Terminology.

There are campaigns discouraging the use of the term "illegal immigrant", generally based on the argument that the act of immigrating illegally does not make the people themselves illegal, but rather they are "people who have immigrated illegally". In the United States, a "Drop the I-Word" campaign was launched in 2010 advocating for the use of terms such as undocumented immigrants or unauthorized immigrants when referring to the foreign nationals who reside in a country illegally.  News associations that have discontinued or discourage the use of the adjective "illegal" to qualify nouns that describe people include the US Associated Press, UK Press Association, European Journalism Observatory, European Journalism Centre, Association of European Journalists, Australian Press Council, and Australian Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance. Related terms that describe actions are not similarly discouraged by these campaigns. For example, Associated Press continues to use the term "illegal immigration" to describe the action of entering or residing in a country illegally.  In contrast, in some contexts the term "illegal immigrants" is shortened, often pejoratively, to "illegals".  On the other hand, the term undocumented has been cited by The New York Times, as a "term preferred by many immigrants and their advocates, but it has a flavor of euphemism and should be used with caution outside quotation".

Effects of illegal immigration.

Economy and labor market.

Research on the economic effects of illegal immigration is scant but existing studies suggest that the effects can be positive for the native population, and for public coffers. A 2015 study shows that "increasing deportation rates and tightening border control weakens low-skilled labor markets, increasing unemployment of native low-skilled workers. Legalization, instead, decreases the unemployment rate of low-skilled natives and increases income per native." Studies show that legalization of illegal immigrants would boost the U.S. economy; a 2013 study found that granting amnesty to illegal immigrants would raise their incomes by a quarter (increasing U.S. GDP by approximately $1.4 trillion over a ten-year period), and a 2016 study

Reasons for illegal immigration.

Poverty.

Undocumented immigrants are not impoverished by the standards of their home countries. The poorest classes in a developing country may lack the resources needed to mount an attempt to cross illegally, or the connections to friends or family already in the destination country. Studies from the Pew Hispanic Center have shown that the education and wage levels of illegal Mexican immigrants in the US are around the median for Mexico and that they

Overpopulation.

Population growth that exceeds the carrying capacity of an area or environment results in overpopulation. Virginia Abernethy notes that immigration is a road that provides

Family reunification in new country of residence.

Some undocumented immigrants seek to live with loved ones, such as a spouse or other family members.  Having a family who have immigrated or being from a community with many immigrants is a much better predictor of one's choice to immigrate than poverty. Family reunification visas may be applied for by legal

Wars and asylum.

Unauthorised arrival into another country may be prompted by the need to escape civil war or repression in the country of origin. However, somebody who flees such a situation is in most countries under no circumstances an undocumented immigrant. If victims of forced displacement apply for asylum in the country they fled to and are granted refugee status they have the right to remain permanently. If asylum seekers

Deprivation of citizenship.

In a 2012 news story, the "CSM" reported, "The estimated 750,000 Rohingya, one of the most miserable and oppressed minorities in the world, are deeply resentful of their almost complete absence of civil rights

Education.

Families want to have better lives for their children and to succeed. In the article "Learning

Problems faced by illegal immigrants.

Aside from the possibility that they may be intercepted and deported, illegal immigrants also face other problems.

Lack of access to services.

Illegal immigrants usually have no or very limited access to public

Slavery.

For example, research at San Diego State University estimates that there are 2.4 million victims of human trafficking among illegal Mexican immigrants in the United States. Some workers are smuggled into the United States and Canada by human traffickers.  People have been kidnapped or tricked into slavery to work

Kidnapping and ransoms.

In some regions, people that are still en route to their destination country are also sometimes kidnapped, for example for ransom. In some instances, they are also tortured, raped, and

Prostitution.

Some people forced into sexual slavery face challenges of charges of illegal immigration.  Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, Western Europe is being confronted with a serious problem related to the sexual exploitation of undocumented immigrants (especially from Eastern Europe), for the purpose

Exploitation of labor.

Most countries have laws requiring workers to have proper documentation, often intended to prevent or minimize the employment of undocumented immigrants. However the penalties against employers are often small and the acceptable identification requirements vague, ill-defined and

Injury and illness.

The search for employment is central to illegal international migration. According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau, undocumented immigrants in the United States often work in dangerous industries such as agriculture and construction. A recent

Death.

Each year there are several hundred deaths along the U.S.–Mexico border of immigrants crossing the border illegally. Death by exposure

Methods.

Illegal border crossing.

Immigrants from countries that do not have automatic visa agreements, or who would not otherwise qualify for a visa, often cross the borders illegally in some areas like the United States–Mexico border, the Mona Channel between the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, the Strait of Gibraltar, Fuerteventura, and the Strait of Otranto. Because these methods are illegal, they are often dangerous. Would-be immigrants have been known to suffocate in shipping containers, boxcars, and trucks, sink in shipwrecks caused by unseaworthy vessels, die of dehydration or exposure during long walks without water. An official estimate puts the number of people who died in illegal crossings across the U.S.–Mexican border between

Overstaying a visa.

Many undocumented immigrants are migrants who originally arrive in a country lawfully but overstay their authorized residence (overstaying a visa). For example, most of the estimated 200,000 illegal immigrants in Canada (perhaps as high as 500,000) are refugee claimants whose refugee applications were rejected but who have not yet been expelled from the country.  Another example is formed by children of

Sham marriages.

Another method is by entering into a sham marriage where the marriage is contracted into for purely immigration advantage by a couple who are not in a genuine relationship. Common reasons for sham marriages are to gain immigration, (this is called immigration fraud) residency, work or citizenship rights for one or both of the spouses, or for other benefits.  In the United Kingdom, those who arrange,

Illegal immigrant populations by country or region.

Angola.

In 2007 around 44,000 Congolese were forced to leave Angola. Since 2004,

Australia.

Official government sources put the number of visa overstayers in Australia at approximately 50,000. This has been the official number of illegal immigrants for about 25 years and is considered to be low. Other sources have placed it at up to 100,000, but no detailed study has been completed to quantify this number, which

Bangladesh.

There are about 1.2 million Indians living in Bangladesh illegally as of 2014. The illegal migrants are mainly from the poorest states in India including West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam and Manipur, which surround Bangladesh. They illegally immigrate to Bangladesh in search of

Bhutan.

Immigration in Bhutan by Nepalese settlers (Lhotshampa) began slowly towards the end of the 19th century. The government passed the Bhutanese Citizenship Act 1985 to clarify and try to enforce the Bhutanese Citizenship Act 1958 to control the flood of illegal immigration. Those individuals who could not provide proof of residency prior to 1958 were adjudged to be

Brazil.

Brazil has long been part of international migration routes. In 2009, the government estimated the number of illegal immigrants at about 200,000 people; a Catholic charity working with immigrants said there were 600,000 illegal immigrants (75,000 of whom were from Bolivia). That same year, the National Congress of Brazil approved an amnesty, opening a six-month window for all foreigners to seek legalization irrespective of their previous standing before the law. Brazil had last legalized all immigrants in 1998; bilateral deals, one of which promoted the legalization of all reciprocal immigrants with Bolivia to date, signed

Canada.

There is no credible information available on illegal immigration in Canada. Estimates range between 35,000 and 120,000 illegal immigrants in Canada. James Bissett, a former head of the Canadian Immigration Service, has suggested that the lack of any credible refugee screening process, combined with a high likelihood of ignoring any deportation orders, has resulted in tens of thousands of outstanding

Chile.

Chile has recently become a new pole of attraction for illegal immigrants, mostly from neighboring Peru and Bolivia

China.

China is building a security barrier along its border with North Korea to prevent the defectors or refugees from North Korea. Also, many illegal immigrants from Mongolia have tried to

Dominican Republic.

The Dominican Republic is a nation that shares the island of Hispaniola with Haiti. An estimated 1,000,000 Haitians live and work in the Dominican Republic, which has a total population of

India.

It is estimated that several tens of millions of illegal immigrants live in India. Precise figures are not available, but the numbers run in tens of millions, at least 10 million are from Bangladesh, others being from Pakistan, Afghanistan and others. According to the Government of India, there at least 20 million illegal immigrants from Bangladesh alone. This makes India the country with the largest number of illegal immigrants in the world. During the Bangladesh Liberation War at least 10 million Bangladeshis crossed into India illegally to seek refuge from widespread rape and genocide. According to Indian Home Ministry, at least 1.4 Million Bangladeshi crossed over into India in the last decade alone. Samir Guha Roy of the Indian Statistical Institute called these estimates "motivatedly exaggerated". After examining the population growth and demographic statistics, Roy instead states that a significant numbers of internal migration is sometimes falsely thought to be immigrants. An analysis of the numbers by Roy revealed that on average around 91000 Bangladeshi nationals might

Iran.

Since late April 2007, the Iranian government has forcibly deported back Afghans living and working in Iran to Afghanistan at a rate between 250,000 and 300,000 per year. The forceful evictions of the refugees, who lived in Iran and Pakistan for nearly three

Israel.

Tens of thousands of migrants, mostly from Sudan and Eritrea, had crossed the Israeli border between 2009 and 2012. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said that "This phenomenon is very grave and threatens the social fabric of society, our national security and our national identity." In May 2012, Israel introduced a law which would allow illegal immigrants to be detained for up to three years, a measure that the Interior Ministry intended to stem

Libya.

Before the Libyan civil war, Libya was home to a large illegal Sub-Saharan African population which numbers as much as 2,000,000.

Malaysia.

There are an estimated 800,000 illegal immigrants in Malaysia. In January 2009, Malaysia banned the hiring of foreign workers in factories, stores and restaurants to protect its citizens from mass unemployment amid the late 2000s recession. An ethnic Indian Malaysian was recently sentenced to

Mexico.

In the first six months of 2005, more than 120,000 people from Central America were deported, as compared to 2002, when for the entire year, only 130,000 were deported. People of Han Chinese origin pay about $5,500 to smugglers to be taken to Mexico from Hong Kong. It is estimated that 2.4% of rejections for work permits in Mexico correspond to Chinese citizens. In a 2010 news story, "USA Today" reported, "... Mexico's Arizona-style law requires local police to check IDs. And Mexican police freely engage in racial profiling and routinely harass Central American migrants, say immigration activists."  Many women from Eastern Europe, Asia, and Central and South America take jobs at table dance

Nepal.

In 2008, Nepal's Maoist-led government has initiated a major crackdown against Tibetan exiles with the aim

Pakistan.

As of 2005, 2.1% of the population of Pakistan had foreign origins, however the number of immigrants population in Pakistan recently grew sharply. Immigrants from South Asia make up a growing proportion of immigrants in Pakistan. The five largest immigrant groups in Pakistan are in turn Afghans, Bangladeshi, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Turkmens, Iranians, Indians, Sri

Philippines.

It was estimated by Teresita Ang-See, a prominent leader and activist of the Chinese Filipino community, that by 2007, as much as 100,000 illegal immigrants from China are living in the Philippines, a tenth of the ethnic Chinese population. The

Russia.

Russia experiences a constant flow of immigration. On average, 200,000 legal immigrants enter the country every year; about half are ethnic Russians from other republics of the former Soviet Union. There are an estimated 10–12 million foreigners working in the country without legal permission to be there. There has been a significant influx of ethnic Georgians, Armenians, Azerbaijanis, Tajiks, and Uzbeks into large Russian cities in recent years, which has been viewed very unfavorably by many citizens and contributed to nationalist sentiments.  Many immigrant ethnic groups have much higher birth rates than native Russians, further shifting the balance. Some Chinese flee the overpopulation

Saudi Arabia.

In 2004, Saudi Arabia began construction of a Saudi–Yemen barrier between its territory and Yemen to prevent the unauthorized movement of people and goods into and out of the Kingdom. Anthony H. Cordesman labeled it a "separation barrier". In February 2004, The Guardian reported

Schengen Area.

The Schengen Area is a multilateral agreement between 26 states in which they in most cases abolish the border control among themselves. These states include most of the EU countries, as well as the EEC countries Norway, Switzerland and Iceland. Any person who is physically inside any of the Schengen states will usually be able to travel to any other Schengen state without hindrance from the law enforcement, even if he or she has no legal right to enter another Schengen Area member state. A person who wishes to immigrate illegally to a Schengen Area member state may therefore find it more practical to enter it through another member state. According to a BBC report from 2012, over 80% of illegal immigrants entering the European Union pass through Greece.  EU countries that are not members of the Schengen Agreement are still committed to allow lawful entry by citizens of EU countries; they may however exercise border control at their discretion. This typically presents a significant hindrance to persons who are trying to enter those countries illegally.  Citizens within The EU is an economic and political partnership between 28 European countries that together cover much of the European continent. A citizen of an EU member state has the right to seek employment within any other member state. The Schengen Agreement does not regulate treatment of persons who enter the Schengen Area illegally. This is therefore left to the individual states, and other applicable international treaties and European case law. Illegal immigration to Schengen and to Europe in general was increasing sharply since approximately early 2014. The main causes for this increase are the conflicts that followed the Arab Spring; in particular, the civil war in Syria has driven millions of people from their homes, and the disintegration of the Libyan government removed a major barrier for the African migrants.  Illegal immigration to some of the Schengen Area states might face different consideration depending on countries such as Bulgaria, France, Greece.

Bulgaria.

In 2013, 11,000 persons attempted to enter Bulgaria via its border with Turkey. Their aim is not believed by Bulgarian border

France.

Children born to noncitizens in France are not immigrants themselves, but they are considered foreigners under French law, until they reach the age of 18, at which time they automatically become citizens. French citizenship is based in the idea of political unity; therefore, French citizenship may be more accessible than other EU countries, such as Germany and the UK. However, many French citizens feel

Hungary.

In 2014, Hungary registered 43,000 asylum seekers and 80,000 up to July 2015. In the summer of 2015, Hungary started building a 4m high fence along its 175 km border to neighbouring Serbia to keep out the tens of thousands illegal immigrants from the Middle East and

Norway.

The number of illegal immigrants in Norway was estimated to roughly 20 thousand in 2009, and to

Germany.

The number of irregular immigrants caught in Germany from January to November 2018 stands at 38,000 according to the Federal Police. Over 28,000 people entered Germany by land and 10,300 entering from Austria. Some 9,270 people also arrived illegally at airports and more than 1,120 people at sea ports. Most of the migrants were from Afghanistan, Nigeria, Iraq, Syria and Turkey.

South Africa.

No accurate estimates of the number of illegal migrants living in South Africa exist. Estimates that have been published vary widely. A 1996 Human Sciences Research Council study estimated that there were between 2.5 million and 4.1 million illegal migrants in the country. In their 2008/09 annual report, the South African Police Service stated: "According to various estimates, the

South Korea.

According to the Republic of Korea Immigration Service, as of 31 December 2014, there were 208,778 illegal immigrants, which is 11.6% of 1,797,618 total foreign nationals who resided in

Syria.

Since the US-led invasion of Iraq in March 2003, there are more refugees from Iraq. The United Nations estimates that nearly 2,200,000 Iraqis have fled the country since 2003, with nearly 100,000 fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month. Most ventured to Jordan and Syria, creating demographic shifts that have worried both governments. Refugees are mired in poverty as

Turkey.

Turkey receives many economic migrants from nearby countries such as Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia, but also from North Caucasus, Central Asia, Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Iraq War is

United Kingdom.

Many try to cross the English Channel from Calais to seek asylum or refugee status in Great Britain. Truck drivers can be fined up to €2,500 if illegal immigrants are found on board. The Home Office has its agents working alongside French police and immigration agents, to prevent unauthorized people from entering the zone. An area of Calais known as "the Jungle" had a police raid in September 2009 to control illegal immigration. The French also try to stop illegal immigrants from entering France from the southern part of the country.  Non-governmental organizations, such as Secours Catholique and the Red Cross provide food, showers, and shelter to sans papiers who gather waiting to cross the

United States.

Approximately 11 million illegal immigrants were estimated to be living in the United States in 2006. The Pew Hispanic Center estimated that this peaked at 12 million in March 2007 and declined to 11 million again in March 2009. The majority of the illegal immigrants are from Mexico.  The issue of illegal immigration has long been controversial in the United States. In 2007, President George W. Bush called for Congress to endorse his guest worker proposal, stating that illegal immigrants took jobs that Americans would not take.  The Pew Hispanic Center notes that while the number of legal immigrants arriving has not varied substantially since the 1980s, the number of illegal immigrants has increased dramatically and, since the mid-1990s, has surpassed the number of legal immigrants. Penalties for employers of illegal immigrants, of $2,000–$10,000 and up to six months' imprisonment, go largely unenforced.  Political groups like Americans for Legal Immigration have formed to demand enforcement of immigration laws and secure borders. ALIPAC has also called for "safe departure" border checkpoints, free of criminal checks.  In a 2011 news story, the "Los Angeles Times" reported,... illegal immigrants in 2010 were parents of 5.5 million children, 4.5 million of whom were born in the U.S. and are citizens. Because illegal immigrants are younger and more likely to be married, they represented a disproportionate share of births—8% of the babies born in the U.S. between March 2009 and March 2010 were to at least one illegal immigrant parent.  Immigration from Mexico to the United States has slowed in recent years. This has been attributed to the slowing of the U.S. economy, the buildup in security along the border and increased violence on the Mexican side of the Mexico–United States border.  In 2016, the Library of Congress announced it would use "noncitizens" and "unauthorized immigration" rather than "illegal aliens" as a bibliographical term. It said the once common phrase had become offensive, and was not precise. However, as of June 2019 it still uses "illegal aliens".  In 2018, Attorney General Jeff Sessions instructed the US attorneys offices not to use the term "undocumented immigrants", but to instead refer to people as "illegal aliens".

Puerto Rico.

"See Dominican immigration to Puerto Rico#Illegal immigration"

Venezuela.

An estimated 200,000 Colombians have fled the Colombian civil war and sought safety in Venezuela. Most of them lack identity documents and this hampers their access to services, as well

Illegal immigration refers to the migration of people into a country in violation of the immigration laws of that country, or the continued residence of people without the legal right to live in that country. Illegal immigration tends to be financially upward, from poorer to richer countries. Illegal residence in another country creates the risk of detention, deportation, and/or other sanctions.

非法移民,又称偷渡客、黑民、无证移民,指非本国公民而通过非法或逾期居留的方式跨越边境的「移民」。在美国,澳洲,加拿大等移民国家,“无证移民”泛指一个人在不具备所在居留国法律允许的前提下居住,生活以及工作,在当地接受教育,既包括那些以非法渠道进入发达国家的偷渡客,也包括那些以合法渠道进入发达国家,超过可停留时间后没有返回原本居住国家的人。


Names.

The name "glass harmonica" (also "glass armonica", "glassharmonica"; "harmonica de verre", "harmonica de Franklin", "armonica de verre", or just "harmonica" in French; "Glasharmonika" in German; "harmonica" in Dutch) refers today to any instrument played by rubbing glass or crystal goblets or bowls. The alternative instrument consisting of a set of wine glasses (usually tuned with water) is generally known in English as "musical glasses" or the "glass harp".  When Benjamin Franklin invented his mechanical version of the instrument in 1761, he called it the armonica, based on the Italian word "armonia", which means "harmony". The unrelated free-reed wind instrument aeolina, today called the "harmonica", was not invented until 1821, sixty years later.  The word "hydrodaktulopsychicharmonica" is also recorded, composed of Greek roots to mean something like "harmonica to produce music for the soul by fingers dipped in water" ("hydro-" for "water", "daktul-" for "finger", "psych-" for "soul"). The "Oxford Companion to Music" mentions that this word is "the longest section of the Greek language ever attached to any musical instrument, for a reader of "The Times" wrote to that paper in 1932 to say that in his youth he heard a performance of the instrument where it was called a "hydrodaktulopsychicharmonica"." The Museum of Music in Paris displays a hydrodaktulopsychicharmonica.

Forerunners.

Because its sounding portion is made of glass, the glass harmonica is a type of crystallophone. The phenomenon of rubbing a wet finger around the rim of a wine goblet to produce tones is documented back to Renaissance times; Galileo considered the phenomenon (in his "Two New Sciences"), as did Athanasius Kircher.  The Irish musician Richard Pockrich is typically credited as the first to play an instrument composed of glass vessels (glass harp) by rubbing his fingers around the rims. Beginning in the 1740s, he performed in London on a set of upright goblets filled with varying amounts of water. His career was cut short by a fire in his room, which killed him and destroyed his apparatus.  Edward Delaval, a friend of Benjamin Franklin and a fellow of the Royal Society, extended the experiments of Pockrich, contriving a set of glasses better tuned and easier to play. During the same decade, Christoph Willibald Gluck also attracted attention playing a similar instrument in England.

Franklin's armonica.

Benjamin Franklin invented a radically new arrangement of the glasses in 1761 after seeing water-filled wine glasses played by Edmund Delaval at Cambridge in England in May 1761. Franklin worked with London glassblower Charles James to build one, and it had its world premiere in early 1762, played by Marianne Davies.  Writing to his friend Giambatista Beccaria in Turin, Italy, Franklin wrote from London in 1762 about his musical instrument: "The advantages of this instrument are, that its tones are incomparably sweet beyond those of any other; that they may be swelled and softened at pleasure by stronger or weaker pressures of the finger, and continued to any length; and that the instrument, being well tuned, never again wants tuning. In honour of your musical language, I have borrowed from it the name of this instrument, calling it the Armonica."  In Franklin's treadle-operated version, 37 bowls were mounted horizontally on an iron spindle. The whole spindle turned by means of a foot pedal. The sound was produced by touching the rims of the bowls with water-moistened fingers. Rims were painted different colors according to the pitch of the note: A (dark blue), B (purple), C (red), D (orange), E (yellow), F (green), G (blue), and accidentals were marked in white. With the Franklin design, it is possible to play ten glasses simultaneously if desired, a technique that is very difficult if not impossible to execute using upright goblets. Franklin also advocated the use of a small amount of powdered chalk on the fingers, which under some acidic water conditions helped produce a clear tone.  Some attempted improvements on the armonica included adding keyboards, placing pads between the bowls to reduce sympathetic vibrations, and using violin bows. Another supposed improvement claimed in ill-informed post-period observations of non-playing instruments was to have the glasses rotate into a trough of water. However, William Zeitler put this idea to the test by rotating an armonica cup into a basin of water; the water has the same effect as putting water in a wine glass – it changes the pitch. With several dozen glasses, each a different diameter and thus rotating with a different depth, the result would be musical cacophony. This modification also made it much harder to make the glass "speak", and muffled the sound.  In 1975, an original armonica was acquired by the Bakken Museum in Minneapolis and put on display, albeit without its original glass bowls (they were destroyed during shipment). It was purchased through a musical instrument dealer in France, from the descendants of Mme. Brillon de Jouy, a neighbor of Benjamin Franklin's from 1777 to 1785, when he lived in the Paris suburb of Passy. Some 18th- and 19th-century specimens of the armonica have survived into the 21st century. Franz Mesmer also played the armonica and used it as an integral part of his Mesmerism.  An original Franklin armonica is in the archives at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, having been donated in 1956 by Franklin's descendants after "the children took great delight in breaking the bowls with spoons" during family gatherings. It is only placed on display for special occasions, such as Franklin's birthday. The Franklin Institute is also the home of the Benjamin Franklin National Memorial.  A website has attempted to catalog publicly known Franklin-era glass armonicas. The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston has an early 19th-century instrument on display, which is occasionally used for public performances and recordings.

Musical works.

Composers including J. G. Naumann, Padre Martini, Johann Adolph Hasse, Baldassare Galuppi, and Niccolò Jommelli, and more than 100 others composed works for the glass harmonica; some pieces survive in the repertoire through transcriptions for more conventional instruments. European monarchs indulged in playing it, and even Marie Antoinette took lessons as a child from Franz Anton Mesmer.  Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote his 1791 K. 617 and K.356 (K.617a) for the glass harmonica. Ludwig van Beethoven used the instrument in an 1814 melodrama "Leonore Prohaska". Gaetano Donizetti used the instrument in the accompaniment to Amelia's aria "Par che mi dica ancora" in "Il castello di Kenilworth", premiered in 1829. He also originally specified the instrument in "Lucia di Lammermoor" (1835) as a haunting accompaniment to the heroine's "mad scene", though before the premiere he was required by the producers to rewrite the part for two flutes. Camille Saint-Saëns used this instrument in his 1886 "The Carnival of the Animals" (in movements 7 and 14). Richard Strauss used the instrument in his 1917 "Die Frau ohne Schatten".  For a while the instrument was "extraordinarily popular," its "'ethereal" qualities characteristic, along with instruments such as the nail violin and Aeolian harp, of "Empfindsamkeit", but "the instrument fell into oblivion," around 1830. Since the armonica's performance revival during the 1980s, composers have again written for it (solo, chamber music, opera, electronic music, popular music) including Jan Erik Mikalsen, Regis Campo, Etienne Rolin, Philippe Sarde, Damon Albarn, Tom Waits, Michel Redolfi, Cyril Morin, Stefano Giannotti, Thomas Bloch, Jörg Widmann ("Armonica" 2006), and Guillaume Connesson.  The music for the 1997 ballet "Othello" by American composer Elliot Goldenthal opens and closes with the glass harmonica. The ballet was performed at San Francisco Ballet, the American Ballet Theater, the Joffrey Ballet, and on tour in Europe including at the Opera Garnier with Dennis James performing with his historical replica instrument.  George Benjamin's opera "Written on Skin", which premiered at the 2012 Aix-en-Provence Festival, includes a prominent and elaborate part for the glass harmonica.

Purported dangers.

The instrument's popularity did not last far beyond the 18th century. Some claim this was due to strange rumors that using the instrument caused both musicians and their listeners to go mad. It is a matter of conjecture how pervasive that belief was; all the commonly cited examples of this rumor seem to be German, if not confined to Vienna. One example of alleged effects from playing the glass harmonica was noted by German musicologist Johann Friedrich Rochlitz in the "Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung":  Marianne Davies, who played flute and harpsichord – and was a young woman said to be related to Franklin – became proficient enough at playing the armonica to offer public performances. After touring for many years in duo performances with her celebrated vocalist sister, she was also said to have been afflicted with a melancholia attributed to the plaintive tones of the instrument. Marianne Kirchgessner was an armonica player; she died at the age of 39 of pneumonia or an illness much like it. However many others, including Franklin, lived long lives.  For a time the armonica achieved a genuine vogue, but like most fads, that for the armonica eventually passed. It has been claimed the sound-producing mechanism did not generate sufficient power to fill the large halls that were becoming home to modern stringed instruments, brass, woodwinds, and percussion. That the instrument was made with glass, and subject to easy breakage, perhaps did not help either. By 1820, the armonica had mostly disappeared from frequent public performance, perhaps because musical fashions were changing.  A modern version of the "purported dangers" claims that players suffered lead poisoning because armonicas were made of lead glass. However, there is no known scientific basis for the theory that merely touching lead glass can cause lead poisoning. Lead poisoning was common in the 18th and early 19th centuries for both armonica players and non-players alike; doctors prescribed lead compounds for a long list of ailments, and lead or lead oxide was used as a food preservative and in cookware and eating utensils. Trace amounts of lead that armonica players in Franklin's day received from their instruments would likely have been dwarfed by lead from other sources, such as the lead-content paint used to mark visual identification of the bowls to the players.  Historical replicas by Eisch use so-called "White Crystal" developed in the 18th c. replacing the lead with a higher potash content; many modern newly invented devices, such as those made by Finkenbeiner, are made from so-called Quartz "pure silica glass" - a glass formulation developed in the early 20th c. for scientific purposes.

Perception of the sound.

The disorienting quality of the ethereal sound is due in part to the way that humans perceive and locate ranges of sounds. Above 4 kHz people primarily use the "loudness" of the sound to differentiate between left and right ears and thus triangulate, or locate the source. Below 1 kHz, they use the "phase differences" of sound waves arriving at their left and right ears to identify location. The predominant pitch of the armonica is in the range of 1–4 kHz, which coincides with the sound range where the brain is "not quite sure", and thus listeners have difficulty locating it in space (where it comes from), and discerning the source of the sound (the materials and techniques used to produce it).  Benjamin Franklin himself described the armonica's tones as "incomparably sweet". The full quotation, written in a letter to Giambattista Beccaria, an Italian priest and electrician, is: "The advantages of this instrument are that its tones are incomparably sweet beyond those of any other; that they may be swelled and softened at pleasure by stronger or weaker pressures of the finger, and continued to any length; and that the instrument, once well tuned, never again wants tuning."  A music critic for the "Morning Chronicle", writing of a performance by Kirchgessner in 1794, said, "Her taste is chastened and the dulcet notes of the instrument would be delightful indeed, were they more powerful and articulate; but that we believe the most perfect execution cannot make them. In a smaller room and an audience less numerous, the effect must be enchanting. Though the accompaniments were kept very much under, they were still occasionally too loud."

Modern revival.

Music for glass harmonica was all-but-unknown from 1820 until the 1930s (although Gaetano Donizetti intended for the aria "Il dolce suono" from his 1835 opera Lucia di Lammermoor to be accompanied by a glass harmonica, and Richard Strauss specified use of the instrument in his 1919 opera "Die Frau ohne Schatten"), when German virtuoso Bruno Hoffmann began revitalizing interest in his individual goblet instrument version that he named the glass harp for his stunning performances. Playing his "glass harp" (with Eisch manufactured custom designed glasses mounted in a case designed with underlying resonance chamber) he transcribed or rearranged much of the literature written for the mechanized instrument, and commissioned contemporary composers to write new pieces for his goblet version.  Franklin's glass harmonica design was reworked yet again without patent credit by master glassblower and musician, Gerhard B. Finkenbeiner (1930–1999) in 1984. After thirty years of experimentation, Finkenbeiner's imitative prototype consisted of clear glasses and glasses later equipped with gold bands mimicking late 18th-century designs. The historical instruments with gold bands indicated the equivalent of the black keys on the piano, simplifying the multi-hued painted bowl rims with white accidentals as specified by Franklin. Finkenbeiner Inc., of Waltham, Massachusetts, continues to produce versions of these instruments commercially, featuring glass elements made of scientific formulated fused-silica quartz.  From 1989 on to now, Sascha Reckert, a German glass instrumentalist and glass instrument producer, restored and reproduced glass armonicas from the original used crystal glass with full bass-range, required for the original compositions. He did the first performance with glass armonica of "Lucia die Lammermoor" (Munich state opera) and "Frau ohne Schatten" in a full scene production and invented the Verrophon with glass tubes, with a more powerful sound. Reckert also produced the harmonics of Dennis James, the Wiener Glasharmonikaduo, Martin Hilmer and others.  French instrument makers and artists Bernard and François Baschet invented a modern variation of the Chladni Euphone in 1952, the "crystal organ" or Cristal di Baschet, which consists of up to 52 chromatically tuned resonating metal rods that are set into motion by attached glass rods that are rubbed with wet fingers. The Cristal di Baschet differs mainly from the other glass instruments in that the identical length and thickness glass rods are set horizontally, and attach to the tuned metal stems that have added metal blocks for increasing resonance. The result is a fully acoustic instrument, and impressive amplification obtained using fiberglass or metal cones fixed on wood and by a tall cut-out multi-resonant metal part in the shape of a flame. Some thin added metallic wires resembling cat whiskers are placed under the instrument, supposedly to increase the sound power of high-pitched frequencies.  Dennis James recorded an album of all glass music, "Cristal: Glass Music Through the Ages" co-produced by Linda Ronstadt and Grammy Award-winning producer John Boylan. James plays the glass harmonica, the Cristal di Baschet, and the Seraphim on the CD in original historical compositions and new arrangements for glass by Mozart, Scarlatti, Schnaubelt, and Fauré and collaborates on the recording with the Emerson String Quartet, operatic soprano Ruth Ann Swenson, and Ronstadt. James played glass instruments on Marco Beltrami's film scores for "The Minus Man" (1999) and "The Faculty" (1998). "I first became aware of glass instruments at about the age of 6 while visiting the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia. I can still recall being mesmerized by the appearance of the original Benjamin Franklin harmonica then on display in its own showcase in the entry rotunda of the city's famed science museum." James Horner used a glass harmonica and pan flute for Spock's theme in the 1982 film "".

Related instruments.

Another instrument that is also played with wet fingers is the hydraulophone. The hydraulophone sounds similar to a glass armonica but has a darker, heavier sound, that extends down into the subsonic range. The technique for playing the hydraulophone is similar to that used for playing the armonica.

The glass harmonica, also known as the glass armonica, glass harmonium, bowl organ, hydrocrystalophone, or simply the armonica or harmonica (derived from, "harmonia", the Greek word for harmony), is a type of musical instrument that uses a series of glass bowls or goblets graduated in size to produce musical tones by means of friction (instruments of this type are known as friction idiophones).

玻璃琴(英语:glass harmonica),由一系列尺寸不一的玻璃碗由大到小排列而成,演奏者通过用手指摩擦碗边来使之发声,而这一演奏方式最早可追溯到意大利文艺复兴时期。


Anatomy.

As some of the first marine turtles, the protostegids set the general body plan for future species of sea turtles. They had a generally depressed turtle body plan, complete with four limbs, a short tail, and a large head at the end of a relatively short neck. Like other sea turtles, they possessed oar-like front appendages especially evolved for swimming in the open ocean. Similar to the still-extant, possibly closely related Dermochelyidae, protostegids possessed extremely reduced carapaces. Some specimens had skeletal protrusions from their ribs almost wrapping around their bodies in place of a complete shell. Like modern sea turtles, protostegids had sharp beaks. One of the defining characteristics of the members of the family was their almost-disproportionately large heads. Specifically, some specimens of "Archelon" have been found with heads long. In addition, the members of the family had somewhat reduced plastrons, as well.

Ecology.

Trophic ecology.

While all members of the family are extinct, palaeoecological studies on the members of the family have provided some insight into the ecological roles of the Protostegidae. Analysis of fossil organs of some protostegids has revealed entire stomachs containing fossilized shellfish. The turtles, in turn, are postulated to have been preyed upon by the major predators of the time. Fossil protostegids have been found with tooth impressions from the large lamnid sharks of the time. Two specimens of "Protostega gigas" have been discovered to have tooth marks from large sharks. In addition, teeth of the extinct shark "Cretoxyrhina mantelli" have been found embedded in at least one "Protostega" skeleton.

Evolutionary history.

The family's oldest members are "Desmatochelys padillai", known from the specimens recovered from the Early Cretaceous Paja Formation of Colombia and "Santanachelys gaffneyi", known from a specimen excavated from Brazil in 1998. The latter species first appeared during the Early Cretaceous. As an early sea turtle, "Santanachelys" had several unspecialized characteristics, such as distinguishable digits in its flipper-like arms. Later relatives' flippers were completely fused together for more efficient swimming. As with most large fauna of the era, the Protostegidae died out during the events of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that led to the extinction of the dinosaurs.  The exact phylogenetic position of protostegids among turtles is uncertain. Some phylogenetic studies determine the leatherback turtles in the family Dermochelyidae to be their closest living relatives, with both these families being monophyletic. Conversely, the phylogenetic analyses conducted by Joyce (2007) and Anquetin (2012), which included one protostegid species ("Santanachelys gaffneyi"), recovered the family as only distantly related to leatherback turtles. Joyce (2007) recovered Protostegidae as basal eucryptodiran turtles lying outside the crown group of Cryptodira (the least inclusive clade containing all living cryptodirans) and closely related to "Solnhofia parsonsi"; "Santanachelys" had a similar phylogenetic position in the analysis conducted by Anquetin (2012), who stressed that future studies should include more protostegids to confirm this phylogenetic placement. If confirmed, these results would prove that protostegids weren't close relatives of leatherback turtles (or in fact any living cryptodirans), but instead "represent an independent lineage of marine turtles that originated in the Late Jurassic". The analyses conducted by Sterli (2010) and Sterli & de la Fuente (2011) recovered "Santanachelys" (and, presumably, the entirety of Protostegidae) as even more distantly related to living cryptodirans; it was found to be basal turtle lying outside the crown group of turtles (the least inclusive clade containing cryptodirans and pleurodirans).  A phylogenetic analysis conducted by Cadena and Parham (2015) recovered Protostegidae within the crown group of Cryptodira; specifically the family was recovered as belonging to Chelonioidea and more closely related to the leatherback sea turtle than cheloniids are.

Taxonomic history.

In 1888, the Belgian zoologist George Albert Boulenger published his classification of the Testudinata within the 9th edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica". The genus "Protostega" was placed within the family Sphargidae under the suborder Athecae. A year or so later, the entire suborder was downgraded by Karl Alfred von Zittel into a family within the Cryptodira.  In 1994, Hirayama proposed a three-family subdivision of the sea turtle superfamily based on cladistic analysis; Protostegidae was given full, formal family status in the system, containing most of the extinct genera, including "Archelon", and a previously undescribed protostegid. The unidentified specimen was fully described in 1998, as the species "Santanachelys gaffneyi". The genus "Santanachelys" was appended to the family after the new species was described. This specimen was later to be analyzed to be the family's oldest member.

Protostegidae is a family of extinct marine turtles that lived during the Cretaceous period. The family includes some of the largest sea turtles that ever existed. The largest, "Archelon", had a head long. Like most sea turtles, they had flattened bodies and flippers for front appendages; protostegids had minimal shells like leatherback turtles of modern times.

原盖龟科(Protostegidae),海龟中已绝灭的一个科,曾生活于中生代。原盖龟科包含曾存在过的大型海龟,如古巨龟"Archelon",史上最巨大的海龟。正如大多海龟一样,原盖龟科的海龟身体扁平,肢体演化为鳍,像现今的棱皮龟,其龟壳没有盾板,所以重量较轻及薄弱。


Biography.

Early life.

At age 15, Cox began working as a mobile DJ, finding a passion for disco music. He began his music career around the same time that Chicago house music found its forefront in the world of dance music. He eventually became known as one of the founders of that sound and was part of the emerging British rave scene. He became renowned for the uncommon practice of three-deck mixing. Cox has performed at clubs such as the Eclipse, Shelley's Laserdome, Sterns Nightclub, Heaven, Sir Henry's, Angels and The Haçienda, as well as raves for Fantazia, Dreamscape, NASA and Amnesia House.

Career.

In the early 1990s, he decided that it was time to begin producing music, which is when he released his debut single for Paul Oakenfold's Perfecto label, "I Want You (Forever)". Cox became known as one of the best "celebrity DJs" in the world, and he continued to create music, eventually embracing the underground sounds of techno that would soon become very popular.  He ran Ultimate Base at the now defunct Velvet Underground club on Charing Cross Road, London in the mid-to late 1990s. Cox also played the Millennium on New Year's Eve 1999 & 1882, by performing in Sydney, Australia and again in Hawaii after flying back over the International Date Line. He was also global resident DJ for BBC Radio 1's "Essential Mix" in 1998–99 and he has also broadcast over a decade's worth of Ibiza live mixes from Space, specifically from 2001 to 2016. In 1997, "DJ Magazine" chose Cox as the first #1 DJ for its first top 100 poll, which to this day still takes place.  Cox formed his own record label, Intec Records in 1998. From 1999 to 2006, Intec Records released a myriad of underground hits and became one of the best in dance music. However, in 2006 he decided to put the label on a brief hiatus and relaunched it in 2010 as Intec Digital.  In 1999, Cox starred in the British film Human Traffic as Pablo Hassan, the manager of the Asylum club.  In 2004, Cox debuted the Carl Cox & Friends arena at Ultra Music Festival, which has since taken place for twelve years. In the film "Can U Feel It?", a documentary about Ultra Music Festival, Cox explains that the concept of Carl Cox & Friends came about as a result of not only wanting to play longer sets at festivals, but also to give festival goers an experience within the festival, as Carl has far more creative control over his own stage. The stage is popular with festival goers, and has featured artists like Laurent Garnier, Nic Fanciulli, Loco Dice, Marco Carola, Maceo Plex and many more. Since he created the Carl Cox & Friends concept in 2004, this curated stage has taken place at other festivals and events including Awakenings, EDC Las Vegas, The BPM Festival, Ultra Europe, Tomorrowland, Amsterdam Dance Event and many others.  In 2001, Cox began a yearly residency at Space Ibiza, a nightclub located in Ibiza, Spain. He began playing on the terrace for Space's "We Love... Space on the Terrace". Following that, he was asked to play on Thursdays inside the club, which he was hesitant about at first. For fifteen years, Cox built his residency entitled "Music is Revolution". In 2016, he decided to end his yearly seasonal residency at Space Ibiza. In late 2015, Cox announced that 2016 will be his last year hosting a summer residency at Space Ibiza, as the club was closing and he came to the realization that Ibiza is not the same as it used to be. The final season of Cox's residency at Space Ibiza was entitled "The Final Chapter" and took place every Tuesday during the summer of 2016. Cox finished his residency at Space Ibiza on 20 September 2016 by playing a vinyl and CDJ, ten-hour set. Artists who joined Cox on his final night as part of his residency at Space Ibiza included tINI, Popof, Nic Fanciulli and DJ Sneak. Cox also played at Space Ibiza's closing fiesta on 2 October 2016 with Tale of Us, Anja Schneider, and Darius Syrossian.  Cox will star in an upcoming EDM-themed documentary titled "What We Started" with Martin Garrix showing thirty years of EDM history by focusing mainly on his and Martin Garrix's diverging careers. The documentary is co-written, produced and directed by Bert Marcus alongside executive producer and music supervisor Pete Tong.  While it was speculated that he would retire in 2017 after he finished his residency at Space Ibiza, Cox has continued to announce festivals and events for 2017 including three showcases at The BPM Festival, his stage at Ultra Music Festival, and two appearances at the Social Festival in Mexico and Colombia. In 2017, Cox was also named the global ambassador of Ultra Music Festival's techno and house music concept, Resistance. Carl Cox also announced the 2017 dates for a festival he has curated entitled Pure Festival, which took place in Sydney and Melbourne, Australia during April 2017.  After sixteen years of Cox's Global radio podcast, he announced via Facebook that he would no longer be working on the show and that it would end in February 2017.  For 2020, he announced via the Goodwood website that he would be playing a summer festival DJ set at the first of the Three Friday nights at Goodwood Racecourse with a special dedication to the Lloyds before their departure.

Carl Cox (born 29 July 1962) is a British house and techno record producer and DJ.

卡尔·考克斯(Carl Cox,1962年-7月29日)国际知名的铁克诺(techno)和浩室电子音乐(house)的DJ。


Nomenclature.

"α Pavonis" (Latinised to "Alpha Pavonis") is the star's Bayer designation.  The historical name "Peacock" was assigned by Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office in the late 1930s during the creation of the Air Almanac, a navigational almanac for the Royal Air Force. Of the fifty-seven stars included in the new almanac, two had no classical names: Alpha Pavonis and Epsilon Carinae. The RAF insisted that all of the stars must have names, so new names were invented. Alpha Pavonis was named "Peacock" ('pavo' is Latin for 'peacock') whilst Epsilon Carinae was called "Avior". In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included "Peacock" for this star and "Avior" for Epsilon Carinae.  In Chinese caused by adaptation of the European southern hemisphere constellations into the Chinese system, (), meaning "Peacock", refers to an asterism consisting of α Pavonis, η Pavonis, π Pavonis, ν Pavonis, λ Pavonis, κ Pavonis, δ Pavonis, β Pavonis, ζ Pavonis, ε Pavonis and γ Pavonis. Consequently, α Pavonis itself is known as (,.)

Properties.

At an apparent magnitude of 1.94, this is the brightest star in Pavo. Based upon parallax measurements, this star is about distant from the Earth. It has an estimated six times the Sun's mass and 6 times the Sun's radius, but 2,200 times the luminosity of the Sun. The effective temperature of the photosphere is 17,700 K, which gives the star a blue-white hue. It has a stellar classification of B3 V, although older studies have often given it a subgiant luminosity class. It is classified as B2.5 IV in the Bright Star Catalogue.  Stars with the mass of Alpha Pavonis are believed not to have a convection zone near their surface. Hence the material found in the outer atmosphere is not processed by the nuclear fusion occurring at the core. This means that the surface abundance of elements should be representative of the material out of which it originally formed. In particular, the surface abundance of deuterium should not change during the star's main sequence lifetime. The measured ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in this star amounts to less than, which suggests this star may have formed in a region with an unusually low abundance of deuterium, or else the deuterium was consumed by some means. A possible scenario for the latter is that the deuterium was burned through while Alpha Pavonis was a pre-main-sequence star.  The system is likely to be a member of the Tucana-Horologium association that share a common motion through space. The estimated age of this association is 45 million years. α Pavonis star has a peculiar velocity of relative to its neighbors.

Companions.

Three stars have been listed as visual companions to α Pavonis: two ninth magnitude stars at about four arc minutes; and a 12th magnitude F5 main sequence star at about one arc minute. The two ninth magnitude companions are only 17 arc seconds from each other.  α Pavonis A is a spectroscopic binary consisting of a pair of stars that orbit around each other with a period of 11.753 days. However, in part because the two stars have not been individually resolved, little is known about the companion except that it has a mass of at least. One attempt to model a composite spectrum estimated components with spectral types of B0.5 and B2, and a brightness difference between the two components of 1.3 magnitudes.

Alpha Pavonis (α Pavonis, abbreviated Alpha Pav, α Pav), formally named Peacock, is a binary star in the southern constellation of Pavo, near the border with the constellation Telescopium.

孔雀十一(α Pav / 孔雀座α)是孔雀座的最亮星,又称为孔雀星,亮度1.9等。孔雀十一是一颗分光双星。


Genealogy.

Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his "imina") was Norihito"-shinnō" (憲仁親王). He was also known as Nobuhito"-shinnō".  Takakura was the fourth son of Emperor Go-Shirakawa, and thus uncle to his predecessor, Emperor Rokujō. His mother was Empress Dowager Taira no Shigeko, the younger sister of Taira no Tokiko, the wife of Taira no Kiyomori. His empress consort was Taira no Tokuko (later Empress Dowager Kenrei), the daughter of Taira no Kiyomori, and thus his first cousin (as his mother and Tokuko's mothers were sisters).

Events of Takakura's life.

Although Takakura was formally enthroned, the reality was that government affairs were controlled by his father and his father-in-law.  Takakura had his own views on the role of Emperor. He is said to have written:  Ex-Emperor Go-Shirakawa exercised the powers attendant the well-settled patterns of cloistered rule. Taira no Kiyomori, who was the father of the Empress, did whatever he pleased as "de facto" Regent.  Soon after the birth of Emperor Takakura's son, Prince Tokihito, he was pressured to abdicate. The one-year-old infant would become Emperor Antoku.

"Kugyō".

"Kugyō" (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.  In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Takakura's reign, this apex of the "Daijō-kan" included:

Eras of Takakura's reign.

The years of Takakura's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or "nengō".

Cultural references.

Takakura is the "Imperial Sovereign" of the Japan-inspired land of Akatsurai in Book 6: "The Lords of the Rising Sun" in the Fabled Lands adventure gamebook series. He is portrayed as a young man with little real power, it being largely in the hands of his chancellor, "Lord Kiyomori".

Emperor Takakura (高倉天皇 "Takakura-tennō") (September 20, 1161 – January 30, 1181) was the 80th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1168 through 1180.

高仓天皇(;1161年-9月23日-1181年-1月30日,应保元年九月三日-治承五年一月十四日),日本第80代天皇(1168年3月30日-1180年3月18日,仁安三年二月十九日-治承四年二月二十一日在位)。讳宪仁()。


Nomenclature.

"β Virginis" (Latinised to "Beta Virginis") is the star's Bayer designation.  It bore the traditional names "Zavijava" (also "Zavijah", "Zavyava" and "Zawijah") and "Alaraph". "Zavijava" is from the Arabic "زاوية العواء" "zāwiyat al-awwa’" 'corner of the barking (dog)'. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved the name "Zavijava" for this star on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.  In Chinese, (), meaning "Right Wall of Supreme Palace Enclosure", refers to an asterism consisting of Beta Virginis, Sigma Leonis, Iota Leonis, Theta Leonis and Delta Leonis. Consequently, the Chinese name for Beta Virginis itself is (,.), representing (), meaning "The Right Law Administrator". 右執法 (Yòuzhífǎ), spelled "Yew Chi Fa" by R.H. Allen, means "the Right-hand Maintainer of Law"

Hunt for substellar objects.

According to Nelson & Angel (1998), Beta Virginis could host two or three jovian planets in wide orbits. The authors have set an upper limit of 1.9, 5 and 23 Jupiter masses for the putative planets with orbital periods of 15, 25 and 50 years respectively. Also Campbell et al. 1988 inferred the existence of planetary objects or even brown dwarfs around Beta Virginis. However more recent studies have not confirmed the existence of any substellar companion around Beta Virginis yet. McDonald Observatory team has set limits to the presence of one or more planets with masses between 0.16 and 4.2 Jupiter masses and average separations spanning between 0.05 and 5.2 Astronomical Units.

Beta Virginis (β Virginis, abbreviated Beta Vir, β Vir), formally named Zavijava, is (despite its designation 'beta') the fifth-brightest star in the constellation of Virgo. Larger and more massive than the Sun, it is comparatively metal-rich (that is, it has a higher preponderance of elements heavier than helium).

右执法(β Vir /室女座β)也称太微右垣一,是室女座的一颗恒星,英文名Zavijava。虽然编号为β,但是亮度在室女座内的排名只有第5。右执法的体积与质量都比太阳大,金属含量也是比较丰富的。也就是说它有相当丰富的比氦还重的元素。


History.

Qantas was founded in Winton, Queensland on 16 November 1920 by Hudson Fysh, Paul McGinness and Fergus McMaster as Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Limited. The airline's first aircraft was an Avro 504K. It moved its headquarters to Longreach, Queensland in 1921 and Brisbane, Queensland in 1930.  In 1934, QANTAS and Britain's Imperial Airways (a forerunner of British Airways) formed a new company, Qantas Empire Airways Limited (QEA). The new airline commenced operations in December 1934, flying between Brisbane and Darwin. QEA flew internationally from May 1935, when the service from Darwin was extended to Singapore (Imperial Airways operated the rest of the service through to London). When World War II began, enemy action and accidents destroyed half of the fleet of ten, and most of the fleet was taken over by the Australian government for war service.

Jet age.

Flying boat services were resumed in 1943, with flights between the Swan River at Crawley in Perth, Western Australia and Koggala Lake in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). This linked up with the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC, the successor airline to Imperial Airways) service to London. Qantas' kangaroo logo was first used on the "Kangaroo Route", begun in 1944, from Sydney to Karachi, where BOAC crews took over for

Rapid expansion.

On, Qantas merged with nationally owned domestic airline Australian Airlines (renamed from Trans-Australia Airlines in 1986). The airline started to be

Founding of Oneworld.

In 1998, Qantas co-founded the Oneworld alliance with American Airlines, British Airways, Canadian Airlines and Cathay Pacific, with other airlines joining subsequently.  With the entry of new budget airline Virgin Blue (now Virgin Australia) into the domestic market in 2000, Qantas' market share fell. Qantas

21st century developments.

Qantas briefly revived the Australian Airlines name for a short-lived international budget airline between 2002 and 2006, but this subsidiary was shut down in favour of expanding Jetstar internationally, including to New Zealand. In 2004, the Qantas group expanded into the Asian budget airline market with Jetstar Asia Airways, in which Qantas owns a minority stake. A similar model was used for the investment into Jetstar Pacific, headquartered in Vietnam, in 2007, and Jetstar Japan, launched in 2012.  In December 2006, Qantas was the subject of a failed bid from a consortium calling itself Airline Partners Australia. Merger talks with British Airways in 2008 also did not proceed to an

Corporate affairs.

Business trends.

The key trends for the Qantas Group (Qantas Airways Ltd and

Headquarters.

Qantas' headquarters are located at the Qantas Centre in the suburb

Airline subsidiaries.

Qantas has operated a number of passenger airline subsidiaries since inception, including:  Qantas operates a freight service under the

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders initiatives.

Qantas, through its Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Programme, has some links with the Aboriginal Australian community. As of 2007, the company has run the programme for more than ten years and 1–2% of its staff are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander. Qantas employs a full-time Diversity Coordinator, who

Promotions and Sponsorships.

An early television campaign, starting in 1969 and running for several decades, was aimed at American audiences; it featured a live koala, voiced by Howard Morris, who complained that too many tourists were coming to Australia and concluded "I hate Qantas." The koala ads have been ranked among the greatest commercials of all time. A long-running advertising campaign features renditions by children's choirs of Peter Allen's "I Still Call Australia Home", at various famous landmarks in Australia and foreign locations such as Venice. The song has also been used in Qantas's safety videos since 2018.  Qantas is the main sponsor of the Australia national rugby union team. It also sponsors the Socceroos, Australia's national association football team. Qantas was the naming rights sponsor for the Formula One Australian Grand Prix from 2010 until 2012. On 26 December 2011, Qantas signed a four-year deal with Australian cricket's governing body Cricket Australia, to be the official

Fundamental structural change.

In August 2011, the company announced that following financial losses of A$200 million ($209 million) for the year ending June 2011 and a decline in market share, major structural changes would be made. One planned change that did not come to fruition was the plan to create a new Asia-based premium airline that would operate under a different name. In addition to this plan, Qantas announced it planned to cut 1,000 jobs. The reforms included route changes, in particular the cessation of services to London via Hong Kong and Bangkok. While Qantas

New uniform.

Paris-based Australian designer Martin Grant is responsible for the new Qantas airline staff uniforms that were publicly unveiled on 16 April 2013. These were to replace the previous uniforms, dubbed colloquially as "Morrisey" by staff after the designer, Peter Morrissey. The new outfits combine the colours of navy blue, red and fuchsia pink. Qantas chief executive

Destinations.

Qantas operates flightseeing charters to Antarctica on behalf of Croydon Travel. It first flew Antarctic flightseeing trips in 1977. They were suspended for a number of years due to the crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 on Mount Erebus in 1979. Qantas restarted the flights in 1994. Although these flights do not touch down, they require specific polar operations and crew training due to factors like sector whiteout, which contributed to the 1979 Air New Zealand disaster.  With Flights 7 and 8 – a non-stop service between Sydney and Dallas/Fort Worth operated by the Airbus A380 – commencing on 29 September 2014, Qantas operated the world's longest passenger flight on the world's largest passenger aircraft. This was overtaken on 1 March 2016 by Emirates' new Auckland-Dubai service. After it ordered Boeing 787 aircraft, Qantas announced an intention to launch non-stop flights between Australia and the United Kingdom during March 2018 from Perth, Western Australia to London. The inaugural flight left Perth on 24 March.  On 19 March 2020, Qantas confirmed it would suspend all international flights and about 60% of domestic flights from the end of March until at least 31 May 2020 following expanded government travel restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Codeshare agreements.

, Qantas had

Joint ventures.

In addition to the above codeshares, Qantas

Fleet.

Current fleet.

, the Qantas mainline fleet consists of the following aircraft: , Qantas and its subsidiaries operated 297 aircraft, including

Order history.

On 22 August 2012, Qantas announced that, due to losses and to conserve capital, it had cancelled its 35-aircraft Boeing 787-9 order while keeping the 15-aircraft 787-8 order for Jetstar Airways and moving forward 50 purchase rights. On 20 August 2015 Qantas announced that it had ordered eight Boeing 787-9s for delivery from 2017.  In February 2019, Qantas cancelled its remaining orders for a further eight Airbus A380-800 aircraft.  In June 2019, during the Paris Air Show, Qantas Group converted 26 Airbus A321neo orders to the A321XLR variant and another ten A321neo orders to the A321LR variant; and ordered an additional ten A321XLRs.

Aircraft names.

Qantas has named its aircraft since 1926. Themes have included Greek gods; stars; people in Australian aviation history; and Australian birds. Since

Liveries.

Indigenous Art liveries.

Two Qantas aircraft are currently decorated with an Indigenous Australian art scheme. One aircraft, a Boeing 737-800, wears a livery called "Mendoowoorrji", which was revealed in November 2013. The design was drawn from the late West Australian Aboriginal artist Paddy Bedford.  A Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner is adorned in a paint scheme inspired by the late Emily Kame Kngwarreye's 1991 painting "Yam Dreaming". The adaptation of "Yam Dreaming" to the aircraft, led by Balarinji, a Sydney-based and Aboriginal-owned design firm, incorporates the red Qantas tailfin into the design, which includes white dots with red and orange tones. The design depicts the yam plant, an important and culturally significant symbol in Kngwarreye's Dreaming stories, and a staple food source in her home region of Utopia. The design was applied to the aircraft during manufacture,

Retro Roo liveries.

In November 2014 the airline revealed that the 75th Boeing 737-800 jet to be delivered would carry a'retro-livery' based on the airline's 1971 'ochre' colour scheme design featuring the iconic 'Flying Kangaroo' on its tail

Other liveries.

Several Qantas aircraft have been decorated with promotional liveries, promoting telecommunications company Optus; the Disney motion picture "Planes"; the Australian national association football team, the Socceroos; and the Australian national rugby union team, the Wallabies. Two aircraft – an Airbus A330-200 and a Boeing 747-400ER – were decorated with special

Cabin.

Domestic.

Qantas domestic flights are primarily operated by Boeing 737-800 and Airbus A330-200 aircraft; Airbus A330-300s sometimes operate domestically as well. A two-class configuration (Business and Economy) is offered.

Business.

Domestic Business Class is offered on all Boeing 737 and Airbus A330 aircraft. On the Boeing 737, Business is exclusively available in the first three rows of the

Economy.

Domestic Economy Class is offered on all Boeing 737 and Airbus A330 aircraft. Seat pitch is usually and seat width ranges from. Layouts are 3–3 on the 737 and 2-4-2 on the A330.

International.

Qantas international flights are primarily operated on Airbus A380s, A330-300s, Boeing 747s, 787s and sometimes on Airbus A330-200s and Boeing 737-800s. Passenger class configuration varies by aircraft, with the Airbus A330-300 offering a two class configuration of Business and Economy on short to medium haul flights. This compares to the Airbus A380, which offers a four class configuration of First, Business, Premium Economy and Economy on selected long haul flights.

First.

First class is offered exclusively on the Airbus A380.  It offers 14 individual suites in a 1-1-1 layout. The seats rotate, facing forward for takeoff, but rotating to the side for dining and sleeping, with 83.5 in seat pitch (extending to a 212 cm fully flat bed) and a width of. Each suite has a

Business.

International Business class is offered on all Qantas mainline passenger aircraft.  On all International and selected Domestic flights, Qantas offers two different types of Business Class seats, as listed below.

Premium Economy.

Premium economy class is offered exclusively on all Airbus A380, Boeing 787-9 and Boeing 747-400 aircraft. It has a seat pitch of on the Boeing 747 and it ranges from on the Airbus A380, with a width of. On the Boeing 747, it is configured in a 2-3-2 seating arrangement around the middle of the main deck, whilst it is in a 2-3-2 at the rear of the upper deck on the A380. On the Boeing 787, it is configured in a 2-3-2 seating arrangement

Economy.

International Economy class is available on all Qantas mainline passenger aircraft.  Seat pitch is usually and seat width ranges from. Layouts are 3–3 on the 737, 2-4-2 on the A330, 3-3-3 on the B787-9 and 3-4-3 on the 747. On the A380, the layout is 3-4-3 and there are four self-service snack bars located in between cabins.  In 2019, Qantas began the process of retrofitting its Airbus A380 aircraft which includes new Economy seats with new seat cushions and improved inflight entertainment, as offered on Boeing 787 aircraft. The aircraft will have less economy seats compared to the previous configuration due to an increase in the number of premium seats.

In-flight entertainment.

Every Qantas mainline aircraft has some form of video audio entertainment. Qantas has several types of in-flight entertainment (IFE) systems installed on its aircraft and refers to the in-flight experience as "On:Q".

Audio-video entertainment systems.

The "Total Entertainment System" by Rockwell Collins was featured on selected domestic and international aircraft between 2000 and 2019. This AVOD system included personal LCD screens in all classes, located in the seat back for economy and business class, and in the armrest for premium economy and first class.  The Mainscreen System is featured on selected Boeing 737-800 aircraft. This entertainment system, introduced between 2002 and 2011, has overhead video screens as the main form of entertainment. Movies are shown on the screens for lengthier flights, or TV programmes on shorter flights. A news telecast will usually feature at the start of the flight. Audio options are less varied than on Q, iQ or the Total Entertainment System.  The "iQ"

Wireless entertainment systems and Wi-Fi.

Q Streaming is an in-flight entertainment system in which entertainment is streamed to iPads or personal devices available in all classes on selected aircraft. A selection of movies, TV, music and a kids' choice are available.  In 2007, Qantas conducted a trial for use of mobile telephones with AeroMobile, during domestic services for three months on a Boeing 767. During the trial, passengers were allowed to send and receive text messages and emails, but were not able to make or receive calls.  Since 2014, Sky News Australia has provided multiple news bulletins both in-flight

Inflight magazine.

"Qantas The Australian Way" is the airline's in-flight magazine. In mid-2015, the magazine ended a 14-year publishing deal with Bauer Media, switching its publisher to Medium Rare.

Services.

The Qantas Club.

Facilities.

The Qantas Club is the airline lounge for Qantas with airport locations around Australia and the world. Additionally, Qantas operates dedicated international first-class lounges in Sydney, Melbourne, Auckland, Los Angeles and Singapore. Domestically, Qantas also offers dedicated Business Lounges at Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Canberra and Perth for domestic Business Class, Qantas Platinum and Platinum One, and OneWorld Emerald

Lounge access.

Qantas Club Members, Gold Frequent Flyers and Oneworld Sapphire holders are permitted to enter domestic Qantas Clubs when flying on Qantas or Jetstar flights along with one guest who need not be travelling. Platinum and Oneworld Emerald Members are permitted to bring in two guests who do not need to be travelling. Internationally, members use Qantas International Business Class lounges (or the Oneworld equivalent). Guests of the member must be travelling to gain access to international lounges. When flying with American Airlines, members have access to Admirals Club lounges and when flying on British

Qantas Frequent Flyer.

The Qantas frequent-flyer program is aimed at rewarding customer loyalty. The program is long-standing, although the date of the actual inception has been a matter that has generated some commentary. Qantas state the program launched in 1987 although other sources claim what is the current program was launched in the early 1990s, with a Captain's Club program existing before that.  Points are accrued based on distance flown, with bonuses that vary by travel class. Points can also be earned on other Oneworld airlines as well as through other non-airline partners. Points can be redeemed for flights or upgrades on flights operated by Qantas, Oneworld airlines, and other partners. Other partners include credit cards, car rental companies, hotels and many others. Flights with Qantas and selected partner airlines earn Status Credits — and accumulation of these allows progression to Silver status (Oneworld Ruby), Gold status (Oneworld Sapphire), Platinum and Platinum One status (Oneworld Emerald).  Membership of the program has grown significantly

Accidents and incidents.

It is often claimed that Qantas has never had an aircraft crash. While it is true that the company has neither lost a jet airliner nor had any jet fatalities, it had eight fatal accidents and an aircraft shot down between 1927 and 1945, with the loss of 63 people. Half of these accidents and the shoot-down occurred during World War II, when the Qantas aircraft were operating on behalf of Allied military forces. Post-war, it lost another four aircraft (one was owned by BOAC and operated by Qantas in a pooling arrangement) with a total of 21 people killed. The last fatal accidents suffered by Qantas were in 1951, with three fatal crashes in five months. Qantas' safety record allows the airline to be officially known as the world's safest airline for seven years in a row from 2012 until 2019 (current).  Since the end of World War II, the following accidents and incidents have occurred:

Extortion attempts.

On 26 May 1971 Qantas received a call from a "Mr. Brown" claiming that there was a bomb planted on a Hong Kong-bound jet and demanding $500,000 in unmarked $20 notes. The caller and threat were taken seriously when he directed police to an airport locker where a functional bomb was found. Arrangements were made to pick up the money in front of the head office of the airline in the heart of the Sydney business district. Qantas paid the money and it was collected, after which Mr. Brown called again, advising the "bomb on the

Controversies.

Sex discrimination controversy.

In November 2005 it was revealed that Qantas had a policy of not seating adult male passengers next to unaccompanied children. This led to accusations of discrimination. The policy came to light following an incident in 2004 when Mark Wolsay, who was seated next to a young boy on a Qantas flight in New Zealand, was asked to change seats with a female passenger. A steward informed him that "it was the airline's policy that only women were allowed to sit next to unaccompanied children". Cameron Murphy of the NSW Council for Civil Liberties

Price fixing.

In 2006 a class action lawsuit, alleging price-fixing on air cargo freight, was commenced in Australia. The lawsuit was settled early in 2011 with Qantas agreeing to pay in excess of $21 million to settle the case.  Qantas has pleaded guilty to participating in a cartel that fixed the price of air cargo. Qantas Airways Ltd. was fined CAD$155,000 after it admitted that its freight division fixed surcharges on cargo exported on certain routes from Canada between May 2002

2011 industrial unrest and grounding of fleet.

In response to ongoing industrial unrest over failed negotiations involving three unions (the Australian Licensed Aircraft Engineers Association (ALAEA), the Australian and International Pilots Association (AIPA) and the Transport Workers Union of Australia (TWU)), the company grounded its entire domestic and international fleet from 5 pm AEDT on 29 October. Employees involved would be locked out from

Asylum seeker deportations.

Qantas has been subject to protests in relation to asylum seekers deportations leading to disruptions of flights. In 2015 activists prevented the transfer of a Tamil man from Melbourne to Darwin (from where he was to be deported to Colombo) by refusing to take their seats on a Qantas flight. It was reported that Qantas banned the student from taking Qantas flights in the future. A nameless head of security from Qantas sent a letter to the Melbourne student's email account saying her "actions are unacceptable and will not be tolerated by the Qantas Group or the Jetstar

Awards.

In 2009, Qantas was one of the inaugural inductees into the Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame.

Qantas Airways Limited () is the flag carrier of Australia and its largest airline by fleet size, international flights and international destinations. It is the third oldest airline in the world, after KLM and Avianca, having been founded in November 1920; it began international passenger flights in May 1935. The Qantas name comes from ""QANTAS"", an acronym for its original name, ""Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services"", and it is nicknamed "The Flying Kangaroo". Qantas is a founding member of the Oneworld airline alliance.

澳洲航空(英语:Qantas Airways(),简称澳航,)是澳洲的国家航空公司,暱称为「飞行袋鼠」(英语:The Flying Kangaroo)。澳航的英文名称“QANTAS”是「Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services」(昆士兰及北领地航空服务)的缩写。总部设于悉尼,以悉尼机场和墨尔本机场为主要枢纽机场。澳航不仅是澳洲,同时也是大洋洲以及南半球规模最大的航空公司,亦是全球历史第三悠久的航空公司,仅次于荷兰皇家航空和哥伦比亚航空。


Legendary narrative.

In the "Kojiki" and "Nihon Shoki", only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and an Imperial "misasagi" or tomb for Kōan is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned. He is believed to be son of Emperor Kōshō; and his mother is believed to have been Yosotarashi-no-hime, who was the daughter of Okitsuyoso, and ancestress of the Owari. The "Kojiki" records Kōan was the second son of Emperor Kōshō, and that he ruled from the palace of at Muro in what would come to be known as Yamato Province. Kōan was allegedly an emperor who reigned for more than a hundred years, and lived to the age of 137 (according to the Kojiki). He allegedly had a wife named Yosotarashi-hime, and fathered two children with her. Kōan's reign lasted from 392 BC until his death in 291 BC, one of his sons then took the throne and would later be referred to as Emperor Kōrei.

Known information.

The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study. Kōan is thus regarded by historians as a "legendary Emperor", and is considered to have been the fifth of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them. The name Kōan"-tennō" was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kōan, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the "Kojiki". One topic that has been brought up is Emperor Kōan's longevity as the oldest verified humans usually go into the mid to late 110s. According to historian John S. Brownlee, Kōan's alleged age of 137 at the time of his death is "too long". Brownlee goes on to say that while this isn't unusual for mythical figures, nobody in Japan was bothered by the longevity of the former emperors until the modern era. While the actual site of Kōan's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine ("misasagi") in Tamade, Gose. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōan's mausoleum, and its formal name is "Tamate no oka no e no misasagi".  The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan. Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

Consorts and children.

Empress:, Prince Amatarashikunioshihito's daughter (Emperor Kōshō's son)

Further reading.

, also known as was the sixth Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study. Kōan is known as a "legendary emperor" among historians as his actual existence is disputed. Nothing exists in the Kojiki other than his name and genealogy. Kōan's reign allegedly began in 392 BC, he had one wife and two sons and reigned for more than 100 years until his death in 291 BC at the age of 136. One of his sons then supposedly became the next emperor. Emperor Kōan is traditionally accepted as the final emperor of the Jōmon period, which ended in 300 BCE.

孝安天皇(;孝昭天皇49年(前427年)-孝安天皇102年1月9日(前291年2月27日))为日本第六代天皇,其在《日本书纪》中被称作日本足彦国押人尊,在《古事记》里则名为大倭带日子国押人命。身为阙史八代中第五位天皇,其生平几无法考证。


The level-set equation.

If the curve formula_4 moves in the normal direction with a speed formula_14, then the level-set function formula_1 satisfies the "level-set equation" Here, formula_17 is the Euclidean norm (denoted customarily by single bars in PDEs), and formula_18 is time. This is a partial differential equation, in particular a Hamilton–Jacobi equation, and can be solved numerically, for example, by using finite differences on a Cartesian grid.  The numerical solution of the level-set equation, however, requires sophisticated techniques. Simple finite-difference methods fail quickly. Upwinding methods, such as the Godunov method, fare better; however, the level-set method does not guarantee the conservation of the volume and the shape of the level set in an advection field that does conserve the shape and size, for example, uniform or rotational velocity field. Instead, the shape of the level set may get severely distorted, and the level set may vanish over several time steps. For this reason, high-order finite-difference schemes are generally required, such as high-order essentially non-oscillatory (ENO) schemes, and even then the feasibility of long-time simulations is questionable. Further sophisticated methods to deal with this difficulty have been developed, e.g., combinations of the level-set method with tracing marker particles advected by the velocity field.

Example.

Consider a unit circle in formula_19, shrinking in on itself at a constant rate, i.e. each point on the boundary of the circle moves along its inwards pointing normal at some fixed speed. The circle will shrink and eventually collapse down to a point. If an initial distance field is constructed (i.e. a function whose value is the signed euclidean distance to the boundary, positive interior, negative exterior) on the initial circle, the normalised gradient of this field will be the circle normal.  If the field has a constant value subtracted from it in time, the zero level (which was the initial boundary) of the new fields will also be circular and will similarly collapse to a point. This is due to this being effectively the temporal integration of the Eikonal equation with a fixed front velocity.  In combustion, this method is used to describe the instantaneous flame surface, known as the G equation.

History.

The level-set method was developed in the 1980s by the American mathematicians Stanley Osher and James Sethian. It has become popular in many disciplines, such as image processing, computer graphics, computational geometry, optimization, computational fluid dynamics, and computational biophysics.  A number of level-set data structures have been developed to facilitate the use of the level-set method in computer applications.

Computational fluid dynamics.

To run a Math Model in the interface of two different fluids we need to soften the interactions between the fluids. Therefore we need to apply an specific function: Compact Level Set Method.  As an “spin off”, the CompactLSM its a complement of the LSM, that helps solving LSM equations. It can be used in numerical simulation of flow, for example, if we are working with discretization of the interface water-air, compacts at sixth order, ensures the accurate and fast calculation of the interface equations (Monteiro 2018).  The LSM uses a distance function to locate different fluids. A distance function is that whose value represents the smallest distance from the point where it is being analyzed to the interface. This distance function is identified by isolines (2D) or isosurfaces (3D), showing that the negative values refer to one of the fluids, positive values refer to the other and the  zero value corresponds to the position of the interface.  But, how Heaviside function its inserted in the "Compact Level Set Method?"  Since the specific mass and viscosity are discontinuous at the interface, both excess diffusion problem (interface widening) and numerical oscillations are expected if there is no adequate treatment of the fluid near the interface. To minimize these problems, the Level Set method uses a smooth, cell-related Heaviside function that explicitly defines the interface position (∅ = 0).  The transition in the interface is kept smooth, but with a thickness of the order of magnitude of the cell size, to avoid the introduction of disturbances with a length scale equal to that of the mesh, since the interface infers an abrupt jump property from one cell to the next (Unverdi and Tryggvason, 1992). To reconstruct the material properties of the flow, such as specific mass and viscosity, another marker function, I (∅), of the Heaviside type is used:  where "δ" is an empirical coefficient, usually equal to 1; 5 and Δ is the characteristic discretization of the problem, which varies according to the phenomenon to be simulated. The value of "δ" represents an interface with a thickness of three cells, and thus "δ"Δ represents half the thickness of the interface. Note that in this method, the interface has a virtual thickness, as it is represented by a smooth function. Physical properties, such as specific mass and kinematic viscosity, are calculated as:  where "ρ", "ρ", "v" and "v" are the specific mass and kinematic viscosity of fluids 1 and 2. Equation 2 can be applied analogously to the other properties of the fluids.

Level-set methods (LSM) are a conceptual framework for using level sets as a tool for numerical analysis of surfaces and shapes. The advantage of the level-set model is that one can perform numerical computations involving curves and surfaces on a fixed Cartesian grid without having to parameterize these objects (this is called the "Eulerian approach"). Also, the level-set method makes it very easy to follow shapes that change topology, for example, when a shape splits in two, develops holes, or the reverse of these operations. All these make the level-set method a great tool for modeling time-varying objects, like inflation of an airbag, or a drop of oil floating in water.

水平集方法(Level Set Method) 是一种用于界面追踪和形状建模的数值技术.水平集方法的优点是可以在笛卡尔网格(Cartesian grid)上对演化中的曲线曲面进行数值计算而不必对曲线曲面参数化(这是所谓的"欧拉法"(Eulerian approach)).).水平集方法的另一个优点是可以方便的追踪物体的拓扑结构改变.例如当物体的形状一分为二,产生空洞,或者相反的这些操作.所有这些使得水平集方法成为随时间变化的物体建模的有力工具,例如膨胀中的气囊, 掉落到水中的油滴.


Biography.

Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name ("imina") was Takaharu"-shinnō" (尊治親王).  He was the second son of the Daikakuji-tō emperor, Emperor Go-Uda. His mother was Fujiwara no "Chūshi"/Tadako ("藤原忠子"), daughter of Fujiwara no Tadatsugu (Itsutsuji Tadatsugu) ("藤原忠継/五辻忠継"). She became Nyoin called Dantenmon-in (談天門院). His older brother was Emperor Go-Nijō.  Emperor Go-Daigo's ideal was the Engi era (901–923) during the reign of Emperor Daigo, a period of direct imperial rule. An emperor's posthumous name was normally chosen after his death, but Emperor Go-Daigo chose his personally during his lifetime, to share it with Emperor Daigo.  In 1324, with the discovery of Emperor Go-Daigo's plans to overthrow the Kamakura shogunate, the Rokuhara Tandai disposed of his close associate Hino Suketomo in the Shōchū Incident.

Events of Go-Daigo's life.

In the Genkō Incident of 1331, Emperor Go-Daigo's plans were again discovered, this time by a betrayal by his close associate Yoshida Sadafusa. He quickly hid the Sacred Treasures in a secluded castle in Kasagiyama (the modern town of Kasagi, Sōraku District, Kyōto Prefecture) and raised an army, but the castle fell to the shogunate's army the following year, and they enthroned Emperor Kōgon, exiling Daigo to Oki Province (the Oki Islands in modern-day Shimane Prefecture), the same place to which Emperor Go-Toba had been exiled after the Jōkyū War of 1221.  In 1333, Emperor Go-Daigo escaped from Oki with the help of Nawa Nagatoshi and his family, raising an army at Senjo Mountain in Hōki Province (the modern town of Kotoura in Tōhaku District, Tottori Prefecture). Ashikaga Takauji, who had been sent by the shogunate to find and destroy this army, sided with the emperor and captured the Rokuhara Tandai. Immediately following this, Nitta Yoshisada, who had raised an army in the east, laid siege to Kamakura. When the city finally fell to Nitta, Hōjō Takatoki, the shogunal regent, fled to Tōshō temple, where he and his entire family committed suicide. This ended Hōjō power and paved the way for a new military regime.  Upon his triumphal return to Kyoto, Daigo took the throne from Emperor Kōgon and began the Kenmu Restoration. The Restoration was ostensibly a revival of the older ways, but, in fact, the emperor had his eye set on an imperial dictatorship like that of the emperor of China. He wanted to imitate the Chinese in all their ways and become the most powerful ruler in the East. Impatient reforms, litigation over land rights, rewards, and the exclusion of the samurai from the political order caused much complaining, and his political order began to fall apart. In 1335, Ashikaga Takauji, who had travelled to eastern Japan without obtaining an imperial edict in order to suppress the Nakasendai Rebellion, became disaffected. Daigo ordered Nitta Yoshisada to track down and destroy Ashikaga. Ashikaga defeated Nitta Yoshisada at the Battle of Takenoshita, Hakone. Kusunoki Masashige and Kitabatake Akiie, in communication with Kyoto, smashed the Ashikaga army. Takauji fled to Kyūshū, but the following year, after reassembling his army, he again approached Kyōto. Kusunoki Masashige proposed a reconciliation with Takauji to the emperor, but Go-Daigo rejected this. He ordered Masashige and Yoshisada to destroy Takauji. Kusunoki's army was defeated at the Battle of Minatogawa.  When Ashikaga's army entered Kyōto, Emperor Go-Daigo resisted, fleeing to Mount Hiei, but seeking reconciliation, he sent the imperial regalia to the Ashikaga side. Takauji enthroned the Jimyōin-tō emperor, Kōmyō, and officially began his shogunate with the enactment of the Kenmu Law Code.  Go-Daigo escaped from the capital in January 1337, the regalia that he had handed over to the Ashikaga being counterfeit, and set up the Southern Court among the mountains of Yoshino, beginning the Period of Northern and Southern Courts in which the Northern Dynasty in Kyoto and the Southern Dynasty in Yoshino faced off against each other.  Emperor Go-Daigo ordered Imperial Prince Kaneyoshi to Kyūshū and Nitta Yoshisada and Imperial Prince Tsuneyoshi to Hokuriku, and so forth, dispatching his sons all over, so that they could oppose the Northern Court.  The actual site of Go-Daigo's grave is settled. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine ("misasagi") at Nara.  The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Go-Daigo's mausoleum. It is formally named "Tō-no-o no misasagi".

Genealogy.

Consorts and children.

Empress ("Chūgū"): Saionji "Kishi" ("西園寺禧子") later Empress Dowager Go-Kyōgoku-in (後京極院), Saionji Sanekane's daughter  Empress ("Chūgū"): Imperial Princess Junshi (<unk>子内親王) later Empress Dowager Shin-Muromachi-in (新室町院), Emperor Go-Fushimi’s daughter  "Nyōgo": Fujiwara no Eishi (藤原栄子) also Anfuku-dono (安福殿), Nijō Michihira’s daughter  Court lady: Fujiwara no Chikako (藤原親子) also Chūnagon-tenji (中納言典侍), Itsutsuji Munechika's daughter  Lady-in-waiting: Dainagon'nosuke, Kitabatake Moroshige's daughter  Lady-in-waiting: Shin-Ansatsu-tenji (新按察典侍), Jimyoin Yasufuji's daughter  Lady-in-waiting: Sochi-no-suke (帥典侍讃岐)  Court lady: Koto no Naishi (勾当内侍), Saionji Tsunafusa's daughter  Court lady: "Shōshō no Naishi" (少将内侍), Sugawara no Arinaka's daughter  Court lady: Fujiwara (Ano) no "Renshi" (藤原廉子/阿野廉子) later Empress Dowager Shin-Taikenmon-in (新待賢門院, 1301–1359), Ano Kinkado's daughter  Court lady: Minamoto no Chikako (源親子), Kitabatake Morochika's daughter  Court lady: Fujiwara no "Ishi"/Tameko (藤原為子, d. ), Nijō Tameyo's daughter  "Nyōgo": Fujiwara no Jisshi (実子). Tōin Saneo's daughter  Court lady: Fujiwara no "Shushi"/Moriko (藤原守子, 1303–1357), daughter of Tōin Saneyasu (洞院実泰)  Princess: Imperial Princess Kenshi (<unk>子内親王, 1270–1324) later Empress Dowager Shōkeimon'in (昭慶門院), Emperor Kameyama’s daughter  Court lady: Fujiwara (Nijo) Michiko (二条道子) also "Gon-no-Dainagon no Sammi no Tsubone" (権大納言三位局, d. 1351) later Reisho-in (霊照院), Nijō Tamemichi's daughter  Court lady: "Ichijō no Tsubone" (一条局) later Yūgimon'in (遊義門院), Saionji Sanetoshi's daughter  Court lady: "Shōnagon no Naishi" (少納言内侍), Shijō Takasuke's daughter  "Nyōgo": Dainagon-no-tsubone (大納言局), Ogimachi Saneakira's daughter  "Nyōgo": Saemon-no-kami-no-tsubone (左衛門督局), Nijō Tametada's daughter  Court lady: "Gon-no-Chūnagon no Tsubone" (権中納言局), Sanjō Kinyasu's daughter  "Nyōgo": Yoshida Sadafusa's daughter  "Nyōgo": Bōmon-no-tsubone (坊門局), Bomon Kiyotada's daughter  "Nyōgo": Horikawa Mototomo's daughter  "Nyōgo": Minamoto-no-Yasuko (源康子) also Asukai-no-tsubone (飛鳥井局) later Enseimon'in Harima (延政門院播磨), Minamoto-no-Yasutoki's daughter  "Nyōgo": Wakamizu-no-tsubone (若水局), Minamoto-no-Yasutoki's daughter  "Nyōgo": Horiguchi Sadayoshi's daughter  Court lady: "Konoe no Tsubone" (近衛局) later Shōkunmon'in (昭訓門院)  Go-Daigo had some other princesses from some court ladies.

Kugyō.

"Kugyō" (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.  In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Go-Daigo's reign, this apex of the "Daijō-kan included:

Eras of Go-Daigo's reign.

The years of Go-Daigo's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or "nengō". Emperor Go-Daigo's eight era name changes are mirrored in number only in the reign of Emperor Go-Hanazono, who also reigned through eight era name changes.

In popular culture.

Emperor Go-Daigo appears in the alternate history novel "Romanitas" by Sophia McDougall.

External links.

Emperor Go-Daigo (後醍醐天皇 "Go-Daigo-tennō") (26 November 1288 – 19 September 1339) was the 96th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He successfully overthrew the Kamakura shogunate in 1333 and established the short lived Kenmu Restoration to bring the Imperial House back into power. This was to be the last time the emperor had any power until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The Kenmu restoration was in turn overthrown by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336, ushering in the Ashikaga shogunate, and split the imperial family into two opposing factions between the Ashikaga backed Northern Court situated in Kyoto and the Southern Court based in Yoshino led by Go-Daigo and his later successors.

后醍醐天皇(;1288年-11月26日-1339年-9月19日,即正应元年十一月初二 — 延元四年/历应二年八月十六)为日本第九十六代天皇(1318年3月29日—1339年9月18日在位),讳尊治()。