Applications.

Peak load leveling.

The concept allows V2G vehicles to provide power to help balance loads by "valley filling" (charging at night when demand is low) and "peak shaving" (sending power back to the grid when demand is high, see duck curve). Peak load leveling can enable new ways for utilities to provide regulation services (keeping voltage and frequency stable) and provide spinning reserves (meet sudden demands for power). These services coupled with "smart-meters" would allow V2G vehicles to give power back to the grid and in return, receive monetary benefits based on how much power given back to the grid. In its current development, it has been proposed that such use of electric vehicles could buffer renewable power sources such as wind power for example, by storing excess energy produced during windy periods and providing it back to the grid during high load periods, thus effectively stabilizing the intermittency of wind power. Some see this application of vehicle-to-grid technology as an approach to help renewable energy become a base load electricity technology.  It has been proposed that public utilities would not have to build as many natural gas or coal-fired power plants to meet peak demand or as an insurance policy against power outages. Since demand can be measured locally by a simple frequency measurement, dynamic load leveling can be provided as needed. Carbitrage, a portmanteau of 'car' and 'arbitrage', is sometimes used to refer to the minimum price of electricity at which a vehicle would discharge its battery.

Backup power.

Modern electric vehicles can generally store in their batteries more than an average home's daily energy demand. Even without a PHEV's gas generation capabilities such a vehicle could be used for emergency power for several days (for example, lighting, home appliances, etc.). This would be an example of Vehicle-to-home transmission (V2H). As such they may be seen as a complementary technology for intermittent renewable power resources such as wind or solar electric. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCV) with tanks containing up to 5.6 kg of hydrogen can deliver more than 90 kWh of electricity.

Types of V2G.

Unidirectional V2G or V1G.

Many of the grid-scale benefits of V2G can be accomplished with unidirectional V2G, also known as V1G or "smart charging". The California Independent System Operator (CAISO) defines V1G as "unidirectional managed charging services" and defines the four levels of Vehicle-Grid Interface (VGI), which encompasses all of the ways that EVs can provide grid services, as follows:  V1G involves varying the time or rate at which an electric vehicle is charged in order to provide ancillary services to the grid, while V2G also includes reverse power flow. V1G includes applications such as timing vehicles to charge in the middle of the day to absorb excess solar generation, or varying the charge rate of electric vehicles to provide frequency response services or load balancing services.  V1G may be the best option to begin integrating EVs as controllable loads onto the electric grid due to technical issues that currently exist with regards to the feasibility of V2G. V2G requires specialized hardware (especially bi-directional inverters), has fairly high losses and limited round-trip efficiency, and may contribute to EV battery degradation due to increased energy throughput. Additionally, revenues from V2G in an SCE pilot project were lower than the costs of administering the project, indicating that V2G still has a ways to go before being economically feasible.

Bidirectional local V2G (V2H, V2B, V2X).

Vehicle-to-home (V2H) or vehicle-to-building (V2B) or vehicle-to-everything (V2X) do not typically directly affect grid performance but creates a balance within the local environment. The electric vehicle is used as a residential back-up power supply during periods of power outage or for increasing self-consumption of energy produced on-site (demand charge avoidance).  Unlike more mature V1G solutions, V2X has not yet reached market deployment, apart from Japan where commercial V2H solutions have been available since 2012 as back-up a solution in case of electricity black-out.

Bidirectional V2G.

With V2G, the electric vehicles could be equipped to actually provide electricity to the grid. The utility or transmission system operator may be willing to purchase energy from customers during periods of peak demand, or to use the EV battery capacity for providing ancillary services , such as balancing and frequency control, including primary frequency regulation and secondary reserve. Thus, V2G is in most applications deemed to have higher potential commercial value than V2B or V2H.

Efficiency.

Most modern battery electric vehicles use lithium-ion cells that can achieve round-trip efficiency greater than 90%. The efficiency of the battery depends on factors like charge rate, charge state, battery state of health, and temperature. The majority of losses, however, are in system components other than the battery. Power electronics, such as inverters, typically dominate overall losses. A study found overall round-trip efficiency for V2G system in the range of 53% to 62%'. Another study reports an efficiency of about 70%. The overall efficiency however depends on several factors and can vary widely.

Implementation by country.

A study conducted in 2012 by the Idaho National Laboratory revealed the following estimations and future plans for V2G in various countries. It is important to note that this is difficult to quantify because the technology is still in its nascent stage, and is therefore difficult to reliably predict adoption of the technology around the world. The following list is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather to give an idea of the scope of development and progress in these areas around the world.

United States.

PJM Interconnection has envisioned using US Postal Service trucks, school buses and garbage trucks that remain unused overnight for grid connection. This could generate millions of dollars because these companies aid in storing and stabilizing some of the national grid's energy. The United States was projected to have one million electric vehicles on the road between 2015 and 2019. Studies indicate that 160 new power plants will need to be built by 2020 to compensate for electric vehicles if integration with the grid does not move forward.  In North America, at least two major school-bus manufacturers—Blue Bird and Lion—are working on proving the benefits of electrification and vehicle-to-grid technology. As school buses in the U.S. currently use $3.2B of diesel a year, their electrification can help stabilize the electrical grid, lessen the need for new power plants, and reduce kids’ exposure to cancer-causing exhaust.  In 2017, at the University of California San Diego, V2G technology provider Nuvve launched a pilot program called INVENT, funded by the California Energy Commission, with the installation of 50 V2G bi-directional charging stations around the campus. The program expanded in 2018 to include a fleet of EVs for its free nighttime shuttle service, Triton Rides.  In 2018, Nissan launched a pilot program under the Nissan Energy Share initiative in partnership with vehicle-to-grid systems company Fermata Energy seeking to use bi-directional charging technology to partially power Nissan North America's headquarters in Franklin, Tn. In 2020 Fermata Energy’s bidirectional electric vehicle charging system became the first to be certified to the North American safety standard, UL 9741, the Standard for Bidirectional Electric Vehicle (EV) Charging System Equipment.

Japan.

In order to meet the 2030 target of 10 percent of Japan's energy being generated by renewable resources, a cost of $71.1 billion will be required for the upgrades of existing grid infrastructure. The Japanese charging infrastructure market is projected to grow from $118.6 million to $1.2 billion between 2015 and 2020. Starting in 2012, Nissan plans to bring to market a kit compatible with the LEAF EV that will be able to provide power back into a Japanese home. Currently, there is a prototype being tested in Japan. Average Japanese homes use 10 to 12 KWh/day, and with the LEAF's 24 KWh battery capacity, this kit could potentially provide up to two days of power. Production in additional markets will follow upon Nissan's ability to properly complete adaptations.  In November 2018 in Toyota City, Aichi Prefecture, Toyota Tsusho Corporation and Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc initiated charging and discharging demonstrations with storage batteries of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehicles using V2G technology. The demonstration examines how to excel the ability of V2G systems to balance demand and supply of electricity is and what impacts V2G has on the power grid. In addition to ordinary usage of EVs/PHVs such as by transportation, the group is producing new values of EVs/PHVs by providing V2G services even when EVs/PHVs are parked. Two bi-directional charging stations, connected to a V2G aggregation server managed by Nuvve Corporation, have been installed at a parking lot in Toyota City, Aichi Prefecture to conduct the demonstration test. The group aims to assess the capacity of EVs/PHVs to balance out demand and supply of electrical power by charging EVs/PHVs and supplying electrical power to the grid from EVs/PHVs.

Denmark.

Denmark is one of the world's largest wind-based power generators. Initially, Denmark's goal is to replace 10% of all vehicles with PEVs, with an ultimate goal of a complete replacement to follow. The Edison Project implements a new set of goals that will allow enough turbines to be built to accommodate 50% of total power while using V2G to prevent negative impacts to the grid. Because of the unpredictability of wind, the Edison Project plans to use PEVs while they are plugged into the grid to store additional wind energy that the grid cannot handle. Then, during peak energy use hours, or when the wind is calm, the power stored in these PEVs will be fed back into the grid. To aid in the acceptance of EVs, policies have been enforced that create a tax differential between zero emission cars and traditional automobiles. The Danish PEV market value is expected to grow from $50 to $380 million between 2015 and 2020. PEV developmental progress and advancements pertaining to the use of renewable energy resources will make Denmark a market leader with respect to V2G innovation (ZigBee 2010).  Following the Edison project, the Nikola project was started which focused on demonstrating the V2G technology in a lab setting, located at the Risø Campus (DTU). DTU is a partner along with Nuvve and Nissan. The Nikola project completed in 2016, laying the groundwork for Parker, which uses a fleet of EVs to demonstrate the technology in a real-life setting. This project is partnered by DTU, Insero, Nuvve, Nissan and Frederiksberg Forsyning (Danish DSO in Copenhagen). Besides demonstrating the technology the project also aims to clear the path for V2G-integration with other OEMs as well as calculating the business case for several types of V2G, such as Adaptive charging, overload protection, peak shaving, emergency backup and frequency balancing. In the project the partners explored the most viable commercial opportunities by systematically testing and demonstrating V2G services across car brands. Here, economic and regulatory barriers were identified as well as the economic and technical impacts of the applications on the power system and markets. The project started in August 2016 and ended in September 2018.

United Kingdom.

The V2G market in the UK will be stimulated by aggressive smart grid and PEV rollouts. Starting in January 2011, programs and strategies to assist in PEV have been implemented. The UK has begun devising strategies to increase the speed of adoption of EVs. This includes providing universal high-speed internet for use with smart grid meters, because most V2G-capable PEVs will not coordinate with the larger grid without it. The "Electric Delivery Plan for London" states that by 2015, there will be 500 on-road charging stations; 2,000 stations off-road in car parks; and 22,000 privately owned stations installed. Local grid substations will need to be upgraded for drivers who cannot park on their own property. By 2020 in the UK, every residential home will have been offered a smart meter, and about 1.7 million PEVs should be on the road. The UK's electric vehicle market value is projected to grow from $0.1 to $1.3 billion between 2015 and 2020 (ZigBee 2010).  In 2018, EDF Energy announced a partnership with a leading green technology company, Nuvve, to install up to 1,500 Vehicle to Grid (V2G) chargers in the UK. The chargers will be offered to EDF Energy’s business customers and will be used at its own sites to provide up to 15 MW of additional energy storage capacity. That’s the equivalent amount of energy required to power 4,000 homes. The stored electricity will be made available for sale on the energy markets or for supporting grid flexibility at times of peak energy use. EDF Energy is the largest electricity supplier to UK businesses and its partnership with Nuvve could see the largest deployment of V2G chargers so far in this country.  In fall 2019, a consortium called Vehicle to Grid Britain (V2GB) released a research report on the potential of V2G technologies.

Research.

Edison.

Denmark's Edison project, an abbreviation for 'Electric vehicles in a Distributed and Integrated market using Sustainable energy and Open Networks' was a partially state funded research project on the island of Bornholm in Eastern Denmark. The consortium of IBM, Siemens the hardware and software developer EURISCO, Denmark's largest energy company Ørsted (formerly DONG Energy), the regional energy company Østkraft, the Technical University of Denmark and the Danish Energy Association, explored how to balance the unpredictable electricity loads generated by Denmark's many wind farms, currently generating approximately 20 percent of the country's total electricity production, by using electric vehicles (EV) and their accumulators. The aim of the project is to develop infrastructure that enables EVs to intelligently communicate with the grid to determine when charging, and ultimately discharging, can take place. At least one rebuild V2G capable Toyota Scion will be used in the project. The project is key in Denmark's ambitions to expand its wind-power generation to 50% by 2020. According to a source of British newspaper The Guardian 'It's never been tried at this scale' previously. The project concluded in 2013.

Southwest Research Institute.

In 2014, Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) developed the first vehicle-to-grid aggregation system qualified by the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT). The system allows for owners of electric delivery truck fleets to make money by assisting in managing the grid frequency. When the electric grid frequency drops below 60 Hertz, the system suspends vehicle charging which removes the load on the grid thus allowing the frequency to rise to a normal level. The system is the first of its kind because it operates autonomously.  The system was originally developed as part of the Smart Power Infrastructure Demonstration for Energy Reliability and Security (SPIDERS) Phase II program, led by Burns and McDonnell Engineering Company, Inc. The goals of the SPIDERS program are to increase energy security in the event of power loss from a physical or cyber disruption, provide emergency power, and manage the grid more efficiently. In November 2012, SwRI was awarded a $7 million contract from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to demonstrate the integration of vehicle-to-grid technologies as a source for emergency power at Fort Carson, Colorado. In 2013, SwRI researchers tested five DC fast-charge stations at the army post. The system passed integration and acceptance testing in August 2013.

Delft University of Technology.

Prof. Dr. Ad van Wijk, Vincent Oldenbroek and Dr. Carla Robledo, researchers at Delft University of Technology, in 2016 conducted research on V2G technology with hydrogen FCEVs. Both experimental work with V2G FCEVs and techno-economic scenario studies for 100% renewable integrated energy and transport systems are done, using only hydrogen and electricity as energy carriers. They modified a Hyundai ix35 FCEV together with Hyundai R&D so it can deliver up to 10 kW DC Power while maintaining road access permit. They developed together with the company Accenda b.v. a V2G unit converting the DC power of the FCEV into 3-phase AC power and injecting it into the Dutch national electricity grid. The Future Energy Systems Group also recently did tests with their V2G FCEVs whether it could offer frequency reserves. Based on the positive outcome of the tests an MSc thesis was published looking into the technical and economic feasibility assessment of a hydrogen and FCEV based Car Park as Power Plant offering frequency reserves.

University of Delaware.

Willett Kempton, Suresh Advani, and Ajay Prasad are the researchers at the University of Delaware who are currently conducting research on the V2G technology, with Dr. Kempton being the lead on the project. Dr. Kempton has published a number of articles on the technology and the concept, many of which can be found on the V2G project page. The group is involved in researching the technology itself, as well as its performance when used on the grid. In addition to the technical research, the team has worked with Dr. Meryl Gardner, a marketing professor in the Alfred Lerner College of Business and Economic at the University of Delaware, to develop marketing strategies for both consumer and corporate fleet adoption. A 2006 Toyota Scion xB car was modified for testing in 2007.  In 2010, Kempton and Gregory Poilasne co-founded Nuvve, a V2G solutions company. The company has formed a number of industry partnerships and implemented V2G pilot projects on five continents worldwide.

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

At Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Dr. Samveg Saxena currently serves as the project lead for Vehicle-to-Grid Simulator (V2G-Sim). V2G-Sim is a simulation platform tool used to model spatial and temporal driving and charging behavior of individual plug-in electric vehicles on the electric grid. Its models are used to investigate the challenges and opportunities of V2G services, such as modulation of charging time and charging rate for peak demand response and utility frequency regulation. V2G-Sim has also been used to research the potential of plug-in electric vehicles for renewable energy integration. Preliminary findings using V2G-Sim have shown controlled V2G service can provide peak-shaving and valley-filling services to balance daily electric load and mitigate the duck curve. On the contrary, uncontrolled vehicle charging was shown to exacerbate the duck curve. The study also found that even at 20 percent fade in capacity, EV batteries still met the needs of 85 percent of drivers.  In another research initiative at Lawrence Berkeley Lab using V2G-Sim, V2G services were shown to have minor battery degradation impacts on electric vehicles as compared to cycling losses and calendar aging. In this study, three electric vehicles with different daily driving itineraries were modelled over a ten-year time horizon, with and without V2G services. Assuming daily V2G service from 7PM to 9PM at a charging rate of 1.440 kW, the capacity losses of the electric vehicles due to V2G over ten years were 2.68%, 2.66%, and 2.62%.

Nissan and Enel.

In May 2016, Nissan and Enel power company announced a collaborative V2G trial project in the United Kingdom, the first of its kind in the country. The trial comprises 100 V2G charging units to be used by Nissan Leaf and e-NV200 electric van users. The project claims electric vehicle owners will be able to sell stored energy back to the grid at a profit.  One notable V2G project in the United States is at the University of Delaware, where a V2G team headed by Dr. Willett Kempton has been conducting on-going research. An early operational implementation in Europe was conducted via the German government-funded MeRegioMobil project at the "KIT Smart Energy Home" of Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in cooperation with Opel as vehicle partner and utility EnBW providing grid expertise. Their goals are to educate the public about the environmental and economic benefits of V2G and enhance the product market. Other investigators are the Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Xcel Energy, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and, in the United Kingdom, the University of Warwick.

University of Warwick.

WMG and Jaguar Land Rover collaborated with the Energy and Electrical Systems group of the university. Dr Kotub Uddin analysed lithium ion batteries from commercially available EVs over a two year period. He created a model of battery degradation and discovered that some patterns of vehicle-to-grid storage were able to significantly increase the longevity of the vehicle's battery over conventional charging strategies, while permitting them to be driven in normal ways.

Skepticism.

There is some skepticism among experts about the feasibility of V2G and several studies have questioned the concept's economic rationale. For example, a 2015 study found that economic analyses favorable to V2G fail to include many of the less obvious costs associated with its implementation. When these less obvious costs are included, the study finds that V2G represents an economically inefficient solution.  The more a battery is used the sooner it needs replacing. Replacement cost is approximately 1/3 the cost of the electric car. Over their lifespan, batteries degrade progressively with reduced capacity, cycle life, and safety due to chemical changes to the electrodes. Capacity loss/fade is expressed as a percentage of initial capacity after a number of cycles (e.g., 30% loss after 1,000 cycles). Cycling loss is due to usage and depends on both the maximum state of charge and the depth of discharge. JB Straubel, CTO of Tesla Inc., discounts V2G because battery wear outweighs economic benefit. He also prefers recycling over re-use for grid once batteries have reached the end of their useful car life. A 2017 study found decreasing capacity, and a 2012 hybrid-EV study found minor benefit.  Another common criticism is related to the overall efficiency of the process. Charging a battery system and returning that energy from the battery to the grid, which includes "inverting" the DC power back to AC inevitably incurs some losses. This needs to be factored against potential cost savings, along with increased emissions if the original source of power is fossil based. This cycle of energy efficiency may be compared with the 70–80% efficiency of large-scale pumped-storage hydroelectricity, which is however limited by geography, water resources and environment.  Additionally, in order for V2G to work, it must be on a large scale basis. Power companies must be willing to adopt the technology in order to allow vehicles to give power back to the power grid. With vehicles giving power back to the grid, the aforementioned "smart-meters" would have to be in place in order to measure the amount of power being transferred to the grid.

Vehicles.

There are several electric vehicles that have been modified or are design to be compatible with V2G. Hyundai ix35 FCEV from Delft University of Technology is modified with a 10 kW DC V2G output. Some vehicles that have V2G capability include the REV 300 ACX, the Boulder Electric Vehicle 500 series and 1000 series trucks, the ACPropulsion T-Zero, E-box and MINI-E, the Nissan Leaf and Nissan e-NV200. The Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV has a Vehicle To Home system in Japan that is also planned for roll out in Europe.

Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) describes a system in which plug-in electric vehicles, such as battery electric vehicles (BEV), plug-in hybrids (PHEV) or hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), communicate with the power grid to sell demand response services by either returning electricity to the grid or by throttling their charging rate. V2G storage capabilities can enable EVs to store and discharge electricity generated from renewable energy sources such as solar and wind, with output that fluctuates depending on weather and time of day.

V2G是Vehicle-to-grid(车辆到电网)的缩写。V2G描述了电动汽车与电网的关系。当电动汽车不使用时,车载电池的电能销售给电网的系统。如果车载电池需要充电,电流则由电网流向车辆。


Preparation.

is commonly synthesized via a precipitation reaction between potassium iodide and lead(II) nitrate () in water solution:  While the potassium nitrate is soluble, the lead iodide is nearly insoluble at room temperature, and thus precipitates out.  Other soluble salts containing lead(II) and iodide can be used instead, for example lead(II) acetate and sodium iodide.  The compound can also be synthesized by reacting iodine vapor with molten lead between 500 and 700 °C.  A thin film of can also be prepared by depositing a film of lead sulfide and exposing it to iodine vapor, by the reaction  The sulfur is then washed with dimethyl sulfoxide.

Crystallization.

Lead iodide prepared from cold solutions of and salts usually consists of many small hexagonal platelets, giving the yellow precipitate a silky appearance. Larger crystals can be obtained by exploiting the fact that solubility of lead iodide in water (like those of lead chloride and lead bromide) increases dramatically with temperature. The compound is colorless when dissolved in hot water, but crystallizes on cooling as thin but visibly larger bright yellow flakes, that settle slowly through the liquid — a visual effect often described as "golden rain". Larger crystals can be obtained by autoclaving the with water under pressure at 200 °C.  Even larger crystals can be obtained by slowing down the common reaction. A simple setup is to submerge two beakers containing the concentrated reactants in a larger container of water, taking care to avoid currents. As the two substances diffuse through the water and meet, they slowly react and deposit the iodide in the space between the beakers.  Another similar method is to react the two substances in a gel medium, that slows down the diffusion and supports the growing crystal away from the container's walls. Patel and Rao have used this method to grow crystals up to 30 mm in diameter and 2 mm thick.  The reaction can be slowed also by separating the two reagents with a permeable membrane. This approach, with a cellulose membrane, was used in September 1988 to study the growth of crystals in zero gravity, in an experiment flown on the Space Shuttle Discovery.  Large high-purity crystals can be obtained by zone melting or by the Bridgman–Stockbarger technique. These processes can remove various impurities from commercial.

Applications.

Lead iodide is a precursor material in the fabrication of highly efficient solar cells. Typically, a solution of in an organic solvent, such as dimethylformamide or dimethylsulfoxide, is applied over a titanium dioxide layer by spin coating. The layer is then treated with a solution of methylammonium iodide and annealed, turning it into the double salt methylammonium lead iodide, with a perovskite structure. The reaction changes the film's color from yellow to light brown.  Lead iodide was formerly used as a paint pigment under the name "iodine yellow". It was described by Prosper Mérimée (1830) as "not yet much known in commerce, is as bright as orpiment or chromate of lead. It is thought to be more permanent; but time only can prove its pretension to so essential a quality. It is prepared by precipitating a solution of acetate or nitrate of lead, with potassium iodide: the nitrate produces a more brilliant yellow color." However, due to the toxicity and instability of the compound it is no longer used as such. It may still be used in art for bronzing and in gold-like mosaic tiles.

Stability.

Common material characterization techniques such as electron microscopy can damage samples of lead (II) iodide. Thin films of lead (II) iodide are unstable in ambient air. Ambient air oxygen oxidizes iodide into elemental iodine:  2 PbI + O → 2 PbO + 2 I↑

Toxicity.

Lead iodide is very toxic to human health. Ingestion will cause many acute and chronic consequences characteristic of lead poisoning. Lead iodide has been found to be a carcinogen in animals suggesting the same may hold true in humans. Lead iodide is an inhalation hazard, appropriate respirator should be used when handling powders of lead iodide.

Structure.

The structure of, as determined by X-ray powder diffraction, is primarily hexagonal close-packed system with alternating between layers of lead atoms and iodide atoms, with largely ionic bonding. Weak Van der Waals interactions have been observed between lead–iodide layers. The solid can also take a rhombohedral structure as well.

Lead(II) iodide or lead iodide is a salt with the formula. At room temperature, it is a bright yellow odorless crystalline solid, that becomes orange and red when heated. It was formerly called plumbous iodide.

碘化铅(化学式:PbI),是铅最常见的碘化物。在室温下为黄色固体,经加热后会变为砖红色。在水中溶解度低,但可溶于热水。


Refleks.

The "Refleks" is launched through cannons of T-90 and Serbian M-84AS and some versions of the T-80 and T-84 tanks. It has also been produced by the People's Republic of China for use with its Type 98 tank. The Indian defence ministry has signed a contract with Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL), a public sector company under Department of Defence Production, for supplying Invar Anti Tank Guided Missiles to the Indian Army. BDL has been manufacturing these missiles under technical collaboration with Rosoboronexport. It can also be fired from the 2A45 Sprut-B anti-tank gun. The Invar 9M119M and Invar 9M119M1 (Invar-M) are fired from a 125 mm gun. It is ejected by the 9Kh949 ejecting device and the rocket motor is ignited after the missile leaves the barrel. Ram air collected by the air intakes in the nose is used to provide power to move the control fins. The 17.2 kg (37.8 pound) missile is 690 mm (27.1 inches) long and has pop-out fins (with a 250 mm/69 girth span) that aid in guidance. The missile is guided by the modulated laser beam steered by the tank gunner. The missile has a maximum range of 5,000 meters at a speed of 350 meters per second (17.69 seconds max flight time). The Invar enables the tank to hit targets at twice the range of the 125mm shells. The tandem warhead can penetrate up to 900 mm of armor (35.4 inches). Missile 9M119M "Invar" was put into service in 1992, and the missile 9M119M1 "Invar-M" in the second half of the 1990s. There are also high explosive versions produced named 9M119F and 9M119F1 which are intended to defeat enemy personnel.

Svir.

The "Svir" is used with the T-72 and T-80 tank series.

The 9M119 "Svir, 9M119M "Refleks and AT-11 Sniper by NATO are laser beam riding, guided anti-tank missiles developed in the former Soviet Union. The two missiles are similar, but vary in range and launch platform. Both are designed to be fired from smooth bore 125 mm tank and anti-tank guns (2A45, 2A46 and 2A46M). Their NATO reporting name is AT-11 Sniper. The name "Svir" comes from the River Svir, while "Refleks" means reflex. The 9M119 replaces, or supplants, the 9K112 Kobra.

9M119「斯维里」/9M119M「反射」(,“Svir”的意思是斯维里河而“Refleks”则是生理学上的反射;)是一系列由前苏联图拉机械设计局(图拉KBP)所研制和生产的瞄准线半自动乘波导引式反坦克导弹本身,9M119是俄罗斯国防部火箭炮兵装备总局(GRAU)的代号。其导弹发射系统分别被称为9K119和9K120;而北约代号分别是AT-11「狙击手(-A型/-B型)」()。


Morphology and structure.

Classification.

Lenticular galaxies are unique in that they have a visible disk component as well as a prominent bulge component. They have much higher bulge-to-disk ratios than typical spirals and do not have the canonical spiral arm structure of late-type galaxies, yet may exhibit a central bar. This bulge dominance can be seen in the axis ratio (i.e. the ratio between the observed minor and major axial of a disk galaxy) distribution of a lenticular galaxy sample. The distribution for lenticular galaxies rises steadily in the range 0.25 to 0.85 whereas the distribution for spirals is essentially flat in that same range. Larger axial ratios can be explained by observing face-on disk galaxies "or" by having a sample of spheroidal (bulge-dominated) galaxies. Imagine looking at two disk galaxies edge-on, one with a bulge and one without a bulge. The galaxy with a prominent bulge will have a larger edge-on axial ratio compared to the galaxy without a bulge based on the definition of axial ratio. Thus a sample of disk galaxies with prominent spheroidal components will have more galaxies at larger axial ratios. The fact that the lenticular galaxy distribution rises with increasing observed axial ratio implies that lenticulars are dominated by a central bulge component.  Lenticular galaxies are often considered to be a poorly understood transition state between spiral and elliptical galaxies, which results in their intermediate placement on the Hubble sequence. This results from lenticulars having both prominent disk and bulge components. The disk component is usually featureless, which precludes a classification system similar to spiral galaxies. As the bulge component is usually spherical, elliptical galaxy classifications are also unsuitable. Lenticular galaxies are thus divided into subclasses based upon either the amount of dust present or the prominence of a central bar. The classes of lenticular galaxies with no bar are S0, S0, and S0 where the subscripted numbers indicate the amount of dust absorption in the disk component; the corresponding classes for lenticulars with a central bar are SB0, SB0, and SB0.

Sérsic decomposition.

The surface brightness profiles of lenticular galaxies are well described by the sum of a Sérsic model for the spheroidal component plus an exponentially declining model (Sérsic index of n ≈ 1) for the disk, and often a third component for the bar. Sometimes there is an observed truncation in the surface brightness profiles of lenticular galaxies at ~ 4 disk scalelengths. These features are consistent with the general structure of spiral galaxies. However, the bulge component of lenticulars is more closely related to elliptical galaxies in terms of morphological classification. This spheroidal region, which dominates the inner structure of lenticular galaxies, has a steeper surface brightness profile (Sérsic index typically ranging from n = 1 to 4) than the disk component. Lenticular galaxy samples are distinguishable from the diskless (excluding small nuclear disks) elliptical galaxy population through analysis of their surface brightness profiles.

Bars.

Like spiral galaxies, lenticular galaxies can possess a central bar structure. While the classification system for normal lenticulars depends on dust content, barred lenticular galaxies are classified by the prominence of the central bar. SB0 galaxies have the least defined bar structure and are only classified as having slightly enhanced surface brightness along opposite sides of the central bulge. The prominence of the bar increases with index number, thus SB0 galaxies, like the NGC 1460 have very well defined bars that can extend through the transition region between the bulge and disk. NGC 1460 is actually the galaxy with one of the largest bars seen among lenticular galaxies. Unfortunately, the properties of bars in lenticular galaxies have not been researched in great detail. Understanding these properties, as well as understanding the formation mechanism for bars, would help clarify the formation or evolution history of lenticular galaxies.

Boxy-shaped bulges.

NGC 1375 and NGC 1175 are examples for lenticular galaxies that have so-called boxy-shaped bulges. They are classified as SB0 pec. Boxy-shaped bulges are seen in edgewise galaxies, mostly spiral, but rarely lenticular.

Content.

In many respects the composition of lenticular galaxies is like that of ellipticals. For example, they both consist of predominately older, hence redder, stars. All of their stars are thought to be older than about a billion years, in agreement with their offset from the Tully–Fisher relation (see below). In addition to these general stellar attributes, globular clusters are found more frequently in lenticular galaxies than in spiral galaxies of similar mass and luminosity. They also have little to no molecular gas (hence the lack of star formation) and no significant hydrogen α or 21-cm emission. Finally, unlike ellipticals, they may still possess significant dust.

Kinematics.

Measurement difficulties and techniques.

Lenticular galaxies share kinematic properties with both spiral and elliptical galaxies. This is due to the significant bulge and disk nature of lenticulars. The bulge component is similar to elliptical galaxies in that it is pressure supported by a central velocity dispersion. This situation is analogous to a balloon, where the motions of the air particles (stars in a bulge's case) are dominated by random motions. However, the kinematics of lenticular galaxies are dominated by the rotationally supported disk. Rotation support implies the average circular motion of stars in the disk is responsible for the stability of the galaxy. Thus, kinematics are often used to distinguish lenticular galaxies from elliptical galaxies. Determining the distinction between elliptical galaxies and lenticular galaxies often relies on the measurements of velocity dispersion (σ), rotational velocity (v), and ellipticity (ε). In order to differentiate between lenticulars and ellipticals, one typically looks at the v/σ ratio for a fixed ε. For example, a rough criterion for distinguishing between lenticular and elliptical galaxies is that elliptical galaxies have v/σ < 0.5 for ε = 0.3. The motivation behind this criterion is that lenticular galaxies do have prominent bulge and disk components whereas elliptical galaxies have no disk structure. Thus, lenticulars have much larger v/σ ratios than ellipticals due to their non-negligible rotational velocities (due to the disk component) in addition to not having as prominent of a bulge component compared to elliptical galaxies. However, this approach using a single ratio for each galaxy is problematic due to the dependence of the v/σ ratio on the radius out to which it is measured in some early-type galaxies. For example, the ES galaxies that bridge the E and S0 galaxies, with their intermediate-scale disks, have a high v/σ ratio at intermediate radii that then drops to a low ratio at large radii.  The kinematics of disk galaxies are usually determined by Hα or 21-cm emission lines, which are typically not present in lenticular galaxies due to their general lack of cool gas. Thus kinematic information and rough mass estimates for lenticular galaxies often comes from stellar absorption lines, which are less reliable than emission line measurements. There is also a considerable amount of difficulty in deriving accurate rotational velocities for lenticular galaxies. This is a combined effect from lenticulars having difficult inclination measurements, projection effects in the bulge-disk interface region, and the random motions of stars affecting the true rotational velocities. These effects make kinematic measurements of lenticular galaxies considerably more difficult compared to normal disk galaxies.

Offset Tully–Fisher relation.

The kinematic connection between spiral and lenticular galaxies is most clear when analyzing the Tully–Fisher relation for spiral and lenticular samples. If lenticular galaxies are an evolved stage of spiral galaxies then they should have a similar Tully–Fisher relation with spirals, but with an offset in the luminosity / absolute magnitude axis. This would result from brighter, redder stars dominating the stellar populations of lenticulars. An example of this effect can be seen in the adjacent plot. One can clearly see that the best-fit lines for the spiral galaxy data and the lenticular galaxy have the same slope (and thus follow the same Tully–Fisher relation), but are offset by ΔI ≈ 1.5. This implies that lenticular galaxies were once spiral galaxies but are now dominated by old, red stars.

Formation theories.

The morphology and kinematics of lenticular galaxies each, to a degree, suggest a mode of galaxy formation. Their disk-like, possibly dusty, appearance suggests they come from faded spiral galaxies, whose arm features disappeared. However, some lenticular galaxies are more luminous than spiral galaxies, which suggests that they are not merely the faded remnants of spiral galaxies. Lenticular galaxies might result from a galaxy merger, which increase the total stellar mass and might give the newly merged galaxy a disk-like, arm-less appearance. Alternatively, it has been proposed that they grew their disks via (gas and minor merger) accretion events. It had previously been suggested that the evolution of luminous lenticular galaxies may be closely linked to that of elliptical galaxies, whereas fainter lenticulars might be more closely associated with ram-pressure stripped spiral galaxies, although this latter galaxy harassment scenario has since been queried due to the existence of extremely isolated, low-luminosity lenticular galaxies such as LEDA 2108986.

Faded spirals.

The absence of gas, presence of dust, lack of recent star formation, and rotational support are all attributes one might expect of a spiral galaxy which had used up all of its gas in the formation of stars. This possibility is further enhanced by the existence of gas poor, or "anemic," spiral galaxies. If the spiral pattern then dissipated the resulting galaxy would be similar to many lenticulars. Moore et al. also document that tidal harassment - the gravitational effects from other, near-by galaxies - could aid this process in dense regions. The clearest support for this theory, however, is their adherence to slightly shifted version of Tully–Fisher relation, discussed above.  A 2012 paper that suggests a new classification system, first proposed by the Canadian astronomer Sidney van den Bergh, for lenticular and dwarf spheroidal galaxies (S0a-S0b-S0c-dSph) that parallels the Hubble sequence for spirals and irregulars (Sa-Sb-Sc-Im) reinforces this idea showing how the spiral–irregular sequence is very similar to this new one for lenticulars and dwarf ellipticals.

Mergers.

The analyses of Burstein and Sandage showed that lenticular galaxies typically have surface brightness much greater than other spiral classes. It is also thought that lenticular galaxies exhibit a larger bulge-to-disk ratio than spiral galaxies and this may be inconsistent with simple fading from a spiral. If S0s were formed by mergers of other spirals these observations would be fitting and it would also account for the increased frequency of globular clusters. It should be mentioned, however, that advanced models of the central bulge which include both a general Sersic profile and bar indicate a smaller bulge, and thus a lessened inconsistency. Mergers are also unable to account for the offset from the Tully–Fisher relation without assuming that the merged galaxies were quite different from those we see today.

Disk growth via accretion.

The creation of disks in, at least some, lenticular galaxies via the accretion of gas, and small galaxies, around a pre-existing spheroidal structure was first suggested as an explanation to match the high-redshift compact massive spheroidal-shaped galaxies with the equally compact massive bulges seen in nearby massive lenticular galaxies. In a "down-sizing" scenario, bigger lenticular galaxies may have been built first - in a younger universe when more gas was available - and the lower-mass galaxies may have been slower to attract their disk-building material, as in the case of the isolated early-type galaxy LEDA 2108986. Of course, within galaxy clusters, ram-pressure stripping removes gas and prevents the accretion of new gas that might be capable of furthering the development of the disk.

A lenticular galaxy (denoted S0) is a type of galaxy intermediate between an elliptical (denoted E) and a spiral galaxy in galaxy morphological classification schemes. It contains a large-scale disc but does not have large-scale spiral arms. Lenticular galaxies are disc galaxies that have used up or lost most of their interstellar matter and therefore have very little ongoing star formation. They may, however, retain significant dust in their disks. As a result, they consist mainly of aging stars (like elliptical galaxies). Despite the morphological differences, lenticular and elliptical galaxies share common properties like spectral features and scaling relations. Both can be considered early-type galaxies that are passively evolving, at least in the local part of the Universe. Connecting the E galaxies with the S0 galaxies are the ES galaxies with intermediate-scale discs.

透镜星系在星系型态分类上是介于椭圆星系和螺旋星系之间的星系。透镜星系是圆盘星系(像螺旋星系),已经用尽或丢失了大部分的星际物质,并且只有少量的恒星形成在进行中。结果是,它们以老化的恒星为主(像椭圆星系)。透镜星系的尘埃多数都只在接近核心的区域,也就是在核球的外观上只有微量的。因为它们没有可以明确定义的螺旋臂,如果倾斜者以正面朝像我们,就很难将它们和椭圆星系区分。


Forms of all-pay auctions.

The most straightforward form of an all-pay auction is a Tullock auction, sometimes called a Tullock lottery, in which everyone submits a bid but both the losers and the winners pay their submitted bids. This is instrumental in describing certain ideas in public choice economics. The dollar auction is a two player Tullock auction, or a multiplayer game in which only the two highest bidders pay their bids.  A conventional lottery or raffle can also be seen as a related process, since all ticket-holders have paid but only one gets the prize. Commonplace practical examples of all-pay auctions can be found on several "penny auction" / bidding fee auction websites.  Other forms of all-pay auctions exist, such as a war of attrition (also known as biological auctions), in which the highest bidder wins, but all (or more typically, both) bidders pay only the lower bid. The war of attrition is used by biologists to model conventional contests, or agonistic interactions resolved without recourse to physical aggression.

Rules.

The following analysis follows a few basic rules.

Symmetry Assumption.

In IPV bidders are symmetric because valuations are from the same distribution. These make the analysis focus on symmetric and monotonic bidding strategies. This implies that two bidders with the same valuation will submit the same bid. As a result, under symmetry, the bidder with the highest value will always win.

Using Revenue equivalence to predict bidding function.

Consider the two-player version of the all-pay auction and formula_2 be the private valuations independent and identically distributed on a uniform distribution from [0,1]. We wish to find a monotone increasing bidding function, formula_3, that forms a symmetric Nash Equilibrium.  Note that if player formula_4 bids formula_5, he wins the auction only if his bid is larger than player formula_6's bid formula_7. The probability for this to happen is  formula_8, since formula_9 is monotone and formula_10 Unif[0,1] Thus, the probability of allocation of good to formula_4 is formula_12. Thus, formula_4's expected utility when he bids as if his private value is formula_12 is given by  formula_15.  For formula_9 to be a Bayesian-Nash Equilibrium, formula_17 should have it's maximum at formula_18 so that formula_4 has no incentive to deviate given formula_6 sticks with his bid of formula_7.  formula_22  Upon integrating, we get formula_23.  Since this function is indeed monotone increasing, this bidding strategy formula_9 constitutes a Bayesian-Nash Equilibrium. The revenue from the all-pay auction in this example is  formula_25  Since formula_26 are drawn "iid" from Unif[0,1], the expected revenue is  formula_27.  Due to the revenue equivalence theorem, all auctions with 2 players will have an expected revenue of formula_28 when the private valuations are "iid" from Unif[0,1].

Examples.

Consider a corrupt official who is dealing with campaign donors: Each wants him to do a favor that is worth somewhere between $0 and $1000 to them (uniformly distributed). Their actual valuations are $250, $500 and $750. They can only observe their own valuations. They each treat the official to an expensive present - if they spend X Dollars on the present then this is worth X dollars to the official. The official can only do one favor and will do the favor to the donor who is giving him the most expensive present.  This is a typical model for all-pay auction. To calculate the optimal bid for each donor, we need to normalize the valuations {250, 500, 750} to {0.25, 0.5, 0.75} so that IPV may apply.  According to the formula for optimal bid:  formula_29  The optimal bids for three donors under IPV are:  formula_30  formula_31  formula_32  To get the real optimal amount that each of the three donors should give, simply multiplied the IPV values by 1000:  formula_33  formula_34  formula_35  This example implies that the official will finally get $375 but only the third donor, who donated $281.3 will win the official's favor. Note that the other two donors know their valuations are not high enough (low chance of winning), so they do not donate much, thus balancing the possible huge winning profit and the low chance of winning.

In economics and game theory, an all-pay auction is an auction in which every bidder must pay regardless of whether they win the prize, which is awarded to the highest bidder as in a conventional auction.

全支付拍卖(英语:all-pay auction)是经济学与博弈论中的一种特殊的拍卖模型。这一模型中,竞拍者凡是报价,就需要如所报价格支付,但和传统的竞拍一样,只有报价最高者可以获得竞拍品。


History.

Early years (1964–2006).

The company initially started as Clippert Trucking Company in 1964. The company changed its name to Ground Air Transfer, Inc., in 1974. The airline service was founded in 1983 in Macomb County, Michigan, by Ned Homfeld as Charter One, a Detroit-based charter tour operator providing travel packages to entertainment destinations such as Atlantic City, Las Vegas, and the Bahamas. In 1990, Charter One began scheduled service from Boston and Providence, Rhode Island, to Atlantic City. On May 29, 1992, Charter One brought jet aircraft into the fleet and changed its name to Spirit Airlines. Scheduled flights between Detroit and Atlantic City began on June 1, 1992. Scheduled flights between Boston and Providence began on June 15, 1992.  On April 2, 1993, Spirit Airlines began scheduled service to Orlando, Fort Lauderdale, and St. Petersburg, Florida. Flights between Atlantic City and Fort Myers, Florida, began on September 25, 1993. Service at Philadelphia began in 1994. During the next five years, Spirit expanded further, increasing service from Detroit and adding service in new markets such as Myrtle Beach, Los Angeles, and New York City.  In the summer of 1994, Spirit Airlines overbooked flights, and 1,400 customers' tickets were canceled. The overbooking occurred because Spirit Airlines had given incorrect instructions to travel agents, causing those tickets not to be valid, even though the customers had paid for the flights. In response to criticism, Spirit Airlines said it would make sure all paid customers would always be able to fly to their destination, even if Spirit Airlines had to book them on a competitor's airline.  In 1996, Janet Patton became Spirit Airline’s first woman pilot, and in 1998 she became the first woman captain. At the time Spirit was utilizing DC-9 and MD-80 aircraft.  Spirit initially had their headquarters in Eastpointe, Michigan (formerly East Detroit) in Metro Detroit. It relocated its headquarters in November 1999, moving to Miramar, Florida in the Miami Metropolitan Area. Prior to the decision to move the headquarters to Miramar, Spirit considered Atlantic City, New Jersey and Detroit, Michigan.  In 2000, the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) fined Spirit Airlines $67,000 for allegedly violating federal regulations on cabin and seat markings and placards. Discrepancies were found in the marking and placarding of emergency equipment, passenger seats, storage areas and doors on eight of Spirit's DC9 and MD80 aircraft.  In November 2001, Spirit inaugurated service to San Juan, Puerto Rico, and implemented a fully integrated Spanish-language customer service plan including a website and dedicated reservation line.  In the fall of 2003, Spirit resumed flights to Washington, D.C.'s Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, which were suspended after the September 11 attacks. Spirit also began service to Grand Cayman, San Francisco, and Boston in 2006, and in 2007 filed DOT applications to offer service to Costa Rica, Haiti, the Netherlands Antilles and Venezuela.  In 2006, Spirit exercised options to order 30 Airbus A320-200 aircraft for further expansion. Deliveries began in March 2010.

Transition to ultra-low-cost carrier (2007–present).

Under CEO Ben Baldanza, Spirit began a transition to an ultra-low-cost carrier, following a fare model involving charging for amenities that are often included in the base ticket price of traditional carriers. Passengers who wanted to customize their itinerary or seat selection paid an add-on fee for each additional feature, which enabled the carrier to earn ancillary revenue in excess of 40% of total revenue. These included having an agent print a boarding pass at check-in versus doing it online or at a kiosk, for any large carry-on or checked bags, progressive fees for overweight bags, selected seat assignments, travel insurance, and more. In April 2010, Spirit Airlines became the first U.S. airline to charge passengers for carry-on bags. They were later followed by Allegiant Air and Frontier Airlines.  On June 3, 2008, Spirit Airlines made a WARN (Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notice) application to potentially relocate or lay off hundreds of pilots and flight attendants, and the closure of their San Juan and LaGuardia crew bases. In September 2008, Spirit began advertising on the side of aircraft, overhead bins, tray tables, seatback inserts and bulkheads.  In May 2009, after more than four years of inconclusive negotiations between the airline and the Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA), Spirit pilots overwhelmingly (98% of votes) voted in favor of strike action over compensation, work rules and benefits. At that time, Spirit pilots were among the lowest paid Airbus pilots in the United States. On June 12, 2010, Spirit grounded its flights when its unionized pilots walked out on strike, stranding thousands of passengers. This was the first passenger airline strike by American ALPA-represented pilots since Comair in 2001. On June 15, negotiations between the airline and ALPA resumed, and a tentative agreement was reached late in the evening on June 16. The tentative agreement, which Spirit pilots later ratified by a 74% margin, brought Spirit pilots' compensation and benefits in line with comparable Airbus operators in the US. Flights eventually resumed on June 18.  in 2007, Spirit Plus was rebranded as "Big Front Seat" and business class service was discontinued. For an additional fee, a person could choose "Big Front Seat", or upgrade at the airport. In December 2010, Spirit Airlines introduced the Free Spirit World MasterCard.  In April 2012, citing the airline's strict refund policy, Spirit Airlines representative Misty Pinson announced that the airline would not issue a refund to dying veteran Jerry Meekins, who had purchased a non-refundable ticket between Florida and Atlantic City. The 76-year-old Vietnam veteran and Marine tried to get his $197 back after learning his esophageal cancer was terminal and being told by his doctor not to fly. The decision caused outrage among veterans' groups and the general public, some of whom threatened to boycott Spirit unless both a refund and apology were issued. On May 4, Spirit CEO Ben Baldanza apologized for how the situation was handled and personally refunded Meekins' ticket. Additionally, the airline made a $5,000 donation to the Wounded Warrior Project in Meekins' name.  In August 2013, Spirit reached an agreement on a new five-year deal with the Transport Workers Union of America, who represent the airline's flight dispatchers.  In November 2014, Morgan Stanley named Spirit the top growth airline pick for investors.  In January 2016, former AirTran CEO Robert L. Fornaro replaced Baldanza as CEO. This prompted rumors of a merger with Frontier Airlines, which would have created the largest ultra-low-cost carrier in the Americas. Fornaro announced the airline would be teaming up with the Disney Institute to “create a common purpose and a fresh set of service standards”, and changing policies internally to create a more welcoming environment.  In November 2017, Spirit's on-time performance was second in the country, behind only Delta Air Lines, a significant improvement from December 2015, when it ranked last among thirteen airlines with 68.7% of flights arriving on time. In February 2018, Spirit was the only airline in North America to make the list of the top 10 safest in the world.  In May 2018, Spirit announced that they would be the first ultra-low-cost carrier to fit their aircraft with high-speed WiFi access that started in fall 2018. All of their aircraft were expected to be equipped with WiFi by summer 2019.  On December 23, 2019, Spirit Airlines announced its intention to purchase 100 new Airbus A320neo family aircraft.

Corporate affairs.

Ownership.

Spirit Airlines, Inc. is a Delaware corporation that is publicly traded on the New York Stock Exchange ().

Business trends.

The key trends for Spirit Airlines are (years ending December 31):

Headquarters.

Spirit has its headquarters at 2800 Executive Way, Miramar, Florida, having moved there from its previous Eastpointe location in 1999. there were 600 located in the office. Chris Sloan of "Airways Magazine" stated that the building was "nondescript low slung". Sloan added that the interior, prior to a 2014 renovation, was, "To put it charitably, [...] a dump", but that employees felt ownership over the office.  In 2019 the airline announced that it would move to a new up to headquarters in the Dania Pointe development in Dania Beach, Florida, spending $250 million. The airline anticipates that it will house 1,000 employees.

Destinations.

Spirit currently flies to 77 destinations throughout Central America, the Caribbean, South America, and the United States., It maintains crew bases at Atlantic City, Chicago–O'Hare, Dallas/Fort Worth, Detroit, Fort Lauderdale, Las Vegas, and Orlando.

Fleet.

Current fleet.

, the Spirit Airlines fleet consists entirely of Airbus A320ceo and A320neo family aircraft. February 2020 fleet plan outlines 293 aircraft planned by 2027. An order of 100 additional aircraft with 50 options was announced in October of 2019.

Historical fleet.

The following aircraft formerly operated in the Spirit Airlines fleet:

Concerns and conflicts.

Spirit Airlines has been the subject of complaints and to punitive actions by the United States Department of Transportation (DOT). Most of the claims against the company were for allegations of deceptive advertising practices, customer service, and the airline's policies for charging additional fees at the time of purchase:

Spirit Airlines, Inc. is an American ultra-low-cost carrier headquartered in Miramar, Florida in the Miami metropolitan area. It is the eighth largest commercial airline in North America. Spirit operates scheduled flights throughout the United States and in the Caribbean and Latin America. The airline operates bases at Atlantic City, Baltimore, Chicago–O'Hare, Dallas/Fort Worth, Detroit, Fort Lauderdale, Las Vegas, and Orlando.

精神航空(英语:Spirit Airlines)是一家美国的低成本航空公司,总部位于佛罗里达州米拉马尔,成立于1980年,主要经营加勒比海地区、拉丁美洲等定期国际航线。截止到2017年,精神航空是Skytrax评级中最差的航空公司之一,仅为两颗星,亦为Skytrax上唯一的两星航司。


Taxonomy.

British zoologist John Edward Gray described the perentie in 1845 as "Hydrosaurus giganteus", calling it the "gigantic water lizard". George Albert Boulenger moved it to the genus "Varanus".  Within the monitor genus "Varanus", it lies within the subgenus "Varanus". Its closest relatives belong to a lineage that gave rise to the sand goanna and the Argus monitor.

Description.

The lizard can grow up to long, although the typical length is around and weigh up to —maximum weight can be over. Its rival for the title of the third-largest lizard is the crocodile monitor, which although often longer, exceeding 2.4 m in length, is lighter and less bulky than the perentie. However, perenties are relatively lean lizards and are less bulky than either the Komodo dragon or the Asian water monitor.

Venom.

In late 2005, University of Melbourne researchers discovered that all monitors may be somewhat venomous. Previously, bites inflicted by monitors were thought to be prone to infection because of bacteria in their mouths, but the researchers showed that the immediate effects are caused by mild envenomation. Bites on the hand by Komodo dragons, ("V. komodensis)", perenties ("V. giganteus"), lace monitors ("V. varius"), and spotted tree monitors ("V. scalaris") have been observed to cause swelling within minutes, localised disruption of blood clotting, and shooting pain up to the elbow, which can often last for several hours.  University of Washington biologist Kenneth V. Kardong and toxicologists Scott A. Weinstein and Tamara L. Smith have argued that the suggestion of venom glands "... has had the effect of underestimating the variety of complex roles played by oral secretions in the biology of reptiles, produced a very narrow view of oral secretions and resulted in misinterpretation of reptilian evolution". According to the scientists "... reptilian oral secretions contribute to many biological roles other than to quickly dispatch prey". They concluded, "Calling all in this clade venomous implies an overall potential danger that does not exist, misleads in the assessment of medical risks, and confuses the biological assessment of squamate biochemical systems".

Distribution and habitat.

Perenties are found in the arid desert areas of Western Australia, South Australia, the Northern Territory, and Queensland. Their habitats consist of rocky outcroppings and gorges, with hard-packed soil and loose stones.

Behaviour.

Uncommon, perenties generally avoid human contact and often retreat before they are seen. Being able diggers, they can excavate a burrow for shelter in only minutes. Their long claws enable them to easily climb trees. They often stand on their back legs and tails to gain a better view of the surrounding terrain. This behaviour, known as "tripoding", is quite common in monitor species. Perenties are fast sprinters, and can run using either all four legs or just their hind legs.  Typical of most goannas, the perentie either freezes (lying flat on the ground, and remaining very still until the danger has passed) or runs if detected. If cornered, this powerful carnivore stands its ground and uses its arsenal of claws, teeth, and whip-like tail to defend itself. It can inflate its throat and hiss as a defensive or aggressive display, and can strike at opponents with its muscular tail. It may also lunge forward with an open mouth, either as a bluff or as an attack. The bite of a perentie can do much damage, not only from the teeth, but also because of the oral secretions..

Feeding.

Perenties are highly active carnivores that feed on mostly reptiles, small mammals, and less commonly birds such as diamond doves. They hunt live prey, but also scavenge carrion. Reptilian prey includes mostly lizards and more seldom snakes, but this species also displays a notable example of intraguild predation, as it eats an unusually large number of other monitor lizard species such as ridge-tailed monitors, black-headed monitors, Gould's monitors, and even Argus monitors. Perenties also eat smaller members of their own species; such is the case of a 2-m perentie killing and eating a 1.5-m perentie. Other lizard prey include eastern bearded dragons and long-nosed water dragons. Coastal and island individuals often eat a large number of sea turtle eggs and hatchlings, and hide under vehicles to ambush scavenging gulls. Mammalian prey includes bats, young kangaroos, and rodents. They have also been occasionally seen foraging for food in shallow water. Although adults feed predominantly on vertebrate prey, young perenties eat mostly arthropods, especially grasshoppers.  Prey is typically swallowed whole, but if the food item is too large, chunks are ripped off for ease of consumption.

Breeding.

The perentie can lay its eggs in termite mounds or in the soil.

The perentie ("Varanus giganteus") is the largest monitor lizard or goanna native to Australia, and the fourth-largest living lizard on earth, after the Komodo dragon, Asian water monitor, and crocodile monitor. Found west of the Great Dividing Range in the arid areas of Australia, it is rarely seen because of its shyness and the remoteness of much of its range from human habitation. The species is considered to be a least-concern species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

眼斑巨蜥(学名:"s")是澳洲最大的巨蜥,在全世界中体型第四大的蜥蜴,仅次于科莫多龙、萨氏巨蜥及圆鼻巨蜥。牠们分布在大分水岭的西面,由于较为偏远,与及牠们很害羞,要见到牠们会较为困难。


Personal life.

Nécib was born on 23 January 1987 in the city of Marseille to parents of Algerian origin. Her father had emigrated to France from Biskra, while her mother had come from Oran. Nécib was raised in Busserine, a quartier located in the northern suburbs of the 14th arrondissement of Marseille and has a brother and sister. After signing with Lyon, Nécib enrolled at the Université Lyon 1 with hopes of completing her undergraduate studies in "Sciences et techniques des activités physiques et sportives" (STAP) (). She developed an interest in football at a young age, prior to which she trained in gymnastics. She, initially, did not look at the future prospects of women's football and played mainly for recreation with males stating "I'd always played with the boys in my neighborhood" and "I didn't plan to join a club because, to be honest, I didn't know girls' teams existed. Then, one day I found out there was a club in the 14th arrondissement and I signed up".  In June 2016, she married footballer Liassine Cadamuro-Bentaïba.

Club career.

Early career.

Nécib began her career as a youth player for her hometown club Union Sportive de Marseille. After spending two years at the club, she signed on with nearby Celtic de Marseille. Nécib spent six months developing in the academy and, in April 2002, she was selected to attend the under-16 female National Cup representing her region. The competition served as a training camp for the Centre National de Formation et d'Entraînement (CNFE) () located at the Clairefontaine academy in Clairefontaine-en-Yvelines. The initiative to allow women to train at the famous national center came about in the 1990s due to the fact that it had quickly become a high-level training facility for male football players. As a result of allowing female football players to train at the academy, younger women were afforded the same benefits from the facilities offered by Clairefontaine as the men. At the National Cup, Nécib impressed and was given an award by coaches for possessing the best shot of any player. After the competition, she returned to Celtic.  At the age of 16, Nécib was promoted to the senior team by coach Yohan Silvy in the latter part of the 2002–03 season. While at the club, Nécib was teammates with future national teammate Caroline Pizzala. In the 2003–04 season, Nécib flourished and helped the club reach the Division 3 Féminine league final where they faced the women's team of professional men's club Le Mans. In the tie, Nécib started and played the full match as Celtic cruised to a 4–1 victory. The result promoted the club to the Division 2 Féminine, the second division of French women's football. Nécib's performance that season attracted numerous attention, which resulted in her being nicknamed "Titou" as homage to Zinedine Zidane, who is nicknamed "Zizou".  After three years with Celtic, in July 2004, Nécib was selected to attend the CNFE academy at Clairefontaine. She initially struggled to adapt at the center admitting "the first year was really hard because I was so far from my family. I almost gave up". However, after developing a rapport with future international teammates Sarah Bouhaddi, Élodie Thomis, Laure Boulleau, Jessica Houara, and the aforementioned Pizzala, Nécib quickly returned to the form that got her selected to the center. The CNFE academy is allowed participation in the French women's football league system and, from 2002 to 2007, fielded a team that participated in the Division 1 Féminine. Nécib spent two seasons with the team and made her league debut on 29 August 2004 against Lyon. In the match, she scored the only goal, a 90th-minute winner, in a 1–0 win. Nécib finished the campaign with 20 league appearances and six goals. Four of her six goals came in the final four weeks of the season. On 26 March 2005, she scored a double in a 4–2 defeat to Juvisy. A week later, she scored the only goal in a win over Olympique Saint-Memmie and, on the final match day of the season, she scored the team's fourth goal in a 5–1 win over Lyon. CNFE ultimately finished the campaign in 5th-place position. In the following season, Nécib appeared in 18 matches and scored three goals, all of which came in victories.

Montpellier.

After completing her education and training at Clairefontaine, Nécib returned to the south of France to sign with Division 1 Féminine club Montpellier. She joined the club alongside former Clairefontaine teammate Thomis and made her debut on 3 September 2006 in a 0–0 league draw with Toulouse. She scored her first goal for the club two weeks later on 17 September converting a double in a 5–0 away win over USCO Compiègne. On 8 October, Nécib scored the second goal in a 2–0 victory against Soyaux. In November, she scored two goals each in wins over FCF Condé-sur-Noireau and Hénin-Beaumont. Nécib finished the campaign with 11 league goals, which was third-best on the team behind Thomis and Elodie Ramos. In the Challenge de France, the women's domestic cup competition in France, Nécib helped Montpellier reach the final where the team faced Lyon. She played the entire match as Montpellier won 3–0 on penalties. The domestic cup title was Nécib's first major honour of her career.

Lyon.

Following the season, on 22 June 2007, Lyon officials announced that the club had signed both Nécib and Thomis to contracts. Nécib was handed the number 14 shirt and made her club debut on 2 September 2007 in the team's opening league match of the campaign; a 4–0 win over La Roche-sur-Yon. A week later, she scored her first goal for Lyon converting a penalty kick in a 2–0 win against Paris Saint-Germain. Nécib also made her debut in European competition participating in the 2007–08 edition of the UEFA Women's Cup. On her debut against the women's team of Slovak outfit Slovan Duslo Šaľa in the group stage, Nécib netted a hat trick in a 12–0 win. She ultimately finished the European campaign appearing in ten matches and scoring six goals as Lyon reached the semi-finals where the club was eliminated by Swedish club Umeå. While simultaneously performing well in Europe, Nécib remained productive in the league scoring in league wins over Toulouse, Hénin-Beaumont, and Soyaux late in the season. Lyon eventually pulled away from both Juvisy and Montpellier in the league standings to claim its second straight league title and Nécib's first overall. Nécib later helped Lyon capture its third Challenge de France, which completed the club's league and cup double that season. She scored the second goal in a 3–0 win over Paris Saint-Germain in the final match. During the infancy of the 2008–09 season, Nécib was selected to join the new United States-based women's soccer league, Women's Professional Soccer, after her American playing rights were assigned to the Washington Freedom in the 2008 WPS International Draft. Her Lyon teammate Sonia Bompastor was also assigned to the Freedom. While Bompastor was allowed to negotiate her exit out of the club, Lyon chairman Jean-Michel Aulas was able to convince Nécib to remain in France after having previously declared the player off limits. Nécib scored her first league goal of the campaign on 14 September 2008 in a 12–0 home win over Vendenheim. A month later, she scored a double in an 8–1 victory over Soyaux. Nécib repeated her two-goal display on 1 February 2009 in a 5–0 away win over Stade Briochin. In the UEFA Women's Cup, Nécib scored her first two goals of the campaign in an 8–0 home win over Austrian club Neulengbach in a second qualifying round group stage match. On 18 November, she scored the third goal in a 4–1 second leg win over Italian club Bardolino. The 9–1 aggregate scoreline advanced Lyon to the semi-finals for the second consecutive season where Lyon were again eliminated, this time by German team FCR 2001 Duisburg. In the league, Lyon captured its third straight league title, but was unable to defend its Challenge de France title losing to the eventual champions Montpellier in the semi-finals. For her performances during the campaign, Nécib was named the National Union of Professional Footballers (UNFP) Female Player of the Year.  In the 2009–10 season, Nécib switched to the number 10 shirt and, due to participating in UEFA Women's Euro 2009, was limited to two substitute appearances in the team's first three matches of the season. In her first start of the campaign against Soyaux, she scored a double in a 5–0 win. In the team's first match following the September international break, Nécib scored a goal in the team's 7–1 away win over Toulouse. In November, while on international duty with France, Nécib suffered an injury and, subsequently, missed five weeks domestically. She returned to the team in the new year in a league match against Saint-Étienne. In the match, she scored a goal in a 4–0 win. Nécib finished the campaign scoring two goals in the team's final four league matches as Lyon claimed its fourth consecutive league championship and reached the semi-finals of the Challenge de France. In the re-branded UEFA Women's Champions League, Nécib made eight appearances scoring four goals as Lyon reached the final. In the semi-finals against Umeå, she converted two goals in a 3–2 first leg victory. The 0–0 draw in the second leg allowed Lyon to advance to the final. In the penultimate match, Lyon faced German club Turbine Potsdam. Nécib played the entire match in regulation time, but was substituted out prior to the start of extra time. Lyon eventually conceded defeat losing 7–6 on penalties. For the second time in her career at Lyon, in the 2010–11 season, Nécib converted double-digit goals scoring 14, which was third-best on the team behind Sandrine Brétigny and Eugénie Le Sommer. She opened the campaign by scoring in the team's first league match; a 6–0 win over Toulouse. Two weeks later, Nécib scored the second goal in a 3–0 victory against Stade Briochin. After scoring against La Roche-sur-Yon on 7 November 2010, she went scoreless for two months. On 9 January 2011, she scored two goals in a 7–0 home win over Hénin-Beaumont. Two weeks later, Nécib scored another set of goals, this time against Juvisy in a 7–1 win. In the Challenge de France, she scored in back-to-back rounds against Montigny-le-Bretonneux and Rodez before playing 53 minutes in a quarter-final defeat on penalties to Juvisy. On the final match day of the season, despite Lyon clinching its fifth straight league title with several matches to spare, Nécib started the match and scored her first league hat trick in an 8–0 victory. In the 2010–11 edition of the Women's Champions League, she scored her only goal of the competition on 4 November 2010 in the first leg of Lyon's Round of 16 tie against Russian club Rossiyanka. Nécib netted the final goal in a 6–1 away win. Despite her limited scoring, Lyon still reached the final where the team faced its nemesis Turbine Potsdam. In the final, Nécib started the match and played 55 minutes before being substituted out. Lyon went on to win the match 2–0 to claim its first-ever European title.  After the 2011–12 season, Nécib's contract with Lyon expired, which led to speculation that the player would join league rivals Paris Saint-Germain. However, on 16 July 2012, Nécib re-signed with Lyon after agreeing to a four-year contract with an option for a fifth year. On May 21, 2016, Lyon confirmed that Louisa Necib and her friend Lotta Schelin departed the club.  In July 2016, she confirmed that she would end her football career after the 2016 Summer Olympics.

International career.

Youth.

Nécib is former France women's youth international having played for her nation at every level for which she was eligible. On 11 September 2003, she was called up to international level for the first time by coach Gérard Sergent to play with the under-17 team. She played with the team at the 2003 edition of the Nordic Cup, a premier women's youth tournament, before earning a call up to the under-19 team by coach Bruno Bini. At under-19 level, Nécib featured heavily playing with the team at the La Manga Cup and also representing France at the 2004 and 2005 editions of the UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship. In the 2004 competition, she appeared in two group stage matches as France suffered elimination in the group stage. In the 2005 edition, Nécib started all five matches France played as the team reached the final. She scored her only goal in the competition in a 4–0 opening group stage victory against Russia. In the final, France faced their group stage opponents Russia and were defeated 6–5 on penalties after the match finished 2–2 in regulation time.  Due to France's second-place finish at the 2005 UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship, the team qualified for the 2006 FIFA U-20 Women's World Championship, which merited under-20 appearances for Nécib. She made her under-20 debut on 12 August 2006 in a World Cup preparation friendly against Mexico. In the match, Nécib scored the team's second goal in a 4–2 victory. At the World Cup, Nécib appeared in all four matches France contested. In the team's opening group stage match against Argentina, she scored the team's third goal in a 5–0 win. France suffered elimination in the quarter-finals losing 2–1 to North Korea.

Senior.

Prior to playing at the 2005 UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship, Nécib made her senior international debut on 19 February 2005 in a friendly match against Norway. She started the match and was substituted out after 56 minutes as France won 2–0. The victory was France's first-ever against Norway. Despite featuring in only two senior international matches, the other match being the return leg friendly against Norway on 22 February, Nécib, at the age of 18, was included in the team to play at UEFA Women's Euro 2005 by coach Elisabeth Loisel. The midfielder featured in only one match in the competition; the final group stage match against Germany. Nécib played the entire match as the Germans won 3–0. In 2010, Nécib admitted that she took the Germany defeat hard stating "I still have regrets because all we needed was a draw and we conceded three goals in ten minutes". France had kept the Germans at bay for the majority of the match before letting in three goals in the final 20 minutes.  Following the conclusion of the 2006 U-20 World Cup, Nécib began playing full-time with the senior team participating in qualification matches for the 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup. During the season, Nécib also played with the team at the 2006 edition of the Algarve Cup. On 22 April 2006, she played with the team in a 5–0 World Cup qualification win against Hungary. Afterwards, Nécib failed to appear with the team in its final three qualification matches as France missed the World Cup after drawing 1–1 with England in its final qualifying match. France needed an outright victory to qualify for the tournament. After the firing of Loisel and the appointment of former youth national team coach Bruno Bini in 2007, Nécib became a regular starter in the team and, on 11 April 2007, scored her first international goal in a 6–0 victory over Greece in qualification for UEFA Women's Euro 2009. She featured as a starter in all seven qualification matches she appeared in and scored another qualification goal in an 8–0 away win over Serbia on 27 October 2007 as France qualified for the competition with one match to spare. In the lead up to UEFA Women's Euro 2009, France participated in the 2009 Cyprus Cup. In the competition, Nécib appeared in three matches and scored the team's second goal in a 3–2 group stage win over South Africa. France later finished the competition in third place. Nécib did not participate in the third-place victory over New Zealand. After being selected by Bini to participate in Women's Euro 2009, Nécib scored her fourth international goal in a preparation friendly against Scotland on 12 August 2009. In her second major competition for France, Nécib started all four of the team's matches. She scored her first major international goal in the team's opening group stage match against Iceland netting the final goal in a 3–1 win. France reached the quarter-finals before suffering elimination losing on penalties to the Netherlands.  Following Women's Euro 2009, Nécib returned to the national team duty to participate in qualification for the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup. In qualification, she participated in nine of the ten qualifying round group stage matches France contested. France finished the stage winning all of its matches and conceding no goals. Nécib scored two goals during the round against Estonia in a 12–0 win and Northern Ireland in a 6–0 victory. In September 2010, she played in both legs of France's World Cup playoff match against Italy. France won the tie 3–2 on aggregate to qualify for its second FIFA Women's World Cup. On 19 November 2010, Nécib scored her first international double in a 5–0 friendly win over Poland. After playing in the 2011 Cyprus Cup and several friendly matches, on 6 June 2011, Nécib was named to the 21-woman squad to participate in the World Cup. On 18 June, in a prep friendly against Belgium, she scored her tenth international goal in a 7–0 home win.  On 26 June 2011, in France's opening World Cup group stage match against Nigeria, Nécib, on her competition's debut, was named the "Player of the Match" for her performance in the team's 1–0 victory. In the team's second group stage match against Canada, she assisted on the final goal, scored by Thomis, in a 4–0 win. Nécib started France's final four matches in the competition, which included a 4–2 loss against Germany in the team final group stage match and a 4–3 penalty shootout victory over England in the quarter-finals. France were eliminated from the competition in the semi-finals losing 3–1 to the United States after goals from Abby Wambach and Alex Morgan broke a 1–1 deadlock created when Sonia Bompastor had equalized following Lauren Cheney's opener. On 16 July, in the third place match against Sweden, Nécib was forced to leave the match after 30 minutes due to an injury, a sprained knee who forced her to leave the stadium on crutches. France lost 2–1. During and after the competition, Nécib was praised for her performance by several media outlets with one publication declaring that she "was largely responsible for France making it the semi-finals in the first place".

Style of play.

Nécib primarily plays as an attacking midfielder, but can also be deployed in central midfield as a deep-lying midfielder, or as a winger. Domestically, she primarily plays as a playmaker in the number 10 role, while at international level, she plays as a winger in Bruno Bini's 4–3–3 formation. Two of Nécib's most common exemplary traits are her vision and passing, which have been described as "one-of-a-kind" and "sublime", respectively. She is also known for her distinct understanding of the game, which has led to her developing "a great football IQ". In addition to her creativity, eye for goal, and tactical awareness, she is known for outstanding control and dribbling ability, as well as her elegance on the ball. Her technical skill and ability to read the game allow her to determine "when to take a defender on one-on-one, how to find a teammate with a slide-rule pass, and how to exploit tight spaces to create scoring chances for herself and her cohorts". For these reasons, her playing style has drawn comparisons with compatriot and 1998 World Cup winner Zinedine Zidane.

Louisa Nécib Cadamuro (; born 23 January 1987) is a retired French women's international footballer. She spent the majority of her career at Lyon, amassing eighteen titles with the French club over a nine-year span. She played as a central attacking midfielder and is described as a "gifted playmaker" who "possesses superb technique". Nécib is also known for her "elegant possession, sublime passing skills, and cultured touch on the ball".

露薏莎·妮丝比(,1987年-1月23日)是一名具有阿尔及利亚血统的法国女子足球运动员,司职进攻中场,现时效力法国甲组女子足球联赛球会里昂女队。妮丝比被形容为“优雅的控球, 美妙的传球和唯美的脚下技术,由于祖籍阿尔及利亚及在马赛长大,具有非凡的球技,而与法国一代球王施丹背景相近,更被法国传媒标签为「女版施丹」,她同时亦是法国女队成员之一,于2005年2月首次代表国家队上阵出战挪威。


Plot.

During the original outbreak of the Rage Virus, Don, his wife Alice and four more survivors hide in a barricaded cottage on the outskirts of London. They hear a terrified boy pounding at their door and let him in. A few minutes later, they discover that the infected have followed the boy. The infected attack and kill most of the survivors, while Don, Alice and the boy are chased upstairs. Don pleads with Alice to leave the boy but she refuses. He abandons them as the infected break into their room by escaping out of the window. After watching his wife being dragged out of sight by the infected, he narrowly escapes on a boat piloted by Jacob, who falls in the water and is overcome by the infected.  After the infected begin to die of starvation, NATO forces take control of Britain. Twenty-eight weeks after the outbreak, an American force, under the command of Brigadier General Stone, brings in settlers. Among the new arrivals are Don and Alice's children, Tammy and Andy, who were out of the country during the outbreak. They are admitted to District One, a safe zone on the Isle of Dogs, guarded by the US Army. Sergeant Doyle, a Delta Force sniper and his friend, Chief Flynn, a helicopter pilot, are amongst the troops guarding the district. Tammy and Andy are reunited with their father, who was found by the US Army and has become the district's caretaker. In their new flat, Don fabricates a lie about the circumstances surrounding their mother's death.  That night, Andy dreams about forgetting his mother's face, so Tammy and Andy sneak out of the safe zone and return to their former home, where they collect family photographs and other mementos. To his shock, Andy finds Alice alive and seemingly uninfected in a semi-conscious, delirious state. The three are soon discovered by soldiers and taken back to District One. Alice is taken to a quarantine room, where she is tested and found to be an asymptomatic carrier of the rage virus. Don makes an unauthorized visit to Alice in her isolation cell, begging her to forgive him. She accepts his apology and tells him she loves him; when they kiss, Don is infected, savagely kills her and goes on a rampage.  General Stone orders the building to be quarantined and orders a Code Red alert in District One. Civilians are herded into safe rooms but despite the precautions, Don breaks into a room full of people and starts a domino effect of rapid infection. The crowd, with half its members infected, breaks out of the safe room and into the streets. Scarlet, a US Army medical officer, rescues Tammy and Andy as the soldiers in District One are ordered to shoot indiscriminately. Doyle, unable to bring himself to comply with the order, abandons his post and escapes with Scarlet, Tammy, Andy and several others through the Greenwich Foot Tunnel. Stone orders District One to be firebombed but large numbers of the infected, including Don, escape the bombardment. Scarlet informs Doyle that the children might hold the key to a cure because of their genetic make up and must be protected.  Flynn arrives by helicopter to pick up Doyle but refuses to take anyone else, as they would be shot down for carrying people who might be infected. Flynn contacts Doyle by radio and tells him to leave the civilians and head to Wembley Stadium. Doyle ignores his instructions and escorts Andy, Tammy and Scarlet to Wembley. They break into an abandoned Volvo V70 to escape nerve gas released to kill the infected but are unable to start the car while soldiers with flamethrowers draw near. Doyle exits the car and sacrifices himself by push starting the car and is burned alive. Scarlet escapes an Apache gunship and drives Tammy and Andy into the London Underground, where the trio continues on foot. Don ambushes and kills Scarlet, then bites Andy.  Tammy shoots Don before he can kill Andy, who remains symptom-free but an unknown carrier of the Rage virus. They continue to the stadium and are picked up by a reluctant Flynn, who flies them across the English Channel to France, as instructed by Doyle. Twenty-eight days later, a French-accented voice requesting help is heard from the radio in Flynn's abandoned helicopter. A group of the infected are then seen running through a tunnel that, as they emerge into the open, is revealed to be the exit of the Paris Métro Trocadéro Station with a view across the Seine to the nearby Eiffel Tower, indicating that the virus has spread to Continental Europe.

Production.

Development and writing.

The international success of the 2002 horror film "28 Days Later" influenced its creators—director Danny Boyle, producer Andrew Macdonald and screenwriter Alex Garland—to make a sequel four years following its release. Macdonald stated, "We were quite taken aback by the phenomenal success of the first film, particularly in America. We saw an opportunity to make a second film that already had a built in audience. We thought it would be a great idea to try and satisfy that audience again."  In March 2005, however, Boyle revealed he would not be directing due to commitments to "Sunshine" (2007), but said he would stay on as executive producer. He also teased that its plot would revolve around the aftermath of the first film, and would involve the US Army "declaring the war against infection had been won, and that the reconstruction of the country could begin". Boyle later hired Spanish filmmaker Juan Carlos Fresnadillo, believing he would be able to "bring a fresh new perspective" to the film. Another reason he picked Fresnadillo was because he was a "huge fan" of his 2001 film "Intacto". Before Fresnadillo took over, he was on a five-year hiatus from filmmaking, working on TV commercials.  Fresnadillo felt the plot involving a family in Rowan Joffé's original script was underdeveloped, so he decided to rewrite it with collaborators Enrique López-Lavigne and Jesús Olmo. Although both Fresnadillo and López-Lavigne were unimpressed with the initial draft, they found its concept of the family "trying to start over after the first outbreak" a redeemable aspect, deciding to retain it in the rewritten version. Rewriting took almost a year, with Garland making additional input on the script.

Casting.

Boyle said in March 2005 that the sequel would feature a new cast, since previous cast members Cillian Murphy, Megan Burns, and Naomie Harris were occupied with their own projects. In September 2006, Robert Carlyle, Rose Byrne, Catherine McCormack, Harold Perrineau, Imogen Poots, Idris Elba, Mackintosh Muggleton and Jeremy Renner were announced as the cast for the sequel.  All the extras who played the infected were required to have a movement-based artistic background, including such occupations as ballet, dance, gymnastics, circus performing, and miming.

Filming.

On 1 September 2006, principal photography for "28 Weeks Later" began in London, with much of the filming taking place at Canary Wharf on the Isle of Dogs, the safe zone in the film's plot.  The on-location filming took place in London and 3 Mills Studios, although scenes intended to be shot at Wembley Stadium, then undergoing final stages of a major reconstruction, were filmed instead in Wales, with Cardiff's Millennium Stadium used as a replacement.

Promotion.

Graphic novel.

In July 2006, Fox Atomic Comics and publisher HarperCollins announced the publication, in early 2007, of "", a graphic novel bridging the gap between "28 Days Later" and "28 Weeks Later". Motion comics of two segments of the graphic novel were added to the DVD & Blu-ray release of "28 Weeks Later".

Websites.

Removable chalk-powder graffiti was sprayed in locations around London and Birmingham featuring the web address www.ragevirus.com. However, the web address was found to be unregistered and was quickly snapped up. The advertising agency who made the mistake agreed to purchase the rights to the domain name for an undisclosed sum.  In April 2007, the horror/science-fiction film website "Bloody Disgusting" promoted "28 Weeks Later" by giving readers a chance to win a prop from the film. The props were included in a "District 1 Welcome Pack", which featured an ID card and an edition of the London "Evening Standard" newspaper with a headline proclaiming the evacuation. The giveaway was only open to residents of North America, and entries closed on 9 May 2007.

Biohazard warning.

On 13 April 2007, 28 days before the release of the film in UK cinemas, a huge biohazard warning sign was projected against the White Cliffs of Dover. The sign contained the international biological hazard symbol, along with the admonition that the UK was "contaminated, keep out!"

Flash game.

In May 2007, 20th Century Fox posted a free "28 Weeks Later"-themed flash game on their international website, foxinternational.com. In the game, the player can play one of the infected in three parts of the city.

Release.

"28 Weeks Later" was released on 11 May 2007, in the United Kingdom by 20th Century Fox and in the United States by Fox Atomic.

Home media.

Reception.

Box office.

The film opened in 2,000 cinemas across the United States. It made $9.8 million in its opening weekend, coming in second place at the box office, behind "Spider-Man 3". The film has grossed $28.6 million in the US and $35.6 million in other countries, bringing the worldwide total to $64.2 million.  1.3 million DVD units have been sold in the United States, gathering a revenue of $24.3 million, as of July 2010. The film has been released as its own DVD and as a double feature with "28 Days Later".

Critical reception.

On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has generated a rating of 71% based on 195 reviews, and an average rating of 6.59/10. The website's critical consensus states, "While "28 Weeks Later" lacks the humanism that made "28 Days Later" a classic, it's made up with fantastic atmosphere and punchy direction." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average of 78/100 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".  "View London" called the film an "exciting, action-packed and superbly directed thriller that more than lives up to the original film". "The New York Times"s A. O. Scott remarked that it is "brutal and almost exhaustingly terrifying, as any respectable zombie movie should be. It is also bracingly smart, both in its ideas and in its techniques".  Derek Elley for "Variety" called it "a full-bore zombie romp that more than delivers the genre goods".

Soundtrack.

The soundtrack was composed, written and performed by John Murphy. The score was released exclusively to iTunes on 12 June 2007. On 2 June 2009, a limited edition soundtrack was released by La-La Land Records. Only 1500 copies were made.

Possible sequel.

Fox Atomic stated in June 2007 that they would consider producing a third film if DVD sales of the film did well. In July 2007, while promoting "Sunshine", Boyle said he had a possible story for the next film: "There is an idea for the next one, something which would move the story on. I've got to think about it, whether it's right or not." In October 2010, when Alex Garland was asked what was happening with "28 Months Later", he declared: "I'll answer that completely honestly. When we made "28 Days Later", the rights were frozen between a group of people who are no longer talking to each other. And so, the film is never going to happen unless those people start talking to each other again. There is no script as far as I'm aware."  In January 2011, Danny Boyle said, "There is a good idea for it, and once I've got [my stage production of] "Frankenstein" open, I'll begin to think about it a bit more." On 13 April 2013, Boyle stated: "[I]t’s 40/60 whether [a sequel] happens or not. But we did have an idea of where to set it and what it might be about." When asked to share that idea, Boyle laughed and said, "No, because they’ll end up in "The Walking Dead"."  On 14 January 2015, Garland stated:  In June 2019, Boyle confirmed that he and Garland had recently met to discuss and begin preparation on a third film.

28 Weeks Later is a 2007 apocalyptic horror film directed by Juan Carlos Fresnadillo, who co-wrote it with Rowan Joffé, Enrique López-Lavigne, and Jesus Olmo. A sequel to the 2002 film "28 Days Later", it stars Robert Carlyle, Rose Byrne, Jeremy Renner, Harold Perrineau, Catherine McCormack, Imogen Poots, and Idris Elba. It is set after the events of the first film, depicting the efforts of NATO military forces to salvage a safe zone in London, the consequence of two young siblings breaking protocol to find their infected mother, and the resulting reintroduction of the Rage Virus to the safe zone.

《28周后》(英语:28 Weeks Later)是丹尼·波尔在2002年拍的《28日后》的续集。此片由尊·卡路斯·费拿迪奥执导,在2007年5月11日于美国及英国上映。