History.

Deja News.

The Deja News Research Service was an archive of messages posted to Usenet discussion groups, started in March 1995 by Steve Madere in Austin, Texas. Its powerful search engine capabilities won the service acclaim, generated controversy, and significantly changed the perceived nature of online discussion. This archive was acquired by Google in 2001.  While archives of Usenet discussions had been kept for as long as the medium existed, Deja News offered a novel combination of features. It was available to the general public, provided a simple World Wide Web user interface, allowed searches across all archived newsgroups, returned immediate results, and retained messages indefinitely. The search facilities transformed Usenet from a loosely organized and ephemeral communication tool into a valued information repository. The archive's relative permanence, combined with the ability to search messages by author, raised concerns about privacy and confirmed oft-repeated past admonishments that posters should be cautious in discussing themselves and others.  While Madere was initially reluctant to remove archived material, protests from users and legal pressure led to the introduction of "nuking", a method for posters to permanently remove their own messages from search results. It already supported the use of an "X-No-Archive" message header, which if present would cause an article to be omitted from the archive. This did not prevent others from quoting the material in a later message and causing it to be stored. Copyright holders were also allowed to have material removed from the archive. According to Humphrey Marr of Deja News, copyright actions most frequently came from the Church of Scientology.  The capability to "nuke" postings was kept open for many years but later removed without explanation under Google's tenure. Google also mistakenly resurrected previously "nuked" messages at one point, angering many users. "Nukes" that were in effect at the time when Google removed the possibility, are still honored, however. Since May 2014, European users can request to have search results for their name from Google Groups, including their Usenet archive, delinked under the right to be forgotten law. Google Groups is one of the ten most delinked sites. If Google does not grant a delinking, Europeans can appeal to their local data protection agencies.

Change of direction.

The service was eventually expanded beyond search. My Deja News offered the ability to read Usenet in the traditional chronological, per-group manner, and to post new messages to the network. Deja Communities were private Internet forums offered primarily to businesses. In 1999 the site (now known as Deja.com) sharply changed direction and made its primary feature a shopping comparison service. During this transition, which involved relocation of the servers, many older messages in the Usenet archive became unavailable. By late 2000 the company, in financial distress, sold the shopping service to eBay, who incorporated the technology into their half.com services.

Google Groups.

By 2001, the Deja search service was shut down. In February 2001, Google acquired Deja News and its archive, and transitioned its assets to groups.google.com. Users were then able to access these Usenet newsgroups through the new Google Groups interface.  By the end of 2001, the archive had been supplemented with other archived messages dating back to May 11, 1981. These early posts from 1981–1991 were donated to Google by the University of Western Ontario, based on archives by Henry Spencer from the University of Toronto. A short while later, Google released a new version that allowed users to create their own non-Usenet groups.  When AOL discontinued access to Usenet around 2005, it recommended Google Groups instead.  In 2008, Google broke the Groups search functionality and left it nonfunctional for about a year, until a "Wired" article spurred the company to fix the problems.  For several years from May 2010 onward, Google incrementally changed the layout of the web search results pages, often degrading the discoverability of the site itself as well as its usability and functionality.  On February 13, 2015, a Vice Media story reported that the ability to do advanced searches across all groups had again become nonfunctional, and to date, Google has neither fixed nor acknowledged the problem. The researcher interviewed stated, "Advanced searches within specific groups appear to be working, but that's hardly useful for any form of research—be it casual or academic."

Criticism.

The late Lee Rizor, also known as Blinky the Shark, started the Usenet Improvement Project, a project which is highly critical of Google Groups and its users. The project aims to "make Usenet participation a better experience". They have accused Google Groups of ignoring an "increasing wave of spam" from its servers and of encouraging an Eternal September of "lusers" and "lamers" arriving in established groups en masse. The Usenet Improvement Project provides several killfile examples to block messages posted by Google Groups users in several newsreaders.  "Slashdot", "Vice" and "Wired" contributors have criticized Google for its unannounced discontinuation of the Google Groups Advanced Search page and the ability to perform advanced searches across all groups, leaving it nearly impossible to find postings without either knowing keywords from them that are unique across Google Groups' entire multi-decade archive of posts, or else knowing beforehand which newsgroup(s) they were posted in. Other commentators have since noted that even many simple searches across all groups repeatably fail to return correct results.

Blocking.

Google Groups was blocked in Turkey on April 10, 2008 by the order of a court. According to "The Guardian", the court banned Google Groups following a libel complaint by Adnan Oktar against the service. Google Groups was the first of several websites to be blocked by the Turkish Government in rapid succession solely for including material that allegedly offended Islam. The ban was removed a month later on May 15, 2008

Google Groups is a service from Google that provides discussion groups for people sharing common interests. The Groups service also provides a gateway to Usenet newsgroups via a shared user interface.

Google 网上论坛(英语:Google Groups)是Google提供的在线交流工具,在Web界面上类似于常见的网络论坛。但Google Groups的实质却可以理解为一个邮件列表。但与传统的邮件列表相比,它提供了基于Web的更多功能。如共享文件、创建页面、帖子评分等。


Biography.

Early life and career.

Ellison was born to a Jewish family in Cleveland, Ohio, on May 27, 1934, the son of Serita (née Rosenthal) and Louis Laverne Ellison, a dentist and jeweler. He had an older sister, Beverly (Rabnick), who was born in 1926. She died in 2010 without having spoken to him since their mother's funeral in 1976. His family subsequently moved to Painesville, Ohio, but returned to Cleveland in 1949, following his father's death. Ellison frequently ran away from home (in an interview with Tom Snyder he would later claim it was due to discrimination by his high school peers), taking an array of odd jobs—including, by age 18, "tuna fisherman off the coast of Galveston, itinerant crop-picker down in New Orleans, hired gun for a wealthy neurotic, nitroglycerine truck driver in North Carolina, short-order cook, cab driver, lithographer, book salesman, floorwalker in a department store, door-to-door brush salesman, and as a youngster, an actor in several productions at the Cleveland Play House". In 1947, a fan letter he wrote to "Real Fact Comics" became his first published writing.  Ellison attended Ohio State University for 18 months (1951–53) before being expelled. He said the expulsion was for hitting a professor who had denigrated his writing ability, and over the next 20 or so years he sent that professor a copy of every story that he published.  Ellison published two serialized stories in the "Cleveland News" during 1949, and he sold a story to EC Comics early in the 1950s. During this period, Ellison was an active and visible member of science fiction fandom, and published his own science fiction fanzines, such as "Dimensions" (which had previously been the "Bulletin of the Cleveland Science Fantasy Society" for the Cleveland Science Fantasy Society, and later "Science Fantasy Bulletin".) Ellison moved to New York City in 1955 to pursue a writing career, primarily in science fiction. Over the next two years, he published more than 100 short stories and articles. The short stories collected as "Sex Gang" — which Ellison described in a 2012 interview as "mainstream erotica" — date from this period.  He served in the U.S. Army from 1957 to 1959. His first novel, "Web of the City", was published during his military service in 1958, and he said that he had written the bulk of it while undergoing basic training at Fort Benning, Georgia. After leaving the army, he relocated to Chicago, where he edited "Rogue" magazine.

Hollywood and beyond.

Ellison moved to California in 1962, and subsequently began to sell his writing to Hollywood. He co-wrote the screenplay for "The Oscar" (1966), starring Stephen Boyd and Elke Sommer. Ellison also sold scripts to many television shows: "The Loretta Young Show" (using the name Harlan Ellis),"The Flying Nun", "Burke's Law", "Route 66," "The Outer Limits", "", "The Man from U.N.C.L.E.", "Cimarron Strip", and "The Alfred Hitchcock Hour". Ellison's screenplay for the "Star Trek" episode "The City on the Edge of Forever" has been considered the best of the 79 episodes in the series.  In 1965, he participated in the Selma to Montgomery marches led by Martin Luther King, Jr.  In 1966, in an article that "Esquire" magazine would later name as the best magazine piece ever written, the journalist Gay Talese wrote about the goings-on around Frank Sinatra. The article, entitled "Frank Sinatra Has a Cold", briefly describes a clash between the young Harlan Ellison and Frank Sinatra, when the crooner took exception to Ellison's boots during a billiards game.  Ellison was hired as a writer for Walt Disney Studios, but was fired on his first day after Roy O. Disney overheard him in the studio commissary joking about making a pornographic animated film featuring Disney characters.  Ellison continued to publish short fiction and nonfiction pieces in various publications, including some of his best known stories. "'Repent, Harlequin!' Said the Ticktockman" (1965) is a celebration of civil disobedience against repressive authority. "I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream" (1967) is an allegory of Hell, where five humans are tormented by an all-knowing computer throughout eternity. The story was the basis of a 1995 computer game; Ellison participated in the game's design and provided the voice of the god-computer AM. Another story, "A Boy and His Dog", examines the nature of friendship and love in a violent, post-apocalyptic world and was made into the 1975 film of the same name, starring Don Johnson.  Ellison served as creative consultant to the 1980s version of "The Twilight Zone" science fiction TV series and "Babylon 5". As a member of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG), he had voice-over credits for shows, including "The Pirates of Dark Water", "Mother Goose and Grimm", "Space Cases", "Phantom 2040", and "Babylon 5", as well as making an onscreen appearance in the "Babylon 5" episode "The Face of the Enemy".  Ellison's short story "The Man Who Rowed Christopher Columbus Ashore" (1992) was selected for inclusion in the 1993 edition of "The Best American Short Stories".  In 2014 Ellison made a guest appearance on the album "Finding Love in Hell" by the stoner metal band Leaving Babylon, reading his piece "The Silence" (originally published in "Mind Fields") as an introduction to the song "Dead to Me."  Ellison's official website, harlanellison.com, was launched in 1995 as a fan page; for several years, Ellison was a regular poster in its discussion forum.

Personal life and death.

Ellison married five times; each relationship ended within a few years, except the last. His first wife was Charlotte Stein, whom he married in 1956. They divorced in 1960, and he later described the marriage as "four years of hell as sustained as the whine of a generator." Later that year he married Billie Joyce Sanders; they divorced in 1963. His 1966 marriage to Loretta Patrick lasted only seven weeks. In 1976, he married Lori Horowitz. He was 41 and she was 19, and he later said of the marriage, "I was desperately in love with her, but it was a stupid marriage on my part." They were divorced after eight months. He and Susan Toth married in 1986, and they remained together, living in Los Angeles, until his death 32 years later.  Ellison described himself as a Jewish atheist.  In 1994, he suffered a heart attack and was hospitalized for quadruple coronary artery bypass surgery. From 2010, he received treatment for clinical depression.  In September 2007, Ellison made his last public appearance in his hometown of Cleveland, Ohio, for the Midwestern debut of the documentary "Dreams with Sharp Teeth" at the Cleveland Public Library.  On about October 10, 2014, Ellison suffered a stroke. Although his speech and cognition were unimpaired, he suffered paralysis on his right side, for which he was expected to spend several weeks in physical therapy before being released from the hospital.  Harlan Ellison died at his home in Los Angeles in the morning of June 28, 2018.

Pseudonyms.

Ellison on occasion used the pseudonym Cordwainer Bird to alert members of the public to situations in which he felt his creative contribution to a project had been mangled beyond repair by others, typically Hollywood producers or studios (see also Alan Smithee). The first such work to which he signed the name was "The Price of Doom", an episode of "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea" (though it was misspelled as Cord Wainer Bird in the credits). An episode of "Burke's Law" ("Who Killed Alex Debbs?") credited to Ellison contains a "character" given this name, played by Sammy Davis Jr.  The "Cordwainer Bird" moniker is a tribute to fellow SF writer Paul M. A. Linebarger, better known by his pen name, Cordwainer Smith. The origin of the word "cordwainer" is shoemaker (from working with cordovan leather for shoes). The term used by Linebarger was meant to imply the industriousness of the pulp author. Ellison said, in interviews and in his writing, that his version of the pseudonym was meant to mean "a shoemaker for birds". Since he used the pseudonym mainly for works he wanted to distance himself from, it may be understood to mean that "this work is for the birds" or that it is of as much use as shoes to a bird. Stephen King once said he thought that it meant that Ellison was giving people who mangled his work a literary version of "the bird" (given credence by Ellison himself in his own essay titled "Somehow, I Don't Think We're in Kansas, Toto", describing his experience with the "Starlost" television series).  The Bird moniker became a character in one of Ellison's own stories. In his book "Strange Wine", Ellison explains the origins of the Bird and goes on to state that Philip Jose Farmer wrote Cordwainer into the Wold Newton family that the latter writer had developed. The thought of such a whimsical object lesson being related to such lights as Doc Savage, The Shadow, Tarzan, and all the other pulp heroes prompted Ellison to play with the concept, resulting in "The New York Review of Bird", in which an annoyed Bird uncovers the darker secrets of the New York literary establishment before beginning a pulpish slaughter of the same.  Other pseudonyms Ellison used during his career include Jay Charby, Sley Harson, Ellis Hart, John Magnus, Paul Merchant, Pat Roeder, Ivar Jorgenson, Derry Tiger, Harlan Ellis and Jay Solo.

Controversies and disputes.

Temperament.

Ellison had a reputation for being abrasive and argumentative. Ellison generally agreed with this assessment, and a dust jacket from one of his books described him as "possibly the most contentious person on Earth." Ellison filed numerous grievances and attempted lawsuits; as part of a dispute about fulfillment of a contract, he once sent 213 bricks to a publisher postage due, followed by a dead gopher via fourth-class mail. In an October 2017 piece in "Wired", Ellison was dubbed "Sci-Fi's Most Controversial Figure."  At Stephen King's request, Ellison provided a description of himself and his writing in "Danse Macabre": "My work is foursquare for chaos. I spend my life personally, and my work professionally, keeping the soup boiling. Gadfly is what they call you when you are no longer dangerous; I much prefer troublemaker, malcontent, desperado. I see myself as a combination of Zorro and Jiminy Cricket. My stories go out from here and raise hell. From time to time some denigrater or critic with umbrage will say of my work, 'He only wrote that to shock.' I smile and nod. Precisely."

"Star Trek".

Ellison repeatedly criticized how "Star Trek" creator and producer Gene Roddenberry (and others) rewrote his original script for the 1967 episode "The City on the Edge of Forever". Despite his objections, Ellison kept his own name on the shooting script instead of using "Cordwainer Bird" to indicate displeasure (see above).  Ellison's original script was first published in the 1976 anthology "Six Science Fiction Plays", edited by Roger Elwood. The aired version was adapted for the "Star Trek" Fotonovel series in 1977. In 1995, Borderlands Press published "The City on the Edge of Forever", with nearly 300 pages, comprising an essay by Ellison, four versions of the teleplay, and eight "Afterwords" contributed by other parties. He greatly expanded the introduction for the paperback edition, in which he explained what he called a "fatally inept" treatment.  Both versions of the script won awards: Ellison's original script won the 1968 Writers Guild Award for best episodic drama in television, while the shooting script won the 1968 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.  On March 13, 2009, Ellison sued CBS Paramount Television, seeking payment of 25% of net receipts from merchandising, publishing, and other income from the episode since 1967; the suit also names the Writers Guild of America for allegedly failing to act on Ellison's behalf. On October 23, 2009, "Variety" magazine reported that a settlement had been reached.

Vietnam War opposition and Aggiecon I.

Ellison was among those who in 1968 signed an anti-Vietnam War advertisement in "Galaxy Science Fiction". In 1969, Ellison was Guest of Honor at Texas A&M University's first science fiction convention, Aggiecon, where he reportedly referred to the university's Corps of Cadets as "America's next generation of Nazis", inspired in part by the continuing Vietnam War. Although the university was no longer solely a military school (from 1965), the student body was predominantly made up of cadet members. Between Ellison's anti-military remarks and a food fight that broke out in the ballroom of the hotel where the gathering was held (although, according to Ellison in 2000, the food fight actually started in a Denny's because the staff disappeared and they could not get their check), the school's administration almost refused to approve the science fiction convention the next year and no guest of honor was invited for the next two Aggiecons. However, Ellison was subsequently invited back as Guest of Honor for Aggiecon V (1974).

"The Last Dangerous Visions".

"The Last Dangerous Visions" (TLDV), the third volume of Ellison's anthology series, was originally announced for publication in 1973, but was never published. Nearly 150 writers (many now dead) submitted works for the volume. In 1993, Ellison threatened to sue New England Science Fiction Association (NESFA) for publishing "Himself in Anachron", a short story written by Cordwainer Smith and sold to Ellison for the book by his widow, but later reached an amicable settlement.  British science fiction author Christopher Priest criticized Ellison's editorial practices in an article entitled "The Book on the Edge of Forever", later expanded into a book. Priest documented a half-dozen unfulfilled promises by Ellison to publish "TLDV" within a year of the statement. Priest claims that he submitted a story at Ellison's request, which Ellison retained for several months until Priest withdrew the story and demanded that Ellison return the manuscript. Ellison was incensed by "The Book on the Edge of Forever" and, personally or by proxy, threatened Priest on numerous occasions since its publication.

"I, Robot".

Shortly after the release of "Star Wars" (1977), Ben Roberts contacted Ellison to develop a script based on Isaac Asimov's "I, Robot" short story collection for Warner Brothers; Ellison and Asimov had been longtime friends prior to Asimov's death, so Ellison may be presumed to have attached particular significance to the project. In a meeting with the Head of Production at Warners, Robert Shapiro, Ellison concluded that Shapiro was commenting on the script without having read it and accused him of having the "intellectual and cranial capacity of an artichoke". Shortly afterwards, Ellison was dropped from the project. Without Ellison, the film came to a dead end, because subsequent scripts were unsatisfactory to potential directors. After a change in studio heads, Warner allowed Ellison's script to be serialized in "Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine" and published in book form. The 2004 film "I, Robot", starring Will Smith, has no connection to Ellison's script.

Allegations of assault on Charles Platt.

In 1985 Ellison allegedly publicly assaulted author and critic Charles Platt at the Nebula Awards banquet. Platt did not pursue legal action against Ellison, and the two men later signed a "non-aggression pact", promising never to discuss the incident again nor to have any contact with one another. Platt claims that Ellison often publicly boasted about the incident.

2006 Hugo Awards ceremony.

Ellison was presented with a special committee award at the 2006 Hugo Awards ceremony. When Ellison got to the podium, presenter Connie Willis asked him "Are you going to be good?" When she asked the question a second time, Ellison put the microphone in his mouth, to the crowd's laughter. He then placed his hand on her breast during an embrace. Ellison subsequently complained that Willis refused to acknowledge his apology.

Lawsuit against Fantagraphics.

On September 20, 2006, Ellison sued comic book and magazine publisher Fantagraphics, stating they had defamed him in their book "Comics As Art (We Told You So)". The book recounts the history of Fantagraphics and discussed a lawsuit that resulted from a 1980 Ellison interview with Fantagraphics' industry news magazine, "The Comics Journal". In this interview Ellison referred to comic book writer Michael Fleisher, calling him "bugfuck" and "derange-o". Fleisher lost his libel suit against Ellison and Fantagraphics on December 9, 1986.  Ellison, after reading unpublished drafts of the book on Fantagraphics's website, believed that he had been defamed by several anecdotes related to this incident. He sued in the Superior Court for the State of California, in Santa Monica. Fantagraphics attempted to have the lawsuit dismissed. In their motion to dismiss, Fantagraphics argued that the statements were both their personal opinions and generally believed to be true anecdotes. On February 12, 2007, the presiding judge ruled against Fantagraphics' anti-SLAPP motion for dismissal. On June 29, 2007, Ellison claimed that the litigation had been resolved pending Fantagraphics' removal of all references to the case from their website. No money or apologies changed hands in the settlement as posted on August 17, 2007.

Copyright suits.

In a 1980 lawsuit against ABC and Paramount Pictures, Ellison and Ben Bova claimed that the TV series "Future Cop" was based on their short story "Brillo", winning a $337,000 judgement.  Ellison alleged that James Cameron's film "The Terminator" drew from material from an episode of the original "Outer Limits" which Ellison had scripted, "Soldier" (1964). Hemdale, the production company and the distributor Orion Pictures, settled out of court for an undisclosed sum and added a credit to the film which acknowledged Ellison's work. Cameron objected to this acknowledgement and has since labeled Ellison's claim a "nuisance suit". Ellison publicly referred to "The Terminator" as "a good film." Some accounts of the settlement state that another "Outer Limits" episode written by Ellison, "Demon with a Glass Hand" (also 1964), was also claimed to have been plagiarized by the film, but Ellison explicitly stated that ""Terminator" was not stolen from 'Demon with a Glass Hand,' it was a ripoff of my OTHER Outer Limits script, 'Soldier.'"  In 1983, Marvel Comics released "The Incredible Hulk" #286, entitled "Hero", written by Bill Mantlo. Three issues later, Marvel put up a letter claiming that Mantlo adapted "Soldier" for use as a Hulk story, but they forgot to credit Ellison and had it pointed out by readers. In actuality, then-Editor-in-Chief Jim Shooter signed off on the story, not having seen the "Outer Limits" episode it was based on and not realizing Mantlo copied it wholesale. The day the issue went to stands, he was contacted by an angry Ellison, who calmed down after Shooter fessed up and apologized for the terrible error. For reparations, Ellison only requested the similar payment Mantlo got for the story, writer's credit and a lifetime subscription to everything Marvel published.'"  On April 24, 2000, Ellison sued Stephen Robertson for posting four stories to the newsgroup "alt.binaries.e-book" without authorization. The other defendants were AOL and RemarQ, an internet service providers who owned servers hosting the newsgroup. Ellison alleged they had failed to halt copyright infringement in accordance with the "Notice and Takedown Procedure" outlined in the 1998 Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Robertson and RemarQ first settled with Ellison, and then AOL likewise settled with Ellison in June 2004, under conditions that were not made public. Since those settlements Ellison initiated legal action or takedown notices against more than 240 people who have allegedly distributed his writings on the Internet, saying, "If you put your hand in my pocket, you'll drag back six inches of bloody stump".  A lawsuit involving the film "In Time" (2011), which Ellison contended plagiarizes his short story "'Repent, Harlequin!' Said the Ticktockman" (first published in 1965), was withdrawn after Ellison viewed the film. As part of the agreement to dismiss his lawsuit, Ellison agreed that each party would bear its own attorneys' fees.

Awards.

Ellison won eight Hugo Awards, a shared award for the screenplay of "A Boy and his Dog" that he counted as "half a Hugo", and two special awards from annual World SF Conventions; four Nebula Awards of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA); five Bram Stoker Awards of the Horror Writers Association (HWA); two Edgar Awards of the Mystery Writers of America; two World Fantasy Awards from annual conventions; and two Georges Méliès fantasy film awards.  In his 1981 book about the horror genre, "Danse Macabre", Stephen King reviewed Ellison's collection "Strange Wine" and considered it one of the best horror books published between 1950 and 1980.  Ellison won the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 1993. HWA gave him its Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996 and the World Horror Convention named him Grand Master in 2000. He was awarded the Gallun Award for Lifetime Achievement in Science Fiction from I-CON in 1997.  SFWA named him its 23rd Grand Master of fantasy and science fiction in 2006 and the Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted him in 2011. That year he also received the fourth J. Lloyd Eaton Lifetime Achievement Award in Science Fiction, presented by the UCR Libraries at the 2011 Eaton SF Conference, "Global Science Fiction". , Ellison is the only three-time winner of the Nebula Award for Best Short Story. He won his other Nebula in the novella category.  He was awarded the Silver Pen for Journalism by International PEN, the international writers' union, in 1982. In 1990, Ellison was honored by International PEN for continuing commitment to artistic freedom and the battle against censorship. In 1998, he was awarded the "Defender of Liberty" award by the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund.  In March 1998, the National Women's Committee of Brandeis University honored him with their 1998 Words, Wit, Wisdom award.  Ellison was named 2002's winner of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal's "Distinguished Skeptic Award", in recognition of his contributions to science and critical thinking. Ellison was presented with the award at the Skeptics Convention in Burbank, California, on June 22, 2002.  In December 2009, Ellison was nominated for a Grammy award in the category Best Spoken Word Album For Children for his reading of "Through the Looking-Glass And What Alice Found There" for Blackstone Audio, Inc.

Parodies and pastiches of Ellison.

In the 1970s artist and cartoonist Gordon Carleton wrote and drew a scripted slide show called "City on the Edge of Whatever", which was a spoof of "The City on the Edge of Forever". Occasionally performed at "Star Trek" conventions, it features an irate writer named "Arlan Hellison" who screams at his producers, "Art defilers! Script assassins!"  Ben Bova's novel "The Starcrossed" (1975), a "roman à clef" about Bova and Ellison's experience on "The Starlost" TV series, features a character "Ron Gabriel" who is a pastiche of Ellison. Bova's novel is dedicated to Ellison's pseudonym "Cordwainer Bird", who was credited as series creator on "The Starlost" per Ellison's demand. In the novel, "Ron Gabriel" requires the fictional series producers to credit him under the pseudonym "Victor Lawrence Talbot Frankenstein".  In "Murder at the ABA" (1976) by Isaac Asimov, the protagonist, Darius Just, was based on Ellison, as stated by Asimov in footnotes to the book itself, and in his autobiographical volume "In Joy Still Felt".  Robert Silverberg named a character in his first novel, "Revolt on Alpha C", for Ellison, who was Silverberg's neighbor in New York City at the time he was writing the book. This was confirmed in a special edition on the occasion of Silverberg's 35th year in the business.  Sharyn McCrumb's mystery novel "Bimbos of the Death Sun" (1988) featured a cantankerous antagonist-turned-murder-victim based on Ellison. Fans of Ellison sent him copies of the book, and upon meeting Ellison later that year at the Edgar Awards, Ellison told McCrumb he had read the book and thought it was good.  Ellison is a recurring minor character in the television show "Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated" (2010–13), playing a fictionalized version of himself modeled on his appearance in the 1970s.  Ellison appeared as himself in an episode of "The Simpsons" ("Married to the Blob", 2014) in which he meets Bart and Milhouse, and parodies his contention that the film "The Terminator" used ideas from his stories.

External links.

Harlan Jay Ellison (May 27, 1934 – June 28, 2018) was an American writer, known for his prolific and influential work in New Wave speculative fiction, and for his outspoken, combative personality. Robert Bloch, the author of "Psycho", described Ellison as "the only living organism I know whose natural habitat is hot water".

哈兰·杰·艾里森(英语:Harlan Jay Ellison,1934年-5月27日-2018年-6月27日),美国科幻小说大师,《星际旅行》最初的创作者之一,其作品多次获得雨果奖和星云奖。


Sensor size and aspect ratio.

The name of the system stems from the size of the image sensor used in the cameras, which is commonly referred to as a "4/3" type" or "4/3 type" sensor. The common inch-based sizing system is derived from vacuum image-sensing video camera tubes, which are now obsolete. The imaging area of a Four Thirds sensor is equal to that of a video camera tube of 4/3 inch diameter.<ref name='Olympus-Europe 4/3'></ref> The usual size of the sensor is 18 mm × 13.5 mm (22.5 mm diagonal), with an imaging area of 17.3 mm × 13.0 mm (21.63 mm diagonal). The sensor's area is about 30–40% smaller than APS-C sensors used in most other DSLRs, but still around 9 times larger than the 1/2.5" sensors typically used in compact digital cameras. Incidentally, the imaging area of a Four Thirds sensor is almost identical to that of 110 film.  The emphasis on the 4:3 image aspect ratio sets Four Thirds apart from other DSLR systems, which usually adhere to the 3:2 aspect ratio of the traditional 35mm format. However, the standard only specifies the sensor diagonal, thus Four Thirds cameras using the standard 3:2 aspect ratio would be possible; notably newer Panasonic Micro Four Thirds models even offer shooting at multiple aspect ratios while maintaining the same image diagonal. For instance, the Panasonic GH1 uses a multi-aspect sensor designed to maximize use of the image circle at 4:3, 3:2, and 16:9; each ratio having a diagonal of 22.5 mm.  Sensor aspect ratio influences lens design. For example, many lenses designed by Olympus for the Four Thirds System contain internal rectangular baffles or permanently mounted "petal" lens hoods that optimise their operation for the 4:3 aspect ratio.  In an interview John Knaur, a Senior Product Manager at Olympus, stated that "The FourThirds refers to both the size of the imager and the aspect ratio of the sensor". He also pointed out the similarities between 4:3 and the standard printing size of 8×10 as well as medium format 6×4.5 and 6×7 cameras, thus helping explain Olympus' rationale on choosing 4:3 rather than 3:2.

Four Thirds System companies.

As of the 2006 Photo Marketing Association Annual Convention and Trade Show, the Four Thirds consortium consisted the following companies:  This does not imply a commitment to end user products by each company. Historically, only Leica, Olympus, and Panasonic have produced bodies. Olympus and Leica/Panasonic have made dedicated Four Thirds lenses, and Sigma makes adapted versions of their "DC" lenses for APS-C format DSLRs. Kodak once sold sensors to Olympus for use in their Four Thirds bodies, but the newer Olympus Four Thirds cameras used Panasonic sensors.

Four Thirds System cameras.

The majority of Four Thirds System cameras and Four Thirds lenses are made by Olympus. Many Four Thirds cameras use "sensor-shift" in-body image stabilization, making the need for image stabilization technology in its lenses unnecessary. All Four Thirds cameras also incorporate an automatic sensor cleaning device, in which a thin glass filter in front of the sensor vibrates at 30 kHz, causing dust to fall off and adhere to a piece of sticky material below. Olympus' E-system camera bodies are noted for their inclusion of a wide range of firmware-level features and customization, good JPEG engine, and compact size. Because of the smaller format of Four Thirds, the viewfinders tend to be smaller than on comparable cameras.  Manufacture of Four Thirds cameras came to an end after the introduction of the mirrorless Micro Four Thirds format. Discontinued models include:

Four Thirds System lenses.

The Four Thirds lens mount is specified to be a bayonet type with a flange focal distance of 38.67 mm.  There are currently around three dozen lenses for the Four Thirds System standard.  Before announcing that it would stop production of Four Thirds lenses in early 2017, Olympus produced about 20 lenses for the Four Thirds System under their "Zuiko Digital" brand. They are divided into three grades — Standard, High Grade and Super High Grade. High Grade lenses have faster maximum apertures, but are significantly more expensive and larger, and the Super High Grade zooms have constant maximum aperture over the full zoom range; all but the Standard grade are weather-sealed. Lenses within each grade cover the range from wide-angle to super telephoto. The Zuiko Digital lenses are well regarded for their consistently good optics. The following table lists all Zuiko Digital lenses available at the time Olympus stopped Four Thirds production: Olympus also made 1.4× and 2× teleconverters and an electronically coupled extension tube.  Sigma has adapted 13 lenses for the Four Thirds System, ranging from 10 mm to 800 mm, including several for which no equivalent exists: the fast primes (30 mm and 50 mm ) and extreme telephoto (300–800 mm 5.6). As of 2014 all Sigma lenses for the Four Thirds System have been discontinued.  Leica has designed four lenses for the Four Thirds System: fast and slow normal zooms and a 14–150 mm super-zoom, all with Panasonic's image stabilization system, and an unstabilized 25 mm prime. These are manufactured and sold by Panasonic.  An official list of available lenses can be found on Four-Thirds.org web site.  As for the system itself, it was silently discontinued in favor of the Micro Four Thirds System.

Micro Four Thirds System.

In August 2008, Olympus and Panasonic introduced a new format, Micro Four Thirds.  The new system uses the same sensor, but removes the mirror box from the camera design. A live preview is shown on either the camera's main liquid-crystal display or via an electronic viewfinder, as in digital compact cameras. Autofocus may be accomplished via a contrast detection process using the main imager, again similar to digital compact cameras. Some Olympus manufactured camera bodies also feature phase detection auto focus built into the sensor. The goal of the new system was to allow for even smaller cameras, competing directly with higher-end point-and-shoot compact digital cameras and DSLRs. The smaller flange focal distance allows for more compact normal and wide angle lenses. It also facilitates the use, with an adapter, of lenses based on other mounting systems, including many manual focus lenses from the seventies and eighties.  In particular, Four Thirds lenses can be used on Micro Four Thirds bodies with an adapter, however, "all of the functions of the Micro Four Thirds System may not always be available."

The Four Thirds System is a standard created by Olympus and Eastman Kodak for digital single-lens reflex camera (DSLR) and mirrorless camera design and development.

4/3系统(Four Thirds System,又经常直称为四三系统)是一种常见的照相机感光元件规格,由奥林巴斯(Olympus)与柯达(Kodak)共同设计研发并推广。此规格针对数码单镜反射式相机,目的在于使不同制造商之间生产的交换镜头产品可以无差错的组合使用。4/3系统的名称由来是其影像感光元件的规格与过去曾经存在过的4/3吋直径摄像管相同(Video camera tube)。然而,这里的尺寸并不是影像感光元件实际的尺寸,而是成像圈的直径。大致上来说,影像感光元件必须位在成像圈正中央并且完全包络在内,因此其感光区域的对角线长度(22.5mm)远小于4/3吋(约33.87mm)。


Taxonomy.

"P. motoro" varies significantly in appearance and morphology over its large range, and a taxonomic review of the Amazonian populations is expected. The taxonomy of the populations in the Río de la Plata Basin was reviewed in 2013, leading to the finding that "P. motoro" is found virtually throughout (absent from the Paraná Basin upriver from Itaipu Dam), but also that there are two additional members of this species complex: "P. amandae" (widespread in Río de la Plata Basin) and "P. pantanensis" (northern Pantanal). Two highly distinctive Amazonian types completely lack black-edged yellow-orange spots: The so-called "Mantilla ray", CD4, in Peru and adjacent parts of Brazil, and the similar but paler CD5 from rivers near Marajó. Both CD4 and CD5 co-occur with normal variants of "P. motoro". In 2019, they were described as a new species, "P marquesi".  Currently recognized members of the species complex found elsewhere are "P. boesemani" (Corantijn River; "P. motoro" absent), "P. jabuti" (mid and upper Tapajós Basin; "P. motoro" in the lower), and "P. ocellata" (lower Amazon Basin), but the last may be a synonym of "P. motoro".

Appearance.

"P. motoro" can grow up to in disc width, in total length, and in weight. Its disk is roughly circular in shape, and its eyes are raised from the dorsal surface. The dorsal coloration is typically beige or brown, with numerous yellow-orange spots with dark rings. Its exact color, and the arrangement and size of the spots can vary significantly, both from individual to individual and depending on location. Three primary types have been identified in the Amazon basin, but each of these include a number of subtypes (two additional main types now are considered a separate species, "P. marquesi"). The two main Amazonian types, informally known as CD1 and CD2, are found throughout much of the Amazon (except most of the Rio Negro basin) and they often occur together. Those from the Río de la Plata Basin and Mearim River resemble CD1. Individuals from the Rio Negro and Orinoco basins (which are connected by the Casiquiare canal) are similar to each other and informally known as CD3, but differ from "P. motoro" elsewhere. Some individuals of CD3 have spots near the rim of the disc that are connected, forming a chain-like pattern. However, the "marbled" type is generally only reported from the Orinoco basin, including the Ventuari River.

In aquaria.

Ocellate river stingrays are sometimes kept in captivity, with requirements similar to other members of "Potamotrygon". It is one of the most popular species of freshwater stingrays, but requires a very large tank.

The ocellate river stingray ("Potamotrygon motoro"), also known as the peacock-eye stingray or black river stingray, is a species of freshwater stingray in the family Potamotrygonidae. It was the first species to be described in the family and is also the most widespread, ranging throughout much of the Río de la Plata, Amazon, Mearim and Orinoco basins in tropical and subtropical South America. It is sometimes kept in aquaria.

珍珠<unk>(学名:Potamotrygon motoro),也叫南美江<unk>,分布于含巴西、秘鲁和哥伦比亚在内的整个亚马逊河流域。由于地域性的不同,使此类的鱼有许多不同纹路色泽的表现,还有许多的个体变异。其中包括皇冠三色珍珠<unk>、秘鲁珍珠<unk>以及巴西珍珠<unk>。


Metropolitan area.

Lens belongs to the intercommunality of Lens-Liévin, which consists of 36 communes, with a total population of 250,000. Lens, along with Douai, forms the metropolitan area of Douai-Lens, whose population at the 1999 census was 552,682.

History.

Lens was initially a fortification from the Norman invasions. In 1180, it was owned by the Count of Flanders, and sovereignty was exercised by the Crown of France. In the 13th century, Lens received a charter from Louis VIII of France, allowing it to become a city. The Flemish razed the city in 1303. Prior to this, the city's population relied on its markets. In 1526, Lens was made part of the Spanish Netherlands under the ownership of the French monarchy, and only passed back to France on 7 November 1659 with the Treaty of the Pyrenees.  In 1849, coal was discovered in Lens after surveys were carried out at Annay, Courrières and Loos-en-Gohelle. This led to the expansion of the city into an important industrial center. The Lens Mining Company was founded in 1852 and experienced large profits. The city was largely destroyed in the First World War and half of the population perished. The Gare de Lens railway station, built in 1927, is served by regional trains towards Lille, Arras, Douai, Dunkirk, Calais and Valenciennes. In World War II, the Allies bombarded the city from the air, leaving 500 dead.  Approximately nine kilometres from Lens, the Canadian National Vimy Memorial was opened in 1936, dedicated to the Battle of Vimy Ridge (part of the Battle of Arras) and the First World War Canadian soldiers who lost their lives during the war; the Memorial is also the site of two Canadian cemeteries. The centennial commemoration of the Battle of Vimy Ridge was held at the Memorial on 9 April 2017. The official ceremony included comments from Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, Governor General David Johnston as representative of the Monarchy of Canada, Prince Charles as representative of the Monarchy of the United Kingdom, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, Prince Harry, the President of France François Hollande, and the Prime Minister of France Bernard Cazeneuve.  The last coal mine in Lens closed in 1986. Since 2012, Lens has been the location of the Louvre-Lens art museum.

Transport.

Lens is connected to the TGV network, with high speed trains to Paris.

Sport.

Football club RC Lens plays in the town. Their stadium, Stade Bollaert-Delelis, was used for UEFA Euro 1984, the 1998 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016 and the 1999 Rugby World Cup and the 2007 Rugby World Cup.

Lens (; ) is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France. It is one of the main towns of Hauts-de-France along with Lille, Valenciennes, Amiens, Roubaix, Tourcoing, Arras and Douai. The inhabitants are called "Lensois".

朗斯(,),法国北部城市,上法兰西大区加来海峡省的一个市镇,同时也是该省的一个副省会,下辖朗斯区,其市镇面积为平方公里,时人口数量为人,在法国城市中排名第256位。


Early life.

E.P. Thompson was born in Oxford to Methodist missionary parents: His father, Edward John Thompson (1886–1946) was a poet and admirer of the Nobel Prize–winning poet Tagore. His older brother was William Frank Thompson (1919–1944), a British officer in the Second World War, who was captured and shot aiding the Bulgarian anti-fascist partisans.  Thompson attended two independent schools, The Dragon School in Oxford and Kingswood School in Bath. Like many he left school in 1941 to fight in the Second World War. He served in a tank unit in the Italian campaign, including at the fourth battle of Cassino.  After his military service, he studied at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he joined the Communist Party of Great Britain. In 1946, E. P. Thompson formed the Communist Party Historians Group with Christopher Hill, Eric Hobsbawm, Rodney Hilton, Dona Torr and others. In 1952 they launched the influential journal "Past and Present".

Career.

"William Morris".

Thompson's first major work of scholarship was his biography of William Morris, written while he was a member of the Communist Party. Subtitled "From Romantic to Revolutionary", it was part of an effort by the Communist Party Historians' Group, inspired by Torr, to emphasise the domestic roots of Marxism in Britain at a time when the Communist Party was under attack for always following the Moscow line. It was also an attempt to take Morris back from the critics who for more than 50 years had emphasised his art and downplayed his politics.  Although Morris's political work is well to the fore, Thompson also used his literary talents to comment on aspects of Morris's work, such as his early Romantic poetry, which had previously received relatively little consideration. As Thompson noted in his preface to the second edition (1976), the first edition (1955) appears to have received relatively little attention from the literary establishment because of its then-unfashionable Marxist point of view. However, the somewhat rewritten second edition was much better received.

The first New Left.

After Nikita Khrushchev's "secret speech" to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956, which revealed that the Soviet party leadership had long been aware of Stalin's crimes, Thompson (with John Saville and others) started a dissident publication inside the CP, called "The Reasoner". Six months later, he and most of his comrades left the party in disgust at the Soviet invasion of Hungary.  But Thompson remained what he called a "socialist humanist". With Saville and others, he set up the "New Reasoner", a journal that sought to develop a democratic socialist alternative to what its editors considered the ossified official Marxism of the Communist and Trotskyist parties and the managerialist cold war social democracy of the Labour Party and its international allies. The "New Reasoner" was the most important organ of what became known as the "New Left", an informal movement of dissident leftists closely associated with the nascent movement for nuclear disarmament in the late 1950s and early 1960s.  The "New Reasoner" combined with the "Universities and Left Review" to form "New Left Review" in 1960, though Thompson and others fell out with the group around Perry Anderson who took over the journal in 1962. The fashion ever since has been to describe the Thompson "et al." New Left as "the first New Left" and the Anderson "et al." group, which by 1968 had embraced Tariq Ali and various Trotskyists, as the second.  Thompson subsequently allied himself with the annual "Socialist Register" publication. With Raymond Williams and Stuart Hall, he was one of the editors of the 1967 "May Day Manifesto", one of the key left-wing challenges to the 1964–70 Labour government of Harold Wilson.

"The Making of the English Working Class".

Thompson's most influential work was and remains "The Making of the English Working Class", published in 1963 while he was working at the University of Leeds. The massive book, over 800 pages, was a watershed in the foundation of the field of social history. By exploring the ordinary cultures of working people through their previously ignored documentary remains, Thompson told the forgotten history of the first working-class political left in the world in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. Reflecting on the importance of the book for its 50th anniversary, Emma Griffin explained that Thompson "uncovered details about workshop customs and rituals, failed conspiracies, threatening letters, popular songs, and union club cards. He took what others had regarded as scraps from the archive and interrogated them for what they told us about the beliefs and aims of those who were not on the winning side. Here, then, was a book that rambled over aspects of human experience that had never before had their historian.  "The Making of the English Working Class" had a profound effect on the shape of British historiography, and still endures as a staple on university reading lists more than 50 years after its first publication in 1963. Writing for the Times Higher Education in 2013, Robert Colls recalled the power of Thompson's book for his generation of young British leftists:  I bought my first copy in 1968 – a small, fat bundle of Pelican with a picture of a Yorkshire miner on the front – and I still have it, bandaged up and exhausted by the years of labour. From the first of its 900-odd pages, I knew, and my friends at the University of Sussex knew, that this was something else. We talked about it in the bar and on the bus and in the refectory queue. Imagine that: young male students more interested in a book than in gooseberry tart and custard.  In his preface to this book, E.P. Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below:  Thompson's thought was also original and significant because of the way he defined "class." To Thompson, class was not a structure, but a relationship:  By re-defining class as a relationship that changed over time, Thompson proceeded to demonstrate how class was worthy of historical investigation. He opened the gates for a generation of labour historians, such as David Montgomery and Herbert Gutman, who made similar studies of the American working classes.  A major work of research and synthesis, the book was also important in historiographical terms: with it, Thompson demonstrated the power of a historical Marxism rooted in the experience of real flesh-and-blood workers. Thompson wrote the book while living in Siddal, Halifax, West Yorkshire and based some of the work on his experiences with the local Halifax population.  In later essays, Thompson has emphasized that crime and disorder were characteristic responses of the working and lower classes to the oppressions imposed upon them. He argues that crime was defined and punished primarily as an activity that threatened the status, property and interests of the elites. England's lower classes were kept undertake controlled by large-scale execution, transportation to the colonies, and imprisonment in horrible hulks of old warships. There was no interest in reforming the culprits, the goal being to deter through extremely harsh punishment.

Time discipline.

Time discipline, as it pertains to sociology and anthropology, is the general name given to social and economic rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time measurements, and people's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others.  Thompson authored "Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism", published in 1967, which posits that reliance on clock-time is a result of the European Industrial Revolution and that neither industrial capitalism nor the creation of the modern state would have been possible without the imposition of synchronic forms of time and work discipline. An accurate and precise record of time was not kept prior to the industrial revolution. The new clock-time imposed by government and capitalist interests replaced earlier, collective perceptions of time—such as natural rhythms of time like sunrise, sunset, and seasonal changes—that Thompson believed flowed from the collective wisdom of human societies. However, it is likely that earlier views of time were imposed by religious and other social authorities prior to the industrial revolution, Thompson's work identified time discipline as an important concept for study within the social sciences.  Thompson addresses the development of time as a measurement that has value and that can be controlled by social structures. As labor became more mechanized during the industrial revolution, time became more precise and standardized. Factory work changed the relationship that the capitalist and laborers had with time and the clock; clock time, became a tool for social control. Capitalist interests demanded that the work of laborers be monitored accurately to ensure that cost of labor was to the maximum benefit of the capitalist.

Freelance polemicist.

Thompson left the University of Warwick in protest at the commercialisation of the academy, documented in the book "Warwick University Limited" (1971). He continued to teach and lecture as a visiting professor, particularly in the United States. However, he increasingly worked as a freelance writer, contributing many essays to "New Society", "Socialist Register" and historical journals. In 1978, he published "The Poverty of Theory" which attacked the structural Marxism of Louis Althusser and his followers in Britain on "New Left Review" (famously saying: "...all of them are, unhistorical shit"). The title echoes that of Karl Marx's 1847 polemic against Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, "The Poverty of Philosophy"; and that of philosopher Karl Popper's 1936 book "The Poverty of Historicism". Thompson's polemic provoked a book-length response from Perry Anderson entitled "Arguments Within English Marxism".  During the late 1970s, Thompson acquired a large public audience as a critic of the then Labour government's disregard of civil liberties; his writings from this time are collected in "Writing By Candlelight" (1980). From 1981 onward, Thompson was a frequent contributor to the American magazine "The Nation".

Voice of the peace movement.

From 1980, Thompson was the most prominent intellectual of the revived movement for nuclear disarmament, revered by activists throughout the world. In Britain, his pamphlet "Protest and Survive", a parody on the government leaflet "Protect and Survive", played a major role in the revived strength of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Just as important, Thompson was, with Ken Coates, Mary Kaldor and others, an author of the 1980 "Appeal for European Nuclear Disarmament", calling for a nuclear-free Europe from Poland to Portugal, which was the founding document of European Nuclear Disarmament. Confusingly, END was both a Europe-wide campaign that comprised a series of large public conferences (the END Conventions), and a small British pressure group.  Thompson played a key role in both END and CND throughout the 1980s, speaking at many public meetings, corresponding with hundreds of fellow activists and sympathetic intellectuals, and doing more than his fair share of committee work. He had a particularly important part in opening a dialogue between the west European peace movement and dissidents in Soviet-dominated eastern Europe, particularly in Hungary and Czechoslovakia, for which he was denounced as a tool of American imperialism by the Soviet authorities.  He wrote dozens of polemical articles and essays during this period, which are collected in the books "Zero Option" (1982) and "The Heavy Dancers" (1985). He also wrote an extended essay attacking the ideologists on both sides of the cold war, "Double Exposure" (1985) and edited a collection of essays opposing Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative, "Star Wars" (1985).  An excerpt from a speech given by Thompson featured in the computer game Deus Ex Machina (1984). Thompson's own haunting recitation of his 1950 poem of "apocalyptic expectation, "The Place Called Choice," appeared on the 1984 vinyl recording "The Apocalypso", by Canadian pop group Singing Fools, released by A&M Records.

William Blake.

The last book Thompson finished was "Witness Against the Beast: William Blake and the Moral Law" (1993). The product of years of research and published shortly after his death, it shows how far Blake was inspired by dissident religious ideas rooted in the thinking of the most radical opponents of the monarchy during the English civil war.

Personal life.

In 1948 Thompson married Dorothy Towers, whom he met at Cambridge. A fellow left-wing historian, she wrote studies on women in the Chartist movement, and the biography "Queen Victoria: Gender and Power"; she was Professor of History at the University of Birmingham. The Thompsons had three children, the youngest of whom is the award-winning children's writer, Kate Thompson.  Thompson died at the age of 69 in Worcester.

William Frank Thompson.

Thompson's older brother William Thompson (1920–1944), was also a member of the British Communist Party during the Second World War. A gifted linguist, Frank Thompson parachuted into fascist-occupied Bulgaria as part of a "Phantom Brigade" during Operation Mulligatawny. He supported the resistance as a liaison officer but was captured and on 10 June 1944 he was executed. His body was buried in the War Cemetery of Sofia. After the war, the Bulgarians erected a statue in his honour. The nearby villages of Livage, Lipata, Tsarevi Stragi, Malak Babul, Babul and Zavoya were merged and renamed to Thompson in his honour.  E. P. Thompson and his mother wrote "There is a Spirit in Europe: A Memoir of Frank Thompson" (1947). Frank Thompson was also a friend and confidant of Iris Murdoch, the philosopher and novelist. E. P. Thompson wrote another book about his brother, published in 1996.

Criticism.

Although Thompson left the Communist Party of Great Britain, he remained committed to Marxist ideals. Leszek Kołakowski wrote a very harsh criticism of Thompson in his 1974 essay "My Correct Views on Everything". Tony Judt considered this rejoinder so authoritative that he claimed that "no one who reads it will ever take E.P. Thompson seriously again". Kolakowski's portrait of Thompson elicited some protests from readers and other left-wing journals came to Thompson's defence. On the 50th anniversary of the landmark publication of "The Making of the English Working Class", journalists celebrated E.P. Thompson as one of the pre-eminent historians of his day.  Wade Matthews argued in 2013:

Honours.

A blue plaque to the Thompsons was erected by the Halifax Civic Trust.

Edward Palmer Thompson (3 February 1924 – 28 August 1993) was a British historian, writer, socialist and peace campaigner. He is probably best known today for his historical work on the British radical movements in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, in particular "The Making of the English Working Class" (1963).

爱德华·帕尔默·汤普森(英语:Edward Palmer Thompson,1924年-2月3日-1993年-8月28日)是英国历史学家,作家,社会主义者和和平活动家。他因他所写的18世纪末和19世纪初英国激进运动的历史著作《英国工人阶级的形成》而闻名。汤普森关于劳工史和社会史的研究在20世纪后半程颇具地位,具有全球性的影响力,对亚洲和非洲的相关领域学者具有一定影响力。


History.

The earliest occurrences of soup kitchens are difficult to identify. Throughout history, societies have invariably recognized a moral obligation to feed the hungry. The philosopher Simone Weil wrote that feeding the hungry when one has resources to do so is the most obvious obligation of all. She also said that as far back as Ancient Egypt, it was believed that people needed to show they had helped the hungry in order to justify themselves in the afterlife. Soup has long been one of the most economical and simple ways to supply nutritious food to large numbers of people.  Social historian Karl Polanyi wrote that before markets became the world's dominant form of economic organisation in the 19th century, most human societies would generally either starve all together or not at all; because, communities would naturally share their food. As markets began to replace the older forms of resource allocation such as redistribution, reciprocity, and autarky, society's overall level of food security would typically rise. But food insecurity could become worse for the poorest section of society, and the need arose for more formal methods for providing them with food. Christian churches traditionally provided food for the hungry since Late Antiquity, with the nourishment mainly provided in the form of soup.

Emergence of the modern soup kitchen.

The earliest modern soup kitchens were established by the inventor Sir Benjamin Thompson, who was employed as an aide-de-camp to the Elector of Bavaria in the 1790s. Thompson was an American loyalist refugee from New England, and an inventor who was ennobled by Bavaria as Count Rumford. The Count was a prominent advocate of hunger relief, writing pamphlets that were widely read across Europe.  His message was especially well received in Great Britain, where he had previously held a senior government position for several years and was known as "the Colonel". An urgent need had recently arisen in Britain for hunger relief, due to her leading role in driving the Industrial Revolution. While technological development and economic reforms were rapidly increasingly overall prosperity, conditions for the poorest were often made worse, as traditional ways of life were disrupted. In the closing years of the 18th century, soup kitchens run on the principles pioneered by Rumford were to be found throughout England, Wales, and Scotland, with about 60,000 people being fed by them daily in London alone.  While soup kitchens were initially well regarded, they attracted criticism from some, for encouraging dependency, and sometimes on a local level for attracting vagrants to an area. In Britain they were made illegal, along with other forms of aid apart from workhouses, by the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834.  During the Irish famine of the 19th century, in which as many as one million people may have died, the British government passed the Temporary Relief Act (also known as the Soup Kitchen Act) in February 1847. The Act amended the restrictions on the provision of aid outside the workhouses for the duration of the famine, and expressly allowed the establishment of soup kitchens in Ireland to relieve pressure from the overstretched Poor Law system, which was proving to be totally inadequate in coping with the disaster.  Prohibition against soup kitchens was soon relaxed on mainland Britain too, though they never again became as prevalent as they had been in the early 19th century, partly as from the 1850s onwards, economic conditions generally began to improve even for the poorest. For the first few decades after the return of soup kitchens to mainland Britain, they were at first heavily regulated, run by groups like the Charity Organization Society. Even in the early 20th century, campaigning journalists like Bart Kennedy would criticize them for their long queues, and for the degrading questions staff would ask the hungry before giving out any soup.

Spread to the United States.

The concept of soup kitchens spread to the United States from Ireland after the Great famine and the concomitant wave of Irish emigration to the New World. The earliest ones were established in the 1870s. A sharp rise in the number of hungry people resulting from an industrial recession coincided with the success of the AICP, and the American branch of the "Charity Organization Society", in getting various forms of "outdoor relief" banned. This resulted in civil society establishing soup kitchens, to help feed those of the poor who did not wish to subject themselves to the regimented organisation of the Almshouses favored by the charitable societies.  It is believed the term “breadline” entered the popular lexicon in the 1880s. It was during those years that a noteworthy bakery in New York City’s Greenwich Village, “Fleischmann Model Viennese Bakery,” instituted a policy of distributing unsold baked goods to the poor at the end of their business day. By the late 19th century soup kitchens were to be found in several US cities. The concept of soup kitchens hit the mainstream of United States consciousness during the Great Depression. One soup kitchen in Chicago was even sponsored by American mobster Al Capone in an effort to clean up his image.  With the improved economic conditions that followed the Second World War, there was less need for soup kitchens in advanced economies. However, with the scaling back of welfare provision in the 1980s under president Reagan's administration, there was a rapid rise in activity from grass roots hunger relief agencies such as soup kitchens. According to a comprehensive government survey completed in 2002, over 90% of food banks, about 80% of emergency kitchens, and all known food rescue organisations, were established in the US after 1981. Presently, Catholic Charities USA of Colorado Springs, Colorado, founded by The Sisters of Loretto, provides food to upwards of 600-700 persons or more per day, and has been doing so since 1985.

In the 21st century.

Use of soup kitchens has grown rapidly across the world, following the lasting global inflation in the cost of food that began in late 2006. The financial crisis of 2007–2008 further increased the demand for soup kitchens, as did the introduction of austerity policies that have become common in Europe since 2010. Modern soup kitchens are generally well regarded, though like their historical counterparts they are sometimes disliked by local residents for lowering the tone of a neighborhood.

World's largest soup kitchen.

The world's largest soup kitchen run at the Sikhs' holiest shrine, Golden Temple in Punjab, India, which according to "Croatian Times" can serve free food for up to 100,000 - 300,000 people every day. At the Langar (Kitchen), food is served to all visitors regardless of faith, religion, or background. Only vegetarian food is served and people eat together as equals. The institution of the Sikh langar, a community run free kitchen, was started by the first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak. It was designed to uphold the principle of equality between all people regardless of religion, caste, colour, creed, age, gender, or social status. In addition to the ideals of equality, the tradition of langar expresses the ethics of sharing, community, inclusiveness, and oneness of humankind. Every Sikh shrine has a religiously sanctioned moral and humanitarian obligation to serve and provide hospitality, provisions, nourishments and meals to any man, regardless of race, creed, religious profession, identification, or affiliation.

Comparison with front line food banks and pantries.

In some countries such as Great Britain, increased demand from hungry people has largely been met by food banks, operating on the "front line" model, where they give food out directly to the hungry. In the USA, such establishments are called "food pantries"; Americans generally reserve the term "food bank" for entities which perform a warehouse-like function, distributing food to front line agencies, but not directly to the hungry themselves. Instead of providing hot meals, front line food banks and pantries hand out packages of groceries so that recipients can cook themselves several meals at home. This is often more convenient for the end user. They can receive food for up to a dozen or so meals at once, whereas with a soup kitchen, they typically only receive a single meal with each visit.  Food banks typically have procedures needed to prevent unscrupulous people taking advantage of them, unlike soup kitchens which will usually give a meal to whoever turns up with no questions asked. The soup kitchen's greater accessibility can make it more suitable for assisting people with long-term dependence on food aid. Soup kitchens can also provide warmth, companionship, and the shared communal experience of dining with others, which can be especially valued by people such as disabled, pensioners, widowers, homeless and ex-homeless. In some countries such as Greece, soup kitchens have become the most widely used form of food aid, with "The Guardian" reporting in 2012, that an estimated 400,000 Greeks visit a soup kitchen each day.

A soup kitchen, meal center, or food kitchen is a place where food is offered to the hungry usually for free or sometimes at a below-market price. Frequently located in lower-income neighborhoods, soup kitchens are often staffed by volunteer organizations, such as church or community groups. Soup kitchens sometimes obtain food from a food bank for free or at a low price, because they are considered a charity, which makes it easier for them to feed the many people who require their services.

粥厂是中国明清时期设立的一种民间赈济机构,早期多为临时性设置,是为了应对灾荒时大量灾民的出现。后来随着城市化的发展,城市中出现了大量找不到工作的流民,因而在大城市如天津、北京等地的繁华地带或宗教寺庙,逐渐有了常设机构。在中国古代及其有限的社会事业中,粥厂扮演了十分重要的角色。


History.

During the eighteenth century, some nations' military systems included practices and institutions that functioned effectively as a reserve force, even if they were not specifically designated as such. For example, the half-pay system in the British Army during the eighteenth century provided the British state with a force of trained, experienced officers not on active duty during peacetime but available for call-up during wartime. The Militia Act of 1757 effectively gave Britain at least somewhat of an institutional structure for a reserve force. Although contemporaries debated the effectiveness of the British militia, its embodiment (i.e., mobilization) during several conflicts did increase Britain's strategic options by freeing up regular forces for overseas theaters.  Historically reservists first played a significant role in Europe after the Prussian defeat in the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt. On 9 July 1807 in the Treaties of Tilsit, Napoleon I forced Prussia to drastically reduce its military strength, in addition to ceding large amounts of territory. The Prussian army could no longer be stronger than 42,000 men.  The "Krumpersystem", introduced to the Prussian Army by the military reformer Gerhard von Scharnhorst, arranged for giving recruits a short period of training, which in the event of war could be considerably expanded. With this the reduction of the army's strength did not have the desired effect, and in the following wars Prussia was able to draw up a large number of trained soldiers. The system was retained by the Imperial German Army into the First World War. By the time of the Second Reich reservists were already being given so-called "war arrangements" following the completion of their military service, which contained exact instructions relating to the conduct of reservists in time of war.

Sources of reserves.

In some countries, for example the United States, reservists are often former military members who reached the end of their enlistment or resigned their commission. Indeed, service in the reserves for a number of years after leaving active service is required in the enlistment contracts and commissioning orders of many nations.  Reservists can also be civilians who undertake basic and specialized training in parallel with regular forces while retaining their civilian roles. They can be deployed independently or their personnel may make up shortages in regular units. Ireland's Army Reserve is one example of such a reserve.  With universal conscription, most of the male population may be reservists. In Finland, all men belong to the reserve until 60 years of age, and 80% of each age cohort are drafted and receive at least six months of military training. Ten percent of conscripts are trained as reserve officers. Reservists and reserve officers are occasionally called up for refresher exercises, but receive no monthly salary or position. South Korean males who finish their national service in the armed forces or in the national police are automatically placed on the reserve roster, and are obligated to attend a few days of annual military training for seven years.

Use of reserves.

Reserves are used and employed in many ways. In wartime they may be used to provide replacements for combat losses to in-action units and formations, thus allowing these to remain battle-worthy longer. They can also be used to form new units and formations to augment the regular army. In addition, reservists can undertake tasks such as garrison duty, manning air defense, internal security and guarding of important points such as supply depots, prisoner of war camps, communications nodes, air and sea bases and other vital areas, thus freeing up regular troops for the front. A combination of these can be used.  In peacetime, reservists can be used in internal security duties and disaster relief, sparing reliance on the regular military forces, and in many countries where military roles outside of warfare are restricted, reservists are specifically exempted from these restrictions.

Reserve officers.

The term "reserve officer" has two different meanings. In the US, it refers mostly to retired officers of the standing army that are still eligible for military duty. In countries with universal conscription, it refers to conscripts that receive extra training to qualify for officer duty in the event of war, but in peacetime concentrate on their civilian career and receive no pay or position from the military. For example, 10% of Finnish conscripts attain a reserve officer rank after completion of one year of service.

Advantages.

One of the primary advantages in having military reserves is that they increase the available manpower by many fold in a short period of time, unlike the months it would take to train new recruits or conscripts, since reservists are already trained. Reservists are often experienced combat veterans which can increase not only the quantity, but the overall quality of the forces. Having a large reservist pool can allow a government to avoid the costs, both political and financial, of requiring new recruits or conscripts. The reservists are usually more economically effective than regular troops, as they are only called up when they are most needed. On the other hand, preparations made to institute a call up (which are obvious to adversaries) can be used as a display of determination. Reservists also tend to have training in professions outside the military. The skills attained in many professions are also many times useful in the military side. Furthermore, in many countries reserves have also very capable people who would not consider career in the military. They take voluntary training as their hobby, and are therefore very cheap to train. People considering reservist activity as their hobby tend to be very motivated unlike many professionals. In peacekeeping, the skills of reservists have been shown to be valuable, because they can be employed for reconstruction of infrastructure, and so tend to have better relations with the civilian population than pure career soldiers.

Disadvantages.

Reservists are usually provided with second line equipment, which is no longer used by the regulars, or is an older version of that in current service. Reservists will also have little experience with the newer weapon systems. Reservists in the sense of retired services personnel are sometimes considered to be less motivated than regular troops. Meanwhile, reservists in the sense of civilians who combine a military career with a civilian one, as in the United Kingdom's Territorial Army (TA), (now called the Army Reserve), experience demands on time not experienced by regular troops, and which affects their availability and duration of service. Conducting exercises involving reservists is expensive, requiring compensation for lost wages, and it is difficult to call up then demobilize reservists again and again, which means that a nation that has called up reservists may be reluctant to stand them down again until the conflict is resolved. This is particularly true in the case of reservists in the sense of retired personnel, less true in the case of a standing force (e.g., the TA). In the prelude to World War I, the reluctance of the various antagonists to demobilize reserves once called up, due to the difficulty of remobilization has been held up as one of the causes why the diplomatic phase escalated so quickly to war.

Military reserve forces.

Former Soviet Union.

Soviet Union made the largest use of reserves in both senses during the World War II, having separate and distinct military reserve force formations that included not only conscription reserves of lower readiness category cadre units, but also including the use of military reserves—reserve Armies and even a Front that constituted the reserve of the High Command.

United Kingdom.

The Volunteer Reserves: The Regular Reserves: The Sponsored Reserves:

A military reserve force is a military organization composed of citizen-soldiers of a country who combine a military role or career with a civilian career. They are not normally kept under arms and their main role is to be available to fight when their military requires additional manpower. Reserve forces are generally considered part of a permanent standing body of armed forces. The existence of reserve forces allows a nation to reduce its peacetime military expenditures while maintaining a force prepared for war. It is analogous to the historical model of military recruitment before the era of standing armies.

后备军事动员是一种军事制度,有总体战的色彩,将有潜在军事能力的人力物力编管,战争时迅速动员投入的制度。例如有军事技能的人力(曾从军过、有专长的人、受过训的成年男性女性等)和有军事价值的建筑与设备(各式车辆、运输飞机、机械工厂、燃料等)都在后备列管范围,战争期间开始被指派生产粮食、武器和弹药,后备力量除前线人力不足时支援作战之外,也负责后方游击战、安全部队训练等防务工作,战争结束、非战时则编为预备役,回归民间生产力。