Origins.

The first known use of the word platform was in 1535. The word platform comes from Middle French "plate-forme", literally meaning "flat form". The political meaning of the word to reflect "statement of party politics" is from 1803, probably originally an image of a literal platform on which politicians gather, stand, and make their appeals.

Fulfilling platforms.

A 2017 study in the "American Journal of Political Science" found that for 12 countries (Austria, Bulgaria, Canada, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, and United States) found that political parties in government fulfill their election promises to voters to a considerable extent. The study determined that:  Parties that hold executive office after elections generally fulfill substantial percentages, sometimes very high percentages, of their election pledges, whereas parties that do not hold executive office generally find that lower percentages of their pledges are fulfilled. The fulfillment of pledges by governing executive parties varies across governments in ways that reflect power-sharing arrangements. The main power-sharing arrangement that impacts pledge fulfillment distinguishes between single-party governments and coalitions, not between governments with and without legislative majorities. We found the highest percentages of pledge fulfillment for governing parties in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Portugal, Spain, and Canada, most of which governed in single-party executives. We found lower percentages for governing parties in Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, Bulgaria, Ireland, and Italy, most of which governed in coalitions. Pledge fulfillment by U.S. presidential parties lies at the higher end of coalition governments, which suggests that U.S. presidents are more constrained than governing parties in single-party parliamentary systems, but less constrained than most governing parties in multiparty coalitions.Other research on the United States suggests that Democratic Party and Republican Party congresspeople voted in line with their respective party platforms 74% and 89% of the time, respectively.

A political party platform or program is a formal set of principal goals which are supported by a political party or individual candidate, in order to appeal to the general public, for the ultimate purpose of garnering the general public's support and votes about complicated topics or issues. "Plank" is the term often given to the components of the political platform – the opinions and viewpoints about individual topics, as held by a party, person, or organization. The word "plank" depicts a component of an overall political platform, as a metaphorical reference to a basic stage made out of boards or planks of wood. The metaphor can return to its literal origin when public speaking or debates are actually held upon a physical platform.

政纲,即是从政纲领、政党纲领、政治纲领或者参与选举的候选人的从政抱负、服务承诺、美好愿景。当中包括候选人的从政任务及计划。在政治传播中,政纲是由政党、候选人给选民了解其人、其政党的根据。


Construction methods.

Any sheet of material used to cover a flat or low-pitched roof is usually known as a membrane and the primary purpose of these membranes is to waterproof the roof area. Materials that cover flat roofs typically allow the water to run off from a slight inclination or camber into a gutter system. Water from some flat roofs such as on garden sheds sometimes flows freely off the edge of a roof, though gutter systems are of advantage in keeping both walls and foundations dry. Gutters on smaller roofs often lead water directly onto the ground, or better, into a specially made soakaway. Gutters on larger roofs usually lead water into the rainwater drainage system of any built up area. Occasionally, however, flat roofs are designed to collect water in a pool, usually for aesthetic purposes, or for rainwater buffering.  Traditionally most flat roofs in the western world make use of tar or asphalt more usually felt paper applied over roof decking to keep a building watertight. The felt paper is in turn covered with a flood coat of bitumen (asphalt or tar) and then gravel to keep the sun's heat, UV rays and weather off it and helps protect it from cracking or blistering and degradation. Roof decking is usually of plywood, chipboard or oriented strand board (OSB, also known as Sterling board) of around 18 mm thickness, steel or concrete. The mopping of bitumen is applied in two or more coats (usually 3 or 4) as a hot liquid, heated in a kettle. A flooded coat of bitumen is applied over the felts and gravel is embedded in the hot bitumen.  A main reason for failure of these traditional roofs is ignorance or lack of maintenance where people or events cause the gravel to be moved or removed from the roof membrane, commonly called a built-up roof, thus exposing it to weather and sun. Cracking and blistering occurs and eventually water gets in.  Roofing felts are usually a 'paper' or fiber material impregnated in bitumen. As gravel cannot protect tarpaper surfaces where they rise vertically from the roof such as on parapet walls or upstands, the felts are usually coated with bitumen and protected by sheet metal flashings called gravel stops. The gravel stop terminates the roofing, preventing water from running underneath the roofing and preventing the gravel surfacing from washing off in heavy rains.  In some microclimates or shaded areas these rather 'basic' felt roofs can last well in relation to the cost of materials purchase and cost of laying them, however the cost of modern membranes such as EPDM rubber has come down over recent years to make them more and more affordable. There are now firms supplying modern alternatives.  If a leak does occur on a flat roof, damage often goes unnoticed for considerable time as water penetrates and soaks the decking and any insulation and/or structure beneath. This can lead to expensive damage from the rot which often develops and if left can weaken the roof structure. There are health risks to people and animals breathing the mould spores: the severity of this health risk remains a debated point. While the insulation is wet, the “R” value is essentially destroyed. If dealing with an organic insulation, the most common solution is removing and replacing the damaged area. If the problem

Flat roof developments.

Protected membrane roof.

A protected membrane roof is a roof where thermal insulation or another material is located above the waterproofing membrane. Modern green roofs are a type of protected membrane roof. This development has been made possible by the creation of waterproofing membrane materials that are tolerant of supporting a load and the creation of thermal insulation that is not easily damaged by water. Frequently, rigid panels made of extruded polystyrene are used in PMR construction. The chief benefit of PMR roof design is that the covering protects the waterproofing

Green roofs.

Grass or turf roofs have been around since the Viking times if not far earlier and make for a decorative and durable roof covering. Green roofs have been made by depositing topsoil or other growth media on flat roofs and seeding them (or allowing them to self-seed as nature takes its course). Maintenance in the form of simple visible inspection and removal of larger rooting plants has allowed these roofs to be successful in that they provide an excellent covering and UV light barrier for the roof waterproofing membrane. With some systems, the manufacturer requires that a root barrier membrane be laid above the waterproofing membrane. If well

Green-roof water buffering.

Water run-off and flash floods have become a problem especially in areas where there is a large amount of paving such as in inner cities: When rain falls (instead of draining into the ground over a large area as previously) a rainwater system's pipes take water run-off from huge areas of paving,

Roof decks.

A modern (since the 1960s) development in the construction of decks, including flat roof

Types of flat roof coverings.

Asphalt.

Asphalt is an aliphatic compound and in almost all cases a byproduct of the oil industry. Some asphalt is manufactured from oil as the intended purpose, and this is limited to high-quality asphalt produced for longer lasting asphalt built-up roofs (BUR). Asphalt ages through photo-oxidation accelerated by heat. As it ages, the asphalts melt point rises and there is a loss of plasticizers. As mass is lost, the asphalt shrinks and forms a surface similar to alligator skin. Asphalt breaks down slowly in water, and the more exposure the more rapid the degradation. Asphalt also dissolves readily when exposed to oils and some solvents.  There are four types of roofing asphalt. Each type is created by heating and blowing with oxygen. The longer the process the higher the melt-point of the asphalt. Therefore, Type I asphalt has characteristics closest to coal tar and can only be used on dead level surfaces. Type II, is considered flat and

EPDM.

Ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM) is a synthetic rubber most commonly used in single-ply roofing because it is readily available and simple to apply. Seaming and detailing has evolved over the years and is fast, simple and reliable with many membranes including factory applied tape, resulting in a faster installation. The addition of these tapes has reduced labour by as much as 75%.  It is a low-cost membrane, but when properly applied in appropriate places, its warranted life-span has reached 30 years and its expected lifespan has reached 50 years.  There are three installation methods: ballasted, mechanically attached, and fully adhered. Ballasted roofs are held in place by large round stones or slabs. Mechanically attached roof membranes are held

Turbo seal.

Turbo seal is a self-healing gel-like membrane that never cures. Made of

CSPE.

Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene is a synthetic rubber roofing material. It is more popularly known as Hypalon. The product is

Modified bitumen.

Modified bitumen membranes are hybrid roof systems that combine the high technology formulation and prefabrication benefits of single-ply with the traditional roofing installation techniques used in built-up roofing. The membranes consist of factory-fabricated layers of asphalt, modified using a plastic or rubber ingredient and combined with a reinforcement.  The final Modified Bitument sheet goods are typically installed by heating the underside of the roll with a torch, presenting a significant fire hazard. For this reason, the technique was outlawed in some municipalities when buildings caught fire, some burning to the ground. This problem was alleviated by strict specifications requiring installation training and certification as well as on-site supervision. Another problem developed when a lack of standards allowed a manufacturer to produce the product with insufficient APP, requisite to enhancing the system aging

Cold applied liquid membranes.

A choice for new roofs and roof refurbishment. This type of a roof membrane is generally referred to as Liquid Roofing and involves the application of a cold liquid roof coating. No open flames or other heat sources are needed and the glass fiber reinforced systems provide seamless waterproofing around roof protrusions and details. Systems are based on flexible thermoset resin systems

PVC (vinyl) membrane roofing.

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) membrane roofing is also known as vinyl roofing. Vinyl is derived from two simple ingredients: fossil fuel and salt. Petroleum or natural gas is processed to make ethylene, and salt is subjected to electrolysis to separate out the natural element chlorine. Ethylene and chlorine are combined to produce ethylene dichloride (EDC), which is further processed into a gas called vinyl chloride monomer (VCM). In the next step, known as polymerization, the VCM molecule forms chains, converting the gas into a fine, white powder – vinyl resin – which becomes the basis for the final process, compounding. In compounding, vinyl resin may be blended with additives such as stabilizers for durability, plasticizers for flexibility and pigments for color.  Thermoplastic is heat-welded seams form a permanent, watertight

Flexible thermopolyolefin.

Flexible thermopolyolefin is the exact physical and chemical name given to the product commonly known in the industry as TPO (thermoplastic olefin). Although TPO exhibits the positive characteristics of other thermoplastics, it does not have any plasticizers added to the product like other thermoplastics. This miscategorization made sense when the product was introduced in the early 1990s and

TPO.

Thermoplastic Polyolefin single-ply roofing. This roofing material can be fully adhered, mechanically fastened, or ballasted. TPO seam strengths are reported to be three to four times higher than EPDM roofing systems.

Coal-tar pitch built-up roof.

Coal tar is an aromatic hydrocarbon and a by-product from the coking process of the coal industry. It is historically in abundance where coal is used in steel manufacturing. It ages very slowly through volatilization and is an excellent waterproofing and oil resistant product. Roofs are covered by heating the coal tar and applying it between layers of tar paper. It has limitations in regards to its application on dead level or flat roofs with slopes less than 1/4 in 12. It has a tendency to soften in warm temperatures and

Glass-reinforced plastic.

A glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) roof is a single-ply GRP laminate applied in situ over a good-quality conditioned plywood or oriented strand board (OSB) deck. The roof is finished with pre-formed GRP edge trims and a coat of pre-pigmented topcoat.  The durability and lightweight properties of GRP make it the ideal construction material for applications as diverse as lorry aerofoils and roofs,

Metal flat roofing.

Metal is one of the few materials that can be used for both pitched roofs and flat roofs. Flat or low-slope roofs can be covered with steel, aluminum, zinc, or copper just like pitched roofs. However, metal shingles are not practical for flat roofing and so roofers recommend standing-seam and screw-down metal panels. While metal can be an expensive option in the short term, superior durability and simple maintenance of metal roofs

Benefits and uses.

A flat roof is the most cost-efficient roof shape as all room space can be used fully (below and above the roof). Having a smaller surface area, flat roofs require less material and are usually stronger than pitched roofs. This style roof also provides ample space for solar panels or outdoor recreational use such as

Maintenance and assessment.

A flat roof lasts longer if it is properly maintained. Some assessors use 10 years as an average life cycle, although this is dependent on the type of flat roof system in place. Some old tar and gravel roofers acknowledge that unless a roof has been neglected for too long and there are many problems in many areas, a BUR (a built up roof of tar, paper and gravel) will last 20–30 years. There are BUR systems in place dating to the early 1900s.  Modern cold applied liquid membranes have been durability rated by the British Board of Agrément (BBA) for 30 years. BBA approval is a benchmark in determining the suitability of a particular fiberglass roofing system. If standard fiberglass polyester resin is used such as the same resin used in boat repairs, then there will be problems with the roof being too inflexible and not able to accommodate expansion and contraction of the building. A fit-for-purpose flexible/elastomeric resin system used as a waterproofing membrane will last for many years with just occasional inspection needed. The fact that such membranes do not require stone chippings to deflect heat means there is no risk of stones blocking drains. Liquid applied membranes are also naturally resistant to moss and lichen.  General flat roof maintenance includes getting rid of ponding water, typically within 48 hours. This is accomplished by adding roof drains or scuppers for a pond at an edge or automatic siphons for ponds in the center of roofs. An automatic siphon can be created with an inverted ring-shaped sprinkler, a garden hose, a wet/dry vacuum, a check valve installed in the vacuum, and a digital timer. The timer runs two or three times a day for a minute or two

Cool roofs.

Roofing systems that can deliver high solar reflectance (the ability to reflect the visible, infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths of the sun, reducing heat transfer to the building) and high thermal emittance (the ability to release a large percentage of absorbed, or non-reflected solar energy) are called cool roofs. Cool roofs fall into one of these three categories: inherently cool, green planted roofs or coated with a cool material.  Cool roofs offer both immediate and long-term savings in building energy costs. Inherently cool roofs, coated roofs and planted or green roofs can:

A flat roof is a roof which is almost level in contrast to the many types of sloped roofs. The slope of a roof is properly known as its pitch and flat roofs have up to approximately 10°. Flat roofs are an ancient form mostly used in arid climates and allow the roof space to be used as a living space or a living roof. Flat roofs, or "low-slope" roofs, are also commonly found on commercial buildings throughout the world. The National Roofing Contractors Association defines a low-slope roof as having a slope of 3-in-12 or less. Flat roofs exist all over the world and each area has its own tradition or preference for materials used. In warmer climates, where there is less rainfall and freezing is unlikely to occur, many flat roofs are simply built of masonry or concrete and this is good at keeping out the heat of the sun and cheap and easy to build where timber is not readily available. In areas where the roof could become saturated by rain and leak, or where water soaked into the brickwork could freeze to ice and thus lead to 'blowing' (breaking up of the mortar/brickwork/concrete by the expansion of ice as it forms) these roofs are not suitable. Flat roofs are characteristic of the Egyptian, Persian, and Arabian styles of architecture.

平屋顶常见于无雨水的地区,不过由于防水科学的进步,多雨的国家也出现平屋顶。现代建筑该等屋顶常设置承重层、保温 层、防水层、找平层、找坡层等。其中找平层保证屋顶无积水,而找坡层使屋顶微斜让雨水流走。承重层即是钢筋水泥结构。


Team history.

1947–1958: Beginnings and Minneapolis dynasty.

The Lakers' franchise began in 1947 when Ben Berger and Morris Chalfen of Minnesota purchased the recently disbanded Detroit Gems of the National Basketball League (NBL) for $15,000 from Gems owner Maury Winston. Minneapolis sportswriter Sid Hartman played a key behind the scenes role in helping put together the deal and later the team. Inspired by Minnesota's nickname, "Land of 10,000 Lakes", the team christened themselves the Lakers. Hartman helped them hire John Kundla from College of St. Thomas, to be their first head coach, by meeting with him and selling him on the team.  The Lakers had a solid roster, which

1958–1968: Move to Los Angeles and Celtics rivalry.

In their last year in Minneapolis, the Lakers went 25–50. On January 18, 1960, the team was coming off a loss and traveling to St. Louis when their plane crash-landed. Snow storms had driven the pilot 150 miles off course when he was forced to land in a cornfield. No one was hurt. Their record earned them the number two pick in the 1960 NBA draft. The team selected Jerry West from West Virginia University. During the 1960 off-season, the Lakers became the NBA's first West Coast team when owner Bob Short decided to move the team to Los Angeles. Led by Baylor's 34.8 ppg and 19.8 rpg, Los Angeles won 11 more than the year before in West's first season. On November 15 that season, Baylor set a new NBA scoring record when he scored 71 points in a victory against the New York Knicks while grabbing 25 rebounds. In doing so, Baylor broke his own NBA record of 64 points. Despite a losing record, the Lakers made the playoffs. They came within two points of the NBA Finals when they lost in game seven of their second round series against St. Louis.

1968–1973: Wilt arrives.

On July 9, 1968, the team acquired Wilt Chamberlain from the Philadelphia 76ers for Darrell Imhoff, Archie Clark, and Jerry Chambers. In his first season as a Laker, Chamberlain set a team record by averaging a league-leading 21.1 rpg. West, Baylor, and Chamberlain each averaged over 20 points, and Los Angeles won their division. The Lakers and Celtics again met in the finals, and Los Angeles had home court advantage against Boston for the first time in their rivalry. They won the first game behind Jerry West's 53 points, and had

1973–1979: Building "Showtime".

During the 1973–74 season, the team was hampered by the loss of West, who played only 31 games before his legs gave out. Goodrich, averaging 25.3 points, helped the team to a late-season surge. Trailing the Golden State Warriors by three games with seven left to play, the Lakers rallied to finish 47–35 and win the Pacific Division. They made the playoffs but managed just one win against Milwaukee in the conference semifinals. Following the season, West retired due to contract disagreements with Cooke, and filed a suit for unpaid back wages. After missing the playoffs in the 1974–75 season, the Lakers acquired Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, who had won three league MVP's by that time. Abdul-Jabbar wanted out of Milwaukee, demanding a trade to either New York or Los Angeles. He was traded for Elmore Smith, Brian Winters, Junior Bridgeman, and Dave Meyers. Abdul-Jabbar had his fourth MVP season in 1975–76, leading the league in rebounding, blocked shots, and minutes played. The Lakers struggled in January, going 3–10, and finished out of the playoffs at 40–42.  West and Cooke settled their differences—and the former

1979–1991: "Showtime".

In the 1979 NBA draft, Los Angeles selected point guard Magic Johnson from Michigan State with the first overall pick. It took Johnson's teammates time to acclimate themselves to his passing ability, as his "no-look" passes often caught them unaware. Once they adjusted, his passing became a key part of Los Angeles' offense. The Lakers won 60 games in Johnson's rookie year, and defeated the Philadelphia 76ers in six games in the 1980 NBA Finals. Johnson won the Finals MVP award, after starting at center for the injured Abdul-Jabbar in game six, and tallying 42 points, 15 rebounds, and seven assists. The team fell off in the 1980–81 season, though, as the Lakers lost Johnson for most of the season to a knee injury. The team turned in a 54–28 record and finished second behind the Phoenix Suns in the Pacific Division. The Rockets, led by Moses Malone, defeated Los Angeles in the first round of the playoffs.  Early in the 1981–82 season, Johnson complained to the media about head coach Paul Westhead and demanded a trade. Westhead was fired shortly after Johnson's criticisms, and although Lakers' owner Jerry Buss stated that Johnson's comments did not factor into the decision,

1991–1996: Post-"Showtime" dry spell.

On November 7, 1991, Magic Johnson announced he had tested positive for HIV and would retire immediately.  In their first season without Johnson, the team won 43 games to earn the eighth seed in the Western Conference playoffs. The Lakers were defeated in the first round by Portland. Following the season, head coach Mike Dunleavy was fired.  The Lakers would lose 43 games in 1992–93 under Randy Pfund, their first losing season since 1976. The Lakers would still make the playoffs, and would become the first eighth seed to win the opening two games on the road against a number one seed when they took a 2–0 lead against Phoenix. They lost the next two games at home however,

1996–2016: The Kobe Bryant era.

1996–2004: O'Neal and Bryant dynasty.

During the 1996 off-season, the Lakers acquired 17-year-old Kobe Bryant from the Charlotte Hornets for Vlade Divac; Bryant was drafted 13th overall out of Lower Merion High School in Ardmore, Pennsylvania in that year's draft, by Charlotte. Los Angeles also signed free-agent Shaquille O'Neal. Trading for Bryant was West's idea, and he was influential in the team's signing of the all-star center. "Jerry West is the reason I came to the Lakers", O'Neal later said. They used their 24th pick in the 1996 draft to select Derek Fisher. During the season, the team traded Cedric Ceballos to Phoenix for Robert Horry. O'Neal led the team to a 56–26 record, their best effort since 1990–91, despite missing 31 games due to a knee injury. O'Neal averaged 26.2 ppg and 12.5 rpg and finished third in the league in blocked shots (2.88 bpg) in 51 games. The Lakers defeated the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round of the playoffs as O'Neal scored 46 points in Game 1 against the Trail Blazers, marking the highest single-game playoff scoring output by a Laker since Jerry West scored 53 against the Celtics in 1969. In the next round, the

2004–2007: Rebuilding.

During the 2004 off-season, the team entered a rebuilding phase when O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Brian Grant, Caron Butler, and a first-round draft pick. Bryant and O'Neal had clashed in the past, and the media credited their feud as one of the motivating factors for the trade. Jackson did not return as head coach, and about the team's 2003–04 season, in which he heavily criticized Bryant and called him "uncoachable". The Lakers front office said that the book contained "several inaccuracies".  The Lakers also traded Rick Fox and Gary Payton to Boston, for Chris Mihm, Marcus Banks, and Chucky Atkins before the 2004–05 season. Derek Fisher, frustrated with losing playing time, opted out of his contract and signed with the Warriors. The team hired Rudy Tomjanovich to replace Jackson. After sitting out the first half of the 2004–05 season, Malone announced his retirement on February 13, 2005. Tomjanovich coached the team to

2007–2011:The Kobe-Pau duo.

After re-acquiring Derek Fisher, the Lakers started the 2007–08 season with a 25–11 record, before Andrew Bynum, their center who was leading the league in field-goal percentage, went out for the year due to a knee injury in mid-January. In what would become a crucial transfer for the franchise's return to championship form, they acquired the six-time all-star power forward Pau Gasol from the Memphis Grizzlies in a trade in early February and went 22–5 to finish the season. The Lakers' 57–25 record earned them the first seed in the Western Conference. Bryant was awarded the league's MVP award, becoming the first Laker to win the award since O'Neal in 2000. In the playoffs, they defeated the Nuggets in four games, the Jazz in six, and the defending champion Spurs in five, but lost to the Celtics in six games in the NBA Finals.  In the 2008–09 season, the Lakers finished 65–17; the best record in the Western Conference. They defeated the Jazz in five games, the Rockets in seven and the Nuggets in

2011–2016: Post-Jackson era.

After Jackson's retirement, former Cleveland Cavaliers head coach Mike Brown was hired as head coach on May 25, 2011. Before the start of the shortened 2011–12 season, the Lakers traded Lamar Odom to the Dallas Mavericks after Odom requested to be traded. On the trade deadline long time Laker Derek Fisher along with a first round draft pick were traded to the Houston Rockets for Jordan Hill. With a 41–25 regular season record the Lakers entered the playoffs as the third seed, the team defeated the Denver Nuggets in the first round in seven games but were eliminated by the Oklahoma City Thunder in the second round in five games.  On July 4, 2012, Steve Nash of the Phoenix Suns agreed to a sign-and-trade deal that would send him to the Lakers in exchange for the Lakers' 2013 and 2015 first round draft picks, 2013 and 2014 second round draft picks, and $3 million. The trade was made official on July 11, 2012, the first day the trade moratorium was lifted. On August 10, 2012, in a four-team trade the Lakers traded Andrew Bynum and acquired Dwight Howard. On November 9, 2012, Mike Brown was relieved of coaching duties after a 1–4 start to the 2012–13 season. Assistant Coach Bernie Bickerstaff took over as interim head coach, leading the Lakers to a 5–5 record. On November 12, 2012, the Lakers hired Mike D'Antoni as head coach. On February 18, 2013, Lakers owner Jerry Buss died from cancer at age 80. On the court, D'Antoni coached the Lakers to a 40–32 record the rest of the way to finish 45–37, their worst record since 2007. The Lakers clinched a playoff berth on the final game of the season and finished seventh in the Western Conference after beating the Houston Rockets on April 16, 2013. The Lakers battled injuries all season, the most prominent of which is the Achilles tendon

2016–present: Post-Bryant era.

On April 24, 2016, the Lakers announced that they would not exercise their option on Byron Scott's contract for the following season. On April 29, the Lakers announced another former Laker, Luke Walton, as their new head coach. At the time of his hiring, Walton was an assistant coach for the Golden State Warriors, who were in the playoffs, so Walton could not officially begin his duties as head coach until the Warriors' playoff run was over. The Lakers earned the second overall pick in the 2016 NBA draft, and selected Brandon Ingram from Duke University.  On February 21, 2017, the Lakers fired general manager Mitch Kupchak, while Magic Johnson was named as the president of basketball operations. The team's governor Jeanie Buss, also announced the removal of her brother, Jim Buss, from his position as executive vice president of basketball operations. On March 7, 2017, the Lakers hired Rob Pelinka as the general manager, signing

Rivalries.

Boston Celtics.

The rivalry between the Boston Celtics and the Lakers involves the two most storied basketball franchises in National Basketball Association (NBA) history. It has been called the best rivalry in the NBA. The two teams have met a record 12 times in the NBA Finals, starting with their first Finals meeting in. They would go on to dominate the league in the 1960s and the 1980s, facing each other six times in the 1960s and three times in

Detroit Pistons.

The rivalry between the Lakers and the Detroit Pistons developed in the late 1980s. Both teams faced each other in back-to-back finals appearances in the 1988 NBA Finals, which the

Los Angeles Clippers.

The rivalry between the Lakers and the Los Angeles Clippers is unique because they are the only two NBA teams to share an arena, the Staples Center. It is also one

San Antonio Spurs.

The San Antonio Spurs and the Lakers, developed what some would classify as a rivalry in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Since 1999, the teams have met in the NBA Playoffs five times, with the clubs combining to appear in seven consecutive NBA Finals (from 1999 to 2005). Additionally, the teams combined to win five NBA championships from 1999

Ownerships, financial history, and fanbase.

Berger and Chalfen purchased the NBL's disbanded Detroit Gems for $15,000 in 1947, changed their name to the Lakers and relocated them to Minnesota. Max Winter bought a third of the club in their early years, and sold his share to Mikan in 1954. Berger bought Mikan's share in 1956 giving him a controlling (2⁄3) interest. After Mikan retired, attendance plummeted and the team lost money for several seasons, leading the ownership group to put the team up for sale in 1957. Marty Marion, a retired baseball player and manager, and his business partner Milton Fischman attempted to purchase the team with the intention of moving the club to Kansas City, Missouri. Mikan offered to mortgage his home in an attempt to buy the team and keep the club in Minnesota. The Lakers were sold to a group of investors led by Bob Short however. The team was sold to Short's group with the agreement that it would not be relocated to Kansas City but kept in Minnesota. Short's ownership group consisted of 117 Minnesota businesses and private citizens, who amassed a total of $200,000 for the purchase; $150,000 to buy the team and $50,000 to run it. By 1958 Short had become 80% owner of the team by buying out his partners, but the team was floundering. Attendance remained poor, and the NBA had put the Lakers on "financial probation", notifying them that if they did not meet certain ticket sales numbers they could be bought out by the league and relocated. Short was forced to move the team to Los Angeles in 1960; the club had lost $60,000 in the first half of the 1959–60 season alone. The NBA's owners originally voted 7–1 against the move. When Short indicated that he might take the team to new rival league that was developing however, the owners held another vote that same day and allowed the relocation (8–0). Aided by Baylor's drawing power,

Name, logo and uniforms.

The Laker nickname came from the state of Minnesota being the "Land of 10,000 Lakes". The team's colors are purple, gold and

Season-by-season record.

"List of the last five seasons completed by the Lakers. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Los Angeles Lakers seasons."  The Lakers have won 16 NBA titles and have appeared in

Franchise and NBA records.

Bryant holds most individual team records for longevity including most games played (1,333), and most minutes logged (48,298). Johnson holds all significant assist records for the club including career assists (10,141), assists in a game (24), and highest assist average for a season (13.1). Johnson also has the most triple doubles, with his 138 over 100 more than the next closest player (Bryant; 17). Elmore Smith holds team records for blocks in a game (17), blocks per game for a season (4.85), and career blocks per game (3.93). The scoring records are mostly shared by Elgin Baylor and Bryant, with Baylor having the highest average for a career (27.4) while Bryant has the highest points scored in a single game (81). Baylor, Bryant and West hold the top five single season scoring

Home arenas.

The Lakers play their home games at Staples Center, located at L.A. Live in Downtown Los Angeles. The arena opened in fall 1999, and seats up to 18,997 for Lakers games. Owned and operated by AEG and L.A. Arena Company, the arena is also home to the Los Angeles Clippers, the WNBA's Los Angeles Sparks, and the NHL's Los Angeles Kings. Before moving to Staples Center, for 32 seasons (1967–1999), the Lakers played their

Players.

Retained draft rights.

The Lakers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed

Draft picks.

The Lakers have had three first overall picks in their history: Elgin Baylor (selected in 1958), Magic Johnson (selected in 1979) and James Worthy (selected in 1982). The Lakers have also had six lottery picks in their history: Eddie Jones (selected 10th overall in 1994), Andrew Bynum (selected 10th overall in 2005), Julius Randle

Head coaches.

There have been 22 head coaches for the Lakers franchise. John Kundla coached the team in Minneapolis when they won their first five BAA/NBA championships from 1949 to 1954. Pat Riley is second in franchise history in both regular season and playoff games coached and wins. Phil Jackson broke Riley's regular season wins record in 2009, and he passed Riley's playoff wins and games coached records in 2010. Jackson, Riley, Kundla, and Bill Sharman have all been inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame for their coaching careers. George Mikan, Jim Pollard, Jerry West, Pat Riley, Magic

Hall of Famers, retired and honored numbers.

The Lakers have 34 Hall of Famers (26 players, 4 head coaches, 1 assistant coach, and 3 contributors) who contributed to the organization.  Notes:

Retired numbers.

The Lakers have retired eleven jersey numbers and an honorary microphone in honor of their players and broadcaster:  In addition,

Media.

For 41 years, Chick Hearn was the team's broadcaster until his death in 2002. He broadcast 3,338 consecutive games between November 21, 1965, and December 16, 2001. Hearn came up with West's "Mr. Clutch" nickname. He was a part of the team's "inner sanctum" when Cooke was owner, and was consulted on basketball decisions. Paul Sunderland, who had filled in for a couple of games while Hearn recuperated in the 2001–02 season, was named the permanent play-by-play announcer. Stu Lantz was retained as the color commentator. When Sunderland's contract expired in the summer of 2005, the team chose not to renew it. Then, Joel Meyers moved in alongside Lantz as the television announcer, with Spero Dedes and former Laker player Mychal Thompson on the radio.  For the 2011–12 season, Bill Macdonald became the new television play-by-play announcer, joining Lantz who remained as the color analyst. Meanwhile, John Ireland joined Mychal Thompson to call the games on radio.  Beginning in the 2009–10 season, Lakers radio broadcasts were heard on KSPN (Los Angeles ESPN Radio affiliate) in English and KWKW in Spanish. KLAC had the team's radio broadcast rights from the 1976–77 season until the 2008–09 season. Until 2011, telecasts had been split between KCAL-TV (road games) and Fox Sports West (home games), unless they are chosen for national broadcasts on ABC. KCAL had been the Lakers' over-the-air television broadcaster since 1977, dating back to when the station was the RKO General-owned KHJ-TV, the longest relationship between an NBA team and a television station. Prior to KHJ, Laker games were televised on KTLA. The Lakers had been on Fox Sports West since 1985, dating to when it was the original Prime Ticket and owned by Buss.  On February 14, 2011, Time Warner Cable and the Lakers announced the formation of two new regional sports networks (one in English, one in Spanish) that would exclusively televise the team's games and related programming for 20 years starting with the 2012–13 season. The said networks were originally known as Time Warner Cable SportsNet, before it was renamed Spectrum SportsNet in 2016 upon Charter Communications' purchase of Time Warner Cable.

The Los Angeles Lakers are an American professional basketball team based in Los Angeles. The Lakers compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league's Western Conference Pacific Division. The Lakers play their home games at Staples Center, an arena shared with the NBA's Los Angeles Clippers, the Los Angeles Sparks of the Women's National Basketball Association, and the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League. The Lakers are one of the most successful teams in the history of the NBA, and have won 16 NBA championships, the second-most behind the Boston Celtics.

洛杉矶湖人(英语:Los Angeles Lakers)是一支位于美国加利福尼亚州洛杉矶的NBA篮球队,分属于西区的太平洋组,主场为斯台普斯中心。拥有悠久且辉煌历史,其前身为明尼阿波利斯湖人(Minneapolis Lakers),在明尼阿波利斯时期获得过5个总冠军,1959年球队迁至洛杉矶后,获得11次NBA总冠军,至今合计共夺得16次总冠军,仅次于波士顿凯尔特人的17次。


Life and work.

She was born in Brooklyn, New York on November 11, 1846.  Green had an early ambition to write romantic verse, and she corresponded with Ralph Waldo Emerson. When her poetry failed to gain recognition, she produced her first and best known novel, "The Leavenworth Case" (1878), praised by Wilkie Collins, and the hit of the year. She became a bestselling author, eventually publishing about 40 books.  On November 25, 1884, Green married the actor and stove designer, and later noted furniture maker, Charles Rohlfs (1853 – 1936), who was seven years her junior. Rohlfs toured in a dramatization of Green's "The Leavenworth Case". After his theater career faltered, he became a furniture maker in 1897, and Green collaborated with him on some of his designs. Together they had one daughter and two sons: Rosamund Rohlfs, Roland Rohlfs, and Sterling Rohlfs. Her daughter Rosamund married Robert Twitty Palmer.  Green died on April 11, 1935, in Buffalo, New York, at the age of 88.

Critical response.

Though Green's book "The Leavenworth Case" is frequently cited as the first mystery written by an American woman, "The Dead Letter" by Seeley Regester was published earlier (1866).  In a discussion of women writers of detective fiction, scholar Ellen Higgins in 1994 chronicled the work of Green as popularizing the genre a decade before Arthur Conan Doyle brought out his first Sherlock Holmes story. "I only found out afterward that some people were a little upset with it because they don't want to hear about women competing with the master", Higgins said.  Green is credited with shaping detective fiction into its classic form, and developing the series detective. Her main character was detective Ebenezer Gryce of the New York Metropolitan Police Force, but in three novels he is assisted by the nosy society spinster Amelia Butterworth, the prototype for Miss Marple, Miss Silver and other creations. She also invented the 'girl detective': in the character of Violet Strange, a debutante with a secret life as a sleuth. Indeed, as journalist Kathy Hickman writes, Green "stamped the mystery genre with the distinctive features that would influence writers from Agatha Christie and Conan Doyle to contemporary authors of suspenseful "whodunits". In addition to creating elderly spinster and young female sleuths, Green's innovative plot devices included dead bodies in libraries, newspaper clippings as "clews", the coroner's inquest, and expert witnesses. Yale Law School once used her books to demonstrate how damaging it can be to rely on circumstantial evidence. Written in 1878, her first book, "The Leavenworth Case: A Lawyer's Story," sparked a debate in the Pennsylvania State Senate over whether the book could "really have been written by a woman".  Green was in some ways a progressive woman for her time—succeeding in a genre dominated by male writers—but she did not approve of many of her feminist contemporaries, and she was opposed to women's suffrage.

Legacy.

In 2002, Buffalo Literary Walking Tours began an annual series of weekend walking tours highlighting authors with local connections. Green is included along with Mark Twain, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Herman Melville, Taylor Caldwell, and others.  Green's short story "The Intangible Clue" featuring Violet Strange was adapted by Chris Harrald for the second series of BBC Radio 4's drama series "The Rivals" and starred Jeany Spark as Violet Strange.

Selected works.

DETECTIVE AND MYSTERY NOVELS  MR. GRYCE AND AMELIA BUTTERWORTH SERIES OTHER MYSTERIES NON-DETECTIVE NOVELS  SHORT STORIES & NOVELETTES

Anna Katharine Green (November 11, 1846 – April 11, 1935) was an American poet and novelist. She was one of the first writers of detective fiction in America and distinguished herself by writing well plotted, legally accurate stories. Green has been called "the mother of the detective novel".

安娜·凯瑟琳·格林(英语:Anna Katharine Green,1846年-11月11日-1935年-4月11日)是一位美国诗人和小说家,美国侦探小说开创者之一,以擅于写情节紧凑、滴水不漏的故事而著称。格林也常被称为“侦探小说之母”。


Pharmacology.

Desflurane is known to act as a positive allosteric modulator of the GABA and glycine receptors, and as a negative allosteric modulator of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, as well as affecting other ligand-gated ion channels.

Stereochemistry.

Desflurane medications are a racemate of two enantiomers.

Global-warming potential.

Desflurane is a greenhouse gas. The twenty-year global-warming potential, GWP(20), for desflurane is 3714, meaning that one tonne of desflurane emitted is equivalent to 3714 tonnes of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, much higher than sevoflurane or isoflurane. In addition to global warming potentials, drug potency and fresh gas flow rates must be considered for meaningful comparisons between anesthetic gases. When a steady state hourly amount of anesthetic necessary for 1 minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) at 2 liters per minute (LPM) for Sevoflurane, and 1 LPM for Desflurane and Isoflurane is weighted by the GWP, the clinically relevant quantities of each anesthetic can then be compared. On a per-MAC-hour basis, the total life cycle GHG impact of desflurane is more than 20 times higher than Isoflurane and Sevoflurane (1 minimal alveolar concentration-hour). One paper finds anesthesia gases used globally contribute the equivalent of 1 million cars to global warming. This estimate is commonly cited as a reason to neglect pollution prevention by anesthesiologists, however this is problematic. This estimate is extrapolated from only one U.S. institution's anesthetic practices, and this institution uses virtually no Desflurane. Researchers neglected to include nitrous oxide in their calculations, and reported an erroneous average of 17 kg CO2e per anesthetic. However, institutions that utilize some Desflurane and account for nitrous oxide have reported an average of 175–220 kg CO2e per anesthetic. Sulbaek-Anderson's group therefore likely underestimated the total worldwide contribution of inhaled anesthetics, and yet still advocates for inhaled anesthetic emissions prevention.

Desflurane (1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl difluoromethyl ether) is a highly fluorinated methyl ethyl ether used for maintenance of general anesthesia. Like halothane, enflurane, and isoflurane, it is a racemic mixture of ("R") and ("S") optical isomers (enantiomers). Together with sevoflurane, it is gradually replacing isoflurane for human use, except in economically undeveloped areas, where its high cost precludes its use. It has the most rapid onset and offset of the volatile anesthetic drugs used for general anesthesia due to its low solubility in blood.

地氟醚(英语:Desflurane),又称地氟烷,是卤代醚麻醉药之一,常用于维持麻醉状态。和其他卤代醚麻醉药一样,地氟醚是外消旋体。地氟醚和七氟醚正逐步取代异氟醚成为人用全身麻醉药的首选。由于地氟醚在血液的溶解度低,地氟醚在挥发性麻醉药之中起效最快,药力也最快散去。地氟醚的缺点包括药效较弱、气味刺鼻及成本较高。在经济欠发达地区,地氟醚碍于成本而未能推广。但对于低通气量的应用情景,地氟醚和异氟醚的成本差异似乎微不足道。当以大于体积分数10%的剂量施用时,地氟醚有可能引致心跳过速和刺激呼吸道,故地氟醚甚少用于诱导麻醉。


Early life.

Schwimmer was born in Flushing, Queens, New York City, to attorneys Arthur (born 1941) and Arlene Coleman-Schwimmer (born 1940). His family is Jewish. He has an older sister named Ellie (born 1965). His family subsequently moved to Los Angeles, where Schwimmer had his first experiences of acting, at the age of 10, when he was cast as the fairy godmother in a Jewish version of "Cinderella". In 1979, Schwimmer went to a Shakespeare workshop given by English actor Ian McKellen in Los Angeles. He recalls being riveted by the experience. Schwimmer then entered a contest in the Southern California Shakespeare Festival three years in a row, winning two first prizes.  Following his mother's successful career as a divorce lawyer, the family moved to Beverly Hills, where Schwimmer attended Beverly Hills High School. His classmates included actor Jonathan Silverman. Schwimmer admitted to being an outsider during his time at the school, recalling, "When I was there I always felt: 'This is not me, I'm surrounded by people with a different value system. And I just wanted to get out of California.'" His best subjects were science and math and thought he would become a doctor. Schwimmer enrolled in a drama class, where he appeared in stage productions. Encouraged by his school drama teacher to further his acting, he flew to Chicago for a summer acting program at Northwestern University. He noted that the experience was both "enlightening and exhilarating". In 1984, Schwimmer graduated from Beverly Hills High and wanted to go straight into acting, but his parents insisted he go to college first so he would have something to fall back on. Schwimmer moved to Chicago to attend Northwestern University, where he had attended a summer drama course when he was 16 years old. At the university, he studied theater and was in an improv group with Stephen Colbert, the No-Fun Mud Piranhas. After graduating in 1988, with a Bachelor of Arts degree in theater and speech, Schwimmer co-founded the Lookingglass Theatre Company. Subsequently, he returned to Los Angeles to pursue an acting career.

Career.

1989–1994: Early work.

After his supporting role debut in the ABC television movie "A Deadly Silence" (1989), Schwimmer followed this with roles on the legal drama "L.A. Law" in 1992, and the comedy-drama series "The Wonder Years". He made his feature film debut in "Flight of the Intruder" (1991), had a recurring role as a lawyer-turned-vigilante in "NYPD Blue" before auditioning, unsuccessfully, for a series pilot called "Couples". He landed his first regular series role as the liberal son of a conservative talk show host (Henry Winkler) in the sitcom "Monty".

1994–2004: Breakthrough.

In 1994, Schwimmer was cast as Dr. Ross Geller in NBC's situation comedy "Friends", a series that revolved around a group of friends who live near each other in Manhattan. He played a hopeless-romantic paleontologist who works at a museum and later becomes a professor at a university. Schwimmer initially turned down the role as Ross, but accepted later. Executive producer Kevin S. Bright said that he had previously worked with Schwimmer, the character of Ross was written with him in mind, and he was the first actor cast. The show debuted on September 22, 1994, and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers. "Friends" quickly developed a loyal audience, with the show and Schwimmer receiving strong reviews. The "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette" was complimentary of Schwimmer, calling him "terrific". "Variety"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s television reviewer, said: "All six of the principals, especially (Courteney) Cox and Schwimmer, appear resourceful and display sharp sitcom skills". For this performance, he earned a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1995.  Schwimmer starred in his first leading film role in the 1996 romantic comedy film, "The Pallbearer" with Gwyneth Paltrow. In the film, Schwimmer plays a man asked to deliver the eulogy for a high school friend he cannot remember, and begins an affair with the friend's mother. Critics dismissed "The Pallbearer" as a poor imitation of the 1967 film "The Graduate". "Variety"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s film reviewer complimented the actor, writing that he had enjoyed his performance, stating that he displayed "a winning, if rather deadpan, personality along with good comic timing". It also concluded that Schwimmer had a "promising bigscreen future". Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" cited that his first film "relegates him to a drab role". When asked why he decided to accept the role, Schwimmer admitted the decision was to "make an effort to find roles that are as far away from the character of Ross as possible". He was offered a role to star alongside Tommy Lee Jones in the 1997 science-fiction comedy "Men in Black" after Chris O'Donnell turned down the role, but turned it down because of a prior commitment to direct his first film with his theatre company friends starring before the role was given to Will Smith.  His next film roles, in 1998, were "Kissing a Fool", "Six Days, Seven Nights", and "Apt Pupil". In "Kissing a Fool", a romantic comedy, Schwimmer played Max, a dapper, smart-mouthed ladies' man. Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote, "Fans of the sitcom "Friends" may be surprised by David Schwimmer in "Kissing a Fool". [...] Take it from someone who has never seen "Friends" and comes at Schwimmer with no preconceptions: He does just fine. As a TV sports reporter in "Kissing a Fool", he oozes the command and self-satisfaction of a young, successful man". The film was critically and financially unsuccessful. In "Six Days, Seven Nights", he played the boyfriend of Anne Heche's character. In "Apt Pupil", adapted from a novella of the same name by Stephen King, he had a supporting role as a school guidance counselor. "I was scared of the part", Schwimmer said, "but I wanted to be part of the movie". At the time, he noted it was a "little frustrating" that people would typecast him due to his role on "Friends". He subsequently appeared opposite Woody Allen and Sharon Stone in Alfonso Arau's straight-to-cable comedy "Picking Up the Pieces" (2000).  In 2001, Schwimmer played Captain Herbert M. Sobel in Steven Spielberg and Tom Hanks' HBO World War II miniseries "Band of Brothers". The television miniseries is based on the book of the same title written by historian and biographer Stephen Ambrose. Although "Band of Brothers" was met with largely positive reception, Schwimmer's performance was criticized; the BBC News concluded, "Part of the problem... may have been the ridiculous fact that "Friends" favourite David Schwimmer plays the hard and cruel Captain Herbert Sobel. The only thing believable about Schwimmer's acting is when he cowers in the face of true battle. His puppy dog eyes make him appear even more pitiful". Later that year he portrayed Yitzhak Zuckerman in the war drama "Uprising", based on the true events of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943.  In March 2004, Schwimmer appeared as himself on HBO's comedy series "Curb Your Enthusiasm". During the lengthy run of "Friends", Schwimmer directed ten of the show's episodes. The show's tenth and final season ended on May 6, 2004.

2004–2010: Directing.

After "Friends", Schwimmer starred in the 2005 independent drama "Duane Hopwood", as the title character, who is an alcoholic whose life is spiraling downward rapidly after a divorce and is looking to turn his life around. The film received ambivalent reviews. Despite the reception, Schwimmer's performance was favored by critics; Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" reported that the role was Schwimmer's "career-transforming performance". "Duane Hopwood" was screened at a special presentation at the 2005 Sundance Film Festival. Furthermore, in the same year he voiced Melman, a hypochondriac giraffe, in the computer animated film "Madagascar" (2005). "The Washington Post" noted that Schwimmer is particularly appealing as Melman. Despite the mixed response from critics, the film was a commercial success, earning US$532 million worldwide, making it one of the biggest hits of 2005.  Schwimmer starred on the London stage in May 2005, with Catherine Tate, Lesley Manville, Sara Powell, and Saffron Burrows, in Neil LaBute's "Some Girl(s)" at the Gielgud Theatre. In the production, he plays a teacher who is ready to settle down and marry, but decides to visit four ex-girlfriends first. For his performance, Schwimmer received critical reviews. "The Independent" wrote that Schwimmer "is not called upon to extend his range nearly as far as one might have expected in "Some Girl(s)". [...] Schwimmer remains bland, competent, and boyish—though not fatally boyish in the manner that appears to have turned these women on". However, Charles Spencer of "The Daily Telegraph" praised Schwimmer, reporting he "proves inspired casting. He takes to the stage with... his endearing gaucheness seems designed to ensure our continued sympathy. Schwimmer mercilessly lays bare his character's opportunism, casual cruelties, and chronic self-deception".  In 2006, he made his Broadway debut in Herman Wouk's two-act play "The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial". Schwimmer played the role of Lieutenant Barney Greenwald in the production, which was directed by Jerry Zaks. In an interview with "New York" magazine, he revealed that he had wanted to try Broadway, however said "a couple of things came up that just never quite felt right. Either because I liked the play but wasn’t hot on the director, or there was another star attached that I wasn't jazzed about working with". He further added that when showed a copy of Wouk's novel "...I was shocked at how good the writing was". His next film role was in the 2006 black comedy "Big Nothing", in which he played a bitter, unemployed scientist.  Schwimmer made his directorial feature debut in the 2007 British comedy film "Run Fatboy Run". The film stars Simon Pegg as an out of shape man who signs up for a marathon to convince his former fiancée and five-year-old son that he has turned his life around. When asked why he decided to direct the film, Schwimmer said: "As a director, I was struck by the challenge that I thought the script presented, which was that it was kind of three films in one. You had some great, big physical comedy, and I thought funny dialogue and characters. And then there was some real emotion to it with the relationship between the father and the son and the romance aspect". "Run Fatboy Run" garnered mixed reception, with the "New York Daily News" rating it one-and-a-half out of five stars and writing, "Most disappointing is how Schwimmer—who spent 10 seasons on a sitcom filled with hyperverbal characters—manages to bumble 'Fatboy's' tender moments". "USA Today", however, was favorable towards Schwimmer, reporting he possesses filmmaking finesse "having wisely chosen strong comic material for his debut behind the camera". For his directorial work, he was nominated for a British Independent Film Award in the category of Best Debut Director.  On November 8, 2007, Schwimmer made a guest appearance in the second season of the television series "30 Rock", where he played Greenzo, an NBC environmental mascot. The following year, he was part of an ensemble cast that included Kate Beckinsale, Matt Dillon, Alan Alda, Angela Bassett, and Noah Wyle in the thriller "Nothing But the Truth" (2008). The movie received generally favorable reviews. The success of "Madagascar" led Schwimmer to return to the role of Melman in the 2008 sequel, "". The film earned US$603 million at the international box office. Schwimmer took part in directing in-studio segments for "Little Britain USA", an American spin-off of the British BBC television series "Little Britain". In regard to this, he commented that he had "a good time directing episodes" for the show.  In October 2008, Schwimmer made his Off-Broadway directorial debut in "Fault Lines" at the Cherry Lane Theatre in New York. The production won a mixed review from the "Los Angeles Times", which wrote: "Based on "Fault Lines"... we can't really tell whether Schwimmer has much talent as a director. We're surprised he didn't try something more challenging for his debut. If not much else, Schwimmer has encouraged his actors to intense their energy levels and comic timing at all costs". The "New York Post", however, noted that Schwimmer "knows a thing or two about freewheeling banter... and for a good while the play crackles with terrific dialogue, expertly delivered". In February 2009, he returned to theater in a Chicago production of Thornton Wilder's three-act play "Our Town" as George Gibbs at the Lookingglass Theatre. "Schwimmer... turns in a poignant, richly textured and demonstrably heartfelt performance as George Gibbs. I've seen a fair bit of Schwimmer's post-"Friends" stage work in London and New York, and I've never seen him better", commented the "Chicago Tribune".  On August 2, 2009, Schwimmer played himself in the sixth season of the HBO television series, "Entourage". In the episode, Ari Gold's (Jeremy Piven) agency tries to steer his career back to television. Schwimmer directed his second feature, "Trust", starring Clive Owen and Catherine Keener. The film, a drama, is about a family whose teenage daughter becomes victim of an online sexual predator. "Trust" premiered at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival.

2010–present: Return to television.

On January 1, 2011, Schwimmer guest-starred on the British comedy series "Come Fly With Me" starring Matt Lucas and David Walliams, whom he directed in "Little Britain USA". The following year, he returned to voice Melman the Giraffe in "".  Schwimmer appeared in the cast of "The Iceman" in 2013 as Josh Rosenthal, a mobster who was brought up by the notorious Roy Demeo and part of the Gambino Family. The movie starred Michael Shannon as Richard Kuklinski.  In 2014, it was announced that Schwimmer had been cast as the lead in the ABC comedy pilot "Irreversible". He would play "one half of a somewhat eccentric, self-absorbed couple" in his first comedic television role since "Friends" finished in 2004. In 2016, Schwimmer played Robert Kardashian in the first season of the FX anthology series "American Crime Story". The series was developed by Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski and was based on the book "The Run of His Life: The People v. O. J. Simpson", by Jeffrey Toobin. He received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for the performance. In January 2016, it was announced that Schwimmer and Jim Sturgess would be starring in the new AMC crime drama, "Feed the Beast". The series premiered on June 5, 2016, and aired ten episodes until August. The series was canceled because of poor reviews and low ratings. In November 2016, it was announced that Schwimmer would star in his first audio series. Gimlet Media's podcast "Homecoming" began airing on November 16, 2016.  In April 2017, Schwimmer helped adapt the films of Sigal Avin for a US audience. The six short features depict sexual harassment at work by men on women.  In 2020, Schwimmer was cast as a main character in a new British comedy sitcom called "Intelligence" broadcast on Sky One.

Personal life.

Schwimmer began a relationship with British artist Zoë Buckman in 2007 and they married in June 2010. Their daughter Cleo was born in 2011. The couple announced in April 2017 that they were "taking some time apart". They divorced later that year.  In June 2006, Schwimmer won a US$400,000 defamation lawsuit against Aaron Tonken, a former charity fundraiser. Tonken claimed Schwimmer had demanded Rolex watches in order to appear at his own charity event, a claim that Schwimmer had denied.  Schwimmer is an active director of the Rape Treatment Center in Santa Monica, which specializes in helping victims of date rape and child rape. He has also campaigned for legislation to ban drugs such as Rohypnol and GHB. In November 2011, he gave the Scottish charity Children 1st permission to screen his film "Trust" to commemorate World Day for Prevention of Child Abuse and Violence against Children.  In 2012, he rebutted two longstanding rumors: one that he appeared as a soldier on a train in "Biloxi Blues" (1988), saying, "No. I don't know why that's on IMDb, but I never was in that", and the other that he is related to dancer Lacey Schwimmer, saying, "No, not at all. Please set the record straight. I guess it's a natural assumption because we have the same last name, but no. I've never even met her".

Filmography.

Other.

Yoop (Plory and Yoop, i-Ready Lesson Series, middle 2010s-present)

David Lawrence Schwimmer (born November 2, 1966) is an American actor, director and producer.

大卫·史威默(英语:David Schwimmer,1966年-11月2日) 是一位美国犹太裔电视电影演员、导演。1966年生于纽约,2岁后移居洛杉矶 。1988年毕业于西北大学,获得文学学士。毕业后混迹于洛杉矶,在一些影视剧中充当龙套,四处赶场寻找演出机会。


History.

Formation and Early Years (1927–1943).

"Sociedade Anônima Empresa de Viação Aérea Rio-Grandense – VARIG" was the first national airline established in Brazil. It was founded on in Porto Alegre, by Otto Ernst Meyer-Labastille, a German aviator decorated in the World War I, who immigrated to Brazil in 1921 and noticed how necessary air transportation was for a large country like Brazil. Varig was an off-spring of the German trade company and airline Condor Syndikat, thus sharing the same origin as Syndicato Condor, later renamed Serviços Aéreos Cruzeiro do Sul. Condor Syndikat gave the initial operational and financial support and for a short time Varig and the sister-company Syndicato Condor operated in partnership.  The first aircraft of VARIG was a ten-passenger Dornier Do J Wal flying boat, transferred from the assets of Condor Syndikat. This aircraft, named "Atlântico", was also the first aircraft registered in Brazil as P-BAAA. Operations started on with a flight from Porto Alegre to Rio Grande via Pelotas. Varig inherited the route rights from Condor Syndikat which since had operated the service.  VARIG slowly but consistently in spite of difficulties added aircraft and destinations to its network initially focusing on the state of Rio Grande do Sul. On Varig began its first international route from Porto Alegre to Montevideo using its de Havilland DH 89 Dragon Rapide.  On 1941, as the United States declared war against the Axis and joined the Allies in the conflict, aviation supplies became scarce, particularly in terms of petrol and replacement parts. Because it used mostly German equipment and had a German Manager-Director (President), Varig faced particular difficulties. For this reason, Varig's first Manager-Director Otto Ernst Meyer resigned on and shareholders decided that the next Manager-Director had to be a native-born Brazilian. Érico de Assis Brasil was chosen but he died on an aircraft accident shortly after. It was in 1943 that Varig's first employee, Ruben Martin Berta, a descendant of Hungarian and German grandparents, was chosen as Manager-Director, a post he would retain until his death in 1966.

Expansion (1943–1966).

One of the first decisions of Ruben Berta was to pursue an expansion plan and to unify the fleet around only one type of aircraft. The chosen one was the Lockheed L-10 Electra. Another ground-breaking suggestion was made on when, based on social ideas found on the papal encyclicals "Rerum novarum" and "Quadragesimo anno" and on Jean-Jacques Rousseau's "The Social Contract", Berta proposed and the assembly approved the transfer of 50% of Varig's shares to a not-for-profit foundation belonging to the employees. The aim of the foundation was to provide health, financial, social and recreational benefits to its employees. Decades later this foundation would be called.  In 1946, with the addition of Douglas DC-3 and later the Curtiss C-46 to its fleet, Varig was able to greatly increase its network by adding cities in the states of Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro, facing fierce competition with Real Transportes Aéreos, and SAVAG. On, Varig bought Aero Geral, a small airline with concessions to fly from Natal until Santos. With this purchase Varig greatly enlarged its operations in Brazil, extending services beyond Rio de Janeiro until Natal along the Brazilian coast and was thus better prepared to compete with Panair do Brasil and Cruzeiro do Sul. In 1949 the Brazilian government granted to Varig the concession to fly to the United States, since the original airline which had the concession, Cruzeiro do Sul, was unable to operate the services. The inaugural flight between Rio de Janeiro-Galeão and New York-Idllwild (later renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport) was on. The services were operated by three new Lockheed L-1049G Super Constellations. On flights to Buenos Aires using Curtiss C-46s started. In January 1956 Varig served 55 cities in Brazil and four abroad, being the second Brazilian airline in terms of passengers transported.  In 1954, sensing the need for more modern aircraft, new Convair 240s were purchased. The addition of the Lockheed Super Constellation and the Convair 240 provoked a deep change of mentality in the culture of Varig, with the introduction of a more cosmopolitan corporate image that would remain until 1996.  On Varig, Cruzeiro do Sul and VASP initiated the air shuttle services between Rio de Janeiro-Santos Dumont and São Paulo-Congonhas airports, the first of its kind in the world. The three companies coordinated schedules and operations, and shared revenue. The service was a response to the competition imposed by Real Transportes Aéreos. The idea, baptized as Air bridge (), inspired on the Berlin Airlift was so successful that it was abandoned only in 1999. Flights operated on an hourly basis initially by Convair 240 (Varig), Convair 340 (Cruzeiro) and Saab 90 Scandia (VASP). In a few months the shuttle service led by Varig won the battle against Real, which was bought by Varig in 1961. Sadia Transportes Aéreos joined the service in 1968. Between 1975 and 1992 it was operated exclusively by Varig's Lockheed L-188 Electra which for the sake of neutrality did not have the Varig name on the fuselage.  On Varig started to fly their new 35-seat Sud Aviation SE-210 Caravelle I between Brazil and New York-Idlewild, stopping at Belem, Trinidad and Nassau; on, the Caravelles were replaced by the Boeing 707-441, which could fly from Rio de Janeiro-Galeão to New York-Idlewild non-stop. The Caravelles were switched to operate trunk routes within Brazil and to Buenos Aires-Ezeiza and Montevideo. Between May and August 1961, after a lengthy battle for the Brazilian market, Varig took over the Consortium Real-Aerovias-Nacional, which was in serious economic difficulty. This purchase not only made Varig the largest airline in South America but also granted rights to other cities in Latin America, Miami, the West Coast of the United States and to Japan.  European services started on. Varig had been lobbying for European concessions for more than ten years, but after the sudden shutdown of Panair do Brasil by the Brazilian military government Varig was granted rights previously held by Panair and was ordered to immediately operate all scheduled services, including Panair's flight scheduled to depart that very night from Rio de Janeiro-Galeão to Recife, Lisbon, Paris-Orly and Frankfurt.  Varig also inherited Panair's two Douglas DC-8-33 and the agreement with TAP-Transportes Aéreos Portugueses to operate the "Voo da amizade" () between São Paulo-Congonhas, Rio de Janeiro-Galeão and Lisbon, with stops in Recife and Sal, now using Varig's Lockheed L-188 Electra. Originally started on 30 November 1960 by Panair and TAP, only Brazilian and Portuguese citizens or foreigners with permanent residence in Brazil or Portugal were entitled to the purchase of tickets for these flights, which were extremely popular due to their low fares. Those flights operated until 1967.  On, Rubem Berta died of a heart attack. The following day the administrative board elected Erik Oswaldo Kastrup de Carvalho, Berta's right-hand and former Panair employee, as Varig's fourth Director-President.

Consolidation (1966–2000).

The 1973 oil crisis brought to Varig the need to replace its older generation aircraft with newer ones. For international, the chosen type was the Douglas DC-10, which had its first flight with Varig on and this aircraft had the range to serve European destinations including Paris without a refuelling stop en route. In the domestic arena gradually the Boeing 737-200 became the work-horse.  Still as a consequence of the 1973 oil crisis which caused many difficulties to airlines, on Varig acquired a controlling interest in Cruzeiro do Sul, which was in a particularly delicate economic situation. Cruzeiro do Sul was fully integrated into VARIG on.  On, the Brazilian Federal Government created the Brazilian Integrated System of Regional Air Transportation and divided the country in five different regions, for which five newly created regional airlines received a concession to operate air services. Rio-Sul Serviços Aéreos Regionais S/A was the fourth of those regional airlines to be made operational and it was established by Varig in partnership with Top Táxi Aéreo, Bradesco Bank, and Atlântica-Boavista Insurance. Its services started on and its operational area comprised roughly the Southern and parts of the Southeast regions of Brazil. Soon Rio-Sul was operating as Varig's feeder-airline.  In February 1979, Carvalho left the Presidency of Varig due to serious illness, being succeeded by Harry Schuetz for a short time, by Hélio Smidt, Berta's nephew, in 1980, and by Rubel Thomas in 1990.  The 1980s were marked by a modernization of the fleet, growth in the number of destinations and increasing financial problems originated in high inflation and in a foreign currency crisis. Furthermore, with the end of the military régime and the return to democracy in 1985, Varig lost its intimate connection with the ruling powers. In 1990, with a gradual deregulation promoted by the Federal Government, VASP and Transbrasil were authorized to fly to international destinations, breaking an almost-monopoly held by Varig since 1965 (Cruzeiro do Sul was the only exception). More international carriers were also authorized to fly to Brazil, greatly increasing competition. Slowly Varig began to lose its financial health, aggravated by the early 1990s world recession and administration problems. In 1988, a few years after the inauguration of São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport, Varig decided to move its operational hub from Rio de Janeiro to São Paulo. In June 1995, Varig bought 49% of the shares of Pluna Uruguayan Airlines.  In an attempt to solve its increasing problems, Carlos Willy Engels became president in 1995 and in 1996 he was succeeded by Fernando Abs da Cruz Souza Pinto, who would be the last president of the consolidation phase in the history of the company. He developed an ambitious project to bring financial and operational health back to the company. The two most visible milestones of this project were the new corporate image launched on 15 October 1996 - the first change since 1955 - and the membership of Varig on Star Alliance, as of. Varig was its sixth member airline, and first to join after it was launched only 5 months earlier.  In spite of some success in the re-organization of the company, Pinto did not have full support of Ruben Berta Foundation, the controller of Varig and, as a consequence, he left the Presidency of Varig on. That same year he became the CEO of TAP Portugal and successfully re-organized that airline. Pinto was succeeded by Ozires Silva, former president of the Brazilian aircraft manufacturer Embraer.

Decline and final split (2000–2006).

The administration of Ozires Silva, which lasted for only 2.5 years, started with major restructuring in the company, aiming at making Ruben Berta Foundation more powerful and the President-Director weaker. Also, on, all cargo operations were united under a new airline named VarigLog.  Despite the reforms, Varig posted a deficit for first time in its history: R$148.6 million by the end of 2000, and then R$523 million in the following year.  In 2001, low-cost airline Gol Airlines began operations, with VASP and Transbrasil cutting fares in response. The loss of passengers to competitors caused Varig to lose its top position in the domestic market share (in terms of passengers per kilometre) to TAM Airlines, for the first time since 1961. The September 11 attacks also weakened Varig’s operational and financial situation.  In 2002, Ruben Berta Foundation merged the administration of Varig and its subsidiary Rio Sul Serviços Aéreos Regionais (which included the brand Nordeste Linhas Aéreas Regionais). The three brands were used separately with Rio-Sul and Nordeste providing feeder services to Varig.  Year-long discussions to merge Varig with TAM Airlines ended unsuccessfully in 2004 and the same year Varig fell to third place in the Brazilian domestic market share, behind TAM and Gol. VARIG applied to the Commercial Bankruptcy and Reorganization Court in Rio de Janeiro on, for the commencement of "judicial reorganization" proceedings pursuant to the New Bankruptcy and Restructuring Law of Brazil (Law 11.101). The request was granted on 22 June 2005. VARIG continued to provide services despite its financial troubles. In order to raise funds, the Bankruptcy and Reorganization Court decided to sell two of Varig's subsidiaries:  After two unsuccessful attempts to auction the airline as a whole, the bankruptcy court decided to split the airline in two different judicial entities, informally known as "old" Varig and "new" Varig:

"Old" Varig.

Since, the former "Viação Aérea Rio-Grandense S/A" was judicially known as "Nordeste Linhas Aéreas S/A", and operated under the brand-name Flex Linhas Aéreas. On 18 August 2009, the National Civil Aviation Agency of Brazil renewed the authorization of Flex to operate non-regular passenger, cargo and postal services. Therefore, Flex operated flights on behalf of other airlines, as contracted.  Between 17 June 2005 and 2 September 2009, "old Varig" remained in Recovery Order in the 1st Business Court of Rio de Janeiro, under the leadership of Judges Luiz Roberto Ayoub and Miguel Dau. After the bankruptcy protection was lifted, the administration of the airline could have returned to its original owner, Fundação Ruben Berta, which still owned 87% of the shares of Varig. However, Fundação Ruben Berta preferred to keep a judicial administrator.  In September 2006 "old" Varig sold its participation in PLUNA (49% of the shares) to the Uruguayan Government.  On, Varig Brazilian Airlines ("old" Varig) was suspended from membership in Star Alliance for not fulfilling membership pre-requisites, and on, the IATA code RG and the callsign Varig officially ceased to exist.  As a result of accumulated debts, on, at the request of the airline administrator, the 1st Business Court of Rio de Janeiro declared Flex bankrupt and initiated the process of liquidation. However, on 10 September, the bankruptcy process was suspended at the request of Ruben Berta Foundation and the company returned in practical terms to recovery order status until the validity of the bankruptcy is judged.

"New" Varig.

VRG Linhas Aéreas S/A was fully integrated in Gol Airlines.  On, the "new" Varig canceled all its flights, except for Rio de Janeiro-São Paulo shuttle service, which remained in operation through an agreement with "old" Varig. On, "new" Varig announced that it would cut 60% of its staff.  Between September and November 2006, "new" Varig announced its intentions to gradually resume some international and domestic flights. On 14 December 2006, the National Civil Aviation Agency of Brazil issued the final certificate to "new" Varig, making it fully operational. Soon after the certificate was granted, orders for 16 aircraft were announced, to bring the fleet to 31 aircraft and the operational agreement with "old" Varig expired.  Before and after relaunch in December 2006, "new Varig" struggled greatly to find a strategic partners, due to lack of credibility, affecting aircraft contracts, network and personnel inherited from "old" Varig. "New" Varig was facing monthly losses as high as US$20 million, and MattlinPatterson was unwilling to invest more money in the company, putting "new" Varig in extreme economic difficulties. On, Gol Airlines purchased "new Varig" (VRG Linhas Aéreas) for US$320 million, and announced that VRG Linhas Aéreas, the operator of the brand VARIG, would continue to operate under its original name. The transaction was completed on.  The new owner radically restructured the fleet, the network, eliminated the First Class cabin from the aircraft, and gradually transformed the brand Varig into the arm of Gol Group specialized in international scheduled and charter medium and long-haul destinations. On, Varig's new corporate image was unveiled, stressing the orange colour of Gol.<ref name="Other News - 10/29/2007"></ref>  On Gol was merged into VRG Linhas Aéreas and thus VRG Linhas Aéreas became an airline with two different brands: Varig and Gol. As a consequence, on mid-April 2009, Varig's booking systems were integrated into Gol's and the Smiles frequent flyer program was reformulated to include Gol. In June 2009, "new" Varig ceased to operate its own flights and started to use Gol's flight numbers.  From 2006 to 2009 "new" Varig was obliged by contract to purchase a minimum of 140 hours/month of services from "old" Varig. Therefore, some of VRG Linhas Aéreas flights operated with Gol flight numbers were actually flown with chartered aircraft from Flex Linhas Aéreas.

Historical fleet.

The fleet list below is related to "old" VARIG and based on the standard published Varig history.

Airline Affinity Program.

Smiles was Varig's Frequent-flyer program until 20 July 2006. Points could be used for services from Varig, its subsidiaries, and its Star Alliance partners including flights, upgrades, holidays, hotel stays and car rentals. Smiles was part of the "new Varig" package bought by Gol Airlines. All miles were honored and eventually Smiles became Gol's own Frequent Flyer program.

Accidents and incidents.

, Aviation Safety Network reports 39 accidents or incidents for Varig since.

VARIG (acronym for Viação Aérea RIo-Grandense, "Rio Grandean Airways") was the first airline founded in Brazil, in 1927. From 1965 until 1990, it was Brazil's leading airline, and virtually its only international one. In 2005, Varig went into judicial restructuring, and in 2006 it was split into two companies – Flex Linhas Aéreas, informally known as "old" Varig, heir to the original airline –now defunct, and "new" Varig, a new company, fully integrated into Gol Airlines.

里约格朗德航空(,简称VARIG)是巴西历史上第一家航空公司,成立于1927年,总部位于巴西里约热内卢。1965年至1990年期间,里约格朗德航空曾经是巴西唯一的国际航空公司。2005年,里约格朗德航空申请破产保护,公司整体拍卖不果之后,公司于2006年10月分拆为两部分。第一部分是组建东北地区航空(Nordeste Linhas Aéreas S/A),公司以“Nordeste”品牌名称营运,后来于2008年更名为弗莱克斯航空(Flex Linhas Aéreas);而另一部分是组建VRG航空(VRG Linhas Aéreas S/A),并获准以“VARIG”品牌名称营运,VRG航空后来于2008年被高尔航空公司收购,“VARIG”这一品牌也被收归高尔航空旗下。


History.

The magazine was originally published bimonthly under the name The Golden Age on October 1, 1919, by the International Bible Students Association. (In 1930 it was published in Danish under the name New World.) On October 6, 1937, it was renamed Consolation and continued to be published biweekly until July 31, 1946. On August 22, 1946, the magazine was renamed Awake! and until 2005 was published semimonthly in major languages (on the 8th and 22nd), monthly in many languages, and quarterly in a few languages. As of January 2006, the magazine was published monthly, and as of 2016 it was published every second month. As of early 2018, it is published every four months, in March, July, and November of each year.

Purpose.

The stated purpose of the magazine has changed over time. From 1982 to 1995, each issue of the magazine included a mission statement which stated, "this magazine builds confidence in the Creator's promise of a peaceful and secure new order "before the generation that saw 1914 passes away"" (formatting added). When Jehovah's Witnesses' belief regarding the "generation" of 1914 was changed to a less literal sense, the aim was restated as, "this magazine builds confidence in the Creator's promise of a peaceful and secure new world "that is about to replace the present wicked, lawless system of things"".

Content.

"Awake!" contains articles about general-interest topics such as nature, geography, family life, and also the Bible and biblical history, from the Watchtower Bible And Tract Society's perspective. It has also presented medical opinions of various medical conditions. Conditions that have been featured in "Awake!" include dementia, stroke, infectious diseases, bipolar disorder, and postpartum depression. Many issues claim that mankind is living in the end times.

Authorship.

The magazine's editor under the titles of "The Golden Age" and "Consolation" was Clayton J. Woodworth, who later served on the boards of several corporations of Jehovah's Witnesses. When the magazine was renamed "Awake!", the journal's editorship became anonymous. (Autobiographical articles credited to individual members about their experiences and circumstances occasionally appear.) Publication is overseen by the Writing Committee of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Distribution.

The magazine is printed in nineteen countries; about 25% of the total is printed at one of the organization's printeries in Toronto, Canada.  "Awake!" is considered to be the most widely distributed magazine in the world, with a worldwide circulation of 93,354,000 each issue.  The magazine is distributed by Jehovah's Witnesses in the course of their house-to-house ministry. They are also distributed by approaching people in public places, given informally to acquaintances and professionals, or left as reading material in places such as bus terminals and laundromats.  "Awake!" is available, in selected languages, on audio compact disc and online in various digital formats.

Cost.

Until March 1990, "Awake!" was available for a small charge that varied over time and in different countries. For example, in the United States, the suggested donation per issue was $0.05 in 1950, gradually increasing to $0.25 in 1989. On January 17, 1990, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled against Jimmy Swaggart that sales of religious literature were subject to taxation, which introduced ambiguity into the formerly tax-free practice of suggesting a particular donation in exchange for the magazines. The Watch Tower Society supported Swaggart in the case, arguing that the perceived sale of religious literature should be exempt from taxation.  From March 1, 1990, the journals were made available at no cost, on a freewill donation basis in the United States, with the stated purpose of simplifying their Bible educational work and distinguishing themselves from those who commercialize religion. An article in the May 1990 issue of "Our Kingdom Ministry"—a newsletter provided to members—stated that "there are growing pressures against all religious elements" and went on to say that their main concern was to move ahead in the worldwide preaching work, "without hindrance."  The sale of Jehovah's Witnesses' literature was gradually phased out in other countries, and "Awake!" has been distributed free of charge worldwide since early 2000, its printing being funded by voluntary donations from Jehovah's Witnesses and members of the public.

Awake! is an illustrated religious magazine published every four months by Jehovah's Witnesses via the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. It is considered to be a companion magazine of "The Watchtower", and is distributed by Jehovah's Witnesses in their door-to-door ministry, with a total worldwide circulation of over 93 million copies in 225 languages per issue.

《警醒!》(Awake!)(原称《儆醒!》),是宗教团体耶和华见证人所发行的月刊杂志,是其最主要的两本国际性杂志之一。《警醒!》的前身为《黄金时代》(The Golden Age),1946年才改为现名。刊物由守望台圣经书社纽约出版,提供给其信徒和其他感兴趣读者阅读,每期《警醒!》有不同的主题。以每期225种语言版本合计,全球发行量大约 9,335万册(2020年)。


Tōnalpōhualli.

The ("day count") consists of a cycle of 260 days, each day signified by a combination of a number from 1 to 13, and one of the twenty day signs. With each new day, both the number and day sign would be incremented: 1 Crocodile is followed by 2 Wind, 3 House, 4 Lizard, and so forth up to 13 Reed, after which the cycle of numbers would restart (though the twenty day signs had not yet been exhausted) resulting in 1 Jaguar, 2 Eagle, and so on, as the days immediately following 13 Reed. This cycle of number and day signs would continue similarly until the 20th week, which would start on 1 Rabbit, and end on 13 Flower. It would take a full 260 days (13×20) for the two cycles (of twenty day signs, and thirteen numbers) to realign and repeat the sequence back on 1 Crocodile.

Day signs.

The set of day signs used in central Mexico is identical to that used by Mixtecs, and to a lesser degree similar to those of other Mesoamerican calendars. Each of the day signs also bears an association with one of the four cardinal directions.  There is some variation in the way the day signs were drawn or carved. Those here were taken from the. Wind and Rain are represented by images of their associated gods, and respectively.  Other marks on the stone showed the current world and also the worlds before this one. Each world was called a sun, and each sun had its own species of inhabitants. The Aztecs believed that they were in the Fifth Sun and like all of the suns before them they would also eventually perish due to their own imperfections. Every 52 years was marked out because they believed that 52 years was a life cycle and at the end of any given life cycle the gods could take away all that they have and destroy the world. The 260 days of the sacred calendar were grouped into twenty periods of 13 days each. Scholars usually refer to these thirteen-day "weeks" as, using a Spanish term derived from "thirteen" (just as the Spanish term "dozen" is derived from "twelve"). The original Nahuatl term is not known.  Each is named according to the calendar date of the first day of the 13 days in that. In addition, each of the twenty in the 260-day cycle had its own tutelary deity:  Each 20-day period started on (Crocodile) for which a festival was held. The eighteen are listed below. The dates are from early eyewitnesses; each wrote what they saw.'s date precedes the observations of by several decades and is believed to be more recent to the surrender. Both are shown to emphasize the fact that the beginning of the Native new year became non-uniform as a result of an absence of the unifying force of after the Mexica defeat.

Xiuhmolpilli.

The ancient Mexicans counted their years by means of four signs combined with thirteen numbers, obtaining periods of 52 years, which are commonly known as "Xiuhmolpilli", a popular but incorrect name; the correct Nahuatl word for this cycle is Xiuhnelpilli. We can see below the table with the current years:

Reconstruction of the Solar calendar.

For many centuries scholars had tried to reconstruct the Calendar. The latest and more accepted version was proposed by Professor of the, based on the studies of and of the National Autonomous University of Mexico. His correlation confirms that the first day of the Mexica year was February 13 of the old Julian calendar or February 23 of the current Gregorian calendar. Using the same count, it has been verified the date of the birth of, the end of the year and a cycle or "Tie of the Years", and the New Fire Ceremony, day-sign of the year, corresponding to the date February 22. Due to the inaccuracies of relying on post-conquest sources, Ruben Ochoa used pre-columbian sources to reconstruct the calendar. To date his calendar correlation is the most accurate as a result.

The Aztec or Mexica calendar is the calendrical system used by the Aztecs as well as other Pre-Columbian peoples of central Mexico. It is one of the Mesoamerican calendars, sharing the basic structure of calendars from throughout ancient Mesoamerica. The Aztec sun stone, also called the calendar stone, is on display at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City. The calendar consisted of a 365-day calendar cycle called (year count) and a 260-day ritual cycle called (day count). These two cycles together formed a 52-year "century", sometimes called the "calendar round". The is considered to be the agricultural calendar, since it is based on the sun, and the is considered to be the sacred calendar.

阿兹特克历法是阿兹特克人与其他前哥伦布时期墨西哥中部地区人使用的一种历法系统,属于中部美洲历法的一种,与古代中部美洲历法的基本结构相同。