Early life.

Tom Hooper was born in 1972 in London, England, the son of Meredith Jean (Rooney) and Richard Hooper. Meredith is an Australian author and academic and Richard is an English media businessman. Hooper was educated at Highgate School and Westminster School. His initial interest in drama was triggered by his English and drama teacher at Highgate, former Royal Shakespeare Company actor Roger Mortimer, who produced an annual school play.  At the age of 12, Hooper read a book entitled "How to Make Film and Television" and decided he wanted to become a director. For the next year Hooper researched filmmaking from publications such as "On Camera" by Harris Watts. Aged 13, he made his first film, entitled "Runaway Dog", using a clockwork 16mm Bolex camera his uncle had given to him. Hooper said: "The clockwork would run out after thirty seconds, so the maximum shot length was thirty seconds. I could only afford a hundred feet of Kodachrome reversal film, which cost about twenty-five [pounds], and you had to send off for two weeks to be processed. I could only make silent movies, because sound was too expensive and complicated." He slowed down the frame rate of the camera so he could maximise what little film stock he had. Hooper classified the short, about a dog which kept running away from its owner, as a comedy, and filmed it on location in Oxfordshire.  When Hooper was 14, his film "Bomber Jacket" came runner-up in a BBC younger filmmakers' competition. The short starred Hooper's brother as a boy who discovers a bomber jacket and a photograph hidden in a cupboard and learns his grandfather died in World War II. Another of Hooper's short films, entitled "Countryside", depicts a nuclear holocaust.  Hooper finished school aged 16, then wrote the script for his first professional short film, entitled "Painted Faces". He spent the next two years raising capital for the short by courting advertisement directors, whose financial dominance during the late 1980s was noticed by Hooper. Director Paul Weiland invested in the short, which provided Hooper with the equipment he needed. After two years of financing and production, "Painted Faces" was completed. Hooper wrote, produced, directed and edited it. It was sold to Channel 4 and broadcast on the channel's "First Frame" strand in 1992, had a screening at the 35th London Film Festival and had a limited theatrical release.  After taking a gap year to finance "Painted Faces", Hooper read English at University College, Oxford. He joined the Oxford University Dramatic Society, where he directed Kate Beckinsale in "A View from the Bridge" and Emily Mortimer in "The Trial". Hooper also had his first paid directing work, earning £200 for a corporate Christmas video, and he directed his first television advertisements, including one for "Sonic the Hedgehog 3" featuring Right Said Fred. He continues to direct advertisements alongside television and film projects. In 1996 he joined the commercial production company John S. Clarke Productions and in 2001 he signed with Infinity Productions.

Career.

BBC and ITV productions.

After graduating from Oxford, Hooper directed further television commercials, intending to break into the film industry the same way Ridley Scott, Tony Scott and Hugh Hudson did. He was introduced by his father to the television producer Matthew Robinson, who mentored Hooper and gave him his first television directing work. For Robinson, Hooper directed episodes of the short-lived Tyne Tees Television soap opera "Quayside" in 1997, four episodes of the Children's BBC television series "Byker Grove" in the same year, and his first episodes of the BBC One soap opera "EastEnders" in 1998.  Hooper directed several "EastEnders" episodes between 1998 and 2000, two of which were hour-long specials that represented the soap when it won the British Academy Television Award for Best Soap Opera in 2000 and 2001; the first was the episode in which Carol Jackson (Lindsey Coulson) learns her daughter Bianca (Patsy Palmer) had an affair with her fiancé Dan Sullivan (Craig Fairbrass). The Jackson episode marked the beginning of a week of episodes that lead to Palmer's departure from the soap, and Robinson had hired Hooper to direct the key episodes of that storyline. Hooper worked 10-hour days on "EastEnders", and learned to direct with speed. He was influenced in his early career by the cinematic style of American TV series such as "ER", "NYPD Blue" and "" and tried to work that style into his "EastEnders" episodes; one scene featuring Grant Mitchell (Ross Kemp) involved a crane shot, which Hooper believes made him infamous among the "EastEnders" production crew.  In 1999, Hooper directed two episodes of Granada Television's comedy-drama television series "Cold Feet", which marked his move to bigger-budget productions. There was initially concern at Granada that Hooper might be an unsuitable director for the series given his background in drama.  In 2001, Hooper directed his first of two costume dramas for the BBC; "Love in a Cold Climate" was based on Nancy Mitford's novels "The Pursuit of Love" and "Love in a Cold Climate". Hooper, the writer Deborah Moggach, and the producer Kate Harwood researched the period details of the production by interviewing Nancy's sister Deborah. In 2002, Hooper directed "Daniel Deronda", adapted from George Eliot's novel. "The Guardian"s Mark Lawson said of Hooper's two costume dramas, "he brought verve and intelligence to television's most conservative form".  Hooper returned to Granada the next year to direct the revival of "Prime Suspect", entitled "The Last Witness". The two-part serial was the first "Prime Suspect" instalment to be made since 1995, when star Helen Mirren quit. Hooper initially declined to direct the production because he believed the series was tired. Granada's head of drama Andy Harries introduced Hooper to Mirren, who persuaded him to take the job by promising that he could make the serial his own way. The two-part serial was broadcast on the ITV network in November 2003. Hooper's direction received praise from Andrew Billen in the "New Statesman": "Tom Hooper proved an outstanding director, imposing a bleak, overlit hyper-realism on the search for a killer in a hospital, isolating Mirren in rows of empty chairs and playing on the eyewitness/optical visual metaphors." The serial was also broadcast on PBS in the United States. Hooper received nominations for the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Serial and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or Dramatic Special for his work on "Prime Suspect".

Film debut and HBO works.

Hooper made his debut as a feature film director with the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission drama "Red Dust" (2004), which stars Hilary Swank, Chiwetel Ejiofor and Jamie Bartlett. The film was not widely seen, which Hooper attributed to media coverage of torture during the Iraq War: "When I started making it you could watch the movie with a wonderful sense of 'we'd never do it in our own country...they're the horrible people but it's not us.' By the time the film came out (there were) these revelations that the Americans were torturing, the British were torturing. The film became a lot more uncomfortable for the very audiences it was designed to target. I have learned that sadly the theatrical audience does not run to see films that are openly issue led." The premiere of the film in the United Kingdom came on BBC Two in 2005, making it eligible for the BAFTA Television Awards; it was nominated in the Best Single Drama category at the 2006 ceremony.  In 2005, Hooper was asked by Helen Mirren to direct the Company Pictures/HBO Films two-part serial "Elizabeth I", in which she was starring. The serial won Hooper his first Emmy Award, for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or Dramatic Special. In January 2006, Hooper commenced filming the Granada/HBO television film "Longford". The film dramatises the failed efforts of Lord Longford (played by Jim Broadbent) to secure the release from prison of Moors murderer Myra Hindley (played by Samantha Morton). The film was broadcast on Channel 4 in October 2006. Seb Morton-Clark for the "Financial Times" called "Longford" one of the most accomplished television dramas of 2006, and praised the writer and director: "Morgan and director Tom Hooper wove a seamless narrative about obsession – and not just that of the misguided philanthropist for the incarcerated Hindley or even that that existed between the sadistic lovers themselves. More significantly, by using chunks of original television footage, they painted a stark picture of the zealotry of a vengeful nation and its press over the supposed embodiment of evil." Hooper's continued successes led him to be ranked at number four in the Directors category of "Broadcast" magazine's annual Hot 100. The following year he was nominated for the British Academy Television Craft Award for Best Director for "Longford".  "Elizabeth I" and "Longford" led directly to Hooper being selected by Tom Hanks to direct the epic miniseries "John Adams" for Playtone and HBO. Hooper had been working on a biographical film with Joan Didion about Katharine Graham, publisher of "The Washington Post", since 2006 when he was asked by Hanks to helm the programme. The miniseries, starring Paul Giamatti as John Adams, was based on David McCullough's Adams biography and was Hooper's first wholly American production. He was surprised to learn that the American Revolutionary War was not a well-documented period in film and television; Abigail Adams actress Laura Linney told him that, for her generation, the musical "1776" was the most well-known depiction of the era. He worked on the miniseries for a total of 16 months; principal photography lasted 110 days on locations in the United States, France, England and Hungary and he controlled a $100 million budget. "The Boston Globe"s Matthew Gilbert complimented Hooper's style of direction in the first two episodes "Join or Die" and "Independence":  Director Tom Hooper lets his actors shine, as he did so marvelously in Helen Mirren's "Elizabeth I" and the child-killer drama "Longford", but he complements them, too, with this kind of immediate point of view. And when he does give us panoramic shots from afar – of the Adams farm in Braintree, for example – they're askew, to keep us out of the classroom mode. At the end of episode 2 [...] Hooper showcases all his directorial strength with one bold choice. When the long-fretting Congress finally decides to break with Britain, he refrains from using any visual or aural tweaks. Upon the announcement, "The resolution carries," the scene remains perfectly silent for one long moment. The terror of responsibility hangs heavily in the room, while a victorious soundtrack surely would have chased it away.  "John Adams" received 23 Emmy Award nominations, including another Outstanding Direction nomination for Hooper, and won 13, the highest number for any nominee in a single year. He was also nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement. At the beginning of 2009, he was profiled for "The Observer"s film Hotlist.

Independent feature films.

The wake of "John Adams"<nowiki>'</nowiki> Emmy wins brought offers to Hooper from studios to direct spy and comic book films, which he declined. In November 2007, he signed on to direct "The Damned United", reuniting him with Peter Morgan and Andy Harries. The film was an adaptation of David Peace's novel "The Damned Utd", a fictional version of the 44 turbulent days English football manager Brian Clough spent as manager of Leeds United. It was originally developed by Stephen Frears for Michael Sheen to play Clough. Frears quit the project after he was unable to translate the book to film. Hooper received a copy of the script while shooting "John Adams" in Hungary and noticed a similarity between the "egotistical, flawed, brilliant" Adams and the "egotistical, flawed, brilliant" Clough. He was not put off by joining the project later, as Morgan's script was in only its first draft. During pre-production, Hooper engaged in meticulous research, particularly on the locations and the football grounds of the era. He cast Timothy Spall as Clough's assistant Peter Taylor, Colm Meaney as Don Revie and Jim Broadbent as Derby County chairman Sam Longson. During editing, it was decided to make the tone of the film lighter to attract audiences and to appease the real people depicted in the film. "The Damned United" was released in 2009.  Work on Hooper's next film, "The King's Speech", began in the same year. Hooper explained: "It was a stage play, and my mother who's Australian was invited to a fringe [theatre] reading in London because she's part of the Australian community. The play's about the relationship between King George the Sixth and his Australian speech therapist. She came back and said 'you've got to read this play,' and I read it and it was brilliant...". Hooper cast Colin Firth as George VI and Geoffrey Rush as Lionel Logue and spent three weeks with the actors reading the script and rehearsing. Principal photography took place on location around the UK from November 2009 to January 2010. During editing, Hooper continued to consult with Firth and Rush by sending them cuts of the film and listening to their feedback.  Hooper completed the final cut of the film at the end of August 2010 and presented it a few days later at the Telluride Film Festival. The film won the People's Choice Award at the Toronto International Film Festival and Hooper won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures. In February 2011, he was presented with the Academy Award for Best Director, though lost the BAFTA Award for Best Direction to David Fincher. In comparing the two films, "Variety"s Adam Dawtrey wrote, "Hooper's 2009 film "The Damned United" didn't register among awards selectors, but "King's Speech" is a much more personal project. His Anglo-Australian parentage reflects the culture clash at the heart of the movie, and it pays off with beautifully crafted, crowd-pleasing drama."

Studio films.

Following the success of "The King's Speech" during the awards season, Hooper joined the 15-person board of governors at the British Film Institute, was invited to join the directors branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, and was ranked at number 19 in "The Times" British Film Power 100. In March 2009, Hooper met with Nelson Mandela in preparation for directing a film adaptation of Mandela's autobiography "Long Walk to Freedom". By 2012, however, he had left the project.  He was offered the chance to direct "Iron Man 3" for Marvel Studios but declined and instead signed on to direct "Les Misérables" for Working Title Films, which he had first heard about while discussing a different project with screenwriter William Nicholson in 2010. Hooper had not seen the musical, so watched a performance of it in London's West End. Adapted from the musical, the film starred Hugh Jackman, Russell Crowe, Anne Hathaway, Amanda Seyfried, Helena Bonham Carter, Sacha Baron Cohen, and Eddie Redmayne. As the film required the actors to sing and dance, they were auditioned in front of Hooper, producers and composers. The role of Fantine was hugely contested; Hooper said, "It was like half a dozen of the biggest female movie stars on the planet wanted to play the role".  Hooper investigated filming the feature in 3D, and performed some camera tests before deciding to film it with traditional 2D methods. He stated "[...] I slightly worry with 3D that some people will physically struggle with it. If you have a certain type of eyesight it can be more demanding than watching a normal movie." Unlike other musical films, "Les Misérables" features the actors singing live on camera, rather than miming to backing vocals. Hooper told "Los Angeles Times" that he thought there was a "slightly strange falseness" when he saw musical films where the actors sang to recordings. The actors wore wireless earpieces on set so they could sing to accompanying piano music. Hooper believed this method allowed the actors to have emotional control over their songs: "When Annie [Hathaway, who plays Fantine] is singing 'I Dreamed a Dream', if she needs to take a tenth of a second to have a thought before she sings it, or to have an emotion before she sings a line, she can take it." The actors also performed their songs in recitative style, which Hooper likened to being immersed in a 3D film. "Les Miserables" was released in North America on 25 December 2012, and received eight Academy Award nominations including Best Picture.  Hooper's fifth feature film, "The Danish Girl", was released in late 2015. It loosely tells the story of Lili Elbe, one of the first people to undergo sex reassignment surgery, and wife Gerda Wegener. It stars Eddie Redmayne and Alicia Vikander, both of whom received Academy Award nominations. Critics were generally positive about the film.  In May 2016, it was announced that he would direct an adaptation of Andrew Lloyd Webber's stage musical, "Cats", which is in turn, based on T. S. Eliot's "Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats". Filming commenced in November 2018 and the film, which stars Jennifer Hudson, Ian McKellen, Judi Dench, James Corden, Idris Elba and Taylor Swift, was released on 20 December 2019. Hooper co-produced the original song "Beautiful Ghosts" with Lloyd Webber and Greg Wells, written by Swift and Lloyd Webber.

Directing style.

Hooper uses camera styles "that encode the DNA of the storytelling in some way" and will reuse and develop filming styles in successive productions. Hooper identifies research as being key to his process of directing period dramas such as "John Adams" to make the scenes authentic. For "The Damned United", Hooper and director of photography Ben Smithard researched the look of the late 1960s and early 1970s through football photography books. Hooper has also been influenced by cinematographer Larry Smith, who worked with Stanley Kubrick and advised Hooper of techniques used by Kubrick. Hooper and Smith have worked together on "Cold Feet", "Love in a Cold Climate", "Prime Suspect", "Red Dust" and "Elizabeth I".  Hooper also uses uncommon framing techniques to emphasise story; in "John Adams", he wanted to imply American independence seemed unlikely during the Revolutionary War, so he used "a very rough camera style—almost all hand held, wide lenses close to the actors, lots of movement, many cameras shooting at once so there was often not a settled master "point of view", and lots of unmatching dutch tilts so the horizon lines of the frame were often being thrown off." The America-set scenes were contrasted by the scenes set in France, in which more traditional filming techniques were employed to evoke a feel of entrenched values. Similarly, in "The Damned United", Hooper began to experiment with using wide-angle lenses and putting actors in the extreme edges of the frame. He was influenced by the unusual framing from social photography of the 1970s, and he and Ben Smithard decided to adopt the framing style while scouting locations. Hooper used the same style in "The King's Speech", particularly in the scene where Bertie and Logue meet in Logue's consulting room; Colin Firth is framed to the extreme left of the picture, leaving most of the shot dominated by the rough wall behind Firth.  Another frequently used technique is Hooper's tendency to use a variety of focal length camera lenses to distort the resulting picture. In "The Damned United" he used a 10mm lens, notably in the scene where Clough stays inside during the Derby–Leeds match. Hooper operated the camera in this scene himself. In "The King's Speech", Hooper used "typically 14mm, 18mm, 21mm, 25mm and 27mm" lenses and put the camera close to the actors' faces. Hooper said the use of this method in the first consulting room scene served to "suggest the awkwardness and tension of Logue and Bertie's first meeting".

Awards and nominations.

Directed Academy Award performances.

Hooper has directed multiple Academy Award-nominated performances, three of which have won.

Thomas George Hooper (born 5 October 1972) is a British-Australian film and television director. Hooper began making short films as a teenager and had his first professional short, "Painted Faces", broadcast on Channel 4 in 1992. At Oxford University Hooper directed plays and television commercials. After graduating, he directed episodes of "Quayside", "Byker Grove", "EastEnders", and "Cold Feet" on British television.

汤姆·霍珀(英语:Tom Hooper,1972年-10月1日)是一位英国电影、电视剧导演。生于伦敦。2010年其执导的影片《国王的演讲》获得第83届奥斯卡金像奖12项提名中的最佳影片、最佳导演、最佳原创剧本和最佳男主角四个大奖,以及第64届英国电影学院奖最佳影片、最佳英国电影等七个奖。


History.

By Early 1990s LC katz and Calloway had shown that light could uncage glutamate. An earlier use of light to activate neurons was carried out by Richard Fork, who demonstrated laser activation of neurons within intact tissue, although not in a genetically-targeted manner. The earliest genetically targeted method that used light to control rhodopsin-sensitized neurons was reported in January 2002, by Boris Zemelman and Gero Miesenböck, who employed "Drosophila" rhodopsin cultured mammalian neurons. In 2003, Zemelman and Miesenböck developed a second method for light-dependent activation of neurons in which single inotropic channels TRPV1, TRPM8 and P2X2 were gated by photocaged ligands in response to light. Beginning in 2004, the Kramer and Isacoff groups developed organic photoswitches or "reversibly caged" compounds in collaboration with the Trauner group that could interact with genetically introduced ion channels. TRPV1 methodology, albeit without the illumination trigger, was subsequently used by several laboratories to alter feeding, locomotion and behavioral resilience in laboratory animals. However, light-based approaches for altering neuronal activity were not applied outside the original laboratories, likely because the easier to employ channelrhodopsin was cloned soon thereafter.  Peter Hegemann, studying the light response of green algae at the University of Regensburg, had discovered photocurrents that were too fast to be explained by the classic g-protein-coupled animal rhodopsins. Teaming up with the electrophysiologist Georg Nagel at the Max Planck Institute in Frankfurt, they could demonstrate that a single gene from the alga "Chlamydomonas" produced large photocurents when expressed in the oocyte of a frog. To identify expressing cells, they replaced the cytoplasmic tail of the algal protein with the fluorescent protein YFP, generating the first generally applicable optogenetic tool. They clearly stated in the 2003 paper that "expression of ChR2 in oocytes or mammalian cells may be used as a powerful tool to increase cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration or to depolarize the cell membrane, simply by illumination". Date back to 1995, Georg Nagel et al. and Ernst Bamberg tried the heterologous expression of microbial rhodopsins (Bacteriorhodopsin) in animal cells (Xenopus oocytes) for the first time (Nagel et al., 1995, FEBS Lett.) and showed light induced current.  Zhuo-Hua Pan of Wayne State University, researching on restore sight to blindness, thought about using channelrhodopsin when it came out in late 2003. By February 2004, he was trying channelrhodopsin out in ganglion cells—the neurons in our eyes that connect directly to the brain—that he had cultured in a dish. Indeed, the transfected neurons became electrically active in response to light. In 2005, Zhuo-Hua Pan reported successful in-vivo transfection of channelrhodopsin in retinal ganglion cells of mice, and electrical responses to photostimulation in retinal slice culture  In April 2005, Susana Lima and Miesenböck reported the first use of genetically-targeted P2X2 photostimulation to control the behaviour of an animal. They showed that photostimulation of genetically circumscribed groups of neurons, such as those of the dopaminergic system, elicited characteristic behavioural changes in fruit flies.  In August 2005, Karl Deisseroth's laboratory in the Bioengineering Department at Stanford including graduate students Ed Boyden and Feng Zhang published the first demonstration of a single-component optogenetic system in cultured mammalian neurons in collaboration with Georg Nagel, using the channelrhodopsin-2(H134R)-eYFP construct from Nagel and Hegemann.  In October 2005, Lynn Landmesser and Stefan Herlitze also published the use of channelrohodpsin-2 to control neuronal activity in cultured hippocampal neurons and chicken spinal cord circuits in intact developing embryos. In addition, they introduced for the first time vertebrate rhodopsin, a light-activated G protein coupled receptor, as a tool to inhibit neuronal activity via the recruitment of intracellular signaling pathways also in hippocampal neurons and the intact developing chicken embryo.  The groups of Alexander Gottschalk and Georg Nagel made the first ChR2 mutant (H134R) and were first to use channelrhodopsin-2 for controlling neuronal activity in an intact animal, showing that motor patterns in the roundworm "Caenorhabditis elegans" could be evoked by light stimulation of genetically selected neural circuits (published in December 2005). In mice, controlled expression of optogenetic tools is often achieved with cell-type-specific Cre/loxP methods developed for neuroscience by Joe Z. Tsien back in the 1990s to activate or inhibit specific brain regions and cell-types in vivo.  In 2007, the labs of Edward Boyden and Karl Deisseroth simultaneously reported successful optogenetic inhibition of activity in neurons.  In parallel to the development of optogentic actuators, optogenetic sensors of activity were developed, for example genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs). The first GECI to be used to image activity in an animal was cameleon, designed by Atsushi Miyawaki, Roger Tsien and coworkers. Cameleon was first used successfully in an animal by Rex Kerr, William Schafer and coworkers to record from neurons and muscle cells of the nematode "C. elegans". Cameleon was subsequently used to record neural activity in flies and zebrafish. In mammals, the first GECI to be used in vivo was GCaMP, first developed by Nakai and coworkers. GCaMP has undergone numerous improvements, and GCaMP6 in particular has become widely used throughout neuroscience.  The powerful impact of optogenetic technology on brain research has been recognized by numerous awards to key players in the field. In 2010, Deisseroth was awarded the inaugural HFSP Nakasone Award "for his pioneering work on the development of optogenetic methods for studying the function of neuronal networks underlying behavior". In 2012, Miesenböck was awarded the Baillet Latour Health Prize for "pioneering optogenetic approaches to manipulate neuronal activity and to control animal behaviour." In 2013, Bamberg, Boyden, Deisseroth, Hegemann, Miesenböck and Nagel were awarded The Brain Prize for "their invention and refinement of optogenetics." Deisseroth was awarded the Else Kröner Fresenius Research Prize 2017 for his "contributions to the understanding of the biological basis of psychiatric disorders", and Miesenböck, Hegemann and Nagel jointly received the Shaw prize in Life Science and Medicine for "the development of optogenetics" in 2020.

Description.

Optogenetics provides millisecond-scale temporal precision which allows the experimenter to keep pace with fast biological information processing (for example, in probing the causal role of specific action potential patterns in defined neurons). Indeed, to probe the neural code, optogenetics by definition must operate on the millisecond timescale to allow addition or deletion of precise activity patterns within specific cells in the brains of intact animals, including mammals (see Figure 1). By comparison, the temporal precision of traditional genetic manipulations (employed to probe the causal role of specific genes within cells, via "loss-of-function" or "gain of function" changes in these genes) is rather slow, from hours or days to months. It is important to also have fast readouts in optogenetics that can keep pace with the optical control. This can be done with electrical recordings ("optrodes") or with reporter proteins that are biosensors, where scientists have fused fluorescent proteins to detector proteins. An example of this is voltage-sensitive fluorescent protein (VSFP2). Additionally, beyond its scientific impact optogenetics represents an important case study in the value of both ecological conservation (as many of the key tools of optogenetics arise from microbial organisms occupying specialized environmental niches), and in the importance of pure basic science as these opsins were studied over decades for their own sake by biophysicists and microbiologists, without involving consideration of their potential value in delivering insights into neuroscience and neuropsychiatric disease.  Light-activated proteins: channels, pumps and enzymes  The hallmark of optogenetics therefore is introduction of fast light-activated channels, pumps, and enzymes that allow temporally precise manipulation of electrical and biochemical events while maintaining cell-type resolution through the use of specific targeting mechanisms. Among the microbial opsins which can be used to investigate the function of neural systems are the channelrhodopsins (ChR2, ChR1, VChR1, and SFOs) to excite neurons and anion-conducting channelrhodopsins for light-induced inhibition. Indirectly light-controlled potassium channels have recently been engineered to prevent action potential generation in neurons during blue light illumination. Light-driven ion pumps are also used to inhibit neuronal activity, e.g. halorhodopsin (NpHR), enhanced halorhodopsins (eNpHR2.0 and eNpHR3.0, see Figure 2), archaerhodopsin (Arch), fungal opsins (Mac) and enhanced bacteriorhodopsin (eBR).  Optogenetic control of well-defined biochemical events within behaving mammals is now also possible. Building on prior work fusing vertebrate opsins to specific G-protein coupled receptors a family of chimeric single-component optogenetic tools was created that allowed researchers to manipulate within behaving mammals the concentration of defined intracellular messengers such as cAMP and IP3 in targeted cells. Other biochemical approaches to optogenetics (crucially, with tools that displayed low activity in the dark) followed soon thereafter, when optical control over small GTPases and adenylyl cyclase was achieved in cultured cells using novel strategies from several different laboratories. Photoactivated adenylyl cyclases have been discovered in fungi and successfully used to control cAMP levels in mammalian neurons. This emerging repertoire of optogenetic actuators now allows cell-type-specific and temporally precise control of multiple axes of cellular function within intact animals.  Hardware for light application  Another necessary factor is hardware (e.g. integrated fiberoptic and solid-state light sources) to allow specific cell types, even deep within the brain, to be controlled in freely behaving animals. Most commonly, the latter is now achieved using the fiberoptic-coupled diode technology introduced in 2007, though to avoid use of implanted electrodes, researchers have engineered ways to inscribe a "window" made of zirconia that has been modified to be transparent and implanted in mice skulls, to allow optical waves to penetrate more deeply to stimulate or inhibit individual neurons. To stimulate superficial brain areas such as the cerebral cortex, optical fibers or LEDs can be directly mounted to the skull of the animal. More deeply implanted optical fibers have been used to deliver light to deeper brain areas. Complementary to fiber-tethered approaches, completely wireless techniques have been developed utilizing wirelessly delivered power to headborne LEDs for unhindered study of complex behaviors in freely behaving organisms.  Expression of optogenetic actuators  Optogenetics also necessarily includes the development of genetic targeting strategies such as cell-specific promoters or other customized conditionally-active viruses, to deliver the light-sensitive probes to specific populations of neurons in the brain of living animals (e.g. worms, fruit flies, mice, rats, and monkeys). In invertebrates such as worms and fruit flies some amount of all-trans-retinal (ATR) is supplemented with food. A key advantage of microbial opsins as noted above is that they are fully functional without the addition of exogenous co-factors in vertebrates.

Technique.

The technique of using optogenetics is flexible and adaptable to the experimenter's needs. For starters, experimenters genetically engineer a microbial opsin based on the gating properties (rate of excitability, refractory period, etc..) required for the experiment.  There is a challenge in introducing the microbial opsin, an optogenetic actuator, into a specific region of the organism in question. A rudimentary approach is to introduce an engineered viral vector that contains the optogenetic actuator gene attached to a recognizable promoter such as CAMKIIα. This allows for some level of specificity as cells that already contain and can translate the given promoter will be infected with the viral vector and hopefully express the optogenetic actuator gene.  Another approach is the creation of transgenic mice where the optogenetic actuator gene is introduced into mice zygotes with a given promoter, most commonly Thy1. Introduction of the optogenetic actuator at an early stage allows for a larger genetic code to be incorporated and as a result, increases the specificity of cells to be infected.  A third and rather novel approach that has been developed is creating transgenic mice with Cre recombinase, an enzyme that catalyzes recombination between two lox-P sites. Then by introducing an engineered viral vector containing the optogenetic actuator gene in between two lox-P sites, only the cells containing the Cre recombinase will express the microbial opsin. This last technique has allowed for multiple modified optogenetic actuators to be used without the need to create a whole line of transgenic animals every time a new microbial opsin is needed.  After the introduction and expression of the microbial opsin, depending on the type of analysis being performed, application of light can be placed at the terminal ends or the main region where the infected cells are situated. Light stimulation can be performed with a vast array of instruments from light emitting diodes (LEDs) or diode-pumped solid state (DPSS). These light sources are most commonly connected to a computer through a fiber optic cable. Recent advances include the advent of wireless head-mounted devices that also apply LED to targeted areas and as a result give the animal more freedom of mobility to reproduce "in vivo" results.

Issues.

Although already a powerful scientific tool, optogenetics, according to Doug Tischer & Orion D. Weiner of the University of California San Francisco, should be regarded as a "first-generation GFP" because of its immense potential for both utilization and optimization. With that being said, the current approach to optogenetics is limited primarily by its versatility. Even within the field of Neuroscience where it is most potent, the technique is less robust on a subcellular level.

Selective expression.

One of the main problems of optogenetics is that not all the cells in question may express the microbial opsin gene at the same level. Thus, even illumination with a defined light intensity will have variable effects on individual cells. Optogenetic stimulation of neurons in the brain is even less controlled as the light intensity drops exponentially from the light source (e.g. implanted optical fiber).  Moreover, mathematical modelling shows that selective expression of opsin in specific cell types can dramatically alter the dynamical behavior of the neural circuitry. In particular, optogenetic stimulation that preferentially targets inhibitory cells can transform the excitability of the neural tissue from Type 1 — where neurons operate as integrators — to Type 2 where neurons operate as resonators. Type 1 excitable media sustain propagating waves of activity whereas Type 2 excitable media do not. The transformation from one to the other explains how constant optical stimulation of primate motor cortex elicits gamma-band (40–80 Hz) oscillations in the manner of a Type 2 excitable medium. Yet those same oscillations propagate far into the surrounding tissue in the manner of a Type 1 excitable medium.  Nonetheless, it remains difficult to target opsin to defined subcellular compartments, e.g. the plasma membrane, synaptic vesicles, or mitochondria. Restricting the opsin to specific regions of the plasma membrane such as dendrites, somata or axon terminals would provide a more robust understanding of neuronal circuitry.

Kinetics and synchronization.

An issue with channelrhodopsin-2 is that its gating properties don't mimic "in vivo" cation channels of cortical neurons. A solution to this issue with a protein's kinetic property is introduction of variants of channelrhodopsin-2 with more favorable kinetics.  Another one of the technique's limitations is that light stimulation produces a synchronous activation of infected cells and this removes any individual cell properties of activation among the population affected. Therefore, it is difficult to understand how the cells in the population affected communicate with one another or how their phasic properties of activation may relate to the circuitry being observed.  Optogenetic activation has been combined with functional magnetic resonance imaging (ofMRI) to elucidate the connectome, a thorough map of the brain's neural connections. The results, however, are limited by the general properties of fMRI. The readouts from this neuroimaging procedure lack the spatial and temporal resolution appropriate for studying the densely packed and rapid-firing neuronal circuits.

Excitation spectrum.

The opsin proteins currently in use have absorption peaks across the visual spectrum, but remain considerable sensitivity to blue light. This spectral overlap makes it very difficult to combine opsin activation with genetically encoded indictors (GEVIs, GECIs, GluSnFR, synapto-pHluorin), most of which need blue light excitation. Opsins with infrared activation would, at a standard irradiance value, increase light penetration and augment resolution through reduction of light scattering.  Additional data indicates that the absorption spectra of organic dyes and fluorescent proteins, used in optogenetics applications, extends from around 250 nm to around 600 nm. Particular organic compounds used in discrete portions of this range include: retinals, flavins, folates, p-coumaric acids, phytochrome chromophotes, cobalamins, and at least six fluorescent proteins including mOrange and mCherry.

Applications.

The field of optogenetics has furthered the fundamental scientific understanding of how specific cell types contribute to the function of biological tissues such as neural circuits "in vivo" (see references from the scientific literature below). Moreover, on the clinical side, optogenetics-driven research has led to insights into Parkinson's disease and other neurological and psychiatric disorders. Indeed, optogenetics papers in 2009 have also provided insight into neural codes relevant to autism, Schizophrenia, drug abuse, anxiety, and depression.

Identification of particular neurons and networks.

Amygdala.

Optogenetic approaches have been used to map neural circuits in the amygdala that contribute to fear conditioning. One such example of a neural circuit is the connection made from the basolateral amygdala to the dorsal-medial prefrontal cortex where neuronal oscillations of 4 Hz have been observed in correlation to fear induced freezing behaviors in mice. Transgenic mice were introduced with channelrhodoposin-2 attached with a parvalbumin-Cre promoter that selectively infected interneurons located both in the basolateral amygdala and the dorsal-medial prefrontal cortex responsible for the 4 Hz oscillations. The interneurons were optically stimulated generating a freezing behavior and as a result provided evidence that these 4 Hz oscillations may be responsible for the basic fear response produced by the neuronal populations along the dorsal-medial prefrontal cortex and basolateral amygdala.

Olfactory bulb.

Optogenetic activation of olfactory sensory neurons was critical for demonstrating timing in odor processing and for mechanism of neuromodulatory mediated olfactory guided behaviors (e.g. aggression, mating) In addition, with the aid of optogenetics, evidence has been reproduced to show that the "afterimage" of odors is concentrated more centrally around the olfactory bulb rather than on the periphery where the olfactory receptor neurons would be located. Transgenic mice infected with channel-rhodopsin Thy1-ChR2, were stimulated with a 473 nm laser transcranially positioned over the dorsal section of the olfactory bulb. Longer photostimulation of mitral cells in the olfactory bulb led to observations of longer lasting neuronal activity in the region after the photostimulation had ceased, meaning the olfactory sensory system is able to undergo long term changes and recognize differences between old and new odors.

Nucleus accumbens.

Optogenetics, freely moving mammalian behavior, "in vivo" electrophysiology, and slice physiology have been integrated to probe the cholinergic interneurons of the nucleus accumbens by direct excitation or inhibition. Despite representing less than 1% of the total population of accumbal neurons, these cholinergic cells are able to control the activity of the dopaminergic terminals that innervate medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in the nucleus accumbens. These accumbal MSNs are known to be involved in the neural pathway through which cocaine exerts its effects, because decreasing cocaine-induced changes in the activity of these neurons has been shown to inhibit cocaine conditioning. The few cholinergic neurons present in the nucleus accumbens may prove viable targets for pharmacotherapy in the treatment of cocaine dependence

Prefrontal cortex.

"In vivo" and "in vitro" recordings of individual CAMKII AAV-ChR2 expressing pyramidal neurons within the prefrontal cortex demonstrated high fidelity action potential output with short pulses of blue light at 20 Hz (Figure 1).  Motor cortex  "In vivo" repeated optogenetic stimulation in healthy animals was able to eventually induce seizures. This model has been termed optokindling.

Heart.

Optogenetics was applied on atrial cardiomyocytes to end spiral wave arrhythmias, found to occur in atrial fibrillation, with light. This method is still in the development stage. A recent study explored the possibilities of optogenetics as a method to correct for arrythmias and resynchronize cardiac pacing. The study introduced channelrhodopsin-2 into cardiomyocytes in ventricular areas of hearts of transgenic mice and performed "in vitro" studies of photostimulation on both open-cavity and closed-cavity mice. Photostimulation led to increased activation of cells and thus increased ventricular contractions resulting in increasing heart rates. In addition, this approach has been applied in cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) as a new biological pacemaker as a substitute for electrode based-CRT. Lately, optogenetics has been used in the heart to defibrillate ventricular arrhythmias with local epicardial illumination, a generalized whole heart illumination or with customized stimulation patterns based on arrhythmogenic mechanisms in order to lower defibrillation energy.

Spiral ganglion.

Optogenetic stimulation of the spiral ganglion in deaf mice restored auditory activity. Optogenetic application onto the cochlear region allows for the stimulation or inhibition of the spiral ganglion cells (SGN). In addition, due to the characteristics of the resting potentials of SGN's, different variants of the protein channelrhodopsin-2 have been employed such as Chronos, CatCh and f-Chrimson. Chronos and CatCh variants are particularly useful in that they have less time spent in their deactivated states, which allow for more activity with less bursts of blue light emitted. Additionally, using engineered red-shifted channels as f-Chrimson allow for stimulation using longer wavelengths, which decreases the potential risks of phototoxicity in the long term without compromising gating speed. The result being that the LED producing the light would require less energy and the idea of cochlear prosthetics in association with photo-stimulation, would be more feasible.

Brainstem.

Optogenetic stimulation of a modified red-light excitable channelrhodopsin (ReaChR) expressed in the facial motor nucleus enabled minimally invasive activation of motoneurons effective in driving whisker movements in mice. One novel study employed optogenetics on the Dorsal Raphe Nucleus to both activate and inhibit dopaminergic release onto the ventral tegmental area. To produce activation transgenic mice were infected with channelrhodopsin-2 with a TH-Cre promoter and to produce inhibition the hyperpolarizing opsin NpHR was added onto the TH-Cre promoter. Results showed that optically activating dopaminergic neurons led to an increase in social interactions, and their inhibition decreased the need to socialize only after a period of isolation.

Visual system.

Studying the visual system using optogenetics can be challenging. Indeed, the light used for optogenetic control may lead to the activation of photoreceptors, as a result of the proximity between primary visual circuits and these photoreceptors. In this case, spatial selectivity is difficult to achieve (particularly in the case of the fly optic lobe). Thus, the study of the visual system requires spectral separation, using channels that are activated by different wavelengths of light than rhodopsins within the photoreceptors (peak activation at 480 nm for Rhodopsin 1 in "Drosophila"). Red-shifted CsChrimson or bistable Channelrhodopsin are used for optogenetic activation of neurons (i.e. depolarization), as both allow spectral separation. In order to achieve neuronal silencing (i.e. hyperpolarization), an anion channelrhodopsin discovered in the cryptophyte algae species "Guillardia theta" (named GtACR1). can be used. GtACR1 is more light sensitive than other inhibitory channels such as the Halorhodopsin class of chlorid pumps and imparts a strong conductance. As its activation peak (515 nm) is close to that of Rhodopsin 1, it is necessary to carefully calibrate the optogenetic illumination as well as the visual stimulus. The factors to take into account are the wavelenght of the optogenetic illumination (possibly higher than the activation peak of GtACR1), the size of the stimulus (in order to avoid the activation of the channels by the stimulus light) and the intensity of the optogenetic illumination. It has been shown that GtACR1 can be a useful inhibitory tool in optogenetic study of "Drosophila"'s visual system by silencing T4/T5 neurons expression. These studies can also be led on intact behaving animals, for instance to probe optomotor response.

Precise temporal control of interventions.

The currently available optogenetic actuators allow for the accurate temporal control of the required intervention (i.e. inhibition or excitation of the target neurons) with precision routinely going down to the millisecond level. Therefore, experiments can now be devised where the light used for the intervention is triggered by a particular element of behavior (to inhibit the behavior), a particular unconditioned stimulus (to associate something to that stimulus) or a particular oscillatory event in the brain (to inhibit the event). This kind of approach has already been used in several brain regions:

Hippocampus.

Sharp waves and ripple complexes (SWRs) are distinct high frequency oscillatory events in the hippocampus thought to play a role in memory formation and consolidation. These events can be readily detected by following the oscillatory cycles of the on-line recorded local field potential. In this way the onset of the event can be used as a trigger signal for a light flash that is guided back into the hippocampus to inhibit neurons specifically during the SWRs and also to optogenetically inhibit the oscillation itself. These kinds of "closed-loop" experiments are useful to study SWR complexes and their role in memory.

Cellular biology/cell signaling pathways.

Analogously to how natural light-gated ion channels such as channelrhodopsin-2 allows optical control of ion flux, which is especially useful in neuroscience, natural light-controlled signal transduction proteins also allow optical control of biochemical pathways, including both second-messenger generation and protein-protein interactions, which is especially useful in studying cell and developmental biology. In 2002, the first example of using photoproteins from another organism for controlling a biochemical pathway was demonstrated using the light-induced interaction between plant phytochrome and phytochrome-interacting factor (PIF) to control gene transcription in yeast. By fusing phytochrome to a DNA-binding domain and PIF to a transcriptional activation domain, transcriptional activation of genes recognized by the DNA-binding domain could be induced by light. This study anticipated aspects of the later development of optogenetics in the brain, for example, by suggesting that "Directed light delivery by fiber optics has the potential to target selected cells or tissues, even within larger, more-opaque organisms." The literature has been inconsistent as to whether control of cellular biochemistry with photoproteins should be subsumed within the definition of optogenetics, as optogenetics in common usage refers specifically to the control of neuronal firing with opsins, and as control of neuronal firing with opsins postdates and utilizes distinct mechanisms from control of cellular biochemistry with photoproteins.

Photosensitive proteins utilized in various cell signaling pathways.

In addition to phytochromes, which are found in plants and cyanobacteria, LOV domains(Light-oxygen-voltage-sensing domain) from plants and yeast and cryptochrome domains from plants are other natural photosensory domains that have been used for optical control of biochemical pathways in cells. In addition, a synthetic photosensory domain has been engineered from the fluorescent protein Dronpa for optical control of biochemical pathways. In photosensory domains, light absorption is either coupled to a change in protein-protein interactions (in the case of phytochromes, some LOV domains, cryptochromes, and Dronpa mutants) or a conformational change that exposes a linked protein segment or alters the activity of a linked protein domain (in the case of phytochromes and some LOV domains). Light-regulated protein-protein interactions can then be used to recruit proteins to DNA, for example to induce gene transcription or DNA modifications, or to the plasma membrane, for example to activate resident signaling proteins. CRY2 also clusters when active, so has been fused with signaling domains and subsequently photoactivated to allow for clustering-based activation. The LOV2 domain of "Avena sativa"(common oat) has been used to expose short peptides or an active protein domain in a light-dependent manner. Introduction of this LOV domain into another protein can regulate function through light induced peptide disorder. The asLOV2 protein, which optogenetically exposes a peptide, has also been used as a scaffold for several synthetic light induced dimerization and light induced dissociation systems (iLID and LOVTRAP, respectively). The systems can be used to control proteins through a protein splitting strategy. Photodissociable Dronpa domains have also been used to cage a protein active site in the dark, uncage it after cyan light illumination, and recage it after violet light illumination.

Temporal control of signal transduction with light.

The ability to optically control signals for various time durations is being explored to elucidate how cell signaling pathways convert signal duration and response to different outputs. Natural signaling cascades are capable of responding with different outputs to differences in stimulus timing duration and dynamics. For example, treating PC12 cells with epidermal growth factor (EGF, inducing a transient profile of ERK activity) leads to cellular proliferation whereas introduction of nerve growth factor (NGF, inducing a sustained profile of ERK activity) leads to differentiation into neuron-like cells. This behavior was initially characterized using EGF and NGF application, but the finding has been partially replicated with optical inputs. In addition, a rapid negative feedback loop in the RAF-MEK-ERK pathway was discovered using pulsatile activation of a photoswitchable RAF engineered with photodissociable Dronpa domains.

Optogenetics () most commonly refers to a biological technique that involves the use of light to control neurons that have been genetically modified to express light-sensitive ion channels. As such, optogenetics is a neuromodulation method that uses a combination of techniques from optics and genetics to control the activities of individual neurons in living tissue—even within freely-moving animals. In some usages, optogenetics also refers to optical monitoring of neuronal activity and control of biochemical pathways in non-neuronal cells, although these research activities preceded the use of light-sensitive ion channels in neurons. As optogenetics is used by some authors to refer to only optical control of the activity of genetically defined neurons and not these additional research approaches, the term optogenetics is an example of polysemy.

光遗传学融合光学及遗传学的技术,精准控制特定细胞在空间与时间上的活动。其时间上精准程度可达到毫秒,而空间上则能达到单一细胞大小。2010年光遗传学被Nature Methods选为年度方法,同年被Science认为是近十年来的突破之一 。这两个期刊也分别在Youtube影片及科学美国人文章里以科普的方式解释何谓光遗传学。


Plot.

In the rural Ozarks of Missouri, seventeen-year-old Ree Dolly looks after her mentally ill mother, twelve-year-old brother Sonny, and six-year-old sister Ashlee. She makes sure her siblings eat and teaches them survival skills such as hunting and cooking. The family is destitute. Ree's father, Jessup, has not been home for a long time; his whereabouts are unknown. He is out on bail following an arrest for manufacturing meth.  Sheriff Baskin tells Ree that if her father does not appear for his court date, they will lose the house because it was put up as part of his bond. Ree sets out to find her father. She starts with her meth-addicted uncle Teardrop and continues to more distant kin, eventually trying to talk to the local crime boss, Thump Milton. Milton refuses to see her; the only information Ree comes up with are warnings to leave the situation alone and stories that Jessup died in a meth lab fire or skipped town to avoid the trial.  When Jessup fails to appear for the trial, the bondsman comes looking for him and tells Ree that she has about a week before the house and land are seized. Ree tells him that Jessup must be dead, because "Dollys don't run". He tells her that she must provide proof that her father is dead to avoid the bond being forfeited.  Ree tries to go see Milton again and is severely beaten by the women of his family. Teardrop rescues Ree, promising her attackers that she will not cause more trouble. Teardrop tells Ree that her father was killed because he was going to inform on other meth cookers, but he does not know who killed him. He warns her that if she finds out who did, she must not tell him. Later, Ree talks to an Army recruiter about enlisting for the $40,000 bonus, but he tells her that she needs her parents' signatures to enlist, and that she has the wrong reasons.  A few nights later, the Milton women who beat Ree come to her house and offer to take her to "[her] daddy's bones". The women place a sack on her head and drive her to a pond, where they row to the shallow area where her father's submerged body lies. They tell Ree to reach into the water and grasp her father's hands so they can cut them off with a chainsaw; the severed hands will serve as proof of death for the authorities. Ree takes the hands to the sheriff, telling him that someone flung them onto the porch of her house.  The bondsman gives Ree the cash portion of the bond, which was put up by an anonymous associate of Jessup. Ree tries to give Jessup's banjo to Teardrop, but he tells her to keep it at the house for him. As he is leaving, he tells her that he now knows who killed her father. Ree reassures Sonny and Ashlee that she will never leave them. As the three sit on the porch, Ashlee begins to play the banjo.

Reception.

Critical response.

"Winter's Bone" received widespread critical acclaim, with Jennifer Lawrence's performance being universally lauded. The film has an approval rating of 94% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 172 reviews with an average score of 8.3/10. The website's critical consensus states: "Bleak, haunting, and yet still somehow hopeful, "Winter's Bone" is writer-director Debra Granik's best work yet — and it boasts an incredible, starmaking performance from Jennifer Lawrence." The film also has a score of 90 out of 100 on Metacritic based on reviews from 38 critics indicating "universal acclaim".  Roger Ebert gave the film 4 out of 4 stars, praising Lawrence's steely "hope and courage" that remains optimistic despite her tribulations, and calling attention to Granik's direction that avoids passing moral judgment on the characters or descending into stereotypes. Reviewer Peter Travers found the film "unforgettable", writing in "Rolling Stone", "Granik handles this volatile, borderline horrific material with unblinking ferocity and feeling... In Lawrence, Granik has found just the right young actress to inhabit Ree. Her performance is more than acting, it's a gathering storm." Critic James Berardinelli said that ""Winter's Bone" is a welcome reminder that thrillers don't have to be loud and boisterous to grab the attention and keep it captive." David Edelstein wrote in "New York" magazine, "For all the horror, it’s the drive toward life, not the decay, that lingers in the mind. As a modern heroine, Ree Dolly has no peer, and "Winter’s Bone" is the year’s most stirring film." "New Yorker" critic David Denby called "Winter's Bone" "one of the great feminist works in film". "The A.V. Club" put the film at No. 1 on their list of the best movies of the year.

Box office.

"Winter's Bone" debuted in cinemas on June 11, 2010 in a limited release in 4 theaters and grossed "a hearty" $84,797, with an average of $21,199 per theater and ranking #35 at the box office. The film's subsequent outing and expansion to 39 theaters earned $351,317, with an average of $9,008 per theater. The film's distributors Roadside Attractions aimed, concurrently with New York, Los Angeles and Boston, at "heartland cities" such as Minneapolis, Overland Park, St. Louis, Springfield, Dallas and Denver, which eventually all attracted significant audiences, surpassing New York's. According to the distributor, "the filmmakers had always wanted to deliver the movie to the people who helped them make it". The film was in cinemas for over 45 weeks and ultimately earned $6,531,503 domestically and $9,600,048 internationally for a total of $16,131,551, surpassing its $2 million budget.

Accolades.

The film won the Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic Film and the Best Screenplay Award at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival. It also received two awards at the 2010 Berlin Film Festival in Germany and at the 2010 Stockholm International Film Festival, it won the awards for Best Film, Best Actress (Lawrence) and the Fipresci Prize.  "Winter's Bone" also won Best Feature and Best Ensemble Performance at the 2010 Gotham Awards and it earned seven nominations at the 2010 Independent Spirit Awards, including Best Film, Best Director, and Best Actress.

Winter's Bone is a 2010 American mystery drama film directed by Debra Granik. It was adapted by Granik and Anne Rosellini from the 2006 novel of the same name by Daniel Woodrell. The film stars Jennifer Lawrence as a teenage girl in the rural Ozarks of Missouri who, to protect her family from eviction, must locate her missing father. The film explores the interrelated themes of close and distant family ties, the power and speed of gossip, self-sufficiency, poverty, and patriarchy as they are influenced by the pervasive underworld of illegal meth labs.

是一部2010年的美国独立制片电影,根据2006年丹尼尔·伍德里尔的同名小说改编,黛布拉·格兰尼克编剧并执导。影片由著名新生代女演员詹妮弗·劳伦斯出演女主角,一位在美国乡村长大,努力试图通过找到父亲来保护其家人不被赶出家门的坚强少女。影片有对或亲或疏的亲戚关系,闲话的传播速度和破坏力,贫困家庭的努力挣扎,以及非法制作和销售冰毒对这一切的巨大影响等多个相互关联的主题。


Club career.

Sparta Rotterdam.

Born in Ridderkerk, Strootman began his career with Sparta Rotterdam, making his professional debut during the 2007–08 season. He signed a contract extension with the club in November 2008. After they were relegated at the end of the 2009–10 Eredivisie season, he played with Sparta in the Eerste Divisie.

Utrecht.

In the January transfer window of 2011, Strootman was signed by FC Utrecht. He played with Utrecht in the second half of the 2010–11 season, before moving to PSV in June 2011.

PSV.

Strootman was joined at PSV with fellow Utrecht recruit Dries Mertens. Strootman made his PSV debut in a 3–1 home win against AZ. He made 88 total appearances for the Eindhoven club.

Roma.

On 16 July 2013, PSV and Roma finalized a deal for Strootman's transfer to the Italian side, in a deal worth €17 million, with the fee potentially rising to €19 million through add-ons. He was given the number 6 shirt.  In a pre-season friendly against the Major League Soccer (MLS) All-Stars, Strootman scored one goal and assisted another as Roma prevailed 3–1 at Sporting Park, Kansas City, Kansas. He scored his first competitive goal for Roma in 3–1 Serie A victory over Parma. He went on to score in matches against Torino, Atalanta, Milan and Livorno.  On 9 March 2014, Strootman sustained a knee injury in Roma's 1–0 defeat to Napoli which made him miss the remainder of the 2013–14 season and the 2014 FIFA World Cup, where the Dutch selection finished third.  On 9 November, Strootman made his first appearance for Roma in exactly eight months, appearing as an 84th-minute substitute in a 3–0 defeat of Torino at the Stadio Olimpico. His first start of the 2014–15 season came in a 2–2 draw with Sassuolo on 7 December. He assisted the first of captain Francesco Totti's two goals after appearing as a substitute in Roma's 2–2 draw with Lazio in the 175th Derby della Capitale on 12 January 2015.  On 26 January 2015, Strootman was substituted in a Serie A fixture against Fiorentina after sustaining further damage to his anterior cruciate ligament. Three days later, it was confirmed that the player would again undergo knee surgery. On 26 August, it was reported that, in spite of failing to make a single appearance in seven months, Strootman's injury required further surgery which sidelined the player for the majority of the 2015–16 Serie A season. He made his first appearance of the season on 21 February 2016, as a substitute in a 5–0 home defeat of Palermo. On 2 May, he made his first start in over 15 months, playing the full 90 minutes in Roma's 3–2 win at Genoa. He ended the season with five appearances, including two starts. His only assist of the season came in a 3–1 final day victory over Milan at the San Siro.  On 20 August 2016, Strootman captained Roma in the opening match of the 2016–17 Serie A season, a 4–0 home win against Udinese. In the team's second fixture, he scored his first goal since January 2014 as Roma drew 2–2 at Cagliari.  On 29 May 2017, Strootman signed a new five-year contract with the 2017 Serie A runners-up.

Marseille.

On 28 August 2018, Olympique de Marseille agreed with A.S. Roma on a €25 million (plus €3 million of bonus) transfer fee and signed Strootman on a five-year contract.. AS Roma published a thank you and confirmation of the transfer on their website.. Strootman mentioned the club's history, ambitions as well as his close relationship with coach Rudi Garcia as motivating factors to join the club.  On 10 January 2020, Strootman scored an 84th minute winner for Marseille after coming on as a substitute against Rennes.

International career.

Strootman made his senior international debut for the Netherlands against Austria in 2011 and scored his first international goal against Finland in a UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier. He was a member of the Netherlands' squad at Euro 2012 but did not appear in any matches as the Dutch were knocked out at the group stage.  He appeared for the Netherlands U21 team at the 2013 UEFA Euro U21 Championship where the team reached the semi-finals, losing to Italy.  Strootman was a regular in Louis van Gaal's side during the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, but missed the tournament finals due to injury.  On 27 May 2016, Strootman made his first international appearance in two years after missing both the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the entirety of the team's unsuccessful UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying campaign. He was selected to start in a friendly match against the Republic of Ireland, playing 70 minutes before being substituted for Marco van Ginkel.

Style of play.

Strootman is said to be a dynamic and tough-tackling midfielder, who also possesses good vision, technique, and balance on the ball. A tall, physically strong and tactically intelligent left-footed player, he has been described as a "modern" midfielder, due to his wide range of skills. He is best used as a central or defensive midfielder, often serving as either a box-to-box midfielder or mezzala – due to his work-rate, ball-winning abilities, and ability to help out in both attack and defence – or as a deep-lying playmaker, due to his range of passing, awareness, and ability to create goalscoring opportunities for his teammates after winning back possession. He is also capable of contributing to his team's offensive play with goals, courtesy of his powerful and accurate striking ability from outside the area, as well as his ability to get on the end of his teammates' passes by making late attacking runs into the box from behind. Strootman has been compared to compatriot Mark van Bommel. During his first season with Roma (2013–14), he earned the nickname "la lavatrice" ("the washing machine", in Italian), for his ability to always clean up play by winning back the ball and then distributing it precisely to his teammates.

Kevin Strootman (born 13 February 1990) is a Dutch footballer who plays as a midfielder for French club Marseille and the Netherlands national team.

凯文·斯特鲁特曼(Kevin Strootman,1990年-2月13日)是荷兰职业足球运动员和现役国脚,司职中场,目前效力于法甲球队马赛,曾效力罗马。


双重协奏曲 (勃拉姆斯)

Origin of the work.

The Double Concerto was Brahms' final work for orchestra. It was composed in the summer of 1887, and first performed on 18 October of that year in the in Cologne, Germany. Brahms approached the project with anxiety over writing for instruments that were not his own. He wrote it for the cellist Robert Hausmann, a frequent chamber music collaborator, and his old but estranged friend, the violinist Joseph Joachim. The concerto was, in part, a gesture of reconciliation towards Joachim, after their long friendship had ruptured following Joachim's divorce from his wife Amalie. (Brahms had sided with Amalie in the dispute.)  The concerto makes use of the musical motif A–E–F, a permutation of F–A–E, which stood for a personal motto of Joachim, "Frei aber einsam" ("free but lonely"). Thirty-four years earlier, Brahms had been involved in a collaborative work using the F-A-E motif in tribute to Joachim: the F-A-E Sonata of 1853.

Structure.

The composition consists of three movements in the fast–slow–fast pattern typical of classical instrumental concerti:

Performance and reception.

Joachim and Hausmann performed the concerto, with Brahms at the podium, several times in its initial 1887–88 season, and Brahms gave the manuscript to Joachim, with the inscription "To him for whom it was written." Clara Schumann reacted unfavourably to the concerto, considering the work "not brilliant for the instruments". Richard Specht also thought critically of the concerto, describing it as "one of Brahms' most inapproachable and joyless compositions". Brahms had sketched a second concerto for violin and cello but destroyed his notes in the wake of its cold reception. Later critics have warmed to it: Donald Tovey wrote of the concerto as having "vast and sweeping humour". Its performance requires two brilliant and equally matched soloists.

Scholarly discussion.

Richard Cohn has included the first movement of this concerto in his discussions of triadic progressions from a Neo-Riemannian perspective. Cohn has also analysed such progressions mathematically. Cohn notes several progressions that divide the octave equally into three parts, and which can be analyzed using the triadic transformations proposed by Hugo Riemann.

The Double Concerto in A minor, Op. 102, by Johannes Brahms is a concerto for violin, cello and orchestra. The orchestra consists of 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, timpani and strings.

勃拉姆斯的a小调双重协奏曲,又译双协奏曲,是一首为小提琴、大提琴和管弦乐队创作的协奏曲。 管弦乐队由2支长笛、2支双簧管、2支单簧管、2支低音管(巴松管,大管)、4支圆号、2支小号、定音鼓和弦乐部组成。


Carnivory.

The small, elongated pitchers of "N. gracilis" appear relatively unremarkable and have a very thin peristome. Nevertheless, the species is unusual (and possibly unique) in that the underside of the pitcher lid bears an uneven layer of wax crystals. This layer is not as thick as, and structurally distinct from, that found in the waxy zone of the pitcher interior, and insects can easily adhere to it in dry conditions. During downpours, however, it functions as part of a trapping mechanism, whereby the impact of raindrops striking the lid causes insects to lose their footing and fall into the pitcher cup below.

Distribution.

One of the most widespread "Nepenthes" species, "N. gracilis" is native to Borneo, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, central Sulawesi, and southernmost Thailand. It has also been recorded from many smaller islands, including Bangka, Batu Islands, Belitung, Bengkalis, Ko Lanta, Ko Tarutao, Labuan, Langkawi, Mendol, Mentawai Islands (Siberut), Meranti Islands (Padang, Rangsang, and Tebing Tinggi), Musala, Nias, Penang, Phuket, Riau Islands (Lingga Islands, Natuna Islands, and Riau Archipelago), and Rupat.

Taxonomy.

In 2001, Charles Clarke performed a cladistic analysis of the "Nepenthes" species of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia using 70 morphological characteristics of each taxon. The following is a portion of the resultant cladogram, showing part of "Clade 6", which includes "N. gracilis".

Infraspecific taxa.

Despite varying little across its range, "N. gracilis" has a number of infraspecific taxa. Most of these are no longer considered valid.

Natural hybrids.

The following natural hybrids involving "N. gracilis" have been recorded.

Nepenthes gracilis (; from Latin: "gracilis" "slender"), or the slender pitcher-plant, is a common lowland pitcher plant that is widespread in the Sunda region. It has been recorded from Borneo, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Thailand. The species has a wide altitudinal distribution of 0 to 1100 m (and perhaps even 1700 m) above sea level, although most populations are found below 100 m and plants are rare above 1000 m. Despite being a widespread plant, natural hybrids between "N. gracilis" and other species are quite rare.

小猪笼草(学名:')广布于东南亚低地的热带食虫植物。其种加词来源于拉丁文“"gracilis"”,意为“细长的”。小猪笼草存在于马来西亚、新加坡、印尼苏门答腊及泰国。该物种的海拔分布范围也很广,为海拔0至1100米(少数甚至可达1700米),但其大部分都分布于海拔100米以下的地区,极少数植株存在于海拔1000米以上的地区。尽管其分布非常的广泛,但关于小猪笼草的自然杂交种却很少见。


Distribution and ecology.

Peruvian anchoveta are found in the southeastern Pacific Ocean off Peru and Chile, and typically found in huge schools within of the coast. They live for up to 3 years, reaching. They first reproduce at about 1 year age and length, whereas they are harvested as early as 6 months of age and length. Anchoveta were previously thought to eat mostly phytoplankton, small zooplankton, and larvae. However, recent work has shown that anchoveta get most of their energy from larger zooplankton, including macrozooplankton. Krill and large copepods are the most important dietary components.

Fisheries.

The anchoveta has been characterised as "the most heavily exploited fish in world history". The top yield was 13.1 million tonnes in 1971, but has undergone great fluctuations over time. After a period of plenty in the late 1960s, the population was greatly reduced by overfishing and the 1972 El Niño event, when warm water drifted over the cold Humboldt Current and lowered the depth of the thermocline. Nutrient-rich waters then no longer upwelled, and phytoplankton production decreased, leaving the anchoveta with a depleted food source. A drastic reduction was also brought about by another strong El Niño in the early 1980s, but production was back up to 12.5 million tonnes in 1994. Along with the El Niño of 1982–1983, the 1997–1998 El Niño, the strongest on record, caused a loss in population of the anchoveta, negatively impacting fisheries, and therefore, the economy. In 2008–2012, the annual catches varied between 4.2 and 8.3 million tonnes, which is consistently more than for any other fish species harvested in the wild. In October 2015, an El Niño year, of 3.38 million metric tons of anchoveta surveyed by the Peruvian Marine Research Institute, only 2 million metric tons were of reproductive age; 5 million metric tons are needed to open fisheries. The fishing industry claimed populations were more around 6.8 million metric tons of reproductive-age anchoveta, so despite discrepancies, the Peruvian Ministry of Production allowed the opening of anchoveta fisheries the second season, but with a quota: 1.1 million metric tons, about half the quota of the first season of the year.

Uses.

Until about 2005 the anchoveta was almost exclusively used for making fishmeal. Peru produces some of the highest quality fishmeal in the world. Since 2005 anchoveta is increasingly used for direct human consumption, as fresh fish, as canned fish or as salted-matured fillets packed in oil. Peruvian canned anchoveta is sold as Peruvian canned sardines. The new use is sometimes called the second anchoveta boom, the first boom being the discovery and subsequent fishery and fishmeal production in the 1960s/70s. The second boom was kick-started by the Peruvian Fish Technology Institute CIP, assisted by FAO. A large scale promotion campaign including by the then-president of Peru Alan García helped to make the anchoveta known to rich and poor alike. Previously it was not considered as food and hardly known among the population. It is now found in supermarkets and served in restaurants. Still, only 1 percent of anchovy catches are used for direct human consumption and 99 percent continue to be reduced to fishmeal and oil.

Culinary aspects.

Canned anchovy fillets found commonly in the US are intensely salty and are often removed of skin and bones. Often, they are marked as "Product of Morocco," which are salted-matured anchovy fillets. Canned anchovetas sold in Peru and other places are extremely similar to the canned sardines widely available in the US, hence the name "Peruvian sardines". Recently, new ways of preparation for the anchovetas have been developed in Peru, so new products are already in the international market such as anchoveta chicharrones, anchoveta jerky meat, anchoveta paste, and anchoveta steaks.

Fishing rights.

The concept of fishing rights varies from country to country. In some countries, fishing rights are imposed, or a required fishing license, while in others, they are based on the underlying concept of resource rent. In this respect, the definition and calculation of fishing rent enables recognition of the payment that the state should receive for the use of a renewable natural resource: in this case anchoveta. The anchoveta fishery is of particular interest, not only because it ranks among the world's largest, but because in 2008 Peru passed the Maximum Catch Limit per Vessel Law (Ley de Límites Máximos de Captura por Embarcación, LMCE), which entails the assignment of resource usage rights. Economic theory holds that the implementation of the resource rent means that it is the maximum possible compared with the open access status that previously existed. If fishery is of open access, there will be no resource rent due to the presence of a very large number of fishing boats, which leads to the extraction of the resource beyond biologically sustainable levels. Meanwhile, if a fishery falls under a regime of assigned property rights, then the rent generated will be positive and will guarantee a biologically and economically efficient level of extraction. Peruvian fishing regulations stipulate a charge for fishing rights as payment for the use of a resource belonging to the nation. Each boat owner is charged for fishing rights based on a percentage of the price of fishmeal per ton landed. Recently there has been debate as to the relevance of the quantity of fish landed and whether this genuinely reflects the resource rent, given that the implementation of LMCEs have prompted an increase in the value of the anchoveta resource.

The Peruvian anchoveta ("Engraulis ringens") is a species of fish of the anchovy family, Engraulidae, from the Southeast Pacific Ocean. It has yielded greater catches than any other single wild fish species in the world, with annual harvests varying between 4.2 and 8.3 million tonnes in 2008–2012. Almost all of the production is used for the fishmeal industry. The Peruvian anchoveta may be the world's most abundant fish species.

秘鲁<unk>(学名:"")为<unk>属的一种鱼类,分布于东南太平洋区的秘鲁海域,栖息深度3-80米,本鱼体细长,吻部突出,背部亮蓝色或绿色,腹部银白色,体侧具一条银色条纹,随年龄成长而逐渐消失,体长可达20公分,栖息沿海、河口,会进行<unk>游,以浮游生物为食,是世界上最重要的经济鱼类之一。


About the painting.

It has been suggested that Hopper was inspired by a short story of Ernest Hemingway's, either "The Killers", which Hopper greatly admired, or from the more philosophical "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place". In keeping with the title of his painting, Hopper later said, "Nighthawks" has more to do with the possibility of predators in the night than with loneliness.

Josephine Hopper's notes on the painting.

Starting shortly after their marriage in 1924, Edward Hopper and his wife Josephine (Jo) kept a journal in which he would, using a pencil, make a sketch-drawing of each of his paintings, along with a precise description of certain technical details. Jo Hopper would then add additional information about the theme of the painting.  A review of the page on which "Nighthawks" is entered shows (in Edward Hopper's handwriting) that the intended name of the work was actually Night Hawks and that the painting was completed on January 21, 1942.  Jo's handwritten notes about the painting give considerably more detail, including the possibility that the painting's title may have had its origins as a reference to the beak-shaped nose of the man at the bar, or that the appearance of one of the "nighthawks" was tweaked in order to relate to the original meaning of the word:  In January 1942, Jo confirmed her preference for the name. In a letter to Edward's sister Marion she wrote, "Ed has just finished a very fine picture--a lunch counter at night with 3 figures. Night Hawks would be a fine name for it. E. posed for the two men in a mirror and I for the girl. He was about a month and half working on it."

Ownership history.

Upon completing the canvas in the late winter of 1941/42, Hopper placed it on display at Rehn's, the gallery at which his paintings were normally placed for sale. It remained there for about a month. On St. Patrick's Day, Edward and Jo Hopper attended the opening of an exhibit of the paintings of Henri Rousseau at the Museum of Modern Art, which had been organized by Daniel Catton Rich, the director of the Art Institute of Chicago. Rich was in attendance, along with Alfred Barr, the director of the Museum of Modern Art. Barr spoke enthusiastically of "Gas", which Hopper had painted a year earlier, and "Jo told him he just had to go to Rehn's to see "Nighthawks". In the event it was Rich who went, pronounced "Nighthawks" 'fine as a Homer', and soon arranged its purchase for Chicago." The sale price was $3,000.

Location of the restaurant.

The scene was supposedly inspired by a diner (since demolished) in Greenwich Village, Hopper's neighborhood in Manhattan. Hopper himself said the painting "was suggested by a restaurant on Greenwich Avenue where two streets meet". Additionally, he noted that "I simplified the scene a great deal and made the restaurant bigger".  That reference has led Hopper aficionados to engage in a search for the location of the original diner. The inspiration for the search has been summed up in the blog of one of these searchers: "I am finding it extremely difficult to let go of the notion that the Nighthawks diner was a real diner, and not a total composite built of grocery stores, hamburger joints, and bakeries all cobbled together in the painter's imagination". A Bickford's Restaurant a few blocks from Greenwich Avenue has been proposed as one possible location."  The spot usually associated with the former location is a now-vacant lot known as Mulry Square, at the intersection of Seventh Avenue South, Greenwich Avenue, and West 11th Street, about seven blocks west of Hopper's studio on Washington Square. However, according to an article by Jeremiah Moss in "The New York Times", that cannot be the location of the diner which inspired the painting, because a gas station occupied that lot from the 1930s to the 1970s.  Moss located a land-use map in a 1950s municipal atlas showing that "Sometime between the late '30s and early '50s, a new diner appeared near Mulry Square". Specifically, the diner was located immediately to the right of the gas station, "not in the empty northern lot, but on the southwest side, where Perry Street slants". That map is not reproduced in the "Times" article but is shown on Moss's blog.  Moss comes to the conclusion that Hopper should be taken at his word: the painting was merely "suggested" by a real-life restaurant, he had "simplified the scene a great deal", and he "made the restaurant bigger". In short, there probably never was a single real-life scene identical to the one that Hopper had created, and if one did exist, there is no longer sufficient evidence to pin down the precise location. Moss concludes, "the ultimate truth remains bitterly out of reach".

In popular culture.

Because it is so widely recognized, the diner scene in "Nighthawks" has served as the model for many homages and parodies.

Painting and sculpture.

Many artists have produced works that allude or respond to "Nighthawks".  Hopper influenced the Photorealists of the late 1960s and early 1970s, including Ralph Goings, who evoked "Nighthawks" in several paintings of diners. Richard Estes painted a corner store in "People's Flowers" (1971), but in daylight, with the shop's large window reflecting the street and sky.  More direct visual quotations began to appear in the 1970s. Gottfried Helnwein's painting "Boulevard of Broken Dreams" (1984) replaces the three patrons with American pop culture icons Humphrey Bogart, Marilyn Monroe, and James Dean, and the attendant with Elvis Presley. According to Hopper scholar Gail Levin, Helnwein connected the bleak mood of "Nighthawks" with 1950s American cinema and with "the tragic fate of the decade's best-loved celebrities." "Nighthawks Revisited", a 1980 parody by Red Grooms, clutters the street scene with pedestrians, cats, and trash. A 2005 Banksy parody shows a fat, shirtless soccer hooligan in Union Flag boxers standing inebriated outside the diner, apparently having just smashed the diner window with a nearby chair.

Literature.

Several writers have explored how the customers in "Nighthawks" came to be in a diner at night, or what will happen next. Wolf Wondratschek's poem "Nighthawks: After Edward Hopper's Painting" imagines the man and woman sitting together in the diner as an estranged couple: "I bet she wrote him a letter/ Whatever it said, he's no longer the man / Who'd read her letters twice." Joyce Carol Oates wrote interior monologues for the figures in the painting in her poem "Edward Hopper's Nighthawks, 1942". A special issue of "Der Spiegel" included five brief dramatizations that built five different plots around the painting; one, by screenwriter Christof Schlingensief, turned the scene into a chainsaw massacre. Erik Jendresen and Stuart Dybek also wrote short stories inspired by this painting.

Film.

Hopper was an avid moviegoer and critics have noted the resemblance of his paintings to film stills. "Nighthawks" and works such as "Night Shadows" (1921) anticipate the look of film noir, whose development Hopper may have influenced.  Hopper was an acknowledged influence on the film musical "Pennies from Heaven" (1981), for which production designer Ken Adam recreated "Nighthawks" as a set. Director Wim Wenders recreated "Nighthawks" as the set for a film-within-a-film in "The End of Violence" (1997). Wenders suggested that Hopper's paintings appeal to filmmakers because "You can always tell where the camera is." In "Glengarry Glen Ross" (1992), two characters visit a café resembling the diner in a scene that illustrates their solitude and despair. The painting was also briefly used as a background for a scene in the animated film "Heavy Traffic" (1973) by director Ralph Bakshi.  "Nighthawks" also influenced the "future noir" look of "Blade Runner"; director Ridley Scott said "I was constantly waving a reproduction of this painting under the noses of the production team to illustrate the look and mood I was after". In his review of the 1998 film "Dark City", Roger Ebert noted that the film had "store windows that owe something to Edward Hopper's "Nighthawks"." "Hard Candy" (2005) acknowledged a similar debt by setting one scene at a "Nighthawks Diner" where a character purchases a T-shirt with "Nighthawks" printed on it.

Scale model.

A number of model railroaders, most notably John Armstrong, have recreated the scene on their layouts.  The theater lighting manufacturer Electronic Theatre Controls has a human sized scale model of the diner in the lobby of their headquarters in Middleton, Wisconsin. It is used as a reception area for the building.

Parodies.

"Nighthawks" has been widely referenced and parodied in popular culture. Versions of it have appeared on posters, T-shirts and greeting cards as well as in comic books and advertisements. Typically, these parodies—like Helnwein's "Boulevard of Broken Dreams", which became a popular poster—retain the diner and the highly recognizable diagonal composition but replace the patrons and attendant with other characters: animals, Santa Claus and his reindeer, or the respective casts of "The Adventures of Tintin" or "Peanuts".  One parody of "Nighthawks" even inspired a parody of its own. Michael Bedard's painting "Window Shopping" (1989), part of his "Sitting Ducks" series of posters, replaces the figures in the diner with ducks and shows a crocodile outside eying the ducks in anticipation. Poverino Peppino parodied this image in "Boulevard of Broken Ducks" (1993), in which a contented crocodile lies on the counter while four ducks stand outside in the rain.

References.

Notes Bibliography

Nighthawks is a 1942 oil on canvas painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people in a downtown diner late at night as viewed through the diner's large glass window. The light coming from the diner illuminates a darkened and deserted urban streetscape.

夜游者(英语:Nighthawks)是美国画家爱德华·霍普的代表作,描绘人们坐在城里的餐厅吃晚餐。它除了是画家的代表作以外,也是一件最为人所熟知的美国艺术品之一。它现在被收藏于芝加哥艺术学院。


Biography.

Thomas Girtin was born in Southwark, London, the son of a wealthy brushmaker of Huguenot descent. His father died while Thomas was a child, and his mother then married a Mr Vaughan, a pattern-draughtsman. Girtin learnt drawing as a boy (attending classes with Thomas Malton), and was apprenticed to Edward Dayes (1763–1804), a topographical watercolourist. He is believed to have served out his seven-year term, although there are unconfirmed reports of clashes between master and apprentice, and even that Dayes had Girtin imprisoned as a refractory apprentice. Certainly Dayes did not appreciate his pupil's talent, and he was to write dismissively of Girtin after his death.  While a youth, Girtin became friends with J. M. W. Turner and the teenagers were employed to colour prints with watercolours. Girtin exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1794. His architectural and topographical sketches and drawings established his reputation, his use of watercolour for landscapes being such as to give him the credit of having created Romantic watercolour painting. He went on several sketching tours, visiting the north of England, North Wales and the West Country. By 1799, he had acquired influential patrons such as Lady Sutherland, and the art collector Sir George Beaumont. He was the dominant member of the Brothers, a sketching society of professional artists and talented amateurs.  In 1800, Girtin married Mary Ann Borrett, the 16-year-old daughter of a well-to-do City goldsmith, and set up home in St George's Row, Hyde Park, next door to the painter Paul Sandby. By 1801, he was a welcome houseguest at his patrons' country houses such as Harewood House and Mulgrave Castle, and able to charge 20 guineas for a painting, but his health was deteriorating.  In late 1801 to early 1802, he spent five and a half months in Paris, where he painted watercolours and made a series the pencil sketches which he engraved on his return to London. They were published as "Twenty Views in Paris and its Environs" after his death. In spring and summer 1802, Girtin produced a panorama of London, the "Eidometropolis", 18 feet high and 108 feet in circumference which was exhibited with success that year. It was notable for its naturalistic treatment of urban light and atmosphere. That November, Girtin died in his painting room; the cause was variously reported as asthma, consumption, or "ossification of the heart." He was buried in the churchyard of St Paul's, Covent Garden in London.  Girtin's early landscapes are akin to 18th-century topographical sketches, but in later years he developed a bolder, more spacious, romantic style, which had a lasting influence on English painting. The scenery of the north encouraged him to create a new watercolour palette of warm browns, slate greys, indigo and purple. He abandoned the practice of undershadowing in grey wash and then adding pastel patches of colour, in favour of broad washes of strong colour, and experimented with the use of pen, brown ink and varnish to add richer tones. Girtin's early death reportedly caused Turner to remark, "Had Tom Girtin lived I should have starved."

Exhibitions and retrospectives.

The British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum have collections of his work. The British Museum was given significant Girtin watercolours by the collector Chambers Hall.  In July 2002 Tate Britain organised an exhibition, "Thomas Girtin: The Art of Watercolour" which aimed to "reveal his technical genius".

Gallery.

Chronologically:

Thomas Girtin (18 February 1775 – 9 November 1802) was an English watercolourist and etcher. A friend and rival of J. M. W. Turner, Girtin played a key role in establishing watercolour as a reputable art form.

托马斯·吉尔丁(Thomas Girtin,1775年-1802年11月9日)英国画家,蚀刻画家。吉尔丁出生在伦敦南华克区一个成功的绳索制造商家里。在他幼年时父亲病逝,他的母亲嫁给了一个绘图员瓦根。吉尔丁跟随继父学习绘画,后来又师从金属版画家爱德华·多耶斯(Edward Doyes,1763年-1804年),他还结识了J.托纳(J. M. W. Turner)。