Philosophy.

Internal dissent is also a regular feature of the group. A website associated with the group describes it as "an Internet gathering" with "a very loose and decentralized command structure that operates on ideas rather than directives". Gabriella Coleman writes of the group: "In some ways, it may be impossible to gauge the intent and motive of thousands of participants, many of who don't even bother to leave a trace of their thoughts, motivations, and reactions. Among those that do, opinions vary considerably."  Broadly speaking, Anons oppose Internet censorship and control and the majority of their actions target governments, organizations, and corporations that they accuse of censorship. Anons were early supporters of the global Occupy movement and the Arab Spring. Since 2008, a frequent subject of disagreement within Anonymous is whether members should focus on pranking and entertainment or more serious (and, in some cases, political) activism.  Because Anonymous has no leadership, no action can be attributed to the membership as a whole. Parmy Olson and others have criticized media coverage that presents the group as well-organized or homogeneous; Olson writes, "There was no single leader pulling the levers, but a few organizational minds that sometimes pooled together to start planning a stunt." Some

History.

4chan raids (2003–2007).

The name Anonymous itself is inspired by the perceived anonymity under which users post images and comments on the Internet. Usage of the term Anonymous in the sense of a shared identity began on imageboards, particularly the /b/ board of 4chan, dedicated to random content. A tag of Anonymous is assigned to visitors who leave comments without identifying the originator of the posted content. Users of imageboards sometimes jokingly acted as if Anonymous was a single individual. The concept of the Anonymous entity advanced in 2004 when an administrator on the 4chan image board activated a "Forced_Anon" protocol that signed all posts as Anonymous. As the popularity

Encyclopedia Dramatica (2004–present).

Encyclopedia Dramatica was founded in 2004 by Sherrod DiGrippo, initially as a means of documenting gossip related to livejournal, but it quickly was adopted as a major platform by Anonymous for parody and other purposes. The not safe for work site celebrates a subversive "trolling culture", and documents Internet memes, culture, and events, such as mass pranks, trolling events, "raids", large-scale failures of Internet security, and criticism of Internet communities that are accused of self-censorship in order to gain prestige or positive coverage from traditional and established media outlets. Journalist Julian Dibbell described Encyclopædia

Project Chanology (2008).

Anonymous first became associated with hacktivism in 2008 following a series of actions against the Church of Scientology known as Project Chanology. On January 15, 2008, the gossip blog Gawker posted a video in which celebrity Scientologist Tom Cruise praised the religion; and the Church responded with a cease-and-desist letter for violation of copyright. 4chan users organized a raid against the Church in retaliation, prank-calling its hotline, sending black faxes designed to waste ink cartridges, and launching DDoS attacks against its websites.  The DDoS attacks were at first carried out with the Gigaloader and JMeter applications. Within a few days, these were supplanted by the Low Orbit Ion Cannon (LOIC), a network stress-testing application allowing users to flood a server with TCP or UDP packets. The LOIC soon became a signature weapon in the Anonymous

Operation Payback (2010).

By the start of 2009, Scientologists had stopped engaging with protesters and had improved online security, and actions against the group had largely ceased. A period of infighting followed between the politically engaged members (called "moralfags" in the parlance of 4chan) and those seeking to provoke for entertainment (trolls). By September 2010, the group had received little publicity for a year and faced a corresponding drop in member interest; its raids diminished greatly in size and moved largely off of IRC channels, organizing again from the chan boards, particularly /b/.  In September 2010, however, Anons became aware of Aiplex Software, an Indian software company that contracted with film studios to

2011–2012.

In the years following Operation Payback, targets of Anonymous protests, hacks, and DDoS attacks continued to diversify. Beginning in January 2011, Anons took a number of actions known initially as Operation Tunisia in support of Arab Spring movements. Tflow created a script that Tunisians could use to protect their web browsers from government surveillance, while fellow future LulzSec member Hector Xavier Monsegur (alias "Sabu") and others allegedly hijacked servers from a London web-hosting company to launch a DDoS attack on Tunisian government websites, taking them offline. Sabu also used a Tunisian volunteer's computer to hack the website of Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi, replacing it with a message from Anonymous. Anons also helped Tunisian dissidents share videos online about the uprising. In Operation Egypt, Anons collaborated with the activist group Telecomix to help dissidents access government-censored websites. Sabu and Topiary went on to participate in attacks on government websites in Bahrain, Egypt, Libya, Jordan, and Zimbabwe.  Tflow, Sabu, Topiary, and Ryan Ackroyd (known as

2013.

Million Mask March.

On 5 November 2013, Anonymous protesters gathered around the world for the Million Mask March. Demonstrations were held in 400 cities around the world to coincide

#OpOk.

Operation Oklahoma was a Mutual Aid effort responding

Operation Safe Winter.

Operation Safe Winter was an effort to raise awareness about homelessness through the collection, collation, and redistribution of resources. This program began on 7 November 2013 after an online call to action from Anonymous UK. Three missions using a charity framework were suggested in the original global spawning a variety of direct actions from used clothing drives to pitch in community potlucks feeding events in the UK, US and Turkey.  The #OpSafeWinter call to action quickly spread through the mutual aid communities like Occupy Wall Street and its offshoot groups like the open-source-based OccuWeather. With the addition of the long-term mutual aid communities of New York City and online hacktivists in the US, it took on an additional three suggested missions. Encouraging participation from the general public, this operation has raised questions of privacy and the changing nature of the Anonymous community's use of monikers. The project to support those living on the streets while causing division in its own online network has been able to partner with many efforts and organizations not traditionally associated with Anonymous or online activists.

2014.

Shooting of Michael Brown.

In the wake of the fatal police shooting of unarmed African-American Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, "Operation Ferguson"—a hacktivist organization that claimed to be associated with Anonymous—organized cyberprotests against police, setting up a website and a Twitter account to do so. The group promised that if any protesters were harassed or harmed, they would attack the city's servers and computers, taking them offline. City officials said that e-mail systems were targeted and phones died, while the Internet crashed at the City Hall. Prior to August 15,

Shooting of Tamir Rice.

On November 24, 2014, Anonymous shut down the Cleveland city website and posted a video after Tamir Rice, a twelve-year-old boy armed only with a BB gun, was shot to death by a police officer in a Cleveland park. Anonymous also used BeenVerified to uncover the phone number and address of a police officer involved in the shooting.

2015.

Charlie Hebdo shootings.

In January 2015, Anonymous released a video and a statement via Twitter condemning the attack on "Charlie Hebdo", in which 12 people, including eight journalists, were fatally shot. The video, claiming that it is "a message for al-Qaeda, the Islamic State and other terrorists", was uploaded to

Anti-Islamic "Reclaim Australia" rally.

Anonymous opposed Anti-Islamic Reclaim Australia rallies and described it as "an

Operation CyberPrivacy.

On June 17, 2015, Anonymous claimed responsibility for a Denial of Service attack against Canadian government websites in

Operation KKK.

On 28 October 2015, Anonymous announced that it would reveal the names of up to 1,000 members of the Ku Klux Klan and other affiliated groups, stating in a press release, "You are terrorists that hide your identities beneath sheets and infiltrate society on every level.

#OpSaudi.

Since 2013, Saudi Arabian hacktivists have been targeting government websites protesting the

#OpISIS.

In 2015, an offshoot of Anonymous self-described as

#OpParis.

In November 2015, Anonymous announced a major, sustained operation against ISIS following the November 2015 Paris attacks, declaring, "Anonymous from all over the world will hunt you down. You should know that we will find you and we will not let you go." ISIS responded on Telegram by calling them "idiots", and asking "What they hack?" By the next day, however, Anonymous claimed to have taken down 3,824 pro-ISIS Twitter

#OpNASADrones.

In 2015, a group that claims affiliation with Anonymous group, calling themselves as AnonSec, claimed to have hacked and gathered almost 276 GB of data from NASA servers including NASA flight and radar logs and videos, and also multiple documents related to ongoing research. AnonSec group also claimed gaining access of a Global Hawk Drone of NASA, and released some video footage purportedly from the drone's cameras. A part of the data was released by AnonSec on Pastebin service, as an Anon Zine. NASA has denied the hack, asserting that the control of the drones were never compromised, but has acknowledged that the photos released along with the content are real photographs of its employees, but that most of these data are already available in the public domain.

2016.

#BoycottThailand: Thailand jail hack.

The Blink Hacker Group, associating themselves with the Anonymous group, claimed to have hacked the Thailand prison websites and servers. The compromised data has been shared

2016 US presidential election.

In March 2016, Anonymous was reported to have declared war on Donald Trump. However, the "Anonymous Official" YouTube channel released a video denouncing #OpTrump as an operation that "goes against everything Anonymous stands for" in reference to censorship and added "we are for everyone letting their

South African corruption.

A group calling themselves "Anonymous Africa" launched a number of DDoS attacks on websites associated with the controversial South African Gupta family in mid-June 2016. Gupta-owned companies targeted included the websites of Oakbay Investments, The New Age, and ANN7. The websites of the South African Broadcasting Corporation and a political parties Economic Freedom Fighters and Zimbabwe's Zanu-PF were also attacked for “nationalist socialist rhetoric and politicising racism.”

2020.

United Nations hack.

In February 2020, Anonymous hacked the United Nations' website and created a page for Taiwan, a country which has not had a seat at the UN

Killing of George Floyd.

In the wake of protests across the U.S following the killing of George Floyd, Anonymous released a video on Facebook as well as sending it out to the Minneapolis Police Department on May 28, 2020, titled "Anonymous Message To The Minneapolis Police Department", in which they state that they are going to seek revenge on the Minneapolis Police Department, and "expose their crimes to the world". According to Bloomberg, the video was initially posted on an unconfirmed Anonymous Facebook page on May 28.  According to BBC News, that same Facebook page had no notoriety and published videos of dubious content linked to UFOs

Trump-Epstein rape lawsuit and other high-profile accusations.

On May 31, 2020, a person or group claiming to be part of the Anonymous collective tweeted that they have uploaded a number of documents to the Scribd account OpDeathEaters that contain incriminating evidence against U.S. President Donald J. Trump and Jeffrey Epstein in multiple cases of paedophilia, rape and sexual assault. According to what they found Epstein and Trump were co-defendants in the one case.  They further claimed to have evidence that the British royal family had Princess Diana murdered because she had incriminating evidence against the royal family's involvement

Buffalo New York Website Hacking.

On June 6, 2020, the Buffalo NY website was supposedly hacked by Anonymous. While the website was up and running after a few minutes, Anonymous tweeted again on twitter urging that it be taken down. A few minutes later, the Buffalo NY website was taken down again.

Related groups.

LulzSec.

In May 2011, the small group of Anons behind the HBGary Federal hack—including Tflow, Topiary, Sabu, and Kayla—formed the hacker group "Lulz Security", commonly abbreviated "LulzSec". The group's first attack was against Fox.com, leaking several passwords, LinkedIn profiles, and the names of 73,000 "X Factor" contestants. In May 2011, members of Lulz Security gained international attention for hacking into the American Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) website. They stole user data and posted a fake story on the site that claimed that rappers Tupac Shakur and Biggie Smalls were still alive and living in New Zealand. LulzSec stated that some of its hacks, including its attack on PBS, were motivated by a desire to defend WikiLeaks and its informant Chelsea Manning.  In June 2011, members of the group claimed responsibility for an attack against Sony Pictures that took data that included "names, passwords, e-mail addresses, home addresses and dates of birth for thousands of people." In early June, LulzSec hacked into and stole user information from the pornography website www.pron.com. They obtained and published around 26,000 e-mail addresses and passwords. On June 14, 2011, LulzSec took down four websites by request of fans as part of their "Titanic Take-down Tuesday".

AntiSec.

Beginning in June 2011, hackers from Anonymous and LulzSec collaborated on a series of cyber attacks known as "Operation AntiSec". On June 23, in retaliation for the passage of the immigration enforcement bill Arizona SB 1070, LulzSec released a cache of documents from the Arizona Department of Public Safety, including the personal information and home addresses of many law enforcement officers. On June 22, LulzSec Brazil took down the websites of the Government of Brazil and the President of Brazil. Later data dumps included the names, addresses, phone

Arrests and trials.

Since 2009, dozens of people have been arrested for involvement in Anonymous cyberattacks, in countries including the U.S., UK, Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and Turkey. Anons generally protest these prosecutions and describe these individuals as martyrs to the movement. The July 2011 arrest of LulzSec member Topiary became a particular rallying point, leading to a widespread "Free Topiary" movement.  The first person to be sent to jail for participation in an Anonymous DDoS attack was Dmitriy Guzner, an American 19-year-old. He pleaded guilty to "unauthorized impairment of a protected computer" in November 2009 and was sentenced to 366 days in U.S. federal prison.  On June 13, 2011, officials in Turkey arrested 32 individuals that were allegedly involved in DDoS attacks on Turkish government websites. These members of Anonymous were captured in different cities of Turkey including Istanbul and Ankara. According to "PC Magazine", these individuals were arrested after they attacked websites as a response to the Turkish government demand to ISPs to implement a system of filters that many have perceived as censorship.  Chris Doyon (alias "Commander X"), a self-described leader of Anonymous, was arrested in September 2011 for a cyberattack on the website of Santa Cruz County, California. He jumped bail in February 2012 and fled across the border into Canada.  In September 2012, journalist and Anonymous associate Barrett Brown, known for speaking to media on behalf of the group, was arrested hours after posting a video that appeared to threaten FBI agents with physical violence. Brown was subsequently charged with 17 offenses, including publishing personal credit card information from the Stratfor hack.

Operation Avenge Assange.

Several law enforcement agencies took action after Anonymous' Operation Avenge Assange. In January 2011, the British police arrested five male suspects between the ages of 15 and 26 with suspicion of participating in Anonymous DDoS attacks. During July 19–20, 2011, as many as 20 or more arrests were made of suspected Anonymous hackers in the US, UK, and Netherlands. According to the statements of U.S. officials, suspects' homes were raided and suspects were arrested in

Analysis.

Evaluations of Anonymous' actions and effectiveness vary widely. In a widely shared post, blogger Patrick Gray wrote that private security firms "secretly love" the group for the way in which it publicises cyber security threats. Anonymous is sometimes stated to have changed the nature of protesting, and in 2012, "Time" called it one of the "100 most influential people" in the world.  In 2012, Public Radio International reported that the U.S. National Security Agency considered Anonymous a potential national security threat and had warned the president that it could develop the capability to disable parts of the U.S. power grid. In contrast, CNN reported in the same year that "security industry experts generally don't consider Anonymous a major player in the world of cybercrime" due the group's reliance on DDoS attacks that briefly disabled websites rather than the more serious damage possible through hacking. One security consultant compared the group to "a jewelry thief that drives through a window, steal jewels, and rather than keep them, waves them around and tosses them out to a crowd... They're very noisy, low-grade crimes." In its "2013 Threats Predictions" report, McAfee wrote that the technical sophistication of Anonymous was in decline and that it was losing supporters due to "too many uncoordinated and unclear operations".  Graham Cluley, a security expert for Sophos, argued that Anonymous' actions against child porn websites hosted on a darknet could be counterproductive, commenting that while their intentions may be good, the removal of illegal websites and sharing networks should be performed by the authorities, rather than Internet vigilantes. Some commentators also argued that the DDoS

Media portrayal.

Sam Esmail, the creator of the USA Network show "Mr. Robot", said in an interview with "Motherboard" that he was inspired by Anonymous when creating the hacktivist drama. Furthermore, "Wired" calls the "Omegas", a fictitious hacker group

See also.

Memetic persona  Composition  Activism  Other related articles

Anonymous is a decentralized international activist/hacktivist collective/movement that is widely known for its various cyber attacks against several governments, government institutions and government agencies, corporations, and the Church of Scientology.

匿名者(英语:Anonymous)是一种以共同理念组成的团体,匿名者称其不是组织,也不属于任何一个企业和政党,它只是一个理念,一个想法。比起黑客集团更像是一种社群,只要有相同想法或是理念,任何人都可以加入。其发迹于2003年,随后在政治上形成一些共识,并发起自主性或自发性行为与活动。他们因其宣传及利用阻断服务攻击(DDoS)政府、宗教和企业网站而知名于世。


History.

The borough council was established in April 2009 as part of the 2009 structural changes to local government in England, by virtue of an order under the Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007. It is an amalgamation of the former boroughs of Macclesfield, Congleton and Crewe and Nantwich, and includes the functions of the former Cheshire County Council. The residual part of the disaggregated former County Council, together with the other three former Cheshire borough councils (Chester City, Ellesmere Port & Neston and Vale Royal) were, similarly, amalgamated to create the new unitary council of Cheshire West and Chester.  Cheshire East has historic links to textile mills of the industrial revolution, such as seen at Quarry Bank Mill. It is also home to Tatton Park, a historic estate that hosts RHS Show Tatton Park.

Geography.

Cheshire East lies within North West England. It borders Cheshire West and Chester to the west, Greater Manchester to the north, Derbyshire to the east as well as Staffordshire and Shropshire to the south. It is home to the Cheshire Plain and the southern hills of the Pennines. The local geology is mostly glacial clay, as well as glacial sands and gravel.

Demography.

According to the United Kingdom Census 2011 Cheshire East has a population of 370,127 people.

Ethnicity.

According to the 2011 Census, ethnic white groups (British, Irish, Other) account for 96.7% of the population (357,940 people), with 3.3% of the population (12,187 people) being in ethnic groups other than white (Asian, Black, Other).

Religion.

A breakdown of religious groups and denominations:

Administration.

Wards.

The 52 wards of Cheshire East are:

Members of the European Parliament.

Cheshire East forms part of the North West England constituency, which elects eight members to the European Parliament using the d'Hondt method of party-list proportional representation.

Elections.

At the last Cheshire County Council election in 2005 there were 15 Conservative controlled wards, 6 Labour controlled wards, 5 Liberal Democrat controlled wards and 1 ward controlled by an independent within the unitary authority boundaries.  The first elections for Cheshire East Council took place on 1 May 2008, with the Conservative Party taking overall control. The Conservatives took 59 of the 81 seats with the others being held by the Liberal Democrats (12), Labour (6), 3 members of Middlewich First and one Independent. The first leader of the authority was Wesley Fitzgerald who was elected at Cheshire East's inaugural meeting on 13 May 2008. Wesley Fitzgerald is a Councillor for the Wilmslow South ward. Having decided in February 2012 to step down, a leadership contest was triggered. Michael Jones – a relatively new councillor having been elected in the May 2011 elections – was elected as the Leader of the Conservative Group on 17 March 2012.  The administrative centre for Cheshire East Council is Westfields in Sandbach, the former Headquarters of Congleton Borough Council. The site could be expanded if needed as there is space around the newly built centre. Cheshire East is an observer member of the Association of Greater Manchester Authorities of Greater Manchester, which borders Cheshire to the north.

Transport.

Roads.

Motorways and primary routes in the borough which are maintained by Highways England (trunk roads "de jure") include the M6, M56 and the A556. Other primary routes which are maintained by the council (principal roads "de jure") include the A6, A34, A49, A50, A51, A54, A56, A500, A523, A525, A530, A534, A536, A537, A538, A555, A556, A5020 and A5033.

Major road projects.

A556 Knutsford to Bowdon Improvement: A new five-mile four-lane dual-carriageway bypass of Bucklow Hill and Mere Crossroads on the A556 is currently under construction by Highways England at a cost of between £165-£221 million. The new road will also contain the first 'green bridge' wildlife crossing in the United Kingdom. The existing road will be narrowed to one lane in each direction and re-designated as the B5569 under the maintenance of Cheshire East Council.  M6 Junctions 16-19: Smart Motorway: Highways England are preparing to convert the hard shoulder to a permanent running lane and introduce a variable speed limit along this section of the M6, meaning that it will become the first smart motorway in Cheshire. The scheme is expected to cost between £192-£274 million.  Crewe Green Link Road South: A dual-carriageway extension of Crewe Green Link Road is being constructed between the A5020 and Weston Gate Roundabout on the A500 by Cheshire East Council at a cost of £26.5 million.  LED improvements: The Cheshire East Council, for multiple years now, has been investing in LEDs (light emitting diodes) as they are energy-efficient lights that are more likely to avoid sleepiness on the road as of their blue tint.

Local sites of interest.

The area is home to a large number of sites of public interest:

Twin towns.

The former borough of Macclesfield was twinned with Eckernförde, Germany.  Twinning remains active in the Crewe and Nantwich area. The town of Crewe began twinning with the town of Mâcon in France in 1957. This continued when the borough of Crewe and Nantwich was formed in 1974. The borough added the town of Bischofsheim in Germany in 1991. In 2003 the administration of twinning was passed to CANTA, the Crewe and Nantwich Twinning Association, a voluntary association supported by the borough. The association immediately added Dzierżoniów in Poland as a Friendship Town. The association has received continuing support from Cheshire East after the borough became part of the new authority.

Cheshire East is a unitary authority area with borough status in the ceremonial county of Cheshire, England. The local authority is Cheshire East Council.

东柴郡(Cheshire East)是英国柴郡的一个单一管理区和自治市镇,当地政府是东柴郡议会。2009年4月1日随着英国兰当地政府结构改革而成立。根据2011年英国人口普查,东柴郡有370,127人。


Rally career.

Early career.

Neuville was born in the German-speaking municipality St. Vith. He drove his first rally when he was 19 years of age, in 2007, his debut rally car was an Opel Corsa he piloted on an event in Luxembourg. In 2008, he was the winner of the Royal Automobil Club of Belgium Rally Contest, which initiated his rally career. The following year, he won the Citroën Rally Trophy Belux, in a Citroën C2 R2 Max.  Neuville made his Intercontinental Rally Challenge debut in 2009 when he was handed a drive at the 2009 Ypres Rally by the BF Goodrich Drivers Team in a Peugeot 207 S2000. He crashed out of the rally while lying fourth.  For the 2008 Rally Finland, he was entered in a Ford Fiesta ST and would have made his WRC debut, but he did not start the event. Instead, he made his WRC debut at the 2009 Rally Catalunya with a Citroën C2 R2 with Nicolas Klinger as his co-driver, an event he eventually would retire in.

Private career (2010–11).

2010.

Neuville drove a self-entered Citroën C2 S1600 in five of the six rounds of 2010 Junior World Rally Championship, alongside Klinger. In the two opening rounds, on gravel, 2010 Rally of Turkey and 2010 Rally de Portugal, Neuville retired in both events while leading the category, in Turkey it was due to a mechanical fault while in Portugal he crashed out. It was not until the third round in 2010 Rally Bulgaria, on asphalt, Neuville won his first event in the category. Retirement followed in the next event in Germany after an engine failure. His final event of the campaign was the 2010 Rallye de France where he was third in the category. Despite leading many of the events, along with many stage wins, of the season, Neuville would finish the championship in seventh position, due to the many retirements.  The same year, Neuville, with Klinger as co-driver, was signed to drive a Peugeot 207 S2000 at six events in the 2010 Intercontinental Rally Challenge for Peugeot Belgium-Luxembourg (Bel-Lux), a team supported by Kronos Racing. His first event was the 2010 Rally Islas Canarias, where he retired due to suspension damage while running in seventh position. Having so far only contested ashpalt rallies in the 207 S2000, he contested his first gravel rally in the car, at the 2010 Rally d'Italia Sardegna, where he secured fourth. He was a career-best third at his country event, the 2010 Ypres Rally. His final three events for the season were the 2010 Czech Rally, 2010 Rallye Sanremo and 2010 Rally Scotland. He retired in the Czech and Scottish rallies. In Sanremo he was eight, securing the final points position. Neuville finished the season in ninth place, collecting twelve points across his six events.

2011.

Neuville continued with the Peugeot Bel-Lux team in the 2011 Intercontinental Rally Challenge. At the season opener in Monte Carlo he crashed his 207 S2000 in the first stage and retired. After Monte Carlo, co-driver Klinger was replaced with Nicolas Gilsoul for the rest of the season. In the next event, 2011 Rally Islas Canarias, Neuville battled for the win but finished third behind winner Juho Hänninen and second placed Jan Kopecký. First victory came in the following at event in 2011 Tour de Corse with a convincing drive, finishing 15.5 seconds in front of Kopecký. He was the early pacesetter at the following 2011 Prime Yalta Rally but going off road and a puncture meant the Belgian could only finish in sixth position. At the 2011 Ypres Rally, suspension damage resulted in retirement. At the following 2011 Czech Rally, Neuville was fourth. In Hungary, the 2011 Mecsek Rallye, Neuville was just 0.8 seconds shy of winning the rally, behind winner Kopecký. His second victory would arrive in 2011 Rallye Sanremo, winning by just 1.5 seconds. In the penultimate round in Scotland, Neuville was sixth, having spun and dropped time to the leaders. Heading into the finale in Cyprus, Neuville was one of five drivers who were able to win the title. Neuville held the rally lead early on, but soon after, an issue with the alternator on his car developed and the Belgian had to retire. The title eventually went to Andreas Mikkelsen, who won the rally, while Neuville finished fifth in the standings.

Citroën Junior (2012).

Citroën signed Neuville for the 2012 World Rally Championship, driving selected races in a Citroën DS3 WRC for their junior team. The season saw Neuville make his World Rally Car-debut. At the season opener in Monte Carlo, Neuville crashed out of the event early. He remained scoreless until the fourth round in Portugal where he finished in eight position. Prior to Portugal, he had won his first stage win in Mexico. In Argentina, he was fifth, despite rolling his car early in the event. Neuville's results had so far been plagued by the use of Rally 2-rules, his first error-free event was in Acropolis where he was sixth. Neuville's season did not include New Zealand with the Citroën Junior Team, but as Nasser Al-Attiyah in the Qatar World Rally Team was injured and unable to compete, Neuville replaced him for the Qatari team in the event. He was battling for fifth place with fellow World Rally Car-rookie Ott Tänak, with Neuville eventually securing the position due to Tänak retiring. He scored no points in Finland after crashing from sixth place. He was running close of a podium finish in the following event in Germany, but, like in Finland, he was outside the points due to a crash. He returned to the points by finishing seventh in Wales. His best result of the season came in France, where he led a World Rally-event for the first time in his career and eventually finished fourth, after many stage wins. Another outing for the Qatar team in Sardinia, the penultimate event of the season, meant Neuville contested the full season. He was outside the points in Sardinia, as well as in Catalunya, the final event of the season, due to incidents on both rallies. He finished the season in seventh position.

Qatar (2013).

Neuville joined Qatar for the 2013 season, now driving a Ford Fiesta RS WRC. He retired for the third time in Rallye Monte-Carlo, after going off track on the third stage. In Rally Sweden, he got off the mark by scoring a fifth place on a surface he lacked experience on. Then, in Mexico, he was one of the men of the rally, getting his maiden podium finish (third place). Round four, Portugal, was disappointing, since he finished out of the points, after returning to the rally in Rally 2 after retiring from fifth place. Fifth place was again for Neuville, in Argentina. Then came a streak of podiums which turned Neuville into the surprise driver of the season: third place in Greece and second place in Italy, Finland, Germany and Australia.  At Rallye Deutschland, which Neuville considers his home rally, the Belgian was in second place during the second day, trailing Jari-Matti Latvala just for a few seconds. But in a surprise twist, Latvala left the road and Neuville did the same thing right after him. Neuville led the rally for a stage, but eventually, and in the second to last stage of the day, he lost the lead to Dani Sordo. The next stage of the day was cancelled, so the drivers entered the final two stages separated by just eight tenths of a second. The penultimate stage was won by Sordo, which left the Spaniard three seconds ahead of Neuville in the overall classification. Both gave everything in the PowerStage and Neuville eventually had a small off in the very last section of the stage, therefore losing the chance to win. He ended in second place, 53.0 seconds behind Sordo.  At Rally Australia, Neuville was in third place, 25.2 seconds behind Mikko Hirvonen, before the PowerStage. With Sébastien Ogier comfortably in the lead, he needed to finish in second place overall and in the PowerStage in order to still have a mathematical chance at the title. Hirvonen punctured in the stage, allowing Thierry to finish in second overall and second in the PowerStage. After this dramatic finish, a frustrated Ogier and Neuville were the only ones still with a chance for the title, although Ogier only needed to score a single point in the remaining three rounds. Ogier eventually secured the title in the next rally in Alsace by taking a point on the Power stage, which ran as the opening stage of the rally. A podium for Neuville in the last rally of the season in Wales secured his spot as second in the championship, ahead of Latvala.

Hyundai (2014–present).

2014.

On 5 November 2013, Hyundai Motorsport GmbH confirmed it had signed Neuville on a multi-year deal to lead its entry into the WRC from 2014. After the halfway point of the 2014 season Neuville had scored two podiums for Hyundai and ran sixth in the overall standings.  Thierry Neuville rolled six times during the shakedown of the ADAC Rally of Germany, stopping in the vineyards. The car was repaired and Thierry Neuville and co-driver Nicolas Gilsoul finished the rally in first position. That was Thierry Neuville and Hyundai Motorsport GmbH's maiden win in the WRC. Previous year's winner Dani Sordo, who was now his teammate, finished second, so it was not just Hyundai's first win, but also a double victory.

2015.

Neuville started the 2015 season strongly, finishing fifth and second in Monte Carlo and Sweden respectively. He finished eighth in the third round in Mexico but had been battling for lead with Ogier during the first day before going off the road.  The remaining events of the season were disappointing for Neuville. After a crash on the last stage of Rally Argentina, his confidence took a knock and he could only manage one more podium, which came in Italy. His teammates, Sordo and Hayden Paddon, outperformed Neuville during the last events of the season but he still managed to finish above them in the standings. He finished the season in sixth place.

2016.

The 2016 season started with a podium in Monte Carlo, as Neuville finished third with a new rendition of the i20. But the podium was followed by a mechanical issue in Sweden and crashing out in Mexico, meaning he would score no points in those events. In Portugal, while lying fifth, he ran out of fuel while on a stage caused by a miscalculation by Hyundai and his car ended up stranded.  But in Sardinia, Neuville was back in form. By winning nine of the 19 stages, he won the rally and finished roughly 25 seconds ahead of a pushing Jari-Matti Latvala. After the rally, Neuville paid tribute to his former mentors, Philippe Bugalski and Jean-Pierre Mondron. Bugalski, who died in 2012, was born on the same date Neuville won the rally, while Mondron had died two weeks before the rally.  On 5 October, it was confirmed Neuville would extend his deal with Hyundai until the end of 2018. Despite rumours suggesting him considering other options, he decided to stay with the Alzenau-based team for 2017 and 2018 when new regulations for the competing cars would enter.  He finished the season with five podiums out of the last five events, securing the position as runner up in the championship with 160 points.

2017.

In 2017 Neuville and his teammates Paddon and Sordo started with yet another new version of the i20, the i20 Coupe.  The season however started badly for the Belgian, finishing the first two rallies in 15th and 13th, having led both rallies before crashing. He finished the power stages in both rallies in first and third, still scoring eight points. After finishing the Rally Mexico in third place Neuville won the Tour de Corse and the Rally Argentina, becoming a world championship contender against Sébastien Ogier. In Portugal, both fought for the victory and Ogier won. Then, in Sardinia, where he had won in the previous season, Neuville only finished third, however, ahead of Ogier who finished fifth. His next victory came in Poland, and then, in Finland, Neuville only finished sixth, however, after his arch rival Ogier retired, it was enough for Neuville to take the championship lead for the first time in his career. Heading into the 2017 Rallye Deutschland, Neuville's goal was to retain the championship lead. However, a small impact on the first stage of the second day was enough to damage suspension and transmission of his car which resulted in having to retire from the day. Neuville was third before the accident and in front of Ogier who was fourth after the first day. He aimed to salvage points on the Power stage but could only manage sixth fastest, meaning he would score no points for the first time in 2017. Ogier retook the championship after finishing third and opened a 17-point lead over Neuville. Lightning then struck twice for the Belgian, as a lackluster performance in Spain ended when he clipped a rock on stage 16 and broke the steering, leaving him pointless for the second rally in a row and dropping him to third in the standings behind Ott Tänak.  Neuville retook second place in the driver's standings in Wales, as he finished the rally in second position while Tänak finished sixth. Unable to match the pace set by rally winner Elfyn Evans, who used DMACK tyres, Neuville was the fastest of the drivers competing on Michelin. He finished ahead of Ogier, who was third, but the two extra points Ogier scored on the Power stage meant the Frenchman was crowned world champion for a fifth consecutive time.  At the final rally of the season in Australia, Neuville took his fourth win of the season. The event was characterized by changeable conditions but after initial leader Andreas Mikkelsen suffered a double puncture, Neuville held off Latvala who was his closest challenger for most of the rally, the Finn eventually crashed on the last stage. The win meant Neuville secured the runners-up spot in the standings for the third time in his career.

2018.

Just as in 2017, Neuville's season started with a mistake at the season opener in Monte Carlo. On the first stage of the rally he lost control of his i20 and got stuck in a ditch, the excursion cost the Belgian four minutes and ruined his chance of a rally win. As the rally progressed, he fought his way up the standings and eventually finished fifth. In Rally Sweden, he was the fifth on the road at the opening day, which meant he had more grips than the drivers who start ahead of him. That gave him a chance to fight for the victory. Eventually, he took his seventh win and first on the snow in the WRC, though he had an electrical glitch with his Hyundai's paddle shift gearchange system in Saturday morning and made a few small mistakes. After winning the rally, he led the championship by ten points, ahead of defending world champion, Sébastien Ogier. The win meant Neuville became the third non-Nordic driver to win the Swedish Rally.  The lead of the standings was short-lived, as Ogier won the next rounds in Mexico and Corsica. In Mexico, Neuville endured many technical issues with his i20 Coupe and achieved sixth as a result. While in Corsica, Ogier extended his lead in the championship further when Neuville finished behind him in third.  Neuville beat Ogier to the podium in Argentina when he finished second, but the rally was won by Tänak. After Tänak's mixed start to the season, the Estonian's win in Argentina meant Tänak had emerged as a title contender along with Neuville and Ogier.  In Portugal, Neuville secured his eight win in the WRC and inherited the lead of the championship when both title rivals Ogier and Tänak hit trouble and scored zero points. Along with four extra points from the Power stage, Neuville's victory lifted him to first place in the standings, 19 and 47 points clear of Ogier and Tänak, respectively. In the next event, Rally d'Italia Sardinia, Neuville won again. Ogier had led most of the Sardinian rally but Neuville eventually beat the Frenchman to the win on the very last stage with a margin of seven tenths of a second, equalling the third closest win in the WRC which was set by Neuville in Argentina, 2017.  Just before Rally Turkey, it was announced that Neuville, along with Gilsoul, had signed an extension with Hyundai to drive for the team until the end of 2021.  Neuville's advantage in the standings was reduced when his suspension broke in Turkey while he was leading, with Tänak eventually winning the event, and when he slid off the road in the next rally in Wales from second place. He lost the lead in the standings to Ogier when he finished fourth at the 2018 Rally Catalunya while Ogier was second, the result meant Ogier headed Neuville by three points in the championship.  Heading into the 2018 Rally Australia, Neuville, Ogier and Tänak had a chance to win the championship. Neuville punctured on the first day and dropped down to last place of the World Rally car drivers which meant he had to run first on the road on the second day. As a result of sweeping the loose gravel roads by running first, making up time proved to be difficult for the Belgian and he could not pass Ogier who was sixth, which was also enough for Ogier to secure the title if the rally was to end without any change of positions. On the final day, Neuville hit a tree and lost a wheel of his i20 Coupe and ultimately had to retire from the event, ending his title bid. Soon after Neuville's retirement, Tänak also damaged his car and had to retire which subsequently handed the title to Ogier. Neuville finished as runner up in the standings for a third consecutive time and his fourth time overall.

2019.

Neuville battled with Ogier throughout the season opener in Monte Carlo and finished second, with Ogier taking the victory by a few seconds over the Belgian. He followed up the podium in Monte Carlo with another in Sweden, settling for the final podium position in a battle with Esapekka Lappi who was second, while rally was won by Tänak. Neuville could only manage fourth in the next event in Mexico while Ogier was victorious and Tänak finished second. His first victory of 2019 was achieved at the Tour de Corse, Elfyn Evans had been leading most of the rally but a puncture on the last stage dropped the Welshman to third and Neuville was able to win the event. After the Tour de Corse, Neuville, Ogier and Tänak were separated by five points in the standings. He was victorious at the next event in Argentina while Ogier was third and Tänak eighth. When the championship headed to Rally Chile for the first time, Neuville crashed heavily after misjudging a fast crest which saw the Belgian require medical assistance. Both Neuville and co-driver Gilsoul escaped major injuries from the accident. While he had to retire, the rally was won by Tänak and Ogier was second, Neuville dropped to third in the points standings. With no major injury sustained from the crash in Chile, Neuville contested the next event in Portugal and finished second behind Tänak.  He did not score big points in the next couple of events, in Sardinia and Finland, when he finished both events in sixth place. Both title rivals, Tänak and Ogier, suffered from issues in Sardinia and also did not score well while the event was won by Neuville's teammate Dani Sordo. In Finland, Tänak won while Ogier was fifth, one position above Neuville, and the Estonian opened a 22-point lead in the standings. Since Tänak was pulling away in the title fight, Neuville needed to beat the Estonian in the next event in Germany. He was battling with the points leader through the first leg as the pair were closely matched the whole leg. Disaster struck on the second leg when Neuville had to change a puncture during a stage, a recovery drive afterwards saw Neuville finish fourth while Tänak could cruise to victory. He lost further ground in the title race in the following event in Turkey, as he rolled his car and could only finish eighth while Ogier won.  Tänak pulled further away when the Estonian won in Wales Rally GB while Neuville finished behind him in second. In Spain, the penultimate round, Neuville had to win and finish well above Tänak to prevent Tänak from securing the title. Neuville duly won the event, securing his twelfth win in the WRC. However, with Tänak finishing second, the 2019 World Rally Championship was won by Tänak after taking an unassailable lead in the standings. Heading into the final round in Australia, the battle for second place in the standings between Neuville and Ogier still had to be settled. When the round was cancelled after bushfires in Australia affecting the rally route, Neuville thereby finished second in the overall standings. Neuville's results over the season, along with his teammates', helped Hyundai win their first manufacturers' title.

Circuit racing.

Neuville made his Touring car racing-debut in the 2019 ADAC TCR Germany Touring Car Championship, driving a Hyundai i30 for Engstler Motorsport in two races at the Nürburgring as a guest driver. In race one, Neuville took pole position, set the fastest lap, led every lap and won the race. For the second race Neuville started tenth, as the starting grid was reversed, and eventually finished sixth in rainy conditions.  After the event, Neuville expressed his desire to contest more circuit races in the future, especially the 24 Hours Nürburgring.

Results.

WRC results.

<nowiki>*</nowiki> Season still in progress.

TCR Germany results.

<nowiki>†</nowiki> As Neuville was a guest driver, he was ineligible to score points.

Personal life.

Although he uses French pacenotes, he is a native German speaker. His younger brother Yannick Neuville is also a rally driver.  Neuville became a father on July 8, 2019, as he and his girlfriend Déborah Ghys welcomed their daughter, Camille.

Thierry Jean Neuville (born 16 June 1988) is a Belgian rally driver who is competing in the World Rally Championship for Hyundai Motorsport. During his career, he has finished as runner-up in the drivers' championship five times (2013, 2016–2019) and helped Hyundai win their first manufacturers' title, in 2019. His current co-driver is compatriot Nicolas Gilsoul, who has been his co-driver since 2011.

蒂里·诺伊维尔(,1988年6月16日生于圣维特)是一名比利时拉力赛车手,目前效力于现代汽车的拉力厂队现代汽车运动,驾驶现代i20 WRC赛车参加世界拉力锦标赛。他的领航员是尼古拉·吉尔苏尔(Nicolas Gilsoul)。


Early life and education.

Kulibayev was born on 10 September 1966 in Alma-Ata (now Almaty), Kazakh SSR, USSR. In 1988, he graduated from Lomonosov Moscow State University, majoring in "National Economy Planning", making him an economist by profession. He has a Ph.D. in Economics, and defended a thesis on: "Improvement of Organizational and Economic Mechanism of Enterprise Management in Market Environment (based on the oil industry)" (1999). He has a number of research publications. He speaks fluent Kazakh, Russian and English.

Business career.

From 1988 to 1992, he worked as an economist. He was a junior research assistant at the Scientific-Research Economics Institute of Planning and Normative Standards (SREIP&NS) under the State Plan of Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, and was a director of the Scientific-Consulting Center of the Fund of Cultural, Social, Scientific and Technological Development of Kazakhstan.  In 1990, he was the director of the Research and Consultative Center under the Fund for Cultural, Social and Technological Development in Kazakhstan. He headed Altyn-Alma and was Chairman of the Supervisory Board of Almaty Trade and Industry Bank. In 1997 he was appointed as the head of the Directorate for Project Assessment and Negotiating under the Investment Committee of Kazakhstan (exercising rights of the Deputy Chairman).  From May 1997 until March 1999, he was the Vice-President on Economy and Finance of CJSC National Oil and Gas Company Kazkhoil. In March 1999 he became the President of CJSC National Company for Oil Transportation KazTransOil. From May 2001 till February 2002 he was the General Director of CJSC National Company Oil and Gas Transportation (created on the basis of KazTransOil and KazTransGas). From February 2002 until October 2005 he was the First Vice-President of JSC NC KazMunayGas, a merger of CJSC NC KazakhOil and CJSC NC Oil and Gas Transportation.  After his resignation from the post in KazMunaiGas, he has initiated foundation and headed the Association of Legal Entities Kazakhstan Association of Oil, Gas and Energy Sector Organizations KAZENERGY that united major national and foreign companies, operating in the energy sector of Kazakhstan. At the same time he became part-time Adviser to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. In 2005-06 and 2007-08 he combined a public activity with a direct management of his own private business.  From April 2006 till August 2007, he was the Deputy Chairman of the Management Board of JSC Kazakhstan Holding Company for State Assets Management Samruk. Simultaneously he was the Chairman of Board of Directors of JSC KEGOC and NC KazMunaiGas. In October 2008 he became the Deputy Chairman of the Management Board of JSC National Welfare Fund Samruk-Kazyna. He is Chairman of the Boards of Directors of JSC Kazatomprom, JSC NC KazMunayGas, JSC NC Kazakhstan TemirZholy, JSC Kazakhstan Company on Power Grid Management (KEGOC), JSC Samruk-Energo.  In 2007, Kulibayev became the owner through Kazakhstani investor Kenes Rakishev of Prince Andrew's former Sunninghill Park or the "Dallas Palace" for $19.7 million or $4 million over the asking price after Fergie and their daughters left the property in 2006. In 2016, after demolition of Sunninghill Park, a 14-bedroom mansion was built in its place.  By decree of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan #409, on 12 April 2011, he was appointed to the post of the Chairman of the Management Board of JSC NWF Samruk-Kazyna. Based on the voting results by Decree of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan #410 of 12 April 2011, he was elected to the membership of the Board of Directors. The election of T.A. Kulibayev to the Board of Directors of the Russian largest energy company shows the particular importance of economic cooperation between Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation, as well as a recognition of high professional qualities of the Chief Executive of Samruk-Kazyna Fund.  On 26 December 2011, Kulibayev resigned from the post of Chairman of the Board of Samruk-Kazyna.  Since June 2008, he has been Chairman of the Kazakhstan National Committee of the World Petroleum Council.

Public activities.

Since 2004 – honorary member of the Council of Federation of the Republican Public Association "National Federation of Golf of RoK".  Since 2008 – chairman of Kazakhstan National Committee of World Petroleum Council.  Since 2009 – president of Kazakhstan Boxing Federation.  Since 2010 – a member of the Executive Committee of the National Olympic Committee of RoK.  Since 2011 – chairman of the Board of Trustees of "Arystan" specialized lyceum (Talgar town);  Since 2012 –vice-president, a member of the Executive Committee of International Boxing Association (AIBA).  Since 2012 – chairman of Kazakhstan Confederation of Сombat and Strength Sports.  Since 2014 – a member of the National Olympic Committee.  Since 2014 – chairman of Multi-Sport Games of "SportAccord" International Convention.  Since 2015 – president of the National Olympic Committee of RoK.  Since 2016 - Vice President (Central Asia) of the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA)

Personal life.

He is married to Dinara Nursultanovna ("née" Nazarbayeva), daughter of Kazakhstan's long-time president Nursultan Nazarbayev. They have three children: a son Altay, and daughters Deniza and Alishya. He has an additional two natural children with entrepreneur and socialite Goga Ashkenazi, both sons: Adam, born in 2007, and Alan, born in 2012.  Kulibayev is an avid fan of sports, especially golf, and often competes in golf tournaments. He is president of Kazakhstani Boxing Federation.

Awards.

Awards of the Republic of Kazakhstan: Awards of the Russian Federation:

Timur Askaruly Kulibayev (, "Tımýr Asqaruly Qulybaev", born 10 September 1966) is a Kazakhstani business oligarch and son-in-law of former Kazakh president Nursultan Nazarbayev. Kulibayev has held several positions in important state-owned enterprises that manage Kazakhstan's natural resources, and has immense influence over the country's hydrocarbon industry.

帖木尔·阿斯科儒利·库里巴耶夫(;1966年-9月10日),是哈萨克斯坦斯坦阿拉木图出身的商业寡头和前哈萨克斯坦斯坦总统纳扎尔巴耶夫的女婿。他从莫斯科国立大学取得经济学博士学位,后曾在管理哈萨克斯坦斯坦自然资源的重要国有企业中担任过多个职务,对国家石化产业具有重大影响。


History.

Beginnings.

The area of present-day Cameroon came under German sovereignty during the "Scramble for Africa" at the end of the 19th century. The German protectorate commenced in 1884 with a treaty with local chiefs in the Douala area, in particular Ndumbe Lobe Bell, then gradually it was extended to the interior. In 1911, France ceded parts of its territory to German Cameroon, as a result of the Agadir Crisis, the new territory being henceforth known as New Cameroon (). During World War I, the German protectorate was occupied by British and French troops, and later mandated to each country by the League of Nations in 1922. The British mandate was known as British Cameroons and the French mandate as French Cameroon (). Following World War II each of the mandate territories was made a United Nations Trust Territory. An insurrection headed by Ruben Um Nyobé and the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (UPC) erupted in 1955, strongly repressed by the French Fourth Republic. French Cameroon became independent as the "Republic of Cameroon" in January 1960 and in October 1961 the southern part of British Cameroons joined it to form the "Federal Republic of Cameroon". The Muslim northern part of British Cameroons had opted for union with Nigeria in May the same year. The conflict with the UPC lasted until the 1970s.

Interwar period.

After World War I, French Cameroon was not integrated to French Equatorial Africa (AEF) but made a ""Commissariat de la République autonome"" under French mandate. France enacted an assimilationist policy with the aim of having German presence forgotten, by teaching French on all of the territory and imposing French law, while pursuing the "indigenous politics", which consisted of keeping control of the judiciary system and of the police, while tolerating traditional law issues. The colonial administration also followed public health policies (Eugène Jamot did some research on sleeping sickness) as well as encouraging Francophony. Charles Atangana, designated paramount chief by the Germans, and others local chiefs were invited to France, and Paul Soppo Priso named president of the JEUCAFRA (Cameroon French Youth). Charles Atangana would visit the 1931 Paris Colonial Exhibition and attend the 1935 French Colonial Conference. France took care to make disappear all remains of German presence and aimed at eradicating any trace of Germanophilia. French racism became prevalent throughout the colony rather quickly, and anti-French sentiment followed and would be strengthened in the late 1940s.

World War II.

In 1940 French Cameroon rallied to the Free French when General Philippe Leclerc landed at Douala, capturing it on 27 August and then moved to Yaounde, where the pro-Vichy France governor Richard Brunot was forced to hand over the civil administration of French Cameroon.

Post War.

After World War II, French Cameroon was made a United Nations Trust Territory and unified into the French Union. From the beginning of the 1940s, colonial authorities encouraged a policy of agricultural diversification into monocultural crops: coffee in the west, cotton in the North and cocoa in the south. Construction of roads allowed for greater exploitation of wood. Of a total of three million inhabitants, the French Cameroon territory counted 10% settlers, many who had been resident for decades, and approximatively 15,000 people linked to the colonial administration (civil servants, private agents, missionaries, etc.)  In 1946, a Representative Assembly of French Cameroon (ARCAM) was constituted. Paul Ajoulat and Alexandre Douala Manga Bell were elected deputies of the French National Assembly. Some private and public schools were opened, while the best students were sent to Dakar (Senegal) or France to study in college. The colonial administration also built electricity and water infrastructures in large cities. In 1952, the Representative Assembly became the Territorial Assembly of Cameroon (ATCAM).  The Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (UPC), an anti-colonialist party created in 1948 and which struggled for unification of both Cameroons and for independence was outlawed in 1955. A colonial war then started and lasted for at least seven years, with the French Fourth Republic leading a harsh repression of the anti-colonialist movement. The conflict found its roots in the opposition between the settlers and the Cameroonese trade-unionists in the cities. After the Brazzaville Conference of January 1944, during which the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) issued several promises concerning progressive self-rule, the settlers organized themselves in 1945 in "General estates of colonisation" ("Etats généraux de la colonisation"").  A "Cercle d'études marxistes" (Marxist Study Circle) was created by Cameroonese in 1945, soon followed by the creation of the Union of Confederate Trade Unions of Cameroon ("Union des syndicats confédérés du Cameroun", USCC) at the initiative of the CGT trade-union. Conflicts erupted in September 1945, with the settlers violently debating with the French governor. Members of the USCC were arrested. In 1948, Ruben Um Nyobé became the head of the resistance movement, with a nationalist and revolutionary program. Nyobé's UPC was at first only the local section of the African Democratic Rally created in 1946. However, it refused to split, as did the African Democratic Rally, with the French Communist Party (PCF) in 1950. After some revolts and increasing tensions with the colonial administration, the UPC was outlawed on 13 July 1955 by the governor Roland Pré, forcing Nyobé into hiding, from where he led a guerrilla war against the French administration.

Self rule in 1956 and continuation of the war.

In 1957-58, Pierre Messmer, a Gaullist and head of the "haut-commissaire" of Cameroon (executive branch of the French government) started a decolonisation process which went further than the 1956 loi-Defferre (Defferre Act). At the same time, the Fourth Republic was stranded in the Algerian War (1954-62). It managed to obtain support of Britain in Cameroon.  France granted internal autonomy in 1956, and the ATCAM became the Legislative Assembly of Cameroon (ALCM). André Marie Bbida became Prime minister in 1957, and Ahmadou Ahidjo vice-Premier. Despite the requests by Rubem Um Nyobe, head of the UPC, the new government refused to legalize the UPC. André Bdida renounced in 1958, replaced by Ahidjo, while Um Nyobé was killed by a French commando in the "maquis" on 13 September 1958. Following his death, the UPC divided itself, while competing leaders, verbally in favor of Marxism revolution, radicalized the movement. Starting in 1959, the colonial war juxtaposed itself with a civil war, Ahmadou Ahidjo taking the place of France in fighting the UPC. The successor of Nyobé, Félix-Roland Moumié, was assassinated in 1960 in Geneva by the SDECE, French secret services.  The insurrection continued after independence was granted, even though the UPC had been officially dismantled. The rebellion was really crushed only in the 1970s, after the death in the "maquis" of Ossendé Afana in March 1966 and the public execution of Ernest Ouandié, a historic leader of the UPC, in January 1971.  Estimates about the number of victims of the war ranged around several tens of thousands of deaths, mainly after independence. The war featured human rights abuses by UPC militants and the troops of Cameroon and France. Despite the efforts of writer Mongo Beti, the war and the brutal methods employed by the French government has been overshadowed in France by the Algerian War. The lack interest has been attributed to the use of professional soldiers in the conflict, the low number of Cameroonian immigrants in France requesting recognition of the crimes committed during the war, and, more recently, the fall of Communism.  French Cameroon became independent on 1 January 1960, becoming the Republic of Cameroon. The civil war with the UPC lasted for years afterward.

Colony and mandate.

The area of present-day Cameroon was claimed by Germany as a protectorate during the "Scramble for Africa" at the end of the 19th century. During World War I, it was occupied by French and Belgian troops.  In 1922 it was mandated to Great Britain and France by the League of Nations. The French mandate was known as Cameroun, in French West Africa. The British mandate was administered as two territories, Northern Cameroons and Southern Cameroons in British West Africa. British Northern Cameroons consisted of two non-contiguous sections, divided by where the Nigerian and Cameroon borders met.

Independence.

French Cameroon became independent during January 1960, and Nigeria was scheduled for independence later that same year, which raised question of what to do with the British territory. After some discussion (which had been going on since 1959), a plebiscite (British Cameroons referendum) was agreed to and held on 11 February 1961. The Muslim-majority Northern area opted for union with Nigeria, and the Southern area voted to join Cameroon.  Northern Cameroons became a region of Nigeria on 31 May 1961, while Southern Cameroons became part of Cameroon on 1 October. In the meantime, the area was administered as a French Colony, in French West Africa.

French Cameroon or French Cameroons () was a League of Nations Mandate territory in Central Africa. It now forms part of the independent country of Cameroon.

喀麦隆殖民地(Cameroun) 一个法国在西非的国联托管地,现在原先的大部分地区形成了现今的喀麦隆共和国。


Development.

Bernanos had been hired in 1947 to write the dialogue for a film screenplay, through Raymond-Léopold Bruckberger and the scenario writer Philippe Agostini, based on the novella "" (literal translation, "The Last on the Scaffold" or "Song at the Scaffold", the published title of the English translation) by Gertrud von Le Fort. The novella is based on the story of the Martyrs of Compiègne at the monastery of Carmelite nuns in Compiègne, northern France, in the wake of the French Revolution, specifically in 1794 at the time of state seizure of the monastery's assets. It traces a fictional path from 1789 up to these events, when nuns of the Carmelite Order were guillotined.  The screenplay was judged unsatisfactory for a film. Bernanos died on 5 July 1948. Subsequently, his literary executor, Albert Béguin, found this manuscript. To assist Bernanos' surviving family, Béguin sought to have the work published, and requested permission from von Le Fort for publication. In January 1949, she agreed, and donated her portion of the royalties due to her, as creator of the original story, over to Bernanos' widow and children. However, von Le Fort requested that the Bernanos work be titled differently from her own novella. Béguin chose "Dialogues des Carmélites" as the title for the Bernanos work, which was published in 1949. A German translation of the work, "" ("The Blessed Fear"), was published in 1951, and Zurich and Munich saw productions of "Die begnadete Angst" that year. The French stage premiere was by Jacques Hébertot in May 1952 at the Théâtre Hébertot.  The genesis of the opera was in 1953. Margarita Wallmann took her husband, president of Ricordi, which was Poulenc's publishing firm, to see the Bernanos play in Vienna. She had asked Poulenc to write an oratorio for her; through the commission from Ricordi, he developed the work as the opera. Wallman was the eventual producer of the La Scala première of Poulenc's opera, and she later supervised the 1983 revival at Covent Garden. About the same time, M. Valcarenghi had approached Poulenc with a commission for a ballet for La Scala in Milan.  Separately, Poulenc had seen the Bernanos play, but the suggestion from Ricordi finalised the impetus to adapt the subject as an opera. Poulenc began to adapt the Bernanos text in the spring and summer of 1953, and to compose the music in August 1953. In October 1953, Poulenc learned of a literary rights dispute between Béguin and the American writer Emmet Lavery, who had previously secured all rights to theatrical adaptations of von Le Fort's novel from her in April–May 1949. This was independent of the discussion, concluded in January 1949, between Béguin and von Le Fort. The two-year literary rights dispute between Béguin and Lavery reached arbitration by a jury from "La Societé des Auteurs" in Paris. On 20 July 1954, this jury ruled unanimously for Lavery, and ordered the Bernanos heirs to pay Lavery 100,000 FF for past contract infringements. In addition, the ruling required the Bernanos heirs to pay Lavery, with respect to all future productions of "Dialogues des Carmélites", 15% of the royalties from English-language productions, and 10% from productions in all other languages.  Poulenc had curtailed work on his opera in March 1954, in light of his understanding of the Béguin-Lavery dispute. Following the July 1954 decision, separate negotiations occurred between Béguin and Lavery, via his agent Marie Schebeko, on rights and royalties to allow Poulenc to write his opera. The formal agreement was dated 30 March 1955, and acknowledged Bernanos, Lavery, von Le Fort, Bruckberger, and Agostini. The terms stipulated that the Poulenc opera was adapted from Bernanos 'with the authorization of Monsieur Emmet Lavery', with Lavery listed in the credits after Bernanos and before von Le Fort, without any contribution of material by Lavery to the libretto. Poulenc then resumed work on the opera, and completed it October 1955.  At this time, Poulenc had recommitted himself to spirituality and Roman Catholicism, although he was openly gay and the church officially opposed homosexuality. Opera critic Alan Rich believes that Poulenc's concerns for the travails of post-World War II France, as it tried to reconcile issues related to the Holocaust, German occupation and the Resistance, was a subtext within the opera. Wallmann worked closely with Poulenc during the composition process and in evolving the structure, as well as later when she re-staged the production in other theatres. The libretto is unusually deep in its psychological study of the contrasting characters of Mother Marie de l'Incarnation and Blanche de la Force. Rodney Milnes describes Bernanos' text as "concise and clear" and that like "all good librettos it suggests far more than it states".

Analysis.

Poulenc set his libretto largely in recitative. His own religious feelings are particularly evident in the a cappella setting of "Ave Maria" in Act II, Scene II, and the "Ave verum corpus" in Act II, Scene IV. During the final tableau of the opera, which takes place in the Place de la Nation, the distinct sound of the guillotine's descending blade is heard repeatedly over the orchestra and the singing of the nuns, who are taken one by one, until only Soeur Constance and Blanche de la Force remain.  Poulenc acknowledged his debt to Mussorgsky, Monteverdi, Verdi, and Debussy in his dedication of the opera, with the casual remark:  Music critic Anthony Tommasini has commented on the opera:  Opera historian Charles Osborne wrote:  Philip Hensher has commented on the unique place of this opera in its depiction of convent life:

Performance history.

Poulenc expressed a general wish that the opera be performed in the vernacular of the local audience. Thus the opera was first performed in an Italian translation at La Scala on 26 January 1957, with Romanian soprano Virginia Zeani in the role of Blanche. The original French version premiered on 21 June that year by the Théâtre National de l'Opéra de Paris (the current Opéra National de Paris), where Poulenc had chosen the Paris cast, which included Denise Duval (Blanche de la Force), Régine Crespin (Madame Lidoine), Rita Gorr (Mother Marie), and Liliane Berton (Sister Constance). The United States premiere took place three months later, on 20 September, in English, at San Francisco Opera; this featured the opera stage debut of Leontyne Price (as Madame Lidoine). The opera was first presented in New York City on 3 March 1966, in a staging by New York City Opera.  The 2019 Metropolitan Opera revival of John Dexter’s production was broadcast in high definition on 11-May-2019.  The opera is among a comparatively small number of post-Puccini works that has never lost its place in the international repertory.

Synopsis.

Act 1.

Against the setting of the French Revolution, when crowds stop carriages in the street and aristocrats are attacked, the pathologically timid Blanche de la Force decides to retreat from the world and enter a Carmelite convent. The Mother Superior informs her that the Carmelite Order is not a refuge; it is the duty of the nuns to guard the Order, not the other way around. In the convent, the chatterbox Sister Constance tells Blanche (to her consternation) that she has had a dream that the two of them will die young together. The prioress, who is dying, commits Blanche to the care of Mother Marie. The Mother Superior passes away in great agony, shouting in her delirium that despite her long years of service to God, He has abandoned her. Blanche and Mother Marie, who witness her death, are shaken.

Act 2.

Sister Constance remarks to Blanche that the prioress' death seemed unworthy of her, and speculates that she had been given the wrong death, as one might be given the wrong coat in a cloakroom. She said that perhaps someone else will find death surprisingly easy. Perhaps we die not for ourselves alone, but for each other.  Blanche's brother, the Chevalier de la Force, arrives to announce that their father thinks Blanche should withdraw from the convent, since she is not safe there (being both an aristocrat and the member of a religious community, at a time of anti-aristocracy and anti-clericalism in the rising revolutionary tides). Blanche refuses, saying that she has found happiness in the Carmelite Order. Later she admits to Mother Marie that it is fear (or the fear of fear itself, as the Chevalier expresses it) that keeps her from leaving.  The chaplain announces that he has been forbidden to preach (presumably for being a non-juror under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy). The nuns remark on how fear rules the country, and no one has the courage to stand up for the priests. Sister Constance asks, "Are there no men left to come to the aid of the country?" "When priests are lacking, martyrs are superabundant," replies the new Mother Superior. Mother Marie says that the Carmelites can save France by giving their lives, but the Mother Superior corrects her: it is not permitted to choose to become a martyr; God decides who will be martyred.  A police officer arrives and announces to the community that the Legislative Assembly has nationalized the convent and its property, and the nuns must give up their religious habits. When Mother Marie acquiesces, the officer taunts her for being eager to dress like everyone else. She replies that the nuns will continue to serve, no matter how they are dressed. "The people have no need of servants," proclaims the officer haughtily. "No, but they have a great need for martyrs," responds Mother Marie. "In times like these, death is nothing," he says. "Life is nothing," she answers, "when it is so debased."

Act 3.

In the absence of the new prioress, Mother Marie proposes that the nuns take a vow of martyrdom. However, all must agree, or Mother Marie will not insist. A secret vote is held; there is one dissenting voice. Sister Constance declares that she was the dissenter, and that she has changed her mind, so the vow can proceed. Blanche runs away from the convent, and Mother Marie goes to look for her, finding her in her father's library. Her father has been guillotined, and Blanche has been forced to serve her former servants.  The nuns are all arrested and condemned to death, but Mother Marie is away at the time of the arrest. Upon receiving the news, the chaplain tells Mother Marie, when they meet again, that since God has chosen to spare her, she cannot voluntarily become a martyr by joining the others in prison.  At the place of execution, one nun after another stands and slowly processes toward the guillotine, as all sing the "Salve Regina" ("Hail, Holy Queen"). At the last moment, Blanche appears, to Constance's joy, to join her condemned sisters. Having seen all the other nuns executed, as she mounts the scaffold, Blanche sings the final stanza of the "Veni Creator Spiritus," ""Deo Patri sit gloria..."", the Catholic hymn traditionally used when taking vows in a religious community and offering one's life to God.

The world première of the opera occurred (in Italian translation) on 26 January 1957 at La Scala in Milan. The première of the French-language version took place in Paris on 21 June 1957. The United States première, in English, followed in San Francisco in September 1957.

《圣衣会修女对话录》(Dialogues des Carmélites)是一部法国歌剧,分为十二个场景,由弦乐间隔,弗朗西斯·普朗克于1956年完成。《圣衣会修女对话录》内容讲述圣衣会修女在1794年法国大革命期间恐怖统治,因拒绝放弃信仰在巴黎被处死。


Operation.

DenyHosts checks the end of the authentication log for recent failed login attempts. It records information about their originating IP addresses and compares the number of invalid attempts to a user-specified threshold. If there have been too many invalid attempts it assumes a dictionary attack is occurring and prevents the IP address from making any further attempts by adding it to codice_1 on the server. DenyHosts 2.0 and above support centralized synchronization, so that repeat offenders are blocked from many computers. The site denyhosts.net gathers statistics from computers running the software.  DenyHosts is restricted to connections using IPv4. It does not work with IPv6.  DenyHosts may be run manually, as a daemon, or as a cron job.

Discoveries.

In July 2007, The Register reported that from May until July that year, "compromised computers" at Oracle UK were listed among the ten worst offenders for launching brute force SSH attacks on the Internet, according to public DenyHosts listings. After an investigation, Oracle denied suggestions that any of its computers had been compromised.

Vulnerabilities.

Daniel B. Cid wrote a paper showing that DenyHosts, as well the similar programs Fail2ban and BlockHosts, were vulnerable to remote log injection, an attack technique similar to SQL injection, in which a specially crafted user name is used to trigger a block against a site chosen by the attacker. This was fixed in version 2.6.

Forks and descendants.

Since there had been no further development by the original author Phil Schwartz after the release of version 2.6 (December 2006) and claimed version 2.7 (November 2008) for which no actual downloadable package is available, development was first continued in February 2012 by Matt Ruffalo in a GitHub repository. An independent and separate fork was started at the almost-identically named DenyHost SourceForge project site with the release of a different version 2.7 in May 2014. After version 2.9, the new SourceForge project has merged with the earlier GitHub repository, and newer versions are available via both means.  The software that runs the centralized synchronization server which DenyHosts versions 2.0 and above can use, has never been released. Independent synchronization server software has been developed by Jan-Pascal van Best since June 2015.

References.

General references

DenyHosts is a log-based intrusion-prevention security tool for SSH servers written in Python. It is intended to prevent brute-force attacks on SSH servers by monitoring invalid login attempts in the authentication log and blocking the originating IP addresses. DenyHosts is developed by Phil Schwartz, who is also the developer of Kodos Python Regular Expression Debugger.

DenyHosts是针对SSH服务器的一个基于日志的入侵预防安全工具,是用Python编写的。其通过监测身份验证登录日志中失败的登录尝试,屏蔽这些登录者的IP地址,从而预防对SSH服务器的暴力破解。DenyHosts是由Phil Schwartz开发的,他也是Kodos正则表达式调试器的开发者。


History.

On January 12, 1943 the Vicariate of Ondo-Ilorin, consisting of the Civil Provinces of Ondo and Ilorin, was carved out of both the Vicariate of Asaba-Benin and the Vicariate of the Bight of Benin. Bishop Thomas Hughes S.M.A. was the Vicar Apostolic. In 1950, this Vicariate of Ondo-Ilorin became the Diocese of Ondo. His Lordship, Most Rev. Bishop Hughes, S.M.A., was appointed Bishop of this new Diocese. On his death in 1957, he was succeeded by his Lordship, Most Rev. Dr. William R. Field, S.M.A., consecrated Bishop on April 27, 1958.  On December 6, 1960, the Prefecture of Ilorin was carved out of the Diocese of Ondo with Bishop William Mahony, SMA as its first Bishop. On October 10, 1971, His Lordship, Most Rev. Dr. Michael O. Fagun, became the first Auxiliary Bishop of Ondo Diocese and when the Diocese of Ekiti was detached from the Diocese of Ondo on October 10, 1972, he became first diocesan bishop of Ekiti. On April 21, 1974, his Lordship, Most Rev Dr. Francis F. Alonge, was ordained the Auxiliary Bishop of Ondo Diocese, and on the retirement of Bishop Field, he became the diocesan bishop and his episcopal enthronement took place in the Sacred Heart Cathedral, Akure, on August 22, 1976.  On the 6th of May 2010, Most Rev Dr Jude Arogundade was consecrated Bishop and was appointed as a Co-Adjutor to Most Rev Dr. Francis Alonge in the Diocese of Ondo. Upon the acceptance of the letter of Resignation of Bishop Alonge by Pope Benedict XVI on 26 November 2010, Bishop Jude succeeded Bishop Alonge and was enthroned as the bishop of the Diocese on the 14 January 2011 at the Sacred Heart Cathedral Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. The Diocese of Ondo, as it is today, is within Ondo State. The number of parishes, Mass centers and priests has grown tremendously over the years. Today, we have fifty parishes and Mass centers and the diocese is blessed with over ninety priests serving within and outside the diocese. The Diocese has an area of 15,518 sqm. With a population of about 3,225,255 of whom 265,000 are Catholics. The Diocesan Headquarters is Akure, the Capital City of Ondo State.

Special churches.

• The Cathedral is Sacred Heart Cathedral in Akure • Catholic Chaplaincy Rufus Giwa Polytechnic Owo, • Christ the King Catholic church Alagbaka Estate Akure, • Mary Help of Christians' Church Araromi Akure, • Mary Mother of God Ogbese, • Mary the Virgin Catholic Church Ijare, • Mary Queen of Angels Church Akure, • Mary Queen of Apostles Ijoka Akure, • Our lady Star of the Sea Catholic Church Okitipupa, • Our lady of Mount Carmel Ikare Akoko, • Our Lady of the Holy Rosary Ile Oluji, • Our Lady Queen of Peace Catholic Chaplaincy Adeyemi College of Education Ondo, • Our Lady of Good Counsel Catholic Church Iwaro Oka Akoko, • Queen of Peace Catholic Church, Ikun Akoko, • St Anne Catholic Church Oke Agunla Ondo, • St Albert Catholic Chaplaincy FUT Akure, • St Augustine Catholic Church Ilu Tuntun, • St Augustine Catholic Chaplaincy AAU Akungba Akoko, • St Benedict catholic Chaplaincy, Army Barracks Akure, • St Clare Catholic Church Owalushi, Iwaro Oka Akoko, • St Don Bosco Catholic Church Ijapo Estate Akure, • St Don Bosco Catholic Church Ondo, • St Francis Catholic Church Irun Akoko, • St Francis Catholic Church Oke Aro Akure, • St Francis Catholic church Owaluwa Owo, • St George Catholic Church Ile Oluji, • St Gregory Catholic Church Ikare Akoko, • St James Catholic Church Oke Igbo, • St John the Evangelist Catholic Church Okitipupa, • St Joseph Catholic Church Ife Road Ondo, • St Joseph catholic Church Igbara Oke, • St Joseph Catholic Mass Centre NNPC Akure, • St Leo Catholic Church Ayeyemi Ondo, • St Louis Catholic Church Ondo Bye pass Akure, • St Matthew catholic church Oke Paadi Ondo, • St Patrick Catholic Church Odoode Idanre, • St Patrick catholic church Ondo, • St Patrick Catholic Church Oke Oka Akoko, • St Paul Catholic Church Ore, • St Paul Catholic Church Shagari Village Akure, • St Peter Catholic Church Ilara Mokin, • St Peter Catholic Church Ode Irele, • St Pius Catholic Church Agba Oka Akoko, • St Pius Catholic Church Igbotako, • St Raphael Catholic Church Lijoka Ore, • St Stephen Catholic church Oke Ogun Owo, • St Theresa Catholic Church Alade-Idanre, • St Theresa SMA Catholic Church Ayedun Quarters Akure, • The Catholic Church of Ascension Ore, • The Catholic Church of Annunciation Oba Ile, • St Joseph catholic church Ishua Akoko • St Jude Catholic Church Ugbe Akoko • St Thomas Catholic mass centre Oyinmo Ikare Akoko

Bishops.

The list above includes a Coadjutor who served in 2010.

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Ondo () is a diocese located in the Ondo State in the Ecclesiastical province of Ibadan in Nigeria. The Cathedral and diocesan secretariat are located in Akure.

天主教翁多教区 (、英语:Diocese of Ondo)是尼日利亚一个罗马天主教教区,属伊巴丹总教区。


Personal life.

His father Louie Karunaratne and brothers Niluka Karunaratne and Diluka Karunaratne also a professional badminton players.

Career.

He started playing badminton at aged 7, then in 2004 and 2005 he won the boys' singles and doubles of the Sri Lankan Junior National Badminton Championships. In 2007, he won the Jordan Satellite tournament in men's doubles event partnered with Niluka. In 2008, he won his first national senior title in men's doubles event at the Sri Lankan National Badminton Championships. He also won the Uganda International and became the semi-finalist of the Iran Fajr International tournaments in men's doubles event paired with Diluka Karunaratne.  In 2010, he became the champion of the Sri Lankan National Badminton Championships in men's singles event after defeated his teammate Eranga Fernando. He also participated at the Commonwealth Games in New Delhi, India.  In 2011, he became the semi finalist of Welsh International tournament in men's singles event. In 2012, he won the Sri Lankan National Badminton Championships in men's doubles event and became the runner-up in men's singles event after beat by his own brother Niluka with scores 21-15, 22-20. In September 2012, he competed at the Brazil International tournament in men's doubles event and finished in third place.  In 2013, he won the Uganda International tournament in men's singles event beat Subhankar Dey of India 21-16, 21-17 in a game that lasted 34 minutes. Subhankar took the lead in the two games, but Dinuka's good game reading and clever net play was enough to win him the title. He also became the runner-up of Bahrain International tournament defeated by Sameer Verma of India.  In 2014, he defended his title in men's singles event at the Uganda International tournament after beating South Africa's Jacob Maliekal 2-0 (21-12, 21-15) in a highly supported game and also became the runner-up of the Bahrain International tournaments after defeated by Subhankar Dey of India 21-19, 13-21, 21-11. He finished third at the Sri Lanka International tournament after losing a match to Anand Pawar of India in three games, 21-12, 15-21, 21-11. He also competed in the men's singles and mixed team events at the Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, Scotland, and defeated by Daren Liew of Malaysia 21-19, 21-12 in round of 16. In the mixed team event, the Sri Lankan national badminton team defeated by England national badminton team 3-0, where he played in mixed doubles event partnered with Thilini Hendahewa lose to English paired Chris Adcock and Gabrielle Adcock 21-13, 21-10. In 2016, he became the champion in the men's doubles event at the Uganda International tournament partnered with Niluka, after beat the Egyptian paired Ali Ahmed El Khateeb and Abdelrahman Kashkal 21-17, 21-17.  In 2018, he made his fourth appearance at the Commonwealth Games, by competing in Gold Coast.  In 2019, he competed at the South Asian Games in Nepal, won the silver medal in the team event, and the bronze medal in the singles event.

Edirimuni Dinuka Nishan Perera Karunaratne (Sinhala: දිනුක කරුණාරත්න; Tamil: தினுக கருணாரத்ன; born 6 October 1987) is a Sri Lankan badminton player.

迪奴卡·卡鲁纳拉特纳(,,1987年-10月6日),斯里兰卡男子羽毛球运动员。


Establishment.

Origin, 1889–92.

In November 1889, the CLR published a notice of a private bill that would be presented to Parliament for the 1890 parliamentary session. The bill proposed an underground electric railway running from the junction of Queen's Road (now Queensway) and Bayswater Road in Bayswater to King William Street in the City of London with a connection to the then-under construction, City and South London Railway (C&SLR) at Arthur Street West. The CLR was to run in a pair of tunnels under Bayswater Road, Oxford Street, New Oxford Street, High Holborn, Holborn, Holborn Viaduct, Newgate Street, Cheapside, and Poultry. Stations were planned at Queen's Road, Stanhope Terrace, Marble Arch, Oxford Circus, Tottenham Court Road, Southampton Row,

Construction, 1896–1900.

To design the railway, the CLR employed the engineers James Henry Greathead, Sir John Fowler, and Sir Benjamin Baker. Greathead had been the engineer for the Tower Subway and the C&SLR, and had developed the tunnelling shield used to excavate those companies' tunnels under the River Thames. Fowler had been the engineer on the Metropolitan Railway, the world's first underground railway opened in 1863, and Baker had worked on New York's elevated railways and on the Forth Railway Bridge with Fowler. Greathead died shortly after work began and was replaced by Basil Mott, his assistant during the construction

Opening.

The official opening of the CLR by the Prince of Wales took place on 1900, one day before the time limit of the 1899 Act, although the line did not open to the public until 1900. The railway had stations at:  The CLR charged a flat fare of two pence for a journey between any two stations, leading the "Daily

Rolling stock.

Greathead had originally planned for the trains to be hauled by a pair of small electric locomotives, one at each end of a train, but the Board of Trade rejected this proposal and a larger locomotive was designed which was able to pull up to seven carriages on its own. Twenty-eight locomotives were manufactured in America by the General Electric Company (of which syndicate member Darius Ogden Mills was a director) and assembled in the Wood Lane depot. A fleet of 168 carriages was manufactured by the Ashbury Railway Carriage and Iron Company and the Brush Electrical Engineering Company. Passengers boarded and left the trains through folding lattice gates at each end of the carriages; these gates were operated by guards who rode on an outside platform. The CLR had originally intended to have two classes of travel, but dropped the plan before opening, although its carriages were built with different qualities of interior fittings for this purpose.  Soon after the

Extensions.

Reversing loops, 1901.

The CLR's ability to manage its high passenger numbers was constrained by the service interval that it could achieve between trains. This was directly related to the time taken to turn around trains at the termini. At the end of a journey, a locomotive had to be disconnected from the leading end of the train and run around to the rear, where it was reconnected before proceeding in the opposite direction; an exercise that took a minimum of 21⁄2 minutes. Seeking to shorten this interval, the CLR published a bill in November 1900 for the 1901 parliamentary session. The bill requested permission to construct loops at each end of the line so that trains could be turned

Loop line, 1902–05.

Rather than resubmit its 1901 bill, the CLR presented a much more ambitious alternative for the 1902 parliamentary session. The reversing loops were dropped, and the CLR instead proposed to turn the whole railway into a single large loop by constructing a new southern route between the two existing end points, adopting the committee's recommendation for a Hammersmith to City route. At the western end, new tunnels were to be extended from the dead-end reversing siding west of Shepherd's Bush station and from the depot access tunnel. The route was to pass under Shepherd's Bush Green and run under Goldhawk Road as far as Hammersmith Grove where it was to turn south. At the southern end of Hammersmith Grove a station was to be provided on the corner of Brook Green Road (now Shepherd's Bush Road) to provide an interchange with the three stations already located there.  From Hammersmith, the CLR's route was to turn eastwards and

Wood Lane, 1906–08.

In 1905, the government announced plans to hold an international exhibition to celebrate the Entente cordiale signed by France and Britain in 1904. The location of the Franco-British Exhibition's White City site was across Wood Lane from the CLR's depot. To exploit the opportunity to carry visitors to the exhibition, the CLR announced a bill in November 1906 seeking to create a loop from Shepherd's Bush station and back, on which a new Wood Lane station close to the exhibition's entrance would be built. The new work was approved on 1907 in the "Central London Railway Act, 1907".  The new loop was formed

Liverpool Street, 1908–12.

With the extension to Wood Lane operational, the CLR revisited its earlier plan for an eastward extension from Bank to Liverpool Street station. This time, the Great Eastern Railway (GER) agreed to allow the CLR to build a station under its own main line terminus, provided that no further extension would be made north or north-east from there – territory served

Ealing Broadway, 1911–20.

The CLR's next planned extension was westward to Ealing. In 1905, the Great Western Railway (GWR) had obtained parliamentary approval to construct the Ealing and Shepherd's Bush Railway (E&SBR), connecting its main line route at Ealing Broadway to the West London Railway (WLR) north of Shepherd's Bush. From Ealing, the new line was to curve north-east through still mostly rural North Acton, then run east for a short distance parallel with the GWR's High Wycombe line, before curving south-east. The line was then to run on an embankment south of Old Oak Common and Wormwood Scrubs before connecting to the WLR a short distance to the north of the CLR's depot. Construction work did not begin immediately, and, in 1911, the CLR and GWR agreed running powers for CLR services over the line to Ealing Broadway. To make a connection to the E&SBR, the CLR obtained parliamentary permission for a short extension northward from Wood Lane station on 1911 in the "Central London Railway Act, 1911". The new E&SBR line was constructed by the GWR and opened as a steam-hauled freight only line on 1917. Electrification of the track and the start of CLR services were postponed

Richmond, 1913 and 1920.

In November 1912, the CLR announced plans for an extension from Shepherd's Bush on a new south-westwards route. Tunnels were planned under Goldhawk Road, Stamford Brook Road and Bath Road to Chiswick Common where a turn to the south would take the tunnels under Turnham Green Terrace for a short distance. The route then was to head west again to continue under Chiswick High Road before coming to the surface east of the London and South Western Railway's (L&SWR's) Gunnersbury station. Here a connection would be made to allow the CLR's tube trains to run south-west to Richmond station over L&SWR tracks that the DR shared and had electrified in 1905. Stations were planned on Goldhawk Road at its junctions with The Grove, Paddenswick Road and Rylett Road, at Emlyn Road on Stamford Brook Road, at Turnham Green Terrace (for a connection with the L&SWR's/DR's Turnham Green station) and at the junction of Chiswick High Road and

Competition, co-operation and sale, 1906–13.

From 1906 the CLR began to experience a large fall in passenger numbers caused by increased competition from the DR and the MR, which electrified the Inner Circle in 1905, and from the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway (GNP&BR) which opened its rival route to Hammersmith in 1906. Road traffic also offered a greater challenge as motor buses began replacing the horse drawn variety in greater numbers. In an attempt to maintain income, the company increased the flat fare for longer journeys to three pence in July 1907 and reduced the fare for shorter journeys to one penny in March 1909. Multiple booklets of tickets, which had previously been sold at face value, were offered at discounts, and season tickets were introduced from July 1911.  The CLR looked to economise through the use of technological developments. The introduction in 1909 of dead-man's handles to the driver controls and "trip cocks" devices on signals and trains meant that the assistant driver was no

Improvements and integration, 1920–33.

Following the takeover, the UERL took steps to integrate the CLR's operations with its own. The CLR's power station was closed in March 1928 with power instead being supplied from the UERL's Lots Road Power Station in Chelsea. Busier stations were modernised; Bank and Shepherd's Bush stations received escalators in 1924, Tottenham Court Road and Oxford Circus in 1925 and Bond Street in 1926, which also received a new entrance designed by Charles Holden. Chancery Lane and Marble Arch stations were also rebuilt to receive escalators in the early 1930s.  On 5 November 1923 new stations were opened on the Ealing extension at North Acton and West Acton. They were built to serve residential and industrial developments around Park Royal and, like East Acton, the station buildings were basic structures with simple timber shelters on the platforms. The poor location of British Museum station and the lack of an interchange with the GNP&BR's station at Holborn had been a considered a problem by the CLR almost since the opening of the GNP&BR in 1906. A pedestrian subway to link the stations was considered

Move to public ownership, 1923–33.

Despite closer co-operation and improvements made to the CLR stations and to other parts of the network, the Underground railways continued to struggle financially. The UERL's ownership of the highly profitable London General Omnibus Company (LGOC) since 1912 had enabled the UERL group, through the pooling of revenues, to use profits from the bus company to subsidise the less profitable railways. However, competition from numerous small bus companies during the early 1920s eroded the profitability of the LGOC and had a negative impact on the profitability of the whole UERL group.  To protect the UERL group's income, its chairman Lord Ashfield lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area.

Legacy.

In 1935 the LPTB announced plans as part of its New Works Programme to extend the CLR at both ends by taking over and electrifying local routes owned by the GWR in Middlesex and Buckinghamshire and by the LNER in east London and Essex. Work in the tunnels to lengthen platforms for longer trains and to correct misaligned tunnel sections that slowed running speeds was also carried out. A new station was planned to replace the cramped Wood Lane. The service from North Acton through Greenford and Ruislip to Denham was due to open between January 1940 and March 1941. The eastern extension from Liverpool Street to Stratford, Leyton and Newbury Park and the connection to the LNER lines to Hainault, Epping and Ongar were intended to open in 1940 and 1941. World War II caused works on both extensions to be halted and London Underground services were extended in stages from 1946 to 1949, although the final section from West Ruislip to Denham was cancelled. Following the LPTB takeover, the Harry Beck-designed tube map began to show the route's name as the "Central London Line" instead of "Central London Railway". In anticipation of the extensions taking its services far beyond the boundaries of the County of London, "London" was omitted from the name on 1937; thereafter it was simply the "Central line". The CLR's original tunnels form the core of the Central line's route.  During World War II, of completed tube tunnels built for the eastern extension between Gants Hill and Redbridge were used as a factory by Plessey to manufacture electronic parts for aircraft. Other completed tunnels were used as air-raid shelters at Liverpool Street, Bethnal Green and between Stratford and Leyton, as were the closed parts of British Museum station At Chancery Lane, new tunnels in diameter and long were constructed below the running tunnels during 1941 and early 1942. These were fitted out as a deep level shelter for government use as a protected communications centre. Work on a similar shelter was planned at Post Office station (renamed St Paul's in 1937) but was cancelled; the lift shafts that were made redundant when the station was given escalators in January 1939 were converted for use as a protected control centre for the Central Electricity Board.

The Central London Railway (CLR), also known as the Twopenny Tube, was a deep-level, underground "tube" railway that opened in London in 1900. The CLR's tunnels and stations form the central section of the London Underground's Central line.

中央伦敦铁路(,CLR),又被称为“两便士地铁”(英语:Twopenny Tube),是伦敦历史上一条深层地铁线路,其路线相当于今日伦敦地铁的中央线中部部分。