Geography.

Geographically, the NDH encompassed most of modern-day Croatia, all of Bosnia and Herzegovina, part of modern-day Serbia, and a small portion of modern-day Slovenia in the Municipality of Brežice. It bordered the Third Reich to the north-west, Kingdom of Hungary to the north-east, Serbian administration (a joint German-Serb government) to the east, Montenegro (an Italian protectorate) to the south-east and Italy along its coastal area.

Establishment of borders.

The exact borders of the Independent State of Croatia were unclear when it was established. Approximately one month after its formation, significant areas of Croat-populated territory were ceded to its Axis allies, the Kingdoms of Hungary and Italy.  German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop approved the NDH acquisition of the Dalmatian territories gained by Italy at the time of the Rome contracts. By now, most such territory was actually controlled by the Yugoslav Partisans, since the ceding of those areas had made them strongly anti-NDH (more than one third of the total population of Split is documented to have joined the Partisans). By 11 September 1943, NDH foreign minister

Administrative divisions.

The Independent State of Croatia had four levels of administrative divisions: great parishes (velike župe), districts (kotari), cities (gradovi) and municipalities (opcine). At the time of its foundation, the state had 22 great parishes, 142 districts, 31 cities and 1006 municipalities.  The highest level of administration were the great parishes (Velike župe), each of which was headed by

History.

Influences on the rise of the Ustaše.

In 1915 a group of political emigres from Austria-Hungary, predominantly Croats but including some Serbs and a Slovene, formed themselves into a Yugoslav Committee, with a view to creating a South Slav state in the aftermath of World War I. They saw this as a way to prevent Dalmatia being ceded to Italy under the Treaty of London (1915). In 1918, the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs sent a delegation to the Serbian monarch to offer unification of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs with the Kingdom of Serbia.  The leader of the Croatian Peasant Party, Stjepan Radić, warned on their departure for Belgrade that the council had no democratic legitimacy. But a new state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, was duly proclaimed on 1 December 1918, with no heed taken of legal protocols such as the signing of a new "Pacta conventa" in recognition of historic

Establishment of NDH.

Following the attack of the Axis powers on the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1941, and the quick defeat of the Royal Yugoslav Army ("Jugoslavenska Vojska"), the country was occupied by Axis forces. The Axis powers offered Vladko Maček the opportunity to form a government, since Maček and his party, the Croatian Peasant Party () had the greatest electoral support among Yugoslavia's Croats – but Maček refused that offer.  Slavko Kvaternik, deputy leader of the Ustaše proclaimed the establishment of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH – Nezavisna Država Hrvatska) on 10 April 1941. Pavelić, who was known by his Ustaše title, ""Poglavnik"" returned to Zagreb from exile in Italy on 17 April and became the absolute leader of

Italian influence.

Mussolini and Ante Pavelić had close relations prior to the war. Mussolini and Pavelić both despised the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Italy had been promised, in the Treaty of London (1915), that it would receive Dalmatia from Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I. The peace negotiations in 1919, however, influenced by the Fourteen Points proclaimed by US President Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924), called for national self-determination and determined that the Yugoslavs rightfully deserved the territory in question. Italian nationalists were enraged. Italian nationalist Gabriele D'Annunzio raided Fiume (which held a

Influence of Nazi Germany.

At the time of the invasion of Yugoslavia by Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler was uneasy with Mussolini's agenda of creating a puppet Croatian state, and preferred that areas outside of Italian territorial aims become part of Hungary as an autonomous territory. This would appease Nazi Germany's ally Hungary and its nationalist territorial claims. Germany's position on Croatia changed after its invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941. The invasion was spearheaded by a strong German invasion force which was largely responsible for the capture of Yugoslavia. Military forces from other Axis powers, including Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria made few gains during the invasion.  The invasion was precipitated by the need for German forces to reach Greece to save Italian forces, which were failing on the battlefield against the Greek armed forces. Upon rescuing Italian forces in Greece and having conquered Yugoslavia and Greece almost single-handedly, Hitler became frustrated with Mussolini and Italy's military incompetence. Germany improved relations with the Ustaše and supported the NDH claims to annex the Adriatic

Partisan resistance.

On 22 June 1941, the Sisak Partisan Detachment was formed in Brezovica forest near Sisak; this was to be celebrated as the first armed resistance unit formed in occupied Europe during World War II. Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks, and citizens of all nationalities and backgrounds began joining the pan-Yugoslav Partisans led by Josip Broz Tito. The Partisan movement was soon able to control a large percentage of the NDH (and Yugoslavia) and before long the

Relations with the Chetniks.

After the 1941 split between the Partisans and the Chetniks in Serbia, the Chetnik groups in central, eastern, and northwestern Bosnia found themselves caught between the German and Ustaše (NDH) forces on one side and the Partisans on the other. In early 1942 Chetnik Major Jezdimir Dangić approached the Germans in an attempt to arrive at an understanding, but was unsuccessful, and the local Chetnik leaders were forced to look for another solution. The Chetnik groups were in fundamental disagreement with the Ustaše on practically all issues, but they found a common enemy in the Partisans, and this was the overriding reason for the collaboration which ensued between the Ustaše authorities of the Independent State of Croatia and Chetnik detachments in Bosnia.  The first formal agreement between Bosnian Chetniks and the Ustaše was concluded on 28 May 1942, in which Chetnik leaders expressed their loyalty as "citizens of the Independent State of Croatia" both to the state and its Poglavnik

End of the war.

In August 1944, there was an attempt by the NDH Foreign Minister Mladen Lorković and Minister of War Ante Vokić to execute a coup d'état against Ante Pavelić. The Lorković-Vokić coup failed and its conspirators were executed. By early 1945, the NDH army withdrew towards Zagreb with German and Cossack troops. They were overpowered and the advance of Tito's Partisan forces, joined by the Soviet Red Army, caused a mass retreat of the Ustaše towards Austria and effectively an end to the Independent State of Croatia.  In May 1945, a large column composed of NDH Home Guard troops, Ustaša, Cossacks, some Chetniks and the Slovene Home Guard, as well as numerous civilians, retreated from the

Aftermath.

Although far right movements in Croatia inspired by the former NDH reemerged during the Croatian War of Independence, the current Constitution of Croatia does not officially recognize the Independent State of Croatia as the historical or legitimate predecessor state of the current Croatian republic.

Government.

The absolute leader of the NDH was Ante Pavelić, who was known by his Ustaše title, "Poglavnik", throughout the war, regardless of his official government post. From 1941 to 1943, while the country was a "de jure" monarchy, Pavelić was its powerful Prime Minister (or "President of the Government"). After the capitulation of Italy, Pavelić became the head of state in the place of Aimone, Duke of Aosta (also known as Tomislav II) and retained the position of Prime Minister until early 1944, when he appointed Nikola Mandić to replace him.

Monarchy.

Upon the formation of the NDH, Pavelić conceded to the accession of Aimone, the 4th Duke of Aosta, as a figurehead King of Croatia under his new royal name, Tomislav II. Tomislav II was not interested in being the figurehead King of Croatia, never actually visited the country and had no influence over the government. In the summer of 1941, Tomislav II declared that he would accept his position as King, only if certain demands were met: The demands for German and Italian military departures were obviously impossible to be met by the Italian and German governments, and Tomislav II thus avoided taking up

Parliament.

The NDH Parliament was established by the "Legal Decree on the Croatian State Parliament" on 24 January 1942.  The parliamentarians were not elected and meetings were convened just over a dozen times after the initial session in 1942. Its president vas Marko Dosen. This decree established five categories of individuals who would receive an invitation to be a member of parliament from the Ustaše-appointed government: (1) living Croatian representatives from the Croatian Parliament of 1918, (2) living Croatian representatives elected in the 1938 Yugoslavian elections, (3) members of the Croatian Party of Rights prior to 1919, (4) certain officials of the Supreme Ustaše Headquarters and (5) two members of the German national assembly. The responsibility for assembling all eligible members of parliament was given to the head of the Supreme Court, Nikola Vukelić, who found 204 people to be eligible. In accordance with the decree, Vukelić ruled that those

Court system.

The NDH retained the court system of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, but restored the courts' names to their original forms. The state had 172 local courts ("kotar"), 19 district courts ("judicial tables"), an

Military.

The NDH founded the Army of the Independent State of Croatia () and Navy of the Independent State of Croatia in April 1941 with the consent of the German armed forces ("Wehrmacht"). The task of the armed forces was to defend the state against both foreign and domestic enemies. The Army included an air force. The NDH also created the "Ustaška Vojnica" (Ustashe Militia) which was conceived as a party militia, and a gendarmerie.  The Army was originally limited to 16 infantry battalions and 2 cavalry squadrons – 16,000 men in total. The original 16 battalions were soon enlarged to 15 infantry regiments of two battalions each between May and June 1941, organised into five divisional commands, some 55,000 men. Support

Currency.

The NDH currency was the Independent State of Croatia

Railways.

The NDH formed the Croatian State Railways after

Zones of influence.

From 1941 to 1943, territory of the Independent State of Croatia was divided into German and Italian zones, sometimes described as zones of influence and sometimes as occupation zones:

Politics.

Under the Independent State of Croatia all parties but the Ustaše party were banned.

Foreign relations.

The NDH was granted full recognition by the Axis Powers and by countries under Axis occupation, it was also recognized by Spain. The state maintained diplomatic missions in several countries, all in Europe. Embassies of Nazi Germany, Italy, Tiso's Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Finland, Spain, and Japan, as well as the consulates of Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, Portugal, Argentina and Vichy France were located in Zagreb.  In 1941, the country was

Genocide policies.

Historian Irina Ognyanova stated that the similarities between the NDH and the Third Reich included the assumption that terror and genocide were necessary for the preservation of the state. Michael Phayer explained that the genocide in Croatia began before the Nazis decided to kill Europe's Jews, while Jonathan Steinberg stated that the crimes against Serbs in the NDH were the “earliest total genocide to be attempbed during the World War II”.  On the first day of his arrival in Zagreb, Ante Pavelić proclaimed a law that remained in effect during the entire period of the Independent State of Croatia. The law, which was enacted on 17 April 1941, declared that all people who offended, or tried to offend, the Croatian nation were guilty of treason—a crime punishable by death.  One day later, on 18 April, the first Croatian antisemitic racial law was published. This law did not create panic among the Jewish population, because they believed it was merely a continuation of the antisemitic laws of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which were proclaimed in 1939. However, the situation quickly changed on 30 April, with the publication of the Aryan race laws. A notable part of the racial legislation was the religious conversion laws, the implications of which were not understood by the majority of the population when they were published on 3 May 1941. The implications become clear following the July speech of the minister of education, Mile Budak,

Economy.

The economic system of NDH was based on the concept of "Croatian socialism". The main characteristics of this system, which followed the one of Nazi Germany, were the principles of a planned economy, with high levels of state involvement in economic life. The state reportedly aimed to place the means of production in the hands of the peasants and create a psychic unity among all classes and estates to work for the greater good of the national community, which was seen as more important than individual rights. Croatian socialism contended that work was not a private matter, but the source of all economic worth and the property of the community.  The Ustaše leaders argued that the ordinary Croatian workers and peasants were neglected and exploited in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Thus, when they came to power, the Ustaše promised a social revolution, tackling social injustice and poverty. Their anti-bourgeois pre-war rhetoric continued after the establishment of NDH, as well as the strong rejection of a liberal capitalist system. The International Workers' Day on 1 May was specially marked in honor of labour, social justice and solidarity of workers. The regime soon began the mass construction of homes and settlements for Croatian workers. However, their availability was based on social and ideological conformity.  The goal of creating a social utopia and an economically just system went alongside the regime's program of economic expropriation of its national enemies, primarily Jews and Serbs, whose property was nationalized, justified by the regime as a means to help the poorest and equalize class differences. All large companies were placed under state control and at the end of 1941 all trade unions were merged into one main syndicate called "Main Alliance of Syndicates" ().  At the beginning of 1942 the government introduced compulsory work service for all citizens between the age of 18 and 25. Up to that time around 7,55 billion Yugoslav dinars were replaced by the NDH kuna at an exchange rate of 1 dinar for 1 kuna. The government kept printing money and its amount in circulation was rapidly increasing, resulting in high inflation rates. By the end of 1943 there were 43,6 billion kunas in circulation and in August 1944 76,8 billion. Constant money printing was a way of financing huge government spending, that could not be covered by increased taxation and long-term borrowing. The NDH inherited 42% or 32,5 million reichsmarks of the total debt which Yugoslavia owed to Germany. According to official data, the total debt of NDH on clearing accounts at the end of 1944 amounted to 969,8 million kunas.  Economic branches of which NDH had most revenue (collected through direct and indirect taxes) included industry, trade and crafts. Around 20% of state's industrial enterprises accounted for wood industry. However, as the war progressed, industrial production in the territory of NDH was constantly decreasing, while inflation continued growing.  In 1942, 80% of NDH exports went to Germany (including Austria, Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the Polish General Government) and 12% to Italy. Germany covered 70% of imports, while Italy covered 25%. Other trade partners included Hungary, Romania, Finland, Serbia and Switzerland. Exports from NDH mainly consisted of lumber and wood products, agricultural products (including tobacco), livestock, ore, and strategically important bauxite. NDH mostly imported machinery, tools and other metal products, textiles and fuel.

Demographics.

Population.

According to data calculated by the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs during the creation of the state, the population was approximately 6,285,000 of which 3,300,000 were Croats, 1,925,000 were Serbs,

Displacement of people.

A large number of people were displaced due to the internal fighting within Yugoslavia. The NDH had to accept more than 200,000 Slovenian refugees who were forcefully evicted from their homes as part of the German plan of annexing parts of the Slovenian territories. As part of this deal, the Ustaše were to deport 200,000 Serbs

Culture.

Soon after establishment of the NDH, the Yugoslav Academy of Science and Arts in Zagreb was renamed the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts. The country had four state theatres: in Zagreb, Osijek, Dubrovnik and Sarajevo. The Croatian State Theatre in Zagreb played host to the Berlin Philharmonic and the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma in the 1941–42 season. Volumes two to five of Mate Ujević's "Croatian Encyclopedia" were published during this period. The Velebit Publishing House ("Nakladna knjižara "Velebit""), named for the Velebit uprising, published pro-Axis works, including "Japanac o Japanu" ["A Japanese on Japan"] by the Japanese "chargé d'affaires", Kazuichi Miura. The NDH was represented at the 1942 Venice Biennale, where the works of Joza Kljaković, Ivan Meštrović, Ante Motika, Ivo Režek, Bruno Bulić, Josip Crnobori, Antun Medić, Slavko Kopač and Slavko Šohaj were presented by Vladimir Kirin.  The existing University of Zagreb was renamed the Croatian University (), and was the only university in the NDH. The university established a pharmaceutical faculty in 1942, and a medical faculty in Sarajevo in 1944. It also opened the University Hospital Zagreb, which later became one of the largest hospitals in Croatia.  The state had two secular holidays; the anniversary of its establishment was commemorated on 10 April and the assassination of Stjepan Radić was commemorated on 20 June. In addition, the state granted holidays to several religious communities:  The state film institute, "Hrvatski slikopis", produced many films, including "Straža na Drini" and "Lisinski". The Croatian cinema pioneer Oktavijan Miletić, was active during this period. In 1943, Zagreb hosted the I. International Congress for Narrow Film.  On 29 April 1941 the "Decree on building Croatian workers' family homes" was issued which resulted in the development of so-called "Pavelić neighbourhoods" in the state's larger northern cities: Karlovac, Osijek, Sisak, Varaždin, and Zagreb. The neighbourhoods were largely based on similar workers housing in Germany. They are characterized by their wide avenues and lots, and for largely being made up of semi-detached homes.

Media.

The official publication of the government was the "Narodne novine" (Official Gazette). Dailies included Zagreb's "Hrvatski narod" (Croatian Nation), Osijek's "Hrvatski list" (Croatian Paper) and Sarajevo's "Novi list" (New Paper). The state's news agency was called the Croatian News Office "Croatia" (Hrvatski dojavni ured "Croatia"), which took on the role formerly performed by the Avala news

Sport.

The most popular sport in the NDH was football, which had its own league system, with the highest level known as the Zvonimir Group, with eight teams in 1942–43 and 1943–44. Top clubs included Građanski Zagreb, Concordia Zagreb and HAŠK. The Croatian Football Federation was accepted into FIFA on 17 July 1941.  The NDH national football team played 14 "friendly" matches against other Axis nations and puppet states between June 1941

The Independent State of Croatia (, NDH; ; ) was a World War II-era puppet state of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. It was established in parts of occupied Yugoslavia on 10 April 1941, after the invasion by the Axis powers. Its territory consisted of most of modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as some parts of modern-day Serbia and Slovenia, but also excluded many Croat-populated areas in Dalmatia (until late 1943), Istria, and Međimurje regions (which today are part of Croatia).

克罗地亚独立国(克罗地亚语:Nezavisna Država Hrvatska;德语:Unabhängiger Staat Kroatien;意大利语:Stato Indipendente di Croazia)是一个由纳粹德国和意大利王国在入侵南斯拉夫之战后将南斯拉夫肢解后扶植的其中一个傀儡政权,短暂出现于1941年到1945年间。领土约包括克罗地亚(不含达尔马提亚)以及波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那和斯洛文尼亚北部及塞尔维亚的伏伊伏丁那部分。


Geography.

Location.

By its geographical location, Valence is one of the points of compulsory passage between Paris and the Mediterranean Sea. Its position at the centre of the meridian axis of the places the city at the mouth of the Valley of the Isère (path to the Alps), in the west of the historical province of Dauphiné, within the natural and historic region of the Valentinois, and the boundary of the department of Ardèche (from which it is separated by the Rhône). The city is surrounded by several mountain ranges, including the Massif Central and the Ardèche hills to the west, and the Vercors Massif in the French Prealps to the east. Valence is to the southeast of Paris, equidistant () south of Lyon and southwest of Grenoble, north of Avignon, north of Marseille, north of Montpellier, south-west of Saint-Étienne, to the east of Le Puy-en-Velay, north

Relief and geology.

The area of the commune is, representing ; the altitude varies between.  The granitic base, cut by the Rhône in the Saint-Vallier/Tain-l'Hermitage pass, is covered by of sediments in the Valence trough. In the Miocene, a molasse formed of detrital rocks due to the erosion of the Alps and the Massif Central, was deposited in a shallow sea. Its thickness can reach. During the Pliocene, the sea was reduced into a lake, resulting

Hydrography.

Valence is watered by the Rhône river, the commune is on the left bank. One of

Plain of Valence.

The city gave its name to a well-defined geographical region: The Valentinois. Over more than three-quarters of its territory, this region corresponds to the plain of Valence, shaped by successive beds of the Rhône which are abandoned fertile sedimentary deposits. Indeed, this plain, perfectly bounded by the to the west, the Isère in the north, and the Drome to the south, gives the appearance of a cheerful orchard with peach, apricot and cherry trees, alternating with cereal and vegetable crops. Large farms, conquered one by one by the inhabitants of Valence, punctuate this agricultural area, barely broken by rivers and canals for irrigation, with groves and woods on its margins.  To the east, the Monts du Matin extend as a long barrier of pleasant hills, dominated by the limestone prow of the Vercors. To the south, beyond the Drôme Valley, the plain ends at the foot of the massif carrying the vast forest of Marsanne, topped

Climate.

Valence enjoys a humid subtropical climate, whose main characteristic is an almost constant wind which blows and dries the Rhône corridor. Dubbed the "mistral" when it comes from the north, it brings good weather and coolness in the summer, but an impression of freezing cold in winter. When it comes from the south, it usually announces the arrival of stormy disturbances. It is then called "le vent du midi ou le vent des fous" [the midi wind or the uncaring wind] because, for some people, it makes the atmosphere painful to bear, especially in the summer.  The climate is semi-continental with Mediterranean influences. The Gotheron weather station of Saint-Marcel-lès-Valence, located from the centre of Valence, recorded

Vegetation.

The vegetation in the plain of Valence is mid-European with a supra-Mediterranean floor (pedunculate oak, oak found in the coldest places, and thickets of hornbeam) mingled with thermophilic species such as downy oak, or even evergreen oaks on exposed slopes with draining soils. Found also in the south of the Drôme Valley where the Mediterranean influence finally prevails ( to the South) are spontaneous populations of thyme, lavender, Euphorbia characias, Spanish broom (), cane of Provence (Arundo donax), as well as Aleppo pines on the western face of the massif of Crussol.

Communication and transport.

The central railway station of Valence is the Gare de Valence-Ville, located just south of the town centre. The station offers connections to Lyon, Grenoble, Avignon, Gap and several regional destinations. In 2001 the Gare de Valence TGV opened along with the LGV Méditerranée, a high-speed rail line extending south from Valence to Marseille. The station is only south of the end of the LGV Rhône-Alpes, giving Valence much shorter journey times to northern destinations as well, with a journey to Paris taking 2h11. The TGV station is located 10 km northeast of the town.  A bikesharing scheme called Libélo started in March 2010, offering 200 bicycles for long-term hire and 180 for short-term hire, in 18 locations around the city. Charges are collected by smart card or credit card.

Road network.

The city occupies a key position, at the centre of the. Located on a crossroads of road networks, it is known to be a point of passage (cf. the Valence Autoroute Area) of the holidaymakers who head to the Côte d'Azur. The A7 autoroute (commonly known as the "autoroute du soleil" [motorway of the sun]) connects it to Lyon ( to the north), Avignon ( to the south), then to Marseille ( south). The A49 autoroute connects it to Grenoble ( to the northeast). The A41 autoroute connects it to Savoy (Chambéry and Annecy; and respectively) and Geneva (Switzerland) to the northeast (via the A49).  On the other hand, relations with the cities of the Massif Central (Le Puy-en-Velay and Clermont-Ferrand) are more difficult as the roads are very winding. For example, the shortest route to reach Saint-Étienne passes through the Col de la République (ex-) at altitude.

Underground project of the A7.

In Valence, the A7 autoroute runs along the Rhône and thus crosses the city by cutting the river. An underground project of the autoroute up to the city is being studied.  The city of Valence was cut off from its river during the construction of the A7 motorway in the 1960s. The idea is born to bury the fast axis semi-covered trenches over

Valence ring road.

The périphérique (ring road) of Valence consists of the A7 autoroute, Route nationale 7 and the. It is located on the European routes E15 (A7) and E713 (RN 532).  Forming a half-loop, the Valence ring road covers a little more than and connects the commune of Bourg-lès-Valence to the north (up to the toll of Valence Nord) in the city quarter of to the south (to the toll of Valence Sud exit), thus bypassing the major part of the city whilst ensuring the city is served to the east. It also allows easy access to the Valence TGV station in the north, by the. The ring road of Valence features motorway except in two singular points. The portion of the A7 autoroute in the centre is the legacy of the 1960s when the city turned back to its river. It is even doubled by urban roads, the D2007N.  Plans to form a complete loop, connecting the current ring road to

The bridges of Valence.

During antiquity, the existence of a bridge providing, as in Vienne, the link between the two shores, is likely. Indeed, as early as 1388, the toponym "Pont Péri" [Péri Bridge] is carried by a sector of the quarter of Basse-Ville lying in the extension of the east-west axis of the ancient city. In addition, A. Blanc would have discovered, still in this same extension, piles of oak, closer perhaps to a pier. He also mentioned the "tour de

Public transport.

The region has a bus network called "Citéa" which covers the Valence agglomeration (located across the departments of Drôme and Ardèche) and the romano-peageoise town (about north of Valence). The network is managed by "Valence Romans Déplacements" and controlled by the Communauté d'agglomération Valence Romans Agglo and its operation is entrusted to VTV ("Véolia Transport Valence") from 2012 (the former CTAV network to July 2006). Given the large extent of the Citéa network, the latter is divided into two sectors,

Railway.

Valence has two SNCF railway stations. (Gare)

Gare de Valence-Ville.

Valence has two SNCF railway stations. Commissioned in 1865, the role of the Valence-Ville railway station has refocused on regional transport since the 2001 commissioning of the gare de Valence TGV, or simply Valence-TGV. It is the point of departure of the trains in the direction of Grenoble, Chambéry, Annecy and Geneva.

Gare de Valence TGV.

Valence TGV railway station, on the Lyon-Marseilles LGV Méditerranée line, is located north-east of the city centre. Prior to its opening in 2001, the high speed TGV trains stopped in Valence-Ville railway station. Trains reached Paris in 2 hours 36 minutes. At the opening of the TGV station, a service of fifty TGVs per day was planned with eight of these TGVs continuing to serve Valence-Ville. Valence TGV station rail connections regularly connect to 35 cities, including Paris, Marseille, Lyon, Toulouse, Lille, Nice, Montpellier, Nantes, Le Havre, Reims, Avignon, Besançon, Strasbourg, Dijon and Brussels. In 2003, 60 daily TGVs served the station, with 1.8 million passengers. In 2008, the station was served by 58 daily TGVs, carrying 2.2 million passengers.

Inland waterway.

The contains 478 berths: It is the first river port of France. Built in 1973, at the initiative of the (CCI of Drôme), around a pool of, it is included in a leisure park of. The quality of the services offered allowed it to obtain the blue flag of Europe, in 2005.  Created in 1978 and operated by the, the in the Drôme (more often called Port of Valence) is located for its part, on

Air.

Valence-Chabeuil Airport, located in the commune of Chabeuil, is co-managed by the and the Chamber of commerce and industry of Drôme. It is open to commercial national traffic, to private aircraft, using IFR and VFR but welcomes more regular routes since the decision of the Valence-Paris service, which has run since 1969.  The airport has three runways: one of in concrete, and two smaller, and. The terminal has two gateways for access to aircraft. The aircraft parking area is. Passengers

Self-service bicycles.

Since 28 March 2010, the city has a system of self-service rent-a-bike and long-term hire called Libélo. It includes 160 bikes on the Smoove key concept spread over 18 then 20 stations and

Urban planning.

Urban morphology.

The old centre is based on the Roman foundation on a grid plan, occupation of the banks of the Rhone is sparse, probably because of instability. The orientation of the streets of the Roman city, orientation still quite widespread in the streets of the old town, is identical to those of the ancient cadastres of the surrounding countryside. The grid plan follows a dual orientation, varying neighbourhoods, the dual orientation which corresponds to two modules of this plan: One of about 360 Roman feet (), the other 420 feet, which sometimes breaks down into 120 feet spacing. This second module describes the angle of the "Rue de l'Équerre"; exactly a square "actus" (i.e. a square with a side of 120 Roman feet); the Saint-Apollinaire Cathedral occupies two square "actus". The presence

Quarters.

The city of Valence is made of twenty quarters (with an average of 3,500 people per quarter). They are all different from the other: The northern quarters are rather popular and residential (Polygone, Fontbarlettes, le Plan and la Chamberlière) and even rural (Thodure), while the southern quarters are generally inhabited by the middle class and pensioners (, Hugo-Provence, Laprat, les Baumes, Mannet, Valence Sud and Lautagne), although there is a popular district (Valensolles), the central quarters are commercial and animated (Centre-ville, Gare, Victor Hugo) and also for tourists during the summer (, Basse ville, l'Épervière) and

Housing.

In 2009, the total number of dwellings in the municipality was 34,661, while it was 32,376 in 1999.  Among this housing, 88.4% were primary residences, 1.0% of secondary residences and 10.6% vacant housing. These dwellings were 24.1% detached houses and 74.7% of apartments.  The proportion of primary residences, as properties of their occupants, was 43.1%, up slightly from 1999 (41.1%).

Development projects.

The major projects of the municipality do not yet concern the city centre, even if they have the merit of addressing the three terraces which line the city: the first terrace concerns Valence-le-Haut (quarters of le Plan and Fontbarlettes), the second concerns the centre and the south, and the third the banks of the Rhône.  One of the city's major projects is the reclamation of the banks, disfigured by the passage of the A7 motorway over. When he was

History.

The demonym corresponding to Valence is "Valentinois", but "Valentinois" also designates a geographical area, and one of the old provinces of France, with its capital Valence having been part of the province of Dauphiné.  The word "valence" comes from Latin "valentia", meaning "strength or capacity". Known in Roman times as "Valentia Julia", the city had been the capital of the, and the seat of a celebrated school prior to the Roman conquest. It became a colony under Augustus, and was an important town of Viennensis Prima under Valentinian I. It was the seat of a bishopric perhaps as early as the 4th century.  In the 5th century, control of Valentia passed from the Romans to the Alans and other barbarians: in 413, the Goths under Ataulf besieged and captured the brother of the usurper Jovinus, Sebastianus, at Valentia on behalf of the emperor Honorius. In 440, Alans led by Sambida were given deserted lands in Valentia by the Romans. Three years later, Aetius settled the Burgundians in the region, under King Gondioc which became part of the Kingdom of the Burgundians. His son, Chilperic II, ruled Valence from 473 to 493 when he was slain by his brother Gundobad. Chilperic's daughter Clotilde married Clovis, the King of the Franks, in 493. Clovis's son Childebert I attacked the Burgundians in 534, adding their territory to the Frankish Kingdom. The city then fell successively under the power of the Franks, the Arabs of Spain, the sovereigns of Arles, the emperors of Germany, the counts of Valentinois, the counts of Toulouse, as well as its own bishops, who struggled to retain the control of the city they had won in the fifth century. These bishops were often in conflict with the citizens and the counts of Valentinois and to strengthen their hands against the latter the pope in 1275 united their bishopric with that of Die.  The citizens put themselves under the protection of the dauphin, and in 1456 had their rights and privileges confirmed by Louis XI and put on an equal footing with those of the rest of Dauphiné, the bishops consenting to recognize the suzerainty of the dauphin. In the 16th century Valence became the centre of Protestantism for the province in 1563. The town was fortified by King Francis I. It became the seat of a celebrated university in the middle of the 15th century; but the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 struck a fatal blow at its industry, commerce and population.

Politics and administration.

Municipal administration.

The city of Valence is a territorial collectivity administered by a municipal council which is the deliberative assembly of the commune and which aims to regulate by its deliberations the business of the municipality. The municipal council elects the mayor. As for any commune whose population is between 60,000 and 79,999 inhabitants, this council has 49 members (mayor, 14 deputies and 34 municipal councillors) elected by

Cantons.

Capital of the department of Drôme, the city of Valence is divided into four cantons, of which it is chef-lieu.  The cantonal division of Valence has evolved since the creation of the departments

Intercommunality and intercommunal trade unions.

Valence is the largest city of Valence Romans Agglo, an agglomeration community with 51 communes of

International relations.

The committee of twinning of Valence is the association responsible for the promotion, coordination and organisation of exchanges between Valence and

Population and society.

Demography.

In 2012, the municipality had 62,481 inhabitants. The evolution of the number of inhabitants is known through the population censuses carried out in the town since 1793. From the 21st century, the communes

Worship and humanist associations.

Valence has two Catholic parishes, which depend on the Diocese of Valence, Deanery of Valence: Notre-Dame-des-Peuples of Valence and Saint Émilien of Valence.  A mosque, in the city centre of Valence, welcomes the members of the Muslim faith.  The Jewish

Health.

Valence has two hospitals, a public and a private. Many health professionals are installed on the commune, including 58 physicians, 67 nurses, 80 physiotherapists. Since 2009, Valence is a member of the WHO city health network, through its commitments for the promotion of good nutrition practices, Valence is also very active in the National Programme of Health and Nutrition (PNNS).

Central Hospital of Valence.

The "Centre Hospitalier de Valence" [Central Hospital of Valence] (CHV) employed 2,570 people in 2013. It includes all clinical specialties (medicine, Oncology, surgery, obstetrics and gynaecology, paediatrics, psychiatry, care and rehabilitation, long stay, etc.). It has a maternity hospital where approximately 2,326 babies (including 20.9% deliveries by caesarean section and 60.6% deliveries under epidural) are born each year. The Central Hospital of Valence has a capacity of 740 beds. In 2011, nearly 67,000 people were presented as emergencies; the operating block has practised more than 10,000 interventions, nearly

Drôme Ardèche Private Hospital.

The "Hôpital Privé Drôme Ardèche" [Drôme Ardèche Private Hospital] (HPDA) is a complex created in 2005 from the joining of the "Clinique Pasteur" [Pasteur clinic] (located on the neighboring commune of Guilherand-Granges) and the "Clinique Générale de Valence" [Valence General clinic] (located in the quarter of Chaffit in

Emergency services and civil security.

The firefighters of the Drôme department ( 26) includes 2,735 staff (316 professional firefighters and 2,419 volunteers); its headquarters (which also houses the board of directors) is located at 235 "Route de Montélier" in Valence. Under the direction of Commander Laurent Blanchard, the firefighters of the Drôme took part in 28,551 interventions in 2013. The main rescue centre (known as "CSP", commonly referred to as the

Education.

Higher education.

The city of Valence is now developing its high level educational role in the Drôme/Ardèche area. The Site de Valence is part of the

Economy.

The focal point of major north-south European routes and door to the for the east-west corridor in the direction of Italy and Switzerland, the territory of the Valence agglomeration has developed around innovative companies, offering a higher education, centres of excellence and an economic supply of land. The development of the economy of Valence is favoured by the proximity of cities such as Lyon and Geneva and, through transport routes, major European capitals.  The economic development of Valence can also count on a wealthy producer territory of food processing, hi-tech with the presence of large groups of electronics or aerospace, many innovative SMEs and a university centre of importance of film and knowledge with the presence of major animation studios internationally recognised for the quality of their productions.  The Valence agglomeration by its geographical and strategic position at the crossroads of the main European flows, enjoys exceptional and multimodal infrastructure: The railway marshalling yard, the : River services and vessels along the Rhone by the canal from the Rhône to the Mediterranean and by access to the Freycinet northward, access to the A7 motorway and a branch towards the Isère and Italy (A49) a railway siding giving access to Europe-Mediterranean traffic and Italy.  Valence is the seat of the, which manages the, the and Valence-Chabeuil Airport.  According to INSEE in 2005, the percentage of the distribution of the labour force by sector of activity was:  The industries of the city include metallurgical products, textiles, leather goods, jewelry and munitions, and it also serves as a processing and trade centre for the surrounding agricultural region.  Some of the big hi-tech companies settled here are leaders in their domains like Thales (Former Thomson-CSF, electronic systems for avionics and defence), Crouzet/Schneider (Automatic systems), SAGEM (former Alcatel space (Aerospatial systems)), Ascom Monetel (Automatic paytax systems), etc.  The Maison Pic is a world-renowned three Michelin star restaurant and hotel, established in 1889.

Areas of economic activities.

The commercial area of the Couleures has approximately eighty public brands in the fields of equipment, the home, sport, and the individual.  The two sectors of Briffaut (east and west), in east Valence, count 320 companies (200 on the sector of Briffaut East including an automotive hub combining various concessions and associated services; and 120

Businesses and shops.

At the end of 2010, 7,260 facilities were installed on the commune of Valence: 70% in the tertiary trade, and

Income and taxation of the population.

The declared taxable average net income was €19,609,

Employment.

In 2009, 44,612 people had a job, of which

Local culture and heritage.

Sites and monuments.

Many monuments of Valence are protected as historical monuments. Many of these monuments are in the quarter of.  The best known of Valence's monuments to its notable inhabitants include those to Émile Augier the dramatist by the duchess of Uzès (1897), and to General Championnet.

Vieux Valence.

Vieux Valence [Old Valence] is a quarter in the old city of Valence, based primarily around the and also including the lower town district. It is expected the 19th century so that the city's ramparts, replaced by boulevards in 1860. Valencia then grows in range around its ancient centre. In this area that formerly comprised the historic centre of the city of Valencia, there are:  Saint-Apollinaire Cathedral is a Romanesque cathedral, which was built in the 11th century. It was the Bishop Gontard (1063–1099) who drove construction of this edifice which is now the oldest in the city. Several blocks of stone from the Saint-Apollinaire Cathedral were reused from the Gallo-Roman buildings of the city of "Valentia". The Cathedral of St. Apollinaris, which has an architecturally notable apse, and was consecrated in 1095 by pope Urban II. It suffered extensive damage in the French Wars of Religion, but it was restored in the first decade of the 17th century. The porch and the stone tower above it were rebuilt in 1861. The church contains the monument of Pius VI, who died at Valence in 1799. The library and the museum containing Roman antiquities, sculptures, and a picture gallery are housed in the old ecclesiastical seminary.  The, built between 1528 and 1532 by Antoine de Dorne, Consul in Valence, royal Professor at the University, the Renaissance

In the city.

The "Boulevards de Valence", a wide promenade, traced on the former location of the ramparts and tree-lined with Hausmannian-style buildings, which had a renovation from 2004 to 2009.  The bandstand built in 1860 on the esplanade of the Champ de Mars served as the model the designer Raymond Peynet to immortalize his love, and which carries the name of. It is classified a historical monument since 1982.  The, designed by the architect Eugène Poitoux and dating from 1887, is located in the city centre, on the boulevards. In 2005, the fountain was renovated and moved a few metres, in order to better integrate into the perspective of the renovated boulevards and in 2006, a copy of the winged genius, which was destroyed in 1954 by lightning which struck the column, was replaced at the top of the column. , a public garden of created in 1905, and opened by president Émile

The Valence channels.

A unique ecological and natural heritage in France, channels accompany Valence since Roman times. The name of Valence comes from three Celtic words: "val" (water), "len" (plain) and "ty" (House) and would mean "water-rich inhabited place". At the time these rivers allowed the inhabitants to satisfy many needs and activities: Fishing, irrigation, washing, soaking, driving force for flour mills, oil, fuller and silk. They are now a place to walk for many inhabitants.  It is in the neighborhoods east of Valence, at the foot of a terrace, the "terrasse du séminaire", that the channels (with a total length of, or when counting secondary irrigation channels) originate. Very quickly, the Valence people strove to

Parks and green spaces.

Located in the city centre between and the Lycée Emile Loubet, the esplanade is a large walk of planted with lime trees, with the in its centre.  Under this terrace lies the city garden or. It bears the name of Théodore Jouvet, a generous donor who gave, to the city of Valence, the amount required for the purchase of the land and whose statue is placed near the belvedere from the Belle Époque. This garden occupies the slopes which

Garrison town.

Since installation in 1773 an artillery regiment, the Regiment of la Fère, Valence was the place

In popular culture.

Valence and its kiosque.

A since 1982 and designed by the architect Eugène Poitoux, the is a bandstand which inspired Raymond Peynet in 1942 with his famous "lovers". These "lovers" would travel the world and adorn many objects. Raymond Peynet worked on that momentum for many newspapers. After becoming famous, Peynet returned to Valence in April 1966, to baptise the kiosk which now bears his name.  The lovers of Peynet inspired the song

Valence in film.

The following list covers films

Valence (, ; ) is a commune in southeastern France, the capital of the Drôme department and within the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region. It is situated on the left bank of the Rhône, about south of Lyon, along the railway line that runs from Paris to Marseille.

瓦朗斯(,),法国东南部城市,奥弗涅-罗讷-阿尔卑斯大区德龙省的一个市镇,也是该省的省会和人口最多的城市。瓦朗斯位于德龙省中部,罗讷河左岸,是这一地区的政治文化中心,其市镇面积为36.69平方公里,2016年人口数量为62,447人,在法国城市中排名第84位。


Definitions.

Irvin Korr, J. S. Denslow and colleagues did the original body of research on manual therapy. Korr described it as the "Application of an accurately determined and specifically directed manual force to the body, in order to improve mobility in areas that are restricted; in joints, in connective tissues or in skeletal muscles."  According to the "Orthopaedic Manual Physical Therapy Description of Advanced Specialty Practice" manual therapy is defined as a clinical approach utilizing specific hands-on techniques, including but not limited to manipulation/mobilization, used by the physical therapist to diagnose and treat soft tissues and joint structures for the purpose of modulating pain; increasing range of motion (ROM); reducing or eliminating soft tissue inflammation; inducing relaxation; improving contractile and non-contractile tissue repair, extensibility, and/or stability; facilitating movement; and improving function.  A consensus study of US chiropractors defined manual therapy (generally known as the "chiropractic adjustment" in the profession) as "Procedures by which the hands directly contact the body to treat the articulations and/or soft tissues."

Use and method.

In Western Europe, North America and Australasia, manual therapy is usually practiced by members of specific health care professions (e.g. Chiropractors, Occupational Therapists, Osteopaths, Osteopathic physicians, Physiotherapists/Physical Therapists, Massage Therapists and Physiatrists). However, some lay practitioners (not members of a structured profession), such as bonesetters also provide some forms of manual therapy.  A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health focused on who used (CAM), what was used, and why it was used in the United States by adults during 2002. Massage was the fifth most commonly use CAM in the United States in 2007.

Stretching.

From the main article's effectiveness section:

Taping.

Manual therapy practitioners often use therapeutic taping to relieve pressure on injured soft tissue, alter muscle firing patterns or prevent re-injury. Some techniques are designed to enhance lymphatic fluid exchange. After a soft tissue injury to muscles or tendons from sports activities, over exertion or repetitive strain injury swelling may impede blood flow to the area and slow healing. Elastic taping methods may relieve pressure from swollen tissue and enhance circulation to the injured area.  According to the medical and skeptical community there is no known benefit from this technique and it is a pseudoscience.

Styles of manual therapy.

There are many different styles of manual therapy. It is a fundamental feature of ayurvedic medicine, traditional Chinese medicine and some forms of New Age alternative medicine as well as being used by mainstream medical practitioners. Hands-on bodywork is a feature of therapeutic interactions in traditional cultures around the world.

Manual therapy, or manipulative therapy, is a physical treatment primarily used by physical therapists, physiotherapists to treat musculoskeletal pain and disability; it mostly includes kneading and manipulation of muscles, joint mobilization and joint manipulation. It's also used by occupational therapists, chiropractors, massage therapists, athletic trainers, osteopaths, and physicians

操作治疗学(英语:Manual therapy,英语:manipulative therapy,或英语:manual & manipulative therapy),又称手法治疗、徒手治疗、手技疗法,一种由物理治疗师、按摩师、整脊师与骨疗师所采用的基本物理治疗法,用来舒缓肌肉、关节与骨骼的痛苦与不适。它通常包括了肌肉的搓揉与活动,关节活动以及关节矫正,类似于中国传统的推拿按摩。


Classification.

The genus "Cedrela" has undergone two major systematic revisions since 1960. The most recent revision reduced the number of species in the genus to seven (Styles, 1981). The common cedro, "Cedrela odorata" L., embraces 28 other synonyms, including "C. mexicana" M. J. Roem. The taxon ""C. angustifolia"," a very vigorous type now in demand because of its apparent resistance to the shootborer, was left in an indeterminate status due to insufficient herbarium material. The result is that "C. odorata" as now constituted is a species showing a high degree of population variation.

Distribution and habitat.

Cedro is a tree of the New World tropics, appearing in forests of moist and seasonally dry subtropical or tropical life zones (24) from latitude 26°N. on the Pacific coast of Mexico, throughout Central America and the Caribbean, to the lowlands and foothills of most of South America up to altitude, finding its southern limit at about latitude 28°S in Argentina. It has become a troublesome invasive species in the Galapagos Islands. Cedro is always found naturally on well-drained soils, often but not exclusively on limestone; it tolerates a long dry season but does not flourish in areas of rainfall greater than about or on sites with heavy or waterlogged soils. Individual trees are generally scattered in mixed semi-evergreen or semi-deciduous forests dominated by other species. Mahogany, a close relative, is often found with cedro and both suffer damage from the same pest, the mahogany shootborer ("Hypsipyla grandella").

Description.

The tree is monoecious semi-deciduous ranging in height from. The trunk has a thick grey–brown bark, with longitudinal irregular grain. Pinnately compound leaves, grouped towards the end of the branches, long, with pairs of scythe-shaped leaflets, lanceolate to oblong, × with the base obliquely truncated and asymmetric.

Uses.

"Cedrela odorata" is the most commercially important and widely distributed species in the genus "Cedrela". Known as Spanish cedar in English commerce, the aromatic wood is in high demand in the American tropics because it is naturally termite- and rot-resistant. An attractive, moderately lightweight wood (specific gravity 0.4), its primary use is in household articles used to store clothing. Cedro heartwood contains an aromatic and insect-repelling resin that is the source of its popular name, Spanish-cedar (it resembles the aroma of the unrelated true cedars ("Cedrus" spp.) Cedro works easily and makes excellent plywood and veneer and would be more widely used if it could be successfully plantation grown. This plant is often used for honey production (beekeeping) and humidor construction. It is occasionally used for tops or veneers on some kinds of electric guitars. The wood is the traditional choice for making the neck of flamenco and classical guitars.

Cedrela odorata is a commercially important species of tree in the chinaberry family, Meliaceae, commonly known as Spanish cedar or Cuban cedar or cedro in Spanish.

西班牙柏木(学名:'),又名南美香椿或烟洋椿,是一种南美楝属植物。


Early life.

O'Casey was born at 85 Upper Dorset Street, Dublin, as John Casey, the son of Michael Casey, a mercantile clerk (who worked for the Irish Church Missions), and Susan Archer. His parents were Protestants and he was a member of the Church of Ireland, baptised on 28 July 1880 in St. Mary's parish, confirmed at St John the Baptist Church in Clontarf, and an active member of St Barnabas' church at the North Wall quay until his mid-20s, when he drifted away from the church. There is a church called 'Saint Burnupus' in his play "Red Roses For Me".  O'Casey's father died when Seán was just six years of age, leaving a family of thirteen. The family lived a peripatetic life thereafter, moving from house to house around north Dublin. As a child, he suffered from poor eyesight, which interfered somewhat with his early education, but O'Casey taught himself to read and write by the age of thirteen.  He left school at fourteen and worked at a variety of jobs, including a nine-year period as a railwayman on the GNR. O'Casey worked in Eason's for a short while, in the newspaper distribution business, but was sacked for not taking off his cap when collecting his wage packet.  From the early 1890s, O'Casey and his elder brother, Archie, put on performances of plays by Dion Boucicault and William Shakespeare in the family home. He also got a small part in Boucicault's "The Shaughraun" in the Mechanics' Theatre, which stood on what was to be the site of the Abbey Theatre.

Politics.

As his interest in the Irish nationalist cause grew, O'Casey joined the Gaelic League in 1906 and learned the Irish language. At this time, he Gaelicised his name from John Casey to Seán Ó Cathasaigh. He also learned to play the Uilleann pipes and was a founder and secretary of the St. Laurence O'Toole Pipe Band. He joined the Irish Republican Brotherhood, and became involved in the Irish Transport and General Workers Union, which had been established by Jim Larkin to represent the interests of the unskilled labourers who inhabited the Dublin tenements. He participated in the Dublin Lockout but was blacklisted and could not find steady work for some time.  In March 1914, he became General Secretary of Larkin's Irish Citizen Army, which would soon be run by James Connolly. On 24 July 1914 he resigned from the ICA, after his proposal to deny dual membership to both the ICA and the Irish Volunteers was rejected.  One of his first satirical ballads, "The Grand Oul' Dame Britannia", was published in "The Workers' Republic" on 15 January 1916 under his penname An Gall Fada.

After Easter Rising.

In 1917, his friend Thomas Ashe died in a hunger strike and it inspired him to write. He wrote two laments: one in verse and a longer one in prose. Ballads authored around this time by O'Casey featured in the two editions of "Songs of the Wren", published in 1918; these included "The Man from the Daily Mail", which, along with "The Grand Oul' Dame Britannia", became Irish rebel music staples. A common theme was opposition to Irish conscription into the British Army during the First World War.  He spent the next five years writing plays. In 1918, when both his sister and mother died (in January and September, respectively), the St Laurence O'Toole National Club commissioned him to write the play "The Frost in the Flower". He had been in the St Laurence O'Toole Pipe Band and played on the hurling team. The club declined to put the play on out of fear that its satirical treatment of several parishioners would cause resentment. O'Casey then submitted the play to the Abbey Theatre, which also rejected it but encouraged him to continue writing. Eventually, O'Casey expanded the play to three acts and retitled it "The Harvest Festival".

Abbey Theatre.

O'Casey's first accepted play, "The Shadow of a Gunman", was performed at the Abbey Theatre in 1923. This was the beginning of a relationship that was to be fruitful for both theatre and dramatist but which ended in some bitterness.  The play deals with the impact of revolutionary politics on Dublin's slums and their inhabitants, and is understood to be set in Mountjoy Square, where he lived during the 1916 Easter Rising. It was followed by "Juno and the Paycock" (1924) and "The Plough and the Stars" (1926). The former deals with the effect of the Irish Civil War on the working class poor of the city, while the latter is set in Dublin in 1916 around the Easter Rising. Both plays deal realistically with the rhetoric and dangers of Irish patriotism, with tenement life, self-deception, and survival; they are tragi-comedies in which violent death throws into relief the blustering masculine bravado of characters such as Jack Boyle and Joxer Daly in "Juno and the Paycock" and the heroic resilience of Juno herself or of Bessie Burgess in "The Plough and the Stars". "Juno and the Paycock" became a film directed by Alfred Hitchcock.  "The Plough and the Stars" was not well received by the Abbey audience and resulted in scenes reminiscent of the riots that greeted J. M. Synge's "The Playboy of the Western World" in 1907. There was a riot reported on the fourth night of the show. His depiction of sex and religion even offended some of the actors, who refused to speak their lines. The full-scale riot occurred partly because the play was thought to be an attack on the men in the rising and partly in protest in opposition to the animated appearance of a prostitute in Act 2. W. B. Yeats got onto the stage and roared at the audience: "You have disgraced yourselves again." The takings of the play were substantial compared with the previous week. O'Casey gave up his job and became a full-time writer.  After the incident, even though the play was well liked by most of the Abbey goers, Liam O'Flaherty, Austin Clarke and F. R. Higgins launched an attack against it in the press. O'Casey believed it was an attack on Yeats, that they were using O'Casey's play to berate Yeats.  In 1952 he appeared in a play by Irish playwright Teresa Deevy called "The Wild Goose" in which he played the part of Father Ryan. O'Casey was involved in numerous productions with the Abbey; these can be found in the Abbey Archives.

England.

While in London to receive the Hawthornden Prize and supervise the West End production of "Juno and the Paycock", O'Casey fell in love with Eileen Carey. The couple were married in 1927 and remained in London until 1938, when they moved to Totnes.  In 1928, W. B. Yeats rejected O'Casey's fourth play, "The Silver Tassie" for the Abbey. It was an attack on imperialist wars and the suffering they cause. The Abbey refused to perform it. The premier production was funded by Charles B. Cochran, who took only eighteen months to put it on stage. It was put up at the Apollo Theatre but lasted for only twenty-six performances. It was directed by Raymond Massey, starred Charles Laughton and with an Act II set design by Augustus John. George Bernard Shaw and Lady Gregory had a favourable opinion of the show. The plays O'Casey wrote after this included the darkly allegorical "Within the Gates" (1934), which is set within the gates of a busy city park based on London's Hyde Park. Although it was highly controversial, Eugene O'Neill responded positively to it. The play was originally going to be a film script for Alfred Hitchcock. O'Casey's widow described it in her memoirs, "Sean" (1971):"Originally he had imagined it as a film in which everything, from flower-beds to uniforms, would be stylised. Beginning at dawn and ending at midnight, to the soft chime of Big Ben in the distance, it would be 'geometrical and emotional, the emotions of the living characters to be shown against their own patterns and the patterns of the Park.' Having got so far, he wrote to Alfred Hitchcock, and when Hitchcock and his wife dined with us Sean explained his ideas to an apparently responsive hearer. Hitchcock and he talked excitedly. They parted on the same terms, with the prospect of another immediate meeting, and Sean never heard again."  The play was unsuccessful in Northern Ireland and was not produced in the south until 2010. In the autumn of 1934, O'Casey went to the United States to visit the New York City production of "Within the Gates", which he admired greatly. It was directed by actor Melvyn Douglas and starred Lillian Gish. This is when he befriended Eugene O'Neill, Sherwood Anderson and George Jean Nathan.  "The Star Turns Red" (1940) is a four-act political allegory in which the Star of Bethlehem turns red. The story follows Big Red (who was based on O'Casey's friend, James Larkin) who is a trade-union leader. The union takes over the unnamed country despite the ruthless efforts of the Saffron Shirts, a fascist organisation openly supported by the Roman Catholic hierarchy of the country. It was staged by Unity Theatre in London during 1940 (later, in 1978 by the Abbey in Dublin).  "Purple Dust" (1943) follows two wealthy, materialistic English stockbrokers who buy an ancient Irish mansion and attempt to restore it with their wrong notions of Tudor customs and taste. They try to impose upon a community with vastly different customs and lifestyles that are much closer to ancient Gaelic ways and are against such false values.  The Englishmen set their opposing standards against those represented by the men employed to renovate the house. In the resulting confrontation the English are satirised and in the end disappointed when a symbolic storm destroys their dream of resettling the old into the present. The hint that is enforced by the conclusion is that the little heap of purple dust that remains will be swept away by the rising winds of change, like the residue of pompous imperialism that abides in Ireland. The show has been compared to Shaw's John Bull's Other Island, which was one of O'Casey's favourites, but aside from a few similarities, there are no real grounds for comparison.  He also penned "Red Roses for Me" (1943), which saw him move away from his early style in favour of more expressionistic means and overtly socialist content to his writing. It went up at Dublin's Olympia Theatre (which was the first one produced in Ireland in seventeen years). It would move on to London in 1946, where O'Casey himself was able to see it. This was the first show of his own he saw since "Within The Gates" in 1934.  "Oak Leaves and Lavender" (1945) is a propaganda play commemorating the Battle of Britain and Britain's heroism in the anti-Nazi crusade and it takes place in a manor with shadowy 18th-century figures commenting on the present.  These plays have never had the same critical or popular success as the early trilogy. After the Second World War he wrote "Cock-a-Doodle Dandy" (1949), which is perhaps his most beautiful and exciting work. From "The Bishop's Bonfire" (1955) O'Casey's late plays are studies on the common life in Ireland, "Irish microcosmos", like "The Drums of Father Ned" (1958).  His play "The Drums of Father Ned" was supposed to go up at the 1958 Dublin Theatre Festival, but the Catholic Archbishop of Dublin, John Charles McQuaid, refused to give his blessing (it has been assumed because works of both James Joyce and O'Casey were in the festival). After Joyce's play was quietly dropped, massive changes were required for "The Drums of Father Ned", a devious way to get O'Casey to drop. After this, Samuel Beckett withdrew his mime piece in protest.

Later life.

In 1959, O'Casey gave his blessing to a musical adaptation of "Juno and the Paycock" by American composer Marc Blitzstein. The musical, retitled "Juno", was a commercial failure, closing after only 16 Broadway performances. It was also panned by some critics as being too "dark" to be an appropriate musical, a genre then almost invariably associated with light comedy. However, the music, which survives in a cast album made before the show opened, has since been regarded as some of Blitzstein's best work. Although endorsed by the then 79-year-old O'Casey, he did not contribute to the production or even see it during its brief run. Despite general agreement on the brilliance of the underlying material, the musical has defied all efforts to mount any successful revival.  Also in 1959, George Devine produced "Cock-a-Doodle Dandy" at the Royal Court Theatre and it was also successful at the Edinburgh International Festival and had a West End run.  His eightieth birthday occurred in 1960, and to celebrate, David Krause and Robert Hogan wrote full-length studies. The Mermaid Theatre in London launched the "O'Casey Festival" in 1962, which in turn made more theatre establishments put on his works, mostly in Britain and Germany. It is in the late years that O'Casey put his creative energy into his six-volume "Autobiography."  On 18 September 1964 at the age of 84, O'Casey died of a heart attack, in Torquay, Devon. He was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium.  In 1965, his autobiography "Mirror in My House" (the umbrella title under which the six autobiographies he published from 1939 to 1956 were republished, in two large volumes, in 1956) was turned into a film based on his life called "Young Cassidy". The film was directed by Jack Cardiff (and John Ford) featuring Rod Taylor (as O'Casey), Flora Robson, Maggie Smith, Julie Christie, Edith Evans and Michael Redgrave.

Personal life.

O'Casey was married to Irish actress Eileen Carey Reynolds (1903–1995) from 1927 to his death. The couple had three children: two sons, Breon and Níall (who died in 1957 of leukaemia), and a daughter, Shivaun.

Archival collection.

In 2005, David H. Greene donated a collection of letters he received from O'Casey from 1944 to 1962 to the Fales Library at New York University. Also in the collection are two letters written by Eileen O'Casey and one letter addressed to Catherine Greene, David Greene's spouse.  O'Casey's papers are held in the New York Public Library, the Cornell University Library, the University of California, Los Angeles Library System, the University of London Library, the National Library of Ireland, Colby College, Boston College and the Fales Library.

Legacy.

In Dublin, a foot bridge on the Liffey is named after him.

Seán O'Casey ( ; born John Casey; 30 March 1880 – 18 September 1964) was an Irish dramatist and memoirist. A committed socialist, he was the first Irish playwright of note to write about the Dublin working classes.

肖恩·奥凯西(、;英语:Seán O'Casey,1880年-3月30日-1964年-9月18日),原名约翰·凯西,爱尔兰剧作家,其都柏林三部曲(《枪手的影子》、《朱诺与孔雀》和《犁与星》)人物生动、语言丰富,而且色彩鲜明,真实地再现了爱尔兰独立运动中城市劳工阶层的面貌,表现了爱尔兰民族的典型性格。后期的作品混合了现实主义、表现主义和象征主义,带有戏剧实验的色彩,评价不一。


Course.

The Rappahannock River rises at Chester Gap, a wind gap in the Blue Ridge Mountains a few miles southeast of Front Royal, Virginia, near the single point where Warren, Fauquier, and Rappahannock counties come together. It flows southeastward, past Remington, Kelly's Ford, and Richardsville, before it is joined by the Rapidan River, its largest tributary, from the right. Then the Rappahannock passes through the city of Fredericksburg. Southeast of Fredericksburg, it begins to slow and widen into a brackish tidal estuary approximately long. It passes two small, but historic, river towns, Port Royal and Port Conway, which developed opposite each other, the former on the south bank, the latter on the north. Then it flows past Tappahannock on its southern bank, a point where the river is well over a mile wide. The last settlements of any size before it reaches the Chesapeake Bay are Irvington, Urbanna, Stingray Point, and White Stone Beach.  The broad river enters the Chesapeake Bay approximately south of the mouth of the Potomac River and approximately east of the state capital, Richmond. At the point where the river enters the bay, between Windmill Point, on the north, and Stingray Point, on the south, it is more than wide. This estuary, south of the Northern Neck peninsula, is a productive oyster and crab fishery.  Above Fredericksburg, the Rappahannock provides fine opportunities for recreational canoeing and kayaking. Most of the rapids are Class I and Class II in difficulty, but, near Remington, there are some rapids that are considered to be Class III.  The river's watershed is protected in various places as parcels of the Rappahannock River Valley National Wildlife Refuge.

Oysters.

The oysters that thrive in the estuary of the Rappahannock River are the least salty oysters of the East Coast. They are renowned for their sweet and smooth flavor, described as almost buttery. The low salinity allows a Blue Ridge minerality to come through, and also makes these oysters good to consume with wine.  The nutritious oysters were eaten on a large scale in 19th-century Washington. They were served fresh, grilled, stewed or as part of a pie.

History.

The name of the river comes from an Algonquian word, "lappihanne" (also recorded as "toppehannock"), meaning "river of quick, rising water" or "where the tide ebbs and flows," the name used by the local Rappahannock tribe.  Although a few small hamlets developed along the lower Rappahannock during early colonial times, the settlement of the Rappahannock River valley began in earnest during the first years of the eighteenth century, at the urging of Governor Alexander Spotswood. The James River had been surveyed up to its fall line, the point where, geologically, continental bedrock of the Piedmont meets the sedimentary rocks and alluvial soils of the coastal plain. Spotswood encouraged settlement in a river valley other than that of the James. In 1714, he began recruiting immigrants from the Rhineland-Palatinate and Switzerland to homestead on lands he controlled near the confluence of the Rappahannock and the Rapidan. Known as the Germanna settlement(s), these villages were founded in order to exploit the iron ore deposits of the region.  During the War of 1812, the Battle of Rappahannock River was fought on the river. Seventeen British boats filled with hundreds of marines and sailors captured four American privateers. During the American Civil War, the river, with few convenient fords and fewer bridges, provided a barrier and defensive line behind which movements of troops could be accomplished with little fear of attack from the river-side flank. It was an especially difficult barrier for Union troops to overcome in their attempts to thrust into southern Virginia, as they were vulnerable to attack while trying to cross the river on temporary bridges. Control of the river changed hands many times during the course of the war. Significant battles fought along the river include the Battle of Fredericksburg and the Battle of Rappahannock Station. The defensive line at the river was finally circumvented by General Ulysses S. Grant in the Wilderness (or Overland) Campaign of 1864, ending in the ultimate Union victory.  During and after the first battle at Fredericksburg in late December 1862, about 10,000 enslaved African Americans from area plantations and the city left slavery, crossing the river to gain freedom behind Union lines. This exodus and "Trail of Freedom" was commemorated in 2010 by installation of historical markers on both sides of the river, in Fredericksburg and in Stafford County. The exodus to freedom is now celebrated in an annual re-enactment starting in Fredericksburg.  In some 18th- and 19th-century documents, including some Civil War records, the Rappahannock River was referred to as "Hedgeman's River". A 1736–1737 survey labeled the Rappahannock above the mouth of the Rapidan as "Cannon", and further upstream it was identified as "Hedgeman's River," named after Nathaniel Hedgeman, an early settler of the region.

The Rappahannock River is a river in eastern Virginia, in the United States, approximately in length. It traverses the entire northern part of the state, from the Blue Ridge Mountains in the west where it rises, across the Piedmont to the Fall Line, and onward through the coastal plain to flow into the Chesapeake Bay, south of the Potomac River.

拉帕汉诺克河(英语:Rappahannock River)是一条位于美国弗吉尼亚州东部的河流,长约。从蓝岭山脉流出,跨越整个皮埃蒙特,在波多马克河南部汇入切萨皮克湾。


History.

The Utah Territory legislature created the county on March 9, 1882, with areas partitioned from Iron County. It was named for James A. Garfield, the twentieth President of the United States, who had died six months earlier. The border with Iron County was adjusted in 1884, and Garfield County's boundaries have remained intact since then.

Geography.

The Colorado River, flowing southwestward through a deep gorge, forms the eastern boundary. The Dirty Devil River flows southward through the east end of the county to discharge into the Colorado at the county's border. Westward, the cliffs of tributary canyons give way to the barren stretches of the San Rafael Desert, beyond which a variety of mountains, plateaus and canyons make up the terrain. Most of Bryce Canyon National Park lies in the southwestern part of the county and the northern half of the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument occupies the middle of the county. A large portion of Capitol Reef National Park lies in the east-central part of the county. A very small part of Canyonlands National Park lies in the northeast corner of the county. The terrain of Garfield County is arid, rough, and carved with erosion. The county terrain generally slopes to the south and to the east. The county's highest point is Mount Ellen, in Canyonlands, near the county's north border, at 11,522' (3512m) ASL. The county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.6%) is water. It is the fifth-largest county in Utah by area.

Demographics.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 4,735 people, 1,576 households, and 1,199 families in the county. The population density was 0.91/sqmi (0.35/km2). There were 2,767 housing units at an average density of 0.53/sqmi (0.21/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 94.95% White, 0.17% Black or African American, 1.84% Native American, 0.40% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.12% from other races, and 1.48% from two or more races. 2.87% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 1,576 households out of which 38.40% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.40% were married couples living together, 6.80% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.90% were non-families. 20.50% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 3.43.  The county population contained 32.60% under the age of 18, 7.80% from 18 to 24, 23.10% from 25 to 44, 22.40% from 45 to 64, and 14.10% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 104.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.20 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $35,180, and the median income for a family was $40,192. Males had a median income of $30,239 versus $20,408 for females. The per capita income for the county was $13,439. About 6.10% of families and 8.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.80% of those under age 18 and 10.40% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Garfield County has traditionally voted Republican. In no national election since 1936 has the county selected the Democratic Party candidate (as of 2016).

Garfield County is a county in south central Utah, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census the population was 5,172, making it the fifth-least populous county in Utah. Its county seat and largest city is Panguitch.

加菲尔德县(英文:Garfield County, Utah)是美国犹他州南部的一个县,东界科罗拉多河,面积13,489平方公里。根据2010年人口普查,本县共有人口5,172人。本县县治为潘圭奇。


Background.

Combat experience in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 convinced the Imperial Japanese Navy of weaknesses in the Jeune Ecole naval philosophy, which emphasized torpedo boats and commerce raiding to offset expensive heavily armoured ships, and Japan embarked on a program to modernize and expand its fleet in preparation for further confrontations. In particular, Japan promulgated a ten-year naval build-up programme, with the construction of six battleships and six armoured cruisers at its core. These ships were paid for from the £30,000,000 indemnity paid by China after losing the First Sino-Japanese War.  As with the earlier and s, Japan lacked the technology and capability to construct its own battleships, and turned again to the United Kingdom for the four remaining battleships of the programme. "Mikasa", the last of these ships, was ordered from the Vickers shipyard in Barrow-in-Furness in 1898 at the cost of £880,000 (8.8 million yen at that time). Although she closely resembled several of the other ships ordered in this program, she was the only ship in her class.

Design and description.

The design of "Mikasa" was a modified version of the s of the Royal Navy with two additional guns. "Mikasa" had an overall length of, a beam of, and a normal draught of. She displaced at normal load. The crew numbered about 830 officers and enlisted men.  The ship was powered by two vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one propeller, using steam generated by 25 Belleville boilers. The engines were rated at, using forced draught, and designed to reach a top speed of although "Mikasa" proved to be faster during her sea trials in December 1901, reaching from. She carried a maximum of of coal which allowed her to steam for at a speed of.  "Mikasa"s main battery consisted of the same four Elswick Ordnance Company 40-calibre twelve-inch guns used in all of the preceding Japanese battleships. They were mounted in twin-gun barbettes fore and aft of the superstructure that had armoured hoods to protect the guns and were usually called gun turrets. The hydraulically powered mountings could be loaded at all angles of traverse while the guns were loaded at a fixed angle of +13.5°. They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of.  The ship's secondary armament consisted of fourteen 40-calibre quick-firing guns mounted in casemates. Ten of these guns were positioned on the main deck and the other four guns were placed above them at the corners of the superstructure. They fired shells at a muzzle velocity of. Protection against torpedo boat attacks was provided by twenty QF 12-pounder 12 cwt guns. The 12-pounders fired, projectiles at a muzzle velocity of. Lighter guns consisted of eight three-pounder Hotchkiss guns and eight 47-millimetre 2.5-pounder Hotchkiss guns. The three-pounder gun fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of while the 2.5-pounder fired shells at a muzzle velocity of. The ship was also equipped with four submerged 18-inch torpedo tubes, two on each broadside.  The waterline armour belt of "Mikasa" consisted of Krupp cemented armour that had a maximum thickness of over the middle of the ship. It was only thick at the ends of the ship and was surmounted by a six-inch strake of armour that ran between the barbettes. The barbettes were thick, but reduced to six inches at the level of the lower deck. The armour of the barbette hoods had a thickness of. The casemates protecting the secondary armament were thick and the deck armour was in thickness. The forward conning tower was protected by 14 inches of armour, but the aft conning tower only had four inches of armour.  "Mikasa", like all the other Japanese battleships of the time, was fitted with four Barr & Stroud FA3 coincidence rangefinders that had an effective range of. In addition the ships were also fitted with 24-power magnification telescopic gunsights.

Construction and career.

"Mikasa", named after Mount Mikasa, was laid down by Vickers at their Barrow-in-Furness shipyard on 24 January 1899. She was launched on 8 November 1900 and completed on 1 March 1902. After a visit to Devonport, she left Plymouth on 13 March 1902, bound for Yokohama, under the command of Captain Hayasaki.  At the start of the Russo-Japanese War, "Mikasa", commanded by Captain Hikojirō Ijichi, was assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet. She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 when Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the 1st Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur. Tōgō had expected his surprise night attack on the Russians by his destroyers to be much more successful than it actually was and expected to find them badly disorganized and weakened, but the Russians had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack. The Japanese ships were spotted by the cruiser which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russian defences. Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the Russian ships with his secondary guns. Splitting his fire proved to be a bad idea as the Japanese and six-inch guns inflicted very little significant damage on the Russian ships who concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect. Although a large number of ships on both sides were hit, Russian casualties numbered only 17 while the Japanese suffered 60 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged. "Mikasa" was hit by two ten-inch shells during the engagement that wounded seven crewmen.  The ship participated in the action of 13 April when Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Pacific Squadron, including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov's flagship, the battleship. When Makarov spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division, he turned back for Port Arthur and "Petropavlovsk" struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night. The Russian battleship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded, and Makarov was one of the 677 killed. Emboldened by his success, Tōgō resumed long-range bombardment missions, which prompted the Russians to lay more minefields which sank two Japanese battleships the following month.  During the Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August, "Mikasa" was at the head of the column of Japanese battleships and was one of the primary targets of the Russian ships. She was hit twenty times, two of which knocked out her aft 12-inch gun turret, and suffered 125 casualties among her crew. In turn, she concentrated most of her fire upon the battleships and although both ships were only lightly damaged by the Japanese shells which generally failed to penetrate any armour and detonated on impact.

Battle of Tsushima.

At the Battle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905, "Mikasa" again led the 1st Fleet into combat, this time against the Second and Third Pacific Squadrons detached from the Baltic Fleet. The ship opened fire at the battleship, the Russian flagship, at 14:10, and was joined by the battleship and the armoured cruiser shortly afterwards. Within an hour the Japanese ships had started a serious fire aboard the Russian ship, badly wounded the fleet commander, Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky, knocked out her rear twelve-inch gun turret, and jammed "Knyaz Suvorov"s steering so that she fell out of formation. During this time, "Mikasa" was the focus of the Russian fire as the leading ship in the Japanese column and was hit by 6 twelve-inch and 19 six-inch shells. They did very little damage and Tōgō was able to cross the T of the Russian squadrons. "Knyaz Suvorov"s steering was later repaired, but she blundered between the Japanese and Russian fleets several times later in the battle and "Mikasa" fired three torpedoes at her to no avail. Later in the battle, the ship appears to have fired mostly on the battleship although fired the shots that caused the Russian ship's magazines to explode and sink her. At 18:04, a twelve-inch shell detonated prematurely in the barrel of the right gun of the forward turret, disabling the gun and knocking out the left gun until 18:40. Another twelve-inch shell had exploded in that same barrel almost two hours earlier, but had not damaged the gun. One six-inch gun jammed after firing 19 rounds, but the only other damage to any of the ship's guns was one six-inch gun that was disabled by a Russian shell of the same size that entered through the gunport. She fired 124 twelve-inch shells during the battle, more than any other ship except "Asahi"s 142. In total, "Mikasa" was hit more than 40 times during the battle, including 10 twelve-inch and 22 six-inch shells, but none of them seriously damaged her. While "Mikasa"s casualties are not precisely known, the entire Japanese force combined only lost 110 men killed and 590 wounded to all causes during the battle. Six days after the Treaty of Portsmouth that ended the war was signed, "Mikasa" sank at her moorings after a fire and magazine explosion at Sasebo on the night of 11/12 September 1905 that killed 251 crewmen. She was refloated on 7 August 1906, reconstructed and repaired at Sasebo Naval Arsenal. The navy took the opportunity to upgrade her existing armament with more powerful 45-calibre twelve-inch and six-inch guns during the two years it took to repair the ship. "Mikasa" was restored to active service on 24 August 1908. During World War I, she served on coast-defence duties, based at Maizuru, during 1914–15 and was then assigned to the Second and Fifth Squadrons, in that order, for the rest of the war. The ship supported the Japanese intervention in Siberia during the Russian Civil War during 1921 and was reclassified on 1 September 1921 as a first-class coast-defence ship. On 17 September, "Mikasa" ran aground near Askold Island off Vladivostok, but was not seriously damaged.

Preservation.

The ship was decommissioned on 23 September 1923 following the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and scheduled for destruction. However, at the request of the Japanese government, each of the signatory countries to the treaty agreed that "Mikasa" could be preserved as a memorial ship with her hull encased in concrete. On 12 November 1926, "Mikasa" was opened for display in Yokosuka in the presence of Crown Prince Hirohito and Tōgō. Following the surrender of Japan in 1945, the ship deteriorated under control of the occupation forces. In 1955, Philadelphia businessman John Rubin, formerly of Barrow, England, wrote a letter to the "Japan Times" about the state of the ship, which was the catalyst for a new restoration campaign. With the support of the Japanese public, and also Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the restored battleship reopened in 1961. On 5 August 2009, "Mikasa" was repainted by sailors from.  "Mikasa" is remembered in Barrow-in-Furness, the town of its construction, by Mikasa Street on Walney Island.

After 1922, "Mikasa" was decommissioned in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty and preserved as a museum ship at Yokosuka. She was badly neglected during the post-World War II Occupation of Japan and required extensive refurbishing in the late 1950s. She has been partially restored, and is now a museum ship located at Mikasa Park in Yokosuka. "Mikasa" is the last remaining example of a pre-dreadnought battleship anywhere in the world.

三笠()是大日本帝国海军的战舰,为敷岛级战舰四号舰,以奈良县的三笠山命名。同级舰有敷岛、初瀬、朝日。