew about the Japanese hierarchical culture. As he arrived, Perry ordered his ships to steam past Japanese lines towards the capital of Edo, and turn their guns towards the town of Uraga. Perry refused Japanese demands to leave, or to proceed to Nagasaki, the only Japanese port open to foreigners.  Perry attempted to intimidate the Japanese by presenting them a white flag and a letter which told them that in case they chose to fight, the Americans would destroy them. He also fired blank shots from his 73 cannons, which he claimed was in celebration of the American Independence Day. Perry's ships were equipped with new Paixhans shell guns, cannons capable of wreaking great explosive destruction with every shell. He also ordered his ship boats to commence survey operations of the coastline and surrounding waters over the objections of local officials.  In the meantime, the Japanese government was paralyzed due to the incapacitation by illness of "shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyoshi and by political indecision on how to handle the unprecedented threat to the nation's capital. On July 11, "Rōjū" Abe Masahiro temporized, deciding that simply accepting a letter from the Americans would not constitute a violation of Japanese sovereignty. The decision was conveyed to Uraga, and Perry was asked to move his fleet slightly southwest to the beach at Kurihama (in modern-day Yokosuka), where he was allowed to land on July 14, 1853. After presenting the letter to attending delegates, Perry departed for Hong Kong, promising to return the following year for the Japanese reply.

Second visit, 1854.

On his way back to Japan, Perry anchored off Keelung in Formosa, known today as Taiwan, for ten days. Perry and crewmembers landed on Formosa and investigated the potential of mining the coal deposits in that area. He emphasized in his reports that Formosa provided a convenient, mid-way trade location. Perry's reports noted that the island was very defensible and it could serve as a base for exploration in a similar way that Cuba had done for the Spanish in the Americas. Occupying Formosa could help the United States counter European monopolization of the major trade routes. The United States government failed to respond to Perry's proposal to claim sovereignty over Formosa.  To command his fleet, Perry chose officers with whom he had served in the Mexican–American War. Commander Franklin Buchanan was captain of "Susquehanna" and Joel Abbot (Perry's second in command) was captain of "Macedonian". Commander Henry A. Adams became the Commodore's chief of staff with the title "Captain of the Fleet". Major Jacob Zeilin (future commandant of the United States Marine Corps) was the ranking Marine officer, and was stationed on "Mississippi".  Perry returned on 13 February 1854, after only half a year rather than the full year promised, and with ten ships and 1600 men. Both actions were calculated to put even more pressure onto the Japanese. After initial resistance, Perry was permitted to land at Kanagawa, near the site of present-day Yokohama on March 8, 1854, where, after negotiations lasting for around a month, the Convention of Kanagawa was signed on March 31, 1854. Perry signed as American plenipotentiary, and Hayashi Akira, also known by his title of "Daigaku-no-kami", signed for the Japanese side.  Perry departed, mistakenly believing the agreement had been made with imperial representatives, not understanding the true position of the "shōgun", the de facto ruler of Japan. Perry then visited Hakodate on the northern island of Hokkaido and Shimoda, the two ports which the treaty stipulated would be opened to visits by American ships.

Return to the United States, 1855.

When Perry returned to the United States in 1855, Congress voted to grant him a reward of $20,000 (US $ in ) in appreciation of his work in Japan. He used part of this money to prepare and publish a report on the expedition in three volumes, titled "Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan". He was also promoted to the grade of rear-admiral on the retired list (when his health began to fail) as a reward for his service in the Far East.

Last years.

Living in his adopted home of New York City, Perry's health began to fail as he suffered from cirrhosis of the liver due to heavy drinking. Perry was known to have been an alcoholic, which compounded the health complications leading to his death. He also suffered severe arthritis that left him in frequent pain, and on occasion precluded him from his duties.  Perry spent his last years preparing for the publication of his account of the Japan expedition, announcing its completion on December 28, 1857. Two days later he was detached from his last post, an assignment to the Naval Efficiency Board. He died awaiting further orders on March 4, 1858, in New York City, of rheumatic fever that had spread to the heart, compounded by complications of gout and alcoholism.  Initially interred in a vault on the grounds of St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery, in New York City, Perry's remains were moved to the Island Cemetery in Newport, Rhode Island on March 21, 1866, along with those of his daughter, Anna, who died in 1839.  In 1873, an elaborate monument was placed by Perry's widow over his grave in Newport.

Personal life.

Perry was married to Jane Slidell Perry (1797–1864) and had ten children:

Perry's flag and legacy.

A replica of Perry's US flag is on display on board the memorial in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, attached to the bulkhead just inboard of the Japanese surrender signing site on the starboard side of the ship. The original flag was brought from the U.S. Naval Academy Museum to Japan for the Japan surrender ceremony and was displayed on that occasion at the request of Douglas MacArthur, who was himself a blood-relative of Perry. Photographs of the signing ceremony show that this flag was displayed properly as all flags on vessels (known as ensigns) on the starboard side are, with the stars in the upper right corner. The cloth of the historic flag was so fragile that the conservator at the Museum directed that a protective backing be sewn on it. Today, the flag is preserved and on display at the Naval Academy Museum in Annapolis, Maryland.  The pattern for the Union canton on this flag is different from the standard 31-star flag then in use. Perry's flag had columns of five stars save the last column which had six stars. Perry's US flag was unique when it was first flown in Tokyo Bay in 1853–1854. The replica of this historic flag on board the USS "Missouri" memorial is also placed in the same location on the bulkhead of the veranda deck where it had been initially mounted on the morning of September 2, 1945 by Chief Carpenter Fred Miletich.

External links.

"China Through Western Eyes."

Matthew Calbraith Perry (April 10, 1794 – March 4, 1858) was a Commodore of the United States Navy who commanded ships in several wars, including the War of 1812 and the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). He played a leading role in the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854.

马休·卡尔布莱斯·佩里(,1794年-4月10日-1858年-3月4日),或称为培里,美国海军将领,因率领黑船打开锁国时期的日本国门而闻名于世。日本称呼其为「伯理」或「彼理」,由于幕府方面的翻译是荷兰人的关系(由日语译为荷兰语,再由黑船上懂荷兰语的船员译为英语),当时的文件上写的名字是荷兰文风格发音的「培尔里」()。


Properties.

The double star nature of this system was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1664. The two components have an angular separation of 7.606 arcseconds, which can be resolved with a small telescope. The orbital period of the pair is greater than 5000 years. The brighter component, γ2 Arietis, is a Lambda Boötis (chemically peculiar) star with a stellar classification of A1p Si and a magnitude of 4.64. It is classified as an α2 CVn type variable star and its brightness varies by 0.04 magnitudes with a period of 2.61 days. The secondary, γ1 Arietis, is a magnitude 4.58 B-type main-sequence star with a stellar classification of B9 V.

Nomenclature.

"γ Arietis" (Latinised to "Gamma Arietis") is the system's Bayer designation; γ1 and γ2 Arietis those of its two components. The designation of the two components as "Gamma Arietis A" and "B" derive from the convention used by the Washington Multiplicity Catalog (WMC) for multiple star systems, and adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).  Gamma Arietis has been called "the First Star in Aries" as having been at one time the nearest visible star to the equinoctial point.  It bore the traditional name "Mesarthim". Originally it had shared the name Sheratan with Beta Arietis. However, this got corrupted to "Sartai" in medieval manuscripts, which Bayer erroneously explained as being the Hebrew grammatical term מְשָׁרְתִים "meshārethīm" "servants", and later scholars picked up on this term.  In 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalogue and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN decided to attribute proper names to individual stars rather than entire multiple systems. It approved the name "Mesarthim" for the component "γ2 Arietis" on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.  In Chinese, (), meaning "Bond (asterism)", refers to an asterism consisting of Gamma, Beta and Alpha Arietis. Consequently, the Chinese name for Gamma Arietis itself is (, ).  In Hindu astrology, Gamma Arietis and Beta Arietis (Sheratan) are Ashvins, the twin Rigvedic deities who act as doctors of the divine of the world.(Richard H Allen)

Gamma Virginis (γ Virginis, abbreviated Gamma Vir, γ Vir), officially named Porrima, is a binary star system in the constellation of Virgo. It consists of two almost identical main sequence stars at a distance of about 38 light years.

东上相 (γ Vir / 室女座γ)也称太微左垣二是室女座的一颗恒星,其固有名称是 Porrima和Arich。