Administrative history.

Authorized as Kill Devil Hill Monument on March 2, 1927, it was transferred from the War Department to the National Park Service on August 10, 1933. Congress renamed it and designated it a national memorial on December 4, 1953. As with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service, the national memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. The memorial's visitor center, designed by Ehrman Mitchell and Romaldo Giurgola, was designated a National Historic Landmark on January 3, 2001. The memorial is co-managed with two other Outer Banks parks, Fort Raleigh National Historic Site and Cape Hatteras National Seashore.

Exhibits and features.

The field and hangar.

The Wrights made four flights from level ground near the base of the hill on December 17, 1903, in the "Wright Flyer", following three years of gliding experiments from atop this and other nearby sand dunes. It is possible to walk along the actual routes of the four flights, with small monuments marking their starts and finishes. Two wooden sheds, based on historic photographs, recreate the world's first airplane hangar and the brothers' living quarters.

Visitor Center.

The Visitor Center is home to a museum featuring models and actual tools and machines used by the Wright brothers during their flight experiments including a reproduction of the wind tunnel used to test wing shapes and a portion of the engine used in the first flight. In one wing of the Visitor Center is a life-size replica of the Wright brothers' 1903 "Wright Flyer", the first powered heavier-than-air aircraft in history to achieve controlled flight (the original being displayed at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington D.C.). A full-scale model of the Brothers' 1902 glider is also present, having been constructed under the direction of Orville Wright himself. Adorning the walls of the glider room are portraits and photographs of other flight pioneers throughout history.  The visitor center's Modern design was a departure from the National Park Service's earlier, more traditional buildings, and was built as part of its "Mission 66" modernization and expansion program. As the first major building of that effort, it was a high-profile success, bringing critical notice for its Modern design and launching the careers of its designers. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1975 for its architecture and its importance to the Park Service's program.

Kill Devil Hill and the Memorial Tower.

A granite monument, dedicated in 1932, is perched atop Kill Devil Hill, commemorating the achievement of the Wright brothers. They conducted many of their glider tests on the massive shifting dune that was later stabilized to form Kill Devil Hill. Inscribed in capital letters along the base of the memorial tower is the phrase "In commemoration of the conquest of the air by the brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright conceived by genius achieved by dauntless resolution and unconquerable faith." Atop the tower is a marine beacon, similar to one found in a lighthouse.  The doors of the tower are stainless steel over nickel, with a price of $3,000 in 1928 (). The six relief panels represent the conquest of the air:  Left Door (top to bottom): The contraptions of the French locksmith Besnier, who thought he could fly if he propelled himself into the air while wearing paddles on his arms and legs; An homage to Otto Lilienthal, a German who died while conducting gliding experiments; A reference to a French philosopher who thought that since dew rose in the morning, if it could be placed in an expandable bag attached to a box and sail, it would naturally rise when placed in the sun. (It didn't.)  Right Door (top to bottom): Icarus, the Greek mythological figure who tried to fly from Crete by attaching feathers to his arms with wax. He fell when he flew too close to the sun, melting the wax; Bird flight to plane flight, or the rise of a phoenix; Kites used by the Wrights and others in early experiments

Building the Memorial.

The tower was designed by Rodgers and Poor, a New York City architectural firm; the design was officially selected on February 14, 1930. Prior to the memorial's construction, the War Department selected Captain William H. Kindervater of the Quartermaster Corps to prepare the site for construction and to manage the area landscaping. To secure the sandy foundation, Captain Kindervater selected bermuda grass to be planted on Kill Devil Hill and the surrounding area. He also ordered a special fertilizer to be spread throughout the area to promote grass and shrubbery growth and decided to build a fence to prevent animal grazing. With a strong foundation in place, the Office of the Quartermaster selected Marine Captain John A. Gilman to preside over the construction project. Construction began in October 1931 and with a budget of $213,000 (equivalent to $ in ), the memorial was completed in November 1932. In the end, 1,200 tons () of granite, more than 2,000 tons () of gravel, more than 800 tons () of sand and almost 400 tons () of cement were used to build the structure, along with numerous other materials. It is constructed of granite mined at the North Carolina Granite Corporation Quarry Complex.

Memorial dedication.

November 14, 1932, was selected as the dedication day. Over 20,000 people were expected to attend the event, but only around 1,000 showed up on a stormy and windy day. Orville Wright was the main guest of honor at the ceremony, and aviator Ruth Nichols was given the privilege of removing the American flag that covered the word "GENIUS" and the plaque on the monument. President Herbert Hoover was unable to attend the ceremony, but a letter from the President was read prior to the dedication. The ceremony also marked the rare occasion when one of the persons the memorial was dedicated to (Orville Wright) was still living.  The hill offers great views of the surrounding area.

Repairs.

In 2008, the memorial, long plagued by seepage problems, was refurbished and better water control measures were installed. Interior lighting was improved and a steel map of early aviation flights restored. Visitors occasionally may ascend the tower by reservation.

Centennial of Flight.

On December 17, 2003, the Centennial of Flight was celebrated at the Park. The ceremony was hosted by flight enthusiast John Travolta, and included appearances by President George W. Bush, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Chuck Yeager. The Centennial Pavilion was built for the celebration and housed exhibits showing the Outer Banks at the turn-of-the-century, the development of the 1903 replica, and NASA provided displays on aviation and flight. The Centennial Pavilion closed in 2014 and is slated to be demolished due to budget constraints. An interactive sculpture was donated by the State of North Carolina and dedicated during the celebration. The life sized sculpture, created by Stephen H. Smith, is a full-sized replica of 1903 flyer the moment the flight began and includes the Wright Brothers along with members of the Kill Devil Hills Life-Saving Station who assisted in moving the aircraft, as well as John T. Daniels who took the now famous photograph of the first flight.  Curiously the sculpture correctly has a criss-crossed chain driving the port propeller but incorrectly has this propeller being identical to, rather than a mirror image of, the starboard propeller.

Wright Brothers National Memorial, located in Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, commemorates the first successful, sustained, powered flights in a heavier-than-air machine. From 1900 to 1903, Wilbur and Orville Wright came here from Dayton, Ohio, based on information from the U.S. Weather Bureau about the area's steady winds. They also valued the privacy provided by this location, which in the early twentieth century was remote from major population centers.

莱特兄弟国家纪念馆(英语:Wright Brothers National Memorial)位于北卡罗莱纳州屠魔山, 目的是为了纪念第一个比空气重的机械成功、持续及使用动力飞行。1900年至1903年,莱特兄弟根据美国气象局提供的该地区风向稳定的信息,从俄亥俄州代顿来到此处。莱特兄弟同样重视该地区提供的隐私效果,因为当地在20世纪初还远离主要的人口中心。


Gameplay.

The player, as Kyle Hyde, moves around and interacts with the environment using the DS's touch screen and must solve a variety of puzzles using the handheld's various features including the touch screen, microphone, and closeable cover. The DS is held rotated 90 degrees from normal, like a book, with an option in the game to allow the player to switch which side the touchpad is on depending on which hand is dominant.  Throughout the game, the player must speak with the various hotel patrons and employees in order to uncover vital information. The player can show the characters items that Kyle has collected, or ask questions that have been brought to Kyle's attention. By asking the right questions, Kyle will uncover the information he needs. If he asks the wrong question, makes a wrong assumption, behaves rudely, shows the wrong item, gets caught with something that isn't his, or encounters someone (usually an employee) in a restricted area or room (either by noticing him or getting their attention), he may confuse or anger the person. This is usually indicated by a darkening of the character in question. This can result in Kyle being forced to retreat to his room or, later in the game, getting kicked out of the hotel, leaving him unable to solve the mystery.  The game is filled with adventure-style puzzles, most of which involve using the touch screen to perform a simple task. Movement is made by leading an iconic representation of Kyle around a map of the hotel on the touch screen or d-pad while a first-person three-dimensional view is shown on the other screen.  There is also a journal to write in, which is used by several other characters as well, though all critical in-game story notes are copied automatically. It gives three pages to write in, with a simple pencil/eraser system.

Synopsis.

The game takes place at Hotel Dusk, a fictional, rundown motel outside of Los Angeles, in 1979. Kyle Hyde, a former New York City detective and now working as a salesman for Red Crown, has arrived at the hotel in his search for his former partner, Brian Bradley, and is given Room 215, a room rumored to be able to grant wishes. Kyle finds that the hotel has many mysteries as well as connections to his past, and begins to look into these further. The order of the discovery of these elements within the game will depend on choices players make, and as such, the summary below is the chronological order of the larger story.  In the past, Robert Evans and Dunning Smith were friends at college, but went their separate ways. Evans inherited his family's art gallery, while Dunning wanted to become a professional painter. Both married and each had a daughter: Mila and Jenny, respectively. In 1960, they reunited in an airport, after both of their wives died in a tragic plane crash. A year later, Evans came up with the idea of creating "Osterzone", a dead painter whose works would be highly valued. Evans deeply admired Dunning's skill at painting, and offered him to paint works to be credited as Osterzone's, to which he agreed. While Dunning painted, Evans displayed the works in his art gallery and created the mytho of Osterzone. The scam was successful, the paintings sold for fortunes, including one called "Angel Opening a Door", and Evans and Dunning became rich.  Their activities attracted the attention of a crime syndicate called Nile that Evans worked with. Evans bought Hotel Dusk in 1969 to use as a front for his illicit meetings and to provide a secret workshop for Dunning to paint, despite Dunning's wishes to get out of the scam. During one meeting with Nile, Dunning refused to continue painting, forcing one of the Nile agents to kidnap Jenny; during the skirmish, Mila, who was playing with Jenny, was knocked into a coma. Evans threatened Dunning to continue to paint as Osterzone to be able to see Jenny again. Evans later got into too much trouble with Nile, and was forced to sell his art gallery and gave Hotel Dusk to Dunning before keeping himself secluded. Dunning lost hope of seeing Jenny again after three years, and quit painting, but Evans convinced him to wait at the hotel and Jenny would be returned in time. Dunning became the hotel's owner and renovated it to hide the evidence of Nile and Osterzone while creating the mythos of Room 215 as to attract customers.  Three years prior to the game's present, Hyde and Bradley were investigating Nile's activities in New York City, and came across Evans. Evans claimed that Nile was holding Bradley's sister Mila as hostage as to force Bradley to leak confidential information; through this, Bradley learned of Dunning and Osterzone, and later stole "Angel Opening a Door" from Nile in anticipation of returning it to Dunning. However, Bradley later found Mila killed by Evans, and Hyde is anonymously warned of Bradley's treachery. Hyde confronted Bradley on a Hudson River and was forced to fire on him, wounding him. Bradley fell into the river and disappeared; Hyde, feeling remorse over his actions, quit the force and took up the salesman job to search for Bradley.  Six months prior to the present, Bradley had made his way to Hotel Dusk and spoke to Dunning about what he knew of Nile and Osterzone. Despite Dunning's distrust, Bradley turned over "Angel Opening a Door" to him, and while staying at the hotel, signed in under Kyle's name and left several clues for Kyle to find, knowing that Kyle would likely follow him. Bradley left the hotel and visited Evans' daughter Mila, who bore a resemblance to his sister, and gave her his sister's bracelet; shortly after this visit, Mila woke from her coma though unable to speak, and after waiting several months for Evans to appear, decided to leave, following the only clue she had, a pamphlet to Hotel Dusk that Bradley left behind. Mila arrives at the hotel at the same time that Kyle has. In the present, Kyle is able to piece together all the clues to the hotel's past, including the identity of Dunning and Mila. After helping to reconcile the two, with Dunning promising to look after Mila, Kyle continues on his way, knowing that Bradley is still ahead of him. Depending on actions taken during the game, Mila asks to come with Kyle and he accepts, and the two leave in his car.  In a secret post-credits scene, a now-adult Jenny is seen arriving at the hotel on New Year's Eve.

Development.

Production took about a year and a half with 20 staff members involved. In an interview with QJ.net, Director Taisuke Kanasaki explained that they wanted Hotel Dusk to have "an unprecedented visual expression not found in any other game."  The game uses rotoscoping to animate its characters while a brushwork style illustrates the game's environments with half-finished backgrounds with 3-D objects strewn about. While not a first in gaming, rotoscoping is still rare in most games (with only a handful, namely the original "Prince of Persia" using the animation style).

Sequel.

A sequel, titled "", was released on January 14, 2010 in Japan, and on September 17, 2010 in Europe. It takes place in Los Angeles, California during 1980, a year after the events of "Hotel Dusk". Due to developer Cing's bankruptcy, "Last Window" was never released in North America.

Reception.

"Hotel Dusk: Room 215" received "generally favorable reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. In Japan, "Famitsu" gave it a score of one nine, one seven, one nine, and one eight for a total of 33 out of 40.  The game was also selected as one of Gaming Target's "52 Games We'll Still Be Playing From 2007". It was the 76th best-selling game in Japan in 2007, with 213,208 copies sold. A retrospective at "Kotaku" described the experience as "a big puzzle; everyone has a secret, and the writing (and localization) is done so well, I was constantly surprised by the characters and their motivations."  The reception was not universally positive, though. "The New York Times" gave it an average review and called it "unrelentingly linear". 411Mania gave it a score of seven out of ten, saying that the game is "easy to like and easier to want to get more of". "The Sydney Morning Herald" gave it three stars out of five, and said, "Having to wait until the game lets you solve a riddle even though you have grasped the solution long ago is particularly galling. Players too often feel like passengers on a scripted ride, rather than individual auteurs directing their own unique experience." "The A.V. Club" gave it a D+ and pointed out that "while a mystery should keep you alert for clues and misstatements, "Hotel Dusk" slaps you in the forehead with every new piece of evidence, then patronizes you with reading-comprehension quizzes after every chapter."  In 2011, Adventure Gamers named "Hotel Dusk" the 65th-best adventure game ever released.

Legacy.

Kyle Hyde has a trophy in "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" that is noteworthy due to the fact that it is to date the only animated trophy in "Super Smash Bros." history. Kyle Hyde, Dunning Smith, and Mila all appear in "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" as collectible stickers, with Kyle Hyde returning as a spirit in "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate".

Hotel Dusk: Room 215 is a point-and-click adventure game for the Nintendo DS. Originally announced on October 5, 2005 as "Wish Room", the game made its first public appearance on May 9, 2006 at that year's E3 convention. It was released in North America on January 22, 2007, before being released subsequently in other regions. The game supports the Nintendo DS Rumble Pak accessory. The game was later republished in 2008 as part of the Touch! Generations line of DS games. The game was developed by the now-defunct Cing. A sequel, "", was released in 2010 for the DS.

是一个平台为任天堂DS的文字冒险游戏,由游戏开发公司Cing开发。起初,开发者公布此游戏的名称为《Wish Room》,于2006年5月9日在电子娱乐展览上首次亮相。此游戏于2007年1月22日在北美发布,于2007年1月25日在日本发布。


History.

Origin (1991–2005).

Radical Entertainment was founded in 1991 by Rory Armes, Dave Davis, and Ian Wilkinson, of which Davis and Armes had previously worked at Vancouver-based Distinctive Software. The studio primarily developed Nintendo Entertainment System ports and adaptations of other video games, peaking at eight projects in 1994. Mike Ribero left his position as Sega of America's vice president of sales and marketing to become CEO of Radical Entertainment in 1996. Between 1997 and 1998, several employees left the studio to form Barking Dog Studios.

369 Interactive.

In 2003, Radical Entertainment opened a development division, 369 Interactive, which was set to develop multiple titles based on the "CSI" franchise, in partnership with Ubi Soft.

Acquisition by Vivendi Universal (2005–2008).

Although Radical Entertainment developed few titles for Vivendi Universal Entertainment, the titles gained massive success and warranted the company's interest in the developers. In 2005, Vivendi acquired Radical Entertainment, however, as described by a former developer at Radical, the mood did not change much and Radical still operated as an independent game developing company. After being acquired by Vivendi, Radical began to make many games such as "" and "" while being published under Vivendi's Sierra Entertainment label. Radical was also given the license to continue development of the "Crash Bandicoot" franchise which was also published under Sierra Entertainment. Radical took over the development of "Crash Tag Team Racing" from Traveller's Tales. Due to the success of "Crash Tag Team Racing", Radical started the development of "Crash of the Titans" and proclaimed that "Crash was home at Radical" stating that Radical would develop all further "Crash" games. The critical and commercial success of "Crash of the Titans" spawned one more sequel, "", which managed to both critically beat its predecessor as well as commercially. During the development of "Crash: Mind Over Mutant", Radical began working on its first original intellectual property, "Prototype".

Subsidiary of Activision (2008–2009).

In 2008 it was announced that Vivendi Games and Activision were to form Activision Blizzard. The merger changed the mood of Radical and made it more like a first-party developer, instead of independent. At the time of the merge Radical was working on three different projects, one was an unnamed project and the other two were "Crash: Mind Over Mutant" and "Prototype". After the merger took place, about half of Radical's staff was cut under Activision Blizzard's restructuring. This resulted in the cancellation of the unnamed project while development of "Crash" and "Prototype" were unaffected. As revealed later by a former developer at Radical, the unnamed project was "Scarface 2", which had been at development at Radical for over two years and had nearly gone gold, the developer stated that Activision cancelled the project. "Crash: Mind Over Mutant" was one of the last games to be published under the Sierra Entertainment label, abit only in Europe, as North American copies use Activision's logo. Nevertheless, Activision themselves is given credit within the video game. "Prototype" was published through Activision.  After the release of "Prototype" in 2009 Radical did not officially announce any new projects, though it was revealed again by another former developer that Radical was working on another unnamed project, which had been in development for over a year. However, when Radical Entertainment experienced layoffs which resulted in over 60 people losing jobs, the project "Crash Landed" was cancelled by Activision. In 2019, environment artist Wayne Dalton leaked images of this unannounced project which was revealed to be a video game tie-in to the cancelled "Spider-Man 4" film, taking over development from Treyarch. At the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards, Radical announced "Prototype 2", which was set to be their largest game, incorporating many assets and gameplay mechanics from the cancelled "Spider-Man 4" game.

"Prototype 2", layoffs (2010–present).

Radical Entertainment released the first details for "Prototype 2" in an interview with EGMi. In the same interview they revealed that they halted the development on an unknown game, possibly the rumoured "Crash Bandicoot" title, after the success of "Prototype". However, other candidates for the halted game were rumored to be an unknown Spider-Man game and a Jason Bourne game. This title was later revealed to be cancelled. In January 2011, an artist posted video footage showing the cancelled Jason Bourne game called "Treadstone". The game was cancelled when the Bourne license was reacquired by Ludlum Entertainment, and then licensed to Electronic Arts.  To celebrate the release of "Prototype 2", Radical Entertainment revealed that, to coincide, they were releasing RadNet. Similar to "", RadNet is an online gaming hub. RadNet contains competitive challenges which in turn give the player rewards for in-game use, Avatar accessories, development videos and Dynamic themes. An iPhone game, "Protoslice", was also released to coincide with the release of the game, the iPhone app had partial overseen development by Radical, whilst the actual game was not developed by them.  "Prototype 2" was released in April 2012. It was Radical Entertainment's most successful game launch. The game was well-received, with positive reviews on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions, with the PC release coming at a later date in 2012. The sales for "Prototype 2" were the highest of games in April 2012. Globally, "Prototype 2" sold less than a million copies in the two months following release.  On 28 June 2012, Activision announced that Radical Entertainment had seen a "significant reduction in staff", and that the studio "will cease development of its own games going forward", prompting media speculation that the developer had closed. The publisher cited "Prototype 2" failure to "find a broad commercial audience" as the reason behind Radical's closure. According to Activision, some employees will remain working for Radical Entertainment supporting other existing Activision Publishing projects, thus, while keeping the studio active, leaves them as a support team.

Radical Entertainment Inc. is a Canadian video game developer based in Vancouver, British Columbia and a subsidiary of Activision. The studio was founded in 1991 by industry veterans Rory Armes and Dave Davis, as well as newcomer Ian Wilkinson. It is best known for developing three games in the "Crash Bandicoot" franchise, and the "Prototype" series of games.

Radical Entertainment,是总部设在加拿大不列颠哥伦比亚省温哥华的游戏开发商。它成立于1991年,先前的游戏由其他游戏发行商发行。2005年,该工作室被收购维旺迪游戏,现在为动视暴雪的子公司。该工作室是不列颠哥伦比亚省最古老的游戏工作室,一个完全拥有的子公司,常常被称为温哥华游戏业中的骨干力量。


Formula.

The formula for the th pentatope number is represented by the 4th rising factorial of divided by the factorial of 4:  The pentatope numbers can also be represented as binomial coefficients:  which is the number of distinct quadruples that can be selected from objects, and it is read aloud as " plus three choose four".

Properties.

Two of every three pentatope numbers are also pentagonal numbers. To be precise, the th pentatope number is always the th pentagonal number and the th pentatope number is always the th pentagonal number. The th pentatope number is the generalized pentagonal number obtained by taking the negative index in the formula for pentagonal numbers. (These expressions always give integers).  The infinite sum of the reciprocals of all pentatope numbers is. This can be derived using telescoping series.  Pentatope numbers can also be represented as the sum of the first tetrahedral numbers:  Relation to single tetrahedral number:  No prime number is the predecessor of a pentatope number, and the largest semiprime which is the predecessor of a pentatope number is 1819.  Similarly, the only primes preceding a 6-simplex number are 83 and 461.

Test for pentatope numbers.

We can derive this test from the formula for the th pentatope number.  Given a positive integer, to test whether it is a pentatope number we can compute  The number is pentatope if and only if is a natural number. In that case is the th pentatope number.

Generating function.

The generating function for pentatope numbers is:

Applications.

In biochemistry, they represent the number of possible arrangements of n different polypeptide subunits in a tetrameric (tetrahedral) protein.

A pentatope number is a number in the fifth cell of any row of Pascal's triangle starting with the 5-term row either from left to right or from right to left.

五胞体数(Pentatope number)又称4-多胞体数 或4-单体数,是指数量可以排成正五胞体的有形数,它在帕斯卡三角形的第五行的开始,第n行的第n个数字就是五胞体数。


Processes.

Permineralization.

One of the processes involved in petrifaction is permineralization. The fossils created through this process tend to contain a large amount of the original material of the specimen. This process occurs when groundwater containing dissolved minerals (most commonly quartz, calcite, apatite (calcium phosphate), siderite (iron carbonate), and pyrite), fills pore spaces and cavities of specimens, particularly bone, shell or wood. The pores of the organisms' tissues are filled when these minerals precipitate out of the water. Two common types of permineralization are silicification and pyritization.

Silicification.

Silicification is the process in which organic matter becomes saturated with silica. A common source of silica is volcanic material. Studies have shown that in this process, most of the original organic matter is destroyed. Silicification most often occurs in two environments-either the specimen is buried in sediments of deltas and floodplains or organisms are buried in volcanic ash. Water must be present for silicification to occur because it reduces the amount of oxygen present and therefore reduces the deterioration of the organism by fungi, maintains organism shape, and allows for the transportation and deposition of silica. The process begins when a specimen is permeated with an aqueous silica solution. The cell walls of the specimen are progressively dissolved and silica is deposited into the empty spaces. In wood samples, as the process proceeds, cellulose and lignin, two components of wood, are degraded and replaced with silica. The specimen is transformed to stone (a process called lithification) as water is lost. For silicification to occur, the geothermic conditions must include a neutral to slightly acidic pH<ref name="Leo/Barghoorn"></ref> and a temperature and pressure similar to shallow-depth sedimentary environments. Under ideal natural conditions, silicification can occur at rates approaching those seen in artificial petrification.

Pyritization.

Pyritization is a process similar to silicification, but instead involves the deposition of iron and sulfur in the pores and cavities of an organism. Pyritization can result in both solid fossils as well as preserved soft tissues. In marine environments, pyritization occurs when organisms are buried in sediments containing a high concentration of iron sulfides. Organisms release sulfide, which reacts with dissolved iron in the surrounding water, when they decay. This reaction between iron and sulfides forms pyrite (FeS). Carbonate shell material of the organism is then replaced with pyrite due to a higher concentration of pyrite and a lower concentration of carbonate in the surrounding water. Pyritization occurs to a lesser extent in plants in clay environments.

Replacement.

Replacement, the second process involved in petrifaction, occurs when water containing dissolved minerals dissolves the original solid material of an organism, which is then replaced by minerals. This can take place extremely slowly, replicating the microscopic structure of the organism. The slower the rate of the process, the better defined the microscopic structure will be. The minerals commonly involved in replacement are calcite, silica, pyrite, and hematite. It is rare to find organisms preserved by replacement alone (as opposed to in combination with permineralization), but these fossils present significant importance to paleontologists because these fossils tend to be very detailed.

Uses.

Not only are the fossils produced through the process of petrifaction used for paleontological study, but they have also been used as both decorative and informative pieces. Petrified wood is used in several ways. Slabs of petrified wood can be crafted into tabletops, or the slabs themselves are sometimes displayed in a decorative fashion. Also, larger pieces of the wood have been carved into sinks and basins. Other large pieces can also be crafted into chairs and stools. Petrified wood and other petrified organisms have also been used in jewelry, sculpture, clock-making, ashtrays and fruit bowls, and landscape and garden decorations.

Architecture.

Petrified wood has also been used in construction. The Petrified Wood Gas Station, located on Main St Lamar, Colorado, was built in 1932 and consists of walls and floors constructed from pieces of petrified wood. The structure, built by W.G. Brown, has since been converted to office space and a used car dealership. Glen Rose, Texas provides even more examples of the use of fossilized wood in architecture. Beginning in the 1920s, the farmers of Somervell County, Texas began uncovering petrified trees. Local craftsmen and masons then built over 65 structures from this petrified wood, 45 of which were still standing as of June 2009. These structures include gas stations, flowerbeds, cottages, restaurants, fountains and gateposts. Glen Rose, Texas is also noted for Dinosaur Valley State Park and the Glen Rose Formation, where fossilized dinosaur footprints from the Cretaceous period can be viewed. Another example of the use of petrified wood in construction is the Agate House Pueblo in the Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona. Built by ancestral Pueblo people about 990 years ago, this eight-room building was constructed almost entirely out of petrified wood and is believed to have served as either a family home or ceremonial center.

Artificial petrifaction.

In 2005 scientists at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) reported that they had successfully petrified wood samples artificially. Unlike natural petrification, though, they infiltrated samples in acidic solutions, diffused them internally with titanium and carbon and fired them in a high-temperature oven (circa 1400 °C) in an inert atmosphere to yield a man-made ceramic matrix composite of titanium carbide and silicon carbide still showing the initial structure of wood. Future uses would see these artificially petrified wood-ceramic materials eventually replace metal-based superalloys (which are coated with ultrahard ceramics) in the tool industry. Other vegetal matter could be treated in a similar process and yield abrasive powders. Scientists attempted to artificially petrify organisms as early as the 18th century, when Girolamo Segato claimed to have supposedly "petrified" human remains. His methods were lost, but the bulk of his "pieces" are on display at the Museum of the Department of Anatomy in Florence, Italy. More recent attempts have been both successful and documented, but should be considered as semi-petrifaction or incomplete petrifaction or at least as producing some novel type of wood composite, as the wood material remains to a certain degree; the constituents of wood (cellulose, lignins, lignans, oleoresins, etc.) have not been replaced by silicate, but have been infiltrated by specially formulated acidic solutions of aluminosilicate salts that gel in contact with wood matter and form a matrix of silicates within the wood after being left to react slowly for a given period of time in the solution or heat-cured for faster results. Hamilton Hicks of Greenwich, Connecticut, received a patent for his "recipe" for rapid artificial petrifaction of wood under US patent 4,612,050 in 1986. Hicks' recipe consists of highly mineralized water and a sodium silicate solution combined with a dilute acid with a pH of 4.0-5.5. Samples of wood are penetrated with this mineral solution through repeated submersion and applications of the solution. Wood treated in this fashion is - according to the claims in the patent - incapable of being burned and acquires the features of petrified wood. Some uses of this product as suggested by Hicks include use by horse breeders who desire fireproof stables constructed of nontoxic material that would also be resistant to chewing of the wood by horses.

In geology, petrifaction or petrification is the process by which organic material becomes a fossil through the replacement of the original material and the filling of the original pore spaces with minerals. Petrified wood typifies this process, but all organisms, from bacteria to vertebrates, can become petrified (although harder, more durable matter such as bone, beaks, and shells survive the process better than softer remains such as muscle tissue, feathers, or skin). Petrifaction takes place through a combination of two similar processes: permineralization and replacement. These processes create replicas of the original specimen that are similar down to the microscopic level.

石化是指有机物通过置换或有机物孔隙充填矿物而转化为石头的过程。石化通过两种相似方式的结合——矿质充填作用和置换而发生。硅化木是最常见的石化现象,但是所有有机质,从细菌到植物都可以石化。相关的学科有地质学和埋藏学。


Early years.

Hugo LaFayette Black was the youngest of the eight children of William Lafayette Black and Martha (Toland) Black. He was born on February 27, 1886, in a small wooden farmhouse in Ashland, Alabama, a poor, isolated rural Clay County town in the Appalachian foothills. Black descended from Hugh (1751–1805) and Mary Spencer Toland (1748–1816) who were 18th-century Protestant emigrants from Ireland who are buried at the Upper Long Cane Cemetery in Abbeville, South Carolina.  Since his brother Orlando had become a medical doctor, Hugo decided at first to follow in his footsteps. At age seventeen, he left school and enrolled at Birmingham Medical School. But Orlando suggested that Hugo should instead enroll at the University of Alabama School of Law. After graduating in June 1906, he moved back to Ashland and established a legal practice. His practice was not successful there, so Black moved to the growing city of Birmingham in 1907, where he specialized in labor law and personal injury cases.  As a consequence of his

Senate career.

In 1926, Black sought election to the United States Senate from Alabama, following the retirement of Senator Oscar Underwood. Since the Democratic Party had dominated Alabama politics since disenfranchising most blacks (and Republicans) at the turn of the century, Black easily defeated his Republican opponent, E. H. Dryer, winning 80.9% of the white vote. He was reelected in 1932, winning 86.3% of the vote against Republican J. Theodore Johnson. Senator Black gained a reputation as a tenacious investigator. In 1934, he chaired the committee that looked into the contracts awarded to air mail carriers under Postmaster General Walter Folger Brown, an inquiry which led to the Air Mail scandal. In order to correct what he termed abuses of "fraud and collusion" resulting from the Air Mail Act of 1930, he introduced the Black-McKellar Bill, later the Air Mail Act of 1934. The following year he participated in a Senate committee's investigation of lobbying practices. He publicly denounced the "highpowered, deceptive, telegram-fixing, letterframing, Washington-visiting" lobbyists, and advocated legislation requiring them to publicly register their names and salaries.  In 1935, during the Great Depression, Black became chairman of the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, a position he would hold for the remainder of his Senate career. On August 8, 1935, Senator Black who was chairman of the senate committee investigating lobbying activities

Appointment to the Supreme Court.

Soon after the failure of the court-packing plan, President Roosevelt obtained his first opportunity to appoint a Supreme Court Justice when conservative Willis Van Devanter retired. Roosevelt wanted the replacement to be a "thumping, evangelical New Dealer" who was reasonably young, confirmable by the Senate, and from a region of the country unrepresented on the Court. The three final candidates were Solicitor General Stanley Reed, Sherman Minton, and Hugo Black. Roosevelt said Reed "had no fire," and Minton did not want the appointment at the time. The position would go to Black, a candidate from the South, who, as a senator, had voted for all 24 of Roosevelt's major New Deal programs. Roosevelt admired Black's use of the investigative role of the Senate to shape the American mind on reforms, his strong voting record, and his early support, which dated back to 1933. Both Reed and Minton were later appointed to the Supreme Court; Reed was the next Justice appointed by Roosevelt, while Minton was appointed by Harry Truman in 1949.  On August 12, 1937, Roosevelt nominated

Supreme Court career.

As soon as Black started on the Court, he advocated judicial restraint and worked to move the Court away from interposing itself in social and economic matters. Black vigorously defended the "plain meaning" of the Constitution, rooted in the ideas of its era, and emphasized the supremacy of the legislature; for Black, the role of the Supreme Court was limited and constitutionally prescribed.  During his early years on the Supreme Court, Black helped reverse several earlier court decisions taking a narrow interpretation of federal power. Many New Deal laws that would have been struck down under earlier precedents were thus upheld. In 1939 Black was joined on the Supreme Court by Felix Frankfurter and William O. Douglas. Douglas voted alongside Black in several cases, especially those involving the First Amendment, while Frankfurter soon became one of Black's ideological foes. From 1946 until 1971, Black was the Senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court.

Relationship with other justices.

In the mid-1940s, Justice Black became involved in a bitter dispute with Justice Robert H. Jackson as a result of "Jewell Ridge Coal Corp. v. Local 6167, United Mine Workers" (1945). In this case the Court ruled 5–4 in favor of the UMW; Black voted with the majority, while Jackson dissented. However, the coal company requested the Court rehear the case on the grounds that Justice Black should have recused himself, as the mine workers were represented by Black's law partner of 20 years earlier. Under the Supreme Court's rules, each Justice was entitled to determine the propriety of disqualifying himself. Jackson agreed that the petition for rehearing should be denied, but refused to give approval to Black's participation in the case. Ultimately, when the Court unanimously denied the petition for rehearing, Justice Jackson released a

1950s and beyond.

Vinson's tenure as Chief Justice coincided with the Second Red Scare, a period of intense anti-communism in the United States. In several cases the Supreme Court considered, and upheld, the validity of anticommunist laws passed during this era. For example, in "American Communications Association v. Douds" (1950), the Court upheld a law that required labor union officials to forswear membership in the Communist Party. Black dissented, claiming that the law violated the First Amendment's free speech clause. Similarly, in "Dennis v. United States",, the Court upheld the Smith Act, which made it a crime to "advocate, abet, advise, or teach the duty, necessity, desirability, or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States." The law was often used to prosecute individuals for joining the Communist Party. Black again dissented, writing:  Public opinion being what it now is, few will protest the conviction of these Communist petitioners. There is hope, however, that, in calmer times, when present pressures, passions and fears subside, this or some later Court will restore the First Amendment liberties to

Jurisprudence.

Black's jurisprudence is among the most distinctive of any members of the Supreme Court in history and has been influential on justices as diverse as Earl Warren, William Rehnquist, and Antonin Scalia.  Black's jurisprudence had three essential components: history, literalism, and absolutism. Black's love of history was rooted in a lifelong love of books, which led him to the belief that historical study was necessary for one to prevent repeating society's past mistakes. Black wrote in 1968 that "power corrupts, and unrestricted power will tempt Supreme Court justices just as history tells us it has tempted other judges."  Second, Black's commitment to literalism involved using the words of the Constitution to restrict the roles of the judiciary—Black would have justices validate the supremacy of the country's legislature, unless the legislature itself was denying people their freedoms. Black wrote: "The Constitution is not deathless; it provides for changing or repealing by the amending process, not by judges but by the people and their chosen representatives." Black would often lecture his colleagues, liberal or conservative, on the Supreme Court about the importance of acting within the limits of the Constitution. Third, Black's absolutism led him to enforce the rights of the Constitution, rather than attempting to define a meaning, scope, or extent to each right. Black expressed his view on the Bill of Rights in his opinion in the 1947 case, "Adamson v. California", which he saw as his "most significant opinion written:"  I cannot consider the Bill of Rights to be an outworn 18th century'strait jacket'... Its provisions may be thought outdated abstractions by some. And it is true that they were designed to meet ancient evils. But they are the same kind of human evils that have emerged from century to century wherever excessive power is sought by the few at the expense of the many. In my judgment the people of no nation can lose their liberty so long as a Bill of Rights like ours survives and its basic purposes are conscientiously interpreted, enforced, and respected... I would follow what I believe was the original intention of the Fourteenth Amendment—to extend to all the people the complete protection of the Bill of Rights. To hold that this Court can determine what, if any, provisions of the Bill of Rights will be enforced, and if so to what degree, is to frustrate the great design of a written Constitution.

Retirement and death.

Justice Black admitted himself to the National Naval Medical Center in Bethesda, Maryland, in August 1971, and subsequently retired from the Court on September 17. He suffered a stroke two days later and died on September 25.  Services were held at the National Cathedral, and over 1,000 persons attended. Pursuant to Justice Black's wishes, the coffin was "simple and cheap" and was displayed at the service to show that the costs of burial are not reflective of the worth of the human whose remains were present.  His remains were interred at the

Ku Klux Klan and anti-Catholicism.

Shortly after Black's appointment to the Supreme Court, Ray Sprigle of the "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette" wrote a series of articles, for which he won a Pulitzer Prize, revealing Black's involvement in the Klan and describing his resignation from the Klan as "the first move of his campaign for the Democratic nomination for United States Senator from Alabama." Sprigle wrote that "Black and the leaders of the Klan decided it was good political strategy for Black to make the senatorial race unimpeded by Klan membership but backed by the power of the Klan. That resignation [was] filed for the duration of the campaign but never revealed to the rank and file of the order and held secretly in the records of the Alabama Realm..."  Roosevelt denied knowledge of Black's KKK membership.  In a radio statement on October 1, 1937, Black said in part, "I number among my friends many members of the colored race. Certainly, they are entitled to the full measure of protection accorded by our Constitution and our laws..." Black also said, "I did join the Klan. I later resigned. I never rejoined.... Before becoming a Senator I dropped the Klan. I have had nothing to do with it since that time. I abandoned it. I completely discontinued any association with the organization. I have never resumed it and never expect to do so." The "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette" reported that "fifty million listeners heard the unprecedented speech."  Near the end of his life, Black said that joining the Klan was a mistake: "I would have joined any group if it helped get me votes."  Biographers in the 1990s examined Black's views of religious denominations. Ball found regarding the Klan that Black "sympathized with the group's economic, nativist, and anti-Catholic beliefs." Newman said Black "disliked the Catholic Church as an institution" and gave numerous anti-Catholic speeches in his 1926 election campaign to Ku Klux Klan meetings across Alabama. However, in 1937 "The Harvard Crimson" reported on Black's appointment of a Jewish law clerk, noting that he "earlier had appointed Miss Annie Butt, a Catholic, as a secretary, and the Supreme Court had designated Leon Smallwood, a Negro and a Catholic as his messenger."

Thurgood Marshall and "Brown v. Board of Education".

Black was one of the nine justices of the Supreme Court who in 1954 ruled unanimously in "Brown v. Board of Education" that segregation in public schools is

"United States v. Price".

In "United States v. Price" (1965), eighteen Ku Klux Klan members were charged with murder and conspiracy for the deaths of James Chaney, Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner, but the charges were dismissed by the trial court. A unanimous Supreme Court,

Legacy.

Hugo Black was twice the subject of covers of Time Magazine: On August 26, 1935 as a United States Senator; and on October 9, 1964 as an Associate Justice (art by Robert Vickrey).  In 1986, Black appeared on the Great Americans series postage stamp issued by the United States Postal Service. Along with Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. he was one of only two Associate Justices to do so until the later inclusions of Thurgood Marshall, Joseph Story, Louis Brandeis, Felix Frankfurter, and William J. Brennan, Jr. "See", Justice Hugo L. Black 5¢ stamp. and Hugo L. Black, First Day Cover. In 1987, Congress passed a law sponsored by Ben Erdreich, H.R. 614, designating the new courthouse building for the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Alabama in Birmingham, as the "Hugo L. Black United States Courthouse."  An extensive collection of Black's personal, senatorial, and judicial papers is archived at the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress, where it is open for research.  Justice Black is honored in an exhibit in the Bounds Law Library at the University of Alabama School of Law. A special Hugo Black collection is maintained by the library.  Black served on the Supreme Court for thirty-four years, making him the fifth longest-serving Justice in Supreme Court history. He was the senior (longest serving) justice on the court for an unprecedented twenty-five years, from the death of Chief Justice Stone on April 22, 1946 to his own retirement on September 17, 1971. As the longest-serving associate justice, he was acting Chief Justice on two occasions: from Stone's death until Vinson took office on June 24, 1946; and from Vinson's death on September 8, 1953 until Warren took office on October 5, 1953. There was no interregnum between the Warren and Burger courts in 1969.

Hugo Lafayette Black (February 27, 1886 – September 25, 1971) was an American lawyer, politician, and jurist who served as a U.S. Senator from 1927 to 1937 and as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1937 to 1971. A member of the Democratic Party and a devoted New Dealer, Black endorsed Franklin D. Roosevelt in both the 1932 and 1936 presidential elections. Having gained a reputation in the Senate as a reformer, Black was nominated to the Supreme Court by President Roosevelt and confirmed by the Senate by a vote of 63 to 16 (6 Democratic Senators and 10 Republican Senators voted against him). He was the first of nine Roosevelt nominees to the Court, and he outlasted all except for William O. Douglas.

休戈·拉斐特·布莱克(Hugo Lafayette Black,1886年-2月27日-1971年-9月25日),美国政治家及法学家。曾于1927年至1937年担任民主党亚拉巴马州参议员,并在1937年至1971年担任美国最高法院大法官。在布莱克的政治生涯中,他被认为是民主派、自由派政策的坚定支持者,也是20世纪最有影响力的美国最高法院大法官之一。


Eclipse conditions.

Eclipses may occur when the Earth and the Moon are aligned with the Sun, and the shadow of one body cast by the Sun falls on the other. So at new moon, when the Moon is in conjunction with the Sun, the Moon may pass in front of the Sun as seen from a narrow region on the surface of the Earth and cause a solar eclipse. At full moon, when the Moon is in opposition to the Sun, the Moon may pass through the shadow of the Earth, and a lunar eclipse is visible from the night half of the Earth. Conjunction and opposition of the Moon together have a special name: syzygy (from "Greek" for "junction"), because of the importance of these lunar phases.  An eclipse does not happen at every new or full moon, because the plane of the orbit of the Moon around the Earth is tilted with respect to the plane of the orbit of the Earth around the Sun (the ecliptic): so as seen from the Earth, when the Moon is nearest to the Sun (new moon) or at largest distance (full moon), the three bodies usually are not exactly on the same line.  This inclination is on average about 5° 9′, much larger than the apparent "mean" diameter of the Sun (32′ 2′′), the Moon as seen from the surface of the Earth right beneath the Moon (31′ 37′′), and the shadow of the Earth at the mean lunar distance (1° 23′).  Therefore, at most new moons the Earth passes too far north or south of the lunar shadow, and at most full moons the Moon misses the shadow of the Earth. Also, at most solar eclipses the apparent angular diameter of the Moon is insufficient to fully obscure the solar disc, unless the Moon is near its perigee, "i.e." closer to the Earth and apparently larger than average. In any case, the alignment must be close to perfect to cause an eclipse.  An eclipse can only occur when the Moon is close to the plane of the orbit of the Earth, i.e. when its ecliptic latitude is small. This happens when the Moon is near one of the two nodes of its orbit on the ecliptic at the time of the syzygy. Of course, to produce an eclipse, the Sun must also be near a node at that time: the same node for a solar eclipse, or the opposite node for a lunar eclipse.

Recurrence.

Up to three eclipses may occur during an eclipse season, a one- or two-month period that happens twice a year, around the time when the Sun is near the nodes of the Moon's orbit.  An eclipse does not occur every month, because one month after an eclipse the relative geometry of the Sun, Moon, and Earth has changed.  As seen from the Earth, the time it takes for the Moon to return to a node, the draconic month, is less than the time it takes for the Moon to return to the same ecliptic longitude as the Sun: the synodic month. The main reason is that during the time that the Moon has completed an orbit around the Earth, the Earth (and Moon) have completed about of their orbit around the Sun: the Moon has to make up for this in order to come again into conjunction or opposition with the Sun. Secondly, the orbital nodes of the Moon precess westward in ecliptic longitude, completing a full circle in about 18.60 years, so a draconic month is shorter than a sidereal month. In all, the difference in period between synodic and draconic month is nearly days. Likewise, as seen from the Earth, the Sun passes both nodes as it moves along its ecliptic path. The period for the Sun to return to a node is called the eclipse or draconic year: about 346.6201 d, which is about year shorter than a sidereal year because of the precession of the nodes.  If a solar eclipse occurs at one new moon, which must be close to a node, then at the next full moon the Moon is already more than a day past its opposite node, and may or may not miss the Earth's shadow. By the next new moon it is even further ahead of the node, so it is less likely that there will be a solar eclipse somewhere on Earth. By the next month, there will certainly be no event.  However, about 5 or 6 lunations later the new moon will fall close to the opposite node. In that time (half an eclipse year) the Sun will have moved to the opposite node too, so the circumstances will again be suitable for one or more eclipses.

Periodicity.

These are still rather vague predictions. However we know that if an eclipse occurred at some moment, then there will occur an eclipse again "S" synodic months later, "if" that interval is also "D" draconic months, where "D" is an integer number (return to same node), or an integer number + 1⁄2 (return to opposite node). So an eclipse cycle is any period "P" for which approximately holds:  Given an eclipse, then there is likely to be another eclipse after every period "P". This remains true for a limited time, because the relation is only approximate.  Another thing to consider is that the motion of the Moon is not a perfect circle. Its orbit is distinctly elliptic, so the lunar distance from Earth varies throughout the lunar cycle. This varying distance changes the apparent diameter of the Moon, and therefore influences the chances, duration, and type (partial, annular, total, mixed) of an eclipse. This orbital period is called the anomalistic month, and together with the synodic month causes the so-called "full moon cycle" of about 14 lunations in the timings and appearances of full (and new) Moons. The Moon moves faster when it is closer to the Earth (near perigee) and slower when it is near apogee (furthest distance), thus periodically changing the timing of syzygies by up to ±14 hours (relative to their mean timing), and changing the apparent lunar angular diameter by about ±6%. An eclipse cycle must comprise close to an integer number of anomalistic months in order to perform well in predicting eclipses.

Numerical values.

These are the lengths of the various types of months as discussed above (according to the lunar ephemeris ELP2000-85, valid for the epoch J2000.0; taken from ("e.g.") Meeus (1991) ):  Note that there are three main moving points: the Sun, the Moon, and the (ascending) node; and that there are three main periods, when each of the three possible pairs of moving points meet one another: the synodic month when the Moon returns to the Sun, the draconic month when the Moon returns to the node, and the eclipse year when the Sun returns to the node. These three 2-way relations are not independent (i.e. both the synodic month and eclipse year are dependent on the apparent motion of the Sun, both the draconic month and eclipse year are dependent on the motion of the nodes), and indeed the eclipse year can be described as the beat period of the synodic and draconic months (i.e. the period of the difference between the synodic and draconic months); in formula:  as can be checked by filling in the numerical values listed above.  Eclipse cycles have a period in which a certain number of synodic months closely equals an integer or half-integer number of draconic months: one such period after an eclipse, a syzygy (new moon or full moon) takes place again near a node of the Moon's orbit on the ecliptic, and an eclipse can occur again. However, the synodic and draconic months are incommensurate: their ratio is not an integer number. We need to approximate this ratio by common fractions: the numerators and denominators then give the multiples of the two periods – draconic and synodic months – that (approximately) span the same amount of time, representing an eclipse cycle.  These fractions can be found by the method of continued fractions: this arithmetical technique provides a series of progressively better approximations of any real numeric value by proper fractions.  Since there may be an eclipse every half draconic month, we need to find approximations for the number of half draconic months per synodic month: so the target ratio to approximate is: SM / (DM/2) = 29.530588853 / (27.212220817/2) = 2.170391682  The continued fractions expansion for this ratio is:  The ratio of synodic months per half eclipse year yields the same series:  Each of these is an eclipse cycle. Less accurate cycles may be constructed by combinations of these.

Eclipse cycles.

This table summarizes the characteristics of various eclipse cycles, and can be computed from the numerical results of the preceding paragraphs; "cf." Meeus (1997) Ch.9. More details are given in the comments below, and several notable cycles have their own pages.  Any eclipse cycle, and indeed the interval between any two eclipses, can be expressed as a combination of saros ("s") and inex ("i") intervals. These are listed in the column "formula".  "Notes":

Saros series and inex series.

Any eclipse can be assigned to a given saros series and inex series. The year of a solar eclipse (in the Gregorian calendar) is then given approximately by:  When this is greater than 1, the integer part gives the year AD, but when it is negative the year BC is obtained by taking the integer part and adding 2. For instance, the eclipse in saros series zero and inex series zero was in the middle of 2884 BC.

Eclipses may occur repeatedly, separated by certain intervals of time: these intervals are called eclipse cycles. The series of eclipses separated by a repeat of one of these intervals is called an eclipse series.

食的周期是相同的食一再循环发生的时间间隔。食有各种不同的种类,而相同现象的食会再度发生。重复相同食的系列就称为食的系列。


Early life.

Born in Honolulu, Hawaii, to Japanese immigrant parents, Ariyoshi graduated in 1944 from McKinley High School. As World War II drew to a close, he served as an interpreter with the U.S. Army Military Intelligence Service in Japan. Upon returning stateside, he first attended the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, then transferred to Michigan State University, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1949. He then went on to receive his J.D. degree from the University of Michigan Law School in 1952.

Political career.

Ariyoshi's political career began in 1954 when he was elected to the Hawaii Territorial House of Representatives. He was later elected to the Hawaii Territorial Senate in 1958, then to the Hawaii State Senate in 1959. He served in the senate until 1970 when he ran for and was elected lieutenant governor of Hawaii in 1970 with Governor John A. Burns. When Governor Burns fell ill in October 1973, Ariyoshi assumed his constitutional role as acting governor.

Governor.

In the election of 1974, Ariyoshi was elected governor in his own right, with Nelson Doi as his lieutenant governor. He was re-elected in 1978 with Jean King as lieutenant governor and in 1982 with John D. Waihee III as lieutenant governor. Ariyoshi's administration was marked by fiscal conservatism as the post-statehood economic boom came to an end. He guided the state through its first economic recession. Barred by term limits from seeking another term in 1986, Ariyoshi was succeeded by Waihee. After leaving public office, he served in a variety of corporate and non-profit capacities.

Personal life.

Ariyoshi married Jean Miya Hayashi in 1955 in Honolulu, Hawaii. They have a daughter, Lynn, born in 1957; and two sons, Ryozo, born in 1959, and Donn, 1961.  In her book "Washington Place: A First Lady's Story", Jean Ariyoshi credits former police officer Larry Mehau as becoming responsible for her family's safety. Mehau was also named "Neighbor Islands Coordinator" for her husband's campaign for governor. In the book she states that Mehau, although having a reputation as being honest and tough, was nicknamed in the press as "the Godfather". She does not mention why he was given this nickname, but the press did so because he was accused of having ties to the criminal underworld, many claiming that he was the top boss of organized crime in Hawai'i. According to Jean Ariyoshi, Mehau offered his help but told her husband: "I know I'm controversial, so don't put me up in front." Her husband responded: "I've known you for a long time and I've known you to be a good and honest person. What kind of friend would I be if I said 'I want your help but I don't want anyone to know you're helping me?' I'm not afraid to have people know of our friendship." In his own 200-page autobiography, "With Obligation to All", George Ariyoshi does not mention Larry Mehau at all.  Ariyoshi has also served as president of the Hawaii Bar Association and served on the board of directors for First Hawaiian Bank, the Honolulu Gas Company and Hawaiian Insurance Guaranty Company. He also served on the board of governors at the East-West Center, based in Honolulu, an internationally-known education and research organization that was established by U.S. Congress. As governor, he is credited with revitalizing the organization, and joined the board when his term as governor ended. He served five terms as chairman, until he was not reappointed by Republican Governor Linda Lingle in 2003.  He is the oldest living former governor of Hawaii.

George Ariyoshi, born as, is an American lawyer and politician who served as the third governor of Hawaii from 1974 to 1986. A Democrat, he is Hawaii's longest-serving governor and the first American of Asian descent to serve as governor of a U.S. state. He assumed gubernatorial powers and duties when Governor John A. Burns was declared incapacitated in October 1973 and was elected in 1974 (assuming governorship December 1974), becoming the first Asian-American to be elected governor of a U.S. state or territory. His lengthy tenure is a record likely to remain unbroken due to term limits enacted after he left office. Ariyoshi is now considered an elder statesman of the Democratic Party of Hawaii.

乔治·良一·有吉(英语:George Ryoichi Ariyoshi,1926年-3月12日),日语名字有吉良一(),美国政治人物,也是夏威夷出生的第二代日裔,曾于1974年至1986年间出任夏威夷州州长一职,成为全美首名亚裔州长。


Gameplay.

"Halo: Combat Evolved" is a shooter game in which players experience gameplay in a 3D environment almost entirely from a first-person view (FPS). The player can move around and look up, down, left, or right. The game features vehicles, ranging from armored 4x4s and tanks to alien hovercraft and aircraft, many of which can be controlled by the player. The game switches to a third-person perspective during vehicle use for pilots and mounted gun operators; passengers maintain a first-person view. The game's heads-up display includes a "motion tracker" that registers moving allies, moving or firing enemies, and vehicles, in a certain radius of the player.  The player character is equipped with an energy shield that nullifies damage from weapons fire and forceful impacts. The shield's charge appears as a blue bar in the corner of the game's heads-up display, and it automatically recharges if no damage is sustained for a brief period. When the shield is fully depleted, the player becomes highly vulnerable, and further damage reduces the hit points of a secondary health meter. When this health meter reaches zero, the character dies and the game reloads from a saved checkpoint. Health can be replenished through the collection of health packs scattered around the game's levels.  "Halo"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s arsenal consists of weapons from science fiction. The game has been praised for giving each weapon a unique purpose, thus making each useful in different scenarios. For example, plasma weapons need time to cool if fired too rapidly, but cannot be reloaded and must be discarded upon depletion of their batteries, whereas conventional firearms cannot overheat, but require reloading and ammunition. In contrast to the large weapon inventories of contemporary FPS games, "Halo" players may carry only two weapons at once, calling for strategy when managing firearms.  "Halo" departs from traditional FPS conventions by not forcing the player character to holster its firearm before deploying grenades or melee-range blunt instruments; instead, both attacks can be utilized while a gun is still equipped, supplanting or supplementing small-arms fire. Like the game's other weapons, the two types of grenades differ; the fragmentation grenade bounces and detonates quickly, whereas the plasma grenade adheres to targets before exploding.  The game's main enemy force is the Covenant, a group of alien species allied by belief in a common religion. Their forces include Elites, fierce warriors protected by recharging energy shields similar to the player's own; Grunts, which are short, cowardly creatures who are usually led by Elites in battle, and often flee in terror instead of fighting in the absence of a leading Elite; Jackals, originally space pirates, who wear a highly durable energy shield on one arm and a form of handgun on the other; and Hunters, large, powerful creatures composed of small worm-like colonies with thick armor plates that cover the majority of their bodies and a large assault cannon that fires explosive rounds of green plasma. A secondary enemy is the Flood, a parasitic alien life form that appears in several variants. Other enemies include Sentinels, aerial robots designed by an extinct race called the Forerunners to protect their structures and prevent Flood outbreaks. Sentinels are able to hover around in enclosed spaces and produce an energy shield when under attack. They lack durability, but use powerful laser beam weapons and are immune to infection by the Flood.  The artificial intelligence in "Halo" has been favorably received. The player is often aided by United Nations Space Command (UNSC) Marines, who offer ground support, such as manning gun turrets or riding shotgun while the player is driving a vehicle.

Multiplayer.

A split screen mode allows two players to cooperatively play through "Halo"s campaign. The game also includes five competitive multiplayer modes, which all can be customized, for between two and 16 players; up to four players may play split-screen on one Xbox, and further players can join using a "System Link" feature that allows up to four Xbox consoles to be connected together into a local area network. "Halo" lacks artificially intelligent game bots, and was released before the launch of the Xbox Live online multiplayer service; therefore LAN parties are needed to reach the game's 16-player limit, a setup that was a first for a console game, but was often deemed impractical by critics. Aside from this limitation, "Halo"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s multiplayer components were generally well received by critics, and it is widely considered one of the best multiplayer games of all time.  Although the Xbox version of "Halo" lacks official support for online multiplayer play, third-party packet tunneling software provide unofficial ways around this limitation. The Windows and Macintosh ports of "Halo" support online matches involving up to 16 players and include multiplayer maps, not in the original Xbox release. However, co-operative play was removed from the ports because it would have required large amounts of recoding to implement. In April 2014, it was announced that GameSpy's servers and matchmaking, on which "Halo PC" relied, would be shut down by May 31 of the same year. A team of fans and Bungie employees announced they would produce a patch for the game to keep its multiplayer servers online. The patch was released on May 16, 2014.

Synopsis.

Setting.

"Halo: Combat Evolved" takes place in a 26th-century science fiction setting. Faster-than-light travel called slipspace allows the human race to colonize planets other than Earth. The planet Reach serves as an interstellar hub of scientific and military activity. The United Nations Space Command (UNSC) develops a secret program to create augmented supersoldiers known as Spartans. More than twenty years before the beginning of the game, a technologically advanced collective of alien races called the Covenant begins a holy war against humanity, declaring them an affront to their gods. Humanity's military experiences a series of crushing defeats; although the Spartans are effective against the Covenant, they are too few in number to turn the tide. In 2552, Covenant forces attack Reach and destroy the colony. The starship "Pillar of Autumn" escapes the planet with the Spartan Master Chief Petty Officer John-117 on board. The ship initiates a jump to slipspace, hoping to lead the enemy away from Earth.

Plot.

The game begins as "Pillar of Autumn" exits slipspace and its crew discovers a large ringworld structure of unknown origin. The Covenant pursues the "Autumn" and attacks. With the ship heavily damaged, the "Autumn"'s captain, Jacob Keyes, entrusts the ship's artificial intelligence (AI) known as Cortana to Master Chief in order to prevent the Covenant from discovering the location of Earth. Keyes orders the crew to abandon ship and pilots the "Autumn" to a crash-landing on the ringworld.  On the ring's surface, Master Chief and Cortana rescue other survivors and help organize a counter-offensive. Learning that Keyes has been captured by the Covenant, Master Chief and a small contingent of soldiers rescue him from the Covenant cruiser "Truth and Reconciliation". Keyes reveals that the Covenant call the ringworld "Halo" and that they believe it to be a weapon. Intent on stopping the Covenant from using Halo, Keyes searches for a potential weapons cache, while Master Chief and Cortana mount an assault on the ringworld's control room. Cortana enters Halo's computer systems; what she learns has her immediately send Master Chief to find and stop Keyes from continuing his search.  Searching for the captain, Master Chief encounters a new enemy, the parasitic Flood. The release of the Flood prompts Halo's caretaker, the AI 343 Guilty Spark, to enlist Master Chief's help in activating Halo's defenses. After Master Chief retrieves the ring's activation index, 343 Guilty Spark transports him back to Halo's control room. Cortana intervenes before Master Chief can activate the ring; she has discovered the purpose of the installation is to destroy all sentient life in the galaxy, starving the Flood of potential hosts. When Cortana refuses to surrender Halo's activation index, 343 Guilty Spark attacks her and Master Chief.  To stop Halo's activation, Master Chief and Cortana decide to destroy the installation. Needing Keyes' command codes to destroy the "Autumn" and Halo with it, Master Chief returns to "Truth and Reconciliation", only to find that Keyes has been assimilated by the Flood. Retrieving the codes from the captain's remains, Master Chief returns to the "Autumn", but 343 Guilty Spark halts the self-destruct sequence. Master Chief and Cortana manually destabilize the ship's reactors as an alternative, narrowly escaping the ensuing detonation in one of the "Autumn's" fighters, while the majority of the remaining Covenant, UNSC forces, and infected Flood are destroyed along with the Halo installation. Cortana justifies their sacrifices and believes their work to be finished, but the Master Chief states that they are only getting started. 343 Guilty Spark is shown to have survived Halo's destruction in a post-credits scene.

Development.

Prototypes.

In 1997, Bungie comprised around 15 people working in south Chicago, Illinois. During the development of "", a group of threebegan work on a science-fiction-based real-time strategy game (RTS) with a focus on realistic physics simulations and three-dimensional terrain. Early versions of the game used the "Myth" engine and isometric perspective. The project had the working title "Monkey Nuts", then "Blam!" after project lead Jason Jones could not bring himself to tell his mother the original name.  Experimenting with ways of controlling units, Bungie added a mode that attached the camera to individual units' perspectives. The vantage point continually moved closer to the units as the developers realized it would be more fun for players to drive the vehicles than have the computer do it. "And controlling [the vehicle], just that double tactile nature of load a dude in, get a dude out, hands on the steering wheel—it was like, this "shouldn't" be an RTS game," Bungie founder Alex Seropian recalled. By mid-1998 the game had become a third-person shooter.  Peter Tamte, Bungie's then-executive vice president, used his contacts from his former position at Apple to get Joseph Staten and Jason Jones an audience with CEO Steve Jobs. Jobs, impressed, agreed to debut the game to the world at the 1999 Macworld Conference & Expo. Anticipation built for the unknown Bungie game after favorable reviews from industry journalists under non-disclosure agreements at Electronic Entertainment Expo 1999. Days before the Macworld announcement, "Blam!" still did not have a permanent title—possible names had included "The Santa Machine", "Solipsis", "The Crystal Palace", "Hard Vacuum", "Star Maker", and "Star Shield". Bungie hired a branding firm that came up with the name "Covenant", but Bungie artist Paul Russell suggested a few alternatives, including "Halo". Though some did not like the name—likening it to something religious or a women's shampoo—designer Marcus Lehto said, "it described enough about what our intent was for this universe in a way that created this sense of mystery." On July 21, 1999, during the Macworld Conference & Expo, Jobs announced that "Halo" would be released for MacOS and Windows simultaneously.  The story premise at this point involved a human transport starship that crash-lands on a mysterious ringworld. Early versions of Covenant aliens appear in great numbers to loot what they can, and war erupts between them and the humans. Unable to match the technologically advanced alien race, the humans resort to guerrilla warfare. At this point, Bungie promised an open world game with terrain that reacted and deformed from explosions, persistent environment details such as spent shell casings, and variable weather, none of which made it into the final product. These early versions featured "Halo"-specific fauna, later dropped following design difficulties and the creatures' detraction from the surprise appearance of the Flood. The Master Chief was simply known as the cyborg. When "Halo" was shown at E3 in June 2000, it was still a third-person shooter.

Move to Xbox.

Bungie's financial situation during "Halo"s development was precarious. Ahead of "Myth II: Soulblighter"s release, Bungie was surviving from its predecessor's sales and had missed release dates. A glitch that caused "Myth II" to wipe the contents of the directory it was installed to was discovered only after 200,000 copies had been produced for the December 1998 launch. Bungie recalled the copies and issued a fix, costing the company $800,000. As a result, Bungie sold a share of the company and publishing rights to Take-Two Interactive. Still facing financial difficulties, Bungie's Tamte contacted Ed Fries, the head of Microsoft Game Studios, about a possible acquisition. Fries was working on developing the software lineup for Microsoft's first game console, the Xbox. Fries negotiated an agreement with Take-Two Interactive wherein Microsoft gained Bungie and the rights to "Halo", while Take-Two kept the "Myth" and "Oni" properties. Jones and Seropian pitched the purchase to the rest of Bungie as the way they could shape the future of a new game console. Microsoft announced its acquisition of Bungie on June 19, 2000. "Halo" was now to be the tentpole launch title for the Xbox.  In less than a year, Bungie had to turn "Halo" from a loose collection of ideas into a shipping product on an unproven console. To make players feel more connected to the action, Jason Jones pushed for turning the game's perspective from third-person to first-person. A key concern was making sure the game played well on the Xbox's gamepad—at the time, first-person shooters on consoles were rare. Designer Jaime Griesemer spearheaded the effort to adapt "Halo" to the gamepad. Griesemer worked on code that tried to discern player intent and assist the player's movement and aiming without being obvious. The game buffered player inputs so that the result was the "desired" player movement, rather than the movement players were actually making. Other Bungie projects were scrapped, and their teams absorbed into "Halo" in the rush to complete it. Griesemer said that after the Bungie team moved to Microsoft's campus in Redmond, Washington, he was so busy he did not unpack his belongings for six months. The designers prototyped encounters and enemy AI on a sandbox level, "B30". The success of gameplay on this small chunk of the game energized the team, and B30 became "The Silent Cartographer", the fourth mission.  Bungie cut features drastically to make the release date. The open-world plans were scrapped, and it became clear the lengthy planned campaign was not feasible. Staten described his resulting role as putting "story duct tape" over gaps that appeared to smooth them over. To save time, Lehto floated the idea of reusing campaign levels; glowing directional arrows were added after playtesters got lost. Microsoft game writers Eric Trautmann and Brandon Boren performed last-minute rewrites to improve the game's script a week before voiceover sessions while not being allowed to view the game itself. The campaign cutscenes came in so late that composer Martin O'Donnell had to score them in only three days. An online multiplayer component was dropped because Xbox Live would not be ready. Only four months before release, it was decided that the multiplayer was still not fun, so it was scrapped and rebuilt from scratch, using team members who moved from the defunct Bungie West team after completing "Oni". Some personnel took to sleeping in the office for the last few months to make sure the game made its deadline.

Design.

Bungie's social culture—and the rush to complete the game—meant that team members provided input and feedback across disciplines. Aspects such as level design demanded collaboration between the designers creating the environments for players to explore, and the artists who developed those environments' aesthetics. Initially artists Robert McLees and Lehto were the only artists working on what would become "Halo". Bungie hired Shi Kai Wang as an additional artist to refine Lehto's designs. The aliens making up the Covenant began with varied exploratory designs that coalesced once each enemy's role in the gameplay was defined.  Spearheaded by Paul Russell, the game's visual design changed in response to the changing gameplay and story. The artists made efforts to distinguish each faction in the game by their architecture, technology, and weaponry. The UNSC's original curved look was made blockier to distinguish it from the Covenant; likewise human weapons remained projectile-based to provide a contrast to the Covenant's energy weapons. The interiors of "Pillar of Autumn" drew significant influence from the production design of the film "Aliens". Organic, curvilinear forms along with a color palette of greens and purples were used for the Covenant, while the Forerunner came to be defined by their angular constructions; the interiors originally drew on Aztec patterns and the work of Louis Sullivan, before becoming more refined just five months from the game's completion.

Audio.

Composer Martin O'Donnell and his company TotalAudio were tasked with creating the music for "Halo"s MacWorld debut. Staten told O'Donnell that the music should give a feeling of ancient mystery. O'Donnell decided Gregorian chant fit the bill, and performed the vocals alongside his composing partner Michael Salvatori and additional singers. Because he did not know how long the presentation would be, O'Donnell created "smushy" opening and closing sections that could be expanded or cut as the time required to back up a rhythmic middle section. The music was recorded and sent to New York for the show the same night the piece was finished.  Shortly before Bungie was bought by Microsoft, O'Donnell joined Bungie as a staff member, while Salvatori remained at TotalAudio.  He designed the music so that it "could be dissembled and remixed in such a way that would give [him] multiple, interchangeable loops that could be randomly recombined in order to keep the piece interesting as well as a variable-length." Development involved the creation of "alternative middle sections that could be transitioned to if the game called for such a change (i.e. less or more intense)."  O'Donnell sat with the level designers to walk through the levels, constructing music that would adapt to the gameplay rather than be static; "[t]he level designer would tell me what he hoped a player would feel at certain points or after accomplishing certain tasks." Based on this information, O'Donnell would develop cues the designer could script into the level, and then designer and composer would play through the mission to see if the audio worked. He explained that the use of music in "Halo" is sparse because he believes that "[music] is best used in a game to quicken the emotional state of the player and it works best when used least," and that "[if] music is constantly playing it tends to become sonic wallpaper and loses its impact when it is needed to truly enhance some dramatic component of gameplay."

Release.

Ed Fries described the period before the Xbox's launch as chaotic; "You’ve got to imagine this environment of panic combined with adrenaline, but money’s mostly no object at the same time. So we were spending lots of it, trying to do all this crazy stuff," he recalled. After several planned video game tie-ins to Steven Spielberg's film "A.I. Artificial Intelligence" were scrapped it became clear that "Halo" had to serve as the tentpole title for the Xbox, a role which the game was never intended to fill.  "Halo"s debut had been well-received, but its move to the unproven Xbox console caused press treatment to be colder than it was before. While a playable demonstration of the game at Gamestock 2001 was well-received, critics had mixed reactions to its exhibition at E3 2001, where the game was shown off in a very broken state, with poor frame rates and technical issues.  Even within Microsoft, "Halo" was divisive. After Bungie refused to change the "Halo" name to appease marketing research teams, the subtitle "Combat Evolved" was added to make it more descriptive and compete better with other military-themed games. Fries recalled analysts had suggested that "Halo" had the "wrong" color palette compared to competing console games; Fries never showed the results to Bungie.  The game was released in North America simultaneously with the Xbox, on November 15, 2001.  "", a prequel novel to Halo: Combat Evolved, was released a few weeks before the game. Science fiction author Eric S. Nylund penned the novel in seven weeks. The novel was nearly killed halfway to completion; Nylund credits Trautmann with saving it. "The Fall of Reach" became a "Publishers Weekly" bestseller with almost two hundred thousand copies sold. The following novel, entitled "", is a tie-in to "Halo: Combat Evolved", describing not only the experiences of the Master Chief but also those of other characters on Installation 04. Written by William C. Dietz, this novel appeared on the "Publishers Weekly" bestsellers list during May 2003.  On July 12, 2002, a "Halo" port for Windows was announced to be under development by Gearbox Software. Its showing at E3 2003 was positively received by some critics, with skepticism by others. It was released on September 30, 2003, and included support for online multiplayer play and featured sharper graphics, but had compatibility issues that caused poor performance. "Halo" was later released for Mac OS X on December 11, 2003. On December 4, 2007, the game became available for the Xbox 360 via download from the Xbox Live Marketplace.

Sales.

While "Halo" was not an instant runaway success on release, it had a long tail sales rate and a very high attach rate for the Xbox; during the two months following "Halo"s release, the game sold alongside more than fifty percent of Xbox consoles. One million units had been sold roughly five months after release, a faster pace than that of any previous sixth-generation console game. The game sold three million copies worldwide by July 2003, four million by January 2004, and five million by November 2005. By July 2006, its Xbox version had sold 4.2 million copies and earned $170 million in the United States alone, while its computer version sold 670,000 copies and earned $22.2 million. "Next Generation" ranked it as the second highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country.

Reception.

"Halo" received "universal acclaim", according to review aggregator Metacritic, based on reviews from 68 professional critics. Ste Curran's review for "Edge" praised the game as "the most important launch game for any console, ever" and commented, ""GoldenEye" was the standard for multiplayer console combat. It has been surpassed." GameSpot claimed that ""Halo"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s single-player game is worth picking up an Xbox for alone," concluding, "Not only is this easily the best of the Xbox launch games, but it's easily one of the best shooters ever, on any platform." IGN remarked similarly, calling "Halo" a "can't miss, no-brainer, sure thing, five star, triple A game." AllGame editor Jonathan Licata praised Bungie for doing "a remarkable job with Halo, taking many successful elements from previous standouts in the genre to make one very playable game". Among the specific aspects that reviewers praised were the balance of weapons, the role of drivable vehicles, and the artificial intelligence of enemies.  The game received numerous Game of the Year awards, including those of the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences, "Electronic Gaming Monthly", "Edge", and IGN. The British Academy of Film and Television Arts awarded "Halo" "Best Console Game," and "Rolling Stone" presented it with their "Best Original Soundtrack" award. According to Xbox.com, the game received a total of 48 awards.  Although "Halo"s overall reception was largely positive, the game received criticism for its level design. GameSpy commented, "you'll trudge through countless hallways and control rooms that all look exactly the same, fighting identical-looking groups of enemies over and over and over...it is simply frustrating to see a game with such groundbreaking sequences too often degenerate [into] this kind of mindless, repetitive action." Similarly, an article on Game Studies.org remarked, "In the latter part of the game, the scenarios rely on repetition and quantity rather than innovativeness and quality." Eurogamer concluded, "Halo is very much a game of two halves. The first half is fast, exciting, beautifully designed and constantly full of surprises. The second half is festooned with gobsmacking plot twists and great cinematics but let down by repetitive paint by numbers level design." "Halo" was released prior to the launch of Xbox Live, and the lack of both online multiplayer and bots to simulate human players was criticized by GameSpy; in 2003 GameSpy included "Halo" in a list of "Top 25 Most Overrated Games of All Time."  "Halo"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s PC port received generally favorable reviews, garnering a score of 83% on Metacritic. GameSpot stated that it was "still an incredible action game... [and] a true classic," awarding it 9.0 out of 10. It received a score of 8.2 out of 10 from IGN, who stated, "If you've played the game on the Xbox, there's not much for you here." Eurogamer called the game "a missed opportunity," but stated that the online multiplayer component was "a massive draw... for "Halo" veterans."  "Halo" has been praised as one of the greatest video games of all time, and was ranked by IGN as the fourth-best first-person shooter made. The game's popularity led to labels such as ""Halo" clone" and ""Halo" killer", applied to games either similar to or anticipated to be better than it.

Legacy.

According to GameSpot, "Halo"s "numerous subtle innovations have been borrowed by countless other games since." The game is often cited as the main reason for the Xbox's success, and it began what is commonly regarded as the system's flagship franchise. Game designer Vox Day credited the game with using science-fiction environments to follow "Half-Life" in eschewing static levels and a similarity to dungeon crawls, which the FPS genre inherited from "Akalabeth". Day further wrote that "Halo" spurred a sustained trend of many other FPS console games. In July 2006, Next-Gen.biz published an article estimating "Halo" as the second-highest revenue-generating 21st century console video game in the United States, behind "". The game's popularity sparked the usage of terms like ""Halo" clone" and ""Halo" killer." The "Halo" engine has been used for the game "Stubbs the Zombie in Rebel Without a Pulse".  "Halo" has been featured at both Major League Gaming and the World Cyber Games. In machinima, the game was used as the basis for the popular web series "Red vs. Blue". The game's sequel, "Halo 2", made US$125 million with unit sales of 2.38 million on the first day of its release, earning it the distinction of the fastest-selling United States media product in history. Three years later, "Halo 3" shattered that record with the biggest opening day in entertainment history, taking in US$170 million in its first 24 hours.  "Halo" is also accredited with modernizing the FPS genre.  In addition, the game inspired and was used in the fan-created "Red vs. Blue" video series, which is credited as the "first big success" of machinima (the technique of using real-time 3D engines, often from video games, to create animated films).

"Halo: Custom Edition".

On March 15, 2004, Gearbox Software released Halo: Custom Edition for Windows, which enabled players to use custom-made maps and game modifications via the "Halo" Editing Kit developed by Bungie. "Halo: Custom Edition" is multiplayer-only, and requires an original copy of "Halo" for PC to install.

Remake.

During the Microsoft press conference at the 2011 E3 Expo, it was revealed that "Halo: Combat Evolved" would be remade by 343 Industries with an in-house game engine and would include achievements, Terminals, and Skulls. It was released for the Xbox 360 on November 15, 2011. The release date marks the 10th anniversary of the original game's release. The remastered version of the original game includes online multiplayer and cooperative play functionality. The remake is also the first "Halo" game to include Kinect support. The game is a mix of two game engines—the original Halo engine created by Bungie which provides gameplay and a new engine created by 343 and Saber which is responsible for improved graphics—and the player is able to switch between the improved and classic modes of the game at any time. The game's multiplayer component uses the "" gameplay engine, tailored with a map playlist to mimic the original multiplayer, as opposed to including the original game's multiplayer mode.  "Anniversary" was later included as part of "".  The "Anniversary" version of the game is the version featured in "The Master Chief Collection" for Xbox One. The single-player game is identical to the Xbox 360 version, including the ability to swap between the updated "anniversary" graphics and the original game graphics. However, unlike the Xbox 360 release, the multiplayer component is the original multiplayer engine from "Combat Evolved" as opposed to "Halo: Reach" and is playable over Xbox Live.

Halo: Combat Evolved is a first-person shooter video game developed by Bungie and published by Microsoft Game Studios. It was released as a launch title for Microsoft's Xbox video game console on November 15, 2001. Microsoft released versions of the game for Windows and Mac OS X in 2003. The game was later released as a downloadable Xbox Original for the Xbox 360. "Halo" is set in the twenty-sixth century, with the player assuming the role of the Master Chief, a cybernetically enhanced supersoldier. The Chief is accompanied by Cortana, an artificial intelligence. Players battle various aliens as they attempt to uncover the secrets of the eponymous Halo, a ring-shaped artificial world.

是一款由Bungie开发由微软游戏工作室发行在Xbox平台上的第一人称射击游戏,游戏在2001年11月15日与主机Xbox同步发售。本作是《光环》系列的首部作品,玩家需要扮演改造过的人类超级战士士官长,与外星敌人在神秘的外太空装置光环 (游戏设定)上展开战斗。该作从1997年开始制作,在开发早时曾经打算过制成即时战略游戏和第三人称射击游戏。在游戏开发阶段,开发组Bungie被微软收购,《光环:战斗进化》也成为了Xbox独占游戏,直到游戏发售两年后才移植到Windows和Mac OS上。