Types of stunt effects.

Practical effects.

One of the most-frequently used practical stunts is stage combat. Although contact is normally avoided, many elements of stage combat, such as sword fighting, martial arts, and acrobatics required contact between performers in order to facilitate the creation of a particular effect, such as noise or physical interaction. Stunt performances are highly choreographed and may be rigorously rehearsed for hours, days and sometimes weeks before a performance. Seasoned professionals will commonly treat a performance as if they have never done it before, since the risks in stunt work are high, every move and position must be correct to reduce risk of injury from accidents. Examples of practical effects include tripping and falling down, high jumps, extreme sporting moves, acrobatics and high diving, spins, gainer falls, "suicide backflips," and other martial arts stunts. Stunt airbags (or "stunt mats"), large deep airbags that may be the size of a small swimming pool, are typically used by professional stunt performers to cushion their landings from staged falls from heights.

Mechanical effects.

A physical stunt is usually performed with help of mechanics. For example, if the plot requires the hero to jump to a high place, the film crew could put the actor in a special harness, and use aircraft high tension wire to pull him up. Piano wire is sometimes used to fly objects, but an actor is never suspended from it as it is brittle and can break under shock impacts. "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon" (2000) is a kung-fu film that was heavily reliant on wire stunts.

Vehicular stunts.

Performers of vehicular stunts require extensive training and may employ specially adapted vehicles. Stunts can be as simple as a handbrake turn, also known as the bootleg turn, or as advanced as car chases, jumps and crashes involving dozens of vehicles. Rémy Julienne is a well known pioneering automotive stunt performer and coordinator. Another well known vehicular stunt specialist is Englishman Ian Walton, who was the helicopter stunt pilot and stunt designer for many 1980s films, notably the Bond film "Never Say Never Again". A Guinness Book of World Records holder stunt driver, Bobby Ore, performed in numerous movies and events and holds a World Record for longest distance driven on two wheels in a London double decker bus (810 feet). Streetbike stunts, also known as "stunting" gained widespread popularity in the early 2000s and continues to grow. It is based on wheelies but now goes much further than that.

Computer-generated effects.

In the late 20th century stunt men were often placed in dangerous situations less and less as filmmakers turned to relatively inexpensive (and much safer) computer graphics effects using harnesses, fans, blue- or green screens, and a huge array of other devices and digital effects. "The Matrix" (1999) is an example for a film that extensively "enhanced" real stunts through CGI post production. The "Lord of the Rings" film series and the "Star Wars" prequel films often display stunts that are entirely computer generated. Examples of computer-generated effects include face replacement and wire removal.

Hong Kong action cinema.

In 1982, Jackie Chan began experimenting with elaborate stunt action sequences in "Dragon Lord", which featured a pyramid fight scene that holds the record for the most takes required for a single scene, with 2900 takes, and the final fight scene where he performs various stunts, including one where he does a back flip off a loft and falls to the lower ground. In 1983, "Project A" saw the official formation of the Jackie Chan Stunt Team and added elaborate, dangerous stunts to the fights and typical slapstick humor (at one point, Chan falls from the top of a clock tower through a series of fabric canopies).  "Police Story" (1985) contained many large-scale action scenes, including an opening sequence featuring a car chase through a shanty town, Chan stopping a double-decker bus with his service revolver and a climactic fight scene in a shopping mall. This final scene earned the film the nickname "Glass Story" by the crew, due to the huge number of panes of sugar glass that were broken. During a stunt in this last scene, in which Chan slides down a pole from several stories up, the lights covering the pole had heated it considerably, resulting in Chan suffering second-degree burns, particularly to his hands, as well as a back injury and dislocation of his pelvis upon landing. Chan performed similarly elaborate stunts in numerous other films, such as several "Police Story" sequels, "Project A Part II", the "Armor of God" series, "Dragons Forever", "Drunken Master II", "Rumble in the Bronx", and the "Rush Hour" series, among others.  Other Hong Kong action movie stars who became known for performing elaborate stunts include Chan's Peking Opera School friends Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao, as well as "girls with guns" stars such as Michelle Yeoh and Moon Lee. Other Asian cinema stars also known for performing elaborate stunts including Thai actor Tony Jaa, Indonesian actors Iko Uwais and Yayan Ruhian, and Indian actors Jayan, Akshay Kumar, Vidyut Jammwal and Tiger Shroff.

Stunt-based television shows.

Reality competition television shows such as "Fear Factor" and "Going Straight" have required contestants to complete stunts to win prize money.

Recognition of stunt performers.

Films such as "Hooper" and "The Stunt Man" and the 1980s television show "The Fall Guy" sought to raise the profile of the stunt performer and debunk the myth that film stars perform all their own stunts. Noted stunt coordinators Hal Needham, Craig R. Baxley, and Vic Armstrong went on to direct the action films "The Cannonball Run", "Action Jackson", and "Joshua Tree". Vic Armstrong became the first stuntman to win both an Academy Award (for developing a descender rig as a safe alternative to airbags) and a BAFTA award (for lifetime achievement in film). But the status of stuntmen in Hollywood is still low; despite the fact that few films of any genre or type could be made without them, stunt performers are still seen as working mainly in action films. Repeated campaigns for a "Best Stunts" Academy Award have been rejected.  In 2001, the first "World Stunt Awards" were presented in Los Angeles by actor Alec Baldwin. The event had A-list stars presenting the statues to Hollywood's unsung heroes. Arnold Schwarzenegger was presented with the first "Lifetime Achievement" award. He presented the awards in 2001. The awards show hands out eight awards: Best Fight, Best Fire Stunt, Best High Work, Best Overall Stunt by a Stunt Man, Best Overall Stunt by a Stunt Woman, Best Speciality Stunt, Best Work with a Vehicle and Best Stunt Coordinator and/or 2nd Unit Director.

Equality in stunts.

In past Hollywood films it was common for men to double for women and White American stunt performers to double for African-American performers. Veteran stunt man Dave Sharpe, a man of shorter than average height, often doubled for women in film serials of the 1930s and '40s. It is now against union rules for stunt performers to double an actor of a different gender or race unless the stunt is so dangerous that there are no other volunteers, for example when B.J. Worth doubled for the black Jamaican actress Grace Jones who parachuted off the Eiffel Tower in "A View to a Kill". The rise of action heroines like Angelina Jolie and African-American stars like Will Smith has offered wider opportunities for stunt performers from diverse backgrounds.

The future of stuntwork.

A backlash against dangerous stunts following the fatal 42 foot backward fall of Sonja Davis off a building on the set of "Vampire in Brooklyn", coinciding with developments in computer-generated imagery (CGI) that make such stunts unnecessary threatens to reduce stunt performers to the status of body doubles. And yet a backlash against films that resemble video games could lead to a resurrection in pure stuntwork. Films such as "The Matrix" and "" have shown how CGI and stunts can be integrated for maximum effect. But—if for no other reason than safety—it is doubtful that the records established by "Hooper" and "Sharky's Machine" will be broken anytime soon. A new subgenre of eastern martial arts films exists which emphasize the actors performing their own stunts, deliberately using wide angles and unbroken shots to show each stunt in its entirety. Examples of actors doing their own stunts include Jackie Chan and Tony Jaa.

A stunt is an unusual and difficult physical feat or an act requiring a special skill, performed for artistic purposes usually on television, theaters, or cinema. Stunts are a feature of many action films. Before computer generated imagery special effects, these effects were limited to the use of models, false perspective and other in-camera effects, unless the creator could find someone willing to jump from car to car or hang from the edge of a skyscraper: the stunt performer or stunt double.

特技是一个不寻常的和困难的物理壮举,用于执行电视剧、舞台剧或电影等艺术目的。


Early years.

Catherine Rosalind Russell was one of seven children born in Waterbury, Connecticut, to James Edward, a lawyer, and Clara A. (née McKnight) Russell, a teacher. The Russells were an Irish-American, Catholic family. She was named after a ship on which her parents had traveled. She attended Catholic schools, including Rosemont College in Rosemont, Pennsylvania and Marymount College in Tarrytown, New York, then attended the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York City. Her parents thought Russell was studying to become a teacher, and were unaware that she was planning to become an actress. Upon graduation from the performing arts school, Russell acted in summer stock and joined a repertory company in Boston.

Career.

Early career.

Russell began her career as a fashion model and was in many Broadway shows. Against parental objections, she took a job at a stock company for seven months at Saranac Lake, New York, and then Hartford, Connecticut. Afterwards, she moved to Boston, where she acted for a year at a theater group for Edward E. Clive. Later, she appeared in a revue in New York ("The Garrick Gaieties"). There, she took voice lessons and built a career in the opera, which was short-lived due to her difficulty in reaching high notes.  In the early 1930s, Russell went west to Los Angeles, where she was hired as a contract player for Universal Studios. When she first arrived on the lot, she was ignored by most of the crew and later told the press she felt terrible and humiliated at Universal, which affected her self-confidence. Unhappy with Universal's leadership, and second-class studio status at the time, Russell set her sights on Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and was able to get out of her Universal contract on her own terms. When MGM first approached her for a screen test, Russell was wary, remembering her experience at Universal. However, when she met MGM's Benny Thau and Ben Piazza, she was surprised, as they were "the soul of understanding". Her screen test was directed by Harold S. Bucquet, and she later recalled that she was hired because of a closeup he took of her.  Under contract to MGM, Russell debuted in "Evelyn Prentice" (1934). Although the role was small, she received good notices, with one critic saying that she was "convincing as the woman scorned". She starred in many comedies such as "Forsaking All Others" (1934) and "Four's a Crowd" (1938), as well as dramas, including "Craig's Wife" (1936) (which would be the film's second of three remakes; Joan Crawford did the third) and "The Citadel" (1938). Russell was acclaimed when she co-starred with Robert Young in the MGM drama "West Point of the Air" (1935). One critic wrote: "Rosalind Russell as the 'other woman' in the story gives an intelligent and deft handling to her scenes with Young." She quickly rose to fame, and by 1935, was seen as a replacement for actress Myrna Loy, as she took many roles for which Loy was initially set.  In her first years in Hollywood, Russell was characterized, both in her personal life and film career, as a sophisticated lady. This dissatisfied Russell, who claimed in a 1936 interview:  Being typed as a lady is the greatest misfortune possible to a motion picture actress. It limits your characterizations, confines you to play feminine sops and menaces and the public never highly approves of either. An impeccably dressed lady is always viewed with suspicion in real life and when you strut onto the screen with beautiful clothes and charming manners, the most naive of theatergoers senses immediately that you are in a position to do the hero no good. I earnestly want to get away from this. First, because I want to improve my career and professional life and, secondly because I am tired of being a clothes horse - a sort of hothouse orchid in a stand of wild flowers.  Russell approached director Frank Lloyd for help changing her image, but instead of helping her, Lloyd cast her as a wealthy aristocrat in "Under Two Flags" (1936). She was next cast as catty gossip Sylvia Fowler in the all-female comedy "The Women" (1939), directed by George Cukor. The film was a major hit, boosting her career and establishing her reputation as a comedian. Russell continued to display her talent for comedy in the classic screwball comedy "His Girl Friday" (1940), directed by Howard Hawks. In the film, a reworking of Ben Hecht's story "The Front Page", Russell played quick-witted ace reporter Hildy Johnson, who was also the ex-wife of her newspaper editor Walter Burns (Cary Grant). Russell had been, as she put it, "Everyone's fifteenth choice" for the role of Hildy in the film. Before her being cast, Howard Hawks had asked Katharine Hepburn, Irene Dunne, Claudette Colbert, Jean Arthur, Margaret Sullavan, and Ginger Rogers if they would like to play the brash, fast-talking reporter in his film. All of them refused. Russell found out about this while riding on a train to New York, when she read an article in "The New York Times" stating that she had been cast in the film and listing all the actresses who had turned the part down.

Later career.

In the 1940s, she made comedies such as "The Feminine Touch" (1941), "Take a Letter, Darling" and "My Sister Eileen" (both 1942), dramas including "Sister Kenny" (1946) and "Mourning Becomes Electra" (1947), and a murder mystery: "The Velvet Touch" (1948).  Russell scored a big hit on Broadway with her Tony Award-winning performance in "Wonderful Town" (1953), a musical version of her successful film of a decade earlier, "My Sister Eileen". Russell reprised her starring role for a 1958 television special.  Perhaps her most memorable performance was in the title role of the long-running stage comedy "Auntie Mame" (based on a Patrick Dennis novel) as well as the 1958 film version, in which she played an eccentric aunt whose orphaned nephew comes to live with her. When asked with which role she was most closely identified, she replied that strangers who spotted her still called out, "Hey, Auntie Mame!" She received a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Play in 1957 for her performance. Patrick Dennis dedicated his second Auntie Mame novel "Around the World with Auntie Mame" to "the one and only Rosalind Russell" in 1958.  She continued to appear in movies through the mid-1960s, including "Picnic" (1955), "A Majority of One" (1961), "Five Finger Exercise" (1962), "Gypsy" (1962), and "The Trouble with Angels" (1966). Russell was the logical choice for reprising her role as Auntie Mame when the musical version "Mame" was set for a production on Broadway in 1966, but she declined for health reasons. In addition to her acting career, Russell also wrote the story (under the name C.A. McKnight) for the film "The Unguarded Moment" (1956), a story of sexual harassment starring Esther Williams.

Awards and nominations.

Over the course of her career, Russell earned four Academy Award nominations for Best Actress: "My Sister Eileen" (1942); "Sister Kenny" (1946); "Mourning Becomes Electra" (1947); and "Auntie Mame" (1958), the film version of her Broadway comedy hit. She received a Special Academy Award, the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, in 1972, which came with an Oscar statuette.

Personal life.

On October 25, 1941, Russell married Danish-American producer Frederick Brisson (1912–84), son of actor Carl Brisson. Cary Grant was responsible for the couple's having met, and was the best man at Frederick and Rosalind's wedding. Brisson had been traveling from England to the United States by ship in 1939, and "The Women" was playing on an endless loop during the voyage. After hearing the audio for the film day after day while traveling, Brisson decided he had better sit down and watch the whole film. He became so enamored with Russell's performance as Sylvia Fowler that he turned to his friends and proclaimed: "I'm either gonna kill that girl, or I'm gonna marry her".  Brisson stayed with Cary Grant in his guest house while Grant was filming "His Girl Friday". Upon hearing that Grant was making the movie with Russell, Brisson asked his friend if he could meet her. Cary Grant then spent weeks greeting Russell each morning on set with the question "Have you met Freddie Brisson?" in an effort to pique the actress's curiosity. One night, when Russell opened her door to let Grant in before they went dancing, as they often did, she found him standing next to a stranger. Grant sheepishly explained that the odd fellow was Freddie Brisson, the man whom he had mentioned so often, and they set off for dinner, with Freddie in tow.  Russell and Brisson's marriage lasted 35 years, ending with her death. They had one child in 1943, a son, Carl Lance Brisson.  Russell was a devout Catholic, and a member of the Good Shepherd Parish and the Catholic Motion Picture Guild in Beverly Hills, California.  Russell supported Richard Nixon in two of his early unsuccessful political campaigns, first for the presidency in 1960 opposing John F. Kennedy and for governor of California in 1962. Russell also supported Thomas Dewey in the 1944 United States presidential election.

Death.

Russell died of breast cancer on November 28, 1976. She was survived by her husband and her son. She is buried in Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California.  Rosalind Russell has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, in the 1700 block of Vine Street.  Her autobiography "Life Is a Banquet," written with Chris Chase, was published a year after her death. The foreword (written by her husband) states that Russell had a mental breakdown in 1943. She made no films in 1944. Details are scant, but the book indicates that health problems and the deaths of a sister and a brother were major factors leading to her breakdown. Russell had rheumatoid arthritis, and the UCSF Arthritis Research Center currently bears her name.  In 2009, the documentary film "Life Is a Banquet: The Life of Rosalind Russell", narrated by Kathleen Turner, was shown at film festivals across the U.S. and on some PBS stations.

See also.

Russell's name was also lent to the final female bailiff on the 1984-1992 sitcom "Night Court". Marsha Warfield played the character of Rosalind "Roz" Russell from the fourth season until the show's end in 1992.

Catherine Rosalind Russell (June 4, 1907 – November 28, 1976) was an American actress, comedian, screenwriter and singer, known for her role as fast-talking newspaper reporter Hildy Johnson in the Howard Hawks screwball comedy "His Girl Friday" (1940), as well as for her portrayals of Mame Dennis in "Auntie Mame" (1958) and Rose in "Gypsy" (1962). A noted comedian, she won all five Golden Globes for which she was nominated. Russell won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical in 1953 for her portrayal of Ruth in the Broadway show "Wonderful Town" (a musical based on the film "My Sister Eileen", in which she also starred). She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress four times throughout her career.

凯瑟琳·罗莎琳德·拉塞尔(英语:Catherine Rosalind Russell,1907年-6月4日-1976年-11月28日),美国演员,曾获得一次东尼奖、五次金球奖,另外亦曾四次提名奥斯卡最佳女主角奖。她曾于1958年跟鲍勃·霍普、大卫·尼文、占士·史超域和积·林蒙主持第30届奥斯卡金像奖。


Etymology.

"Choanoflagellate" is a hybrid word from Greek χοάνη "khoánē" meaning "funnel" (due to the shape of the collar) and the Latin word "flagellum".

Appearance.

Each choanoflagellate has a single flagellum, surrounded by a ring of actin-filled protrusions called microvilli, forming a cylindrical or conical collar ("choanos" in Greek). Movement of the flagellum draws water through the collar, and bacteria and detritus are captured by the microvilli and ingested. Water currents generated by the flagellum also push free-swimming cells along, as in animal sperm. In contrast, most other flagellates are "pulled" by their flagella.  In addition to the single apical flagellum surrounded by actin-filled microvilli that characterizes choanoflagellates, the internal organization of organelles in the cytoplasm is constant. A flagellar basal body sits at the base of the apical flagellum, and a second, non-flagellar basal body rests at a right angle to the flagellar base. The nucleus occupies an apical-to-central position in the cell, and food vacuoles are positioned in the basal region of the cytoplasm. Additionally, the cell body of many choanoflagellates is surrounded by a distinguishing extracellular matrix or periplast. These cell coverings vary greatly in structure and composition and are used by taxonomists for classification purposes. Many choanoflagellates build complex basket-shaped "houses", called lorica, from several silica strips cemented together. The functional significance of the periplast is unknown, but in sessile organisms, it is thought to aid attachment to the substrate. In planktonic organisms, there is speculation that the periplast increases drag, thereby counteracting the force generated by the flagellum and increasing feeding efficiency.  Choanoflagellates are either free-swimming in the water column or sessile, adhering to the substrate directly or through either the periplast or a thin pedicel. Although choanoflagellates are thought to be strictly free-living and heterotrophic, a number of choanoflagellate relatives, such as members of Ichthyosporea or Mesomycetozoa, follow a parasitic or pathogenic lifestyle. The life histories of choanoflagellates are poorly understood. Many species are thought to be solitary; however coloniality seems to have arisen independently several times within the group and colonial species retain a solitary stage.

Ecology.

There are over 125 extant species of choanoflagellates distributed globally in marine, brackish and freshwater environments from the Arctic to the tropics, occupying both pelagic and benthic zones. Although most sampling of choanoflagellates has occurred between 0 m and 25 m, they have been recovered from as deep as 300 m in open water and 100 m under Antarctic ice sheets. Many species are hypothesized to be cosmopolitan on a global scale [e.g., "Diaphanoeca grandis" has been reported from North America, Europe and Australia (OBIS)], while other species are reported to have restricted regional distributions. Co-distributed choanoflagellate species can occupy quite different microenvironments, but in general, the factors that influence the distribution and dispersion of choanoflagellates remain to be elucidated.  A number of species, such as those in the genus "Proterospongia", form simple colonies, planktonic clumps that resemble a miniature cluster of grapes in which each cell in the colony is flagellated or clusters of cells on a single stalk. In October 2019, scientists found a new band behaviour of choanoflagellates : they apparently can coordinate to respond to light.  The choanoflagellates feed on bacteria and link otherwise inaccessible forms of carbon to organisms higher in the trophic chain. Even today they are important in the carbon cycle and microbial food web.

Life cycle.

Choanoflagellates grow vegetatively, with multiple species undergoing longitudinal fission; however, the reproductive life cycle of choanoflagellates remains to be elucidated. A paper released in August 2017 showed that environmental changes, including the presence of certain bacteria, trigger the swarming and subsequent sexual reproduction of choanoflagellates. The ploidy level is unknown; however, the discovery of both retrotransposons and key genes involved in meiosis previously suggested that they used sexual reproduction as part of their life cycle. Some choanoflagellates can undergo encystment, which involves the retraction of the flagellum and collar and encasement in an electron dense fibrillar wall. On transfer to fresh media, excystment occurs; though it remains to be directly observed. Further examination of the choanoflagellate life cycle will be informative about mechanisms of colony formation and attributes present before the evolution of animal multicellularity.  Evidence for sexual reproduction has been reported in the choanoflagellate species "Salpingoeca rosetta". Also evidence has been reported for the presence of conserved meiotic genes in the choanoflagellates "Monosiga brevicollis" and "Monosiga ovata".

Silicon biomineralization.

The Acanthoecid choanoflagellates produce an extracellular basket structure known as a lorica. The lorica is composed of individual costal strips, made of a silica-protein biocomposite. Each costal strip is formed within the choanoflagellate cell and is then secreted to the cell surface. In nudiform choanoflagellates, lorica assembly takes place using a number of tentacles once sufficient costal strips have been produced to comprise a full lorica. In tectiform choanoflagellates, costal strips are accumulated in a set arrangement below the collar. During cell division, the new cell takes these costal strips as part of cytokinesis and assembles its own lorica using only these previously produced strips.  Choanoflagellate biosilicification requires the concentration of silicic acid within the cell. This is carried out by Silicon Transporter (SIT) proteins. Analysis of choanoflagellate SITs shows that they are similar to the SIT-type silicon transporters of diatoms and other silica-forming stramenopiles. The SIT gene family shows little or no homology to any other genes, even to genes in non-siliceous choanoflagellates or stramenopiles. This suggests that the SIT gene family evolved via a lateral gene transfer event between Acanthoecids and Stramenopiles. This is a remarkable case of horizontal gene transfer between two distantly related eukaryotic groups, and has provided clues to the biochemistry and silicon-protein interactions of the unique SIT gene family.

Classification.

Relationship to metazoans.

Dujardin, a French biologist interested in protozoan evolution, recorded the morphological similarities of choanoflagellates and sponge choanocytes and proposed the possibility of a close relationship as early as 1841. Over the past decade, this hypothesized relationship between choanoflagellates and animals has been upheld by independent analyses of multiple unlinked sequences: 18S rDNA, nuclear protein-coding genes, and mitochondrial genomes (Steenkamp, et al., 2006; Burger, et al., 2003; Wainright, et al., 1993). Importantly, comparisons of mitochondrial genome sequences from a choanoflagellate and three sponges confirm the placement of choanoflagellates as an outgroup to Metazoa and negate the possibility that choanoflagellates evolved from metazoans (Lavrov, et al., 2005). Finally, recent studies of genes expressed in choanoflagellates have revealed that choanoflagellates synthesize homologues of metazoan cell signaling and adhesion genes. (King, 2003) Genome sequencing shows that, among living organisms, the choanoflagellates are most closely related to animals. Because choanoflagellates and metazoans are closely related, comparisons between the two groups promise to provide insights into the biology of their last common ancestor and the earliest events in metazoan evolution. The choanocytes (also known as "collared cells") of sponges (considered among the most basal metazoa) have the same basic structure as choanoflagellates. Collared cells are found in other animal groups, such as ribbon worms, suggesting this was the morphology of their last common ancestor. The last common ancestor of animals and choanoflagellates was unicellular, perhaps forming simple colonies; in contrast, the last common ancestor of all eumetazoan animals was a multicellular organism, with differentiated tissues, a definite "body plan", and embryonic development (including gastrulation). The timing of the splitting of these lineages is difficult to constrain, but was probably in the late Precambrian, >.  Some recent papers do not support the sister relationship of Choanoflagellates with Animals. Choanoflagellates may be related to Ichthyosporea.  External relationships of Choanoflagellatea.

Phylogenetic relationships.

The choanoflagellates were included in Chrysophyceae until Hibberd, 1975. Recent molecular phylogenetic reconstruction of the internal relationships of choanoflagellates allows the polarization of character evolution within the clade. Large fragments of the nuclear SSU and LSU ribosomal RNA, alpha tubulin, and heat-shock protein 90 coding genes were used to resolve the internal relationships and character polarity within choanoflagellates. Each of the four genes showed similar results independently and analysis of the combined data set (concatenated) along with sequences from other closely related species (animals and fungi) demonstrate that choanoflagellates are strongly supported as monophyletic and confirm their position as the closest known unicellular living relative of animals.  Previously, Choanoflagellida was divided into these three families based on the composition and structure of their periplast: Codonosigidae, Salpingoecidae and Acanthoecidae. Members of the family Codonosigidae appear to lack a periplast when examined by light microscopy, but may have a fine outer coat visible only by electron microscopy. The family Salpingoecidae consists of species whose cells are encased in a firm theca that is visible by both light and electron microscopy. The theca is a secreted covering predominately composed of cellulose or other polysaccharides. These divisions are now known to be paraphyletic, with convergent evolution of these forms widespread. The third family of choanoflagellates, the Acanthoecidae, has been supported as a monophyletic group. This clade possess a synapomorphy of the cells being found within a basket-like lorica, providing the alternative name of "Loricate Choanoflagellates". The Acanthoecid lorica is composed of a series of siliceous costal strips arranged into a species-specific lorica pattern."  The choanoflagellate tree based on molecular phylogenetics divides into three well supported clades. Clade 1 and Clade 2 each consist of a combination of species traditionally attributed to the Codonosigidae and Salpingoecidae, while Clade 3 comprises species from the group taxonomically classified as Acanthoecidae. The mapping of character traits on to this phylogeny indicates that the last common ancestor of choanoflagellates was a marine organism with a differentiated life cycle with sedentary and motile stages.

Taxonomy.

Choanoflagellates

Genomes and transcriptomes.

Two choanoflagellate species have had their genomes fully sequenced, with another two species having had transcriptome data published.

"Monosiga brevicollis" genome.

The genome of "Monosiga brevicollis", with 41.6 million base pairs, is similar in size to filamentous fungi and other free-living unicellular eukaryotes, but far smaller than that of typical animals. In 2010, a phylogenomic study revealed that several algal genes are present in the genome of "Monosiga brevicollis". This could be due to the fact that, in early evolutionary history, choanoflagellates consumed algae as food through phagocytosis. Carr et al. (2010) screened the "M. brevicollis" genome for known eukaryotic meiosis genes. Of 19 known eukaryotic meiotic genes tested (including 8 that function in no other process than meiosis), 18 were identified in "M. brevicollis". The presence of meiotic genes, including meiosis specific genes, indicates that meiosis, and by implication, sex is present within the choanoflagellates.

"Salpingoeca rosetta" genome.

The genome of "Salpingoeca rosetta" is 55 megabases in size. Homologs of cell adhesion, neuropeptide and glycosphingolipid metabolism genes are present in the genome. "S. rosetta" has a sexual life cycle and transitions between haploid and diploid stages. In response to nutrient limitation, haploid cultures of "S. rosetta" become diploid. This ploidy shift coincides with mating during which small, flagellated cells fuse with larger flagellated cells. There is also evidence of historical mating and recombination in "S. rosetta".  "S. rosetta" is induced to undergo sexual reproduction by the marine bacterium "Vibrio fischeri". A single "V. fischeri" protein, EroS fully recapitulates the aphrodisiac-like activity of live "V. fisheri".

"Monosiga ovata" transcriptome.

An EST dataset from "Monosiga ovata" was published in 2006. The major finding of this transcriptome was the choanoflagellate Hoglet domain and shed light on the role of domain shuffling in the evolution of the Hedgehog signaling pathway. "M. ovata" has at least four eukaryotic meiotic genes.

"Stephanoeca diplocostata" transcriptome.

The first transcriptome of a loricate choanoflagellate led to the discovery of choanoflagellate silicon transporters. Subsequently, similar genes were identified in a second loricate species, "Diaphanoeca grandis". Analysis of these genes found that the choanoflagellate SITs show homology to the SIT-type silicon transporters of diatoms and have evolved through horizontal gene transfer.

The choanoflagellates are a group of free-living unicellular and colonial flagellate eukaryotes considered to be the closest living relatives of the animals. Choanoflagellates are collared flagellates having a funnel shaped collar of interconnected microvilli at the base of a flagellum. Choanoflagellates are capable of both asexual and sexual reproduction. They have a distinctive cell morphology characterized by an ovoid or spherical cell body 3–10 μm in diameter with a single apical flagellum surrounded by a collar of 30–40 microvilli (see figure). Movement of the flagellum creates water currents that can propel free-swimming choanoflagellates through the water column and trap bacteria and detritus against the collar of microvilli, where these foodstuffs are engulfed. This feeding provides a critical link within the global carbon cycle, linking trophic levels. In addition to their critical ecological roles, choanoflagellates are of particular interest to evolutionary biologists studying the origins of multicellularity in animals. As the closest living relatives of animals, choanoflagellates serve as a useful model for reconstructions of the last unicellular ancestor of animals.

领鞭毛虫纲(学名:)是一种原生生物,是单细胞或群体。拥有一根鞭毛,形态类似于淡水海绵的群体,表面的酪氨酸激酶受体也类似于海绵,被认为是动物的姐妹群。


Roman conquest.

In 57 BC, Julius Caesar led the conquest of northern Gaul, and already specified that the part to the north of the Seine and Marne rivers was inhabited by a people or alliance known as the Belgae. This definition became the basis of the later Roman province of Belgica. Caesar said that the Belgae were separated from the Celtic Gauls to their south by "language, custom and laws" ("lingua, institutis, legibus") but he did not go into detail, except to mention that he learnt from his contacts that the Belgae had some ancestry from east of the Rhine, which he referred to as Germania. Indeed, the Belgian tribes closest to the Rhine he distinguished as the Germani cisrhenani. (Strabo stated that the differences between the Celts and Belgae, in language, politics and way of life was a small one.) Modern historians interpret Caesar and the archaeological evidence as indicating that the core of the Belgian alliance was in the present-day northernmost corner of France; the Suessiones, Viromandui and Ambiani as well perhaps as some of their neighbours who lived in the area, Caesar identified as Belgium or Belgica. These were the leaders of the initial military alliance he confronted, and they were also more economically advanced (and therefore less "Germanic" according to Caesar's way of seeing things) than many of their more northerly allies such as the Nervii and Germani Cisrhenani.  Apart from the southern Remi, all the Belgic tribes allied against the Romans, angry at the Roman decision to garrison legions in their territory during the winter. At the beginning of the conflict, Caesar reported the allies' combined strength at 288,000, led by the Suessione king, Galba. Due to the Belgic coalition's size and reputation for uncommon bravery, Caesar avoided meeting the combined forces of the tribes in battle. Instead, he used cavalry to skirmish with smaller contingents of tribesmen. Only when Caesar managed to isolate one of the tribes did he risk conventional battle. The tribes fell in a piecemeal fashion and Caesar claimed to offer lenient terms to the defeated, including Roman protection from the threat of surrounding tribes. Most tribes agreed to the conditions. A series of uprisings followed the 57 BC conquest. The largest revolt was led by the Bellovaci in 52 BC, after the defeat of Vercingetorix. During this rebellion, it was the Belgae who avoided direct conflict. They harassed the Roman legions, led personally by Caesar, with cavalry detachments and archers. The rebellion was put down after a Bellovaci ambush of the Romans failed. The revolting party was slaughtered.

Formation under Augustus.

Following a census of the region in 27 BC, Augustus ordered a restructuring of the provinces in Gaul. Therefore, in 22 BC, Marcus Agrippa split Gaul (or Gallia Comata) into three regions (Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Lugdunensis and Gallia Belgica). Agrippa made the divisions on what he perceived to be distinctions in language, race and community – Gallia Belgica was meant to be a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples. The capital of this territory was Reims, according to the geographer Strabo, though later the capital moved to modern day Trier. The date of this move is uncertain.  Modern historians however view the term 'Gaul' and its subdivisions as a "product of faulty ethnography" and see the split of Gallia Comata into three provinces as an attempt to construct a more efficient government, as opposed to a cultural division. Successive Roman emperors struck a balance between Romanizing the people of Gallia Belgica and allowing pre-existing culture to survive.  The Romans divided the province into four ""civitates"" corresponding generally to ancient tribal boundaries. The capital cities of these districts included modern Cassel (replaced by Tournai as Menapian "civitas"), Bavay (replaced by Cambrai as Nervian "civitas"), Thérouanne, Arras, St. Quentin, Soissons, Reims, Beauvais, Amiens, Tongeren, Triers, Toul and Metz. These "civitates" were in turn were divided into smaller units, pagi, a term that became the French word "pays".  Roman government was run by Concilia in Reims or Trier. Additionally, local notables from Gallia Belgica were required to participate in a festival in Lugdunum (modern Lyon) which typically celebrated or worshiped the emperor’s genius. The gradual adoption of Romanized names by local elites and the Romanization of laws under local authority demonstrate the effectiveness of this concilium Galliarum. With that said, the concept and community of Gallia Belgica did not predate the Roman province, but developed from it.

Under the emperors.

Reform of Domitian (around 90).

During the 1st century AD (estimated date 90 AD), the provinces of Gaul were restructured. Emperor Domitian reorganized the provinces in order to separate the militarized zones of the Rhine from the civilian populations of the region. The northeastern part of Gallia Belgica was split off and renamed Germania Inferior, later to be reorganized and renamed as Germania Secunda. This included the eastern part of modern Belgium, the southernmost part of the modern Netherlands, and a part of modern Germany. The eastern part was split off to become Germania Superior (parts of western Germany and eastern France) and the southern border of Gallia Belgica was extended to the south. The newer Gallia Belgica included the cities of "Camaracum" (Cambrai), "Nemetacum" (Arras), "Samarobriva" (Amiens), "Durocortorum" (Reims), "Dividorum" (Metz) and "Augusta Treverorum" (Trier).

Attack by the Chauci (173).

In 173 the later emperor Didius Julianus, then governor of Gallia Belgica, had to repel a serious invasion of the Chauci, a Germanic tribe that lived along the shores of the Wadden Sea at the respective northern and northwestern coast of present-day Netherlands and Germany. The attack occurred in the drainage basin of the river Scheldt (present-day Flanders and Hainaut). Archaeologists have found evidence that large farms near Tournai and the village Velzeke (near Ghent) had to be abandoned. Further the capitals in the areas of the former tribes of the Atrebates, Morini and the Nervians were either burnt down (Nemetacum (Arras)) or had to be rebuilt in the last quarter of the second century, Colonia Morinorum (Thérouanne) and Bagacum Nerviorum (Bavay).

Crisis of the 3rd century and Gallic Empire.

With the Crisis of the Third Century and the partition of the Empire, Roman control over Gaul deteriorated in the 3rd century. In 260 Postumus became emperor of a breakaway Gallic Empire. He proved able to stop the incursions from the Franks. Only in 274 was Roman control restored by the new emperor Aurelian in the Battle of Châlons. The cost of this defeat in the long run proved very high indeed. With the Gallic army defeated and not returning to the Rhine border, the Franks overran the neighbouring province of Germania Inferior. The Rhineland (to the Ripuarian Franks) and the area between the Rhine and the main road between Boulogne and Cologne, present-day South Holland, Zeeland, Flanders, Brabant and Limburg, the last three in both the present-day Netherlands and Belgium (to the Salian Franks) were de facto lost forever for the Roman empire. This gave the Salian Franks a base from which they could expand some 130 years later, beginning after the disastrous Rhine crossing in 406, to conquer the whole area of the former province of Gallia Belgica and start the Merovingian kingdom, the first immediate forerunner state of Western civilization.

Reform of Diocletian (around 300).

Emperor Diocletian restructured the provinces around 300, and split Belgica into two provinces: Belgica Prima and Belgica Secunda. Belgica Prima had Augusta Treverorum (Trier) as its main city, and consisted of the eastern part. The border between Belgica Prima and Belgica Secunda was approximately along the River Meuse.

Prosperous fourth century.

The eastern part of Gallia Belgica, especially the valley of the Moselle became very prosperous in the fourth century, particularly in the decades that Augusta Treverorum (Trier) was the capital of the Western Roman Empire. The Roman poet Ausonius wrote a famous poem on the Mosella.

Germanic conquests (after 406).

Around 350 Salian Franks who were already living in Batavia were settled in Toxandria. Toxandria was most likely for a large part overlapping with the area now known as the Kempen. Eventually, in 406, a large alliance among them Vandals, Alans and Suebi, under great pressure from the Huns, after first having been defeated by the Ripuarian Franks in the neighborhood of Cologne in Germania Inferior, successfully crossed the Rhine in the neighborhood of present-day Koblenz and entered Gallia Belgica by way of the Moselle valley. They subsequently destroyed large parts of Gallia Belgica, before eventually moving on to Hispania (present-day Spain). This invasion and the accompanying widespread destruction broke the backbone of Roman power in at least the northern part of Gallia Belgica. After this invasion the Franks were able to conquer valuable agricultural land south of the Via Belgica, the very important main road between Cologne and Boulogne, that had been the backbone of Roman defense strategy between 260 and 406.  In 452 a major battle was fought at the Catalaunian fields (between the Seine and the Moselle). A coalition of Romans, Visigoths and Franks fought an army led by the legendary Hunnic leader Attila. The outcome of this battle itself was inconclusive, but as a consequence of this battle the Huns and their allies left the area of Gallia Belgica where they had plundered nearly all major cities, except Paris.  After the Western Roman Empire had already collapsed in Galla Belgica for some time the Gallo-Roman "Kingdom of Soissons" (457-486) managed to maintain control over the area around Soissons. The Franks however emerged victorious and Belgica Secunda in the 5th century became the center of Clovis' Merovingian kingdom. During the 8th century in the Carolingian Empire the former area of Gallia Belgica was split into Neustria (roughly Belgica Secunda, main cities Paris, Reims) and Austrasia (roughly Belgica Prima and Germania Inferior, main cities Trier, Metz, Cologne). After the death of Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, the Carolingian Empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The three sons of Louis the Pious divided his territories into three kingdoms: East Francia (the forerunner of modern Germany), West Francia (west of the Scheldt river) a part of which (Ile de France), from the middle of the 10th century became the kernel of modern France, and Middle Francia which was succeeded by Lotharingia. Though often presented as the dissolution of the Frankish empire, it was in fact the continued adherence to Salic patrimony. Lotharingia was divided in 870 by the Treaty of Meerssen under West and East Francia.

Legacy.

The name of "Belgica" continued to refer to the entire Low Countries until the modern period. The Seventeen Provinces of the Low Countries were then divided into the independent Belgica Foederata or the "federal" Dutch Republic and the Belgica Regia or the "royal" Southern Netherlands under the Habsburgian crown. For example, several contemporary maps of the Dutch Republic, which consisted of the Northern Netherlands, and therefore has almost no overlap with the country of Belgium, show the Latin title "Belgium Foederatum".  "Belgica Foederata" continued to be used as the Latin name of the Dutch Federation after its secession of Belgica Regia in 1581; the United Kingdom of the Netherlands after 1815 was still known as "Royaume des Belgiques", and it was only with the independence of modern Belgium and the modern Netherlands in the 1830s that the name became reserved for Belgium to the exclusion of the Netherlands.

Gallia Belgica ("Belgic Gaul") was a province of the Roman Empire located in the north-eastern part of Roman Gaul, in what is today primarily France, Belgium, and Luxembourg, along with parts of the Netherlands and Germany.

比利时高卢(Gallia Belgica)是古罗马地区的称呼,位于今日的尼德兰、比利时、卢森堡以及法国东北、德国的西部地方。今天的比利时国名就是源自于此一古称,虽然罗马时期对比利时所涵盖的范围比今天大得多。比利时高卢一名可以从凯撒的《高卢战记》中见到,当时罗马人将高卢分成数个地区,比利时高卢是其中之一。古代居住在这个区域的凯尔特人、日耳曼人通常被称为「贝尔吉(Belgae)」。按照古罗马人的定义,比利时高卢的西界位在今日法国的塞纳-马恩省,东界则是位在今日德国的莱茵河。


杰尼斯·伊万诺维奇·冯维辛

Life.

Denis Fonvizin was born in Moscow into a noble Russian Orthodox family, the first of eight children. His mother Ekaterina Vasilievna Fonvizina (née Dmitrieva-Mamonova) (born 1718) belonged to the Smolensk Rurik branch on her father's side and to the Grushetsky family on her mother's side; she was a cousin-niece of Tsaritsa Agafya Grushetskaya and an aunt to Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov who was famously a lover of Catherine the Great.  His father (1705—1785) started as an army officer, then served in the Collegium of Accounting, becoming a State Councillor in 1783. His ancestor baron Berndt von Wiesen belonged to the Livonian Order, was captured during the Livonian War and became a naturalized Russian citizen; his descendants russified, the family name transformed with years, but it was Ivan Andreevich who started writing it as Fonvizin.  Denis Fonvizin received good education at the Imperial Moscow University and very early began writing and translating. He entered the civil service, becoming secretary to Count Nikita Panin, one of the great noblemen of Catherine the Great's reign. Because of Panin's protection, Fonvizin was able to write critical plays without fear of being arrested, and, in the late 1760s, he brought out the first of his two famous comedies, "The Brigadier-General".  A man of means, he was always a dilettante rather than a professional author, though he became prominent in literary and intellectual circles. In 1777-78 he traveled abroad, the principal aim of his journey being the medical faculty of Montpellier. He described his voyage in his "Letters from France" — one of the most elegant specimens of the prose of the period, and the most striking document of that anti-French nationalism which in the Russian elite of the time of Catherine went hand in hand with a complete dependence on French literary taste.  In 1782 appeared Fonvizin's second and best comedy "The Minor", which definitely classed him as the foremost of Russian playwrights. His last years were passed in constant suffering and traveling abroad for his health. He died in Saint Petersburg in 1792.

Works and influence.

Fonvizin's reputation rests almost entirely on his two comedies, which are beyond doubt the most popular Russian plays before Aleksander Griboyedov's "Woe from Wit". They are both in prose and adhere to the canons of classical comedy. Fonvizin's principal model, however, was not Molière, but the great Dano-Norwegian playwright Ludvig Holberg, whom he read in German, and some of whose plays he had translated.  Both comedies are plays of social satire with definite axes to grind. "The Brigadier-General" is a satire against the fashionable French semi-education of the "petits-maîtres". It is full of excellent fun, and though less serious than "The Minor", it is better constructed. But "The Minor", though imperfect in dramatic construction, is a more remarkable work and justly considered Fonvizin's masterpiece.  The point of the satire in "The Minor" is directed against the brutish and selfish crudeness and barbarity of the uneducated country gentry. The central character, Mitrofanushka, is the accomplished type of vulgar and brutal selfishness, unredeemed by a single human feature — even his fondly doting mother gets nothing from him for her pains. The dialogue of these vicious characters (in contrast to the stilted language of the lovers and their virtuous uncles) is true to life and finely individualized; and they are all masterpieces of characterization — a worthy introduction to the great portrait gallery of Russian fiction.  As a measure of its popularity, several expressions from "The Minor" have been turned into proverbs, and many authors (amongst whom Alexander Pushkin) regularly cite from this play, or at least hint to it by mentioning the characters' names.

Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (; —) was a playwright and writer of the Russian Enlightenment, one of the founders of literary comedy in Russia. His main works are two satirical comedies which mock contemporary Russian gentry and are still staged today.

杰尼斯·伊万诺维奇·冯维辛(,1745年-4月3日-1792年-12月1日)是18世纪俄罗斯讽刺作家、戏剧家。


Examples.

Cars.

Suppose one is designing a system to track vehicles and the capacity of their engines. Each vehicle has a unique vehicle identification number (VIN). One would write "VIN" → "EngineCapacity" because it would be inappropriate for a vehicle's engine to have more than one capacity. (Assuming, in this case, that vehicles only have one engine.) On the other hand, "EngineCapacity" → "VIN" is incorrect because there could be many vehicles with the same engine capacity.  This functional dependency may suggest that the attribute EngineCapacity be placed in a relation with candidate key VIN. However, that may not always be appropriate. For example, if that functional dependency occurs as a result of the transitive functional dependencies VIN → VehicleModel and VehicleModel → EngineCapacity then that would not result in a normalized relation.

Lectures.

This example illustrates the concept of functional dependency. The situation modelled is that of college students visiting one or more lectures in each of which they are assigned a teaching assistant (TA). Let's further assume that every student is in some semester and is identified by a unique integer ID.  We notice that whenever two rows in this table feature the same StudentID, they also necessarily have the same Semester values. This basic fact can be expressed by a functional dependency:  Note that if a row was added where the student had a different value of semester that the functional dependency, FD, would no longer exist. This means that the FD is implied by the data as it is possible to have values that would invalidate the FD.  Other nontrivial functional dependencies can be identified, for example:  The latter expresses the fact that the set {StudentID, Lecture} is a superkey of the relation.

Employee department model.

A classic example of functional dependency is the employee department model.  This case represents an example where multiple functional dependencies are embedded in a single representation of data. Note that because an employee can only be a member of one department, the unique ID of that employee determines the department.  In addition to this relationship, the table also has a functional dependency through a non-key attribute  This example demonstrates that even though there exists a FD Employee ID → Department ID - the employee ID would not be a logical key for determination of the department ID. The process of normalization of the data would recognize all FDs and allow the designer to construct tables and relationships that are more logical based on the data.

Properties and axiomatization of functional dependencies.

Given that "X", "Y", and "Z" are sets of attributes in a relation "R", one can derive several properties of functional dependencies. Among the most important are the following, usually called Armstrong's axioms:  "Reflexivity" can be weakened to just formula_8, i.e. it is an actual axiom, where the other two are proper inference rules, more precisely giving rise to the following rules of syntactic consequence:  formula_9 formula_10 formula_11.  These three rules are a sound and complete axiomatization of functional dependencies. This axiomatization is sometimes described as finite because the number of inference rules is finite, with the caveat that the axiom and rules of inference are all schemata, meaning that the "X", "Y" and "Z" range over all ground terms (attribute sets).  From these rules, we can derive these secondary rules:  The union and decomposition rules can be combined in a logical equivalence stating that "X" → "YZ", holds iff "X" → "Y" and "X" → "Z". This is sometimes called the splitting/combining rule.  Another rule that is sometimes handy is:

Closure of functional dependency.

The closure is essentially the full set of values that can be determined from a set of known values for a given relationship using its functional dependencies. One uses Armstrong's axioms to provide a proof - i.e. reflexivity, augmentation, transitivity.  Given formula_12 and formula_13 a set of FDs that holds in formula_12: The closure of formula_13 in formula_12 (denoted formula_13) is the set of all FDs that are logically implied by formula_13.

Closure of a set of attributes.

Closure of a set of attributes X with respect to formula_13 is the set X of all attributes that are functionally determined by X using formula_13.

Example.

Imagine the following list of FDs. We are going to calculate a closure for A from this relationship.  1. "A" → "B" 2. "B → "C" 3. "AB" → "D"  The closure would be as follows:  a) A → A (by Armstrong's reflexivity) b) A → AB (by 1. and (a)) c) A → ABD (by (b), 3, and Armstrong's transitivity) d) A → ABCD (by (c), and 2)  The closure is therefore A → ABCD. By calculating the closure of A, we have validated that A is also a good candidate key as its closure is every single data value in the relationship.

Covers and equivalence.

Covers.

Definition: formula_13 covers formula_22 if every FD in formula_22 can be inferred from formula_13. formula_13 covers formula_22 if formula_22 ⊆ formula_13 Every set of functional dependencies has a canonical cover.

Equivalence of two sets of FDs.

Two sets of FDs formula_13 and formula_22 over schema formula_12 are equivalent, written formula_13 ≡ formula_22, if formula_13 = formula_22. If formula_13 ≡ formula_22, then formula_13 is a cover for formula_22 and vice versa. In other words, equivalent sets of functional dependencies are called "covers" of each other.

Non-redundant covers.

A set formula_13 of FDs is nonredundant if there is no proper subset formula_41 of formula_13 with formula_41 ≡ formula_13. If such an formula_41 exists, formula_13 is redundant. formula_13 is a nonredundant cover for formula_22 if formula_13 is a cover for formula_22 and formula_13 is nonredundant.  An alternative characterization of nonredundancy is that formula_13 is nonredundant if there is no FD "X" → "Y" in formula_13 such that formula_54 - {"X" → "Y"} formula_55 "X" → "Y". Call an FD "X" → "Y" in formula_13 redundant in formula_13 if formula_54 - {"X" → "Y"} formula_55 "X" → "Y".

Applications to normalization.

Heath's theorem.

An important property (yielding an immediate application) of functional dependencies is that if "R" is a relation with columns named from some set of attributes "U" and "R" satisfies some functional dependency "X" → "Y" then formula_60 where "Z" = "U" − "XY". Intuitively, if a functional dependency "X" → "Y" holds in "R", then the relation can be safely split in two relations alongside the column "X" (which is a key for formula_61) ensuring that when the two parts are joined back no data is lost, i.e. a functional dependency provides a simple way to construct a lossless-join decomposition of "R" in two smaller relations. This fact is sometimes called "Heaths theorem"; it is one of the early results in database theory.  Heath's theorem effectively says we can pull out the values of "Y" from the big relation "R" and store them into one, formula_62, which has no value repetitions in the row for "X" and is effectively a lookup table for "Y" keyed by "X" and consequently has only one place to update the "Y" corresponding to each "X" unlike the "big" relation "R" where there are potentially many copies of each "X", each one with its copy of "Y" which need to be kept synchronized on updates. (This elimination of redundancy is an advantage in OLTP contexts, where many changes are expected, but not so much in OLAP contexts, which involve mostly queries.) Heath's decomposition leaves only "X" to act as a foreign key in the remainder of the big table formula_63.  Functional dependencies however should not be confused with inclusion dependencies, which are the formalism for foreign keys; even though they are used for normalization, functional dependencies express constraints over one relation (schema), whereas inclusion dependencies express constraints between relation schemas in a database schema. Furthermore, the two notions do not even intersect in the classification of dependencies: functional dependencies are equality-generating dependencies whereas inclusion dependencies are tuple-generating dependencies. Enforcing referential constraints after relation schema decomposition (normalization) requires a new formalism, i.e. inclusion dependencies. In the decomposition resulting from Heath's theorem, there is nothing preventing the insertion of tuples in formula_63 having some value of "X" not found in formula_62.

Normal forms.

Normal forms are database normalization levels which determine the "goodness" of a table. Generally, the third normal form is considered to be a "good" standard for a relational database.  Normalization aims to free the database from update, insertion and deletion anomalies. It also ensures that when a new value is introduced into the relation, it has minimal effect on the database, and thus minimal effect on the applications using the database.

Irreducible function depending set.

A set S of functional dependencies is irreducible if the set has the following three properties:  Sets of functional dependencies with these properties are also called "canonical" or "minimal". Finding such a set S of functional dependencies which is equivalent to some input set S' provided as input is called finding a "minimal cover" of S': this problem can be solved in polynomial time.

In relational database theory, a functional dependency is a constraint between two sets of attributes in a relation from a database. In other words, a functional dependency is a constraint between two keys. Given a relation "R", a set of attributes "X" in "R" is said to functionally determine another set of attributes "Y", also in "R", (written "X" → "Y") if, and only if, each "X" value in "R" is associated with precisely one "Y" value in "R"; "R" is then said to "satisfy" the functional dependency "X" → "Y". Equivalently, the projection formula_1 is a function, i.e. "Y" is a function of "X". In simple words, if the values for the "X" attributes are known (say they are "x"), then the values for the "Y" attributes corresponding to "x" can be determined by looking them up in "any" tuple of "R" containing "x". Customarily "X" is called the "determinant" set and "Y" the "dependent" set. A functional dependency FD: "X" → "Y" is called "trivial" if "Y" is a subset of "X".

在关系数据库理论中,函数依赖(functional dependency)是数据库的关系的两个属性集合之间的一种约束。给定关系"R","R"上的属性集"X"是功能上确定(functionally determine)"R"上的另一个属性集"Y",(记作 "X" → "Y"),当且仅当"R"上的每一个"X"值精确地关联"R"上的一个"Y"值;因而"R"被说成"满足"函数依赖"X" → "Y"。等价的说,投影 formula_1是一个函数,即"Y"是"X"的函数。简单说,如果属性集"X"的值是已知的(记作"x"),那么属性集"Y"的对应于"x"的值可以查表("R"中任何包含"x"的元组)确定。一个函数依赖FD: "X" → "Y"是平凡的,如果"Y"是"X"的子集。


Military Intelligence Corps (United States Army)

History.

Intelligence personnel were a part of the Continental Army since its initial founding in 1775.  In 1776, General George Washington commissioned the first intelligence unit. Knowlton's Rangers, named after its leader Colonel Thomas Knowlton, became the first organized elite force, a predecessor to modern special operations forces units such as the Army Rangers, Delta Force, and others. The "1776" on the United States Army Intelligence Service seal refers to the formation of Knowlton's Rangers.  In January 1863, Major General Joseph Hooker established the Bureau of Military Information for the Union Army during the Civil War, headed by George H. Sharpe. Allan Pinkerton and Lafayette C. Baker handled similar operations for their respective regional commanders. All of those operations were shut down at the end of the Civil War in 1865.  In 1885, the Army established the Military Intelligence Division. In 1903, it was placed under the new general staff in an elevated position.  In March 1942, the Military Intelligence Division was reorganized as the Military Intelligence Service. Originally consisting of just 26 people, 16 of them officers, it was quickly expanded to include 342 officers and 1,000 enlisted personnel and civilians. It was tasked with collecting, analyzing, and disseminating intelligence. Initially it included:  In May 1942, Alfred McCormack established the Special Branch of the Military Intelligence Service, which specialized in communications intelligence.  On January 1, 1942, the U.S. Army Corps of Intelligence Police, founded in World War I, was re-designated as the US Army Counter Intelligence Corps. In 1945, the Special Branch became the Army Security Agency.  At its peak in early 1946, the MIS Language School had 160 instructors and 3,000 students studying in more than 125 classrooms, graduating more than 6,000 students by the end of the war. What began as an experimental military intelligence language-training program launched on a budget of $2,000 eventually became the forerunner of today's Defense Language Institute for the tens of thousands of linguists who serve American interests throughout the world.  In 1946 the school moved to the Presidio of Monterey. Renamed the Army Language School, it expanded rapidly in 1947–48 during the Cold War. Instructors, including native speakers of more than thirty languages and dialects, were recruited from all over the world. Russian became the largest language program, followed by Chinese, Korean, and German.  On September 1, 1954, the Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence (ACSI) officially redesignated the CIC Center, Fort Holabird, MD as the Army Intelligence Center, and the Chief of the Counter Intelligence Corps became its Commanding General. The following year, the Intelligence Center expanded further with the addition of the Photo Interpretation Center. Additionally, combat intelligence training (including order of battle techniques, photo interpretation, prisoner of war interrogation, and censorship) was transferred from the Army General School at Fort Riley, Kansas to Fort Holabird, giving the Commanding General the additional title of Commandant, US Army Intelligence School. This arrangement centralized nearly all intelligence training at the US Army Intelligence Center and School, Fort Holabird. The Intelligence Center and School remained at Fort Holabird until overcrowding during the Vietnam War forced its relocation to Fort Huachuca, Arizona. Fort Huachuca became the "Home of Military Intelligence" on 23 March 1971, and the last class graduated from Fort Holabird on 2 September 1971, nearly 17 years to the day after the Army Intelligence Center was established there. USAINTCS Established at Ft. Holabird, MD  On 1 July 1962, the Army Intelligence and Security Branch was established as a basic Army branch to meet the increased need for national and tactical intelligence. The redesignated branch came with the creation of a new dagger and sun branch insignia, replacing the sphinx insignia that had been in place since 1923.  It was in July 1967, that a number of intelligence and security organizations were combined to form the military intelligence branch. In 1977 they eventually recombined with the Army Intelligence Agency and Army Security Agency to become the US Army Intelligence and Security Command.  In 1971, the United States Army Intelligence Center was established at Fort Huachuca, Arizona as the home of the military intelligence branch. On 1 July 1987 the Military Intelligence Corps was activated as a regiment under the U.S. Army Regimental System. All United States Army Military Intelligence personnel are members of the Military Intelligence Corps.

Structure.

Approximately 28,000 military personnel and 3,800 civilian personnel are assigned to intelligence duties, comprising the Military Intelligence Corps. Some of the key components include:

Creed and march of the Military Intelligence Corps.

Creed of the Military Intelligence Corps <poem> I am a Soldier first, but an intelligence professional second to none. With pride in my heritage, but focused on the future, Performing the first task of an Army: To find, know, and never lose the enemy. With a sense of urgency and of tenacity, professional and physical fitness, and above all, INTEGRITY, for in truth lies victory. Always at silent war, while ready for a shooting war, The silent warrior of the ARMY team.</poem>  Military Intelligence Corps March <poem> Onward to victory! Our silent warriors to the fight. Onward to victory! Trained and ready day or night. Peace through intelligence! Here's to your health and to our corps. Strength through intelligence! Toujours Avant forever more. </poem>

Museum.

The United States Army Intelligence Museum is located at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. It features the history of American military intelligence from the Revolutionary War to present. In the Army Military Intelligence Museum there is a painting of "The MI Blue Rose". The back of this painting indicates Sgt. Ralph R Abel, Jr. created it. The painting was photographed and distributed worldwide. Sgt. Abel also painted a replica of the corps flag.

The Military Intelligence Corps is the intelligence branch of the United States Army. The primary mission of military intelligence in the United States Army is to provide timely, relevant, accurate, and synchronized intelligence and electronic warfare support to tactical, operational and strategic-level commanders. The Army's intelligence components produce intelligence both for Army use and for sharing across the national intelligence community.

军事情报兵团(英语:Military Intelligence Corps)是美国陆军的军事情报兵种。负责提供战役战术情报与电子战支援。


History.

The teapot was invented in China during the Yuan Dynasty. It was probably derived from ceramic kettles and wine pots, which were made of bronze and other metals and were a feature of Chinese life for thousands of years. Tea preparation during previous dynasties did not use a teapot. In the Tang Dynasty, a cauldron was used to boil ground tea, which was served in bowls. Song Dynasty tea was made by boiling water in a kettle then pouring the water into a bowl with finely ground tea leaves. A brush was then used to stir the tea. Written evidence of a teapot appears in the Yuan Dynasty text "Jiyuan Conghua", which describes a teapot that the author, Cai Shizhan, bought from the scholar Sun Daoming. By the Ming Dynasty, teapots were widespread in China. The earliest example of a teapot that has survived to this day seems to be the one in the Flagstaff House Museum of Teaware; it has been dated to 1513 and is attributed to Gongchun.  Early teapots are small by western standards because they are generally designed for a single drinker, and the Chinese historically drank the tea directly from the spout. The size reflects the importance of serving single portions so that the flavours can be better concentrated and controlled, then repeated.  From the end of the 17th century tea was shipped from China to Europe as part of the export of exotic spices and luxury goods. The ships that brought the tea also carried porcelain teapots. The majority of these teapots were painted in blue and white underglaze. Porcelain, being completely vitrified, will withstand sea water without damage, so the teapots were packed below deck whilst the tea was stowed above deck to ensure that it remained dry.  Tea drinking in Europe was initially the preserve of the upper classes, due the expense. Porcelain teapots were particularly desirable because porcelain could not be made in Europe at that time. It wasn't until 1708 that Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus devised a way of making porcelain in Dresden, Germany, and started the Meissen factory in 1710. When European potteries began to make their own tea wares they were inspired by the Chinese designs.  In colonial America, Boston became the epicenter for silver production and artistry. Among the many artists in Boston there were four major families in the city's silver market: Edwards, Revere, Burt and Hurd. Their works of art included silver teapots.

Heat retention.

To keep teapots hot after tea is first brewed, early English households employed the tea cosy, a padded fabric covering, much like a hat, that slips over the tea pot. Often decorated with lace or log cabin motifs in the early 1900s, the modern tea cosy has come back into fashion with the resurgence of loose leaf tea.

Dripping.

One phenomenon that occurs with teapots is that of dripping or dribbling after pouring - a drop of tea appears on the outside of the spout and runs down the outside or drips. Different explanations for this phenomenon have been proposed at various times and different ways have been attempted to eradicate it including making the surface more hydrophobic, or changing the radius of curvature of the tip.

The Moroccan teapot.

In Morocco, stainless steel teapots are an essential to make Moroccan mint tea. Moroccan teapots are heat resistant and can be put directly on the stove. With colorful tea glasses, they are part of the Moroccan tea ritual. Their designs can go from minimalistic to heavily decorated.

Chocolate teapot.

A chocolate teapot is a teapot that would be made from chocolate. It is commonly supposed that such a teapot would melt, and be impossible to use, therefore the term is often used as an analogy for any useless item.  Experimental researchers in 2001 did indeed fail to successfully use a chocolate teapot they had made. Later research, however, by The Naked Scientists in 2008, showed that such a teapot could be used to make tea, provided that the walls of the teapot were more than one centimetre thick. Re-usable (for a limited number of times) pots are now easily available online.

In non-teamaking contexts.

A teapot has a rather distinctive shape, and its fame may sometimes have little to do with its primary function.

A teapot is a vessel used for steeping tea leaves or a herbal mix in boiling or near-boiling water, and for serving the resulting infusion which is called tea. Dry tea is available either in tea bags or as loose tea, in which case a tea infuser or tea strainer may be of some assistance, either to hold the leaves as they steep or to catch the leaves inside the teapot when the tea is poured. Teapots usually have an opening with a lid at their top, where the dry tea and hot water are added, a handle for holding by hand and a spout through which the tea is served. Some teapots have a strainer built-in on the inner edge of the spout. A small air hole in the lid is often created to stop the spout from dripping and splashing when tea is poured. In modern times, a thermally insulating cover called a tea cosy may be used to enhance the steeping process or to prevent the contents of the teapot from cooling too rapidly.

茶壶是一种供泡茶和斟茶用的带嘴器皿,由壶盖、壶身、壶底足等部分所组成。茶壶大小的选择可依照饮茶人数多寡而定,同时也需要视乎所冲泡茶种的特性,潮州的工夫茶所使用的茶壶就是比较小巧。茶壶的造型除了一般的桔子型,亦有瓜形、柿形、菱形、鼓形、六角形等,壶面的装饰花纹亦变化万千。材质方面,有瓷质、陶质、玻璃、铸铁及纯银等,陶质又以紫砂陶为佳。


History.

The first European who settled in the area in 1869 was George Hunt, who built a small agricultural centre there. In 1870, a post office was built and the area was named Huntsville after Hunt, who became the first postmaster. Huntsville's economic development was stimulated by the engineering of a navigable water route north from Port Sydney to Huntsville which opened in 1877. A railway route from Gravenhurst was built by the Northern and Pacific Junction Railway in 1885, which encouraged development and resulted in Huntsville becoming officially incorporated in 1886.  In the following year, the Muskoka Colonization Road reached this area. The central Ontario community became an important industrial area in the late 19th century and had several saw, planing and shingle mills, as well as a tannery. Today, the many lakes and hills in the area, combined with the town's proximity to both Algonquin Park and Toronto, make Huntsville and the Muskoka region a major tourist destination.  On October 8, 2009 Huntsville lost one of its valued landmarks, the Empire Hotel. The first building erected at the site of the Empire Hotel was Jacob's Hotel, built around 1875 by James W. Jacobs. He later renamed it Dominion Hotel. Jacobs died in 1890 leaving behind his wife & eldest daughter, who both were named Emma. It is unknown which of the women married a McLaughlin man, but the McLaughlin family renovated the building after the horrible Main Street fire of 1894. A July 26, 1906 issue of the Huntsville Forester reported the sale of the hotel to Robert T. McNairney and D. Kehoe, who demolished it so as to expand it three stories. By 1922 the Dominion was owned by Bruce Simmons. Organized in 1933, the town's rotary club began to meet at the hotel, and would for many years. In 1945, the hotel was bought Louis Mascioli of Timmins. In 1947-1948, the Mascioli brothers renovated and expanded the facility, removing the porches, adding street level retail units and erecting the adjoining four-story red brick building. They also renamed it the Empire hotel. The first shops were a barbershop, a jewelry store and also a shoe store. Beilhartz shoes remained in business in the Empire Block until 1985. In the mid-80's, Jim Tumber, who acquired the building along with Gary Macklaim, obtained a grant from the Government of Ontario to help convert the now derelict building from a hotel into an apartment building. Dave Keay, the building's last owner, bought the Empire in 1999. Over the next 10 years he refurbished the basement bar and the 52 apartments, doing most of the work personally. The day the fire happened was the day that Keay had just finished the outside painting. The fire was believed to be caused by an electrical problem but the exact determination is still unclear. As of August, 2017, the lot is empty. The town of Huntsville currently has 1,950 employees working within the municipal building in the province of Ontario.  In June 2010, Deerhurst Resort in Huntsville was host to the 36th G8 summit.

Council and Administration.

The town’s council is made up of nine members. The members include the mayor, 3 town and district councilors who represent the town at the municipality of Muskoka council. Ward councilors represent the wards of Huntsville, Chaffey, Brunel, Stephenson-Stisted-Port Sydney 3,4,5. A regular council meeting is held once a month in the Council Chambers in the Huntsville Civic Centre (Town Hall side)  Currently, the mayor of Huntsville is Karin Terziano. She previously has served as the acting mayor between November 12th, 2019 and December 17th, 2019. On December 17th, 2019, she was appointed to fill the vacancy of the Mayor's office that was left vacant when Scott Aitchison resigned to become a federal MP for Parry Sound—Muskoka. At a special council meeting held December 17th, 2019 Terziano was sworn in, former mayor Scott Aitchison presented Terziano with the Chain of Office. Terziano was previously the Deputy Mayor.  On February 11th, 2019, Bob Stone was appointed to fill the vacant Ward One seat (Mayor Terziano's fmr. seat.) The seat was vacated when Mayor Terziano was appointed Mayor.  On February 24th, 2019; council appointed Councilor Nancy Alcock to serve as Deputy Mayor. Nancy Alcock had previously served as the alternate deputy mayor. Councilor Jason FitzGerald was appointed alternate deputy mayor.  Members of the 2018-2022 council term are: Deputy Mayor Nancy Alcock, Tim Withey, Brain Thompson, Jonathan Wiebe, Dan Armour, Dione Schumacher, Jason FitzGerald, Bob Stone, and Mayor Terziano.

Geography.

There are three large lakes within the township boundary, Mary Lake, Lake Vernon, and Fairy Lake, as well as countless smaller lakes. Peninsula Lake, Skeleton Lake, and Lake of Bays lie directly outside the town. The Muskoka River winds its way through the city’s downtown, while the Big East River empties into Lake Vernon. The Arrowhead Provincial Park is also located within city limits.  The Canadian Shield causes many scenic hills and sweeping landscapes throughout the region. The city centre is full of hills and steep roadways and while there are flat low-lying areas much of the city lies on uneven terrain.

Climate.

Huntsville experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), with warm, humid summers and cold winters. The city experiences four distinct seasons, with considerable variance in day to day temperature, particularly during the colder weather season. Huntsville is located in the snowbelt region of Central Ontario, near the Great Lakes, so experiences snowy winters and lake-effect snow. The city has comfortable summer temperatures and occasional heatwaves accompanied by high humidity and active thunderstorm weather. Huntsville and the Muskoka region have the highest annual precipitation of any region in Ontario.

Communities.

In addition to the city centre, the communities of Allensville, Ashworth, Aspdin, Britannia Road, Canal, Centurion, Etwell, Grassmere, Hidden Valley, Hoodstown, Ilfracombe, Lancelot, Martins, Melissa, Muskoka Lodge, Newholm, Norvern Shores, Parkersville, Port Sydney, Ravenscliffe, Stanleydale, Utterson, Vernon Shores, Williamsport and Yearley are located within the municipal boundaries, as is the ghost town of Emberson.

Demographics.

Huntsville had a population of 19,816 people in 2016, which was an increase of 4.0% from the 2011 census count.  Racial Profile  Religious Groups  Age Group

Culture.

Huntsville is a magnet for and home to many acclaimed visual artists. Famed Canadian artists Tom Thomson and his successors, the Group of Seven painted here frequently. Huntsville boasts a Group of Seven Outdoor Gallery with over 40 outdoor murals celebrating the work of these Canadian heroes. Local community visual arts group The Huntsville Art Society hosts many annual shows, exhibits & skills-sharing workshops throughout the year.  Many summer camps for children such as Ontario Pioneer Camp, Camp Wabanaki, Camp Mini-Yo-We, Muskoka Woods, Camp Nagiwa, Camp Tawingo and Olympia Sports Camp are within a few kilometers of Huntsville. Resorts such as Deerhurst Resort, where Shania Twain was discovered in 1988-1989, Hidden Valley Resort and Cedar Grove Lodge are located within the town's boundaries.  Huntsville supports a number of arts festivals, including Huntsville Festival of the Arts. The Huntsville Festival of the Arts recently provided a seed grant which enabled a book of poetry entitled "Fringe Festival Poetry, Poems from the Poetry Cafe", edited by June Salmon and Marta Mirecki-de Roode. Other arts activities include the annual Muskoka Novel Marathon, started by Canadian authors Martin Avery and Mel Malton in 2001; the Film North - Huntsville International Film Festival which had its inaugural year in 2010, and most recently Nuit Blanche North, produced by the Huntsville Festival of the Arts and Edge of the Woods Theatre.  There are also many new arts organizations and associations. The Huntsville Art Society is a not-for-profit membership of local visual artists. They recently opened up a new art gallery called 'The Art Space'. Edge of the Woods Theatre presents artistic works for, with and by the community in Huntsville. They produce an annual traveling outdoor theatre event, as well as facilitating many different community and arts education projects with local seniors and youth.  The town has a new municipal centre and performing arts theatre, the Algonquin Theatre. The theatre provides space for local dance, music, and school activities. For profit venues are also scheduled, and most of the labour is provided by local volunteers.  Keith Bellows, editor in chief of "National Geographic Traveler" and vice-president of the National Geographic Society, has included Huntsville and the Muskoka region in his recently released book "100 Places That Can Change Your Child's Life".

Education.

Public education for students from kindergarten through high school is administered by the Trillium Lakelands District School Board, which oversees the town's single high school, Huntsville High School, and six elementary schools. Primary Catholic education at a single school is administered by the Simcoe Muskoka Catholic District School Board. There are several private schools that serve students through elementary and high school ages.  Post-secondary education consists of the Waterloo Summit Centre for the Environment, established with funding provided by the 2010 G8 Summit Legacy Fund as a partnership between the Town of Huntsville and the University of Waterloo. This facility is utilized by researchers and students of the University of Waterloo and the Northern Ontario School of Medicine.  The Huntsville District Memorial Hospital is a community teaching hospital affiliated with the Northern Ontario School of Medicine.

Economy.

Due to the influx of tourists during the summer months and the abundance of seasonal residents, Huntsville's economy is primarily service based. There are also many people employed in construction trades. Although there is progress being made, Huntsville's unemployment rate has long been above the provincial average. This is largely due to the seasonal nature of its tourism industry.  Major employers in Huntsville include Deerhurst Resort, Trillium Lakelands District School Board, and Kimberly Clark.  Main Street is home to various business and services for Huntsville. Reflections of Muskoka at 49E Main Street East was originally a Simpson-Sears retail location.  The Huntsville Place Mall is a great spot to spend an hour. It allows for plenty of shopping. The Huntsville Place Mall includes, The Source, Coles Bookstore, Winners, Hallmark, Metro, Northern Reflections, Anthony's Hair Design, Becker Shoes, Maurices, Scotiabank, Ron Henry Jewellers, Pearle Vision, Huntsville Place Mall Pharmacy, Sport Chek, Dollarama and the Habitat for Humanity Restore. The mall also has 10 Tesla superchargers. Next door to the mall is a Canadian Tire Gas Plus and a Starbucks Coffee.

Transportation.

Huntsville is accessible through a variety of roadways, including Highway 60, Highway 11 and Muskoka (Regional) Road 3. Buses to and from Toronto come into the city daily.  Main Street is the key in town road that connects with Highway 11 to the west and Highway 60 to the north.  Passenger train service to the city from Toronto was provided daily by the "Northlander" at the Huntsville railway station, until Northlander discontinued train services in September 2012. Today the tracks are used by CN Rail and Ontario Northland for freight service. The station is now home to a music school.  Huntsville Transit provides local bus service in the town on a single east-west route. Service is provided Monday to Saturday.

Sports.

Hockey and lacrosse are popular sports in Huntsville. The town is the hometown of sports icons such as Jack Bionda, for whom an ice surface in Huntsville's municipal arena (The Canada Summit Centre) is named. Don Lough Arena is the name of the Olympic ice surface in the new Canada Summit Centre.  Huntsville is home to one of the largest running Girls Hockey Associations. This association has been in existence since 1971/72, and is home to Huntsville Honeys Senior C Team, and the Huntsville Sting Bantam BB team.  The town has a lacrosse team, the Huntsville Hawks of the OLA Junior C Lacrosse League as well as a full complement of Minor Lacrosse, from Paperweight to Midget age players.  The town also had an Ontario Provincial Junior A Hockey League team called the Huntsville Otters, which has had players move on to major junior A in the Ontario Hockey League. There has been a new Junior C Hockey team reintroduced to the town as of 2012 season.  Huntsville is one of three Canadian towns hosting Ironman 70.3 triathlons.  Huntsville also has a large soccer community, run by the Huntsville Soccer Club with over 1,000 participants in total. Over 800 kids aged 2–19 play with the rest being made up of adult players.  Golf courses in or close to Huntsville include Deerhurst Highlands, The Mark O'Meara Course at Grandview Golf Club, and Bigwin Island Golf Club.

Media.

Television.

Huntsville is served by a TVCogeco community channel for Cogeco cable subscribers.  The town was previously served by repeaters for CBC Television and TVO: CBLT-TV-2 and CICO-TV-13, respectively. Both repeaters were shut down following the 2012 closing of all CBC analogue transmitters, several of which were also used by TVO.

Huntsville (Canada 2016 Census population 19,816) is the largest town in the Muskoka Region of Ontario, Canada. It is located north of Toronto and south of North Bay.

亨茨维尔(英语:Huntsville)是加拿大安大略省安大略省中部马斯科卡区域自治市一个镇,2006年人口有18,280。


Structure.

The bone of the forehead is the squamous part of the frontal bone. The overlying muscles are the occipitofrontalis, procerus, and corrugator supercilii muscles, all of which are controlled by the temporal branch of the facial nerve.  The sensory nerves of the forehead connect to the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve and to the cervical plexus, and lie within the subcutaneous fat. The motor nerves of the forehead connect to the facial nerve. The ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve, the supraorbital nerve, divides at the orbital rim into two parts in the forehead. One part, the superficial division, runs over the surface of the occipitofrontalis muscle. This provides sensation for the skin of the forehead, and for the front edge of the scalp. The other part, the deep division, runs into the occipitofrontalis muscle and provides frontoparietal sensation.  Blood supply to the forehead is via the left and right superorbital, supertrochealar, and anterior branches of the superficial temporal artery.

Function.

Expression.

The muscles of the forehead help to form facial expressions. There are four basic motions, which can occur individually or in combination to form different expressions. The occipitofrontalis muscles can raise the eyebrows, either together or individually, forming expressions of surprise and quizzicality. The corrugator supercilii muscles can pull the eyebrows inwards and down, forming a frown. The procerus muscles can pull down the centre portions of the eyebrows.

Wrinkles.

The movements of the muscles in the forehead produce characteristic wrinkles in the skin. The occipitofrontalis muscles produce the transverse wrinkles across the width of the forehead, and the corrugator supercilii muscles produce vertical wrinkles between the eyebrows above the nose. The procerus muscles cause the nose to wrinkle.

Society and culture.

In physiognomy and phrenology, the shape of the forehead was taken to symbolise intellect and intelligence. "Animals, even the most intelligent of them,", wrote Samuel R. Wells in 1942, "can hardly be said to have any forehead at all, and in natural total idiots it is very diminished".  Pseudo-Aristotle, in "Physiognomica", stated that the forehead is governed by Mars. A low and little forehead denoted magnanimity, boldness, and confidence; a fleshy and wrinkle-free forehead, litigiousness, vanity, deceit, and contentiousness; a sharp forehead, weakness and fickleness; a wrinkled forehead, great spirit and wit yet poor fortune; a round forehead, virtue and good understanding; a full large forehead, boldness, malice, boundary issues, and high spirit; and a long high forehead, honesty, weakness, simplicity, and poor fortune.  In fighting, slamming one's forehead into one's opponent is termed a Headbutt.

In human anatomy, the forehead is an area of the head bounded by three features, two of the skull and one of the scalp. The top of the forehead is marked by the hairline, the edge of the area where hair on the scalp grows. The bottom of the forehead is marked by the supraorbital ridge, the bone feature of the skull above the eyes. The two sides of the forehead are marked by the temporal ridge, a bone feature that links the supraorbital ridge to the coronal suture line and beyond. However, your eyebrows do not form part of your forehead.

在人体解剖学中,前额是指头部前端、脸部上面的部分。前额的上方边界为发际线,其下界为眶上脊(在眼睛上方的骨头),两侧的边界则为<unk>骨(连接眶上脊、冠状缝以及更后方的骨头)。在解剖学上,前额包含两块颅骨与一部分头皮。


Early life and education.

Born in Monticello, Mississippi, Paige is the son of public school educators.  He earned a bachelor's degree from Jackson State University in Jackson, Mississippi. He earned a master's degree and a Doctor of Education degree in Physical Education from Indiana University Bloomington.

Career.

Paige served in the United States Navy from 1955 to 1957. Subsequently, he taught health and physical education and coached at Hinds Agricultural High School and Hinds Community College in Mississippi, from 1957 to 1963. From 1964 to 1968, Paige served as head football coach at Jackson State University, compiling a record of 25–19–2. At Jackson State, he recruited and coached Lem Barney who later played for the Detroit Lions and was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. From 1971 to 1975, Paige served as head football coach at Texas Southern University, and served as the university's athletic director from 1971 to 1980.  Paige first moved to Houston in the 1970s, settling in the Brentwood subdivision. He started a move to excise a dump from the edge of the community. The Texas Supreme Court eventually sided with the residents.  Paige was a teacher at Texas Southern University from 1980 to 1984 and became the Dean of the College of Education in 1984, where he served until 1994. Paige also established the university's Center for Excellence in Urban Education, a research facility that concentrates on issues related to instruction and management in urban school systems.  As a trustee and an officer of the Board of Education of the Houston Independent School District (HISD) from 1989 to 1994, Paige coauthored the board's 'A Declaration of Beliefs and Visions', a statement of purpose and goals for the school district that called for fundamental reform through decentralization, a focus on instruction, accountability at all levels, and development of a core curriculum. A Declaration of Beliefs and Visions was the catalyst that launched the ongoing, comprehensive restructuring of HISD. As an HISD trustee, Paige launched a municipal-style, accredited police department at HISD with police officers certified by the Texas Commission on Law Enforcement Officers Standards and Education. Paige's board of education began that effort to provide better school safety, and the HISD police department remains the only school district police department in the country to earn accreditation from the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies.  Paige became the superintendent of schools of HISD in 1994. As superintendent, Paige created the Peer Examination, Evaluation, and Redesign (PEER) program, which solicits recommendations from business and community professionals for strengthening school support services and programs. He started a system of charter schools that have broad authority in decisions regarding staffing, textbooks, and materials. He saw to it that HISD paid teachers salaries competitive with those offered by other large Texas school districts. Paige made HISD the first school district in the state to institute performance contracts modeled on those in the private sector, whereby senior staff members' continued employment with HISD is based on their performance. He also introduced teacher incentive pay, which rewards teachers for raising test scores.  While he was superintendent, Paige led the district to enter into contracts with private schools to use them to teach some HISD students rather than placing those students into overcrowded public schools. Under Paige HISD contracted with three private schools that were certified by the Texas Education Agency to teach HISD students so their parents did not have to bus them to schools across the city.  Many touted the "Houston Miracle" accomplished under Paige where student test scores rose under his leadership. However, some schools underreported the number of drop-outs during his watch.  Paige served as the Secretary of Education from 2001 to 2005 under US President George W. Bush. The No Child Left Behind law that set new accountability standards nationwide was developed with Paige's help, and it was Paige's Department of Education that implemented the law. The Bush White House's development of the principles of No Child Left Behind drew in part on the successes of the Houston Independent School District under Paige.  Under Paige, the department earned "clean" audits from Ernst and Young for three consecutive years. Prior to 2001, the department had achieved only one clean audit in its history, and that audit was by the Department's Office of Inspector General.  Paige proposed amendments to the regulations implementing Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 to provide more flexibility for educators to establish single-sex classes and schools at the elementary and secondary levels.  Paige once referred to the National Education Association, the nation's largest teachers union, as a "terrorist organization."

Other activities.

Paige has served on review committees of the Texas Education Agency and the State Board of Education's Task Force on High School Education, and he has chaired the Youth Employment Issues Subcommittee of the National Commission for Employment Policy of the U.S. Department of Labor. Paige is a member of the NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. He is a former member of the Houston Job Training Partnership Council, the Community Advisory Board of Texas Commerce Bank, the American Leadership Forum, and the board of directors of the Texas Business and Education Coalition. He is a member of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity. He also serves on the board of trustees for the American College of Education.

Honors and awards.

The Houston Independent School District renamed its James Bowie Elementary School after Paige, to become Rod Paige Elementary School. His hometown of Monticello, Mississippi renamed its middle school Rod Paige Middle School.  The University of Houston presented Paige with an honorary doctoral degree in 2000. Indiana University Bloomington awarded Paige an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree in 2017.

Roderick Raynor Paige (born June 17, 1933) served as the 7th United States Secretary of Education from 2001 to 2005. Paige, who grew up in Mississippi, moved from classroom teacher to college dean and school superintendent to be the first African American to serve as the U.S. education chief.

罗德里克·雷纳·“罗德”·佩奇(Roderick Raynor "Rod" Paige,1933年-6月17日)生于密西西比州蒙蒂塞洛,美国体育教练、政治家,美国共和党成员,曾任美国教育部长(2001年-2005年)。