路易丝-玛丽 (奥尔良公主)

Life.

Born in Palermo, Sicily, on 3 April 1812, she was the eldest daughter of the future Louis-Philippe I, King of the French, and of his wife Maria Amalia of the Two Sicilies. As a child, she had a religious and "bourgeoisie" education thanks to the part played by her mother and her aunt, Princess Adélaïde of Orléans to whom she was very close. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon she was entitled to the rank of a Princess of the Blood Royal.

Marriage.

On 9 August 1832, the twenty-year-old Louise married King Leopold I of the Belgians, who was twenty-two years her senior. Leopold had been widowed by his wife, Princess Charlotte of Wales after her death in childbirth in 1817. Since Leopold was a Protestant, they had both a Catholic and a Calvinist ceremony.

Children.

Louise and Leopold had four children, including Leopold II of Belgium and Empress Carlota of Mexico. Although never faithful to Louise, Leopold respected her and their relationship was a harmonious one.  Louise was the 298th Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa on 10 February 1835. A devoted wife and loving mother, she was of a very shy nature and was often only seen in public when her husband forced her. She soon proved to be very popular at the Belgian court with her famous generosity and beauty.

Charity work.

Every morning, Queen Louise-Marie received reports about some needy families. She then personally visited their homes to bring them comfort and financial aid. Sometimes Queen Louise-Marie did not have enough money for her charitable works and then borrowed money without telling her husband.

Death.

Queen Louise-Marie died of tuberculosis in the former Royal palace of Ostend on 11 October 1850. Her death was confirmed in record by ministers Charles Rogier and Victor Tesch. Her body was brought to Laeken, and a memorial was erected in Oostende. She is buried beside her husband in Royal Crypt of the Church of Our Lady of Laeken.

Louise of Orléans (Louise-Marie Thérèse Charlotte Isabelle; 3 April 1812 – 11 October 1850) was a French princess who became the first Queen of the Belgians as the second wife of King Leopold I. She was also known as Louise-Marie.

路易丝-玛丽(,1812年-4月3日-1850年-10月11日)是法国奥尔良王朝的公主和比利时王国的第一任王后。她的丈夫是比利时的开国国王利奥波德一世。


History.

Gatwick Airport railway station opened in June 1958. Initially the rail service was provided entirely by London to Brighton stopping services, but more trains began to call with the introduction of the summer timetable in June 1958. One of the key elements of this was the extension of Three Bridges to Bognor Regis stopping services to start and terminate at London Victoria. These trains would run through a reversible platform at Gatwick where a portion would detach and wait in the platform for passengers until the next up train from Bognor Regis was attached and the train would depart for Victoria. For this service British Rail used a small batch of seven Class 402 2HALs in order to work with the trains used on the Bognor Regis services, suitable for airport link use because of their larger luggage space.  This situation lasted until the early 1970s, when increased passenger and luggage travel to the station was rendering the old system obsolete. British Rail therefore decided to adapt a number of Class 423 4VEPs with increased luggage capacity (at the expense of fewer second class seats) and were redesignated as Class 427 4VEGs. The service however remained much the same, with the units attaching and detaching from Bognor Regis bound services running via Redhill. This led to somewhat extended journey times which meant the service lacked any real purpose, as the faster services began calling at Gatwick Airport from the early 1970s, and made the option of travelling to Gatwick from London on the service lack appeal to those who knew better.  In 1975 British Airports Authority airport director John Mulkern, British Caledonian Airways chairman Adam Thomson and British Rail's Southern Region regional manager Bob Reid, formed the Gatwick Liaison Group to discuss matters of mutual interest.  As a subsidiary of this, the Gatwick Promotion Group, under the chairmanship of the airport public relations manager David Hurst, was formed to market the airport. One of the first successes of the group was to persuade the British Rail board to redevelop Gatwick station by building a raft over the platforms, and this was opened by British Rail chairman Peter Parker in 1980. It was a long-term aim of the group to have a non-stop service between the airport and central London in order to counter the perceived distance from the capital both to the UK market and to potential passengers at the overseas destinations.  At first the service from Bognor Regis, which by this stage only stopped at East Croydon, was branded "Rapid City Link".

Express service.

In May 1984, the non-stop Gatwick Express service began, using Class 73s with Mark 2 carriages. They were converted into Class 488 and Class 489. A 30-minute journey time was advertised, although some journeys would take nearer 35 minutes, especially during peak hours.

Privatisation.

Gatwick Express was the first portion of British Rail's InterCity sector to be converted into a separate train operating unit, ready for franchising as a private business with the assets transferred to Gatwick Express Limited in March 1994. The Gatwick Express franchise was awarded by the Director of Passenger Rail Franchising to National Express with the franchise starting on 28 April 1996.

Operated by Southern.

In April 2007 the Department for Transport announced that the Gatwick Express franchise was to be incorporated into the South Central franchise and the services transferred to Southern on 22 June 2008.  On 20 August 2008 the Department for Transport announced that Abellio, Govia, National Express and Stagecoach had been shortlisted to bid for the new South Central franchise. On 9 June 2009 the Department for Transport announced that Govia had retained the franchise, beginning on 20 September 2009.

Operated by Govia Thameslink Railway.

The Department for Transport confirmed prior to the awarding of the new franchise that the Southern franchise would be merged at its conclusion in July 2015 into the proposed Thameslink, Southern and Great Northern franchise.  In March 2012 the Department for Transport announced that Abellio, FirstGroup, Govia, MTR and Stagecoach had been shortlisted to bid for the new franchise. The Invitation to Tender was to have been issued in October 2012, and the successful bidder announced in Spring 2013. However, in the wake of the InterCity West Coast refranchising process collapsing, the Secretary of State for Transport announced in October 2012 that the process would be put on hold pending the results of a review.  With the last franchise expiring on 25 July 2015, the South Central franchise merged with the Thameslink Great Northern franchise to create Thameslink, Southern and Great Northern. This is operated by Govia Thameslink Railway, which is also owned by Southern's parent company, Govia. The Gatwick Express brand identity has been retained. Oyster cards and contactless payment cards have been accepted for travel between London Victoria and Gatwick Airport since January 2016.

Services.

The standard weekday and Saturday service pattern is one train every 30 minutes between and. At peak times on weekdays, "all" Gatwick Express trains run every 15 minutes; additional stops are also made during this time at and (half-hourly) or, Hassocks and (half-hourly). On Sundays, the service pattern between London and the airport is unchanged but there are no extensions to or from Brighton.

Past services.

From privatisation until December 2008, the service pattern was one train every 15 minutes non-stop between and.  In April 2007 the Department for Transport announced that the Gatwick Express franchise was to be incorporated into the South Central franchise. as part of a plan to increase capacity on the Brighton Main Line. As a result, peak-time services were extended beyond Gatwick to/from from December 2008, with northbound trains running every 15 minutes in the morning peak and southbound trains to Brighton every 15 minutes in the evening peak. This change doubled the number of London-to-Brighton express trains during peak periods. Additional calls were made at,,, and/or ; the stopping pattern for northbound services was not regular but all stations received at least one train a day, while all services called at Haywards Heath; the southbound services were more structured, with all services calling at Haywards Heath and half-hourly services for Burgess Hill, Hassocks and Preston Park (no southbound trains served Wivelsfield).  As part of the December 2015 timetable, Gatwick Express began serving Brighton all day (except on Sundays), with half-hourly services in the off-peak and evenings (while the remaining services continue to terminate at Gatwick Airport). Unlike peak-time services, these call at no intermediate stations between Brighton and the airport. These services replaced the half-hourly "express" services operated by Southern (which did not call at Gatwick Airport).  In May 2018, the stopping pattern for peak-time services was changed: all calls at Wivelsfield and Preston Park stations were withdrawn, Hassocks is now served by all peak Gatwick Express services every 15 minutes, while Burgess Hill and Haywards Heath are served half-hourly (by alternate services) in both directions. Services to and from Preston Park were restored in May 2019, though, with half-hourly calls made by the same trains that stop at Burgess Hill.

Ticketing.

London – Gatwick is one of the few journeys on the UK National Rail network for which tickets restricting travel to certain brands of service are available in addition to the option of standard inter-available fares for immediate travel as on all flows shared by different National Rail operators (although some restrictions may apply on cheaper tickets). Through tickets for which the Brighton Main Line is part of a permitted route are valid on the Gatwick Express service as with all other Govia Thameslink Railway services, the only exclusion being some tickets from London to stations south of Gatwick routed "Not Gatwick Express".  Historically, standard Gatwick Express services did not charge penalty fares and permitted tickets to be purchased on board at no extra charge. Journeys to or from stations south of Gatwick were subject to penalty fares as normal. This rule applied to the six weekday services each way that start or end at Brighton. However, in December 2011 electronic ticket gates were installed at Gatwick Airport and London Victoria platforms 13 and 14 (where the Gatwick Express arrives and departs), meaning that tickets can no longer be bought on the train and must be purchased either in advance or at the station before boarding.  London Oyster Cards and contactless cards have been accepted for travel since January 2016 between London Victoria and Gatwick Airport.

Performance.

In May 2013 the Chairman of Gatwick Airport, Roy McNulty, criticised the Gatwick Express service for its overcrowding and old rolling stock. He said that the train service sometimes "at times veers towards Third World conditions" and that it gives air passengers arriving in the United Kingdom a bad first impression of the UK, and called for major improvements. Southern responded by stating that it had provided some 20,000 extra peak-hour seats every week on the London-Brighton line.  In August 2018 they were directed by the Advertising Standards Authority (an independent advertising regulator) to remove claims of a 30-minute journey time between London and Gatwick due to poor performance on the line.

Rolling stock.

Govia Thameslink Railway operates a fleet of Gatwick Express branded s which it received during 2016. GTR placed a £145.2 million order with Bombardier for 27 sets of the type in November 2014 to replace the existing Class 442 "Wessex Electrics".  The type underwent testing in July 2015, and began to enter passenger service in February 2016. The new trains have 12 carriages compared with 10 for the Class 442, and also feature additional luggage space, wireless internet connectivity and passenger service updates.  In April 2016, drivers belonging to the ASLEF trade union refused to pick up passengers on the new Class 387 trains. The trains are fitted with "Driver-Only Operation" (DOO) capability, meaning that the driver closes the doors using CCTV and decides that it is safe to move off, rather than a guard. DOO had been used on the previous 10-car Class 442, but the union claimed that extending this to 12-car trains put too much pressure on the driver and was unsafe. In response, GTR took legal action, and the union ultimately dropped the claim.  The Gatwick Express branded fleet is maintained at Stewarts Lane depot.

Past fleet.

Until 1984 the service was operated by Class 423 slam-door stock, coded 4-VEG (G for Gatwick).  From May 1984 Mark 2F stock released from Midland Main Line duties coupled to a Class 489 Gatwick Luggage Van took over the services, hauled by locomotives.  A franchise commitment by National Express was the replacement of these with new stock, and eight Class 460 "Junipers" started to be delivered from January 1999. Because of reliability problems, some of the old stock remained in service until 2005.  To replace the last of the old stock, a pair of Class 458 "Junipers" were transferred from South West Trains for use as spares. They remained in their existing livery but with "Gatwick Express" branding. Their seating was modified from high density 3+2 seating configuration to 2+2 configuration, some seating being replaced with luggage racks. However, these units never entered service and returned to South West Trains. The Class 460s were withdrawn from service in September 2012 to be merged with the mechanically similar Class 458 units used by South West Trains in order to provide more stock at peak times.  The Gatwick Express service received 17 refurbished Class 442 "Wessex Electrics" from South West Trains from December 2008, followed by a further seven through leases in 2009, after Southern retained the South Central franchise. The additional rolling stock allowed Southern to provide extra capacity on the Gatwick Express services extended to Brighton. The stock were replaced during 2016 by newly built Class 387/2s.

Gatwick Express is a high-frequency rail passenger service between London Victoria, Gatwick Airport, and Brighton in South East England. It is the brand name used by the Govia Thameslink Railway train operating company on the Gatwick Express route of the Thameslink, Southern and Great Northern franchise. It provides a high frequency airport rail service from Victoria to Gatwick Airport. The service began in May 1984 with air-conditioned InterCity carriages operated by British Rail. When it was privatised in April 1996, National Express took over the franchise. In June 2008, Gatwick Express ceased to exist as a separate franchise, when it was merged into the Southern train operating company, although it continues to be maintained as a separate identity. In July 2015, Southern including the Gatwick Express service was merged into Govia Thameslink Railway.

-{zh:盖特威克;zh-hans:盖特威克;zh-hant:盖特威克;}-机场快线(英语:Gatwick Express),又译-{zh:盖威克;zh-hans:盖威克;zh-hant:盖威克;}-机场快线及-{格域}-机场快线,是英语:National Express Group营运的机场铁路,来往维多利亚站及英格兰东南部的伦敦-{zh:盖特威克;zh-hans:盖特威克;zh-hant:盖特威克;}-机场。-{zh:盖特威克;zh-hans:盖特威克;zh-hant:盖特威克;}-机场快线原为英语:National Express Group旗下一家列车营运公司,独立营运本线至2008年6月22日。专营权终止后,路线的专营权和原列车营运公司都转至南方铁路。


Applicable products.

The CCC mark is required for both Chinese-manufactured and foreign-imported products; the certification process involves the Guobiao standards.

Implementation rules.

Apart from the GB Standard, the implementation rules are the second important component that form the basis of CCC certification. The implementation rules determine the process of the CCC-Certification and list the mandatory products for the certification. Based on many regulatory amendments, it is important to get the latest version of the implementation rules before starting the certification process.  In 2014, a comprehensive regulatory amendment of the Implementation Rules had taken place. The major changes are:

Administration.

The CCC mark is administered by the CNCA (Certification and Accreditation Administration of the People's Republic of China). The China Quality Certification Center (CQC) is designated by CNCA to process CCC mark applications and defines the products that need CCC. The products are summed up in overall product categories. Additionally, the following certification authorities are responsible for specific groups of products:

Follow-up certification.

The CCC certificate and the Permission of Printing, which allows the manufacturer to mark the CCC-certified product with the CCC mark, must be renewed annually in order to keep the validity of the certificate. The renewal can only be done through a follow-up certification. Part of the follow-up certification is a one-day factory audit.

IT security products.

On April 27, 2009, China announced 13 categories of the IT security sector products that must conform to the additional authority that was newly bestowed on the CCC (China Compulsory Certificate), and this requirement was to be put into effect on May 1, 2009. In view of the security measures taken by China, there was a seemingly high likelihood that they would request the full disclosure of all source codes running on any and all devices, imported or otherwise. The divulgence of such source codes is of great concern to countries like the U.S., Japan, the EU, and South Korea; all four asked China to reverse this decision and objected to the implementation of the Chinese plan. Thus, the certification agents were soon limited to the organizations and entities within China - a compromise of sorts. However, despite this restriction, there still arose other concerns as to whether source codes and trade secrets could be leaked to the private sectors. In response to these enduring concerns, China altered the previously planned CCC policy programme. Instead of administering broad and stringent encroachments upon the relevant categories of imports (primarily, computer technology), they decided to engage in an alternate regulatory action solely affecting government procurement projects, while simultaneously postponing the enactment of the policy programme to May 1, 2010. China also stated that the number of applicable CCC product categories is not to expand past the current 13 already in place.

Protection of intellectual property in the CCC certification.

Although the CCC-Certification’s only purpose is to ensure compliance of products with the Chinese standards, many companies are worried that infringements of their trademarks or patent occur during the CCC-Certification. Especially regarding the following steps, companies are troubled:  For the best possible protection for the own products there are:

The China Compulsory Certificate mark, commonly known as a CCC Mark, is a compulsory safety mark for many products imported, sold or used in the Chinese market. It was implemented on May 1, 2002 and became fully effective on August 1, 2003.

中国强制性产品认证(,缩写:CCC或简称3C,也称中国强制认证)是中华人民共和国实施的国家标准。中华人民共和国国家质量监督检验检疫总局(AQSIQ)及中国国家认证认可监督管理委员会(CNCA)根据2001年12月3日公布的《强制性产品认证管理规定》(国家质量监督检验检疫总局令第5号)制定,由中国国家认证认可监督管理委员会(CNCA)执行。2002年5月1日起实施,同时废除中国电工产品认证委员会(China Commission for Conformity Certification of Electrical Equipment;简称CCEE)及中华人民共和国进出口商品检验局(China Commodity Inspection Bureau;简称CCIB)标志。


Medical uses.

For the treatment of pyelonephritis during pregnancy, and for the treatment of pyelonephritis caused by gram-positive organisms, amoxicillin or amoxicillin-clavulanate potassium is preferred.

Adverse effects.

The use of clavulanic acid with penicillins has been associated with an increased incidence of cholestatic jaundice and acute hepatitis during therapy or shortly after. The associated jaundice is usually self-limiting and very rarely fatal. The UK Committee on Safety of Medicines (CSM) recommends that treatments such as amoxicillin/clavulanic acid preparations be reserved for bacterial infections likely to be caused by amoxicillin-resistant β-lactamase-producing strains, and that treatment should not normally exceed 14 days.  Allergy has been reported.

Sources.

The name is derived from strains of "Streptomyces clavuligerus", which produces clavulanic acid.

Biosynthesis.

Clavulanic acid is biosynthesized from the amino acid arginine and the sugar glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. With the β-lactam like structure, clavulanic acid looks structurally similar to penicillin, but the biosynthesis of this molecule involves a different pathway and set of enzymes. Clavulanic acid is biosynthesized by the bacterium "Streptomyces clavuligerus", using glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and -arginine as the starting materials of the pathway. Although all of the intermediates of the pathway are known, the exact mechanism of each enzymatic reaction is not fully understood. The biosynthesis mainly involves 3 enzymes: clavaminate synthase, β-lactam synthetase and N-(2-carboxyethyl)-L-arginine synthase(CEA). Clavaminate synthase is a non-heme iron α-keto-glutarate dependent oxygenase that is encoded by orf5 of the clavulanic acid gene cluster. The specific mechanism of how this enzyme works is not fully understood, but this enzyme regulates 3 steps in the overall synthesis of clavulanic acid. All 3 steps occur in the same region of the catalytic iron center, yet do not occur in-sequence and affect different areas of the clavulanic acid structure.  β-lactam synthetase is a 54.5 kDa protein that is encoded by orf3 of the clavulanic acid gene cluster, and shows similarity to asparagine synthase – Class B enzymes. The exact mechanism on how this enzyme works to synthesize the β-lactam is not proven, but is believed to occur in coordination with a CEA synthase and ATP.  CEA synthase is a 60.9 kDA protein and is the first gene found in the clavulanic acid biosynthesis gene cluster, encoded by orf2 of the clavulanic acid gene cluster. The specific mechanism of how this enzyme works is still under investigation; however, it is known that this enzyme has the ability to couple together glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate with L-arginine in the presence of thiamine diphosphate (TDP or thiamine pyrophosphate), which is the first step of the clavulanic acid biosynthesis.

History.

Clavulanic acid was discovered around 1974/75 by British scientists working at the drug company Beecham from the bacteria "Streptomyces clavuligerus". After several attempts, Beecham finally filed for US patent protection for the drug in 1981, and U.S. Patents 4,525,352, 4,529,720, and 4,560,552 were granted in 1985.  Clavulanic acid has negligible intrinsic antimicrobial activity, despite sharing the β-lactam ring that is characteristic of β-lactam antibiotics. However, the similarity in chemical structure allows the molecule to interact with the enzyme β-lactamase secreted by certain bacteria to confer resistance to β-lactam antibiotics.  Clavulanic acid is a suicide inhibitor, covalently bonding to a serine residue in the active site of the β-lactamase. This restructures the clavulanic acid molecule, creating a much more reactive species that attacks another amino acid in the active site, permanently inactivating it, and thus inactivating the enzyme.  This inhibition restores the antimicrobial activity of β-lactam antibiotics against lactamase-secreting resistant bacteria. Despite this, some bacterial strains that are resistant even to such combinations have emerged.

Clavulanic acid is a β-lactam drug that functions as a mechanism-based β-lactamase inhibitor. While not effective by itself as an antibiotic, when combined with penicillin-group antibiotics, it can overcome antibiotic resistance in bacteria that secrete β-lactamase, which otherwise inactivates most penicillins.

克拉维酸是一种β-内酰胺类抗生素。它本身并不是强效的抗生素,但克拉维酸盐,即克拉维酸钾,和阿莫西林合成的阿莫西林克拉维酸钾则是一种非常常见的抗细菌药。此外它也可与替卡西林合成抗菌药特美汀。


Early life.

He was born in London, England, to a theatrical family. His parents were the actors Lawrence (1893–1939) and Beatrice Anderson (1893–1977). His great-aunt was Mary Anderson of Louisville, Kentucky, who became one of the first American Shakespearean actresses; the Mary Anderson Theatre in Louisville was dedicated to her.  Anderson began working in the industry as an actor during the 1930s. By 1938, he had graduated to working behind the camera as an assistant director. During World War II, while serving in the British Army's Royal Signals Corps, he met Peter Ustinov and subsequently assisted him on two films.

Early career.

Actor and assistant director.

Anderson appeared in two films as an actor: as Oily Boyd in "Housemaster" (1938); and as Marine Albert Fosdick in Noël Coward's "In Which We Serve" (1942). He joined Elstree Studios as a production runner in 1936 and became an assistant director by 1938.  His credits as assistant director include "Spy for a Day" (1940), "Freedom Radio" (1940), "Quiet Wedding" (1941), "Cottage to Let" (1941) and "Jeannie" (1941). He was unit manager as well as actor on "In Which We Serve" (1942) and was assistant director on "Unpublished Story" (1942).  Anderson served with the Royal Signal Corps during the Second World War, during which time he met Peter Ustinov. On demobilisation, Anderson returned to the film industry working as an assistant director on Ustinov's films "School for Secrets" (1946) and "Vice Versa" (1947). He was also an assistant director on "Fame is the Spur" (1947), "One Night with You" (1947) and "Mr. Perrin and Mr. Traill" (1948).

Director.

Anderson and Ustinov then wrote and directed a feature together, "Private Angelo" (1949).  Anderson made his solo directorial debut with a B film, "Waterfront" (1950) with Robert Newton. The "Telegraph" critic announced, "I can only burn my boats and prophesy that young Michael Anderson is possibly the most promising discovery since Carol Reed and David Lean."  Anderson followed his first at bat with some more B movies: "Hell Is Sold Out" (1951); "Night Was Our Friend" (1952) and "Dial 17" (1952).

Associated British Picture Corporation.

Anderson then signed a contract with Associated British Picture Corporation (ABPC) for whom he wound up making five films. The first was a comedy, "Will Any Gentleman...?" (1953). It was followed by "The House of the Arrow" (1953).  The third was the war film "The Dam Busters" (1955), starring Richard Todd. It was the most popular movie at the British box office in 1955.  Anderson followed this with the first cinema adaptation of George Orwell's "1984" (1956), co-financed by American interests. It was a commercial failure, despite shooting a "happier" ending for the United States release.

"Around the World in 80 Days".

Anderson was then called in to direct "Around the World in 80 Days" (1956), after original director John Farrow had a falling out with producer Mike Todd. Todd reportedly hired him on the strength of "The Dam Busters" and the recommendation of Noël Coward.  The film was a huge hit and Anderson was nominated for an Academy Award (the film won Best Picture) and a Golden Globe for his direction. Todd signed Anderson to a two-picture contract but Todd died in a plane crash in 1958.  Anderson was reunited with Richard Todd for another war film "" (1957) for producer Herbert Wilcox but it was not as popular as "The Dam Busters".  He made a third film with Richard Todd, a thriller, "Chase a Crooked Shadow" (1958); this was his fifth and last movie for Associated British.

International director.

In Ireland he made a thriller about the IRA with James Cagney, "Shake Hands with the Devil" (1959). It was made for Pennebaker, the company of Marlon Brando and provided an early role to Richard Harris.  Anderson then took over a project at MGM originally planned as an Alfred Hitchcock project, "The Wreck of the Mary Deare" (1959), with Gary Cooper and Charlton Heston. Anderson later recalled in 1986, "The magic I remember most is walking on to stage 30 in Culver City at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. It was the biggest stage in the world and I remember looking at it and thinking I'll be here in a couple of weeks and they'll have built a ship and I'll be directing Gary Cooper and Charlton Heston - it's all going to be mine. It gave me such a feeling of astonishment and it's never quite left me."  MGM also financed Anderson's next film, the melodrama "All the Fine Young Cannibals" (1960) with Natalie Wood and Robert Wagner. Anderson was reunited with Cooper in "The Naked Edge" (1961) which turned out to be Cooper's last film.  Harold Pinter wrote "The Servant" for Anderson but the director was unable to secure finance so he sold it to Joseph Losey.  Anderson made some films for Harold Hecht: "Flight from Ashiya" (1964), an adventure tale, and "Wild and Wonderful" (1964), a comedy with Tony Curtis. For MGM and Carlo Ponti he directed the war time thriller "Operation Crossbow" (1965).  Anderson made a spy thriller "The Quiller Memorandum" (1966), starring George Segal and Alec Guinness. He was meant to direct "Eye of the Devil" but fell ill. For MGM he directed the film "The Shoes of the Fisherman" (1968), stepping in for Anthony Asquith at the last moment; the film was a flop.  He was meant to direct the big screen adaptation of James Clavell's "Tai Pan" starring Patrick McGoohan but the film was not made due to high costs.

1970s.

Anderson went for a few years without making a film before returning with "Pope Joan" (1972) and "The Devil's Impostor" (1972). For George Pal he made "" (1975) then did "Conduct Unbecoming" (1975).  "Logan's Run" (1976), about a futuristic society where humanity is enslaved and controlled by a computer that forbids anyone to live past the age of 30, was an expensive box-office success, earning $50 million worldwide and boosting sales for its distributor, Metro Goldwyn Mayer. Anderson then directed "Orca" (1977) and "Dominique" (1978).

Later work.

In 1981, Anderson moved to Canada, where his then-wife was from, and became a Canadian citizen. "It's the best move I ever made," he said in 1986. "There's so much talent, it's exciting, clean, young, fresh and it's been very good to me."  His later work was mostly made-for-television miniseries, including "The Martian Chronicles" (1980), "Sword of Gideon" (1986), "Young Catherine" (1991), "The Sea Wolf" (1993), "Rugged Gold" (1994), "Captain's Courageous" (1996) and "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" (1997).  His feature work in Canada included, "Murder by Phone" (1982), the New Zealand film, "Second Time Lucky" (1984), "Separate Vacations" (1986), "Summer of the Monkeys" (1998), and "Millennium" (1989) and "The Grand Defiance" (1993). He directed "Bottega dell'orefice" ("The Jeweler's Shop", 1988), based on the 1960 play written by Karol Wojtyła, who, by the time the film was made, had become Pope John Paul II. In 1998, he said "I honestly feel like a teenager," and had no intention of retiring. Despite this statement, his last film credit before his retirement would end up being "The New Adventures of Pinocchio" (1999).  In 2012, Michael Anderson received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Directors Guild of Canada. At the time of his death, Anderson was the oldest living nominee for an Academy Award for Best Director, and the only surviving director whose film won a Best Picture award in the 1950s.

Personal life.

He was married three times:  His son Michael Anderson Jr., is an actor who appeared in "Logan's Run" and "The Martian Chronicles"; another son, David Anderson, is a film producer.  Anderson died on 25 April 2018 at the age of 98, from heart disease.

Michael Joseph Anderson (30 January 1920 – 25 April 2018) was an English film director, best known for directing the World War II film "The Dam Busters" (1955), the epic "Around the World in 80 Days" (1956) and the dystopian sci-fi film "Logan's Run" (1976).

老麦可·乔瑟夫·安德森(英语:Michael Joseph Anderson, Sr.,1920年-1月30日-2018年-4月25日)是一名英格兰男导演,较知名的作品如史诗二战电影《轰炸鲁尔水坝记》(1955)、史诗冒险片《环游世界八十天》(1956年)和反乌托邦科幻片《拦截时空禁区》(1976年)。


Geography and location.

Officially, Chinatown is located in downtown San Francisco, covers 24 square blocks, and overlaps five postal ZIP codes (94108, 94133, 94111, 94102, and 94109). It is within an area of roughly long (north to south) by wide (east to west) with the current boundaries being, approximately, Kearny Street in the east, Broadway in the north, Powell in the west, and Bush Street in the south.  Within Chinatown there are two major north–south thoroughfares. One is Grant Avenue (都板街), with the Dragon Gate ("Chinatown Gate" on some maps) at the intersection of Bush Street and Grant Avenue, designed by landscape architects Melvin Lee and Joseph Yee and architect Clayton Lee;

Demographics.

According to the San Francisco Planning Department, Chinatown is "the most densely populated urban area west of Manhattan", with 34,557 residents living in 20 square blocks. In the 1970s, the population density in Chinatown was seven times the San Francisco average.  During the time from 2009 to 2013, the median household income was $20,000 – compared to $76,000 citywide – with 29% of residents below the national poverty threshold. The median age was 50 years, the oldest of any neighborhood. As of 2015, two thirds of the residents lived in one of Chinatown's 105 single room occupancy hotels (SRO), 96 of which had private owners and nine were owned by nonprofits. There are two public housing projects in Chinatown, Ping Yuen and North Ping Yuen.  Most residents are monolingual speakers of Mandarin or Cantonese; in 2015, only 14% of households in the SROs were headed by a person that spoke English fluently. The areas of Stockton and Washington Streets and Jackson and Kearny Streets in Chinatown are almost entirely Chinese or Asian, with blocks ranging from 93% to 100% Asian.  Many of those Chinese immigrants who gain some wealth while living in Chinatown leave it for the Richmond District, the Sunset District or the suburbs.

Demographic history.

Working-class Hong Kong Chinese immigrants began arriving in large numbers in the 1960s. Despite their status and professional qualifications in Hong Kong, many took low-paying employment in restaurants and garment factories in Chinatown because of limited English. An increase in Cantonese-speaking immigrants from Hong Kong and Mainland China has gradually led to the replacement in Chinatown of the Taishanese dialect by the standard Cantonese dialect.  Due to such overcrowding and poverty, other Chinese areas have been established within the city of San Francisco proper, including one in its Richmond and three more in its Sunset districts, as well as a recently established one in the Visitacion Valley neighborhood. These outer neighborhoods have been settled largely

History.

Origins: 1850s.

Guangdong pioneers.

San Francisco's Chinatown was the port of entry for early Chinese immigrants from the west side of the Pearl River Delta, speaking mainly Hoisanese and Zhongshanese, in the Guangdong province of southern China from the 1850s to the 1900s. On August 28, 1850, at Portsmouth Square, San Francisco's first mayor, John Geary, officially welcomed 300 "China Boys" to San Francisco. By 1854, the Alta California, a local newspaper which had previously taken a supportive stance on Chinese immigrants in San Francisco, began attacking them, writing after a recent influx that "if the city continues to fill up with these people, it will be ere long become necessary to make them subject of special legislation". These early immigrant settled near Portsmouth Square and around Dupont Street (now called Grant Ave). As the settlement

Associations and institutions.

The west side of the Pearl River Delta of Guangdong, where most of the Chinese emigrated from, was subdivided into many distinct districts and some with distinct dialects. Several district associations, open to anyone emigrating from that district(s), were formed in the 1850s to act as a culture-shock absorber for newly arrived immigrants and to settle disputes among their member. Although there are some disagreement about which association formed first, by 1854, six of such district associations were formed, of various size and influence, and disputes between members of different associations became more frequent. Thus, in 1862, the six district associations (commonly called the Chinese Six Companies, even though the number of member associations varied through the years) banded together to resolve inter-district disputes. This was made formal in 1882 and incorporated in 1901 as the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (on Stockton Street) to look after the general interest of the Chinese people living in a hostile western world.  Founded purportedly in 1852, the Tin How Temple (Queen of Heaven and Goddess of the Seven Seas) on Waverly Place is the oldest Chinese temple in the United States. It is

Prostitution and ill repute.

In the 1850s, San Francisco ""was all but submerged in Caucasian forms of gambling and prostitution and lewdness"". During the late period of the California Gold Rush, a few Chinese female prostitutes began their sexual businesses in Chinatown. In addition, the major prostitution enterprises had been raised by criminal gang group "Tong", importing unmarried Chinese women to San Francisco. During the 1870s to 1880s, the population of Chinese sex workers in Chinatown grew rapidly to more than 1,800, accounting for 70% of the total Chinese female population.  In the mid-19th century, police harassment reshaped the urban geography and the social life of Chinese prostitutes. Consequently, hundreds of Chinese prostitutes were expelled to side streets and alleys hidden from public traffic. From 1870 to 1874, the California legislature formally criminalized the immigrant Asian women who were transported into California. In 1875, the U.S. Congress followed California's action and passed the Page Law, which was the first major legal restriction to prohibit the immigration of Chinese, Japanese, and Mongolian women into America. In

Ah Toy.

Ah Toy (c.1828 – 1928) was a Cantonese prostitute and madam in San Francisco during the California Gold Rush, and purportedly the first Chinese prostitute in San Francisco. Arriving from Hong Kong in 1849, she quickly became the most well-known Asian woman in the Old West. She reportedly was a tall, attractive woman with bound feet. When Ah Toy left China for the United States, she originally traveled with her husband, who died during the voyage. Toy became the mistress of the ship's captain, who showered gold upon her, so much so that by the time she arrived in San Francisco in the 1840s, Toy had a fair bit of money.

1870s to the 1906 earthquake.

Relations between the United States and Qing China were normalized through the Burlingame Treaty of 1868. Among other terms, the treaty promised the right of free immigration and travel within the United States for Chinese; business leaders saw China as a plentiful source of cheap labor, and celebrated the treaty's ratification. But this did not last for long. The mostly male Chinese immigrants came to the United States with the intent of sending money home to support their families; coupled with the high cost of repaying their loans for travel, they often had to take any work that was available. Fears began to arise

Chinese Exclusion Acts.

In 1880, the Burlingame Treaty was renegotiated and the United States ratified the Angell Treaty, which allowed federal restrictions on Chinese immigration and temporarily suspended the immigration of unskilled laborers. Anti-immigrant sentiment became federal law once the United States Government passed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882: the first immigration restriction law aimed at a single ethnic group. This law, along with other immigration restriction laws such as the Geary Act, greatly reduced the numbers of Chinese allowed into the country and the city, and in theory limited Chinese immigration to single males only. Exceptions were

Tong wars.

As in much of San Francisco, a period of criminality existed during the late 19th century; many tongs arose, trafficking in smuggling, gambling and prostitution. From the mid-1870s, turf battles sprang up over competing criminal enterprises. By the early 1880s, the term Tong war was being popularly used to describe these periods of violence in Chinatown. At their height in the 1880s and 1890s, twenty to thirty tongs ran highly profitable gambling houses, brothels, opium dens, and slave trade enterprises in Chinatown. Overcrowding, segregation, graft, and the lack of governmental control contributed to conditions that sustained the criminal tongs until the early 1920s.  Chinatown's isolation

Bubonic plague.

In March 1900, a Chinese-born man who was a long-time resident of Chinatown was found dead of bubonic plague. The next morning, all of Chinatown was quarantined, with policemen preventing "Asiatics" (people of Asian heritage) from either entering or leaving. The San Francisco Board of Health began looking for more cases of plague and began burning personal property and sanitizing buildings, streets and sewers within Chinatown. Chinese Americans protested and the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association threatened lawsuits.  The quarantine was lifted but the burning and fumigating continued. A federal court ruled that public health officials could not close off Chinatown without any proof that Chinese Americans were any more susceptible to plague than Anglo Americans.

1906 to the 1960s.

The Chinatown neighborhood was completely destroyed in the 1906 earthquake and fire that leveled most of the city. "The fire had full sway, and Chinatown, for the removal of which many a scheme has been devised, is but a memory." Oakland Tribune, April, 1906.

Relocation Attempt.

Plans to relocate Chinatown predated the earthquake several years. At the 1901 Chinese Exclusion Convention held in San Francisco, A. Sbarboro called Chinatown "synonymous with disease, dirt and unlawful deeds" that "give[s] us nothing but evil habits and noxious stenches".  With Chinatown completely demolished by the Great Fire, which ended on April 21, 1906, the City seized the chance to remove the Chinese from the old downtown business district. Certain city officials and real-estate developers made more formal plans to move Chinatown to the Hunters Point neighborhood at the southern edge of the city, or even further south to Daly City. Abe Ruef, the political boss widely considered to be the power behind Mayor Eugene Schmitz, invited himself to become part of the Committee of Fifty and, within a week of the end of the Great Fire, on Saturday, April 27, 1906, formed an additional Subcommittee on Relocating the Chinese, because he felt the land was too valuable for Chinese.  Opposition arose, however, from politicians who feared that the removal of the Chinese would affect San Francisco's lucrative trade with Asian countries. Moreover, the

Rebuilding.

Even when the Subcommittee was bringing its relocation attempt to an end, the Chinese were already rebuilding, albeit with temporary wooden buildings which did not required permits. By June 10, 1906, twelve Chinese businesses were opened in Chinatown, including a couple of cafes. The actual reconstruction did not begin until October 1, 1906, when the City granted 43 building permits to Chinese businesses. By the time of the first post-quake Chinese New Year in 1907, several dozen buildings were completed, using old bricks unburnt by the fire, and Chinatown was filled with happy people. The reconstruction of Chinatown was completed more or less in 1908, a year ahead of the rest of the City.  A group of Chinese merchants, including Mendocino-born Look Tin Eli, hired American architects to design in a Chinese-motif "Oriental" style in order to promote tourism in the rebuilt Chinatown. The results of this design strategy were the pagoda-topped buildings of the Sing Chong and Sing Fat bazaars on the west corners of Grant Ave (then Dupont St) and California St, which have become icons of San Francisco Chinatown.  In November 1907, an article extolling the

Nightlife.

The famous Sam Wo restaurant opened in 1912.  In 1925 for the celebration of the San Francisco Diamond Jubilee, the Downtown Merchants Association, the Chinese Chamber of Commerce, and the San Francisco Diamond Jubilee Festival jointly raised $18,000 for 43 dragon street lamps to be cast in China and installed along Grant Avenue from Bush Street to Broadway. Designed by W(alter) D’Arcy Ryan, who also designed the "Path of Gold" streetlights along Market Street, the distinctive street lamp, painted in traditional Chinese colors of red, gold and green, was composed of a cast-iron hexagonal base supporting a lotus and bamboo shaft surmounted with two cast-aluminum dragons below a pagoda lantern with bells and topped by a stylized hexagonal red roof—all in keeping with the Oriental style pioneered by Look Tin Eli

The Second World War Years and Immigration reform.

For the Chinese in Chinatown, the war came upon them in September 1931, when Japan attacked the Manchurian city of Mukden, and became unignorable in July 1937, when Japan launched a major offensive southward from their base in Manchuria towards the heart of China. In response, the Chinese Six Companies convened many community organizations together, from which was founded the Chinese War Relief Association, to raise funds from the Chinatown communities through out the U.S. to aid civilians trapped by the war in China. In San Francisco's Chinatown, a popular means to raise money for war relief was through the Rice Bowl parades and parties, where the appeal to fill the rice bowls of starving children victimized by the war in China resonated with the Chinatown community. One hallmark of the Rice Bowl parade was the striking scene of a large number of Chinese-American women in fashionable Chinese dress (the cheongsam) carrying one huge Chinese flag spanning the width of the street, onto which money was thrown from balconies, windows, and sidewalks. In the Rice Bowl parade and party of 1938, San Francisco Chinatown raised $55,000; the

Frank Wong dioramas.

San Francisco artist Frank Wong created miniature dioramas that depict Chinatown during the 1930s and 1940s. In 2004, Wong donated seven miniatures of scenes of Chinatown, titled "The Chinatown Miniatures Collection," to the Chinese Historical Society of America (CHSA). The dioramas are on permanent display in CHSA's Main Gallery.

1960s–present.

In the 1960s, the shifting of underutilized national immigration quotas brought in another huge wave of immigrants, mostly from Hong Kong. This changed San Francisco Chinatown from predominantly Hlay Yip Wah (Sze Yup or Hoisan Wah)-speaking to Sam Yup Wah (standard Cantonese)-speaking. During the same decade, many stores moved from Grant Avenue to Stockton Street, drawn by lower rents and the better transportation enabled by the 30-Stockton Muni trolleybus line. There were areas where many Chinese in Northern California living outside of San Francisco Chinatown could maintain small communities or individual businesses. Nonetheless, the historic rights of property owners to

Gang violence.

With these changes came a weakening of the Tongs' traditional grip on Chinese life. Newer Chinese groups often came from areas outside of the Tongs' control, so the influence of the Tongs and criminal groups associated with them, such as the Triads, grew weaker in Chinatown and the Chinese community. However, the presence of the Asian gangs remained significant in the immigrant community, and in the summer of 1977, an ongoing rivalry between two street gangs, the Wah Ching and the Joe Boys, erupted in violence and bloodshed, culminating in a shooting spree at the Golden Dragon Restaurant on Washington Street (華盛頓街). Five people were killed and eleven wounded, none of whom were gang members. The incident has become infamously known as the Golden Dragon massacre. Five perpetrators, who

Culture.

Institutions.

San Francisco's Chinatown is home to the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (known as the Chinese Six Companies), which is the umbrella organization for local Chinese family and regional associations in Chinatown. It has spawned lodges in other Chinatowns in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including Chinatown,

Events and Festivals.

In the 1950s, during the Korean war, a number of Chinese-American leaders, led by W. K. Wong, organized the San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade, including art shows, street dances, martial arts, music, and a fashion show. The 1953 parade was led by Korean war veteran, Joe Wong, and featured the Miss Chinatown festival queen and the dragon. By 1958, the festival queen had been formally expanded into the pageant of "Miss Chinatown U.S.A". In 1994, around 120 queer Asian Americans joined the annual parade, which was the first time that Asian American queer community had appeared in public and gained acceptance from Chinese-American society.  San Francisco Chinatown's annual

Chinatown Community Development Center.

Chinatown Community Development Center is an organization formed in 1977 after the merger of the Chinatown Resource center and the Chinese Community Housing Corporation. The organization was started by Gordon Chin, who served as

Media and politics.

In the citywide Board of Supervisors elections, Chinatown forms part of District Three and in 2014

Fame.

San Francisco Chinatown restaurants are considered to be the birthplace of Americanized Chinese cuisine such as food items like Chop Suey while introducing and popularizing Dim Sum to American tastes, as its Dim Sum tea houses are a major tourist attraction. Johnny Kan was the proprietor of one of the first modern style Chinese restaurants, which opened in 1953. Many of the district's restaurants have been featured in food television programs on Chinese cuisine such as Martin Yan's "Martin Yan - Quick & Easy".  Chinatown has served as a backdrop for several movies, television shows, plays and documentaries including "The Maltese Falcon", "What's

Transportation.

San Francisco cable cars have long served areas of Chinatown; the modern system serves the southern (along California Street) and western (along Powell Street) sections of the neighborhood.  The Stockton Street Tunnel was completed in 1914 and brought San Francisco Municipal Railway Streetcar service to Stockton Street. After the tracks were removed, the overhead wires were maintained and buses replaced streetcars along the route. The "30 Stockton" and "45 Union-Stockton" are among the most heavily ridden lines in the system. Modern rail service will return at Chinatown station upon completion of the Central Subway.  The Broadway Tunnel was completed in 1952 and was intended to serve as a connection between the Embarcadero Freeway and the Central Freeway. These plans did not materialize due to the highway revolts at the time. The tunnel currently serves to connect Chinatown with Russian Hill and Van Ness Avenue to the west.  In the 1980s, Chinatown merchants were opposed to the removal of the Embarcadero Freeway, but these objections were overturned after it was damaged in the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. According to the San Francisco Chronicle, activist Rose Pak then "almost single-handedly persuaded the city to build" the $1.5 billion Central Subway project to compensate Chinatown for the demolition of the freeway.  The 49-Mile Scenic Drive is routed through Chinatown, with particular attention paid to the corner of Grant and Clay.

The Chinatown centered on Grant Avenue and Stockton Street in San Francisco, California, () is the oldest Chinatown in North America and the largest Chinese enclave outside Asia. It is also the oldest and largest of the four notable Chinese enclaves within San Francisco. Since its establishment in 1848, it has been highly important and influential in the history and culture of ethnic Chinese immigrants in North America. Chinatown is an enclave that continues to retain its own customs, languages, places of worship, social clubs, and identity. There are two hospitals, several parks and squares, numerous churches, a post office, and other infrastructure. Recent immigrants, many of whom are elderly, opt to live in Chinatown because of the availability of affordable housing and their familiarity with the culture. San Francisco's Chinatown is also renowned as a major tourist attraction, drawing more visitors annually than the Golden Gate Bridge.

旧金山唐人街(又称华埠)是北美洲最古老的唐人街、亚洲以外最大的华人社区,也是旧金山市内人口密度较高的区域。唐人街自1840年代成立以来,一直在美国以至整个北美洲华人移民社区的历史和文化中担当着重要的角色。它除了是数以千计华人移民抵美后的落脚点和安家之处外,也是一个主要旅游景点 — 其商店,餐馆和景点每年吸引的游客超过金门大桥。


Formal definition.

Formally, a Hopf algebra is a (associative and coassociative) bialgebra "H" over a field "K" together with a "K"-linear map "S": "H" → "H" (called the antipode) such that the following diagram commutes:  Here Δ is the comultiplication of the bialgebra, ∇ its multiplication, η its unit and ε its counit. In the sumless Sweedler notation, this property can also be expressed as  As for algebras, one can replace the underlying field "K" with a commutative ring "R" in the above definition.  The definition of Hopf algebra is self-dual (as reflected in the symmetry of the above diagram), so if one can define a dual of "H" (which is always possible if "H" is finite-dimensional), then it is automatically a Hopf algebra.

Structure constants.

Fixing a basis formula_2 for the underlying vector space, one may define the algebra in terms of structure constants for multiplication: for co-multiplication: and the antipode: Associativity then requires that while co-associativity requires that The connecting axiom requires that

Properties of the antipode.

The antipode "S" is sometimes required to have a "K"-linear inverse, which is automatic in the finite-dimensional case, or if "H" is commutative or cocommutative (or more generally quasitriangular).  In general, "S" is an antihomomorphism, so "S" is a homomorphism, which is therefore an automorphism if "S" was invertible (as may be required).  If "S" = id, then the Hopf algebra is said to be involutive (and the underlying algebra with involution is a *-algebra). If "H" is finite-dimensional semisimple over a field of characteristic zero, commutative, or cocommutative, then it is involutive.  If a bialgebra "B" admits an antipode "S", then "S" is unique ("a bialgebra admits at most 1 Hopf algebra structure"). Thus, the antipode does not pose any extra structure which we can choose: Being a Hopf algebra is a property of a bialgebra.  The antipode is an analog to the inversion map on a group that sends "g" to "g".

Hopf subalgebras.

A subalgebra "A" of a Hopf algebra "H" is a Hopf subalgebra if it is a subcoalgebra of "H" and the antipode "S" maps "A" into "A". In other words, a Hopf subalgebra A is a Hopf algebra in its own right when the multiplication, comultiplication, counit and antipode of "H" is restricted to "A" (and additionally the identity 1 of "H" is required to be in A). The Nichols–Zoeller freeness theorem established (in 1989) that the natural "A"-module "H" is free of finite rank if "H" is finite-dimensional: a generalization of Lagrange's theorem for subgroups. As a corollary of this and integral theory, a Hopf subalgebra of a semisimple finite-dimensional Hopf algebra is automatically semisimple.  A Hopf subalgebra "A" is said to be right normal in a Hopf algebra "H" if it satisfies the condition of stability, "ad"("h")("A") ⊆ "A" for all "h" in "H", where the right adjoint mapping "ad" is defined by "ad"("h")("a") = "S"("h")"ah" for all "a" in "A", "h" in "H". Similarly, a Hopf subalgebra "A" is left normal in "H" if it is stable under the left adjoint mapping defined by "ad"("h")("a") = "h""aS"("h"). The two conditions of normality are equivalent if the antipode "S" is bijective, in which case "A" is said to be a normal Hopf subalgebra.  A normal Hopf subalgebra "A" in "H" satisfies the condition (of equality of subsets of H): "HA" = "A""H" where "A" denotes the kernel of the counit on "K". This normality condition implies that "HA" is a Hopf ideal of "H" (i.e. an algebra ideal in the kernel of the counit, a coalgebra coideal and stable under the antipode). As a consequence one has a quotient Hopf algebra "H"/"HA" and epimorphism "H" → "H"/"A""H", a theory analogous to that of normal subgroups and quotient groups in group theory.

Hopf orders.

A Hopf order "O" over an integral domain "R" with field of fractions "K" is an order in a Hopf algebra "H" over "K" which is closed under the algebra and coalgebra operations: in particular, the comultiplication Δ maps "O" to "O"⊗"O".

Group-like elements.

A group-like element is a nonzero element "x" such that Δ("x") = "x"⊗"x". The group-like elements form a group with inverse given by the antipode. A primitive element "x" satisfies Δ("x") = "x"⊗1 + 1⊗"x".

Examples.

Note that functions on a finite group can be identified with the group ring, though these are more naturally thought of as dual – the group ring consists of "finite" sums of elements, and thus pairs with functions on the group by evaluating the function on the summed elements.

Cohomology of Lie groups.

The cohomology algebra (over a field formula_9) of a Lie group formula_10 is a Hopf algebra: the multiplication is provided by the cup product, and the comultiplication by the group multiplication formula_12. This observation was actually a source of the notion of Hopf algebra. Using this structure, Hopf proved a structure theorem for the cohomology algebra of Lie groups.  Theorem (Hopf) Let formula_13 be a finite-dimensional, graded commutative, graded cocommutative Hopf algebra over a field of characteristic 0. Then formula_13 (as an algebra) is a free exterior algebra with generators of odd degree.

Quantum groups and non-commutative geometry.

All examples above are either commutative (i.e. the multiplication is commutative) or co-commutative (i.e. Δ = "T" ∘ Δ where the "twist map" "T": "H" ⊗ "H" → "H" ⊗ "H" is defined by "T"("x" ⊗ "y") = "y" ⊗ "x"). Other interesting Hopf algebras are certain "deformations" or "quantizations" of those from example 3 which are neither commutative nor co-commutative. These Hopf algebras are often called "quantum groups", a term that is so far only loosely defined. They are important in noncommutative geometry, the idea being the following: a standard algebraic group is well described by its standard Hopf algebra of regular functions; we can then think of the deformed version of this Hopf algebra as describing a certain "non-standard" or "quantized" algebraic group (which is not an algebraic group at all). While there does not seem to be a direct way to define or manipulate these non-standard objects, one can still work with their Hopf algebras, and indeed one "identifies" them with their Hopf algebras. Hence the name "quantum group".

Representation theory.

Let "A" be a Hopf algebra, and let "M" and "N" be "A"-modules. Then, "M" ⊗ "N" is also an "A"-module, with for "m" ∈ "M", "n" ∈ "N" and Δ("a") = ("a", "a"). Furthermore, we can define the trivial representation as the base field "K" with for "m" ∈ "K". Finally, the dual representation of "A" can be defined: if "M" is an "A"-module and "M*" is its dual space, then where "f" ∈ "M*" and "m" ∈ "M".  The relationship between Δ, ε, and "S" ensure that certain natural homomorphisms of vector spaces are indeed homomorphisms of "A"-modules. For instance, the natural isomorphisms of vector spaces "M" → "M" ⊗ "K" and "M" → "K" ⊗ "M" are also isomorphisms of "A"-modules. Also, the map of vector spaces "M*" ⊗ "M" → "K" with "f" ⊗ "m" → "f"("m") is also a homomorphism of "A"-modules. However, the map "M" ⊗ "M*" → "K" is not necessarily a homomorphism of "A"-modules.

Related concepts.

Graded Hopf algebras are often used in algebraic topology: they are the natural algebraic structure on the direct sum of all homology or cohomology groups of an H-space.  Locally compact quantum groups generalize Hopf algebras and carry a topology. The algebra of all continuous functions on a Lie group is a locally compact quantum group.  Quasi-Hopf algebras are generalizations of Hopf algebras, where coassociativity only holds up to a twist. They have been used in the study of the Knizhnik–Zamolodchikov equations.  Multiplier Hopf algebras introduced by Alfons Van Daele in 1994 are generalizations of Hopf algebras where comultiplication from an algebra (with or without unit) to the multiplier algebra of tensor product algebra of the algebra with itself.  Hopf group-(co)algebras introduced by V. G. Turaev in 2000 are also generalizations of Hopf algebras.

Weak Hopf algebras.

Weak Hopf algebras, or quantum groupoids, are generalizations of Hopf algebras. Like Hopf algebras, weak Hopf algebras form a self-dual class of algebras; i.e., if "H" is a (weak) Hopf algebra, so is "H"*, the dual space of linear forms on "H" (with respect to the algebra-coalgebra structure obtained from the natural pairing with "H" and its coalgebra-algebra structure). A weak Hopf algebra "H" is usually taken to be a  The axioms are partly chosen so that the category of "H"-modules is a rigid monoidal category. The unit "H"-module is the separable algebra "H" mentioned above. For example, a finite groupoid algebra is a weak Hopf algebra. In particular, the groupoid algebra on [n] with one pair of invertible arrows "e" and "e" between "i" and "j" in ["n"] is isomorphic to the algebra "H" of "n" x "n" matrices. The weak Hopf algebra structure on this particular "H" is given by coproduct Δ("e") = "e" ⊗ "e", counit ε("e") = 1 and antipode "S"("e") = "e". The separable subalgebras "H" and "H" coincide and are non-central commutative algebras in this particular case (the subalgebra of diagonal matrices).  Early theoretical contributions to weak Hopf algebras are to be found in as well as

Hopf algebroids.

See Hopf algebroid

Analogy with groups.

Groups can be axiomatized by the same diagrams (equivalently, operations) as a Hopf algebra, where "G" is taken to be a set instead of a module. In this case: In this philosophy, a group can be thought of as a Hopf algebra over the "field with one element".

Hopf algebras in braided monoidal categories.

The definition of Hopf algebra is naturally extended to arbitrary braided monoidal categories. A Hopf algebra in such a category formula_23 is a sextuple formula_24 where formula_25 is an object in formula_26, and  — are morphisms in formula_26 such that  The typical examples are the following.

In mathematics, a Hopf algebra, named after Heinz Hopf, is a structure that is simultaneously an (unital associative) algebra and a (counital coassociative) coalgebra, with these structures' compatibility making it a bialgebra, and that moreover is equipped with an antiautomorphism satisfying a certain property. The representation theory of a Hopf algebra is particularly nice, since the existence of compatible comultiplication, counit, and antipode allows for the construction of tensor products of representations, trivial representations, and dual representations.

在数学中,霍普夫代数是一类双代数,亦即具有相容的结合代数与余代数结构的向量空间,配上一个对极映射,后者推广了群上的逆元运算 formula_1。霍普夫代数以数学家海因茨·霍普夫命名,此类结构广见于代数拓扑、群概形、群论、量子群等数学领域。


Description.

The Java sparrow is about in length from the beak to its tip of tail feathers. Although only about the size of a house sparrow, it may be the largest species in the estrildid family. The adult is unmistakable, with its grey upperparts and breast, pink belly, white-cheeked black head, red eye-ring, pink feet and thick red bill.  Both sexes are similar. Immature birds have brown upperparts and pale brown underparts, and a plain head. Very young birds have a black beak with a pink base.  The call is a "chip", and the song is a rapid series of call notes "chipchipchipchipchipchip".  Molecular phylogeny indicates that this species may have originated in India and dispersed to Africa and Pacific Ocean habitats from there.

Habitat.

The Java sparrow is a very gregarious bird which feeds mainly on grain and other seeds. It frequents open grassland and cultivation, and was formerly a pest in rice fields, hence its scientific name. The nest is constructed in a tree or building, and up to eight eggs are laid.

Aviculture.

The Java sparrow has been a popular cage bird in Asia for centuries, first in Ming Dynasty China and then in Japan from the 17th century, frequently appearing in Japanese paintings and prints. Meiji-era writer Natsume Sōseki wrote an essay about his pet Java sparrow. In the late 1960s and early 1970s the Java sparrow was one of the most popular cage birds in the United States until its import was banned. Today it remains illegal to possess in California because of a perceived threat to agriculture, although rice-dependent Asian countries like China, Taiwan and Japan have not regulated the bird.  In Asia the Java sparrow is most often raised almost from birth by human breeders and owners, and they become very tame and attached to humans. As such, they can be normally kept in relatively small cages, but let out for indoor exercise without their attempting to escape. In captivity, a variety of colourations have been bred, including white, silver/opal, fawn/isabel, pastel, cream and agate (which currently is rare within Europe captive specimens) along with the pied Java sparrow (called the "sakura buncho" in Japan).

Introductions.

The Java sparrow was introduced in the Indian subcontinent, but it failed to become a successful resident on the Indian mainland. In the United States there are breeding populations on several of the Hawaiian Islands, especially Oahu.  In the Caribbean, the Java sparrow was introduced to Puerto Rico where it is fairly common near San Juan. It has also been sighted in Jamaica, but is not known to occur on any of the other islands. It was also introduced to Christmas Island, off the coast of Western Australia.

Threats.

The Java sparrow is considered by some countries to be an agricultural pest with respect to rice cultivation. An ongoing loss of natural habitat, hunting in some areas and trapping (as a pest) in others has led to much smaller numbers in the wild and sightings in its natural range have become increasingly uncommon. The Java sparrow is now evaluated as endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (uplisted from vulnerable in 2018) and is listed on Appendix II of CITES. The species is also severely threatened by the illegal exotic pet trade as they are sought after for their distinctive song, according to TRAFFIC.

The Java sparrow ("Lonchura oryzivora"), also known as Java finch, Java rice sparrow or Java rice bird, is a small passerine bird. This estrildid finch is a resident breeding bird in Java, Bali and Bawean in Indonesia. It is a popular cage bird, and has been introduced into many other countries. Some taxonomists place this and the Timor sparrow in their own genus "Padda".

禾雀(学名:')又名-{zh-cn:文鸟;zh-tw:禾雀;}-、爪哇禾雀、黑芙蓉、白芙蓉、银芙蓉、浅黄褐芙蓉、爪哇雀,为雀形目梅花雀科禾雀属的鸟类,分布于印尼,一般生活于低地草原或具草甸、灌丛的空旷林地、也见于耕地、花园、城郊的村镇以及活动于稻田或甘蔗田、树林或灌木丛中。该物种的模式产地在亚洲及埃塞俄比亚。


Scope.

Hyperbaric medicine includes hyperbaric oxygen treatment, which is the medical use of oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure to increase the availability of oxygen in the body; and therapeutic recompression, which involves increasing the ambient pressure on a person, usually a diver, to treat decompression sickness or an air embolism by eliminating bubbles that have formed within the body.  Research found evidence that HBOT improves local tumour control, mortality, and local tumour recurrence for cancers of the head and neck.

Medical uses.

In the United States the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society, known as UHMS, lists approvals for reimbursement for certain diagnoses in hospitals and clinics. The following indications are approved (for reimbursement) uses of hyperbaric oxygen therapy as defined by the UHMS Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy Committee:  Evidence is insufficient to support its use in autism, cancer, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, Alzheimer's disease, asthma, Bell's palsy, cerebral palsy, depression, heart disease, migraines, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injury, sports injuries, or stroke. A Cochrane review published in 2016 has raised questions about the ethical basis for future clinical trials of hyperbaric oxygen therapy, in view of the increased risk of damage to the eardrum in children with autism spectrum disorders. Despite the lack of evidence, in 2015, the number of people utilizing this therapy has continued to rise.

Hearing issues.

There is limited evidence that hyperbaric oxygen therapy improves hearing in patients with sudden sensorineural hearing loss who present within two weeks of hearing loss. There is some indication that HBOT might improve tinnitus presenting in the same time frame.

Chronic ulcers.

HBOT in diabetic foot ulcers increased the rate of early ulcer healing but does not appear to provide any benefit in wound healing at long-term follow-up. In particular, there was no difference in major amputation rate. For venous, arterial and pressure ulcers, no evidence was apparent that HBOT provides a long-term improvement over standard treatment.

Radiation injury.

There is some evidence that HBOT is effective for late radiation tissue injury of bone and soft tissues of the head and neck. Some people with radiation injuries of the head, neck or bowel show an improvement in quality of life. Importantly, no such effect has been found in neurological tissues. The use of HBOT may be justified to selected patients and tissues, but further research is required to establish the best people to treat and timing of any HBO therapy.

Neuro-rehabilitation.

As of 2012, there is insufficient evidence to support using hyperbaric oxygen therapy to treat people who have traumatic brain injuries. In stroke, HBOT does not show benefit. HBOT in multiple sclerosis has not shown benefit and routine use is not recommended.  A 2007 review of HBOT in cerebral palsy found no difference compared to the control group. Neuropsychological tests also showed no difference between HBOT and room air and based on caregiver report, those who received room air had significantly better mobility and social functioning. Children receiving HBOT were reported to experience seizures and the need for tympanostomy tubes to equalize ear pressure, though the incidence was not clear.

Cancer.

In alternative medicine, hyperbaric medicine has been promoted as a treatment for cancer. A 2012 review article in the journal, "Targeted Oncology," reports that "there is no evidence indicating that HBO neither acts as a stimulator of tumor growth nor as an enhancer of recurrence. On the other hand, there is evidence that implies that HBO might have tumor-inhibitory effects in certain cancer subtypes, and we thus strongly believe that we need to expand our knowledge on the effect and the mechanisms behind tumor oxygenation." However, a 2011 study by the American Cancer Society reported no evidence it is effective for this purpose.

Migraines.

Low-quality evidence suggests that hyperbaric oxygen therapy may reduce the pain associated with an acute migraine headache in some cases. It is not known which people would benefit from this treatment, and there is no evidence that hyperbaric medicine can prevent future migraines. More research is necessary to confirm the effectiveness of hyperbaric oxygen therapy for treating migraines.

Respiratory distress.

Patients who are having extreme difficulty breathing – acute respiratory distress syndrome – are commonly given oxygen and there have been limited trials of hyperbaric equipment in such cases. Examples include treatment of the Spanish flu and COVID-19.

Contraindications.

The toxicology of the treatment has been reviewed by Ustundag "et al." and its risk management is discussed by Christian R. Mortensen, in light of the fact that most hyperbaric facilities are managed by departments of anaesthesiology and some of their patients are critically ill.  The only absolute contraindication to hyperbaric oxygen therapy is untreated pneumothorax. The reason is concern that it can progress to tension pneumothorax, especially during the decompression phase of therapy, although treatment on oxygen-based tables may avoid that progression. The COPD patient with a large bleb represents a relative contraindication for similar reasons. Also, the treatment may raise the issue of Occupational health and safety (OHS), which has been encountered by the therapist.  The following are relative contraindications -- "meaning that special consideration must be made by specialist physicians before HBO treatments begin:"  Pregnancy is not a relative contraindication to hyperbaric oxygen treatments, although it may be for underwater diving. In cases where a pregnant woman has carbon monoxide poisoning there is evidence that lower pressure (2.0 ATA) HBOT treatments are not harmful to the fetus, and that the risk involved is outweighed by the greater risk of the untreated effects of CO on the fetus (neurologic abnormalities or death.) In pregnant patients, HBO therapy has been shown to be safe for the fetus when given at appropriate levels and “doses” (durations). In fact, pregnancy lowers the threshold for HBO treatment of carbon monoxide-exposed patients. This is due to the high affinity of fetal hemoglobin for CO.

Therapeutic principles.

The therapeutic consequences of HBOT and recompression result from multiple effects.  The increased overall pressure is of therapeutic value in the treatment of decompression sickness and air embolism as it provides a physical means of reducing the volume of inert gas bubbles within the body; Exposure to this increased pressure is maintained for a period long enough to ensure that most of the bubble gas is dissolved back into the tissues, removed by perfusion and eliminated in the lungs.  The improved concentration gradient for inert gas elimination (oxygen window) by using a high partial pressure of oxygen increases the rate of inert gas elimination in the treatment of decompression sickness.  For many other conditions, the therapeutic principle of HBOT lies in its ability to drastically increase partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues of the body. The oxygen partial pressures achievable using HBOT are much higher than those achievable while breathing pure oxygen under normobaric conditions (i.e. at normal atmospheric pressure). This effect is achieved by an increase in the oxygen transport capacity of the blood. At normal atmospheric pressure, oxygen transport is limited by the oxygen binding capacity of hemoglobin in red blood cells and very little oxygen is transported by blood plasma. Because the hemoglobin of the red blood cells is almost saturated with oxygen at atmospheric pressure, this route of transport cannot be exploited any further. Oxygen transport by plasma, however, is significantly increased using HBOT because of the higher solubility of oxygen as pressure increases.  A study suggests that exposure to hyperbaric oxygen (HBOT) might also mobilize stem/progenitor cells from the bone marrow by a nitric oxide-dependent mechanism.

Hyperbaric chambers.

Construction.

The traditional type of hyperbaric chamber used for therapeutic recompression and HBOT is a rigid shelled pressure vessel. Such chambers can be run at absolute pressures typically about, or more in special cases. Navies, professional diving organizations, hospitals, and dedicated recompression facilities typically operate these. They range in size from semi-portable, one-patient units to room-sized units that can treat eight or more patients. The larger units may be rated for lower pressures if they are not primarily intended for treatment of diving injuries.  A rigid chamber may consist of:  Flexible monoplace chambers are available ranging from collapsible flexible aramid fiber-reinforced chambers which can be disassembled for transport via truck or SUV, with a maximum working pressure of 2 bar above ambient complete with BIBS allowing full oxygen treatment schedules. to portable, air inflated "soft" chambers that can operate at between above atmospheric pressure with no supplemental oxygen, and longitudinal zipper closure.

Oxygen supply.

In the larger multiplace chambers, patients inside the chamber breathe from either "oxygen hoods" – flexible, transparent soft plastic hoods with a seal around the neck similar to a space suit helmet – or tightly fitting oxygen masks, which supply pure oxygen and may be designed to directly exhaust the exhaled gas from the chamber. During treatment patients breathe 100% oxygen most of the time to maximise the effectiveness of their treatment, but have periodic "air breaks" during which they breathe chamber air (21% oxygen) to reduce the risk of oxygen toxicity. The exhaled treatment gas must be removed from the chamber to prevent the buildup of oxygen, which could present a fire risk. Attendants may also breathe oxygen some of the time to reduce their risk of decompression sickness when they leave the chamber. The pressure inside the chamber is increased by opening valves allowing high-pressure air to enter from storage cylinders, which are filled by an air compressor. Chamber air oxygen content is kept between 19% and 23% to control fire risk (US Navy maximum 25%). If the chamber does not have a scrubber system to remove carbon dioxide from the chamber gas, the chamber must be isobarically ventilated to keep the CO within acceptable limits.  A soft chamber may be pressurised directly from a compressor. or from storage cylinders.  Smaller "monoplace" chambers can only accommodate the patient, and no medical staff can enter. The chamber may be pressurised with pure oxygen or compressed air. If pure oxygen is used, no oxygen breathing mask or helmet is needed, but the cost of using pure oxygen is much higher than that of using compressed air. If compressed air is used, then an oxygen mask or hood is needed as in a multiplace chamber. Most monoplace chambers can be fitted with a demand breathing system for air breaks. In low pressure soft chambers, treatment schedules may not require air breaks, because the risk of oxygen toxicity is low due to the lower oxygen partial pressures used (usually 1.3 ATA), and short duration of treatment.  For alert, cooperative patients, air breaks provided by mask are more effective than changing the chamber gas because they provide a quicker gas change and a more reliable gas composition both during the break and treatment periods.

Treatments.

Initially, HBOT was developed as a treatment for diving disorders involving bubbles of gas in the tissues, such as decompression sickness and gas embolism, It is still considered the definitive treatment for these conditions. The chamber treats decompression sickness and gas embolism by increasing pressure, reducing the size of the gas bubbles and improving the transport of blood to downstream tissues. After elimination of bubbles, the pressure is gradually reduced back to atmospheric levels. Hyperbaric chambers are also used for animals, especially race horses where a recovery is worth a great deal to their owners. It is also used to treat dogs and cats in pre- and post-surgery treatment to strengthen their systems prior to surgery and then accelerate healing post surgery.

Protocol.

Emergency HBOT for decompression illness follows treatment schedules laid out in treatment tables. Most cases employ a recompression to absolute, the equivalent of of water, for 4.5 to 5.5 hours with the casualty breathing pure oxygen, but taking air breaks every 20 minutes to reduce oxygen toxicity. For extremely serious cases resulting from very deep dives, the treatment may require a chamber capable of a maximum pressure of, the equivalent of of water, and the ability to supply heliox as a breathing gas.  U.S. Navy treatment charts are used in Canada and the United States to determine the duration, pressure, and breathing gas of the therapy. The most frequently used tables are Table 5 and Table 6. In the UK the Royal Navy 62 and 67 tables are used.  The Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS) publishes a report that compiles the latest research findings and contains information regarding the recommended duration and pressure of the longer-term conditions.

Home and out-patient clinic treatment.

There are several sizes of portable chambers, which are used for home treatment. These are usually referred to as "mild personal hyperbaric chambers", which is a reference to the lower pressure (compared to hard chambers) of soft-sided chambers.  In the US, these "mild personal hyperbaric chambers" are categorized by the FDA as CLASS II medical devices and requires a prescription in order to purchase one or take treatments. The most common option (but not approved by FDA) some patients choose is to acquire an oxygen concentrator which typically delivers 85–96% oxygen as the breathing gas.  Oxygen is never fed directly into soft chambers but is rather introduced via a line and mask directly to the patient. FDA approved oxygen concentrators for human consumption in confined areas used for HBOT are regularly monitored for purity (+/- 1%) and flow (10 to 15 liters per minute outflow pressure). An audible alarm will sound if the purity ever drops below 80%. Personal hyperbaric chambers use 120 volt or 220 volt outlets.

Possible complications and concerns.

There are risks associated with HBOT, similar to some diving disorders. Pressure changes can cause a "squeeze" or barotrauma in the tissues surrounding trapped air inside the body, such as the lungs, behind the eardrum, inside paranasal sinuses, or trapped underneath dental fillings. Breathing high-pressure oxygen may cause oxygen toxicity. Temporarily blurred vision can be caused by swelling of the lens, which usually resolves in two to four weeks.  There are reports that cataract may progress following HBOT.

Effects of pressure.

Patients inside the chamber may notice discomfort inside their ears as a pressure difference develops between their middle ear and the chamber atmosphere. This can be relieved by ear clearing using the Valsalva maneuver or other techniques. Continued increase of pressure without equalising may cause ear drums to rupture, resulting in severe pain. As the pressure in the chamber increases further, the air may become warm.  To reduce the pressure, a valve is opened to allow air out of the chamber. As the pressure falls, the patient's ears may "squeak" as the pressure inside the ear equalizes with the chamber. The temperature in the chamber will fall. The speed of pressurization and de-pressurization can be adjusted to each patient's needs.

Costs.

HBOT is recognized by Medicare in the United States as a reimbursable treatment for 14 UHMS "approved" conditions. A 1-hour HBOT session may cost between $300 and higher in private clinics, and over $2,000 in hospitals. U.S. physicians (either M.D., D.O., D.D.S., D.M.D., D.C., N.D.) may lawfully prescribe HBOT for "off-label" conditions such as stroke, and migraine. Such patients are treated in outpatient clinics. In the United Kingdom most chambers are financed by the National Health Service, although some, such as those run by Multiple Sclerosis Therapy Centres, are non-profit. In Australia, HBOT is not covered by Medicare as a treatment for multiple sclerosis. China and Russia treat more than 80 maladies, conditions and trauma with HBOT.

Research.

The University of Birmingham's 2012 guidance to West Midlands primary care trusts and clinical commissioning groups concluded "The primary research studies investigating the efficacy of HBOT are remarkable for the consistent poor quality of the published clinical trials as well as the lack of evidence demonstrating significant health benefits. There is a lack of adequate clinical evidence to support the view that HBOT therapy is efficacious for any of the indications for which it is being used".  Aspects under research include radiation-induced hemorrhagic cystitis; and inflammatory bowel disease.

Neurological.

Tentative evidence shows a possible benefit in cerebrovascular diseases. The clinical experience and results so far published has promoted the use of HBOT therapy in patients with cerebrovascular injury and focal cerebrovascular injuries. However, the power of clinical research is limited because of the shortage of randomized controlled trials.

Radiation wounds.

A 2010 review of studies of HBOT applied to wounds from radiation therapy reported that, while most studies suggest a beneficial effect, more experimental and clinical research is needed to validate its clinical use.

History.

Hyperbaric air.

Junod built a chamber in France in 1834 to treat pulmonary conditions at pressures between 2 and 4 atmospheres absolute.  During the following century “pneumatic centres” were established in Europe and the USA which used hyperbaric air to treat a variety of conditions.  Orval J Cunningham, a professor of anaesthesia at the University of Kansas in the early 1900s observed that people suffering from circulatory disorders did better at sea level than at altitude and this formed the basis for his use of hyperbaric air. In 1918 he successfully treated patients suffering from the Spanish flu with hyperbaric air. In 1930 the American Medical Association forced him to stop hyperbaric treatment, since he did not provide acceptable evidence that the treatments were effective.

Hyperbaric oxygen.

The English scientist Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen in 1775. Shortly after its discovery, there were reports of toxic effects of hyperbaric oxygen on the central nervous system and lungs, which delayed therapeutic applications until 1937, when Behnke and Shaw first used it in the treatment of decompression sickness.  In 1955 and 1956 Churchill-Davidson, in the UK, used hyperbaric oxygen to enhance the radiosensitivity of tumours, while, at the University of Amsterdam, successfully used it in cardiac surgery.  In 1961 et al. published on the use of hyperbaric oxygen in the treatment of clostridial gas gangrene.  In 1962 Smith and Sharp reported successful treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning with hyperbaric oxygen.  The Undersea Medical Society (now Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society) formed a Committee on Hyperbaric Oxygenation which has become recognized as the authority on indications for hyperbaric oxygen treatment.

Hyperbaric medicine is medical treatment in which an ambient pressure greater than sea level atmospheric pressure is a necessary component. The treatment comprises hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT), the medical use of oxygen at an ambient pressure higher than atmospheric pressure, and therapeutic recompression for decompression illness, intended to reduce the injurious effects of systemic gas bubbles by physically reducing their size and providing improved conditions for elimination of bubbles and excess dissolved gas.

高压氧治疗,或简称高压氧,英文:Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT),乃医学上利用高压的氧气来提供治疗的方式。


Popular success and responses.

The line has far exceeded all traffic expectations, currently serving over 1.2 million passengers per day, on about 300 million journeys per year. That makes the RER A the busiest single rail line outside of East Asia. Ever-increasing traffic volume and the need to ward off imminent saturation have been major factors in RATP and SNCF's planning since the inauguration of the line.  Several major capital investments have been made to relive overcrowding on the line:

Operation.

Branches.

Line A provides two groups of services:  During off-peak hours, the Poissy – Noisy services operate every 20 minutes plus a La Défense – Noisy service every 20 minutes, and the St-Germain – Boissy and Cergy – Chessy services operate every 10 minutes.  Operations are very complex during peak periods, with an average of one train every 2 minutes (30 trains / hour) on the common trunk line in the busier direction (east to west in the morning, west to east in the evening), and one train every 2 min 30 sec in the other direction (24 trains / hour). The Marne la Vallée branch has the most intensive service.

Names of services.

RER trains display a "nom de mission" or "name of service", not the name of the destination station. These are invented names designating (and distinguishing) individual services ("runs"), and are accompanied by a two-digit number, for example "ZARA59" or "DJIB72".  The first letter corresponds to the destination "(gare d'arrivée)": The second letter corresponds to the stations served and the origin station: a letter can have different meanings, depending on the destination. For instance, second letter "E" indicates:  The third and fourth letters are used to form a pronounceable name, changed when the service number (odd 01-99 eastward, even 02-98 westward) reaches the maximum. For example, successive trains to Boissy-St-Léger are called NEGE96, NEGE98, then NELY02, NELY04, etc. Each service is uniquely identifiable, as there cannot be two "NEGE" services with the same number in the same day.  Services with the same first two letters serve the same stations, e.g. ZEBU, ZEUS and ZEMA (to Saint-Germain-en-Laye), or NEGE, NELY and NEMO (to Boissy-Saint-Léger). The letters ZZ generally indicate that the established service pattern was changed for an unspecified reason, generally a technical problem which disrupted operations.

Morning Peak.

Every 10 minutes:

Evening Peak.

Every 10 minutes:

Off Peak.

In both directions every 10 minutes:  In both directions every 20 minutes:  Off-peak, a train is scheduled every 3 minutes 20 seconds between La Défense and Vincennes in both directions.

RER A is one of the five lines in the Réseau Express Régional (English: Regional Express Network), a hybrid suburban commuter and rapid transit system serving Paris, France and its suburbs. The RER A line crosses the Paris region from east to west, with all trains serving a group of stations in central Paris, before branching out towards the ends of the line.

法兰西岛大区快铁A线(),简称RER A,是法兰西岛法兰西岛大区快铁的一条贯通巴黎市郊东西走向的线路,具有多个分支。该线路连接西偏北的圣日耳曼昂莱站(位于A1分支),塞尔吉高地站(位于A3分支),普瓦西站(位于A5分支),以及东偏南的布瓦西圣雷热站(位于A2分支),马恩拉瓦雷-谢西站(位于A4分支)。通过巴黎市中心,市区每个车站均可转乘巴黎地铁。