Description.

Mercury switches have one or more sets of electrical contacts in a sealed glass envelope that contains a small quantity of mercury. The envelope may also contain hydrogen at pressure, an inert gas, or a vacuum. Gravity constantly pulls the drop of mercury to the lowest point in the envelope. When the switch is tilted in the appropriate direction, the mercury touches a set of contacts, thus completing an electrical circuit. Tilting the switch in the opposite direction moves the mercury away from that set of contacts, breaking that circuit. The switch may contain multiple sets of contacts, closing different sets at different angles, allowing, for example, single-pole, double-throw ("SPDT") operation.

Advantages.

Mercury switches offer several advantages over other switch types:

Disadvantages.

Mercury switches have several disadvantages:

Uses.

Roll sensing.

Tilt switches provide a rollover or tip over warning for applications like construction equipment and lift vehicles that operate in rugged terrain. There are several non-mercury types, but few are implemented due to sensitivity to shock and vibration, causing false tripping. However, devices resistant to shock and vibration do exist.

Automotive uses.

Automobile manufacturers once used mercury switches for lighting controls (for example, trunk lid lights), ride control, and anti-lock braking systems. Scrapped automobiles can leak mercury to the environment if these switches are not properly removed. Since 2003, new American-built cars no longer use mercury switches.

Fall alarms.

Work performed in confined space (such as a welder inside a tank) raises special safety concerns. Tilt switches sound an alarm if a worker falls over.

Aircraft attitude indicators/artificial horizons.

Electrically driven attitude indicators typically use mercury switches to keep the gyro axis vertical. When the gyro is off vertical, mercury switches trigger torque motors that move the gyro position back to the correct position. (Air driven attitude indicators use a different operating principle.)

Thermostats.

Mercury switches were once common in bimetal thermostats. The weight of the movable mercury drop provided some hysteresis by a degree of over-center action. The bimetal spring had to move further to overcome the weight of the mercury, tending to hold it in the open or closed position. The mercury also provided positive on-off switching, and could withstand millions of cycles without contact degradation.

Doorbells.

Some old doorbells, for example, the Soviet ZM-1U4, use mercury switches as current interrupters.

Pressure switches.

Some pressure switches use a Bourdon tube and a mercury switch. The small force generated by the tube reliably operates the switch.

Vending.

Mercury switches are still used in electro-mechanical systems where physical orientation of actuators or rotors is a factor. They are also commonly used in vending machines for "tilt alarms" that detect when someone tries to rock or tilt the machine to make it vend a product.

Bombs.

A tilt switch can trigger a bomb. Mercury tilt switches can be found in some bomb and landmine fuzes, typically in the form of anti-handling devices, for example, a variant of the VS-50 mine.

Toxicity.

Since mercury is a poisonous heavy metal, devices containing mercury switches must be treated as hazardous waste for disposal. Because it is now RoHS restricted, most modern applications have eliminated it. A metal ball and contact wires can directly replace it, but may require additional circuitry to eliminate switch bounce. Low-precision thermostats use a bimetal strip and a switch contact. Precision thermostats use a thermistor or silicon temperature sensor. Low-cost accelerometers replace the mercury tilt switch in precision applications.  In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the disposition and release of mercury. Individual states and localities may enact further regulations on the use or disposition of mercury.

A mercury switch is an electrical switch that opens and closes a circuit when a small amount of the liquid metal mercury connects metal electrodes to close the circuit. There are several different basic designs (tilt, displacement, radial, etc.) but they all share the common design strength of non-eroding switch contacts.

水银开关,又称倾侧开关,是电路开关的一种,以一接着电极的小巧容器储存着一小滴水银,容器中多数注入惰性气体或直接真空。


Text.

This version preserves most of the First Folio text with updated spelling and five common emendations introduced from the Second ("Good") Quarto (italicized). To be, or not to be, that is the question:
 Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
 The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
 Or to take Arms against a Sea of troubles,
 And by opposing end them: to die, to sleep;
 No more; and by a sleep, to say we end
 The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks
 That Flesh is heir to? 'Tis a consummation
 Devoutly to be wished. To die, to sleep,
 To sleep, perchance to Dream; aye, there's the rub,
 For in that sleep of death, what dreams may come,
 When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
 Must give us pause. There's the respect
 That makes Calamity of so long life:
 For who would bear the Whips and Scorns of time,
 The Oppressor's wrong, the "proud" man's Contumely,
 The pangs of "dispised" Love, the Law’s delay,
 The insolence of Office, and the spurns
 That patient merit of the unworthy takes,
 When he himself might his Quietus make
 With a bare Bodkin? Who would Fardels bear, [F: "these Fardels"]
 To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
 But that the dread of something after death,
 The undiscovered country, from whose bourn
 No traveller returns, puzzles the will,
 And makes us rather bear those ills we have,
 Than fly to others that we know not of.
 Thus conscience does make cowards of us all,
 And thus the native hue of Resolution
 Is sicklied o'er, with the pale cast of Thought,
 And enterprises of great "pitch" and moment, [F: "pith"]
 With this regard their Currents turn "awry", [F: "away"]
 And lose the name of Action. Soft you now,
 The fair Ophelia? Nymph, in thy Orisons
 Be all my sins remember'd.

First Quarto (1603).

The "First Quarto" (Q1) is the earliest edition of "Hamlet" but is considered a bad quarto (essentially a theatrical knock-off) rather than a first or earlier draft, and although some parts of Q1 reflect the received text of "Hamlet" well, its version of 'To be' does not. 'Hope' in place of 'dread', for example, considerably changes the meaning. For ease of comparison the spelling here is updated as above. To be, or not to be, Ay there's the point,
 To Die, to sleep, is that all? Aye all:
 No, to sleep, to dream, aye marry there it goes,
 For in that dream of death, when we awake,
 And borne before an everlasting Judge,
 From whence no passenger ever returned,
 The undiscovered country, at whose sight
 The happy smile, and the accursed damn'd.
 But for this, the joyful hope of this,
 Who'd bear the scorns and flattery of the world,
 Scorned by the right rich, the rich cursed of the poor?
 The widow being oppressed, the orphan wrong'd,
 The taste of hunger, or a tyrants reign,
 And thousand more calamities besides,
 To grunt and sweat under this weary life,
 When that he may his full Quietus make,
 With a bare bodkin, who would this endure,
 But for a hope of something after death?
 Which puzzles the brain, and doth confound the sense,
 Which makes us rather bear those evils we have,
 Than fly to others that we know not of.
 Aye that, O this conscience makes cowards of us all,
 Lady in thy orizons, be all my sins remembered.

Second Quarto (1604).

The text of the Second Quarto (Q2) is considered the earliest version of the play. In Q2 the whole nunnery scene including 'To be' takes place later in the play than in Q1 where it occurs directly after Claudius and Polonius have planned it and the addition of "Soft you now", suggesting that Hamlet has not (or is feigning having not) seen Ophelia thus far during his speech. To be, or not to be, that is the question,
 Whether tis nobler in the minde to suffer
 The slings and arrowes of outragious fortune,
 Or to take Armes again in a sea of troubles,
 And by opposing, end them, to die to sleepe
 No more, and by a sleepe, to say we end
 The hart-ache, and the thousand naturall shocks
 That flesh is heire to; tis a consumation
 Deuoutly to be wisht to die to sleepe,
 To sleepe, perchance to dreame, I there's the rub,
 For in that sleepe of death what dreames may come
 When we haue shuffled off this mortall coyle
 Must giue vs pause, there's the respect
 That makes calamitie of so long life:
 For who would beare the whips and scorns of time,
 Th'oppressors wrong, the proude mans contumly,
 The pangs of despiz'd loue, the lawes delay,
 The insolence of office, and the spurnes
 That patient merrit of the'vnworthy takes,
 When he himselfe might his quietas make
 With a bare bodkin; who would fardels beare,
 To grunt and sweat vnder a wearie life,
 But that the dread of something after death,
 The vndiscouer'd country, from whose borne
 No trauiler returnes, puzzels the will,
 And makes vs rather beare those ills we haue,
 Then flie to others we know not of.
 Thus conscience dooes make cowards,
 And thus the natiue hiew of resolution
 Is sickled ore with the pale cast of thought,
 And enterprises of great pitch and moment,
 With this regard theyr currents turne awry,
 And loose the name of action. Soft you now,
 The faire "Ophelia", Nimph in thy orizons
 Be all my sinnes remembred.

First Folio (1623).

"Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies", published by Isaac Jaggard and Ed Blount in 1623 and better known as the "First Folio", includes an edition of "Hamlet" largely similar to the Second Quarto. The differences in 'To be' are mostly typographic, with increased punctuation and capitalization. To be, or not to be, that is the Question:
 Whether ’tis Nobler in the mind to suffer
 The Slings and Arrows of outragious Fortune,
 Or to take Armes against a Sea of troubles,
 And by opposing end them: to dye, to sleep
 No more; and by a sleep, to say we end
 The Heart-ake, and the thousand Naturall shockes
 That Flesh is heyre too? 'Tis a consummation
 Deuoutly to be wish'd. To dye to sleepe,
 To sleep, perchance to Dream; I, there's the rub,
 For in that sleep of death, what dreams may come,
 When we haue shufflel’d off this mortall coile,
 Must giue us pause. There's the respect
 That makes Calamity of long life:
 For who would beare the Whips and Scornes of time,
 The Oppressors wrong, the poore mans Contumely,
 The pangs of dispriz’d Loue, the Lawes delay,
 The insolence of Office, and the Spurnes
 That patient merit of the unworthy takes,
 When he himselfe might his "Quietus" make
 With a bare Bodkin? Who would these Fardles beare
 To grunt and sweat vnder a weary life,
 But that the dread of something after death,
 The vndiscouered Countrey, from whose Borne
 No Traueller returnes, Puzels the will,
 And makes vs rather beare those illes we haue,
 Then flye to others that we know not of.
 Thus Conscience does make Cowards of vs all,
 And thus the Natiue hew of Resolution
 Is sicklied o’re, with the pale cast of Thought,
 And enterprizes of great pith and moment,
 With this regard their Currants turne away,
 And loose the name of Action. Soft you now,
 The faire "Ophelia?" Nimph, in thy Orizons
 Be all my sinnes remembred.

Cultural impact.

"To be, or not to be" is one of the most widely known and quoted lines in modern English, and the soliloquy has been referenced in innumerable works of theatre, literature and music. Hamlet is commonly depicted as reciting the first line while holding a skull, although both occur at separate times—the soliloquy is done in Act III, Scene I; while the contemplation of the skull is done in Act V, Scene I.  Much of the plot of 1942 sophisticated comedy "To Be or Not to Be", by Ernst Lubitsch, is focused on the monologue of Hamlet; in 1957 comedy film "A King in New York", Charlie Chaplin recites the famous monologue in the shoes of the ambiguous "king Shahdov".  Hamlet's famous line inspired the title of Kurt Vonnegut's 1962 short story 2 B R 0 2 B (The zero is pronounced "naught"). The narrative takes place in a dystopian future where the United States government, through scientific advancement, has achieved a “cure” for both aging and overpopulation. The alphabetical/numerical reformulation of Shakespeare's lines serves in the story as the phone number for the Federal Bureau of Termination's assisted suicide request line.  In 1963 at a debate in Oxford, Black liberation leader Malcolm X quoted the first few lines of the soliloquy to make a point about "extremism in defense of liberty."  P.D. James' dystopian novel "The Children of Men" (1992) refers to expected or forced mass suicides of the elderly as "Quietus". The film adaptation "Children of Men" (2006) portrays a self-administered home suicide kit, labelled "Quietus".  "Last Action Hero" (1993) has Jack Slater parody the phrase before blowing up a building behind him just by smoking a cigar. His version has him say "To be, or not to be? Not to be."  "Star Trek" was named after the "Undiscovered Country" line from this soliloquy. References are made to Shakespeare during the film including Klingon translations of his works and the use of the phrase "taH pagh, taHbe' ", roughly meaning "whether to continue, or not to continue [existence]."  The book (and later film) "What Dreams May Come" also derives its name from a line from this soliloquy. A shorter Hindi version of "To be, or not to be" was recited by Shahid Kapoor in the 2014 Bollywood film "Haider".  "Stargate Atlantis", the Season 4 Episode 10 named "This Mortal Coil" (2008) after the soliloquy, as well as Season 4 Episode 11 named "Be All My Sins Remember'd" (2008). These episodes involved learning about and fighting the artificial intelligence species Replicator.  There are numerous snowclones based on the phrase, such as "To hack or not to hack", etc.  The virtuoso soliloquy in Carl Michael Bellman's Fredman's Epistle "Ack du min moder" was described by the poet and literary historian Oscar Levertin as "the to-be-or-not-to-be of Swedish literature".

"To be, or not to be" is the opening phrase of a soliloquy uttered by Prince Hamlet in the so-called "nunnery scene" of William Shakespeare's play "Hamlet", Act 3, Scene 1. In the speech, Hamlet contemplates death and suicide, bemoaning the pain and unfairness of life but acknowledging that the alternative might be worse. The opening line is one of the most widely known and quoted lines in modern English, and the soliloquy has been referenced in innumerable works of theatre, literature and music.

“生存还是毁灭”(英语:To be, or not to be)是莎士比亚的一出戏剧《哈姆雷特》第三幕第一场,哈姆雷特王子一段句白的第一句;很多人也会用这句来指整段句白。它是世界文学中常见被引用的一句 整句的全文 是:To be or not to be, that is the question


Distribution and habitat.

The species favours a reasonably wide range of habitats, growing in montane, temperate, warm temperate, and tropical submontane to high montane forests which may be deciduous, evergreen, or of mixed character. In forests, it tends to present as a low canopy tree; in open situations it usually forms a large, broadly spreading shrub. Elevation ranges from 900 m to 3,700 m.

Growth.

It is a medium-sized evergreen coniferous tree growing to 20 m tall, similar to "Taxus baccata" and sometimes treated as a subspecies of it. The shoots are green at first, becoming brown after three or four years. The leaves are thin, flat, slightly falcate (sickle-shaped), 1.5–2.7 cm long and 2 mm broad, with a softly mucronate apex; they are arranged spirally on the shoots but twisted at the base to appear in two horizontal ranks on all except for erect lead shoots. It is dioecious, with the male and female cones on separate plants; the seed cone is highly modified, berry-like, with a single scale developing into a soft, juicy red aril 1 cm diameter, containing a single dark brown seed 7 mm long. The pollen cones are globose, 4 mm diameter, produced on the undersides of the shoots in early spring.

Species.

Similar plants occurring further east through China to Taiwan, Vietnam and the Philippines are included in "Taxus wallichiana" as "T. wallichiana" var. "chinensis" (Pilger) Florin by some authors, but are more often treated as a separate species "Taxus chinensis".

Medicinal uses.

The tree has medicinal use in Ayurveda and Tibetan medicine. "Taxus wallichiana" is also a source of the chemical precursors to the anticancer drug paclitaxel. "Taxus wallichiana" is used for making tea by the Bhotiya tribal community in the Garhwal Himalaya. The stem bark of this species, which is locally known as "thuner", is collected for this purpose. This species is also used as fuelwood by the local communities. In Himachal it is known to be medicine for some types of cancer.

Conservation.

The Himalayan yew has been subject to heavy exploitation for its leaves and bark across most of its range through the Himalayas and western China. Declines have been particularly heavy in India and Nepal, with losses of up to 90% having been reported. The degree of exploitation in other locations in its range is less well known, but is also assumed to be serious. The species is currently classified as endangered by the IUCN. It is present in several protected areas, and at least some conservation and propagation measures are underway, with an eye to its commercial value in the medicine trade.

Taxus wallichiana, the Himalayan yew, is a species of yew, native to the Himalaya and parts of south-east Asia. The species has a variety of uses in traditional medicine. It is currently classified as endangered by the IUCN.

西藏红豆杉 () 为红豆杉科红豆杉属的植物。分布于阿富汗、尼泊尔以及中国大陆的西藏等地,生长于海拔2,500米至3,000米的地区,目前尚未由人工引种栽培。


Geology.

Rügen, together with the Danish island of Møn on the far side of Rügen in the Baltic Sea and the area around Dover, England, once belonged to a large chalk plateau, which had been pushed by tectonic movements to the earth's surface. The vast majority of this land mass has disappeared as a result of erosion and faulting, leaving the two islands with their characteristic white chalk cliffs.

Geography.

The main body of the island, known as Muttland, is surrounded by several peninsulas. To the north lie the peninsulas of Wittow and Jasmund, connected to each other by the Schaabe sandbar and to Muttland by the Schmale Heide, an embankment at Lietzow and the Wittow Ferry. The northern peninsulas are separated from Muttland by several lagoons or, the largest of which are the Großer Jasmunder Bodden and Kleiner Jasmunder Bodden. Major peninsulas in the south are Zudar and Mönchgut which both face the Bay of Greifswald.  Rügen has a total area of, or if the adjacent small islands are included. The maximum diameter is from north to south, and from east to west. Of an overall -long coastline, are sandy Baltic Sea beaches, and sandy beaches. The highest elevations are on the Jasmund peninsula: Piekberg () and Königsstuhl ().  The northern part of the Bay of Greifswald, the Rügischer Bodden, is a large bay in the south of Rügen island, with the island of Vilm lying just offshore. At the western end of the bay, the peninsula of Zudar runs out to the southernmost point of Rügen (Palmer Ort), at the eastern end the highly indented peninsula of Mönchgut projects into the sea. This peninsula ends in the east at the cape of Nordperd near Göhren and in the south at the cape of "Südperd" by Thiessow. In the west of the peninsula of Mönchgut a narrow, -long bar, the Reddevitz Höft, separates the two bays of Having and Hagensche Wiek. In the north-east of the island of Rügen is formed by the peninsula of Jasmund, which is joined to the heart of the island, "Muttland", by the bar of Schmale Heide between Binz-Prora and Sassnitz-Mukran and by a rail and road embankment at Lietzow. The Schmale Heide separates the outer bay of Prorer Wiek from the lagoon of the Kleiner Jasmunder Bodden. On the peninsula of Jasmund are the Piekberg (), the highest point on Rügen, and the Königsstuhl, a -high chalk cliff in Stubbenkammer, which forms the most striking landmark on the island. Another bar, the Schaabe, links Jasmund to the peninsula of Wittow in the north of Rügen. The Schaabe, in turn, separates the outer bay of Tromper Wiek from the lagoon of the Großer Jasmunder Bodden. The peninsula of Wittow and the long, narrow peninsula of Bug to the west are separated from the main body of Rügen by the Rassower Strom, the Breetzer Bodden and the "Breeger Bodden". The Wittow peninsula is adjoined in the north by Cape Arkona. Just under a kilometre to the northwest, located at 54°41' N, is the northernmost point of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. Below this cliff () on the shoreline is the Siebenschneiderstein - the fourth largest glacial erratic boulder on Rügen.  The northwestern and western sides of Rügen are also highly indented, but a little flatter. Offshore are the larger islands of Hiddensee and Ummanz as well as the smaller islands Öhe Liebitz and Heuwiese. Sand removal and deposition by the Baltic Sea has to be constantly countered by dredging operations to the north and south of Hiddensee, otherwise Hiddensee would merge with Rügen within a few years. Rügen is dotted with many glacial erratic boulders, of which the 22 largest belong to legally-protected geotopes ("see also: Erratics on and around Rügen).

Land use.

The heartland of Rügen is gently rolling, and the area is characterized primarily by agriculture. East of the town of Bergen auf Rügen the land climbs to (at Rugard where there is an observation tower) and to in the southeastern hill country of the Granitz. The soil on Rügen is very fertile and productive, particularly in Wittow, the granary of the island. There are major coal-producing regions.  Two German national parks are situated on Rügen: the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park, in the west (including Hiddensee), and the Jasmund National Park, a smaller park including the famous chalk cliffs (Königsstuhl). There is also a nature reserve, the Southeast Rügen Biosphere Reserve, consisting of the peninsulas in the southeast.

Climate.

The climate is in the temperate zone. The winters are not particularly cold, with mean temperatures in January and February of ; and summers are mild and temperate, with a mean temperature in August of. There is an average rainfall of and approximately 1800–1870 hours of sunshine annually.

Administration.

Administratively, Rügen is part of the district Vorpommern-Rügen. Its subdivisions are the Bergen auf Rügen (municipalities Bergen auf Rügen, Buschvitz, Garz, Gustow, Lietzow, Parchtitz, Patzig, Poseritz, Ralswiek, Rappin, Sehlen and Thesenvitz), West-Rügen (municipalities Altefähr, Dreschvitz, Gingst, Hiddensee, Kluis, Neuenkirchen, Rambin, Samtens, Schaprode, Trent and Ummanz), Nord-Rügen (municipalities Altenkirchen, Breege, Dranske, Glowe, Lohme, Putgarten, Sagard, Wiek) and Mönchgut-Granitz (municipalities Baabe, Göhren, Lancken-Granitz, Middelhagen, Sellin, Thiessow and Zirkow) and the Amt-free municipalities of Binz, Putbus and Sassnitz. Overall, there are 45 municipalities on Rügen, four of which have town status (Bergen, Garz, Putbus and Sassnitz).

History.

Pre-history and the Germani.

Discoveries in the indicate that there has been settlement here since the Stone Age. All over Rügen there are numerous stone monuments, such as megalithic tombs and altar stones that have survived to the present day. By the 1st century, the inhabitants of Rügen were part of the East Germanic tribe of Rugii, who roughly occupied the region that was later to become Western Pomerania and who gave the island its name. The Rugii may have originated from Scandinavia or evolved from autochthonous tribes. In the Migration Period, many Rugii moved south and founded an empire in Pannonia.

Slavic Rani.

From the 7th century the West Slavic Rani (or Rujani) built an empire on Rügen and the neighbouring coast between Recknitz and Ryck. It decidedly affected the history of the Baltic Sea area and the surrounding Obodritic (in the west) and Liutician (in the south) occupied mainland for the next few centuries. Many traces of their life can be found today.  The basis of their great military strength was a combination of the Ranian navy and a favourable location. Denmark, which was at that time very successful in Britain and Scandinavia, was neither able to match with its Ranian rivals in the Baltic Sea region nor to protect its coastline from Ranian armies until well into the 12th century. Meanwhile, the Ranians built numerous castles and temples in the Barth-Jasmund-Gristow triangle.  The temple hill of Jaromarsburg, at the northern tip of Rügen and dedicated to the god Svetovid, was significant well beyond the boundaries of the Ranian empire. After the fall of Radgosc it became the chief shrine for the pagan northwestern Slavs. The administrative centre of the empire was Charenza (possibly identical with the present Garz or Venz hillfort). The main trading centre of the empire was Ralswiek at the southernmost point of the Großer Jasmunder Bodden.

Principality under Danish suzerainty.

In 1168, the Danish king, Valdemar I, and his army commander and advisor, Bishop Absalon of Roskilde destroyed the Svetovid temple in the hillfort at Cape Arkona, ending both the territorial and religious autonomy of the Rani; their former monarchs became Danish princes of Rügen. The Rani prince Jaromar I (died 1218) was a vassal of the Danish king and Christianized the island's inhabitants. In 1184, the Pomeranians, whose rule had previously extended as far as the land of Gützkow and to Demmin and thus made them the immediate neighbours of the now Danish Principality of Rugia, were commissioned by their overlord, the Holy Roman Emperor, to seize Rügen for the empire, but were defeated in the Bay of Greifswald.  Under Danish rule the Principality of Rugia changed its character. Danish monasteries were established (e.g. Bergen Abbey in 1193 and Hilda Abbey, today Eldena Abbey, in 1199). German colonists were introduced into the land and soon they became the largest and most culturally influential group within the population. The Slavic cultural element disappeared, mostly due to the lack of their own Slavic church structures, so that the Rani were absorbed in the period that followed into the now German-influenced people of Rügen. In addition to the colonization of the country and the building of new monasteries and churches, towns were also re-established. In 1234 the Rügen Prince Wizlaw I founded the town of Stralsund and granted Greifswald market rights in 1241. The power of the towns grew rapidly, forcing Rügen's rulers to make concessions—for example, the prince's castle at Barth was slighted and Schadegast, the princely "twin" of the municipally-controlled Stralsund, was ousted in favour of the latter.  In 1304 a storm surge, known as the All Saints' Flood, devastated the island and flooded the peninsula between Mönchgut and Ruden.

Part of Pomerania.

After the death of the last Slav prince, Wizlaw III, in 1325, the principality was acquired by Pomerania-Wolgast as a consequence of the 1321 inheritance agreement (), and from 1368/72–1451 was part of the estate of a branch line, the House of Barth. This state of affairs, together with the disputes over the Danish throne that occurred at that time, led to the Rügen wars of succession. After they had played out, the former principality went in 1354 to Pomerania-Wolgast and thus became part of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1478, Pomerania-Wolgast and Pomerania-Stettin were united and, 170 years later, the combined state went to Sweden in 1648 as a result of the Treaty of Westphalia (see Swedish Pomerania). Rügen was part of Swedish Pomerania from 1648 to 1815. Under Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden the town of Gustavia was constructed on the Mönchgut peninsula, but was abandoned during the Napoleonic Wars. In the years 1678 and 1715, Rügen was briefly wrested from the Swedes by the Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William and by the King in Prussia, Frederick William I. For example, a Brandenburg-Danish army landed on the island as part of the invasion of Rügen in 1678. After the Treaty of Saint-Germain in 1679 the island passed from Danish to Swedish ownership again. At the time of Napoleonic Wars, Rügen was held by the French from 1807–1813. In the Treaty of Kiel of 1814, it was transferred initially from Sweden to Denmark and then fell to Prussia, along with New Western Pomerania (), thanks to the Vienna Convention of 1815. In 1818 the island became part of the administrative district of Stralsund and thus belonged to the Prussian Province of Pomerania.  In 1816 the first bathing resort was founded at Putbus. Later more resorts were established, and Rügen remained the most famous holiday resort of Germany until World War II.

German National Socialist era.

The German National Socialists added a large resort: Prora, planned by the Strength through Joy organisation, which aimed to occupy people's free time. However, Prora was never completed.  In 1936 the first bridge connecting Rügen with the mainland was constructed (Rügendamm), replacing the former ferry shuttles.  The operation commanded by Wolfram von Richthofen that bombed the town of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War, was named after the island. An Abwehr Signals intelligence Operation during the same conflict was titled Operation Bodden after the strait separating Rügen from the German mainland.  In the aftermath of World War II, East German and Soviet authorities exiled landholders from the mainland to the island.

GDR era.

After the Second World War Rügen became part of the state of Mecklenburg within the German Democratic Republic (GDR). In 1952 the island became part of the district of Rostock.  The island was the focal point of Project Rose ("Action Rose") by the GDR government designed to nationalize hotels, taxis and service companies on 10 February 1953. The occasion was supposed to have been a visit by Walter Ulbricht to the island of Rügen, during which he had been annoyed by the many surviving private hotels and guest houses. Many of the hotel owners were convicted by kangaroo courts under the pretext of having been engaged in economic crime or as agents working for the West. Their property was then confiscated and they were sent to prison. Many of the owners and small businessmen were incarcerated in Bützow prison. The hotels were supposed to have been expropriated by the Free German Trade Union Federation (FDGB). In fact, they were used as accommodation for the barracks-based "people's police" ( or CPI). As a result of the confiscation of hotels, tourism on Rügen in 1953 came almost to a complete standstill for a time.  In the following nearly four decades, the island became one of the main tourist areas in the GDR. The FDGB played a dominant role in tourist accommodation. In 1963 the FDGB had 7,519 holiday places, the Reisebüro der DDR 2,906 places and a further 5,025 were available for businesses and organizations. In addition, there were 12,245 places for children in summer camps and another 20,800 places for campers. The plots were located mainly near the beaches. Increased holiday capacity was not however generated until the 1970s and 1980s.

Reunited Germany.

In 1990, Rügen became part of the new state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and, together with the neighbouring islands of Hiddensee and Ummanz, formed the district of Rügen. Since the 2011 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern district reforms Rügen has been part of Vorpommern-Rügen.  In 2007 a second bridge, the Rügen Bridge (), was built to replace the first one built in 1936.  Rügen has now surpassed Sylt as the most popular German island again.

Tourist resorts.

Rügen is one of the most popular holiday destinations in Germany. The island receives about one quarter of all overnight stays in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. Most visitors come to Rügen between April and October, the peak season being from June to August, but its quiet atmosphere in winter is also appreciated.  The first bathing facility on Rügen opened in 1794 at the mineral-rich spring in Sagard. In 1818, the Putbus village of Lauterbach became Rügen's first seaside resort. In the 1860s Sassnitz became a seaside resort, followed by Binz in the 1880s. During World War II Prora was constructed as a mass tourist resort but it was never finished.  Today the most popular seaside resorts are the Schaabe beaches between Altenkirchen and Juliusruh including Drewoldke, Glowe and Breege, and the eastern beaches between Sassnitz and Göhren including Neu Mukran, Prora, Binz, Sellin and Baabe. The latter are accessible via an historic narrow gauge railway employing steam locomotives, called the Rügensche Bäderbahn. Tourist destinations, other than seaside resorts, include Cape Arkona, the wood-covered Stubbenkammer hills on Jasmund with interesting chalk cliff formations, the wood-covered Granitz hills with their or hunting lodge, the classicist buildings of Putbus and the inland villages of Bergen auf Rügen, Ralswiek and Gingst.  The island offers a huge variety of different beach and shore areas. Rügen is often visited by windsurfers and kitesurfers and offers more than fifteen different locations for surfing. The most popular locations are Dranske, Rosengarten, Wiek, Suhrendorf and Neu Mukran.  On the peninsula of Jasmund is the Jasmund National Park, which consists of the beech forest of Stubnitz, including the famous chalk cliffs of Rügen. On the Königsstuhl itself is the Königsstuhl National Park Centre, which has a multivision cinema and audio-guide exhibitions with information about the national park in several languages.

Transport.

Rail.

The railway network consists of the electrified standard gauge stretch of the Deutsche Bahn Stralsund (Rügendamm)-Bergen-Sassnitz line (timetable route (KBS) 195), Lietzow-Binz (KBS 197), the non-electrified routes Bergen-Putbus-Lauterbach Mole of the PRESS (KBS 198) and the narrow gauge stretch () of the Rügen Resort Railway (): Lauterbach Mole-Putbus-Binz-Sellin-Göhren (KBS 199).  In addition to regional trains, there are also Intercity services from Binz via Bergen and Stralsund to Berlin, Hamburg, Frankfurt, Stuttgart and the Ruhr. Night train services to Munich, Basle and the Ruhr area were deleted from the timetable on 9 December 2007, despite massive protests from the local hotel industry.

Bus.

The bus service on Rügen is operated by the. Since 1996 it has been continuously expanded, and has developed an integral clock-face schedule. There is a service between all major towns and municipalities on the island at least every two hours, sometimes more frequently during peak season. Throughout the year, buses now run at least every hour on the routes between Sassnitz-Binz-Bergen, Schaprode–Bergen–Klein Zicker, Bergen/Sassnitz-Altenkirchen-Wiek-Dranske and the Altenkirchen-Putgarten near Cape Arkona. In addition, the bus service is well-linked with the railway, especially in Bergen, but also at other railway stations.

Road.

Until October 2007, individual traffic from the mainland to the island of Rügen was mainly routed along the two-lane Rügendamm causeway, running between Stralsund and Altefähr over the sound of Strelasund.  The cornerstone for a second crossing over the Strelasund was laid on 31 August 2004. This bridge, the Rügen Bridge, running parallel to the Rügendamm, has a length of about 4.1 kilometres and a vertical clearance for ships of 42 metres, and was on opened on 20 October 2007. In order to relieve the town of Stralsund, a ring road has been built in the last few years, coming from the southwest. The B 96 federal road between Stralsund and Greifswald is also connected via an access road to the A 20 motorway. The B 96 runs from Stralsund via Bergen to Sassnitz. Here a new route with bypasses is planned (the "New B 96").  The main tourist attractions of Cape Arkona, the Königsstuhl and the Granitz hunting lodge are, however, car-free in order to protect the countryside, as is the island of Hiddensee which belongs to Vorpommern-Rügen district. All these destinations can be reached using public transport, without needing a car.

Cycling.

Rügen has a signposted network of cycle paths. The condition and signing of this network varies considerably from one place to another, from very good in the seaside resorts to poor in the area between Garz and Zudar. There is a circular cycle path around the whole island. During the summer season there is the option on some routes to carry bicycles on the buses. This is always possible on the railways.

Ship.

Two car ferries belonging to the operate every half-an-hour between the Zudar peninsula on Rügen and Stahlbrode on the mainland, halfway between Stralsund and Greifswald.  Another car ferry, the Wittow Ferry runs from the heartland of Rügen ("Muttland") to Wittow.  A ferry sails from Sassnitz ferry port in Mukran to the Danish island of Bornholm, to Swedish Trelleborg, to Klaipeda (formerly Memel) in Lithuania, to Baltiysk (formerly Pillau) and to Saint Petersburg.  The island of Hiddensee, which also belongs to the county of Vorpommern-Rügen, is connected by a regular ferry service from Schaprode to Rügen, and is increasingly integrated into the clock-schedule timetable on the main island. In addition, there is a regular ship service from Stralsund, Wiek and Breege to Hiddensee. Tourist services include ferry connections from Lauterbach to Gager, and between Sassnitz, Binz, Sellin and Göhren. There are also round-trips mainly from Sassnitz, but also from Lohme, to the Königsstuhl. Pleasure steamers also ply between the resorts and Peenemünde on Usedom, where there is a connection to the Usedom Railway (UBB).

Ferries.

Sassnitz–Neu Mukran is the international ferry terminal on Rügen, with ferry services to Sassnitz-Mukran is the largest railway ferry terminal in Germany and the only one in Europe where different tracks allow switching from standard gauge to broad gauge.  Local passenger ferries connect the piers of Sassnitz, Binz, Sellin and Göhren with the adjacent islands of Hiddensee, Vilm and Greifswalder Oie. Passenger and car ferries connect Rügen's centre of Muttland, to both Wittow in Rügen's north via the Wittow Ferry and to the mainland via the Glewitz Ferry () between Stahlbrode near Greifswald and Glewitz on Rügen's Zudar peninsula.

Aviation.

Rügen Airport is located about from Bergen. After the "Wende", the first sightseeing flights over the island were offered on the former agricultural airfield. In May 1993, the first tarmac runway was inaugurated. Since then, charter flights to Berlin, Hamburg and other cities in Europe have been available.  The Baltic Sea Airport Stralsund also offers flights to and from the region of Western Pomerania. The larger Rostock–Laage Airport offers regular international destinations.

Notable people.

Significant Rüganer:

Rügen (; also lat. '; ') is Germany's largest island by area. It is located off the Pomeranian coast in the Baltic Sea and belongs to the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania.

吕根岛(;)是德国最大的岛屿,位于德国东北部的波罗的海,属于梅克伦堡-前波美拉尼亚州。吕根岛南北最长处为52千米,东西最宽处为41千米,总面积926平方千米,海岸线总长达574千米,有不计其数的海湾和半岛。吕根岛通过大桥与陆地上的汉萨同盟城市施特拉尔松德相连。


Initial conformity experiment.

Method.

In 1951, Solomon Asch conducted his first conformity laboratory experiments at Swarthmore College, laying the foundation for his remaining conformity studies. The experiment was published on two occasions.  Groups of eight male college students participated in a simple "perceptual" task. In reality, all but one of the participants were actors, and the true focus of the study was about how the remaining participant would react to the actors' behavior.  The actors knew the true aim of the experiment, but were introduced to the subject as other participants. Each student viewed a card with a line on it, followed by another with three lines labeled "A", "B", and "C" (see accompanying figure). One of these lines was the same as that on the first card, and the other two lines were clearly longer or shorter (i.e., a near-100% rate of correct responding was expected). Each participant was then asked to say aloud which line matched the length of that on the first card. Before the experiment, all actors were given detailed instructions on how they should respond to each trial (card presentation). They would always unanimously nominate one comparator, but on certain trials they would give the correct response and on others, an incorrect response. The group was seated such that the real participant always responded last.  Subjects completed 18 trials. On the first two trials, both the subject and the actors gave the obvious, correct answer. On the third trial, the actors would all give the same wrong answer. This wrong-responding recurred on 11 of the remaining 15 trials. It was subjects' behavior on these 12 "critical trials" that formed the aim of the study: to test how many subjects would change their answer to conform to those of the 7 actors, despite it being wrong. Subjects were interviewed after the study including being debriefed about the true purpose of the study. These post-test interviews shed valuable light on the study: both because they revealed subjects often were "just going along" and because they revealed considerable individual differences to Asch.  Asch's experiment also had a condition in which participants were tested alone with only the experimenter in the room. In total, there were 50 subjects in the experimental condition and 37 in the control condition.

Results.

In the control group, with no pressure to conform to actors, the error rate on the critical stimuli was less than 1%.  In the actor condition also, the majority of participants' responses remained correct (63.2%), but a sizable minority of responses conformed to the actors' (incorrect) answer (36.8 percent). The responses revealed strong individual differences: Only 5 percent of participants were always swayed by the crowd. 25 percent of the sample consistently defied majority opinion, with the rest conforming on some trials. An examination of all critical trials in the experimental group revealed that one-third of all responses were incorrect. These incorrect responses often matched the incorrect response of the majority group (i.e., actors). Overall, 75% of participants gave at least one incorrect answer out of the 12 critical trials. In his opinion regarding the study results, Asch put it this way: "That intelligent, well-meaning, young people are willing to call white black is a matter of concern."

Interview responses.

Participants' interview responses revealed a complex mixture of individual differences in subjects' reaction to the experimental situation, with distinct reactions linked to factors such as confidence, self-doubt, the desire to be normative, and resolving perceived confusion over the nature of the task.  Asch's report included interviews of a subject that remained "independent" and another that "yielded." Each provided a descriptive account following disclosure of the true nature of the experiment. The "independent" subject said that he felt happy and relieved and added, "I do not deny that at times I had the feeling: 'to go with it, I'll go along with the rest. (page 182) At the other end of the spectrum, one "yielding" subject (who conformed in 11 of 12 critical trials) said, "I suspected about the middle – but tried to push it out of my mind." (page 182) Asch points out that although the "yielding" subject was suspicious, he was not sufficiently confident to go against the majority.

Attitudes of independent responders.

Subjects who did not conform to the majority reacted either with "confidence": they experienced conflict between their idea of the obvious answer and the group's incorrect answer, but stuck with their own answer; or were "withdrawn". These latter subjects stuck with their perception, but did not experience conflict in doing so. Some participants also exhibited "doubt", responding in accordance with their perception, but questioning their own judgment while nonetheless sticking to their (correct) response, expressing this as needing to behave as they had been asked to do in the task.

Attitudes of responders conforming on one or more trials.

Participants who conformed to the majority on at least 50% of trials reported reacting with what Asch called a "distortion of perception". These participants, who made up a distinct minority (only 12 subjects), expressed the belief that the actors' answers were correct, and were apparently unaware that the majority were giving incorrect answers.  Among the other participants who yielded on some trials, most expressed what Asch termed "distortion of judgment". These participants concluded after a number of trials that they must be wrongly interpreting the stimuli and that the majority must be right, leading them to answer with the majority. These individuals were characterised by low levels of confidence. The final group of participants who yielded on at least some trials exhibited a "distortion of action". These subjects reported that they knew what the correct answer was, but conformed with the majority group simply because they didn't want to seem out of step by not going along with the rest.

Variations on the original paradigm.

In subsequent research experiments, Asch explored several variations on the paradigm from his 1951 study.  In 1955 he reported on work with 123 male students from three different universities. A second paper in 1956 also consisted of 123 male college students from three different universities,: Asch did not state if this was in fact the same sample as reported in his 1955 paper: The principal difference is that the 1956 paper includes an elaborate account of his interviews with participants. Across all these papers, Asch found the same results: participants conformed to the majority group in about one-third of all critical trials.

Interpretations.

Normative influence vs. referent informational influence.

The Asch conformity experiments are often interpreted as evidence for the power of conformity and normative social influence, where normative influence is the willingness to conform publicly to attain social reward and avoid social punishment. From this perspective, the results are viewed as a striking example of people publicly endorsing the group response despite knowing full well that they were endorsing an incorrect response.  In contrast, John Turner and colleagues argue that the interpretation of the Asch conformity experiments as normative influence is inconsistent with the data. They point out that post-experiment interviews revealed that participants experienced uncertainty about their judgement during the experiments. Although the correct answer appeared obvious to the researchers, this was not necessarily the experience of participants. Subsequent research has demonstrated similar patterns of conformity where participants were anonymous and thus not subject to social punishment or reward on the basis of their responses. From this perspective, the Asch conformity experiments are viewed as evidence for the self-categorization theory account of social influence (otherwise known as the theory of referent informational influence). Here, the observed conformity is an example of depersonalization processes, whereby people expect to hold the same opinions as others in their ingroup and will often adopt those opinions.

Social comparison theory.

The conformity demonstrated in Asch experiments is problematic for social comparison theory. Social comparison theory suggests that, when seeking to validate opinions and abilities, people will first turn to direct observation. If direct observation is ineffective or not available, people will then turn to comparable others for validation. In other words, social comparison theory predicts that social reality testing will arise when physical reality testing yields uncertainty. The Asch conformity experiments demonstrate that uncertainty can arise as an "outcome" of social reality testing. More broadly, this inconsistency has been used to support the position that the theoretical distinction between social reality testing and physical reality testing is untenable.

Selective representation in textbooks and the media.

Asch's 1956 report emphasized the predominance of independence over yielding saying "the facts that were being judged were, under the circumstances, the most decisive." However, a 1990 survey of US social psychology textbooks found that most ignored independence, instead reported a misleading summary of the results as reflecting complete power of the situation to produce conformity of behavior and belief.  A 2015 survey found no change, with just 1 of 20 major texts reporting that most participant-responses defied majority opinion. No text mentioned that 95% of subjects defied the majority at least once. Nineteen of the 20 books made no mention of Asch's interview data in which many participants said they were certain all along that the actors were wrong. This portrayal of the Asch studies was suggested to fit with social psychology narratives of situationism, obedience and conformity, to the neglect of recognition of disobedience of immoral commands (e.g. disobedience shown by participants in Milgram Studies), desire for fair treatment (e.g. resistance to tyranny shown by many participants in the Stanford prison studies) and self-determination.

In psychology, the Asch conformity experiments or the Asch paradigm were a series of studies directed by Solomon Asch studying if and how individuals yielded to or defied a majority group and the effect of such influences on beliefs and opinions.

阿希从众实验(英文:Asch conformity experiments)是所罗门·阿希1956年进行的一次非常经典的关于从众现象的实验。


Molecular studies.

A monophyletic Pancrustacea has been supported by several molecular studies, in most of which the subphylum Crustacea is paraphyletic with regard to insects (that is, that insects are derived from crustacean ancestors).  The evidence for this clade derives from molecular data and morphological characteristics. The molecular data consists of comparisons of nuclear ribosomal RNA genes, mitochondrial ribosomal RNA genes, and protein coding genes. The morphological data consists of ommatidial structures (see "arthropod eye"), the presence of neuroblasts, and the form and style of axonogenesis by pioneer neurons.

Regier "et al." (2005).

In a 2005 study of nuclear genomes Regier "et al." suggest that Hexapoda is most closely related to Branchiopoda and Cephalocarida + Remipedia, thereby hexapods are "terrestrial crustaceans", thus supporting the Pancrustacea hypothesis that maxillopods are not monophyletic (in the following cladograms Maxillopoda subclasses are highlighted). In addition, there appeared some evidence against the Ostracoda monophyly: that Ostracoda subclass Podocopa may form a clade with Branchiura.

Regier "et al." (2010).

A 2010 study of nuclear genomes (Regier "et al.") strongly supports Pancrustacea and strongly favour Mandibulata (Myriapoda + Pancrustacea) over Paradoxopoda (Myriapoda + Chelicerata). According to this study, Pancrustacea is divided into four lineages: Oligostraca (Ostracoda, Mystacocarida, Branchiura, Pentastomida), Vericrustacea (Malacostraca, Thecostraca, Copepoda, Branchiopoda), Xenocarida (Cephalocarida, Remipedia) and Hexapoda, with Xenocarida as a sister group to the Hexapoda (comprising "Miracrustacea").  New clades proposed by Regier "et al." are:  Of these proposed clades, only Multicrustacea was confirmed in later molecular studies.

von Reumont "et al." (2012).

In a 2012 molecular study, von Reumont "et al." challenge the monophyly of Vericrustacea: they present four versions of Pancrustacea cladogram (figures 1—4), and in all four figures Remipedia is a sister group to Hexapoda, and Branchiopoda is a sister group to (Remipedia + Hexapoda). Thus, their data strongly suggest that Branchiopoda is more closely related to Hexapoda and Remipedia than to Multicrustacea. Based on these data, they propose the following scenario of evolution of Branchiopoda, Remipedia and Hexapoda: under the impact of predatory fishes their common ancestors go to the littoral zone, then ancestors of Branchiopoda go to the ephemeral freshwater habitat, whereas ancestors of Remipedia go to the anchialine cave, and ancestors of Hexapoda go to the land.

Jondeung "et al." (2012).

Another molecular study (of mitochondrial genomes), conducted in 2012 by Jondeung "et al.", strongly support monophyletic Pancrustacea and places Malacostraca + Entomostraca and Branchiopoda as the sister clade to Hexapoda and places Cirripedia + Remipedia as a basal lineage of Pancrustacea.

Oakley "et al." (2013).

In 2013 combined study of morphology, including fossils, and molecular data, including expressed sequence tag, mitochondrial genome, nuclear genome, and ribosomal DNA data Oakley "et al." obtained support for three pancrustacean clades: Oligostraca (Ostracoda, Mystacocarida, Branchiura, Pentastomida), Multicrustacea (Copepoda, Thecostraca, Malacostraca) and a clade they refer to as Allotriocarida (Branchiopoda, Cephalocarida, Remipedia, Hexapoda), as well as for monophyly of Ostracoda. Within Multicrustacea they obtained support for a clade they suggest the name Hexanauplia: Thecostraca + Copepoda. Relations within Allotriocarida remain uncertain: sister taxon to Hexapoda is either Remipedia, or the clade Branchiopoda + Cephalocarida, however, authors are inclined to the first version (see "Conclusion", 4), which is also consistent with von Reumont "et al." (2012) results.  New proposed by Oakley "et al." clades are:  Note: Allotriocarida was also proposed in 2005 by Regier "et al." as Clade #33, but relations within it were different, and they did not choose a name for it.

Rota-Stabelli "et al." (2013).

In 2013 Rota-Stabelli "et al." used the signal in the 62 protein-coding genes assembled by Regier "et al." in 2010 to improve the knowledge of the internal relationship in the Pancrustacea group. This data set infers a highly supported nucleotide tree that is substantially different from the corresponding, but poorly supported, amino acid one. The discrepancy between the nucleotide-based and the amino acids-based trees is caused by substitutions within synonymous codon families (especially those of serine-TCN and AGY): different arthropod lineages are differentially biased in their usage of serine, arginine, and leucine synonymous codons, and the serine bias is correlated with the topology derived from the nucleotides, but not the amino acids. The authors suggest that a parallel, partially compositionally driven, synonymous codon-usage bias affects the nucleotide topology. As substitutions between serine codon families can proceed through threonine or cysteine intermediates, amino acid data sets might also be affected by the serine codon-usage bias. The analyses suggests that a "Dayhoff recoding strategy" would partially ameliorate the effects of such bias. Although amino acids provide an alternative hypothesis of pancrustacean relationships, neither the nucleotides nor the amino acids version of this data set bring enough genuine phylogenetic information to robustly resolve the relationships within group, which should still be considered unresolved. However the amino acid tree seems to be more likely since it appears to be free from the synonymous codon-family bias affecting the nucleotide one. Most of the inferences based on amino acids sequences support a clade which includes Branchiopoda, Remipedia, Copepoda and Hexapoda (group A). Using the best amino acids substitution model, "CATGTR", also Cephalocarida falls inside this group. In all the analyses group A (with or without Cephalocarida) is sister-group of a clade composed by Malacostraca, Oligostraca and Thecostraca (group B).  The following image shows the tree resulting from the "Dayhoff recoding".

Position of Tantulocarida.

According to Petrunina A.S. and Kolbasov G.A., the sixth subclass of Maxillopoda Tantulocarida may lie within Thecostraca, forming a clade with thecostracan infraclass Cirripedia (if so, Thecostraca excluding Tantulocarida is paraphyletic):

Pancrustacea is a clade, comprising all crustaceans and hexapods. This grouping is contrary to the Atelocerata hypothesis, in which Myriapoda and Hexapoda are sister taxa, and Crustacea are only more distantly related. As of 2010, the Pancrustacea taxon is considered well-accepted. The clade has also been called Tetraconata, referring to having four cone cells in the ommatidia. That name is preferred by some scientists as a means of avoiding confusion with the use of "pan-" to indicate a clade that includes a crown group and all of its stem group representatives.

泛甲壳动物(学名:)是甲壳类及六足亚门的总称。这个分类与缺角类有矛盾,因缺角类只包含多足纲及六足亚门,并认为甲壳类是较为疏远的。截至2010年,泛甲壳动物已被广泛接受。


Life, marriage, and royal favour.

A loyal and capable subject of the crown, Peter earned the grudging respect of Louis XI through his demonstration of the Bourbon family's "meekness and humility". Initially he was betrothed to Marie d'Orleans, sister of Louis, Duke of Orleans (the future Louis XII); Louis XI, who wanted to prevent such an alliance between two of the greatest feudal houses in France, broke the engagement, and took measures to bind both families closer to the crown.  A marriage between Peter and the King's elder daughter, Anne, was arranged (as was another marriage between Louis of Orleans and Anne's younger sister, Joan); as a mark of his favour, the King forced Peter's older brother John II, Duke of Bourbon to grant the Bourbon fief of Beaujeu (Beaujolais) to Peter, who was also given a seat on the royal council. Peter and Anne were married on 3 November 1473.

Regent of France and Duke of Bourbon.

At the time of Louis XI's death in 1483, Peter was one of the few royal servants to have remained consistently in favour during the King's reign, and it was to him that Louis, on his deathbed, granted guardianship over the new King, Charles VIII. Peter and Anne immediately took up their duties, and began to position themselves as leaders of a regency government. The King was swiftly crowned, preventing the need for a regency government; instead, the thirteen-year-old King undertook personal rule of the Kingdom, theoretically on his own, in reality guided by the Beaujeus.  Having assisted his wife in the governing of France, in 1488 both were able to begin building up a power-base of their own in the Bourbonnais. Anne was already Countess of Gien, and Peter was Count of Clermont and La Marche, as well as Lord of Beaujeu; but the death of his eldest brother, John II, and the subsequent enforced renunciation of the family rights by his next eldest brother, Charles II, delivered the Bourbon inheritance (the Duchies of Bourbon and Auvergne, and the Counties of Forez and l'Isle-en-Jordain) into Peter's hands.  The new Duke and Duchess of Bourbon then proceeded to add to these domains, adding Bourbon-Lancy in December 1488, and trading l'Isle-en-Jordain with the Armagnacs in June 1489 for Carlades and Murat. These domains were granted to them by the King in absolute right – they would not revert to the crown, and were not obligated to pass to the next heirs to the Bourbon inheritance, the Bourbon-Montpensiers – the Duke and Duchess could bequeath them to whomsoever they wished. On 10 May 1491, the pair finally acquired an heir of their own, a daughter, Suzanne (Anne had an earlier pregnancy in 1476, but about this existed contradictory accounts: some say the baby was miscarried or been stillborn, but others reported that a living son was born, Charles, styled Count of Clermont in 1488 as was customary for the heir of the Duchy of Bourbon, who died aged 22 in 1498 and was buried in the Abbey of Souvigny, Auvergne).  By 1491, the Bourbon influence over the crown was waning; Charles VIII was an adult now, unwilling to accept tutelage from his family. Against the better judgement of Anne and Peter, Charles chose to renounce his unconsummated marriage to Margaret of Austria, and instead marry Anne, Duchess of Brittany; he then went against them by returning Margaret's dowry – Artois and Franche-Comté – to her brother, Philip the Handsome. Nor were either able to prevent Charles' disastrous Italian expeditions, although both were left in control of France on several of his absences. Both continued to be major figures in the court for the rest of Charles VIII's reign, but restricted in power. After Charles VIII's death, and the accession of Louis XII, Peter largely retired from court politics and devoted his few remaining years to his family, being particularly devoted to his daughter Suzanne.

Succession to the Duchy of Bourbon.

Without surviving male issue, the next heir to the Bourbon Duchy was Suzanne. It was in the question of the future of Suzanne and the Bourbon territories that Peter and Anne found themselves opposing each another in his final years. With Charles VIII dead and the more cautious Louis XII on the throne, Suzanne needed a husband to support her in her inheritance, which risked being disputed by the crown and the Montpensiers. The Duke and Duchess had initially groomed the next Bourbon heir, Louis of Bourbon-Montpensier, as a son-in-law; but he mortally offended Peter by condemning a letters patent of Louis XII which confirmed Suzanne's rights of inheritance (having been wrung from him as the price of Bourbon support upon his accession).  Peter then decided to betroth Suzanne to Charles IV, Duke of Alençon, a favourite of Louis XII, and so likely to protect the duchy against royal encroachment and Montpensier challenges. This contract was signed on 21 March 1501 at Moulins, Charles being 11, Suzanne 9. Before this marriage could be completed, however, Peter died of a fever. Following this, Anne arranged for Suzanne to marry the next Bourbon heir-male, Charles of Bourbon-Montpensier (Louis of Bourbon-Montpensier having died the year before), thereby averting a succession dispute over the Bourbon inheritance with the young pair inherited jointly.

Peter II, Duke of Bourbon (1 December 1438 – 10 October 1503 in Moulins), was the son of Charles I, Duke of Bourbon, and Agnes of Burgundy, and a member of the House of Bourbon. He and his wife Anne of France ruled as regents during the minority of Charles VIII of France.

皮埃尔二世·德·波旁,第八代波旁公爵(Peter II, Duke of Bourbon,8me Duc de Bourbon,1438年12月1日-1503年10月10日),法国军人及摄政王,波旁家族的代表人物之一。


Description.

Species that belong to this genus typically reach lengths of 60–80 cm, while "B. aurifer", "B. bicolor" and "B. lateralis" are known to grow to 1 m or more.  General characteristics include a sharply defined canthus rostralis, an unelevated snout, a rostral scale that is not as high as it is broad, and a prehensile tail that accounts for at least 15% of the body length.  The color pattern usually consists of a green ground color that may or may not include pale or dark markings. "B. schlegelii" is an exception to this rule.

Geographic range.

Occurs in southern Mexico (southeastern Oaxaca and the northern highlands of Chiapas), through Central America to northern South America (Colombia, western Venezuela, Ecuador and northern Peru).

Behavior.

As a general rule, species found above 1,500 meters altitude tend to be diurnal, while those found below 1,000 meters tend to be active at night. Those found between 1,000 and 1,500 meters may be active at any time of the day.

Venom.

"Bothriechis" venom is primarily a haemotoxin which causes severe pain, swelling, bleb formation, bruising, and quite often necrosis. If untreated it can lead to loss of a limb, or even death. Each year several farmers and plantation workers are bitten by eyelash vipers, sometimes resulting in fatalities. Wyeth in the United States and Instituto Clodomiro Picado in Costa Rica both manufacture different polyvalent antivenins which can be used to treat eyelash viper envenomations.

Species.

type species

Taxonomy.

A new species from Guatemala and Honduras, "B. thalassinus", was described by Campbell & E.N. Smith (2000). Campbell & Lamar (2004) recognize this species, as well as a ninth addition to the genus: "B. supraciliaris", which was first described by Taylor (1954) as a subspecies of "B. schlegelii", and is found in southwestern Costa Rica.  "B. guifarroi" was discovered in 2010 and described by Townsend et al. in 2013, in a study that included the following suggested phylogenetic tree of the genus:

Bothriechis is a genus of venomous pit vipers commonly called palm vipers or palm-pitvipers found predominantly in Mexico and Central America, although the most common species, "B. schlegelii", ranges as far south as Colombia and Peru. All members are relatively slender and arboreal. The name "Bothriechis" is derived from the Greek words "bothros" and "echis" that mean "pit" and "viper" respectively. Ten species and no subspecies are currently generally recognized.

棕榈蝮属(学名:)是蛇亚目蝰蛇科蝮亚科下的一个有毒蛇属,主要包括分布于墨西哥、中美洲以至哥伦比亚、秘鲁等地区的一种蝮蛇。所有棕榈蝮都长得较为幼细,而且活动于树木之上。其学名「Bothriechis」源自希腊语,当中「bothros」代表洞而「echis」则代表蝮蛇,表现了具备颊窝的蝮蛇特性。目前共有7个品种已被确认。


Genes.

Trp operon contains five structural genes. Their roles are:

Repression.

The operon operates by a negative repressible feedback mechanism. The repressor for the trp operon is produced upstream by the trpR gene, which is constitutively expressed at a low level. Synthesized trpR monomers associate into dimers. When tryptophan is present, these tryptophan repressor dimers bind to tryptophan, causing a change in the repressor conformation, allowing the repressor to bind to the operator. This prevents RNA polymerase from binding to and transcribing the operon, so tryptophan is not produced from its precursor. When tryptophan is not present, the repressor is in its inactive conformation and cannot bind the operator region, so transcription is not inhibited by the repressor.

Attenuation.

Attenuation is a second mechanism of negative feedback in the "trp" operon. The repression system targets the intracellular trp concentration whereas the attenuation responds to the concentration of charged tRNA. Thus, the trpR repressor decreases gene expression by altering the initiation of transcription, while attenuation does so by altering the process of transcription that's already in progress. While the TrpR repressor decreases transcription by a factor of 70, attenuation can further decrease it by a factor of 10, thus allowing accumulated repression of about 700-fold. Attenuation is made possible by the fact that in prokaryotes (which have no nucleus), the ribosomes begin translating the mRNA while RNA polymerase is still transcribing the DNA sequence. This allows the process of translation to affect transcription of the operon directly.  At the beginning of the transcribed genes of the "trp" operon is a sequence of at least 130 nucleotides termed the leader transcript (trpL; ). Lee and Yanofsky (1977) found that the attenuation efficiency is correlated with the stability of a secondary structure embedded in trpL, and the 2 constituent hairpins of the terminator structure were later elucidated by Oxender "et al." (1979). This transcript includes four short sequences designated 1–4, each of which is partially complementary to the next one. Thus, three distinct secondary structures (hairpins) can form: 1–2, 2–3 or 3–4. The hybridization of sequences 1 and 2 to form the 1–2 structure is rare because the RNA polymerase waits for a ribosome to attach before continuing transcription past sequence 1, however if the 1–2 hairpin were to form it would prevent the formation of the 2–3 structure (but not 3–4). The formation of a hairpin loop between sequences 2–3 prevents the formation of hairpin loops between both 1–2 and 3–4. The 3–4 structure is a transcription termination sequence (abundant in G/C and immediately followed by several uracil residues), once it forms RNA polymerase will disassociate from the DNA and transcription of the structural genes of the operon can not occur (see below for a more detailed explanation). The functional importance of the 2nd hairpin for the transcriptional termination is illustrated by the reduced transcription termination frequency observed in experiments destabilizing the central G+C pairing of this hairpin.  Part of the leader transcript codes for a short polypeptide of 14 amino acids, termed the leader peptide. This peptide contains two adjacent tryptophan residues, which is unusual, since tryptophan is a fairly uncommon amino acid (about one in a hundred residues in a typical "E. coli" protein is tryptophan). The strand 1 in trpL encompasses the region encoding the trailing residues of the leader peptide: Trp, Trp, Arg, Thr, Ser; conservation is observed in these 5 codons whereas mutating the upstream codons do not alter the operon expression. If the ribosome attempts to translate this peptide while tryptophan levels in the cell are low, it will stall at either of the two trp codons. While it is stalled, the ribosome physically shields sequence 1 of the transcript, preventing the formation of the 1–2 secondary structure. Sequence 2 is then free to hybridize with sequence 3 to form the 2–3 structure, which then prevents the formation of the 3–4 termination hairpin, which is why the 2–3 structure is called an anti-termination hairpin. In the presence of the 2–3 structure, RNA polymerase is free to continue transcribing the operon. Mutational analysis and studies involving complementary oligonucleotides demonstrate that the stability of the 2–3 structure corresponds to the operon expression level. If tryptophan levels in the cell are high, the ribosome will translate the entire leader peptide without interruption and will only stall during translation termination at the stop codon. At this point the ribosome physically shields both sequences 1 and 2. Sequences 3 and 4 are thus free to form the 3–4 structure which terminates transcription. This terminator structure forms when no ribosome stalls in the vicinity of the Trp tandem (i.e. Trp or Arg codon): either the leader peptide is not translated or the translation proceeds smoothly along the strand 1 with abundant charged tRNAtrp. More over, the ribosome is proposed to only block about 10 nts downstream, thus ribosome stalling in either the upstream Gly or further downstream Thr do not seem to affect the formation of the termination hairpin. The end result is that the operon will be transcribed only when tryptophan is unavailable for the ribosome, while the trpL transcript is constitutively expressed.  This attenuation mechanism is experimentally supported. First, the translation of the leader peptide and ribosomal stalling are directly evidenced to be necessary for inhibiting the transcription termination. Moreover, mutational analysis destabilizing or disrupting the base-pairing of the antiterminator hairpin results in increased termination of several folds; consistent with the attenuation model, this mutation fails to relieve attenuation even with starved Trp. In contrast, complementary oligonucleotides targeting strand 1 increases the operon expression by promoting the antiterminator formation. Furthermore, in histidine operon, compensatory mutation shows that the pairing ability of strands 2–3 matters more than their primary sequence in inhibiting attenuation.  In attenuation, where the translating ribosome is stalled determines whether the termination hairpin will be formed. In order for the transcribing polymerase to concomitantly capture the alternative structure, the time scale of the structural modulation must be comparable to that of the transcription. To ensure that the ribosome binds and begins translation of the leader transcript immediately following its synthesis, a pause site exists in the trpL sequence. Upon reaching this site, RNA polymerase pauses transcription and apparently waits for translation to begin. This mechanism allows for synchronization of transcription and translation, a key element in attenuation.  A similar attenuation mechanism regulates the synthesis of histidine, phenylalanine and threonine.

The "trp" operon is an operon—a group of genes that is used, or transcribed, together—that codes for the components for production of tryptophan. The "trp" operon is present in many bacteria, but was first characterized in "Escherichia coli". The operon is regulated so that when tryptophan is present in the environment, the genes for tryptophan synthesis are not expressed. It was an important experimental system for learning about gene regulation, and is commonly used to teach gene regulation.

色氨酸操纵子(英语:Tryptophan operon)是一种重要的操纵子,是联合使用或转录的一组基因,也是用来编码生成色氨酸的元件之一。色氨酸操纵子是在许多细菌存在,但首次在大肠杆菌中得到表征。当在环境中存在足量的色氨酸,它将不被使用。这是一个重要的学习基因调控的实验系统,并常用来教授基因调控的知识。


Description.

"Cornus canadensis" is a slow-growing herbaceous perennial growing 10–20 cm tall, generally forming a carpet-like mat. The above-ground shoots rise from slender creeping rhizomes that are placed 2.5–7.5 cm deep in the soil, and form clonal colonies under trees. The vertically produced above-ground stems are slender and unbranched. The leaves are oppositely arranged on the stem, but are clustered with six leaves that often seem to be in a whorl because the internodes are compressed. The leafy green leaves are produced near the terminal node and consist of two types: 2 larger and 4 smaller leaves. The smaller leaves develop from the axillary buds of the larger leaves. The shiny dark green leaves have 2 to 3 mm long petioles and leaf blades that are obovate. The blades have entire margins and are 3.5 to 4.8 cm long and 1.5 to 2.5 cm wide, with 2 or 3 veins and cuneate shaped bases and abruptly acuminate apexes. In the fall, the leaves have red tinted veins and turn completely red.

Flowers.

In late spring to midsummer, white flowers are produced that are in diameter with reflexed petals that are ovate-lanceolate in shape and long. Inflorescences are made up of compound terminal cymes, with large showy white bracts that resemble petals. The bracts are green when immature. The bracts are broadly ovate and long and wide, with 7 parallel running veins. The lower nodes on the stem have greatly reduced rudimentary leaves. The calyx tube is obovate in shape and 1 mm long, covered with densely pubescent hairs along with grayish white appressed trichomes. Stamens are very short, being 1 mm long. The anthers are yellowish white in color, narrowly ovoid in shape. The styles are 1 mm long and glabrous. Plants are for the most part self-sterile and dependent on pollinators for sexual reproduction. Pollinators include bumblebees, solitary bees, beeflies, and syrphid flies. The fruits look like berries but are drupes.

Release of pollen.

Each flower has highly elastic petals that flip backward, releasing springy filaments that are cocked underneath the petals. The filaments snap upward flinging pollen out of containers hinged to the filaments. The stamen accelerate at a rate of 24,000 m/s. This motion takes place in less than half a millisecond and the pollen experiences two to three thousand times the force of gravity. The bunchberry has one of the fastest plant actions found so far requiring a camera capable of shooting 10,000 frames per second to catch the action.

Fruit.

The drupes are green, globose in shape, turning bright red at maturity in late summer; each fruit is 5 mm in diameter and contains typically one or two ellipsoid-ovoid shaped stones. The fruits, coming into season in late summer, are edible but not appetizing. The large seeds within are somewhat hard and crunchy.

Taxonomy.

While distinctive as a species itself, the generic placement of these plants has differed in various botanical treatments. When the genus "Cornus" is taken broadly, as done here, this species is "Cornus canadensis", and is included in the subgenus "Arctocrania". However, if "Cornus" is treated in a narrower sense, excluding this species, it can instead be classified as "Chamaepericlymenum canadense" or as "Cornella canadensis."  Where bunchberry, a forest species, and "Cornus suecica", a bog species, grow near each other in their overlapping ranges in Alaska, Labrador, and Greenland, they can hybridize by cross-pollination, producing plants with intermediate characteristics.

Habitat.

"Cornus canadensis" is a mesophytic species that needs cool, moist soils. It inhabits montane and boreal coniferous forests, where it is found growing along the margins of moist woods, on old tree stumps, in mossy areas, and among other open and moist habitats.

Ecology.

Birds are the main dispersal agents of the seeds, feeding on the fruit during their fall migration. In Alaska, bunchberry is an important forage plant for mule deer, black-tailed deer and moose, which eat it throughout the growing season.

Symbolism.

Claire Waight Keller included the plant to represent Canada in Meghan Markle's wedding veil, which included the distinctive flora of each Commonwealth country.

Cornus canadensis (Canadian dwarf cornel, Canadian bunchberry, quatre-temps, crackerberry, creeping dogwood) is a species of flowering plant in the dogwood family, native to eastern Asia (Japan, Korea, northeastern China (Jilin Province) and the Russian Far East), the northern United States, Colorado, New Mexico, Canada and Greenland. Unlike its relatives, which are for the most part substantial trees and shrubs, "C. canadensis" is a creeping, rhizomatous perennial growing to about tall.

草茱萸()是山茱萸科草茱萸属的一种草本植物。约20–30 cm高,有白色小花,直径只有数个毫米宽。


History.

Founding.

Founder Chauncey Rose, along with nine friends, created the Terre Haute School of Industrial Science in 1874 to provide technical training after encountering difficulties in local engineer availability during construction of his railroads. Mr. Rose donated the land on 13th and Locust St. and the majority of the funds needed to start the new school. A year later, the cornerstone of the new institution was laid and the name was changed to Rose Polytechnic Institute despite the objections of the president of the board of managers and chief benefactor, Mr. Rose. The original campus was a single building, with no dormitories or recreational facilities.  The first class of 48 students entered in 1883, chosen from 58 applicants. Of the 48 students, all were male, and 37 came from Indiana. All but four students chose to major in Mechanical Engineering with Civil Engineering and Chemistry the only other majors. Nearly half of the original students would eventually quit their studies before graduation for several reasons, including poor grades or conduct. The first president was Charles O. Thompson, who modeled the education of Rose Poly after eastern institutions. Rose Poly was thus founded as the first private engineering college west of the Alleghenies.  During the beginning years of the school, money was a major concern. Many faculty and staff accepted pay cuts to stay at the institution.  In 1889 the school awarded what it considers to be the first Chemical Engineering degree in the country.

Relocation.

In 1917, the school, having grown to more than 300 students, moved from 13th and Locust St. (on which now sits Chauncey Rose Middle School) to a new site consisting of of farmland on U.S. 40 donated by the Hulman family of Terre Haute. The cornerstone of the new campus was laid in 1922. The new campus consisted of an academic building and the institute's first dorm, Deming Hall, which is still used by freshmen today.  Early life at Rose consisted of social fraternities, athletics, and the occasional "high jinks." A popular "high jinks" involved the sophomore class inviting the freshmen class to a baseball game but were told to "leave their pipes with the nurse." The freshmen would produce the pipes at a specific time and a brawl would ensue.

War years.

During World War I, Rose Poly trained students in technical subjects like vehicle maintenance and created an ROTC Engineer unit which later became the Wabash Battalion Army ROTC program. During World War II the ROTC unit was replaced with an Army Specialized Training Unit and students could enter and graduate after every quarter to support the war effort. This enrollment schedule continued through the post-war years until 1951. A tank was located behind the north sides of Moench Hall and Myers Hall as a reminder of Rose Poly's war contributions, but has recently been moved from the campus for reasons unknown.

1960s–1970s.

In recognition of the Hulman family's significant contributions and continued financial support, Rose Polytechnic was renamed Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology in 1971.  During the 1960s and 70s, growth accelerated under president John A. Logan. Five new residence halls, a new student union, library, and a student recreation center were all constructed between 1963 and 1976. Permission was sought and received to increase the student population to 1000.  The quarterly cryptology journal Cryptologia was founded and published at RHIT from 1977 to 1995, at which time it was moved to the United States Military Academy.

1990s onwards.

For most of its history, Rose-Hulman was a men's only institution. It voted to become coeducational in 1991, with the first full-time women students starting in 1995. Also in 1995, the college required all incoming freshmen to purchase laptop computers, becoming one of the first schools to do so.  In the decade following 1995, Rose-Hulman's growth was aided by a major fundraising campaign called "Vision to be the Best." Originally a $100 million campaign over ten years, it met its goal in half the time. The goal was extended to $200 million, and by the end of the campaign in June 2004, over $250 million had been raised. In 2002, Hatfield Hall, a state-of-the-art theater and alumni center was opened. Five years earlier Shook Field House was replaced with the $20 million Sports and Recreation Center, which is a major reason that the National Football League's Indianapolis Colts used the campus for their summer training camp from 1999–2010.  After the 2004 retirement of institute president Samuel Hulbert, who had led the school since 1976, the college faced a leadership crisis. Soon after John J. Midgley arrived as the new president, rumors of conflict between Midgley and the administration started to circulate. Students, some wearing T-shirts proclaiming "Hit the Road Jack," held a rally calling for Midgley's resignation. Midgley resigned as president of the institute on June 11, 2005, less than a year into his presidency, after the faculty, staff, and Student Government Association approved votes of no confidence. During the succeeding academic year, Robert Bright, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, served as interim chief executive officer.  At a press conference on March 17, 2006, Bright named Gerald Jakubowski, Vice President and Professor of Engineering at Arizona State University, as the thirteenth president of the Institute. Jakubowski took over effective July 1, 2006. On February 23, 2009, Jakubowski announced that he would be resigning from the position of president, effective June 30.  On June 11, 2009, the college announced that the Board of Trustees had elected Matt Branam to serve as interim president. On December 4, 2009, the Board elected Branam as permanent president. In April 2012, Branam suffered a heart attack and was rushed to a hospital where he died shortly afterward. The cabinet subsequently selected Robert A. Coons as the Institute's Interim President.  On March 4, 2013, the Rose-Hulman Board of Trustees named James C. Conwell as the institute's 15th president starting May 1, 2013.  In 2017, the school acquired from the former home of Mari Hulman George.  On November 7, 2018, the school announced the resignation of their President, James C. Conwell and appointed Senior Vice President Rob Coons to serve as acting president.

Academics.

The curricula at RHIT concentrate on engineering and the natural sciences. The school's primary focus is undergraduate education, though there is a small graduate program for master's degree students. There are no doctoral programs. In 2005, Rose-Hulman had 161 faculty members, 99% of whom held a PhD. The current student-to-faculty ratio is 13:1. Admission to the institute remains competitive due to its self-selecting admissions class and applicant sharing with Purdue, and other top universities. In 2015, 547 freshman students enrolled out of 4,331 applicants. The school currently operates on three academic quarters plus an optional summer session.  Rose-Hulman is a member of the College Consortium of Western Indiana. This membership allows students who are full-time at their home institution to take classes at the other member institutions of Indiana State University and Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College.

Accreditation.

The Biomedical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Computer Engineering, Computer Science, Electrical Engineering, Engineering Physics, Mechanical Engineering, Optical Engineering, and Software Engineering programs are accredited by The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET).  In addition to institutional membership in the American Society for Engineering Education, the Institute is also a member of the Association of Independent Technological Universities, a group formed to further the interests of private engineering schools.

Rankings and reputation.

As of 2018, the institute has been ranked #1 among engineering colleges that do not offer a doctorate degree by U.S. News & World Report for 21 consecutive years. Each individual program assessed has also been ranked first since the magazine has published individual rankings. These programs are the Chemical, Civil, Computer, Electrical, Mechanical, and Biomedical Engineering programs (Biomedical Engineering programs have only received assessment in the 2015 rankings).

Student life.

The student body tends to come mostly from the Midwest United States, though as the school has gained prominence it has gradually attracted a more geographically and ethnically diverse applicant pool. 39% of students hail from the state of Indiana with large numbers of students from the nearby states of Illinois, Ohio, Michigan and Minnesota.  The school has several competition teams that operate out of the Branam Innovation Center. They compete in collegiate series such as Formula SAE, Shell Eco-Marathon, Human Powered Vehicle Challenge, AIAA Design/Build/Fly, Chem-E-Car and various robotics competitions among many others.  There are eight social fraternities and three social sororities, some of which have their houses on campus. The fraternities are: Alpha Tau Omega, Delta Sigma Phi, Lambda Chi Alpha, Phi Gamma Delta, Pi Kappa Alpha, Sigma Nu, Theta Xi, and Triangle. The sororities are Delta Delta Delta, Chi Omega, and Alpha Omicron Pi. As of 2003, nearly 69% of the students were members of Greek social organizations.  The Homework Hotline provides free homework help and tutoring to Indiana middle school and high school students. The program started in 1991 and is funded by the Lilly Endowment, Inc. and Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology.  Rose-Hulman Ventures serves as a source of internships and job opportunities with startups and established companies of all sizes for Rose students and alumni. Rose-Hulman Ventures was established in 1999 with a $30 million grant from the Lilly Endowment and received a $24.9 million follow-up grant in 2002.

Athletics.

The team's sports teams are called the Rose-Hulman Fightin' Engineers.

Fight Song.

"Dear Old Rose" the Rose Polytechnic Institute school song, arranged by Malcolm C Scott, class of 1922, and melody by "Beta Rose"  It is performed by the Pep Band and sung only at football and basketball games after a victory.

Media.

The school is served by an independently-funded, student-run newspaper, "The Rose Thorn", that focuses on campus news.  Rose-Hulman has an amateur radio club, the "Rose Tech Radio Club" (call sign W9NAA), that maintains a dedicated on-campus station.  The "Rose-Hulman Film Club" produces student-directed short films.  The campus radio station was WMHD-FM 90.7 FM, "The Monkey." The station originally broadcast with a very low power transmitter and antenna located on campus, but later operated with an off-site transmitter at 1400 watts. The studio facilities for the station were in the basement of the BSB residence hall. The station was operated entirely by student volunteers, and all disc-jockeys choose their own format and playlists. In August 2014, the station was sold to Indiana State University.

Rose–Hulman Institute of Technology (RHIT) is a private college specializing in teaching engineering, mathematics, and science and located in Terre Haute, Indiana.

罗斯-豪曼理工学院(Rose–Hulman Institute of Technology,缩写:RHIT,原称:Rose Polytechnic Institute),又译洛斯-胡曼理工学院、罗斯-霍曼理工学院,是位于美国印第安纳州特雷霍特的一所私立大学,由美国商人昌西·罗斯(Chauncey Rose)和他的九位朋友创立于1874年,1883年开课。 1917年搬至现址,1971年为了获得霍曼家族的捐助而更现名。2015年《美国新闻与世界报道》未将其列入整体排名,但在全美大学部工程科系排为第一名。