Terminology.

Collectively, adherents of Shi'i Islam are called the "Shīʿah" (; ), which is short for "Shīʿatu ʿAlī" (; ) meaning "followers of Ali", "faction of Ali", or "party of Ali"; "Shīʿī" () denotes both the singular noun and the adjective form, while "Shīyāʿ" () refers to the plural noun. "Shiʻa", Shia, Shiʻism/Shiʻite or Shiism/Shiite are the forms used in English, for adherents, mosques, and things associated with the religion.  The term was first used during Muhammad's life. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the

History.

Succession of Ali.

Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe God chose Ali to be Muhammad's successor, infallible, the first caliph ("khalifah", head of state) of Islam. The Shia believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God's command (Eid Al Ghadir).  Ali was Muhammad's first-cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammad's daughter Fatimah.

The Party of Ali.

Even during the time of Muhammad, there were signs of spilt among the companions

The event of Dhul Asheera.

During the revelation of Ash-Shu'ara, the twenty-sixth Surah of the Quran, in 617, Muhammad is said to have received instructions to warn his family members against adhering to their pre-Islamic religious practices. There are differing accounts of Muhammad's attempt to do this, with one version stating that he had invited his relatives to a meal (later termed the Feast of Dhul Asheera), during which he gave the pronouncement. According to Ibn Ishaq, it consisted of the following speech:  Among those gathered, only Ali offered his consent. Some

Event of Ghadir Khumm.

The "hadith" of Ghadir Khumm has many different variations and is transmitted by both Sunni and Shia sources. The narrations generally state that in March 632, Muhammad, while returning from his Farewell Pilgrimage alongside a large number of followers and companions, stopped at the oasis of Ghadir Khumm. There, he took Ali's hand and addressed the gathering. The point of contention between different sects is when Muhammad, whilst giving his speech, gave the proclamation "Anyone who has me as his "mawla", has Ali

Ali's caliphate.

When Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah met with the leaders of Medina and elected Abu Bakr as caliph. Ali did not accept the caliphate of Abu Bakr and refused to pledge allegiance to him. This is indicated in both Sunni and Shia "sahih" and authentic Hadith. Ibn Qutaybah, a 9th-century Sunni Islamic scholar narrates of Ali:I am the servant of God and the brother of

Hasan ibn Ali.

Upon the death of Ali, his elder son Hasan became leader of the Muslims of Kufa, and after a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah, Hasan agreed to cede the

Husayn ibn Ali.

Husayn, Ali's younger son and brother to Hasan, initially resisted calls to lead the Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate. In 680 CE, Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his son Yazid, and breaking the treaty with Hasan ibn Ali. Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance ("bay'ah") to him. Ali's faction, having expected the caliphate to return to Ali's line upon Muawiyah's death, saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Husayn rejected this request for allegiance. There was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Husayn to return

Imamate of the "Ahl al-Bayt".

Later most of the Shia, including Twelver and Ismaili, became Imamis. Imami Shia believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad. Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret the divine law and its esoteric meaning. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree, or "nass", through Muhammad.  According to this view, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in the Muslim community. Ali was the first imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah. This difference between following either the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family and descendants) or Caliph Abu Bakr has shaped Shia and non-Shia views on some of the Quranic verses, the hadith (narrations from Muhammad) and other areas of Islam. For instance, the collection of hadith venerated by Shia Muslims is centered on narrations by members

Imam of the time, last Imam of the Shia.

The Mahdi is the prophesied redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven, nine or nineteen years (according to differing interpretations) before the Day of Judgment and will rid the world of evil. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi's tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus Christ (Isa), who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad-Dajjal (literally, the "false

Dynasties.

In the century following the Battle of Karbala (680 CE), as various Shia-affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world, several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population.

Safavid Empire.

A major turning point in Shia history was the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) in Persia. This caused a number of changes in the Muslim world:  With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Persia—including the state system of courts with government-appointed judges (qadis)—became much weaker. This gave the Sharia courts of "mujtahids" an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled the ulama to assert their judicial authority. The Usuli School also increased in strength at this time.

Theology.

The Shia Islamic faith is vast and inclusive of many different groups. Shia theological beliefs and religious practises, such as prayers, slightly differ from the Sunnis'. While all Muslims pray five times daily, Shias have the option of combining "Dhuhr" with "Asr" and "Maghrib" with "Isha'", as there are three distinct times mentioned in the Quran. The Sunnis tend to

Hadith.

The Shia believe that the status of Ali is supported by numerous hadith, including the Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the

Profession of faith.

The Shia version of the Shahada, the Islamic profession of faith, differs from that of the Sunni. The Sunni Shahada states "There is no god except God, Muhammad is the messenger of God", but to this the Shia append "Ali is the Wali (custodian) of God",

Infallibility.

"Ismah" is the concept of infallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in Islam. Muslims believe that Muhammad and other prophets in Islam possessed "ismah". Twelver and Ismaili Shia Muslims also attribute the quality to Imams as well as to Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, in contrast to the Zaidi, who do not attribute 'ismah to the Imams. Though initially beginning as a political movement, infallibility and sinlessness of the imams later evolved as a distinct belief of (non-Zaidi) Shiism.  According to Shia theologians, infallibility is considered a rational necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that since God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures they must only order that which is right.

Occultation.

The Occultation is a belief in some forms of Shia Islam that a messianic figure, a hidden imam known as the Mahdi, will one day return and fill the world with justice. According to the Twelver Shia, the main goal of Mahdi will be to establish an Islamic state and to apply Islamic laws that were revealed to Muhammad. The Quran does not have the verses on Imamate, which is the basic doctrine of

Inheritance.

It is believed that the armaments and sacred items of all of the Prophets, including Muhammad, were handed down in succession to the Imams of Ahl al-Bayt. In Kitab al-Kafi, Ja'far al-Sadiq mentions that "with me are the arms of the Messenger of Allah. It is not disputable."  Further, he claims that with him is the sword of the Messenger of God, his coat of arms, his Lamam (pennon) and his helmet. In addition, he mentions that with him is the flag of

Community.

Demographics.

According to Shia Muslims, one of the lingering problems in estimating Shia population is that unless Shia form a significant minority in a Muslim country, the entire population is often listed as Sunni. The reverse, however, has not held true, which may contribute to imprecise estimates of the size of each sect. For example, the 1926 rise of the House of Saud in Arabia brought official discrimination against Shia. Shiites are estimated to be 21% of the Muslim population in South Asia, although the total number is difficult to estimate due to that reason. It is estimated that 15% of the world's Muslims are Shia. They may number up to 200 million as of 2009.  Shias form a majority of the population in Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Iran, and Iraq, as well as a plurality in Lebanon. Shias constitute

Significant populations worldwide.

Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the Pew Research Center report, "Mapping the Global Muslim Population".

Persecution.

The history of Sunni-Shia relations has often involved violence, dating back to the earliest development of the two competing sects. At various times Shia groups have faced persecution.  Militarily established and holding control over the Umayyad government, many Sunni rulers perceived the Shia as a threat—to both their political and their religious authority. The Sunni rulers under the Umayyads sought to marginalize the Shia minority, and later the Abbasids turned on their Shia allies and imprisoned, persecuted, and killed them. The persecution of the Shia throughout history by Sunni co-religionists has often been characterized by brutal and genocidal acts.

Holidays.

Shias celebrate

Holy sites.

The four holiest sites to Muslims are Mecca (Al-Haram Mosque), Medina (Al-Nabbawi Mosque), Jerusalem (Al-Aqsa Mosque), and Kufa (Kufa Mosque). In addition for Shias, the Imam Husayn Shrine, Al Abbas Mosque in Karbala, and Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf are also highly revered.  Other venerated sites include Wadi-us-Salaam cemetery in Najaf, Al-Baqi' cemetery

Branches.

The Shia belief throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate. The largest branch are the Twelvers, followed by the Zaidi, and the Ismaili. All three groups follow a different line of Imamate.

Twelver.

Twelver Shia or the Ithnā'ashariyyah' is the largest branch of Shia Islam, and the term "Shia Muslim" often refers to the Twelvers by default. The term "Twelver" is derived from the doctrine of believing in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as The Twelve Imams. Twelver Shia are also known as "Imami" or "Ja'fari", originated from the name of the 6th Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, who elaborated the Twelver jurisprudence.  Twelvers constitute the majority of the population in Iran (90%), Azerbaijan (85%), Bahrain (70%), Iraq (65%), Lebanon (65% of Muslims).

Doctrine.

Twelver doctrine is based on five principles. These five principles known as "Usul ad-Din" are as follow:  More specifically, these principles are known as Usul al-Madhhab (principles of the Shia sect) according to Twelver Shias which differ from Daruriyat al-Din (Necessities of Religion) which are principles in order for one to be a Muslim.

Books.

Besides the Quran which is common to all Muslims, the Shia derive guidance from books

The Twelve Imams.

The "Twelve Imams" are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad for the Twelvers. According to the theology of Twelvers, the successor of Muhammad is an infallible human individual who not only rules over the community with justice but also is able to keep and interpret the divine law and its esoteric meaning. The words and

Jurisprudence.

The Twelver jurisprudence is called "Ja'fari jurisprudence". In this jurisprudence "Sunnah" is considered to be the oral traditions of Muhammad and their implementation and interpretation by the twelve Imams. There are three schools of Ja'fari jurisprudence: Usuli, Akhbari, and Shaykhi. The Usuli school is by far the largest of the three. Twelver groups that do not follow Ja'fari jurisprudence include Alevi, Bektashi, and Qizilbash.  The five primary pillars of Islam to the Ja'fari jurisprudence, known as "Usul' ad-Din". They are at variance with the standard Sunni "five pillars of

Zaidi ("Fiver").

Zaidiyya, Zaidism or Zaydi is a Shia school named after Zayd ibn Ali. Followers of the Zaidi fiqh are called Zaidis (or occasionally Fivers). However, there is also a group called "Zaidi Wasītīs" who are Twelvers (see below). Zaidis constitute roughly 42–47% of the population of Yemen.

Doctrine.

The Zaydis, Twelvers, and Ismailis all recognize the same first four Imams; however, the Zaidis consider Zayd ibn Ali as the fifth. After the time of Zayd ibn Ali, the Zaidis believed that any descendant of Hasan ibn Ali or Hussein ibn Ali could be imam after fulfilling certain conditions. Other well-known Zaidi Imams in history were Yahya ibn Zayd, Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya and Ibrahim ibn Abdullah.  The Zaidi doctrine of Imamah

Jurisprudence.

In matters of Islamic jurisprudence, the Zaydis follow Zayd ibn Ali's teachings which are documented in his book "Majmu'l Fiqh"

Timeline.

The Idrisids () were Arab Zaydi Shia dynasty in the western Maghreb ruling from 788 to 985 CE, named after its first sultan, Idris I.  A Zaydi state was established in Gilan, Deylaman and Tabaristan (northern Iran) in 864 CE by the Alavids; it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids in 928 CE. Roughly forty years later the state was revived in Gilan and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE. Afterwards, from the 12th to 13th centuries, the Zaydis of Deylaman, Gilan and Tabaristan then acknowledged the Zaydi Imams of Yemen or rival Zaydi Imams within Iran.  The Buyids were initially Zaidi as were the Banu Ukhaidhir rulers of al-Yamama in the 9th and 10th centuries. The leader of the Zaydi community took the title of Caliph. As such, the ruler of Yemen was known as the Caliph, al-Hadi Yahya

Ismaili.

Ismailis gain their name from their acceptance of Isma'il ibn Jafar as the divinely appointed spiritual successor (Imam) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the Twelvers, who accept Musa al-Kadhim, younger brother of Isma'il, as the true Imam.  After the death or Occultation of Muhammad ibn Ismaill in the 8th century, the teachings of Ismailism further transformed into the belief system as it is known today, with an explicit concentration on the deeper, esoteric meaning ("bāṭin") of the faith. With the eventual development of Twelverism into the more literalistic "(zahir)" oriented Akhbari and later Usuli schools of thought, Shi'ism developed in two separate directions: the metaphorical Ismailli group focusing on the mystical path and nature of God and the divine manifestation in

Ismaili imams.

After the death of Isma'il ibn Jafar, many Ismailis believed that one day the messianic Mahdi, whom they believed to be Muhammad ibn Ismail, would return and establish an age of justice. One group included the violent Qarmatians, who had a stronghold in Bahrain. In contrast, some Ismailis believed the Imamate "did" continue, and that the Imams were in occultation and still communicated and taught their followers through a network of dawah "Missionaries".  In 909, Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, a claimant to the Ismaili Imamate, established the Fatimid Caliphate. During this period, three lineages of imams formed. The first branch, known today as the Druze, began with Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Born in 386 AH (985), he ascended as ruler at the age of eleven. The typical religiously tolerant Fatimid Empire saw much persecution under his reign. When in 411 AH (1021) his mule returned without him, soaked in blood, a religious group that was forming in his lifetime broke off

Pillars.

Ismailis have categorized their practices which are known as "seven pillars":

Contemporary leadership.

The Nizaris place importance on a scholarly institution because of the existence of a present Imam. The Imam of the Age defines the jurisprudence, and his guidance may differ with Imams previous to him because of different times and circumstances. For Nizari Ismailis, the Imam is Karim al-Husayni Aga Khan IV. The Nizari line of Imams has continued to this day as an unending line.  Divine leadership has continued in the Bohra branch through the institution of the "Unrestricted Missionary" Dai. According to Bohra tradition, before the last Imam, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, went into seclusion, his father, the 20th Al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah, had instructed Al-Hurra Al-Malika the Malika (Queen consort) in Yemen to appoint a vicegerent after the seclusion—the "Unrestricted Missionary", who as the Imam's vicegerent has full authority to govern the community in all matters both spiritual and temporal while the lineage of Mustaali-Tayyibi Imams remains in seclusion (Dawr-e-Satr). The three branches of the Mustaali, the Alavi Bohra, Sulaimani Bohra and Dawoodi Bohra, differ on who the current Unrestricted Missionary is.

Other doctrines.

Doctrine about necessity of acquiring knowledge.

According to Allameh Muzaffar God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument. Also, God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory. These signs encompass all of the universe. Furthermore, there is a similarity between humans as the little

Doctrine concerning Du'a.

Praying or Duʼa in Shia has an important place as Muhammad described it as a weapon of the believer. In fact, Duʼa considered as something that is a feature of Shia community in a sense. Performing Duʼa in Shia has a special ritual. Because of

Shia Islam or Shi'ism is one of the two main branches of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor and the Imam (leader) after him, most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm, but was prevented from the caliphate as a result of the incident of Saqifah. This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor and consider Abu Bakr, who was appointed caliph by a group of Muslims at Saqifah, to be the first rightful caliph after Muhammad. A person observing Shia Islam is called a Shi'ite.

什叶派(,,英语:Shia,),来自(,Shia-ne-Ali)的缩写,原意为阿里的追随者,与逊尼派并列为伊斯兰教的两大主要教派之一。什叶派与逊尼派各门派中的主要不同不在于教义问题,主要在于谁是穆罕默德「真正接班人」。在历史上曾出现过“穆阿维耶什叶”、“奥斯曼什叶”和“阿里什叶”等,目前则专指认为穆罕默德的继任者是阿里·本·阿比·塔利卜(穆罕默德堂弟及女婿)的人,逊尼派则认为穆罕默德的继任者是他的岳父阿布·伯克尔。


阿尔布雷希特六世 (奥地利)

Life.

Albert was born in Vienna, the son of the Inner Austrian duke Ernest the Iron from his second marriage with the Piast princess Cymburgis of Masovia. Still minors upon the death of their father in 1424, he and his brother remained under the tutelage of their uncle Duke Frederick IV of the Empty Pockets, who ruled over Further Austria and the County of Tyrol.  Coming of age in 1436, Albert, though a junior heir of Inner Austria, received no full rulership anywhere for a long time, which caused friction in his relations with his elder brother Frederick V. When in 1439 both Duke Frederick IV of Further Austria and King Albert II of Germany, Duke of Austria died, Archduke Frederick assumed the guardianship over their minor sons Sigismund and Ladislaus the Posthumous. As Habsburg patriarch, heir of Inner Austria and regent of Further Austria, Tyrol and the Austria proper, he then ruled over all the dynasty's hereditary lands. At that stage, Albert began quarreling with his brother and in 1446 claimed the lands of Further Austria from him.  The conflict between the brothers escalated when Duke Ladislaus Posthumous of Austria died childless in 1457 and Frederick, Holy Roman Emperor since 1452, came into his inheritance. Albert rose up and in 1458 occupied the western part of the Austrian archduchy "above the Enns" (later known as Upper Austria), which he ruled at Linz as a separate principality and, quite small, his portion of Habsburg patrimony. After laying siege to Frederick in the Vienna Hofburg, he also took over the reign of Austria below the Enns (now Lower Austria) in 1462. Albert however died childless the next year and all his lands fell back to his elder brother.  In 1452 Albert had married Mechthild of the Palatinate, daughter of Count Palatine Louis III. Albert is credited for founding the University of Freiburg in 1457.  |-

Albert VI (; 18 December 1418 – 2 December 1463), a member of the House of Habsburg, was Duke of Austria from 1424, elevated to Archduke in 1453. As a scion of the Leopoldian line, he ruled over the Inner Austrian duchies of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola from 1424, from 1457 also over the Archduchy of Austria until his death, rivalling with his elder brother Emperor Frederick III. According to tradition, Albert, later known as "the Prodigal", was the exact opposite of Frederick: energetic and inclined to thoughtlessness.

阿尔布雷希特六世(1418年-12月12日-1463年-12月2日)哈布斯堡王朝的利奥波德支系的成员,奥地利大公(1457年-1463年在位)及施蒂里亚、克恩滕及卡尼鄂拉公爵(内奥地利大公)(1424年-1463年在位)。阿尔布雷希特六世是奥地利大公恩斯特次子、奥地利大公腓特烈五世的弟弟。相比起其兄长腓特烈五世,阿尔布雷希特六世的个性充满活力,却倾向于轻率,所以也被人们称为「浪子」。


Early life and education.

Leonard Susskind was born to a Jewish family from the South Bronx in New York City. He began working as a plumber at the age of 16, taking over from his father who had become ill. Later, he enrolled in the City College of New York as an engineering student, graduating with a B.S. in physics in 1962. In an interview in the "Los Angeles Times", Susskind recalls the moment he discussed with his father that changed his career path: "When I told my father I wanted to be a physicist, he said, 'Hell no, you ain’t going to work in a drug store.' I said, 'No, not a pharmacist.' I said, 'Like Einstein.' He poked me in the chest with a piece of plumbing pipe. 'You ain’t going to be no engineer,' he said. 'You're going to be Einstein.'" Susskind then studied at Cornell University under Peter A. Carruthers where he earned his Ph.D. in 1965.

Career.

Susskind was an assistant professor of physics, then an associate professor at Yeshiva University (1966–1970), after which he went for a year to the Tel Aviv University (1971–72), returning to Yeshiva to become a professor of physics (1970–1979). Since 1979 he has been professor of physics at Stanford University, and since 2000 has held the Felix Bloch professorship of physics.  Susskind was awarded the 1998 J. J. Sakurai Prize for his "pioneering contributions to hadronic string models, lattice gauge theories, quantum chromodynamics, and dynamical symmetry breaking." Susskind's hallmark, according to colleagues, has been the application of "brilliant imagination and originality to the theoretical study of the nature of the elementary particles and forces that make up the physical world."  In 2007, Susskind joined the faculty of Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, as an associate member. He has been elected to the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He is also a distinguished professor at Korea Institute for Advanced Study.

Scientific career.

Susskind was one of at least three physicists, alongside Yoichiro Nambu and Holger Bech Nielsen, who independently discovered during or around 1970 that the Veneziano dual resonance model of strong interactions could be described by a quantum mechanical model of oscillating strings, and was the first to propose the idea of the string theory landscape. Susskind has also made important contributions in the following areas of physics:

Books.

Susskind is the author of several popular science books.

"The Cosmic Landscape".

"The Cosmic Landscape: String Theory and the Illusion of Intelligent Design" is Susskind's first popular science book, published by Little, Brown and Company on December 12, 2005. It is Susskind's attempt to bring his idea of the anthropic landscape of string theory to the general public. In the book, Susskind describes how the string theory landscape was an almost inevitable consequence of several factors, one of which was Steven Weinberg's prediction of the cosmological constant in 1987. The question addressed here is why our universe is fine-tuned for our existence. Susskind explains that Weinberg calculated that if the cosmological constant was just a little different, our universe would cease to exist.

"The Black Hole War".

"The Black Hole War: My Battle with Stephen Hawking to Make the World Safe for Quantum Mechanics" is Susskind's second popular science book, published by Little, Brown, and Company on July 7, 2008. The book is his most famous work and explains what he thinks would happen to the information and matter stored in a black hole when it evaporates. The book sparked from a debate that started in 1981, when there was a meeting of physicists to try to decode some of the mysteries about how particles of particular elemental compounds function. During this discussion Stephen Hawking stated that the information inside a black hole is lost forever as the black hole evaporates. It took 28 years for Leonard Susskind to formulate his theory that would prove Hawking wrong. He then published his theory in his book, The Black Hole War. Like "The Cosmic Landscape", "The Black Hole War" is aimed at the lay reader. He writes: "The real tools for understanding the quantum universe are abstract mathematics: infinite dimensional Hilbert spaces, projection operators, unitary matrices and a lot of other advanced principles that take a few years to learn. But let's see how we do in just a few pages".

"The Theoretical Minimum" book series.

Susskind co-authored a series of companion books to his lecture series "The Theoretical Minimum". The first of these, "The Theoretical Minimum: What You Need to Know to Start Doing Physics", was published in 2013 and presents the modern formulations of classical mechanics. The second of these, "Quantum Mechanics: The Theoretical Minimum", was published in February 2014. The third book, "Special Relativity and Classical Field Theory: The Theoretical Minimum" (September 26, 2017), introduces readers to Einstein's special relativity and Maxwell's classical field theory.

"The Theoretical Minimum" lecture series.

Susskind teaches a series of Stanford Continuing Studies courses about modern physics referred to as "The Theoretical Minimum". The title of the series is a clear reference to the Landau's famous comprehensive exam called the "Theoretical Minimum" which students were expected to pass before admission to his school. "The Theoretical Minimum" lectures later formed the basis for the books of the same name. The goal of the courses is to teach the basic but rigorous theoretical foundations required to study certain areas of physics. The sequence covers classical mechanics, relativity, quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and cosmology, including the physics of black holes.  These courses are available on "The Theoretical Minimum" website, on iTunes, and on YouTube. The courses are intended for the mathematically literate public as well as physical science/mathematics students. Susskind aims the courses at people with prior exposure to algebra, and calculus. Homework and study outside of class is otherwise unnecessary. Susskind explains most of the mathematics used, which form the basis of the lectures.

Cornell Messenger Lectures.

Susskind gave 3 lectures "The Birth of the Universe and the Origin of Laws of Physics" April 28-May 1, 2014 in the Cornell Messenger Lecture series which are posted on a Cornell website.

Smolin–Susskind debate.

The Smolin–Susskind debate refers to the series of intense postings in 2004 between Lee Smolin and Susskind, concerning Smolin’s argument that the "anthropic principle cannot yield any falsifiable predictions, and therefore cannot be a part of science." It began on July 26, 2004, with Smolin's publication of "Scientific alternatives to the anthropic principle." Smolin e-mailed Susskind asking for a comment. Having not had the chance to read the paper, Susskind requested a summarization of his arguments. Smolin obliged, and on July 28, 2004, Susskind responded, saying that the logic Smolin followed "can lead to ridiculous conclusions." The next day, Smolin responded, saying that "If a large body of our colleagues feels comfortable believing a theory that cannot be proved wrong, then the progress of science could get stuck, leading to a situation in which false, but unfalsifiable theories dominate the attention of our field." This was followed by another paper by Susskind which made a few comments about Smolin's theory of "cosmic natural selection." The Smolin-Susskind debate finally ended with each of them agreeing to write a final letter which would be posted on the edge.org website, with three conditions attached: (1) No more than one letter each; (2) Neither sees the other's letter in advance; (3) No changes after the fact.

Personal life.

He has been married twice, first in 1960, and he has four children. Susskind is a great-grandfather.

Leonard Susskind (; born 1940) is an American physicist, who is a professor of theoretical physics at Stanford University, and founding director of the Stanford Institute for Theoretical Physics. His research interests include string theory, quantum field theory, quantum statistical mechanics and quantum cosmology. He is a member of the US National Academy of Sciences, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, an associate member of the faculty of Canada's Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, and a distinguished professor of the Korea Institute for Advanced Study.

李奥纳特·苏士侃(英语:Leonard Susskind,1940年-5月20日),美国理论物理学家,美国斯坦福大学教授,美国国家科学院院士,美国艺术与科学院院士。


Lines.

The system consists of three lines: the green Namboku Line (North-South line), orange Tozai Line (East-West line), and blue Tōhō Line. The first, the Namboku Line, was opened in 1971 prior to the 1972 Winter Olympics. The Sapporo City Subway system operates out of two main hubs: Sapporo Station and Odori Station. Most areas of the city are within a reasonable walking distance or short bus ride from one of the subway stations.  The three lines all connect at Odori Station and with the JR Hokkaido main lines at Sapporo Station. At Odori and Susukino stations, it connects to the streetcar (tram) above. The system has a total length of 48 km with 46 stations. Except for the section of the Namboku Line south of Hirigishi Station, the tracks and stations are underground.

Technology.

All lines of the subway use rubber-tired trains that travel on two flat roll ways, guided by a single central rail. This system is unique among subways in Japan and the rest of the world; while other rubber-tired metro networks, including smaller automated guideway transit lines such as the Port Liner, use guide bars, the Sapporo system does not because the central rail makes them superfluous (similar to some rubber-tyred trams, such as the Translohr and Bombardier Guided Light Transit).  There are differences between the technology used on the older Namboku Line and the newer Tōzai and Tōhō Lines. The Namboku Line uses a T-shaped guide rail, double tires, and third rail power collection, while the Tōzai and Tōhō Lines use an I-shaped guide rail, single tires, and overhead line power collection. Also, the surface of the roll ways is either made up of resin (on the entirety of the Namboku Line and the central section of the Tōzai Line) or steel (on the outer sections of the Tōzai Line and the entirety of the Tōhō Line).

Fares.

Ticket prices range from 200 yen to 360 yen, depending on the distance to travel. Day passes and discount passes can be purchased at the vending machines. Prepaid "With You" cards can be used for the subway, streetcar and regular city routes offered by JR Hokkaido Bus, Chuo Bus and Jotetsu Bus.  One-day Cards offer unlimited rides on the subway, streetcar, and regular city routes offered by the Chuo, Jotetsu, and JR Hokkaido Buses (excluding some suburban areas) on the day of purchase. A subway one-day card, for use only on the subway, is also available. Donichika-Tickets allow for unlimited one-day ride pass for the subway to be used only on Saturdays, Sundays and national holidays.  Commuter passes offer unlimited rides between specific stations during their period of validity. There are two types of commuter pass: one for those commuting to their workplace and one for students; both are available for one- or three-month periods, and can be purchased from commuter pass sales offices located at major stations. All stations accept the SAPICA rechargeable IC cards which can be used as a fare card for the subway.

Shopping areas.

There are two main shopping areas located underground, connected to the exits of three central stations on the Namboku line: Sapporo Station, Susukino Station, and Odori Station. Pole Town is an extensive shopping area that lies between Susukino and Odori stations. Aurora Town is a shopping arcade that is connected to Sapporo station. It links some of the main shopping malls in Sapporo, such as Daimaru, JR Tower, Esta, and Stellar Palace.

The is a mostly-underground rubber-tyred rapid transit system in Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan. Operated by the Sapporo City Transportation Bureau, it is the only subway system on the island of Hokkaido.

札幌市营地下铁()是由札幌市交通局经营的地下铁。目前共有南北线、东西线、东丰线三条营运线路,除了手稻区和清田区以外,札幌市地下铁经过市内各区。三条营运路线全部采用胶轮路轨系统。


History.

The band takes its name from the Cajun term, "shivaree", which means, roughly, a noisy mock serenade for newlyweds. It is most commonly used along and to the west of the Mississippi River.  They have produced four full-length albums, one of which was not released in North America due to contract disagreements, with approximately 500,000 sales in total.. Shivaree credits many other musicians in its work and is usually joined by two or three collaborators when performing live. The band has mentioned its use of primarily Southern American ideas and themes, citing William Faulkner as an influence. After contract disagreements with its previous label, the group appeared about to split up after its second album. However, an EP and another two albums followed.  Shivaree's best known song, "Goodnight Moon", was featured in Seasons 3 and 6 of the television series, "Dawson's Creek"; in the American film, "Silver Linings Playbook;" in the closing credits of the Quentin Tarantino film, ";" in the closing scenes and end credits of the French comedy-drama, "Ni reprise ni échangée" (English title, "Monique);" and in a commercial for the Norwegian clothing shop, Cubus. The song, "Little Black Mess," was heard in the Weeds episode, "Only Judy Can Judge."  During a ten-year musical career, the band released four full-length albums, two EPs, and eight singles, some of which included unreleased songs.

Band members.

Shivaree's band members were vocalist Ambrosia Parsley, keyboardist Danny McGough, and guitarist Duke McVinnie. Parsley was to have released a solo debut album in the spring of 2011. McGough and McVinnie continue to work independently with other artists as session musicians and producers.  MV indicates that a music video was made for the song as part of promotion.  in Arte on 03.10.2002 but was NEVER released on CD.

Shivaree was an Americana band formed in 1997, consisting of Ambrosia Parsley (vocals), Danny McGough (keyboard), and Duke McVinnie (guitar). Shivaree is best known for the song "Goodnight Moon", released in 1999, heard in "Dawson's Creek", "", and "Silver Linings Playbook". Shivaree officially disbanded in 2007 after a very brief promotional tour of its last album, "Tainted Love".

Shivaree是一个美国另类摇滚乐团,成立于1999年,同年推出首张大碟《I Oughtta Give You a Shot in the Head for Making Me Live in this Dump》。该乐团由三人组成,主唱为Ambrosia Parsley,键盘手为Danny McGough,而Duke McVinnie 则为吉他手。其风格较为另类,所以名气寂寂无声,未能得到广泛的认同。直到2004年,其1999年旧作《Goodnight Moon》被导演昆汀·塔伦提诺用作《Kill Bill Vol.2》的插曲而吸引了广大歌迷注意,Shivaree也开始被人认识。


Early life and studies 1906–1929.

Bok was born in the small Dutch town of Hoorn, north of Amsterdam, to Jan Bok, who was a sergeant-major in the Dutch army, and Gesina Annetta (née van der Lee) Bok, but he spent a good deal of his childhood with his grandparents in the town of Haarlem, where he attended primary school. He attended high school in The Hague, excelling at mathematics and science, and he also told the story that this was where he met a Scoutmaster who introduced him to the night sky while on camping trips away from the city lights. After completing high school, he went on to study astronomy at Leiden and Groningen Universities.  In 1928, he attended the International Astronomical Union (IAU) Third General Assembly in Leiden in the Netherlands. Priscilla Fairfield was an associate professor in Astronomy, and the young Bart Bok was assigned to her reception committee. He was a graduate student ten years her junior, but he fell in love and proposed to her at the end of the conference. Priscilla did not accept his proposal at the time, and Bart corresponded with her for the next year before she finally agreed.  The following year, Bok broke off his thesis studies at Groningen with Piet van Rhijn and moved across the Atlantic to Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the invitation of Harlow Shapley, Director of Harvard College Observatory, whom he had also met at the same IAU Assembly where he met Priscilla. On September 9, 1929, two days after moving to the US, the two were married. This caused some awkwardness with their mutual superior Shapley, who regarded Priscilla as something of a protégée and was protective of her. While Bok had the greatest admiration for Shapley, it took Shapley time to build the required level of trust with Bok.

Harvard 1929–1957.

The Boks remained at Harvard University for almost thirty years, from 1929 until 1957, where he taught astronomy and directed the Harvard Observatory. Bart was steadily promoted through the academic ranks: he completed his Doctoral dissertation entitled "A Study of the Eta Carinae Region" in 1932, became an assistant professor in 1933, an associate professor in 1939, associate director of the Harvard Observatory by 1946, and he became a full professor in 1947 when he was appointed to the Robert Wheeler Wilson Chair in Astronomy (some sources say this happened in 1945). Meanwhile, Priscilla was also conducting her own research and writing with Bart, but she was not being paid, which prompted Bart to describe Shapley as "rather cheap when it came to hiring people".  The Boks had two children: a son, John Fairfield, in 1930 and a daughter, Joyce Annetta (now Mrs John Ambruster), in 1933. Priscilla stayed at home until the children finished high school, so she published less research herself in this period. Nevertheless, she was consistently involved with supporting Bart's research and their public outreach activities often put them together and gave her some degree of recognition. When Bart became a naturalized US citizen in 1938, he shortened his first name to "Bart".  Their marriage began a close scientific collaboration that would span the next four decades, in which the Royal Astronomical Society said "it is difficult and pointless to separate his achievements from hers". They co-authored a number of academic papers on star clusters, stellar magnitudes, and the structure of the Milky Way. Bok was fiercely interested in the mechanical processes which form star clusters and galaxies, and his paper "The Apparent Clustering of External Galaxies" ("Nature", vol. 133, p. 578) was the first to demonstrate how dissipation of a star cluster relates to its density, and so by examining the clusters in our galaxy he concluded that it cannot be older than about twenty billion years.  Their enthusiasm for explaining astronomy to the public led to them being well known: they were described as "salesmen of the Milky Way" by "The Boston Globe" in 1936. Their main work together was a definitive undergraduate textbook and popular science book, "The Milky Way", "widely acclaimed as one of the most successful astronomical books ever published", which had five editions over forty years following its initial publication in 1941, and was translated into many languages. The writing of this book, begun in 1937, was shared equally – according to Bart:  In the 1940s, Bok first observed small, dark clouds of dense cosmic dust and gas which would later become known as "Bok globules" in the Milky Way. In a paper published in 1947, Bok and E.F. Reilly hypothesized that these clouds were "similar to insect's cocoons" that were undergoing gravitational collapse to form new stars and star clusters. This hypothesis was difficult to verify due to the observational difficulties of establishing what was happening inside a dense dark cloud that obscured all visible light emitted from within it, but after Bok's death his ideas were confirmed when analyses of near infrared observations published in 1990 confirmed that stars were being born inside Bok globules.  The Bok family also traveled to spend time setting up two international facilities on opposite sides of the world. During 1941, Bok helped to set up the Tonantzintla Observatory in Tonantizintla, Mexico. In 1950, he set up the Schmidt Telescope at Harvard's Boyden Station in South Africa. While there, he and Priscilla also enjoyed the opportunity to study the southern stars, including "Eta Carinae" which had been the subject of Bart's doctoral dissertation.  Bok's record of success in setting up new observatories would guide the rest of his career. Starting in 1952 he led the efforts to fund and construct a major radio telescope facility at Harvard's Oak Ridge Observatory. Unusually for his time, Bok believed that the combination of radio and optical astronomy could produce exceptional benefits. Initially, this was inspired by the difficulty and unreliability of visual star counting techniques, especially when there is obscuring dust. This combined approach proved to be vital in analyzing the interstellar medium, and particularly in developing an understanding of what was happening inside Bok Globules.

Australia 1957–1966.

In 1957, the Boks moved to Australia, where Bart took up the position of Director at Mount Stromlo Observatory in the Australian National University (ANU) in Canberra, which he was to hold for the next nine years. His presence was a crucial factor in the development of optical astronomy in Australia, and its integration with the well-established field of radio astronomy. During his tenure, Bok established a thriving international graduate program at Stromlo which became known as "Harvard in the South", obtained funds from the Prime Minister of the time, Robert Menzies, for a new telescope at Stromlo, and established a field observatory at Siding Spring.  He was a pioneer in the use of electronic computers for astronomical observing, and the first person to use them for any purpose at the ANU: in February 1960 he had the first one installed in the observatory. He was also a pioneer in taking advantage of mass media to promote astronomy: he made a television series which was broadcast on the ABC, reaching far more people than any of his predecessors dreamed of and helping to build awareness and support for astronomy in Australia.  By the early 1960s, Mount Stromlo had developed into one of the leading facilities for observational astronomy in the southern hemisphere. However, Bok appreciated the limitations of the site of Mount Stromlo due to weather and increasing light pollution, and he initiated a site-testing program which stretched across the country. In 1962, Siding Spring Mountain was chosen for the creation of a world-class telescope facility. As Siding Spring grew, Bok threw his support behind a new project: what would become Australia's largest optical telescope, the Anglo-Australian Telescope.  This did not leave much time for astronomy research; Priscilla spent many nights at the Stromlo telescopes observing and analyzing their data. This suited her greater interest in basic observations such as determining stellar positions and providing calibrated magnitudes. Their close relationship and the way their personalities complemented one another supported their scientific efforts: Priscilla's empathy balanced Bart's energetic and dynamic nature. In the subsequent editions of their book, the Boks made major changes to accommodate the rapid progress in galactic astronomy. The approachability of the text for the general public was particularly important to Priscilla, according to Bart:  Bok was a tireless promoter of astronomy to the general public, trying to keep to a routine of devoting three days each month to public lectures:  one in Canberra or near Canberra, one in a capital city, and one in the country... I accepted almost any invitation I could get to give a lecture... my price was that if I spoke to [a group of adults]... I would [also] address the local high school and this paid off amazingly well in a direction that had never occurred to me, because in a high school audience there is generally a nephew or a niece of a Member of Parliament, and all the Members of Parliament learned about it.  This ability to "sell" astronomy to the public and especially to the Members of Parliament was crucial in winning support for such huge, and expensive, projects as the Anglo-Australian Observatory against competing scientific priorities. In the end, he did not get to see it completed; the formal agreement to construct the AAO was reached the year after he and Priscilla left Australia to return to the US.

Return to the US 1966–1983.

In 1966, the Boks moved back to the US, where Bart took up the roles of Head of the Department of Astronomy at the University of Arizona and Director of Steward Observatory, posts which he held until 1970. He was largely responsible for the construction of the telescope at the Kitt Peak National Observatory, and oversaw a doubling of the university's staff and growth in the graduate student program until by 1970 it was ranked fifth in the US, and Steward was regarded as "one of the world's premier astronomical research institutions."  From 1970, when he left his positions at Steward University and the University of Arizona, Bok became more actively involved in national and global organizations for professional astronomers. In 1970, he became Vice-President of the Executive Committee of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), and in 1973 he was appointed for a second three-year term in the same position. Overlapping with this, he also served as president of the American Astronomical Society (AAS) from 1972 to 1974.  Priscilla suffered a stroke in 1972; her health declined in the following years, and Bok resigned his positions with the IAU and the AAS in 1974 and dedicated himself to her care. She died of a heart attack in November 1975. In 1975 Bok coauthored the statement "Objections to Astrology", which was endorsed by 186 professional astronomers, astrophysicists, and other scientists, including nineteen winners of the Nobel Prize. The statement was published in The Humanist and copies were sent to every major newspaper in the US. This led to the formation of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (now called the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry), of which he was a founding Fellow. In 2000, Bok was voted by readers of Skeptical Inquirer magazine as one of the "outstanding skeptics of the twentieth century". At a meeting of the executive council of CSI in Denver, Colorado in April 2011, Bok was selected for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics. The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism.  Bok continued as an emeritus professor at the University of Arizona, and he participated in or led several groups to view solar eclipses, including a trip to the eclipse near Bratsk in Siberia in July 1981 and his last eclipse trip to what he called his "spiritual home" of Java to view a totality that passed near the town of Salatiga in June 1983.  Bok died of a heart attack at his home in Tucson, Arizona a little more than a month after that final trip. His body was bequeathed to the college of medicine at the University of Arizona.

Bartholomeus Jan "Bart" Bok (April 28, 1906 – August 5, 1983) was a Dutch-American astronomer, teacher, and lecturer. He is best known for his work on the structure and evolution of the Milky Way galaxy, and for the discovery of Bok globules, which are small, densely dark clouds of interstellar gas and dust that can be seen silhouetted against brighter backgrounds. Bok suggested that these globules may be in the process of contracting, before forming into stars.

巴特·扬·包克(,1906年-4月28日-1983年-8月5日)是一位美籍荷兰天文学家。


可视化 (计算机图形学)

Overview.

The use of visualization to present information is not a new phenomenon. It has been used in maps, scientific drawings, and data plots for over a thousand years. Examples from cartography include Ptolemy's Geographia (2nd century AD), a map of China (1137 AD), and Minard's map (1861) of Napoleon's invasion of Russia a century and a half ago. Most of the concepts learned in devising these images carry over in a straightforward manner to computer visualization. Edward Tufte has written three critically acclaimed books that explain many of these principles.  Computer graphics has from its beginning been used to study scientific problems. However, in its early days the lack of graphics power often limited its usefulness. The recent emphasis on visualization started in 1987 with the publication of Visualization in Scientific Computing, a special issue of Computer Graphics. Since then, there have been several conferences and workshops, co-sponsored by the IEEE Computer Society and ACM SIGGRAPH, devoted to the general topic, and special areas in the field, for example volume visualization.  Most people are familiar with the digital animations produced to present meteorological data during weather reports on television, though few can distinguish between those models of reality and the satellite photos that are also shown on such programs. TV also offers scientific visualizations when it shows computer drawn and animated reconstructions of road or airplane accidents. Some of the most popular examples of scientific visualizations are computer-generated images that show real spacecraft in action, out in the void far beyond Earth, or on other planets. Dynamic forms of visualization, such as educational animation or timelines, have the potential to enhance learning about systems that change over time.  Apart from the distinction between interactive visualizations and animation, the most useful categorization is probably between abstract and model-based scientific visualizations. The abstract visualizations show completely conceptual constructs in 2D or 3D. These generated shapes are completely arbitrary. The model-based visualizations either place overlays of data on real or digitally constructed images of reality or make a digital construction of a real object directly from the scientific data.  Scientific visualization is usually done with specialized software, though there are a few exceptions, noted below. Some of these specialized programs have been released as open source software, having very often its origins in universities, within an academic environment where sharing software tools and giving access to the source code is common. There are also many proprietary software packages of scientific visualization tools.  Models and frameworks for building visualizations include the data flow models popularized by systems such as AVS, IRIS Explorer, and VTK toolkit, and data state models in spreadsheet systems such as the Spreadsheet for Visualization and Spreadsheet for Images.

Applications.

Scientific visualization.

As a subject in computer science, scientific visualization is the use of interactive, sensory representations, typically visual, of abstract data to reinforce cognition, hypothesis building, and reasoning. Data visualization is a related subcategory of visualization dealing with statistical graphics and geographic or spatial data (as in thematic cartography) that is abstracted in schematic form.  Scientific visualization is the transformation, selection, or representation of data from simulations or experiments, with an implicit or explicit geometric structure, to allow the exploration, analysis, and understanding of the data. Scientific visualization focuses and emphasizes the representation of higher order data using primarily graphics and animation techniques. It is a very important part of visualization and maybe the first one, as the visualization of experiments and phenomena is as old as science itself. Traditional areas of scientific visualization are flow visualization, medical visualization, astrophysical visualization, and chemical visualization. There are several different techniques to visualize scientific data, with isosurface reconstruction and direct volume rendering being the more common.

Educational visualization.

Educational visualization is using a simulation to create an image of something so it can be taught about. This is very useful when teaching about a topic that is difficult to otherwise see, for example, atomic structure, because atoms are far too small to be studied easily without expensive and difficult to use scientific equipment.

Information visualization.

Information visualization concentrates on the use of computer-supported tools to explore large amount of abstract data. The term "information visualization" was originally coined by the User Interface Research Group at Xerox PARC and included Jock Mackinlay. Practical application of information visualization in computer programs involves selecting, transforming, and representing abstract data in a form that facilitates human interaction for exploration and understanding. Important aspects of information visualization are dynamics of visual representation and the interactivity. Strong techniques enable the user to modify the visualization in real-time, thus affording unparalleled perception of patterns and structural relations in the abstract data in question.

Knowledge visualization.

The use of visual representations to transfer knowledge between at least two persons aims to improve the transfer of knowledge by using computer and non-computer-based visualization methods complementarily. Thus properly designed visualization is an important part of not only data analysis but knowledge transfer process, too. Knowledge transfer may be significantly improved using hybrid designs as it enhances information density but may decrease clarity as well. For example, visualization of 3D scalar field may be implemented using iso-surfaces for field distribution and textures for the gradient of the field. Examples of such visual formats are sketches, diagrams, images, objects, interactive visualizations, information visualization applications, and imaginary visualizations as in stories. While information visualization concentrates on the use of computer-supported tools to derive new insights, knowledge visualization focuses on transferring insights and creating new knowledge in groups. Beyond the mere transfer of facts, knowledge visualization aims to further transfer insights, experiences, attitudes, values, expectations, perspectives, opinions, and predictions by using various complementary visualizations. See also: picture dictionary, visual dictionary

Product visualization.

Product visualization involves visualization software technology for the viewing and manipulation of 3D models, technical drawing and other related documentation of manufactured components and large assemblies of products. It is a key part of product lifecycle management. Product visualization software typically provides high levels of photorealism so that a product can be viewed before it is actually manufactured. This supports functions ranging from design and styling to sales and marketing. "Technical visualization" is an important aspect of product development. Originally technical drawings were made by hand, but with the rise of advanced computer graphics the drawing board has been replaced by computer-aided design (CAD). CAD-drawings and models have several advantages over hand-made drawings such as the possibility of 3-D modeling, rapid prototyping, and simulation. 3D product visualization promises more interactive experiences for online shoppers, but also challenges retailers to overcome hurdles in the production of 3D content, as large-scale 3D content production can be extremely costly and time-consuming.

Visual communication.

Visual communication is the communication of ideas through the visual display of information. Primarily associated with two dimensional images, it includes: alphanumerics, art, signs, and electronic resources. Recent research in the field has focused on web design and graphically-oriented usability.

Visual analytics.

Visual analytics focuses on human interaction with visualization systems as part of a larger process of data analysis. Visual analytics has been defined as "the science of analytical reasoning supported by the interactive visual interface".  Its focus is on human information discourse (interaction) within massive, dynamically changing information spaces. Visual analytics research concentrates on support for perceptual and cognitive operations that enable users to detect the expected and discover the unexpected in complex information spaces.  Technologies resulting from visual analytics find their application in almost all fields, but are being driven by critical needs (and funding) in biology and national security.

Visualization or visualisation (see spelling differences) is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of humanity. Examples from history include cave paintings, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Greek geometry, and Leonardo da Vinci's revolutionary methods of technical drawing for engineering and scientific purposes.

可视化是指用于创建图形、图像或动画,以便交流沟通讯息的任何技术和方法。在历史上包括洞穴壁画、埃及象形文字等,如今可视化有不断扩大的应用领域,如科学教育、工程、互动多媒体、医学等。


Major thematic relations.

Following major thematic relations have been identified:

Cause.

There are not always clear boundaries between these relations. For example, in "the hammer broke the window", "hammer" might be labeled an agent (see below), an instrument, a force, or possibly a cause. Nevertheless, some thematic relation labels are more logically plausible than others.

Relationship to case.

In many languages, such as Finnish and Hungarian and Turkish, thematic relations may be reflected in the case-marking on the noun. For instance, Hungarian has an instrumental case ending (-val/-vel), which explicitly marks the instrument of a sentence. Languages like English often mark such thematic relations with prepositions.

Conflicting terminologies.

The term "thematic relation" is frequently confused with theta role. Many linguists (particularly generative grammarians) use the terms interchangeably. This is because theta roles are typically named by the most prominent thematic relation that they are associated with. To make matters more confusing, depending upon which theoretical approach one assumes, the grammatical relations of subject and object, etc., are often closely tied to the semantic relations. For example, in the typological tradition agents/actors (or "agent-like" arguments) frequently overlap with the notion of subject (S). These ideas, when they are used distinctly, can be distinguished as follows:  Thematic relations concern the nature of the relationship between the meaning of the verb and the meaning of the noun. Theta roles are about the number of arguments that a verb requires (which is a purely syntactic notion). Theta roles are syntactic relations that refers to the semantic thematic relations.  For example, take the sentence "Reggie gave the kibble to Fergus on Friday."

In certain theories of linguistics, thematic relations, also known as semantic roles, are the various roles that a noun phrase may play with respect to the action or state described by a governing verb, commonly the sentence's main verb. For example, in the sentence "Susan ate an apple", "Susan" is the doer of the eating, so she is an agent; "the apple" is the item that is eaten, so it is a patient. While most modern linguistic theories make reference to such relations in one form or another, the general term, as well as the terms for specific relations, varies: "participant role", "semantic role", and "deep case" have also been employed with similar sense.

语义角色(),又称语义关系、主题关系(thematic relations),生成语法中称为题元或题元角色(θ-roles),在格语法中也称为语义格或深层格,是语义学上的一个概念,指短语或句子中的名词短语即论元(Arguement)与谓语中心词(Head)之间的语义关系。例如 "Susan ate an apple",Susan 就是 eat 的行为者,即施事;an apple 就是 eat 的对象,即受事。


Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (51.0%) is water. The Pacific Ocean surrounds the county.

Government and Politics.

Kauai County has a mayor-council form of municipal government. Executive authority is vested in the Mayor of Kauai, elected by the voters on a nonpartisan basis to a four-year term. Legislative authority is vested in the seven-member County Council. All members of the County Council are elected on a nonpartisan, at-large basis to two-year terms.

United States Congress.

Kauai County, like the rest of Hawaii, is represented entirely by Democrats in both the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives.

Elections.

Federal.

Kauai County has traditionally been a solid Democratic stronghold. The county has not voted Republican since the 1984 federal election, when it narrowly voted in favor of Ronald Reagan.

Demographics.

At the 2000 census there were 58,463 people, 20,183 households, and 14,572 families in the county. The population density was 94 people per square mile (36/km2). There were 25,331 housing units at an average density of 41 per square mile (16/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 29.5% White, 0.3% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 36.0% Asian, 9.1% Pacific Islander, 0.9% from other races, and 23.8% from two or more races. 8.2%. were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  Of the 20,183 households 34.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.9% were married couples living together, 12.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.8% were non-families. 21.4% of households were one person and 7.7% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.87 and the average family size was 3.34.  The age distribution was 26.4% under the age of 18, 7.1% from 18 to 24, 27.2% from 25 to 44, 25.5% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% 65 or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 100.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.50 males.

Economy.

Top employers.

According to the County's 2010 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top non-government employers in the county are:

Education.

Higher education.

Kauai Community College is the county's only institution of higher education. One of the ten branches of the University of Hawai'i system, it offers a range of 2-year degrees and is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges.

Primary and Secondary Education.

Public schools in the county are operated by the Hawai'i Department of Education, and the county is represented by Maggie Cox on the state's Board of Education. There are 14 elementary schools, 4 middle schools and 3 high schools in the county.

Private schools.

There are two private schools in the county: Island School, and the Kahili Adventist School.

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Lihue Airport serves the island of Kauai. Bus service is provided by The Kauai Bus.

Communities.

There are no incorporated communities in Kauai County, or in any other county of Hawaii. The county is the only form of local government in the State of Hawaii.

Kauai County is a county in the U.S. state of Hawaii. It consists of the islands of Kauai, Niihau, Lehua, and Kaula. As of the 2010 Census the population was 67,091. The county seat is Līhue.

可爱县(英语:Kaua'i County)是美国夏威夷州的一个县,由可爱岛、你好岛、里荷伊岛和考拉岛组成,面积3,279.88平方公里,陆地面积1,612.11平方公里,水域面积1,667.77平方公里。根据2010年人口普查,本县共有人口67,091人。本县县治为利胡埃。


Early life.

Leonid Stein was born in Kamenets-Podolsky. He was a Jewish Ukrainian who served in the Soviet Army.  In both 1955 and 1956, he tied for first place in the individual Army Championship. He achieved the national Master title for chess at the relatively late age of 24, but, as his Army titles against strong competition attest, he was likely at that strength somewhat earlier. At 24, he competed for the first time in the USSR Chess Championship at Tbilisi, 1959. In the following year he won the Ukrainian Championship at Kiev, winning it again in 1962. He played board one for the Soviet team at the Helsinki 1961 Student Olympiad, scoring a strong +8, =3, −1, and helping his team to the overall gold medals.

Grandmaster and Soviet Champion.

Stein tied for third place in the 1961 Soviet Championship, at Moscow, defeating Tigran Petrosian on the way. He won his first Soviet title at Leningrad 1963; he tied with Boris Spassky and Ratmir Kholmov in the tournament itself, then won the playoff. He won again at Tallinn, 1965, and repeated the next year, 1966, at Tbilisi. Two outstanding international tournament victories were attained at Moscow 1967 (commemorating the 50th anniversary of the 1917 October Revolution), and Moscow 1971 (Alekhine Memorial, equal with Anatoly Karpov). Further international tournament victories were scored at Sarajevo (Bosna) 1967, equal with Borislav Ivkov, Hastings 1967–68, shared, Kecskemét 1968, Tallinn 1969, Pärnu 1971, and Las Palmas 1973, equal with Tigran Petrosian. From 1963 to his premature death in 1973, Stein was in the top ten players in the world, or just outside that range.

World title challenge frustrations.

With his strong result at the 1961 Soviet Championship, he earned the right to play in the 1962 Stockholm Interzonal tournament. His play there was excellent, finishing in a tie for 6th–7th places, but he was denied the right to advance to the Candidates' Tournament, because of a FIDE rule then in force which limited the qualifiers from any one country to three (in this case USSR). He had finished behind fellow Soviets Efim Geller, Petrosian, and Viktor Korchnoi. A very similar occurrence was the story of the next Interzonal tournament, in Amsterdam 1964. Stein took fifth place, sufficient for qualification for any non-Soviet player, with an outstanding total of 161⁄2 / 23, but was blocked from advancement. He had finished behind fellow Soviets Mikhail Tal, Vasily Smyslov, and Boris Spassky, who, along with Danish GM Bent Larsen, had all scored 17 points. He did represent the USSR at the Tel Aviv Olympiad that year, scoring a fine 10/13, and winning an individual gold medal on the first reserve board. Again, he was in the Soviet side at the Havana Olympiad 1966, scoring 9/12, winning an individual silver medal on board four. Both times, the Soviet Union won the team gold medals.  Again, in 1967, Stein qualified for the Sousse Interzonal, scored well, in a tie for 6th–8th places, but had to undergo a further playoff with Samuel Reshevsky and Vlastimil Hort, in Los Angeles, which was won by Reshevsky.  He was in the Soviet side for the European team championships at Hamburg 1965 and Kapfenberg 1970, both of which were victorious. He served as an alternate on the Soviet team for the Match of the Century against the Rest of the World team, at Belgrade 1970. He played one game, losing to Larsen.  Stein had already qualified for the 1973 Petropolis Interzonal, and was considered a potential favorite to win the entire Candidates' cycle. But, as he was preparing to leave with the Soviet side for the European team championship, set for Bath 1973, he collapsed of an apparent heart attack, and died in the Rossiya Hotel in Moscow. He was only 38 and still near the peak of his career.

Style and legacy.

Stein's creative style was greatly influenced by Chigorin and Alekhine. He was a highly intuitive, natural player. He was considered to be a brilliant attacking genius, but nevertheless played very sound chess, being less willing than Tal to complicate with unforeseeable results. He excelled with Black in sharp openings such as the King's Indian Defence, the Grünfeld Defence, and the Sicilian Defence.  He was one of few players who had an even score against Vasily Smyslov, Tigran Petrosian, and Mikhail Botvinnik. He had plus records against Mikhail Tal, Boris Spassky, and Paul Keres. Stein defeated many of the top players of his era.

Leonid Zakharovich Stein (; November 12, 1934 – July 4, 1973) was a Soviet chess Grandmaster from Ukraine. He won three USSR Chess Championships in the 1960s (1963, 1965, and 1966), and was among the world's top ten players during that era.

列昂尼德·斯泰因(,1934年-11月12日-1973年-7月4日),乌克兰出身的苏联国际象棋棋手、特级大师。20世纪60年代他曾是跻身世界前十的顶尖棋手。


Early life.

Benjamin Lincoln was born on January 24, 1733, in Hingham, Province of Massachusetts Bay, the sixth child and first son of Colonel Benjamin Lincoln and his second wife Elizabeth Thaxter Lincoln. Lincoln's ancestors were among those who first settled in Hingham, beginning with Thomas Lincoln 'the cooper,' who was among several Lincolns who settled in Hingham when it was part of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Lincoln's father, one of the wealthiest men in Suffolk County, served as a member of the governor's council from 1753 until 1770, and occupied many other civic posts before his death in 1771. Lincoln's maternal grandfather, Col. Samuel Thaxter, one of the most prominent and influential citizens in Hingham, became Colonel in a regiment and one of those commissioned to settle the boundary between Massachusetts and Rhode Island in 1719.  In his early life, Lincoln worked on the family farm, and attended the local school. He followed his father into government, becoming town constable at 21, and in 1755 he joined the 3rd Regiment of the Suffolk County militia (where his father was colonel) as an adjutant. In 1756, at the age of 23, Lincoln married Mary Cushing, daughter of Elijah Cushing of Pembroke, Massachusetts, whose ancestors were also among the founders of Hingham. They had eleven children, seven of whom survived to adulthood. In 1757, he was elected the town clerk of Hingham, a post he held for twenty years. He continued to be active in the militia during the French and Indian War, but saw no action, and was promoted to major by the end of the conflict in 1763.  Lincoln was elected a Hingham town selectman in 1765, a post to which he held for six years. During this tenure political opposition rose in the province to Parliamentary tax measures, polarizing the political landscape of the colony. Lincoln sided with the opposition, eventually becoming a leading force among Hingham's Patriots. In 1770, in a list of resolutions passed by the inhabitants of Hingham, Lincoln outlined the measures urged by residents towards the non-importation of British goods, and he condemned the Boston massacre. In 1772, Lincoln was promoted to lieutenant colonel of the 3rd Regiment of the Suffolk militia. That same year he won election as a representative of the town to the provincial assembly.

American Revolution.

With the arrival of General Thomas Gage as governor of the colony in 1774, the provincial assembly was dissolved, but reformed itself into the Massachusetts Provincial Congress. Lincoln continued to win election to this body, and was placed on committees overseeing militia organization and supply, a position that came to be of utmost importance when the American Revolutionary War broke out with the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775. He was then appointed to the congress' committee of safety, and also was elected to its executive council, which exercised executive authority over the province outside besieged Boston. He was deeply involved in ensuring that supplies of all sorts reached the nascent Continental Army outside Boston, procuring supplies from blankets to gunpowder.

Defense of New York.

In January 1776, Lincoln was promoted to major general of the Massachusetts militia, overseeing the coastal defenses of the state. After the British evacuated Boston, he and Continental Army General Artemas Ward oversaw attempts to improve the state's coastal fortifications, and he was ordered to hold the state's militia brigades in readiness in case the British returned. In May 1776 he directed the state forces that successfully drove the last Royal Navy ships from Boston Harbor.  Despite his lack of combat experience, Lincoln began lobbying state representatives to the Continental Congress for a Continental Army officers commission, anticipating that the aging and ill General Ward might soon step down. The idea was generally well received, with one representative writing that Lincoln was "a good man for a Brigadier General" and "a man of abilities", even though he had not "had much experience". While a Continental commission was not immediately forthcoming, Lincoln was placed in command of a brigade of militia the state sent to join General George Washington at New York Town in September 1776.  When Lincoln reached southwestern Connecticut, Washington first ordered him to prepare an expedition across Long Island Sound to raid British positions on Long Island. The expedition was aborted when Washington began to retreat from New York after the Battle of Long Island (Brooklyn) in August 1776, and Lincoln was ordered to bring two regiments to join Washington's army as it later retreated northward from New York Town. Lincoln's troops secured the Continental retreat to White Plains, New York, and were in the main Continental formation during the subsequent Battle of White Plains in October 1776; this portion of the troops saw no action in the battle. The enlistment terms of his men expiring, Lincoln returned briefly to Massachusetts to take command of new recruits for the coming year's campaigns. Based on a recommendation from General Washington as "a gentleman well worthy of notice in the Military Line", Congress commissioned Lincoln a major general in the Continental Army on February 14, 1777.  Lincoln's first command was that of a forward outpost at Bound Brook, New Jersey, only from British sentries outside New Brunswick. He established his headquarters at the nearby Van Horne House. After months of skirmishing, his post was the target of a surprise attack on April 13, 1777. In the Battle of Bound Brook he was defeated by a much larger force under the command of Lord Cornwallis, barely escaping capture.

Saratoga.

In July 1777, Washington dispatched three of his best officers, Colonel Morgan, General Arnold and General Lincoln north to assist Philip Schuyler, and afterward Schuyler's replacement Horatio Gates, in the defense of upstate New York against the advance of General John Burgoyne's expedition from Quebec. Lincoln was ordered to coordinate the activities of the New England militia being recruited for the effort. General Schuyler asked Lincoln, from a base in southern Vermont, to harass the British supply line as the British moved south from Fort Ticonderoga toward Albany. Lincoln's job was complicated by New Hampshire's militia leader John Stark, who categorically refused to put his forces under Lincoln's command. Stark had previously held a Continental commission and resigned over a promotion snub, and had only agreed to serve in his native New Hampshire if he was not under Continental authority. Stark led his forces to victory in the Battle of Bennington in mid-August, while Lincoln's force was still growing.  By early September Lincoln had 2,000 men under his command, and launched several detachments at the British supply line. One of those detachments, led by Colonel John Brown, successfully harassed British positions outside Fort Ticonderoga, freeing American prisoners and even making an unsuccessful attempt to capture the fort in late September. By this time General Gates, who had taken command from Schuyler in August, had ordered Lincoln's force to join him near Stillwater, New York. Lincoln arrived on September 22, three days after the strategically conclusive Battle of Freeman's Farm where Colonel Morgan's sharpshooters killed most of the officers and three quarters of the artillerymen, resulting in the capture of 6 of the 10 British cannons. There Lincoln's militia were to hold the eastern shore of the Hudson River.  Lincoln's militia played no role in the American victory at the October 7 Battle of Bemis Heights, since the action took place on the western side of the river, but Lincoln was in command of the American right in the battle. These forces saw little action, which was concentrated on the American left. American forces, led by Generals Benedict Arnold and Enoch Poor, successfully breached the British defenses, undoing the small gains the British had made at Freeman's Farm and compelling Burgoyne to retreat a short distance. That evening Gates ordered Lincoln to perform reconnaissance; the British left fell back as Lincoln and his 1,500 man force probed them, and Lincoln was able to occupy the former British lines. In council that evening Lincoln recommended that the ford at Fort Edward be fortified against the possibility that Burgoyne would attempt to reach it and cross the river in an attempt to return to Ticonderoga. Gates agreed with the plan, and ordered Lincoln's militia to do so. During these movements Lincoln encountered a British company; in the ensuing skirmish Lincoln's right ankle was shattered by a musket ball, much like General Arnold was hit in the leg during his charge during the Battle of Bemis Heights, even though General Gates had already relieved Arnold of command due to insubordination in Arnold's manner of disagreement with Gates' battle plans.  Lincoln was transported to Albany, where he was treated, and where he learned of Burgoyne's October 17 surrender. His son helped him return him to Hingham in February 1778, where he convalesced for several months. The injury left his right leg two inches shorter than the left, and for many years the ankle wound was prone to reopening and the danger of infection. During his recovery Lincoln learned that General Arnold's seniority had been restored, reducing Lincoln to the lowest-ranked major general. Although he considered resignation over the slight, Washington and supporters in the Continental Congress assured him of his value to the army.

Southern theater (1778–81).

Lincoln rejoined Washington outside New York in August 1778, and was appointed commander of the Southern department in September. Washington sent Lincoln, Lafayette and Lee (Henry "Light Horse Harry") to the Southern Department to oppose the British army under Clinton and Cornwallis. Lincoln participated in the unsuccessful French-led siege of Savannah, Georgia in October 1779, after which he retreated to Charleston, South Carolina. He took command of the garrison of Charleston. In March 1780 the city was surrounded by a sizable British force dispatched from New York. After a relatively brief siege Lincoln was forced to surrender more than 5,000 men to Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton on May 12, 1780, but did so in a way that allowed the South Carolina militia to escape as well as some Continental forces, that annoyed the British toward Lincoln.  Lincoln, desperate for more troops, had pleaded with the South Carolina legislature to arm 1,000 enslaved African Americans to ward off the approaching British. Rather than see armed slaves, the legislature began negotiations with the British commanders to allow the British forces to pass through South Carolina.  The loss of the southern army at Charleston was one of the worst Continental defeats of the war. He was denied the honors of war in surrendering, due to the British annoyance at his facilitating the escape of SC militia units and some Continental forces, such as those with Lafayette and Lee, which deeply rankled Lincoln. Lincoln was paroled, and in the court of inquiry no charges were ever brought against him. The British subsequently sought to enlist large numbers of black soldiers.  After being exchanged for the British Major General William Phillips in November 1780, Lincoln returned to Washington's main army. He led a large portion of the Army south from Head of Elk Maryland to Hampton, Virginia, to march to the west to Yorktown where the British were encamped. Lincoln played a major role in the Siege of Yorktown and the surrender of Lord Cornwallis on October 19, 1781. Cornwallis plead illness, and so did not attend the surrender ceremony, choosing instead to send his second-in-command, the Irish General Charles O'Hara. General Washington refused to accept Cornwallis' sword from O'Hara, directing O'Hara to present it instead to Lincoln, Washington's own second-in-command.

Secretary of War (1781–83).

From 1781 to late 1783, Lincoln served as the first United States Secretary of War. He was appointed by the Confederation Congress under the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, adopted 1781. He was succeeded in the post by Continental Army artillery chief, Gen. Henry Knox, (who later continued in the position under the new Federal Constitution of 1787, with first President George Washington, during his first term, 1789-1795). He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1781.

Post-war politics.

While Secretary of War, Lincoln was elected the first president of the Massachusetts chapter of the Society of the Cincinnati on June 9, 1783, and he then supported the election of George Washington as president of the national Society on June 19.  In early 1787, Lincoln helped put an end to an uprising of western Massachusetts farmers opposed to increased taxation and government coercion in their trade, known as Shays' Rebellion; Lincoln commanded 3,000 privately funded militia to disperse the opposition, and captured over one hundred. The uprising with the near-capture of a federal arsenal by rebels caused a national uproar, and it was an important part of the national crisis that justified calling the Constitutional Convention. The next year, as a Suffolk County, Hingham delegate, Lincoln voted to support the United States Constitution at the Massachusetts Federal Convention, which ratified 187 to 168 on February 6, 1788.  On February 4, 1789, Lincoln was one of only 10 men who received electoral votes during the first election for President and Vice President of the United States, receiving the vote of an unrecorded elector from the State of Georgia.  Lincoln also served as one of the first trustees of Derby Academy, founded in Hingham by Sarah Hersey Derby, widow of a wealthy Salem shipping magnate.  He stayed active in public life in various capacities, including a term as Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts and many years as the Collector of the Port of Boston. He retired from public life in 1809 and died in Hingham on May 9, 1810.

Legacy.

Lincoln is buried in the Old Ship Burying Ground behind the Old Ship Church in Hingham. Among the pallbearers at Lincoln's funeral were John Adams, Cotton Tufts, Robert Treat Paine, Richard Cranch and Thomas Melvill. In Lincoln's honor, the bells at Boston and other places were tolled for an hour; the flags of vessels, and those at Fort Independence and Fort Warren, as well as those at the Charlestown Navy Yard were lowered to half-mast.  He was one of the few men to have been involved in the three major surrenders of the American Revolutionary War: twice as a victor (at Yorktown and Saratoga), and once as the defeated party (at Charleston). In spite of the major role he played during the war, he tends to be less well-remembered than many of his contemporaries in the Continental Army.  Places named "Lincoln" in the American South tend to be named after Benjamin Lincoln rather than Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President (the two were not related). Counties and/or towns in Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, and Tennessee are named in his honor, as are communities in North Carolina (Lincolnton), Georgia (Lincolnton), Vermont (Lincoln), and Maine (Lincolnville). Streets in Columbia, South Carolina, and Savannah, Georgia, bear his name, as does Lincoln Hall at the United States Coast Guard Training Center in Yorktown, Virginia.  Lincoln's lifelong home still stands. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Benjamin Lincoln (January 24, 1733 (O.S. January 13, 1732) – May 9, 1810) was an American army officer. He served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Lincoln was involved in three major surrenders during the war: his participation in the Battles of Saratoga (sustaining a wound shortly afterward) contributed to John Burgoyne's surrender of a British army, he oversaw the largest American surrender of the war at the 1780 Siege of Charleston, and, as George Washington's second in command, he formally accepted the British surrender at Yorktown.

本杰明·林肯(英语:Benjamin Lincoln,1733年-1月24日-1810年-5月9日),英格兰清教徒移民后裔,北美麻省殖民地民兵军官,美国独立战争大陆军少将。他是邦联议会任命的第一任美国战争部长,亦是美国独立后第二任麻省副总督。


Plot.

In "The Door", a high school girl named Manatsu feels that her life is boring and meaningless. Her father left, and her mother seemed to care more about school and studying than Manatsu's feelings and needs.  While at school, Manatsu meets a bullied girl nicknamed Asparagus who cuts to relieve her pain. With Asparagus, Manatsu develops a friendship and they begin to create a suicide pact. Manatsu enjoys her time with Asparagus and begins to feel alive again, as well as taking an interest in death and the fragility of life. They raise money and order cyanide pills off the internet, but Manatsu starts to feel uncertain about dying.  After confronting Asparagus on a rooftop, planning to take the pills, Manatsu accidentally falls and grabs onto a ledge. She begs Asparagus to save her, realizing she does not want to die, but instead Asparagus decides that she will jump. The girls are saved at the last moment by civilians, and Manatsu rekindles her relationship with her mother and begins to see life differently. She later learns that Asparagus committed suicide. At her funeral, the bullies refuse to acknowledge their fault. Manatsu concludes that suicide is not brave or wondrous and realizes the pain it leaves on those alive.

Reception.

"Confidential Confessions" received mixed reviews from Western audiences. "Manga Life"'s Miguel Douglas praised the first volume for its "absolute realistic depictions" of the characters and commended it for "tackl[ing] such serious issues" that are "relevant" "throughout the world." Writing for "Comics Worth Reading", Johanna Carlson and noted that "it's likely that many readers will pick it up because of the shocking content" but that "treatment doesn't appeal simply to prurient interest". In Carlson's review of volume 4 of "Confidential Confessions", she writes that "it's billed as an honest exploration of "the harsh realities of today's youth", but for me, it's more like an old Cecil B. DeMille epic — 80 minutes of glorified sinning, and 10 minutes of redemption to make it the audience feel virtuous instead of embarrassed for watching."  "Confidential Confessions: Deai" received mixed reception from critics as well. Connie Zhang of "Mania" graded the first volume with a B, criticizing that the story did not "connect to the reader on a fundamental level" and that there is "no emotional bond to the characters." However, Zhang praised the story concept, noting that it was "interesting" with "an unusual premise". In her review of the second volume, Zhang graded "Confidential Confessions: Deai" with a B−, with complaints that "everything that worked well in the first volume — the good pacing, the sweetness of Rika and Kiichi's relationship, the heroine's business savvy personality and the sense of risk on every date — [had] been thoughtlessly discarded for the illusion of a thriller." The art, Zhang noted, "managed to stay relatively consistent throughout" and was "pleasant to look at", but there wasn't anything "remarkable about it."

Sales.

Volume 5 of "Confidential Confessions" placed as number 84 on ICv2's 'Top 100 Graphic Novels' list, which indexes estimated sales from the Diamond comic distributor to comic stores, for September 2004. Volume 1 of "Confidential Confessions: Deai" reached 77 on the 'Top 100 Graphic Novels' for April 2006.

The series contains a collection of plots and characters about the hard-hitting issues that real-life teenagers faced during the manga's publication. Each volume tackles such topics as teen prostitution, rape, HIV, stalkers, suicide, and sexual harassment. There are six volumes in the series.

《问题提起作品集》是茉茉奇丽子的漫画作品。每个主题都写实的刻划出青少女在社会、校园、家庭各种相关问题,唤起社会注意的作品。


History.

On January 24, 2005, Take-Two Interactive announced that it had acquired Visual Concepts, including its Kush Games subsidiary and the intellectual property of the "2K" sports-game series, from Sega for. The following day Take-Two Interactive established the 2K publishing label, consisting of the sub-labels 2K Games and 2K Sports, with the latter focusing on sports games. Several of Take-Two Interactive's development studios—Visual Concepts, Kush Games, Indie Built, Venom Games, PopTop Software, and Frog City Software—became studios of 2K, and Take-Two Licensing was merged into the new label.  On January 21, 2006, a fire heavily damaged the administration and marketing portions of 2K's offices. In June 2007 2K announced that they had closed their offices in New York City and would move to a new location on the West Coast, namely Novato, California.  On September 10, 2007, Take-Two Interactive announced that they had struck a partnership with Nickelodeon on publishing games based on their licenses. Alongside this announcement, Take-Two Interactive introduced a third 2K label, 2K Play, to focus on casual games. Through this opening, 2K absorbed all assets of Take-Two Interactive's budget-range publisher Global Star Software, including the game "Carnival Games", the studio Cat Daddy Games, and games based on "Deal or No Deal".  On May 4, 2017, 2K's co-founder and until-then president, Christoph Hartmann, announced that he had stepped down from his position. Hartmann had worked for Take-Two Interactive for roughly 20 years, but did not state a reason for his departure. He later joined Amazon Game Studios in August 2018. He was succeeded by previous chief operating officer (COO) David Ismailer later in May 2017. The role of COO was filled by Phil Dixon, formerly of Betfair, in November 2017, and Melissa Bell was hired as senior vice president and head of global marketing in April 2018.  On September 25, 2018, 2K announced 2K Foundations, a program that would "support underserved communities across the nation by refurbishing basketball courts in neighborhoods that need them the most". Microsoft will also partner with 2K to establish Xbox One S gaming-stations at these courts. 2K Foundations planned to refurbish 12 basketball courts in several cities across the United States (including Cincinnati, Baltimore, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Cleveland) within its first year.

2K is an American video game publisher based in Novato, California. 2K was founded under Take-Two Interactive in January 2005 through the 2K Games and 2K Sports labels, following Take-Two Interactive's acquisition of Visual Concepts that same month. Originally based in New York City, it moved to Novato in 2007. A third label, 2K Play, was added in September 2007. 2K is governed by David Ismailer as president and Phil Dixon as COO. A motion capture studio for 2K is based in Petaluma, California.

2K Games是美国游戏发行商Take-Two Interactive旗下的游戏品牌,2005年设立,总部位于加利福尼亚州诺瓦托。Take-Two为了让自有品牌发行的游戏与Rockstar Games所做区别以及在体育竞技游戏市场上与美国艺电旗下的EA Sports体育部门一决高下,由Take-Two收购日本世嘉公司旗下的工作室Visual Concepts工作室以及其完全所有的子公司Kush Games引入旗下。此外它亦以2K Sports名义发行体育竞技游戏,以及2K Play名义发行休闲益智游戏。