Decipherment.

Besides a few inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic (which were discovered only in the 20th century), the Edicts were mostly written in the Brahmi script and sometimes in the Kharoshthi script in the northwest, two Indian scripts which had both become extinct around the 5th century CE, and were yet undeciphered at the time the Edicts were discovered and investigated in the 19th century. The first successful attempts at deciphering the ancient Brahmi script were made in 1836 by Norwegian scholar Christian Lassen, who used the bilingual Greek-Brahmi coins of Indo-Greek king Agathocles to correctly and securely identify several Brahmi letters. The task was then completed by James Prinsep, an archaeologist, philologist, and official of the East India Company, who was able to identify the rest of the Brahmi characters, with the help of Major Cunningham. In a series of results that he published in March 1838 Prinsep was able to translate the inscriptions on a large number of rock edicts found around India, and to provide, according to Richard Salomon, a "virtually perfect" rendering of the full Brahmi alphabet. The edicts in Brahmi script mentioned a King Devanampriya Piyadasi which Prinsep initially assumed was a Sri Lankan king. He was then able to associate this title with Asoka on the basis of Pali script from Sri Lanka communicated to him by George Turnour.  The Kharoshthi script, written from right to left, and associated with Aramaic, was also deciphered by James Prinsep in parallel with Christian Lassen, using the bilingual Greek-Kharoshthi coinage of the Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian kings. "Within the incredibly brief space of three years (1834-37) the mystery of both the Kharoshthi and Brahmi scripts (were unlocked), the effect of which was instantly to remove the thick crust of oblivion which for many centuries had concealed the character and the language of the earliest epigraphs".

The Edicts.

The Edicts are divided into four categories, according to their size (Minor or Major) and according to their medium (Rock or Pillar). Chronologically, the minor inscriptions tend to precede the larger ones, while rock inscriptions generally seem to have been started earlier than the pillar inscriptions:  The Minor Rock Edicts (in which Ashoka is sometimes named in person, as in Maski and ) as well as the Minor Pillar Edicts are very religious in their content: they mention extensively the Buddha (and even previous Buddhas as in the Nigali Sagar inscription), the Samgha, Buddhism and Buddhist scriptures (as in the Bairat Edict).  On the contrary, the Major Rock Edicts and Major Pillar Edicts are essentially moral and political in nature: they never mention the Buddha or explicit Buddhist teachings, but are preoccupied with order, proper behaviour and non violence under the general concept of "Dharma", and they also focus on the administration of the state and positive relations with foreign countries as far as the Hellenistic Mediterranean of the mid-3rd century BCE.

Minor Rock Edicts.

The Minor Rock Edicts of Ashoka (r.269-233 BCE) are rock inscriptions which form the earliest part of the Edicts of Ashoka. They predate Ashoka's Major Rock Edicts.  Chronologically, the first known edict, sometimes classified as a Minor Rock Edict, is the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription, in Greek and in Aramaic, written in the 10th year of his reign (260 BCE) at the border of his empire with the Hellenistic world, in the city of Old Kandahar in modern Afghanistan.  Ashoka then made the first edicts in the Indian language, written in the Brahmi script, from the 11th year of his reign (according to his own inscription, "two and a half years after becoming a secular Buddhist", i.e. two and a half years at least after returning from the Kalinga conquest of the eighth year of his reign, which is the starting point for his remorse towards the horrors of the war, and his gradual conversion to Buddhism). The texts of the inscriptions are rather short, the technical quality of the engraving of the inscriptions is generally very poor, and generally very inferior to the pillar edicts dated to the years 26 and 27 of Ashoka's reign.  There are several slight variations in the content of these edicts, depending on location, but a common designation is usually used, with Minor Rock Edict N°1 (MRE1) and a Minor Rock Edict N°2 (MRE2, which does not appear alone but always in combination with Edict N°1), the different versions being generally aggregated in most translations. The Maski version of Minor Rock Edict No.1 is historically particularly important in that it confirmed the association of the title "Devanampriya" with the name "Asoka", thereby clarifying the historical author of all these inscriptions. In the version of Minor Rock Edict No.1 also, the name of Ashoka is used together with his full title: "Devanampiya Piyadasi Asokaraja".  There is also a unique Minor Rock Edict No.3, discovered next to Bairat Temple, for the Buddhist clergy, which gives a list of Buddhist scriptures (most of them unknown today) which the clergy should study regularly.  A few other inscriptions of Ashoka in Aramaic, which are not strictly edicts, but tend to share a similar content, are sometimes also categorized as "Minor Rock Edicts". The dedicatory inscriptions of the Barabar caves are also sometimes classified among the Minor Rock Edicts of Ashoka.  The Minor Rock Edicts can be found throughout the territory of Ashoka, including in the frontier area near the Hindu Kush, and are especially numerous in the southern, newly conquered, frontier areas of Karnataka and southern Andhra Pradesh.

Minor Pillar Edicts.

The Minor Pillar Edicts of Ashoka refer to 5 separate minor Edicts inscribed on columns, the Pillars of Ashoka. These edicts are preceded chronologically by the Minor Rock Edicts and may have been made in parallel with the Major Rock Edicts.  The inscription technique is generally very poor compared for example to the later Major Pillar Edicts, however the Minor Pillar Edicts are often associated with some of the artistically most sophisticated pillar capitals of Ashoka, such as the renowned Lion Capital of Ashoka which crowned the Sarnath Minor Pillar Edict, or the very similar, but less well preserved Sanchi lion capital which crowned the very clumsily inscribed Schism Edict of Sanchi. According to Irwin, the Brahmi inscriptions on the Sarnath and Sanchi pillars were made by inexperienced Indian engravers at a time when stone engraving was still new in India, whereas the very refined Sarnath capital itself was made under the tutelage of crafstmen from the former Achaemenid Empire, trained in Perso-Hellenistic statuary and employed by Ashoka. This suggests that the most sophisticated capitals were actually the earliest in the sequence of Ashokan pillars and that style degraded over a short period of time.  These edicts were probably made at the beginning of the reign of Ashoka (reigned 268-232 BCE), from the year 12 of his reign, that is, from 256 BCE.  The Minor Pillar Edicts are the Schism Edict, warning of punishment for dissent in the Samgha, the Queen's Edict, and the Rummindei Edict as well as the Nigali Sagar Edict which record Ashoka's visits and Buddhist dedications in the area corresponding to today's Nepal. The Rummindei and Nigali Sagar edicts, inscribed on pillars erected by Ashoka later in his reign (19th and 20th year) display a high level of inscriptional technique with a good regularity in the lettering.

Major Rock Edicts.

The Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka refer to 14 separate major Edicts, which are significantly detailed and extensive. These Edicts were concerned with practical instructions in running the kingdom such as the design of irrigation systems and descriptions of Ashoka's beliefs in peaceful moral behavior. They contain little personal detail about his life. These edicts are preceded chronologically by the Minor Rock Edicts.  Three languages were used, Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic. The edicts are composed in non-standardized and archaic forms of Prakrit. Prakrit inscriptions were written in Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, which even a commoner could read and understand. The inscriptions found in the area of Pakistan are in the Kharoshthi script. Other Edicts are written in Greek or Aramaic. The Kandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka (including portions of Edict No.13 and No.14) is in Greek only, and originally probably contained all the Major Rock Edicts 1-14.  The Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka are inscribed on large rocks, except for the Kandahar version in Greek (Kandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka), written on a stone plaque belonging to a building. The Major Edicts are not located in the heartland of Mauryan territory, traditionally centered on Bihar, but on the frontiers of the territory controlled by Ashoka.

Major Pillar Edicts.

The Major Pillar Edicts of Ashoka refer to seven separate major Edicts inscribed on columns, the Pillars of Ashoka, which are significantly detailed and extensive.  These edicts are preceded chronologically by the Minor Rock Edicts and the Major Rock Edicts, and constitute the most technically elegant of the inscriptions made by Ashoka. They were made at the end of his reign, from the years 26 and 27 of his reign, that is, from 237-236 BCE. Chronologically they follow the fall of Seleucid power in Central Asia and the related rise of the Parthian Empire and the independent Greco-Bactrian Kingdom circa 250 BCE. Hellenistic rulers are not mentioned anymore in these last edicts, as they only appear in Major Rock Edict No.13 (and to a lesser extent Major Rock Edict No.2), which can be dated to about the 14th year of the reign of Ashoka circa 256–255. The last Major Pillar Edicts (Edict No.7) is testamental in nature, making a summary of the accomplishments of Ashoka during his life.  The Major Pillar Edicts of Ashoka were exclusively inscribed on the Pillars of Ashoka or fragments thereof, at Kausambi (now Allahabad pillar), Topra Kalan, Meerut, Lauriya-Araraj, Lauria Nandangarh, Rampurva (Champaran), and fragments of these in Aramaic (Kandahar, Edict No.7 and Pul-i-Darunteh, Edict No.5 or No.7 in Afghanistan) However several pillars, such as the bull pillar of Rampurva, or the pillar of Vaishali do not have inscriptions, which, together with their lack of proper foundation stones and their particular style, led some authors to suggest that they were in fact pre-Ashokan.  The Major Pillar Edicts (excluding the two fragments of translations found in modern Afghanistan) are all located in central India.  The Pillars of Ashoka are stylistically very close to an important Buddhist monument, also built by Ashoka in Bodh Gaya, at the location where the Buddha had reached enlightenment some 200 years earlier: the Diamond Throne. The sculpted decorations on the Diamond Throne clearly echoe the decorations found on the Pillars of Ashoka. The Pillars dated to the end of Ashoka's reign are associated with pillar capitals that tend to be more solemn and less elegant than the earlier capitals, such as those of Sanchi or Sarnath. This led some authors to suggest that the artistic level under Ashoka tended to fall towards the end of his reign.

Languages of the Edicts.

Three languages were used: Prakrit, Greek (the language of the neighbouring Greco-Bactrian kingdom and the Greek communities in Ashoka's realm) and Aramaic (the official language of the former Achaemenid Empire). The Prakrit displayed local variations, from early Gandhari in the northwest, to Old Ardhamagadhi in the east, where it was the "chancery language" of the court. The language level of the Prakrit inscriptions tends to be rather informal or colloquial.  Four scripts were used. Prakrit inscriptions were written in the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, the latter for the area of modern Pakistan. The Greek and Aramaic inscriptions used their respective scripts, in the northwestern areas of Ashoka's territory, in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan.  While most Edicts were in Prakrit, a few were written in Greek or Aramaic. The Kandahar Rock Inscription is bilingual Greek-Aramaic. The Kandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka is in Greek only, and originally probably contained all the Major Rock Edicts 1-14. The Greek language used in the inscription is of a very high level and displays philosophical refinement. It also displays an in-depth understanding of the political language of the Hellenic world in the 3rd century BCE. This suggests the presence of a highly cultured Greek presence in Kandahar at that time.  By contrast, in the rock edicts engraved in southern India in the newly conquered territories of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, Ashoka only used the Prakrit of the North as the language of communication, with the Brahmi script, and not the local Dravidian idiom, which can be interpreted as a kind of authoritarianism in respect to the southern territories.  Ashoka's edicts were the first written inscriptions in India after the ancient city of Harrapa fell to ruin. Due to the influence of Ashoka's Prakrit inscriptions, Prakrit would remain the main inscriptional language for the following centuries, until the rise of inscriptional Sanskrit from the 1st century CE.

Content of the Edicts.

The Dharma preached by Ashoka is explained mainly in term of moral precepts, based on the doing of good deeds, respect for others, generosity and purity. The expressions used by Ashoka to express the Dharma, were the Prakrit word "Dhaṃma", the Greek word "Eusebeia" (in the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription and the Kandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka), and the Aramaic word "Qsyt" ("Truth") (in the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription).  Ashoka's Dharma meant that he used his power to try to make life better for his people and he also tried to change the way people thought and lived. He also thought that dharma meant doing the right thing.  Ashoka showed great concern for fairness in the exercise of justice, caution and tolerance in the application of sentences, and regularly pardoned prisoners.

Moral precepts.

The Mauryan empire was the first Indian empire to unify the country and it had a clear-cut policy of exploiting as well as protecting natural resources with specific officials tasked with protection duty. When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was perhaps the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife. Reference to these can be seen inscribed on the stone edicts.  Ashoka advocated restraint in the number that had to be killed for consumption, protected some of them, and in general condemned violent acts against animals, such as castration.  However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices then freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.  Explicit mentions of Buddhism or the Buddha only appear in the Minor Rock Edicts and the Minor Pillar Edicts. Beyond affirming himself as a Buddhist and spreading the moral virtues of Buddhism, Ashoka also insisted that the word of the Buddha be read and followed, in particular in monastic circles (the Sanghas), in a unique edict (Minor Rock Edict No.3), found in front of the Bairat Temple

Religious precepts.

Ashoka also expressed his devotion for the Buddhas of the past, such as the Koṇāgamana Buddha, for whom he enlarged a stupa in the 14th year of his reign, and made a dedication and set up a pillar during a visit in person in the 20th year of his reign, as described in his Minor Pillar Edict of Nigali Sagar, in modern Nepal.  Far from being sectarian, Ashoka, based on a belief that all religions shared a common, positive essence, encouraged tolerance and understanding of other religions.

Social and animal welfare.

According to the edicts, Ashoka took great care of the welfare of his subjects (human and animal), and those beyond his borders, spreading the use of medicinal treatments, improving roadside facilities for more comfortable travel, and establishing "officers of the faith" throughout his territories to survey the welfare of the population and the propagation of the Dharma. The Greek king Antiochos ("the Yona king named Antiyoga" in the text of the Edicts) is also named as a recipient of Ashoka's generosity, together with the other kings neighbouring him.  In a particularly famous Edict, the Rummindei Edict in Lumbini, Nepal, Ashoka describes his visit in the 21st year of his reign, and mentions Lumbini as the birthplace of the Buddha. He also, for the first time in historical records, uses the epithet "Sakyamuni" (Sage of the Shakyas), to describe the historical Buddha.

Ashoka's proselytism according to the Edicts.

In order to propagate welfare, Ashoka explains that he sent emissaries and medicinal plants to the Hellenistic kings as far as the Mediterranean, and to people throughout India, claiming that Dharma had been achieved in all their territories as well. He names the Greek rulers of the time, inheritors of the conquest of Alexander the Great, from Bactria to as far as Greece and North Africa, as recipients of the Dharma, displaying a clear grasp of the political situation at the time.

Proselytism beyond India.

The distance of 600 yojanas (4,800 to 6,000 miles) corresponds roughly to the distance between the center of India and Greece.  In the Gandhari original Antiochos is referred to as ""Amtiyoge nama Yona-raja"" (lit. "The Greek king by the name of Antiokos"), beyond whom live the four other kings: ""param ca tena Atiyogena cature 4 rajani Tulamaye nama Amtekine nama Makā nama Alikasudaro nama"" (lit. "And beyond Antiochus, four kings by the name of Ptolemy, the name of Antigonos, the name of Magas, the name Alexander".  All the kings mentioned in Ashoka's Major Rock Edict No.13 are famous Hellenistic rulers, contemporary of Ashoka:  It is not clear in Hellenic records whether these emissaries were actually received, or had any influence on the Hellenic world. But the existence of the edicts in a very high-level Greek literary and philosophical language testifies to the high sophistication of the Greek community of Kandahar, and to a true communication between Greek intellectuals and Indian thought. According to historian Louis Robert, it becomes quite likely that these Kandahar Greeks who were very familiar with Indian culture could in turn transmit Indian ideas to the philosophical circles of the Mediterranean world, in Seleucia, Antioch, Alexandria, Pella or Cyrene. He suggests that the famous Ashoka emissaries sent to the Western Hellenistic Courts according to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict No.13 were in fact Greek subjects and citizens of Kandahar, who had the full capacity to carry out these embassies.  Another document, the "Mahavamsa" (XII, 1st paragraph), also states that in the 17th year of his reign, at the end of the Third Buddhist Council, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to eight parts of Southern Asia and the "country of the Yonas" (Greeks) to propagate Buddhism.  Overall, the evidence for the presence of Buddhists in the west from that time is very meager. But some scholars point to the possible presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world, in particular in Alexandria. Dio Chrysostum wrote to Alexandrians that there are "Indians who view the spectacles with you and are with you on all occasions" (Oratio.XXXII.373). According to Ptolemy also, Indians were present in Alexandria, to whom he was much endebted for his knowledge of India (As.Res.III.53). Clement of Alexandria too mentioned the presence of Indians in Alexandria. A possible Buddhist gravestone from the Ptolemaic period has been found by Flinders Petrie, decorated with a depiction of what may be Wheel of the Law and Trishula. According to the 11th century Muslim historian Al-Biruni, before the advent of Islam, Buddhists were present in Western Asia as far as the frontiers of Syria.  Colonial era scholars such as Rhys Davids have attributed Ashoka's claims of "Dharmic conquest" to mere vanity, and expressed disbelief that Greeks could have been in any way influenced by Indian thought.  But numerous authors have noted the parallels between Buddhism, Cyrenaicism and Epicureanism, which all strive for a state of ataraxia ("equanimity") away from the sorrows of life. The positions of philosophers such as Hegesias of Cyrene were close to Buddhism, his ideas recalling the Buddhist doctrine of suffering: he lived in the city of Cyrene where Magas ruled, the same Magas under whom the Dharma prospered according to Ashoka, and he may have been influenced by Ashoka's missionaries.  The religious communities of the Essenes of Palestine and the Therapeutae of Alexandria may also have been communities based on the model of Buddhist monasticism, following Ashoka's missions. According to semitologist André Dupont-Sommer, speaking about the consequences of Ashoka's proselytism: "It is India which would be, according to us, at the beginning of this vast monastic current which shone with a strong brightness during about three centuries in Judaism itself". This influence would even contribute, according to André Dupont-Sommer, to the emergence of Christianity: "Thus was prepared the ground on which Christianity, that sect of Jewish origin influenced by the Essenes, which was so quickly and so powerfully to conquer a very large part of the world."

Proselytism within Ashoka's territories.

Inside India proper, in the realm of Ashoka, many different populations were the object of the King's proselytism. Greek communities also lived in the northwest of the Mauryan empire, currently in Pakistan, notably ancient Gandhara, and in the region of Gedrosia, nowadays in Southern Afghanistan, following the conquest and the colonization efforts of Alexander the Great around 323 BCE. These communities therefore seem to have been still significant during the reign of Ashoka. The Kambojas are a people of Central Asian origin who had settled first in Arachosia and Drangiana (today's southern Afghanistan), and in some of the other areas in the northwestern Indian subcontinent in Sindhu, Gujarat and Sauvira. The Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas were other people under Ashoka's rule:

Influences.

Achaemenid inscriptional tradition.

The inscriptions of Ashoka may show Achaemenid influences, including formulaic parallels with Achaemenid inscriptions, presence of Iranian loanwords (in Aramaic inscriptions), and the very act of engraving edicts on rocks and mountains (compare for example Behistun inscription). To describe his own Edicts, Ashoka used the word "Lipī" (𑀮<unk>), now generally simply translated as "writing" or "inscription". It is thought the word "lipi", which is also orthographed "dipi" (<unk> ) in the two Kharosthi versions of the rock edicts, comes from an Old Persian prototype "dipî" () also meaning "inscription", which is used for example by Darius I in his Behistun inscription, suggesting borrowing and diffusion. There are other borrowings of Old Persian terms for writing-related words in the Edicts of Ahoka, such as "nipista" or "nipesita" (, "written" and "made to be written") in the Kharoshthi version of Major Rock Edict No.4, which can be related to the word "nipištā" ("written") from the "daiva" inscription of Xerxes at Persepolis.

Hellenistic inscriptions.

It has also been suggested that inscriptions bearing the Delphic maxims from the Seven Sages of Greece, inscribed by philosopher Clearchus of Soli in the neighbouring city of Ai-Khanoum circa 300 BCE, may have influenced the writings of Ashoka. These Greek inscriptions, located in the central square of Ai-Khanoum, put forward traditional Greek moral rules which are very close to the Edicts, both in term of formulation and content.

Ancestor of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

The first examples of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system appeared in the Brahmi numerals used in the Edicts of Ashoka, in which a few numerals are found, although the system is not yet positional (the zero, together with a mature positional system, was invented much later around the 6th century CE) and involves different symbols for units, dozens or hundreds. This system is later further documented with more numerals in the Nanaghat inscriptions (1st century BCE), and later in the Nasik Caves inscriptions (2nd century CE), to acquire designs which are largely similar to the Hindu-Arabic numerals used today.  The number "6" in particular appears in Minor Rock Edict No.1 when Ashoka explains he has "been on tour for 256 days". The evolution to the modern glyph for 6 appears rather straightforward. It was written in one stroke, somewhat like a cursive lowercase "e". Gradually, the upper part of the stroke (above the central squiggle) became more curved, while the lower part of the stroke (below the central squiggle) became straighter. The Arabs dropped the part of the stroke below the squiggle. From there, the European evolution to the modern 6 was very straightforward, aside from a flirtation with a glyph that looked more like an uppercase G.

Influence on Indian epigraphy.

Ashokan inscriptions in Prakrit precede by several centuries inscriptions in Sanskrit, probably owing to the great prestige which Ashokan inscriptions gave to the Prakrit language. Louis Renou called it "the great linguistical paradox of India" that the Sanskrit inscriptions appear later than Prakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.  Ashoka was probably the first Indian ruler to create stone inscriptions, and in doing so, he began an important Indian tradition of royal epigraphical inscriptions. The earliest known stone inscriptions in Sanskrit are in the Brahmi script from the first century BCE. These early Sanskrit inscriptions include the Ayodhyā (Uttar Pradesh) and Hāthībādā-Ghosuṇḍī (near Chittorgarh, Rajasthan) inscriptions. Other important inscriptions dated to the 1st century BCE, in relatively accurate classical Sanskrit and Brahmi script are the Yavanarajya inscription on a red sandstone slab and the long Naneghat inscription on the wall of a cave rest stop in the Western Ghats. Besides these few examples from the 1st century BCE, the bulk of early Sanskrit inscriptions were made from the 1st and 2nd-century CE by the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps in Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), and the Western Satraps in Gujarat and Maharashtra. According to Salomon, the Scythian rulers of northern and western India while not the originators, were promoters of the use of Sanskrit language for inscriptions, and "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite".  The Brahmi script used in the Edicts of Ashoka, as well as the Prakrit language of these inscriptions was in popular use down through the Kushan period, and remained readable down to the 4th century CE during the Gupta period. After that time the script underwent significant evolutions which rendered the Ashokan inscriptions unreadable. This still means that Ashoka's Edicts were for everyone to see and understand for a period of nearly 700 years in India, suggesting that they remained significantly influential for a long time.

Questions of authorship.

According to some scholars such as Christopher I. Beckwith, Ashoka, whose name only appears in the Minor Rock Edicts, should be differentiated from the ruler Piyadasi, or "Devanampiya" Piyadasi (i.e. "Beloved of the Gods Piyadasi", "Beloved of the Gods" being a fairly widespread title for "King"), who is named as the author of the Major Pillar Edicts and the Major Rock Edicts. Beckwith also highlights the fact that Buddhism nor the Buddha are mentioned in the Major Edicts, but only in the Minor Edicts. Further, the Buddhist notions described in the Minor Edicts (such as the Buddhist canonical writings in Minor Edict No.3 at Bairat, the mention of a Buddha of the past Kanakamuni Buddha in the Nigali Sagar Minor Pillar Edict) are more characteristic of the "Normative Buddhism" of the Saka-Kushan period around the 2nd century CE.  This inscriptional evidence may suggest that Piyadasi and Ashoka were two different rulers. According to Beckwith, Piyadasi was living in the 3rd century BCE, probably the son of Chandragupta Maurya known to the Greeks as Amitrochates, and only advocating for piety ("Dharma") in his Major Pillar Edicts and Major Rock Edicts, without ever mentioning Buddhism, the Buddha or the Samgha. Since he does mention a pilgrimage to "Sambhodi" (Bodh Gaya, in Major Rock Edict No.8) however, he may have adhered to an "early, pietistic, popular" form of Buddhism. Also, the geographical spread of his inscription shows that Piyadasi ruled a vast Empire, contiguous with the Seleucid Empire in the West.  On the contrary, for Beckwith, Ashoka himself was a later king of the 1st-2nd century CE, whose name only appears explicitly in the Minor Rock Edicts and allusively in the Minor Pillar Edicts, and who does mention the Buddha and the Samgha, explicitly promoting Buddhism. He may have been an unknown or possibly invented ruler named Devanampriya Asoka, with the intent of propagating a later, more institutional version of the Buddhist faith. His inscriptions cover a very different and much smaller geographical area, clustering in Central India. According to Beckwith, the inscriptions of this later Ashoka were typical of the later forms of "normative Buddhism", which are well attested from inscriptions and Gandhari manuscripts dated to the turn of the millennium, and around the time of the Kushan Empire. The quality of the inscriptions of this Ashoka is significantly lower than the quality of the inscriptions of the earlier Piyadasi.  However, many of Beckwith's methodologies and interpretations concerning early Buddhism, inscriptions, and archaeological sites have been criticized by other scholars, such as Johannes Bronkhorst and Osmund Bopearachchi.

The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of more than thirty inscriptions on the pillars, as well as boulders and cave walls, attributed to Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire who reigned from 268 BCE to 232 BCE. Ashoka used the expression "Dhaṃma Lipi" (Prakrit in the Brahmi script: <unk>𑀮<unk>, "Inscriptions of the Dharma") to describe his own Edicts. These inscriptions were dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Afghanistan and Pakistan, and provide the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail Ashoka's view about dhamma, an earnest attempt to solve some of the problems that a complex society faced. According to the edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism during this period reached as far as the Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created.

阿育王诏书(英语:Edicts of Ashoka),又称阿育王诏令、阿育王垂谕,于印度孔雀王朝阿育王时代所流传下的石刻文书,出现时间约在公元前269年至前231年间。在孟加拉、尼泊尔至巴基斯坦等地,都曾发现这类的古石刻文书,计有大磨崖、小磨崖各七所、石柱十根、石窟刻铭及石板等五种。除小磨崖法敕有阿育王之名外,余皆刻以天爱喜见王(梵 Devānajpriya priyadraśi,巴 Devānajpiya piyadassin)之名。它是研究孔雀王朝与原始佛教的重要考古资料。


Toponymy.

The city was named in honour of Ali, the fourth caliph and cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. Hyderabad's name translates literally as "Lion City" - from "haydar", meaning "lion," and "ābād", which is a suffix indicating a settlement. "Lion" references Ali's valour in battle, and so he is often referred to as "Ali Haydar", roughly meaning "Ali the Lionheart," by South Asian Muslims.

History.

Founding.

The River Indus was changing course around 1757, resulting in periodic floods of the then capital of the Kalhora dynasty, Khudabad. Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro decided to shift the capital away from Khudabad, and founded Hyderabad in 1768 over a limestone ridge on the eastern bank of the Indus River known as "Ganjo Takkar", or "Bald Hill." The small hill is traditionally believed to have been the location of the ancient settlement of "Neroon Kot", a town which had fallen to the armies of Muhammad Bin Qasim in 711 CE. When the foundations were laid, the city came to be known by the nickname "Heart of the Mehran".  Devotees of Imam Ali advised Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro to name the city in honour of their Imam. The Shah of Iran later gifted the city a stone which purportedly bears the imprint of Ali's feet. The stone was placed in the "Qadamgah Maula Ali", which then became a place of pilgrimage.

Kalhora.

In 1768, Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro ordered a fort to be built on one of the three hills of Hyderabad to house and defend his people. The fort was built using baked clay bricks, earning it the name "Pacco Qillo", meaning "Strong Fort" in Sindhi. The fort was completed in 1769, and is spread over 36 acres. Mian Ghulam Shah also built the "Shah Makki Fort," commonly known as "Kacha Qila", to fortify the tomb of the Sufi saint Shah Makki.  Hyderabad remained the Kalhora capital during the period in which Sindh was united under their rule. Attracted by the security of the city, Hyderabad began to attract artisans and traders from throughout Sindh, thereby resulting in the decline of other rival trading centres such as Khudabad. A portion of the population of Khudabad migrated to the new capital, including "Sonaras", "Amils" and "Bhaibands". Those groups retained the term "Khudabadi" in the names of their communities as a marker of origin.  Mian Ghulam Shah died in 1772, and was succeeded by his son, Sarfraz Khan Kalhoro. In 1774, Sarfraz Khan built a "New" Khudabad north of Hala in memory of the old Kalhoro capital, and attempted to shift his capital there. The attempt failed, and Hyderabad continued to prosper while New Khudabad was abandoned by 1814. A formal plan for the city was laid out by Sarfraz Khan in 1782.

Talpur.

Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur captured the city of Khudabad from the Kalhoros in 1773, and made the city his capital. He then captured Hyderabad in 1775, and shifted his capital there in 1789 after Khudabad once again flooded. Renovation and reconstruction of the city's fort began in 1789, and lasted for 3 years. Celebrations were held in 1792 to mark his formal entry in the Pacco Qillo fort, which he made his residence and held court.  Talpur rule maintained Hyderabad's security, and the city continued to attract migrants from throughout Sindh, turning the city into a major regional center. Lohana Hindus from Afghanistan migrated to the city and set up ship as metalworkers. The city's goldsmiths, silversmiths, and leather tanners began to export their Hyderabadi wares abroad. The city's textile industry boomed with the arrival of "Susi" and "Khes" cotton cloth and handicrafts from towns in rural Sindh. The city's became renowned for its calligraphers and bookbinders, while its carpet dealers traded carpets from nearby Thatta.  Henry Pottinger traveled up the Indus River in the early 1830s on behalf of the British. He claimed to have seen 341 ships over the course of 19 days at Hyderabad, indicating its importance as a major trading center by this time. Hyderabad's goods were mostly exported to markets in Khorasan, India, Turkestan, and Kashmir - though some Hyderabadi wares were displayed at The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London.  In order to use the Indus River for commercial navigation to Punjab, the British signed a treaty with the rulers of Hyderabad and Khairpur that guaranteed the British free passage along the Indus and through Sindh. Mir Murad Ali was pressured into accepting an 1838 treaty which resulted in the stationing of a British Resident in the city. The British also signed a treaty of "eternal friendship" with the Talpur rulers of Hyderabad in the early 19th century, who promised not to allow the French to set up residency in Sindh. In 1839, they were pressured into forcing another treaty that guaranteed the British trade and security privileges.

British.

The British defeated the city's Talpur rulers at the Battle of Hyderabad on 24 March 1843. The provincial capital was then transferred to Karachi by the British general Sir Charles Napier. Being the last stronghold in Sindh, the conquered city was the final step in the British Conquest of Sindh. Following the success of the British, several of the city's Talpur Mirs rulers were exiled and died in Calcutta. Their bodies were eventually brought back to Hyderabad, and were buried in the Tombs of the Talpur Mirs located at the northern edge of the Ganjo Hill.  Hyderabad's prosperity did not initially decline after the shifting of Sindh's capital to Karachi. Merchants there forged links with the commercial community in Hyderabad, and began exporting Hyderabadi wares to distant markets. Following Sindhi's assimilation into the Bombay Presidency in 1847, the city emerged as hub for a style of handicrafts known as "Sindwork" that was peddled in Bombay, and prized by its European residents for its perceived authenticity of style. The work was then shipped from Bombay to Egypt in order to be sold as souvenirs to tourists there. Hyderabadi traders also spread east towards Singapore and Japan as well. Unable to fulfill demand for its products, Hyderabad's traders began to import crafts from Kashmir, Varanasi, China, and Japan to ease demand. "Sindwork" handicrafts thus placed Hyderabad at the center of a new trading network that was almost entirely dominated by Hindus from the city's mercantile "Bhaiband" segment of the Lohana caste, although the artisans themselves were primarily Muslim.  The city's jail was built in 1851, and the Municipality of Hyderabad was established in 1853. In the Pacco Qillo the British kept the arsenal of the province, transferred from Karachi in 1861, and the palaces of the ex-Amirs of Sind that they had taken over. In 1857, when the Indian mutiny raged across the South Asia, the British held most of their regiments and ammunition in this city. Though the city did not witness major fighting, the British demolished the large round tower that once stood outside of Pacco Qillo, deeming it a potential risk to their rule were it to fall into the hands of rebels.  Hyderabad's Rani Bagh ("Queen's Garden") was established as Das Gardens in 1861, and was re-christened in honour of Queen Victoria. British-style schools were introduced in Hyderabad by the 1860s, while the St Joseph Missionary School was established in 1868. Further European schools were opened, while Hyderabad's Hindu and Muslim elite established schools for their respective communities throughout the British colonial period. A hospital, psychiatric institution, and quarters for officials were built in 1871. By 1872, 43,088 people lived in the city. The city by 1873 had 20 kilometers of metaled roads that were lit at night by kerosene lamps. The newly built urban quarters of Saddar and Soldier Bazaar further expanded the city.  The British built a rail network throughout the western part of South Asia in the 1880s, and purchased the private Scinde Railway to connect the province to Kabul trade routes. The rail network would later be called the North-Western State Railway. The Kotri Bridge was completed in 1900 to traverse the Indus, and link Hyderabad to Karachi. Hyderabad's economy grew as a result of improved transportation. The city increasingly developed into a consumer market under British rule, and the city's exports began to decline, though increased transit trade allowed the city's economy to continue growing.  In 1901, 69,378 people lived in the city. Hinduism was the most dominant religion with 43,499 followers, while 24,831 Muslims made up the largest religious minority. The city ranked seventh in the Bombay Presidency in terms of population. By 1907, the Gazetteer of Sindh claimed that 5,000 Hyderabadi merchants were to be found dispersed throughout the world. The city's Navalrai Clock Tower was built in 1914. Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore remarked in the early 20th century that Hyderabad was the "most fashionable" city in all of India.

Modern.

The City of Hyderabad served as the capital of Sindh province between 1947 and 1955. The Partition of British India resulted in the large-scale exodus of much of the city's Hindu population, though like much of Sindh, Hyderabad did not experience the widespread rioting that occurred in Punjab and Bengal. In all, less than 500 Hindu were killed in Sindh between 1947-48 as Sindhi Muslims largely resisted calls to turn against their Hindu neighbours. Hindus did not flee Hyderabad "en masse" until riots erupted in Karachi on 6 January 1948, which sowed fear in Sindhi Hindus despite the fact that the riots were local and regarded Sikh refugees from Punjab seeking refuge in Karachi.  The Hindus who departed had played a major role in the city's economy, and formed the majority of the Hyderabad's population. The vacuum left by the departure of much of the city's Hindu population was quickly filled by newly arrived refugees from India, known as Muhajirs. By 1951, 66% of the city was made up of Muhajirs. Though Hyderabad became a majority Urdu-speaking city in the 1940s, the arrival of Pashtuns and Punjabis from northern Pakistan further diversified the city's ethnic composition over the next few decades.  Animosity between Urdu and Sindhi speakers first arose in 1967, it intensified under the Pakistan People's Party government in the 1970s, which were widely perceived by Muhajirs to be a pro-Sindhi administration. Violence erupted between Urdu and Sindhi speakers during riots in 1971 when the provincial government wished to impose Sindhi-language requirements on Urdu speakers, and again in 1972 in reaction to the 1972 Sindhi Language Bill.  The "Khuda Ki Basti" housing scheme was launched in Hyderabad 1981 as a way to provide housing to low-income residents by forming local cooperatives pool funds to gradually provide increased services that would in turn be managed by community members. Success of the project resulted in the programme being launched in Karachi as well.  The late 1980s saw turbulent ethnic rioting between Sindhis and Muhajirs. On 30 September 1988, militants from the Sindh Progressive Party drove into Muhajir dominated areas in the city, and opened indiscriminate fire in busy crossroads. The so-called "Hyderabad Massacre" resulted in the deaths of over 60 people in a single day, and more than 250 deaths in total. In a backlash, more than 60 Sindhi speaking people were gunned down in Karachi. The city began to divide itself ethnically, and the Muhajir population migrated en masse from Qasimabad and the interior of Sindh into Latifabad. Similarly, Sindhis moved to Qasimabad from Hyderabad and Latifabad. Further ethnic disturbances occurred in May 1990, including a police-led siege of the Pacco Qillo fortress in the center of Hyderabad, in which Muhajir activists claim 150 were killed. 2 bombings on trains in Hyderabad killed 10 people in 2000.  Much of Hyderabad's public spaces have been encroached upon by illegally-constructed homes and businesses. Much of the city's historic structures are badly neglected, with little preservation being undertaken by the provincial administration.

Demographics.

Population.

Hyderabad is home to 1,732,693 people as per the 2017 Census of Pakistan. The city gained 565,799 residents since the 1998 Census, representing an increase of 48.5% - the lowest growth rate of the ten largest Pakistani cities.

Ethnicity.

Hyderabad was a majority Sindhi Hindu city prior to 1948, when many migrated to India and elsewhere after the independence of Pakistan 1947. Hindus who departed had played a major role in the city's economy, and formed the majority of the Hyderabad's population. The vacuum left by the departure of much of the city's Hindu population was quickly filled by the newly arrived Urdu speaking Muslim refugees from India, known as Muhajirs.  Following the arrival of Muhajirs, Hyderabad became a majority Urdu-speaking city, with Muhajirs making up 66% of the city's population. The arrival of Pashtuns and Punjabis from northern Pakistan further diversified the city's ethnic composition over the next few decades, and by 1998, the percentage of Urdu speakers had fallen to 58%. Most Punjabis and Pakhtuns are distinct and separately living near the railway station and its vicinity. The city therefore has cosmopolitan atmosphere with multiethnic and multicultural communities. The city is now a multi-ethnic and has a mix of Sindhi, Urdu speaking Muhajirs, Brahuis, Punjabis, Pashtuns, Memons and Baloch people.

Religion.

Hyderabad is noteworthy in Sindh and Pakistan generally for its comparative tolerance towards religious and ethnic minorities. The spread of Islamist militancy and extremism has been stymied in large parts of Sindh by vibrant civil society, and Sindh's progressive politics.  The city has a long association with Sufism. In the 18th Century Syeds from Multan migrated and settled in the city's Tando Jahania neighbourhood, making it a sacred place for Muslims. The "Syeds" came from Uch Sharif, via Jahanian, 42 km from Multan). They were mostly descendants of Jahaniyan Jahangasht - a Sufi saint who is popular in Sindh and southern Punjab. Hyderabad is near some of Sindh's most important Sufi shrines, being situated from the joint Muslim-Hindu Shrine at Odero Lal, from the Shrine of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, from the Shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar.  Hindus once formed the majority in Hyderabad prior to 1948, and today account for the largest religious minority in Hyderabad - forming 5% of the total population of the city. Hyderabad's "Amil" Hindus clan of the Lohana caste had been employed previously the Talpur Mirs for their Persian language proficiency and skills in bureaucracy - this role continued under the British as the "Amils" were recruited into colonial administration. The "Amils" formed the Amil Colony, which was where some of Hyderabad's finest colonial architecture was found. The "Bhaiband" clan, also of the Lohana caste, dominated commerce in the city.  While Christians account for 1% of the total population, Hyderabad is the seat of a Diocese of the Church of Pakistan and has five churches and a cathedral.

Geography.

Location.

Located at 25.367 °N latitude and 68.367 °E longitude with an elevation of, Hyderabad is located on the east bank of the Indus River and is roughly away from Karachi, the provincial capital. Two of Pakistan's largest highways, the Indus Highway and the National Highway join at Hyderabad. Several towns surrounding the city include Kotri at, Jamshoro at, Hattri at and Husri at.

Climate.

Hyderabad has a hot desert climate (Köppen "BWh"), with warm conditions year-round. The city is famous for its winds which moderate the otherwise hot climate. As a result, Hyderabadi homes traditionally feature "wind-catching" towers that funnel breezes down into living quarters in order to alleviate heat.  The period from mid-April to late June (before the onset of the monsoon) is the hottest of the year, with highs peaking in May at. During this time, winds that blow usually bring along clouds of dust, and people prefer staying indoors in the daytime, while the breeze that flows at night is more pleasant. Winters are warm, with highs around, though lows can often drop below at night. The highest temperature of was recorded on 25 May 2018, while the lowest temperature of was recorded on 8 February 2012.  In recent years, Hyderabad has seen great downpours. In February 2003, Hyderabad received of rain in 12 hours, leaving many dead. The years of 2006 and 2007 saw close contenders to this record rain with death tolls estimated in the hundreds. The highest single-day rain total of was recorded on 12 September 1962, while the wettest month was September 1962, at.

Topography.

The city was initially founded on a limestone ridge on the eastern bank of the Indus River known as "Ganjo Takkar", or "Bald Hill." The limestone outcropping provided several scenic vistas in the city, as well as inclined routes. The most famous incline, the Tilak Incline, is named after the early 20th century independence activist Lokmanya Tilak.

Economy.

The industrial sector contributes 25% to the GDP of Pakistan, with a major concentration of industry in an arc stretching from Karachi to Hyderabad. 75% of Sindh's industry is located in the Karachi-Hyderabad region. The Sindh Industrial Trading Estate, home to 439 industrial units, was established on the outskirts of Hyderabad in 1950 which prospered with until the urban violence of the 1980s. Much of the city's industrial base was weakened by ethnic violence in urban Sindh in the 1980s, although poor infrastructure and supply of electricity has also hampered growth.  Hyderabad is an important commercial center where industries includes: textiles, sugar, cement, manufacturing of mirror, soap, ice, paper, pottery, plastics, tanneries, hosiery mills and film. There are hide tanneries and sawmills. Handicraft industries, including silver and gold work, lacquer ware, ornamented silks, and embroidered leather saddles, are also well established.  Hyderabad produces almost all of the ornamental glass bangles in Pakistan, as well as layered glass inlay for jewelry. The glass industry employs an estimated 300,000-350,000 people in manufacturing units centered on the "Churi Parah" neighbourhood. The industry frequently uses recycled glass as material for its bangles.  Hyderabad is surrounded by fertile alluvial plains, and is a major commercial center for the agricultural produce of the surrounding area, including millet, rice, wheat, cotton, and fruit.

Cityscape.

Local architecture.

Hyderabad's local architectural patterns reflect the region's harsh climate and local customs. Walls of most traditional-style buildings were made of mud bricks, which helped keep the structure cool in summer and warm in winter. Hyderabad is famed for its heat-relieving winds, and so homes also featured wind-catchers that directed cool breezes into each homes' living quarters.  Residential structures in Hyderabad's Old City, and in Hirabad typically have a small inward facing courtyard that afforded privacy from the city's streets. Walls facing the street are typically plain, though the home may display an elaborate entryway. Inner courtyards and doorways of more elaborate homes would be decorated with "jharoka" balconies, floral motifs, ornamented ceilings, and decorative arches. Most residential homes, however, were utilitarian in design.  Homes built during the British colonial period contain introduced architectural elements like balconies and decorative columns as part of an elaborate outward-facing façade. Such examples can be found in the Saddar neighborhood of Hyderabad. Large decorated windows were featured as part of Hyderabad's colonial style in order to ventilate the building. Tall and multi-sectional windows with stained glass windows became a hallmark of Hyderabad's colonial-era architecture. Homes of wealthy residents, especially among the city's "Bhaiband" community, the presence of windows was a marker of status, and allowed wealthy Hindus to practice the custom of purdah. Balconies were sometimes affixed to the front of a building, and were typically made of wood or cast-iron. Such homes would also sometimes have painted facades.

Civic administration.

Before the government of Abubaker Nizamani, the District Hyderabad included the present-day District of Badin. The longest-serving mayor of Hyderabad was Jamil Ahmed, who served from 1962 to 1971.  In 2005/2006, General Pervaiz Musharraf again divided it into four more districts Matiyari, Tando Allahyar, Tando Mohammad Khan and Hyderabad. Hyderabad district was subdivided into four talukas

Judiciary.

Court of District & Sessions Judge Hyderabad was established in 1899 under the subordination of Judicial Commissioner of Sindh.

Transportation.

Road.

The M-9 motorway is a 6 lane motorway that connects Hyderabad to Karachi, 136 kilometers away. The city will also be connected to Sukkur by the M-6 motorway, being built as part of the wider China-Pakistan Economic Corridor. From Sukkur, motorways will continue onward to Multan, Lahore, Islamabad, Faisalabad, and Peshawar.

Rail.

Hyderabad Junction railway station serves as the city's main rail station. Passenger services are provided exclusively by Pakistan Railways. The city's station is serviced by the Allama Iqbal Express to Sialkot, the Badin Express, and the Khyber Mail to Peshawar. Hyderabad has trains to Nawabshah, Badin, Tando Adam Junction, Karachi, and points in northern Pakistan.

Air.

Hyderabad Airport is no longer served by commercial air traffic. The last services were suspended in 2013. Passengers must now instead rely entirely on Karachi's Jinnah International Airport.

Education.

75% of males and 65% of females over the age of 10 were literate in Hyderabad District in 2010, a region which includes rural areas around the city. In 2010-2011, 2.96 Billion Rupees were spent on public education in Hyderabad District, and number which increased to 3.99 Billion Rupees in 2011-2012. 26% of children in Hyderabad District were enrolled in paid private schools in 2010.  The University of Sindh was founded in Karachi in 1947, before moving to Hyderabad in 1951. The Liaquat University of Medical and Health Sciences was founded in nearby Jamshoro in 1951.

Sports.

The Niaz Stadium of Hyderabad, with a seating capacity of 15,000 is home to the Hyderabad cricket team. It is known for Pakistani bowler Jalal-ud-Din's hat-trick, which was the first ever hat-trick taken by a bowler in an one-day match in 1982. Hyderabad also has a hockey stadium.

Media.

Literature.

As tradition goes, Sindh had always been a hub for Sufi poets. With a foothold on strong educational foundations, the city of Hyderabad was made into a refuge for thriving literary advocates. Of the few, Mirza Kalich Beg received education from the Government High School, Hyderabad and carried the banner of Sindhi literature across borders. Modern novelists, writers, columnists and researchers like Musharraf Ali Farooqi, Ghulam Mustafa Khan and Qabil Ajmeri also hail from Hyderabad.  Hyderabad has served many Sindhi literary campaigns throughout the history of Pakistan as is evident from the daily newspapers and periodicals that are published in the city. A few worth mention dailies are the Kawish, Ibrat, and Daily Sindh.

Radio and television.

With the inauguration of a new broadcasting house at Karachi in 1950, it was possible to lay the foundations for the Hyderabad radio station in 1951. The initial broadcast was made capable using 1 kW medium-wave transmitter. With the first successful transmissions on the FM 100 bandwidth in Karachi, Lahore and Islamabad in October 1998, the Government decided on opening transmissions to other cities where Radio Pakistan had found success. This made available the FM 101 bandwidth transmissions to Hyderabad and other cities in Sindh.  A relief from the regular broadcasts in other cities, entertainment content on the Hyderabad radio gave birth to many a star whose names became an attribute to Hyderabad's richer media content. Among them were actor Shafi Mohammad, a young man who had recently finished his postgraduate degree from the University of Sindh. Such fresh and young talent became a trademark to entertainment in Hyderabad.  Pakistan Television had only had half-a-decade broadcast success from 1963 to 1969 that people in the radio entertainment business felt destined to make a mark on the television circuits. Prominent radio personalities from the Hyderabad radio station like Shafi Muhammad Shah and Mohammad Ali left the airwaves to hone their acting skills on the television. Television shows and content enriched with the inclusion of Hyderabadi names however PTV never opened a television station in Hyderabad.  While the year 2005 saw new FM regular stations set up at Gawadar, Mianwali, Sargodha, Kohat, Bannu and Mithi, private radio channels began airing in and around Hyderabad. Of late, stations like Sachal FM 105 and some others have gained popularity. But the unavailability of an up-to-date news and current affairs platform renders the services of such stations of not much value to the masses but nonetheless appealing to youngsters.  As the Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (abbreviated as PEMRA) gave licenses to private radio channels, so were television channels owned privately given a right to broadcast from the year 2002, and Daily Kawish, a prominent Sindhi newspaper published from Hyderabad opened a one-of-its-kind private Sindhi channel Kawish Television Network. Many followed in its path namely Sindh TV, Dhoom TV and Kashish TV premiering Sindhi content.

Hyderabad (Sindhi and ; () is a city and capital of Hyderabad Division located in the Sindh province of Pakistan. It is the second-largest city in Sindh and 8th largest in Pakistan. Founded in 1768 by Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro of the Kalhora Dynasty, Hyderabad served as a provincial capital until the British transferred the capital to Karachi in 1843.

海得拉巴(乌尔都语:)是巴基斯坦信德省的一座城市,位于巴基斯坦南部,印度河东岸,卡拉奇的东北面约150公里,人口1,447,275人(2006年)。


Etymology.

A popular etymology derives the word "Telangana" from "Trilinga desa" ("land of three lingas"), a region so called because three important Shaivite shrines were located here: Kaleshwaram, Srisailam and Draksharama. According to Jayadhir Thirumala Rao, a former director of Andhra Pradesh Oriental Manuscripts Library and Research Centre, the name Telangana is of Gondi origin. Rao asserts that it is derived from "Telangadh", which according to him, means "south" in Gondi and has been referred to in "Gond script dating back to about 2000 years".  One of the earliest uses of a word similar to Telangana can also be seen in a name of Malik Maqbul (14th century CE), who was called the "Tilangani", which implies that he was from Telangana. He was the commander of the Warangal Fort ("Kataka Pāludu").  A 16th-century travel writer, Firishta, recorded in his book: During the just reign of Ibrahim Kootb Shah, "Tulingana", like Egypt, became the mart of the whole world. Merchants from Toorkistan, Arabia, and Persia resorted to it; and they met with such encouragement that they found in it inducements to return frequently. The greatest luxuries from foreign parts daily abounded at the king's hospitable board.  The word "Telinga" changed over time to "Telangana" and the name "Telangana" was designated to distinguish the predominantly Telugu-speaking region of the erstwhile Hyderabad State from its predominantly Marathi-speaking one, Marathwada. After Asaf Jahis ceded the Seemandhra region to the British, the rest of the Telugu region retained the name Telingana and the other parts were called Madras Presidency's Circars and Ceded.

History.

Telangana was governed by many rulers, including the Maurya Empire (320 BCE–180 BCE), Satavahana dynasty (180 BCE–220 CE), Vakataka dynasty (250 CE–500 CE), Chalukya dynasty (543 CE–753 CE), Rashtrakuta dynasty (753 CE–982 CE), the Kakatiya dynasty (1083 CE–1323 CE), the Musunuri Nayaks (1326 CE–1356 CE) the Delhi Sultanate, the Bahmani Sultanate (1347 CE–1512 CE), Vijayanagara Empire (1336 CE–1646 CE), Qutb Shahi dynasty (1512 CE–1687 CE), Mughal Empire (1687 CE–1724 CE) and Asaf Jahi Dynasty (1724 CE–1948 CE).

Early history.

The Satavahana dynasty (230 BCE to 220 CE) became the dominant power in this region. It originated from the lands between the Godavari and Krishna rivers and was based at Amaravathi and Dharanikota. After the decline of the Satavahanas, various dynasties, such as the Vakataka, Vishnukundina, Chalukya, Rashtrakuta and Western Chalukya, ruled the area.

Kakatiya Dynasty.

The Telangana area experienced its golden age during the reign of the Kakatiya dynasty, which ruled most parts of the present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana from 1083 to 1323 CE. Rudrama Devi and Prataparudra II were prominent rulers from the Kakatiya dynasty. The dynasty weakened with the attack of Malik Kafur in 1309 and was dissolved after the defeat of Prataparudra by the forces of Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1323.

Qutab Shahi and Asaf Jahi's.

The area came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century, followed by the Bahmani Sultanate. Quli Qutb Mulk, a governor of Golconda, revolted against the Bahmani Sultanate and established the Qutb Shahi dynasty in 1518. On 21 September 1687, the Golconda Sultanate came under the rule of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb after a year-long siege of the Golconda fort.  During the early seventeenth century a strong cotton-weaving industry existed in Telangana. Large quantities of cotton were produced for domestic and exports consumption. High quality plain and patterned cloth made of muslin and calico was produced.  In 1712, Qamar-ud-din Khan was appointed by emperor Farrukhsiyar as the viceroy of Deccan with the title "Nizam-ul-Mulk" (meaning "Administrator of the Realm"). He was later recalled to Delhi, with Mubariz Khan appointed as the viceroy. In 1724, Qamar-ud-din Khan defeated Mubariz Khan to reclaim the "Deccan suba," establishing it as an autonomous province of the Mughal empire. He took the name "Asif Jah", starting what came to be known as the Asaf Jahi dynasty. He named the area Hyderabad Deccan. Subsequent rulers retained the title "Nizam ul-Mulk" and were called Asif Jahi Nizams or nizams of Hyderabad. The Medak and Warangal divisions of Telangana were part of their realm. When Asif Jah I died in 1748, there was political unrest due to contention for the throne among his sons, who were aided by opportunistic neighbouring states and colonial foreign forces. In 1769, Hyderabad city became the formal capital of the Nizams. The Nizam Nasir-ud-dawlah, Asaf Jah IV signed the subsidiary alliance with the British in 1799 and lost its control over the state's defence and foreign affairs. Hyderabad State became a princely state among the presidencies and provinces of British India. In 1787, heavy flooding killed over 20,000 causing a plague which killed about 10,656,000 Telugus again in Telangana.

Post-independence.

When India became independent from the British Empire in 1947, the Nizam of Hyderabad did not want to merge with the Indian Union and wanted to remain independent. The Government of India annexed Hyderabad State on 17 September 1948 after a military operation called Operation Polo. It appointed a civil servant, M. K. Vellodi, as first chief minister of Hyderabad State on 26 January 1950. He administered the state with the help of English-educated bureaucrats from the Madras and Bombay states, who were familiar with British systems of administration unlike the bureaucrats of Hyderabad State who used a completely different administrative system. The official language of the state was switched from Urdu to English.  In 1952, Dr. Burgula Ramakrishna Rao was elected chief minister of the Hyderabad State in its first democratic election. During this time, there were violent agitations by some Telanganites to send the Madras state bureaucrats back and implement a rule by the natives ("mulkis") of Hyderabad (Syed Alam Sharjil) was elected chief minister of Hyderabad after (Dr Burgula Ramakrishana Rao) for one year after he resigned from the post.

Telangana Rebellion.

The Telangana Rebellion was a peasant revolt supported by the communists. It originated in the Telangana regions of the Hyderabad State between 1946 and 1951, led by the Communist Party of India (CPI).  The revolt began in the Nalgonda district against the feudal lords of Reddy and Velama castes. It quickly spread to the Warangal and Bidar districts. Peasant farmers and labourers revolted against the local feudal landlords ("jagirdars" and "deshmukhs") and later against the Nizam Osman Ali Khan. The violent phase of the movement ended after the government of India's Operation Polo. Starting in 1951, the CPI shifted to a more moderate strategy of seeking to bring communism to India within the framework of Indian democracy.

States Reorganisation Commission.

In December 1953, the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was appointed to form states on a linguistic basis. An agreement was reached between Telangana leaders and Andhra leaders on 20 February 1956 to merge Telangana and Andhra with promises to safeguard Telangana's interests. After reorganisation in 1956, the region of Telangana was merged with Andhra State to form Andhra Pradesh.  Following this Gentlemen's agreement, the central government established the unified state of Andhra Pradesh on 1 November 1956. G.O 553 of 1959 from the united Andhra Pradesh state moved two revenue divisions of Bhadrachalam from East Godavari and Aswaraopeta from West Godavari to Khammam for administrative convenience.

Telangana movement.

There have been several movements to revoke the merger of Telangana and Andhra, major ones occurring in 1969, 1972 and 2009. The movement for a new state of Telangana gained momentum in the 21st century by an initiative of Telangana Political Joint Action Committee, TJAC including political leadership representing Telangana area. On 9 December 2009 the government of India announced the process of formation of the Telangana state. Violent protests led by people in the Coastal Andhra and Rayalseema regions occurred immediately after the announcement, and the decision was put on hold on 23 December 2009.  The movement continued in Hyderabad and other districts of Telangana. There have been hundreds of claimed suicides, strikes, protests and disturbances to public life demanding separate statehood.

Formation of Telangana state in 2014.

On 30 July 2013, the Congress Working Committee unanimously passed a resolution to recommend the formation of a separate Telangana state. After various stages the bill was placed in the Parliament of India in February 2014. In February 2014, Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 bill was passed by the Parliament of India for the formation of Telangana state comprising ten districts from north-western Andhra Pradesh. The bill received the assent of the president and published in the Gazette on 1 March 2014.  The state of Telangana was officially formed on 2 June 2014. Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao was elected as the first chief minister of Telangana, following elections in which the Telangana Rashtra Samithi party secured majority. Hyderabad will remain as the joint capital of both Telangana and Andhra Pradesh for a period, not more than ten years after that period Hyderabad shall be the capital of the state of Telangana and there shall be a new capital for the state of Andhra Pradesh. Andhra Pradesh picked Amaravati as its capital and moved its secretariat in 2016 and legislature in March 2017 to its new capital.

Geography.

Telangana is situated on the Deccan Plateau, in the central stretch of the eastern seaboard of the Indian Peninsula. It covers. The region is drained by two major rivers, with about 79% of the Godavari River catchment area and about 69% of the Krishna River catchment area, but most of the land is arid. Telangana is also drained by several minor rivers such as the Bhima, the Maner, the Manjira and the Musi.  The annual rainfall is between 900 and 1500 mm in northern Telangana and 700 to 900 mm in southern Telangana, from the southwest monsoons. Telangana contains various soil types, some of which are red sandy loams (Chalaka), Red loamy sands (Dubba), lateritic soils, salt affected soils, alluvial soils, shallow to medium black soils and very deep black cotton soils. These soil types allow the planting of a variety of fruits and vegetable crops such as mangoes, oranges, coconut, sugarcane, paddy, banana and flower crops.

Climate.

Telangana is a semi-arid area and has a predominantly hot and dry climate. Summers start in March, and peak in May with average high temperatures in the range. The monsoon arrives in June and lasts until September with about 755 mm (29.7 inches) of precipitation. A dry, mild winter starts in late November and lasts until early February with little humidity and average temperatures in the range.

Ecology.

The Central Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests ecoregion covers much of the state, including Hyderabad. The characteristic vegetation is woodlands of "Hardwickia binata" and "Albizia amara". Over 80% of the original forest cover has been cleared for agriculture, timber harvesting, or cattle grazing, but large blocks of forest can be found in Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve and elsewhere. The more humid Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests cover the Eastern Ghats in the eastern part of the state.

National parks and sanctuaries.

Telangana has three National Parks: Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park in Hyderabad district, and Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park and Mrugavani National Park in Ranga Reddy district. Wildlife Sanctuaries in Telangana include Eturunagaram Wildlife Sanctuary and Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary in Warangal District, Kawal Tiger Reserve and Pranahita Wildlife Sanctuary in Adilabad district, Kinnerasani Wildlife Sanctuary in Khammam district, Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary in Medak district, Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Nalgonda and Mahbubnagar districts, Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary in Medak and Nizamabad districts, Shivaram Wildlife Sanctuary in Karimnagar district.  Sacred groves are small areas of forest preserved by local people. Sacred groves provide sanctuary to the local flora and fauna. Some are included within other protected areas, like Kadalivanam in Nagarjunsagar–Srisailam Tiger Reserve, but most stand alone. There are 65 sacred groves Telangana—two in Adilabad district, thirteen in Hyderabad district, four in Karimnagar district, four in Khammam district, nine in Mahbubnagar district, four in Medak district, nine in Nalgonda district, ten in Ranga Reddy district, and three in Warangal district.

Demographics.

Language.

Telugu, one of the classical languages of India, is the official language of Telangana and Urdu is the second official language of the state. About 75% of the population of Telangana speak Telugu and 12% speak Urdu. Before 1948, Urdu was the official language of Hyderabad State, and due to a lack of Telugu-language educational institutions, Urdu was the language of the educated elite of Telangana. After 1948, once Hyderabad State joined the new Republic of India, Telugu became the language of government, and as Telugu was introduced as the medium of instruction in schools and colleges, the use of Urdu among non Hyderabadi Muslims decreased. Both Telugu and Urdu are used in services across the state, such as the Telangana Legislature website, with Telugu and Urdu versions of the website available, as well as the Hyderabad metro, wherein both languages are used on station names and signs along with English and Hindi. The Urdu spoken in Telangana is called Hyderabadi Urdu, which in itself is a dialect of the larger Dakhini Urdu dialects of South India. Although the language is orally spoken by most Hyderabadi Muslims, the language in a literary context has long been lost, and standard Urdu is used. Lambadi is also widely used, and Marathi and Kannada predominate in border areas. Many tribal languages are also spoken, especially in Khammam, the largest being Koya and Gondi.

Religion.

The religious makeup of Telangana is about 85.1% Hindu, 12.7% Muslim, and 1.3% Christian, and 0.9% others.

Literacy.

According to the 2011 census, Telangana's literacy rate is 66.46%. Male literacy and female literacy are 74.95% and 57.92%, respectively. Hyderabad district leads with 80.96% and Mahabubnagar district at the bottom with 56.06%.

Government and politics.

Telangana is governed by a parliamentary system of representative democracy, a feature the state shares with other Indian states. Universal suffrage is granted to residents. There are three branches of government.  Auxiliary authorities known as "panchayats", for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The state contributes seats to Lok Sabha.  The main players in the regional politics are the Telangana Rashtra Samithi, All India Forward Bloc, All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen, Telugu Desam Party, Bharatiya Janata Party and Indian National Congress. Following the Telangana Legislative Assembly Election in 2014, the Telangana Rashtra Samithi under Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao was elected to power.

Administrative divisions.

The state is divided into 33 districts. The latest two new districts, Mulugu and Narayanpet, were formed on 17 February 2019. The districts are divided into 70 revenue divisions which are further divided into 584 mandals.  The districts in the state are: There are a total of 12 cities in the state. Hyderabad is the biggest city in the state and 4th largest city in India. There are 13 municipal corporations and 132 municipalities in the state.

Economy.

The economy of Telangana is mainly driven by agriculture. Two important rivers of India, the Godavari and Krishna, flow through the state, providing irrigation. Farmers in Telangana mainly depend on rain-fed water sources for irrigation. Rice is the major food crop. Other important crops are cotton, sugar cane, mango, and tobacco. Recently, crops used for vegetable oil production such as sunflower and peanuts have gained favour. There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects and Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, the world's highest masonry dam.  The state has also started to focus on the fields of information technology and biotechnology. Telangana is one of top IT-exporting states of India. There are 68 Special Economic Zones in the state.  Telangana is a mineral-rich state, with coal reserves at Singareni Collieries Company.

Agriculture.

Rice is the major food crop and staple food of the state. Other important crops are maize, tobacco, mango, cotton and sugar cane. Agriculture has been the chief source of income for the state's economy. The Godavari and Krishna rivers flow through the state, providing irrigation. Apart from major rivers, there are small rivers like Tunga Bhadra, Bima, Dindi, Kinnerasani, Manjeera, Manair, Penganga, Pranahitha, peddavagu and Taliperu. There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects and Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, the world's highest masonry dam.  Agri Export Zones for the following produce have been proposed for the following locations:

Industries.

Several major manufacturing and services industries are in operation mainly around Hyderabad. Automobiles and auto components, spices, mines and minerals, textiles and apparels, pharmaceutical, horticulture, and poultry farming are the main industries in Telangana.  In terms of services, Hyderabad is nicknamed "Cyberabad" due to the location of major software industries in the city. Prior to secession, it contributed 10% to India's and 98% to Andhra Pradesh's exports in the IT and ITES sectors in 2013 With Hyderabad in the front line of Telangana's goal to promote information technology in India, the city boasts the HITEC City as its premier hub.  The state government is in the process of developing industrial parks at different places, for specific groups of industries. The existing parks are Software Park at Hyderabad, HITEC City for software units, Apparel Park at Gundlapochampalli, Export Promotion Park at Pashamylaram, Biotechnology park at Turkapally.  Hyderabad is also a major site for healthcare-related industries including hospitals and pharmaceutical organisations such as Nizam's Institute of Medical Sciences, Yashoda Hospitals, LV Prasad Eye Care, Akruti Institute of cosmetic and plastic surgery, Fever Hospital, Durgabai Deshmukh, Continental Hospitals and Apollo Hospitals. Many pharmaceutical and pharmaceutical-related companies like Dr. Reddy's Laboratories, Shantha Biotechnics and GVK BIO are based out of Hyderabad.  In addition, Hyderabad-based healthcare non-profits include the Indian Heart Association, a cardiovascular disease NGO.

Tourism.

Telangana State Tourism Development Corporation (TSTDC) is a state government agency which promotes tourism in Telangana. Telangana has a variety of tourist attractions including historical places, monuments, forts, waterfalls, forests and temples.

Awards.

Telangana state has won CNBC-TV18's Promising State of the Year Award for the year of 2015. The Jury for the India Business Leader Awards (IBLA) has collectively chosen Telangana for the award.

Infrastructure.

Power.

Hydel and thermal power projects in the state meet the power requirements of the state. A number of new power projects are coming up in the State which is expected to generate additional power capacity in the state.

Transport.

The state is well connected with other states by means of road, rail and airways. The Telangana State Road Transport Corporation (TSRTC) is the major public transport corporation that connects all the cities and villages. Mahatma Gandhi Bus Station (M.G.B.S) in Hyderabad is one of the largest bus stand in Asia. Jubilee Bus Station in Secunderabad serves inter city bus services.

Roadways.

The state has a total of 16 national highways and accounts for a total length of.

Railways.

The history of railways in this region dates back to the time of Nizam of Hyderabad in 1874. The Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway, which had its beginnings in a line built privately by the HEH the Nizam. Much to the dismay of the British authorities, The Nizam bore all the expenses for the construction of the line.  It operates under the auspices of the South Central Railway founded in 1966. The landmark building Rail Nilayam in Secunderabad is the Zonal Headquarter office of South Central Railway. Secunderabad and Hyderabad are the main divisions of South Central Railway that fall in the state.

Airports.

Rajiv Gandhi International Airport at Shamshabad is an international airport serving the city of Hyderabad It is the largest airport in the state and one of the busiest airports in the country. The government has plans to upgrade Warangal Airport, Nizamabad Airport and Ramagundam Airport It also plans to construct airports in Ramagundam and Kothagudem.  Warangal has a domestic airport in Mamunooru which was established in the year 1930 during Nizam period. All the exports and imports of Azam Jahi Mills, Warangal were done through the Warangal Airport.

Culture.

Telangana culture combines cultural customs from Persian traditions, embedded during the rule of the region by the Mughals, Qutub Shahis and Nizams, with prominent and predominantly south Indian traditions and customs. The State has a rich tradition in classical music, painting and folk arts such as Burra Katha, shadow puppet show, and Perini Shivatandavam, Gusadi Dance, Kolatam.

Monuments.

Charminar, Golconda Fort, Qutb Shahi Tombs, Chowmahalla Palace, Falaknuma Palace, Birla Mandir and Nagarjun sagar, Bhongir Fort, Warangal Fort, Khammam Fort are some of the monuments in and around Hyderabad.

Religious destinations.

There are religious worship centers of different religions in the state.  Hindu worship destinations include Bhadrachalam Temple, Gnana Saraswati Temple, Yadagirigutta Temple, Ramappa Temple, Vemulawada Raja Rajeswara temple, the Thousand Pillar Temple.  The Muslim worship destinations such as Makkah Masjid near Charminar, Khairtabad Mosque, Koh-e-qaim, Mian Mishk Masjid, Toli Masjid and Spanish Mosque.  Christian worship centers include the Diocese of Dornakal of the Church of South India, Bahe Church of South India, and Medak Cathedral. There are also some Buddhist destinations, such as Nelakondapalli, Dhulikatta, Phanigiri and Kolanpaka.

Telugu cinema.

Telugu cinema, also known by its sobriquet as Tollywood, is a part of Indian cinema producing films in the Telugu language, and is centered in the Hyderabad, Telangana neighbourhood of Film Nagar. In the early 1990s, the Telugu film industry had largely shifted from Chennai to Hyderabad. The Telugu film industry is the second-largest film industry in India next to Bollywood Film Industry and followed by Tamil film industry Kollywood). In the years 2005, 2006 and 2008 the Telugu film industry produced the largest number of films in India, exceeding the number of films produced in Bollywood. The industry holds the Guinness World Record for the largest film production facility in the world.

Waterfalls.

Kuntala Waterfall () located in Kuntala, Adilabad district.  Bogatha Waterfall is waterfall located in Koyaveerapuram G, Wazeedu Mandal, Jayashankar Bhupalpally district, Telangana. It is located from Bhadrachalam, away from Warangal and from Hyderabad.  Savatula Gundam Waterfalls are one of the many waterfalls located in Adilabad district, Telangana, India. They are located from Komaram Bheem and from Hyderabad, the state capital.  Gowri Gundaala waterfalls at Sabitham village near Manthani in Peddapalli district.

Education.

Telangana has multiple institutes of higher education universities along with numerous primary and secondary schools. The state is home to a number of institutes, which impart higher education. The Department of Higher Education deals with matters relating to education at various levels in the state of Telangana.  The government has established Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies Basar (RGUKT Basar) in 2008 to cater to the educational needs of the gifted rural youth of Telangana. The higher education includes many colleges, universities and research institutes providing professional education in the fields of arts, humanities, science, engineering, law, medicine, business, and veterinary sciences, with undergraduate and post-graduation. The Indian School of Business (Hyderabad), The Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad (IIT Hyderabad or IITH), a public engineering and research institution is situated in Sangareddy district in Telangana.

Sports.

The Hyderabad cricket team is represented in the Ranji Trophy and has won twice. The Sunrisers Hyderabad, an Indian Premier League franchise, is based in Hyderabad and has won the trophy once. Deccan Chargers, a currently defunct franchise from Hyderabad, also won the Indian Premier League once. The Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium is the home ground of both Hyderabad cricket team and Sunrisers Hyderabad. It hosts international as well as domestic matches. The Hyderabad Hunters, a Premier Badminton League franchise; the Telugu Titans, a Pro Kabaddi League franchise; the Hyderabad Sky, a UBA Pro Basketball League franchise and the Telugu Tigers, a Premier Futsal franchise are also based in Hyderabad. Hyderabad Hunters are previous winners of the Premier Badminton League title.  Notable sports persons from the state are Mohammad Azharuddin, V. V. S. Laxman, Mithali Raj, Pragyan Ojha, Ambati Rayudu, Saina Nehwal, P.V. Sindhu, Jwala Gutta, Parupalli Kashyap, Gagan Narang, Mukesh Kumar and Pullela Gopichand (Andhra Pradesh), as well as Sania Mirza who has been appointed as the "brand ambassador" of Telangana.  Other stadiums include G. M. C. Balayogi Athletic Stadium, Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium and Gachibowli Indoor Stadium.

External links.

Government  General information

Telangana () is a state in India situated on the south-central stretch of the Indian peninsula on the high Deccan Plateau. It is the twelfth largest state and the twelfth-most populated state in India with a geographical area of and 35,193,978 residents as per 2011 census. On 2 June 2014, the area was separated from the northwestern part of Andhra Pradesh as the newly formed 29th state with Hyderabad as its historic permanent capital. Its other major cities include Warangal, Nizamabad, Khammam and Karimnagar. Telangana is bordered by the states of Maharashtra to the north, Chhattisgarh to the east, Karnataka to the west, and Andhra Pradesh to the east and south. The terrain of Telangana region consists mostly of hills, mountain ranges, and thick dense forests covering an area of. As of 2019, the state of Telangana is divided into 33 districts.

泰伦加纳邦(泰卢固语:తెలంగాణ),印度南部的一个邦,于2014年6月2日自安得拉邦析置,总面积114,840平方公里。2011年,总人口35,286,757。泰伦加纳邦首府位于海得拉巴市。