History.

The name was taken from Canton, China. Other towns such as Canton, Massachusetts and Canton, Ohio have used the name for the town. It separated from Simsbury in 1806. At the Collins ax factory in Collinsville, Elisha Root invented the important industrial technique of die casting.

Points of interest.

The Canton Historical Museum in Collinsville is located in a building of the former Collins Axe Company, founded by Samuel W. Collins and one of the first ax factories in the world. It displays a 19th-century general store, a post office, a printing press and blacksmith and barber shops. Vehicles, tools and farm implements are also exhibited, as well as a working railroad diorama, Victorian fashions, toys and dolls.  The town is on the Farmington River, and Collinsville Canoe & Kayak is the largest specialty canoe and kayak store in New England. A rail trail also runs through the town.  In the southeastern corridor of Canton, along U.S. Route 44, there is an open-air shopping center called The Shops at Farmington Valley which opened in 2004. The shopping center has 50 stores and restaurants, including Barnes & Noble, Dick's Sporting Goods, Kohl's, ShopRite, Old Navy, Talbots, and Panera Bread.  The Collinsville Renewable Energy Promotion Act (H.R. 316;113th Congress) was a piece of federal legislation that dealt specifically with Collinsville, CT. The bill was introduced into the United States House of Representatives of the 113th United States Congress by Representatives Elizabeth Esty. The bill directed the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission to reinstate two lapsed licenses and grant them to the town so that the town could restart two old dams and generate hydroelectric power.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, of which is land and, or 1.76%, is water. The town center is a census-designated place (CDP) known as Canton Valley, with an area of, all land.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2010, there were 10,129 people, 4,086 households, and 2,785 families residing in the town. The racial makeup of the town was 95.7% White, 0.9% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.5% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.4% from other races, and 1.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.6% of the population. The population density according to the 2000 census, was 359.7 people per square mile (138.9/km). There were 3,616 housing units at an average density of 147.2 per square mile (56.8/km).  There were 4,086 households, out of which 57.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.5% were married couples living together, 7.68% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.94% had a male householder with no wife present, and 31.84% were non-families. 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.01.  In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.7% under the age of 20, 3.7% from 20 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 32.8% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43.9 years. Females made up 51.7% of the population. , the median income for a household in the town was $91,651, and the median income for a family was $131,673. Males had a median income of $49,980 versus $37,652 for females. The per capita income for the town was $53,007. About 1.9% of families and 2.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.2% of those under age 18 and 0.5% of those age 65 or over. The median income for a household (Est. in 2009) has rose in the town of Canton due to an increase of home sales in the past decade. Canton was listed as one of the fastest growing towns in CT (circa 2006) and is steadily growing.

Transportation.

The town is served by U.S. Routes 44 and 202, as well as Connecticut Routes 177, 179, and 309. Commuter bus service to Hartford is provided by Connecticut Transit Hartford; a Park & Ride lot is on Old River Road in Collinsville. Intercity train and bus services are provided from Union Station in Hartford, and the nearest large airport is Bradley International Airport, about away in Windsor Locks.

Canton is a town, incorporated in 1806, in Hartford County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 8,840 at the 2000 census and 10,292 as of the 2010 census. It is bordered by Granby on the north, Simsbury on the east, Avon and Burlington on the south, New Hartford on the west, and Barkhamsted on the northwest. Running through it is the Farmington River. The town includes the villages of North Canton, Canton Center, Canton (Canton Valley), and Collinsville. In September 2007, Collinsville was ranked in "Budget Travel" magazine as one of the "Ten Coolest Small Towns In America".

坎顿(英语:Canton)是一个位于美国康乃狄克州哈特福县的城镇。


东伍德赛德 (特拉华州)

Geography.

Woodside East is located at (39.0675435, -75.5376242).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of, all of it land.

Demographics.

At the 2000 census there were 2,174 people in 752 households, including 557 families, in the CDP. The population density was 1,272.7 people per square mile (490.9/km2). There were 855 housing units at an average density of 500.5 per square mile (193.1/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 66.33% White, 28.24% African American, 0.55% Native American, 0.78% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 0.87% from other races, and 3.17% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.39%.  Of the 752 households 46.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.8% were married couples living together, 20.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.8% were non-families. 18.9% of households were one person and 3.6% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.28.  The age distribution was 34.7% under the age of 18, 9.2% from 18 to 24, 30.8% from 25 to 44, 18.5% from 45 to 64, and 6.7% 65 or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.5 males.  The median household income was $32,431 and the median family income was $32,344. Males had a median income of $29,750 versus $19,865 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $13,542. About 15.0% of families and 16.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.1% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over.

Woodside East is a census-designated place (CDP) in Kent County, Delaware, United States. It is part of the Dover, Delaware Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 2,316 at the 2010 census.

东伍德赛德(英语:Woodside East)是位于美国特拉华州肯特县的一个人口普查指定地区。


Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough had a total area of 4.052 square miles (10.494 km), including 3.709 square miles (9.606 km) of land and 0.343 square miles (0.889 km) of water (8.47%).  East Rutherford is bounded on the north by the boroughs of Carlstadt and Wallington and to the south by the borough of Rutherford in Bergen County; by Secaucus in Hudson County; and by Passaic in Passaic County. The Passaic River is the western boundary, and the Hackensack River is the eastern boundary. The area in which East Rutherford is located is the valley of the Passaic and Hackensack rivers.  Carlton Hill is an unincorporated community located within the township.

Demographics.

Census 2010.

The Census Bureau's 2006–2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $62,471 (with a margin of error of +/- $8,225) and the median family income was $71,357 (+/- $10,225). Males had a median income of $57,511 (+/- $8,669) versus $48,502 (+/- $2,269) for females. The per capita income for the borough was $32,467 (+/- $2,752). About 5.9% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.2% of those under age 18 and 13.4% of those age 65 or over.  Same-sex couples headed 19 households in 2010, a decline from the 27 counted in 2000.

Census 2000.

As of the 2000 United States Census there were 8,716 people, 3,644 households, and 2,157 families residing in the borough. The population density was 2,289.1 people per square mile (883.3/km). There were 3,771 housing units at an average density of 990.4 per square mile (382.1/km). The racial makeup of the borough was 79.68% White, 3.72% African American, 0.11% Native American, 10.69% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 3.21% from other races, and 2.54% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.65% of the population.  There were 3,644 households out of which 25.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.4% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.8% were non-families. 33.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 3.05.  In the borough, the age distribution of the population shows 19.4% under the age of 18, 7.1% from 18 to 24, 36.5% from 25 to 44, 22.7% from 45 to 64, and 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.8 males.  The median income for a household in the borough was $50,163, and the median income for a family was $59,583. Males had a median income of $40,798 versus $36,047 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $28,072. About 7.4% of families and 9.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.1% of those under age 18 and 11.6% of those age 65 or over.

Economy.

East Rutherford is home to the Hudson Group, a retailer which operates a chain of newsstands, bookstores, fast food restaurants, and other retail stores chiefly at airports and train stations.  Contract manufacturing organization Cambrex Corporation is based in East Rutherford.  The East Rutherford Operations Center handles currency in the area covered by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, a task that includes removing and destroying 5 million currency notes every day.  The Dawn Bible Students Association moved to East Rutherford in 1944. The organization has a worldwide outreach and publishes many Bible-based books as well as "The Dawn" magazine.

Government.

Local government.

East Rutherford is governed under the Borough form of New Jersey municipal government, which is used in 218 of 565 municipalities statewide, making it the most common form of government in New Jersey. The governing body is comprised of a Mayor and a Borough Council, with all positions elected at-large on a partisan basis as part of the November general election. A Mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office. The Borough Council is comprised of six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. The Borough form of government used by East Rutherford is a "weak mayor / strong council" government in which council members act as the legislative body with the mayor presiding at meetings and voting only in the event of a tie. The mayor can veto ordinances subject to an override by a two-thirds majority vote of the council. The mayor makes committee and liaison assignments for council members, and most appointments are made by the mayor with the advice and consent of the council. , East Rutherford's Mayor is Democrat Jeffrey Lahullier, whose term of office ends December 31, 2023. The borough council members are Council President Edward C. Ravettine (D, 2020), Daniel Alvarez (D, 2021), Nancy Banca (R, 2022), George W. Cronk (D, 2022), Michael Lorusso (D, 2021), Philip J. Sorbera II (D, 2019) and Saverio "Sam" Stallone (D, 2020).

Federal, state and county representation.

East Rutherford is located in the 9th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 36th state legislative district.

Politics.

As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 4,484 registered voters in East Rutherford, of which 1,233 (27.5% vs. 31.7% countywide) were registered as Democrats, 1,190 (26.5% vs. 21.1%) were registered as Republicans and 2,058 (45.9% vs. 47.1%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 3 voters registered to other parties. Among the borough's 2010 Census population, 50.3% (vs. 57.1% in Bergen County) were registered to vote, including 61.5% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 73.7% countywide).  In the 2016 presidential election, Democrat Hillary Clinton received 1,918 votes (50.1% vs. 54.2% countywide), ahead of Republican Donald Trump with 1,740 votes (45.5% vs. 41.1% countywide) and other candidates with 169 votes (4.4% vs. 4.6% countywide), among the 3,871 ballots cast by the borough's 5,380 registered voters for a turnout of 71.9% (vs. 72.5% in Bergen County). In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 1,859 votes (59.7% vs. 54.8% countywide), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 1,340 votes (43.0% vs. 43.5%) and other candidates with 48 votes (1.5% vs. 0.9%), among the 3,115 ballots cast by the borough's 4,845 registered voters, for a turnout of 64.3% (vs. 70.4% in Bergen County). In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 1,888 votes (51.8% vs. 53.9% countywide), ahead of Republican John McCain with 1,660 votes (45.5% vs. 44.5%) and other candidates with 54 votes (1.5% vs. 0.8%), among the 3,647 ballots cast by the borough's 4,911 registered voters, for a turnout of 74.3% (vs. 76.8% in Bergen County). In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 1,641 votes (49.6% vs. 51.7% countywide), ahead of Republican George W. Bush with 1,613 votes (48.7% vs. 47.2%) and other candidates with 30 votes (0.9% vs. 0.7%), among the 3,309 ballots cast by the borough's 4,634 registered voters, for a turnout of 71.4% (vs. 76.9% in the whole county).  In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 59.4% of the vote (1,205 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 38.7% (785 votes), and other candidates with 1.8% (37 votes), among the 2,111 ballots cast by the borough's 4,596 registered voters (84 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 45.9%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 1,004 votes (48.2% vs. 45.8% countywide), ahead of Democrat Jon Corzine with 919 votes (44.1% vs. 48.0%), Independent Chris Daggett with 112 votes (5.4% vs. 4.7%) and other candidates with 17 votes (0.8% vs. 0.5%), among the 2,082 ballots cast by the borough's 4,709 registered voters, yielding a 44.2% turnout (vs. 50.0% in the county).

Education.

Public school students in kindergarten through eighth grade attend the East Rutherford School District. As of the 2018–19 school year, the district, comprised of two schools, had an enrollment of 819 students and 73.2 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 11.2:1. Schools in the district (with 2018–19 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are McKenzie School with 454 students in grades PreK–5 and Alfred S. Faust School with 345 students in grades 6–8.  For grades ninth through twelfth grades, public school students attend the Henry P. Becton Regional High School in East Rutherford, which serves high school students from both Carlstadt and East Rutherford. The school is part of the Carlstadt-East Rutherford Regional School District. As of the 2018–19 school year, the high school had an enrollment of 491 students and 37.2 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 13.2:1. Starting in the 2020–21 school year, students from Maywood will start attending the school as part of a sending/receiving relationship; Maywood's transition to Becton will be complete after the final group of twelfth graders graduates from Hackensack High School at the end of the 2023–24 school year.  Public school students from the borough, and all of Bergen County, are eligible to attend the secondary education programs offered by the Bergen County Technical Schools, which include the Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, and the Bergen Tech campus in Teterboro or Paramus. The district offers programs on a shared-time or full-time basis, with admission based on a selective application process and tuition covered by the student's home school district.

Emergency services.

Police.

The East Rutherford Police Department provides emergency and protective services to the borough of East Rutherford.  It consists of a Patrol Division, Detective Bureau, Traffic Division, Juvenile Division, and Records Bureau.  The current Chief of Police is Larry Minda.

Fire.

The East Rutherford Fire Department (ERFD) is an all-volunteer fire department. The ERFD was organized in 1894 and consists of a chief and three assistant chiefs. There are three fire stations. The department is staffed by eighty fully trained firefighters. The ERFD utilizes two Engines, a Ladder truck, a Heavy Rescue, and a Quint. The ERFD also provides emergency medical service to the borough.

Transportation.

Roads and highways.

, the borough had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Bergen County and by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority.  State Routes include Route 17, Route 120 and Route 3. The only interstate that passes through and serves East Rutherford is Interstate 95 (the New Jersey Turnpike Western Spur) at Exit 16W.

Public transportation.

The Rutherford station, which is located on the Rutherford - East Rutherford border, provides train service on NJ Transit's Bergen County Line.  The Meadowlands station offers service on the Meadowlands Rail Line, which began in June 2009, providing access between the Meadowlands Sports Complex and Secaucus Junction, and from there to other NJ Transit lines with trains operating before and after games and other events at the complex.  NJ Transit buses include the 160, 163, 164 and 322 routes serving the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Midtown Manhattan; the 76 to Newark; and local service on the 703 route.

Notable people.

People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with East Rutherford include:

East Rutherford is a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the borough's population was 8,913, reflecting an increase of 197 (+2.3%) from the 8,716 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn increased by 814 (+10.3%) from the 7,902 counted in the 1990 Census. It is an inner-ring suburb of New York City, located west of Midtown Manhattan.

东卢瑟福(East Rutherford, New Jersey)是位于美国新泽西州博根郡的一个小镇。在2010年美国人口普查中的统计,东卢瑟福共有8,913人,相较于2000年美国人口普查的8,716人,成长了2.3%。该镇是属于纽约市的近郊,距离曼哈顿中城只有7英里(11公里),国家美式足球联盟的纽约巨人以及纽约喷射机主场大都会人寿体育场位于此城镇。


Prelature.

The ordinary of the Archdiocese of New York is an archbishop whose cathedra is The Cathedral of St. Patrick (commonly St. Patrick's Cathedral) in Manhattan, New York. The Archbishop of New York is also the metropolitan of the larger, which consists of the eight dioceses that comprise the State of New York with the exception of a small portion (Fishers Island) that belongs to the. As such, the metropolitan archbishop possesses certain limited authority over the suffragan sees of the province (see ecclesiastical province).  R. Luke Concanen became the first Bishop of the (then) Diocese of New York in 1808. The current Archbishop of New York is Timothy Michael Cardinal Dolan.

History.

Initially, the territory that now makes up the Archdiocese of New York was part of the Prefecture Apostolic of United States of America which was established on November 26, 1784. On November 6, 1789, the Prefecture was elevated to a diocese and the present territory of the Archdiocese of New York fell under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of Baltimore, headed by the first American bishop, John Carroll.  At the time, there was a dearth of priests to minister to the large territory. The first Roman Catholic Church in New York City was St. Peter's on Barclay Street. The land was purchased from Trinity Church with community donations and a gift of 1,000 pieces of silver from King Charles III of Spain. The church was built in the federal style. Among its regular worshippers were Saint Elizabeth Seton and Venerable Pierre Toussaint.  On April 8, 1808, the Holy See raised Baltimore to the status of an Archdiocese. At the same time, the dioceses of Philadelphia, Boston, Bardstown (now Louisville, KY) and New York were created as suffragan dioceses of Baltimore. At the time of its establishment, the Diocese of New York covered all of the State of New York, as well as the northeastern New Jersey counties of Sussex, Bergen, Morris, Essex, Somerset, Middlesex, and Monmouth.  Since the first appointed bishop could not set sail from Italy due to the Napoleonic blockade, a Jesuit priest, Anthony Kohlmann, was appointed administrator. He was instrumental in organizing the diocese and preparing for its original Cathedral of St. Patrick to be built on Mulberry Street. Among the difficulties faced by Catholics at the time was anti-Catholic bigotry in general and in the New York school system. A strong Nativist movement sought to keep Catholics out of the country and to prevent those already present from advancing.  On April 23, 1847, territory was taken from the diocese to form the dioceses of Albany and Buffalo. The New York diocese was elevated to an archdiocese on July 19, 1850. On July 29, 1853, territory was again taken from the diocese, this time to form the Diocese of Newark and the Diocese of Brooklyn.  The Bahamas were made a part of the Archdiocese of New York on July 25, 1885, establishing their first permanent Catholic presence, due to their proximity to New York's busy port. Churches and schools were constructed and administered until The Bahamas' eventual dissociation to form the Prefecture Apostolic of Bahama (now the Archdiocese of Nassau) on March 21, 1929. By 1932, The Bahamas were no longer under the spiritual jurisdiction of New York.

Archdiocesan demographics.

As of 2016, the Catholic population of the Archdiocese was 2,642,740. These Catholics were served by 696 archdiocesan priests and 590 priests of religious orders. Also laboring in the diocese were 319 permanent deacons, 962 religious brothers, and 2,260 nuns.  For comparison, in 1929, the Catholic population of the Archdiocese was 1,273,291 persons. There were 1,314 clergy ministering in the archdiocese and 444 churches. There were also 170,348 children in Catholic educational and welfare institutions.  In 1959, there were 7,913 nuns and sisters ministering in the Archdiocese, representing 103 different religious orders.

Bishops and Prelates.

The following lists present, in chronological order, the Roman Catholic bishops and archbishops who have served among the clergy of the Archdiocese of New York. Listed are the diocesan bishops who have led New York since 1808, the occasional coadjutor bishops/archbishops who have co-headed the diocese, the auxiliary bishops who have assisted them, and other bishops who were once priests in New York.

Cemeteries.

The following cemeteries are under the auspices of Calvary & Allied Cemeteries, Inc.:  Many parishes have their own cemeteries, or their own sections in private cemeteries. An incomplete list of those cemeteries follows:

Reports of sex abuse.

In August 2018, the archdiocese reported that between 2016 and 2018, its Independent Reconciliation and Compensation Program paid nearly $60 million to 278 victims of sex abuse by clergy. On September 26, 2018, it was reported that the Archdiocese of New York, and the three other dioceses where Theodore McCarrick served as a bishop, were facing an investigation by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops for McCarrick's alleged sex abuse. On January 28, 2019, the New York state Assembly and Senate passed a law allowing prosecutors to bring criminal charges until a victim turned 28, and permitting victims to sue until age 55. New York Governor Andrew Cuomo signed the bill into law on February 14, 2019.  On April 26, 2019, the Archdiocese released a list of 120 Catholic clergy accused of committing acts of sexual abuse. Some of those on the list, which includes both male and female church workers, have been convicted and many are deceased. The list was accompanied by a letter of apology from Cardinal Timothy Dolan, who asked for forgiveness.  On August 14, 2019, James Grien, who has accused McCarrick of sexually abusing him when McCarrick was an Auxiliary Bishop of New York, filed a lawsuit against the Archdiocese of New York for shielding McCarrick from a potential criminal investigation. In his lawsuit, Grien also stated that McCarrick's status as a friend of his family allowed the former New York Auxiliary Bishop to continue to visit and sexually abuse him after being transferred to New Jersey's Diocese of Metuchen and Archdiocese of Newark.  On September 30, 2019, Dolan released a report written by Barbara S. Jones, a former judge and prosecutor. Her report stated, among other things, that the Archdiocese had completed the process of removing all of its remaining accused clergy from active ministry. In the same report, Jones recommended that the Archdiocese should also hire a sex abuse "czar" to vet all complaints. Jones, who was commissioned by Dolan in 2018 to conduct the review of the church's handling of abuse allegations, also recommended hiring "a compliance officer for the Office of Priest Personnel to monitor its functions and oversee the new document management system". Dolan also backed the Jones Report and stated at a press conference that the Archdiocese was expanding its sex abuse policy as well.  On October 10, 2019, it was announced that Pope Francis had accepted the resignation of Bronx-based Auxiliary Bishop John Jenik following an accusation of sex abuse. Appointed Auxiliary Bishop by Pope Francis in 2014, Jenik also served as vicar for the Northwest Bronx, appointed by Dolan's predecessor Edward Egan in 2006. Jenik, who submitted his resignation letter upon turning 75 in March 2019, had stepped out of public ministry in October 2018 after the allegation surfaced.  On May 8, 2020, Cuomo extended the 2019 New York Child Victim Act's statewide statute of limitations deadline to file sex abuse lawsuits, which was originally set for August 14, 2020, to January 14, 2021.

The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York is a Latin Catholic archdiocese in New York State. It encompasses the boroughs of Manhattan, the Bronx and Staten Island in New York City and the counties of Dutchess, Orange, Putnam, Rockland, Sullivan, Ulster, and Westchester. The Archdiocese of New York is the second-largest diocese in the United States by population, encompassing 296 parishes that serve around 2.8 million Catholics, in addition to hundreds of Catholic schools, hospitals and charities. The Archdiocese also operates the well-known St. Joseph's Seminary, commonly referred to as Dunwoodie. The Archdiocese of New York is the metropolitan see of the ecclesiastical province of New York which includes the suffragan dioceses of Albany, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Ogdensburg, Rochester, Rockville Centre and Syracuse.

天主教纽约总教区(英语:Archdiocese of New York;)是美国一个天主教教省总教区及该国三十二个总教区之一。


History.

Early history.

Decatur was established at the intersection of two Native American trails: the Sandtown, which led east from the Chattahoochee River at Utoy Creek, and the Shallowford, which follows today's Clairmont Road, and eventually crossed near Roswell. It was named for United States Navy Commodore Stephen Decatur.

American Civil War.

During the American Civil War, Decatur became a strategic site in Sherman's Atlanta Campaign. In July 1864, Major-General James McPherson occupied the town to cut off the Confederates' supply line from Augusta. On July 22, during the Battle of Atlanta, Confederate cavalry under Major-General Joseph Wheeler attacked McPherson's supply wagons and the Union troops left to defend the wagons. A historical marker at the old courthouse marks the site of this skirmish.

20th Century.

In the last half of the twentieth century the metropolitan area of Atlanta expanded into unincorporated DeKalb County, eventually surrounding two sides of the town of Decatur. Concurrently many well-to-do and middle class white Americans fled the area to more distant suburbs. The 1960s and 1970s witnessed dramatic drops in property values. However, more recently the city has regained economic vigor, partially thanks to several long-term downtown development plans that have come to fruition, making Decatur a trendy small mixed-use district with easy transit to downtown Atlanta. Over the past twenty years, it has gained a local and national reputation as a progressive city with a high level of citizen involvement that retains a small town feel despite its proximity to Atlanta.

Geography.

Decatur is located at (33.771355, -84.297732).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land.  The Eastern Continental Divide bisects the city along the CSX (formerly Georgia Railroad) trackage right of way.

Demographics.

As of the 2010 census, there were 19,335 people, 8,599 occupied housing units, and 4,215 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,603.6 people per square mile (2,860.2/km). There were 9,335 housing units at an average density of 2,222.6 per square mile (1,380.9/km). The racial makeup of the city was 73.5% White, 20.2% African American, 0.2% Native American, 2.9% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from other races, and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.2% of the population.  There were 2,541 (29.5%) households which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 3,336 (38.8%) were a husband-wife family living together, 984 (11.4%) of households had a female householder with no husband present, and 4,063 (47.2%) did not fit into either of the two previously mentioned categories. 3,263 (37.9%) of all households were made up of individuals of those, 1,814 (21.1%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.17 and the average family size was 2.96.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.1% under the age of 19, 5.2% from 20 to 24, 32.9% from 25 to 44, 25.7% from 45 to 64, and 11.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. There are roughly 44 males for every 56 females.  The median income for a household in the city was $73,602. Males had a median income of $73,089 versus $58,580 for females. The per capita income for the city was $42,926. About 12.20% of families and 14.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.2% of those under age 18 and 12.5% of those age 65 or over.  Education levels for Decatur are above average for the Atlanta area, with 56% of residents having obtained a bachelor's degree or higher, and 27% having obtained a graduate degree or higher.

Education.

Primary and secondary schools.

City Schools of Decatur, which serves only students within the city limits, holds pre-school to grade twelve, and consists of a pre-K early childhood learning center, five lower elementary schools, two upper elementary schools (the second of which is opening in August 2019), a middle school, and a high school. Decatur High School is the district's sole high school. The Decatur City district has 224 full-time teachers and over 4,400 students from pre-K through grade 12.  The DeKalb County School District serves unincorporated DeKalb County.  The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Atlanta operates St. Thomas More School in Decatur; it opened on September 1, 1950. At first it only had elementary grades and its initial enrollment was 150. A dedicated elementary building opened in 1955, and an addition for kindergarten classes with two rooms was placed in 1994. St. Peter Claver Regional School has a Decatur mailing address but is in nearby Candler-McAfee CDP.

Public libraries.

The DeKalb County Public Library system operates the Decatur Branch and is also the Dekalb County Library Headquarters.

Government.

Decatur has operated under a Commission-Manager form of government since 1920. The Charter of the City of Decatur establishes the City Commission as the governing and legislative authority of the City government. A five-member City Commission is elected for four-year terms on two-year cycles. Two members are elected from the south side of the city, two from the north side and one is elected at-large. At their organizational meeting each January, the Commissioners elect a mayor and mayor-pro-tem from among their own membership for a one-year term. The mayor is not a separate elected office. The current mayor is Patti Garrett. Previous mayors have included Leslie Jasper Steele (1915), Jack Hamilton, Walter Drake, Mike Mears, Ann A. Crichton, Elizabeth Wilson, William Floyd, Jim Baskett and Scott Candler, Sr. (known as Mr. DeKalb).  The Commission appoints a professional City Manager to carry out the policies, directives and day-to-day business of the city. The current city manager is Andrea Arnold. There are also several citizen volunteer boards and commissions appointed by the City Commission, including the Planning Commission, the Zoning Board of Appeals, and the Historic Preservation Commission.

State representation.

The Georgia Department of Juvenile Justice has its headquarters in Avondale Estates, near Decatur. The Georgia Bureau of Investigation has its headquarters near Decatur, in an unincorporated area.

Federal representation.

The United States Postal Service operates the Decatur Post Office.

Festivals, special events and arts.

Decatur has a thriving art and festival scene. The Decatur Arts Alliance hosts the Decatur Arts Festival each May, in addition to installing public art around the city, providing gallery space for local artists, producing YEA!, which is an event for young emerging artists, and supporting arts and arts education throughout the City.  Decatur holds the annual AJC Decatur Book Festival, which claims to be one of the largest independent book festivals in the United States. It has featured thousands of famous authors, book signings, speeches, and attracted upwards of 85,000 people in 2019.  Decatur is home to Eddie's Attic, which is a live music venue hosting shows almost every night.  Decatur is known for its frequent festivals, which include the annual Decatur Arts Festival, Summer In The City, Decatur BBQ, Blues & Bluegrass Festival, the Decatur Book Festival, the Decatur Maker's Faire, The Decatur Craft Beer Festival and the Decatur Wine Festival. Other events throughout the year include parades, Concerts on the Square, wine crawls, art walks, runs, and races.  Public art in Decatur includes Celebration (artist Gary Price), Valentine (artist George Lundeen), Thomas Jefferson (George Lundeen), Commodore Stephen Decatur (artist unknown), Roy A. Blount Plaza, and Living Walls Murals (various artists).

Dining, breweries and distilleries.

Decatur is known for its food scene and was named one of the South's "Tastiest Towns" in 2012. In 2016, the New York Times called it "Atlanta's gastronomic equivalent of Berkeley or Brooklyn".  Noteworthy restaurants and establishments include:  Decatur has a growing beer scene with the award-winning Brick Store Pub, Wild Heaven Beer, Three Taverns Brewery, and Blue Tarp Brewing Co. The Decatur Craft Beer Festival was named one of the top ten beer festivals in the United States. Decatur is also home to Independent Distilling Co.

Points of interest.

Decatur's downtown area and residential neighborhoods are filled with historic structures and sites of interest. This list primarily consists of structures on the National Register of Historic Places, but many remain privately owned and may only be viewed from the exterior.

Sister cities.

Decatur has three sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International, Inc. (SCI):

Decatur is a city in, and the county seat of, DeKalb County, Georgia, which is part of the Atlanta metropolitan area. With a population of 19,335 in the 2010 census, the municipality is sometimes assumed to be larger since multiple ZIP Codes in unincorporated DeKalb County bear Decatur as the address. The city is served by three MARTA rail stations (Decatur, East Lake, and Avondale). The city is located approximately 5 miles northeast of downtown Atlanta and shares its western border with both the city of Atlanta (the Kirkwood neighborhood) and unincorporated DeKalb County. The Druid Hills neighborhood is to the northwest of Decatur. The unofficial motto of Decatur used by some residents is "Everything is Greater in Decatur."

迪凯特(英语:Decatur)是一个位于美国乔治亚州迪卡尔布县的城市。根据2010年美国人口普查,该地共人口19335人,而该地的面积约为10.80平方千米。同时该地也是迪卡尔布县的县治。


第一代克莱武男爵罗伯特·克莱武

Early life.

Robert Clive was born at Styche, the Clive family estate, near Market Drayton in Shropshire, on 29 September 1725 to Richard Clive and Rebecca (née Gaskell) Clive. The family had held the small estate since the time of Henry VII. The family had a lengthy history of public service: members of the family included an Irish chancellor of the exchequer under Henry VIII, and a member of the Long Parliament. Robert's father, who supplemented the estate's modest income as a lawyer, also served in Parliament for many years, representing Montgomeryshire. Robert was their eldest son of thirteen children; he had seven sisters and five brothers, six of whom died in infancy.  Clive's father was known to have a temper, which the boy apparently inherited. For reasons that are unknown, Clive was sent to live with his mother's sister in Manchester while still a toddler. Biographer Robert Harvey

First journey to the East (1744–1753).

In 1744 Clive's father acquired for him a position as a "factor" or company agent in the service of the East India Company, and Clive set sail for Bombay, (present day Mumbai, India). After running aground on the coast of Brazil, his ship was detained for nine months while repairs were completed. This enabled him to learn some Portuguese, one of the several languages then in use in south India because of the Portuguese centre at Goa. At this time the East India Company had a small settlement at Fort St. George near the village of Madraspatnam, later Madras, now the Indian metropolis of Chennai, in addition to others at Calcutta, Bombay, and Cuddalore. Clive arrived at Fort St. George in June 1744, and spent the next two years working as little more than a glorified assistant shopkeeper, tallying books and arguing with suppliers of the East India Company over the quality and quantity of their wares. He was given access to the governor's library, where he became a prolific reader.

Political situation in south India.

The land Clive arrived in was divided into a number of successor states to the Mughal Empire. Over the forty years, since the death of the Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, the power of the emperor had gradually fallen into the hands of his provincial viceroys or "Subahdars". The dominant rulers on the Coromandel Coast were the Nizam of Hyderabad, Asaf Jah I, and the Nawab of the Carnatic, Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan. The nawab nominally owed fealty to the nizam, but in many respects acted independently.

First Carnatic War.

In 1720 France effectively nationalized the French East India Company, and began using it to expand its imperial interests. This became a source of conflict with the British in India with the entry of Britain into the War of the Austrian Succession in 1744. The Indian theatre of the conflict is also known as the First Carnatic War, referring to the Carnatic region on the southeast coast of India. Hostilities in India began with a British naval attack on a French fleet in 1745, which led the French Governor-General Dupleix to request additional forces. On 4 September 1746, Madras was attacked by French forces led by La Bourdonnais. After several days of bombardment the British surrendered and the French entered the city. The British leadership was taken prisoner and sent to Pondicherry. It was originally agreed that the town would be restored to the British after negotiation but this was opposed by Dupleix, who sought to annex Madras to French holdings. The remaining British residents were asked to

Tanjore expedition.

The end of the war between France and Britain did not, however, end hostilities in India. Even before news of the peace arrived in India, the British had sent an expedition to Tanjore on behalf of a claimant to its throne. This expedition, on which Clive, now promoted to lieutenant, served as a volunteer, was a disastrous failure. Monsoons ravaged the land forces, and the local support claimed by their client was not in evidence. The ignominious retreat of the British force (which lost its baggage train to the pursuing Tanjorean army while crossing a swollen river) was a blow to the British reputation. Major Lawrence, seeking to recover British prestige, led the entire Madras garrison to Tanjore in response. At the fort of Devikottai on the Coleroon River the British force was confronted by the much larger

Second Carnatic War.

The death of Asaf Jah I, the Nizam of Hyderabad, in 1748 sparked a struggle to succeed him that is known as the Second Carnatic War, which was also furthered by the expansionist interests of French Governor-General Dupleix. Dupleix had grasped from the first war that small numbers of disciplined European forces (and well-trained sepoys) could be used to tip balances of power between competing interests, and used this idea to greatly expand French influence in southern India. For many years he had been working to negotiate the release of Chanda Sahib, a longtime French ally who had at one time occupied the throne of Tanjore, and sought for himself the throne of the Carnatic. Chanda Sahib had been imprisoned by the Marathas in 1740; by 1748 he had been released from custody and was building an army at Satara.  Upon the death of Asaf Jah I, his son, Nasir Jung, seized the throne of Hyderabad, although Asaf Jah had designated as his successor his grandson, Muzaffar Jung. The grandson, who was ruler of Bijapur, fled west to join Chanda Sahib,

Siege of Arcot.

In the summer of 1751, Chanda Sahib left Arcot to besiege Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah at Trichinopoly. This placed the British at Madras in a precarious position, since the latter was the last of their major allies in the area. The British company's military was also in some disarray, as Stringer Lawrence had returned to England in 1750 over a pay dispute, and much of the company was apathetic about the dangers the expanding French influence and declining British influence posed. The weakness of the British military command was exposed when a force was sent from Madras to support Muhammed Ali at Trichinopoly, but its commander, a Swiss mercenary, refused to attack an outpost at Valikondapuram. Clive, who accompanied the force as commissary, was outraged at the decision to abandon the siege. He rode to Cuddalore, and offered his services to lead an attack on Arcot if he was given a captain's commission, arguing this would force Chanda Sahib to either abandon the siege of Trichinopoly or significantly reduce the force there.  Madras and Fort St David could supply him with only 200 Europeans, 300 sepoys, and three small cannons; furthermore,

Second journey to India (1755–1760).

In July 1755, Clive returned to India to act as deputy governor of Fort St. David at Cuddalore. He arrived after having lost a considerable fortune en route, as the "Doddington", the lead ship of his convoy, was wrecked near Port Elizabeth, losing a chest of gold coins belonging to Clive worth £33,000. Nearly 250 years later in 1998, illegally salvaged coins from Clive's treasure chest were offered for sale, and in 2002 a portion of the coins were given to the South African government after protracted legal wrangling.  Clive, now promoted to lieutenant-colonel in the British Army, took part in the capture of the fortress of Gheriah, a stronghold of the Maratha Admiral Tuloji Angre. The action was led by Admiral James Watson and the British had several ships available, some Royal troops and some Maratha allies. The overwhelming strength of the joint British and Maratha forces ensured that the battle was won with few losses. A fleet surgeon, Edward Ives, noted that Clive refused to take any part of the treasure divided among the victorious forces as was custom at the time.

Fall and recapture of Calcutta (1756–57).

Following this action Clive headed to his post at Fort St. David and it was there he received news of twin disasters for the British. Early in 1756, Siraj Ud Daulah had succeeded his grandfather Alivardi Khan as Nawab of Bengal. In June, Clive received news that the new Nawab had attacked the British at Kasimbazar and shortly afterwards on 20 June he had taken the fort at Calcutta. The losses to the Company because of the fall of Calcutta were estimated by investors at £2,000,000. Those British who were captured were placed in a punishment cell which became infamous as the Black Hole of Calcutta. In stifling summer heat, it was reported that 43 of the 64 prisoners died as a result of suffocation or heat stroke. While the Black Hole became infamous in Britain, it is debatable whether the Nawab was aware of the incident.  By Christmas 1756, as no response had been received to diplomatic letters to the Nawab, Admiral Charles Watson and Clive were dispatched to attack the

War with Siraj Ud Daulah.

As Britain and France were once more at war, Clive sent the fleet up the river against the French colony of Chandannagar, while he besieged it by land. There was a strong incentive to capture the colony, as capture of a previous French settlement near Pondicherry had yielded the combined forces prizes valued at £130,000. After consenting to the siege, the Nawab unsuccessfully sought to assist the French. Some officials of the Nawab's court formed a confederacy to depose him. Jafar Ali Khan, also known as Mir Jafar, the Nawab's commander-in-chief, led the conspirators. With Admiral Watson, Governor Drake and Mr. Watts, Clive made a gentlemen's agreement in which it was agreed to give the office of viceroy of Bengal, Bihar and

Plassey.

The whole hot season of 1757 was spent in negotiations with the Nawab of Bengal. In the middle of June Clive began his march from Chandannagar, with the British in boats and the sepoys along the right bank of the Hooghly River. During the rainy season, the Hooghly is fed by the overflow of the Ganges to the north through three streams, which in the hot months are nearly dry. On the left bank of the Bhagirathi, the most westerly of these, above Chandernagore, stands Murshidabad, the capital of the Mughal viceroys of Bengal. Some miles farther down is the field of Plassey, then an extensive grove of mango trees.  On 21 June 1757, Clive arrived on the bank opposite Plassey, in the midst of the first outburst of monsoon rain. His whole army amounted to 1,100 Europeans and 2,100 sepoy troops, with nine field-pieces. The Nawab had drawn up 18,000 horse, 50,000-foot and 53 pieces of heavy ordnance, served by French artillerymen. For once in his career Clive hesitated, and called a council of sixteen officers to decide, as he put it, "whether in our present situation, without assistance, and on our own bottom, it would be prudent to attack the Nawab, or whether we should wait till joined by some country (Indian) power." Clive himself headed the nine who voted for delay; Major Eyre Coote led the seven who counselled immediate attack. But, either because his daring asserted itself, or because of a letter received from Mir Jafar, Clive was the first to change his mind and to communicate with Major Eyre Coote. One tradition, followed by Macaulay, represents him as spending an hour in thought under the shade of some trees, while he resolved the issues of what was to prove one of the decisive battles of the world. Another, turned into verse by Sir Alfred Lyall, pictures his resolution as the result of a dream. However that may be, he did well as a soldier to trust to the dash and even rashness that had gained Arcot and triumphed at Calcutta since retreat, or even delay, might have resulted in

Further campaigns.

Battle of Condore.

While busy with the civil administration, Clive continued to follow up his military success. He sent Major Coote in pursuit of the French almost

Mughals.

Clive came into direct contact with the Mughal himself, for the first time, a meeting which would prove beneficial in his later career. Prince Ali Gauhar escaped from Delhi after his father, the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II, had been murdered by the usurping Vizier Imad-ul-Mulk and his Maratha associate Sadashivrao Bhau.  Prince Ali Gauhar was welcomed and protected by Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh. In 1760, after gaining control over Bihar, Odisha and some parts of the Bengal, Ali Gauhar and his Mughal Army of 30,000 intended to overthrow Mir Jafar and the Company in

Dutch aggression.

While Clive was preoccupied with fighting the French, the Dutch directors of the outpost at Chinsurah, not far from Chandernagore, seeing an opportunity to expand their influence, agreed to send additional troops to Chinsurah. Despite Britain and the Dutch Republic not formally being at war, a Dutch fleet of seven ships, containing more than fifteen hundred European and Malay troops, came from Batavia and arrived at the mouth of the Hooghly River in October 1759, while Mir Jafar, the Nawab of Bengal, was meeting with Clive in Calcutta. They met a mixed force of British and local troops at Chinsurah, just outside Calcutta. The British, under Colonel Francis Forde, defeated the Dutch in the Battle of Chinsurah, forcing them to withdraw. The British engaged and defeated the ships the Dutch used to deliver the troops in a separate naval battle on November 24. Thus Clive avenged the massacre of Amboyna – the occasion when he wrote

Return to Great Britain.

In 1760, the 35-year-old Clive returned to Great Britain with a fortune of at least £300,000 and the quit-rent of £27,000 a year. He financially supported his parents and sisters, while also providing Major Lawrence, the commanding officer who had early encouraged his military genius, with a stipend of £500 a year. In the five years of his conquests and administration in Bengal, the young man had crowded together a succession of exploits that led Lord Macaulay, in what that historian termed his "flashy" essay on the subject,

Third journey to India.

On 3 May 1765 Clive landed at Calcutta to learn that Mir Jafar had died, leaving him personally £70,000. Mir Jafar was succeeded by his son-in-law Kasim Ali, though not before the government had been further demoralized by taking £100,000 as a gift from the new Nawab; while Kasim Ali had induced not only the viceroy of Awadh, but the emperor of Delhi himself, to invade Bihar. At this point a mutiny in the Bengal army occurred, which was a grim precursor of the Indian rebellion of 1857, but on this occasion it was quickly suppressed by blowing the sepoy ringleader from a gun. Major Munro, "the Napier of those times", scattered the united armies on the hard-fought field of Buxar. The emperor, Shah Alam II, detached himself from the league, while the Awadh viceroy threw himself on the mercy of the British.  Clive had now an opportunity of repeating in Hindustan, or Upper India, what he had accomplished in Bengal. He might have secured what is now called Uttar Pradesh, and have rendered unnecessary the campaigns of Wellesley and Lake. But he believed he had other work in the exploitation of the revenues and resources of rich Bengal itself, making it a base from which British India would afterwards steadily grow. Hence he returned to the Awadh viceroy all his territory save the provinces of Allahabad and Kora, which he presented to the weak emperor.

Mughal "Firman".

In return for the Awadhian provinces Clive secured from the emperor one of the most important documents in British history in India, effectively granting title of Bengal to Clive. It appears in the records as "firman from the King Shah Aalum, granting the diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha to the Company 1765." The date was 12 August 1765, the place Benares, the throne an English dining-table covered with embroidered cloth and surmounted by a chair in Clive's tent. It is all pictured by a Muslim contemporary, who indignantly exclaims that so great a "transaction was done and finished in less time than would have been taken up in the sale of a jackass". By this deed the company became the real sovereign rulers of thirty

Attempts at administrative reform.

Having thus founded the Empire of British India, Clive sought to put in place a strong administration. The salaries of civil servants were increased, the acceptance of gifts from Indians was forbidden, and Clive exacted covenants under which participation in the inland trade was stopped. Unfortunately this had very little impact in reducing corruption, which remained widespread until the days of Warren Hastings. Clive's military

Retirement and death.

Clive left India for the last time in February 1767. In 1768, he lived for a time at the Chateau de Larzac in Pézenas in the Hérault département of the Languedoc-Roussillon region in southern France. Local tradition says that he was responsible for introducing the local pastry makers of Pézenas to a sweet pastry, le petit pâté de Pézenas, the size and shape of a large cotton reel with a sweet centre, and that he (or, more likely, his chef) had brought the recipe from India as a refined version of the savoury keema naan. Pézenas is now known for these delicacies.  Later in 1768, Clive was made a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) and in the same year served as treasurer of the Salop Infirmary in Shrewsbury.  In 1769, he acquired the house and gardens at Claremont near Esher and commissioned Lancelot "Capability" Brown to remodel the garden and rebuild the house.  In 1772 Parliament opened an inquiry into the Company's practices in India. Clive's political opponents turned these hearings into attacks on Clive. Questioned about some of the large sums of money he had received while in India, Clive pointed out that they were not contrary to accepted company practice, and defended his behaviour by stating "I stand astonished at my own moderation" given opportunities for greater gain. The hearings highlighted the need for reform of the Company, and a vote to censure Clive for his actions failed. Later in 1772, Clive was invested Knight of the Bath (eight years after his knighthood had been awarded), and was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Shropshire.  There was a great famine in Bengal between 1769 and

Family.

Robert Clive married Margaret Maskelyne (d. 28 December 1817) on 18 February

Criticism.

While Clive was loyal to his employers, the British East India Company, some of his actions resulted in the plundering of Indian treasures and also in famines caused by policies disastrous to local Indian farm production. The historian William Dalrymple has called Clive an "unstable sociopath", due to these policies and his actions leading to famines and other atrocities towards native populations in Bengal. Changes caused by Clive to the revenue system and existing agricultural practices, to maximize profits for the East India Company, led to the Bengal Famine of 1770 and increased poverty in Bengal. A proportion of the loot of Bengal went directly into Clive's pocket.  Clive quoted about the oppression of Bengal:  "I shall only say that such a scene of anarchy, confusion, bribery, corruption, and extortion was never seen or heard of in any country but Bengal; nor did such and so many fortunes acquire in so unjust and rapacious a manner. The three provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa producing a clear revenue of 3 millions sterling, have been under the absolute management of the company's servants, ever since Mir Jafar's restoration to the subahship ; and they have, both civil and military,exacted and levied contributions from every man of power and consequence, from the Nawab down to the lowest zamindar."

Major-General Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive (29 September 1725 – 22 November 1774), also known as Clive of India, was the first British Governor of the Bengal Presidency. He began as a writer for the East India Company (EIC) who established the military and political supremacy of the EIC by securing a decisive victory in Bengal. In return for supporting the Nawab Mir Jafar on the throne, Clive was granted a jaghire of 30,000 pounds per year which was the rent the EIC would otherwise pay to the Nawab for their tax farming concession, when he left India he had a fortune of 180,000 pounds which he remitted through the Dutch East India Company.. Blocking impending French mastery of India, and eventual British expulsion from the continent, Clive improvised a military expedition that ultimately enabled the EIC to adopt the French strategy of indirect rule via puppet government. Hired by the EIC to return a second time to India, Clive conspired to secure the Company's trade interests by overthrowing the Ruler of Bengal, the richest state in India. Back in England, he used his loot from India to secure an Irish barony from the then Whig PM, Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, and a seat for himself in Parliament, via Henry Herbert, 1st Earl of Powis, representing the Whigs in Shrewsbury, Shropshire (1761–1774), as he had previously in Mitchell, Cornwall (1754–1755).

陆军少将罗伯特·克莱芙,第一代克莱芙男爵,KB,FRS(Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive,1725年-9月29日-1774年-11月22日),一译罗伯特·克莱武,又称印度的克莱芙(Clive of India),英国军人、政治家,为不列颠东印度公司在孟加拉建立起军事、政治霸权。他与沃伦·黑斯廷斯一样,都是英属印度殖民地建立过程中的早期关键人物。克莱芙还是辉格党国会议员。


Definition.

Claude Shannon's definition of self-information was chosen to meet several axioms:  The detailed derivation is below, but it can be shown that there is a unique function of probability that meets these three axioms, up to a multiplicative scaling factor. Broadly given an event formula_1 with probability formula_2, the information content is defined as follows:  formula_3  The base of the log is left unspecified, which corresponds to the scaling factor above. Different choices of base correspond to different units of information: if the logarithmic base is 2, the unit is named the "bit" or "shannon"; if the logarithm is the natural logarithm (corresponding to base Euler's number e ≈ 2.7182818284), the unit is called the "nat", short for "natural"; and if the base is 10, the units are called "hartleys", decimal "digits", or occasionally "dits".  Formally, given a random variable formula_4 with probability mass function formula_5, the self-information of measuring formula_4 as outcome formula_1 is defined as  formula_8 The Shannon entropy of the random variable formula_9 above is defined as  formula_10  by definition equal to the expected information content of measurement of formula_9.  The use of the notation formula_12 for self-information above is not universal. Since the notation formula_13 is also often used for the related quantity of mutual information, many authors use a lowercase formula_14 for self-entropy instead, mirroring the use of the capital formula_15 for the entropy.

Properties.

Monotonically Decreasing Function of Probability.

For a given probability space, the measurement of rarer events are intuitively more "surprising," and yield more information content, than more common values. Thus, self-information is a strictly decreasing monotonic function of the probability, or sometimes called an "antitonic" function.  While standard probabilities are represented by real numbers in the interval formula_16, self-informations are represented by extended real numbers in the interval formula_17. In particular, we have the following, for any choice of logarithmic base:  From this, we can get a few general properties:

Relationship to Log-Odds.

The Shannon information is closely related to the log-odds. In particular, given some event formula_1, suppose that formula_21 is the probability of formula_1 occurring, and that formula_23 is the probability of formula_1 not occurring. Then we have the following definition of the log-odds:  formula_25  This can be expressed as a difference of two Shannon informations:  formula_26  In other words, the log-odds can be interpreted as the level of surprise if the event 'doesn't' happen, minus the level of surprise if the event 'does' happen.

Additivity of independent events.

The information content of two independent events is the sum of each event's information content. This property is known as additivity in mathematics, and sigma additivity in particular in measure and probability theory. Consider two independent random variables formula_27 with probability mass functions formula_28 and formula_29 respectively. The joint probability mass function is  formula_30  because formula_31 and formula_32 are independent. The information content of the outcome formula_33 isformula_34See below for an example.  The corresponding property for likelihoods is that the log-likelihood of independent events is the sum of the log-likelihoods of each event. Interpreting log-likelihood as "support" or negative surprisal (the degree to which an event supports a given model: a model is supported by an event to the extent that the event is unsurprising, given the model), this states that independent events add support: the information that the two events together provide for statistical inference is the sum of their independent information.

Notes.

This measure has also been called surprisal, as it represents the "surprise" of seeing the outcome (a highly improbable outcome is very surprising). This term (as a log-probability measure) was coined by Myron Tribus in his 1961 book "Thermostatics and Thermodynamics".  When the event is a random realization (of a variable) the self-information of the variable is defined as the expected value of the self-information of the realization.  Self-information is an example of a proper scoring rule.

Examples.

Fair coin toss.

Consider the Bernoulli trial of tossing a fair coin formula_4. The probabilities of the events of the coin landing as heads formula_36 and tails formula_37 (see fair coin and obverse and reverse) are one half each, formula_38. Upon measuring the variable as heads, the associated information gain isformula_39so the information gain of a fair coin landing as heads is 1 shannon. Likewise, the information gain of measuring formula_37 tails isformula_41

Fair dice roll.

Suppose we have a fair six-sided die. The value of a dice roll is a discrete uniform random variable formula_42 with probability mass function formula_43The probability of rolling a 4 is formula_44, as for any other valid roll. The information content of rolling a 4 is thusformula_45of information.

Two independent, identically distributed dice.

Suppose we have two independent, identically distributed random variables formula_46 each corresponding to an independent fair 6-sided dice roll. The joint distribution of formula_4 and formula_48 isformula_49  The information content of the random variate formula_50 is formula_51just as  formula_52as explained in.

Information from frequency of rolls.

If we receive information about the value of the dice without knowledge of which die had which value, we can formalize the approach with so-called counting variables  formula_53  for formula_54, then formula_55 and the counts have the multinomial distribution  formula_56  To verify this, the 6 outcomes formula_57 correspond to the event formula_58 and a total probability of. These are the only events that are faithfully preserved with identity of which dice rolled which outcome because the outcomes are the same. Without knowledge to distinguish the dice rolling the other numbers, the other formula_59 combinations correspond to one die rolling one number and the other die rolling a different number, each having probability. Indeed, formula_60, as required.  Unsurprisingly, the information content of learning that both dice were rolled as the same particular number is more than the information content of learning that one dice was one number and the other was a different number. Take for examples the events formula_61 and formula_62for formula_63. For example, formula_64and formula_65.  The information contents are  formula_66formula_67Let formula_68 be the event that both dice rolled the same value and formula_69 be the event that the dice differed. Then formula_70 and formula_71. The information contents of the events are  formula_72formula_73

Information from sum of die.

The probability mass or density function (collectively probability measure) of the sum of two independent random variables is the convolution of each probability measure. In the case of independent fair 6-sided dice rolls, the random variable formula_74 has probability mass function formula_75, where formula_76 represents the discrete convolution. The outcome formula_77 has probability formula_78. Therefore, the information asserted isformula_79

General discrete uniform distribution.

Generalizing the example above, consider a general discrete uniform random variable (DURV) formula_80 For convenience, define formula_81. The p.m.f. is formula_82In general, the values of the DURV need not be integers, or for the purposes of information theory even uniformly spaced; they need only be equiprobable. The information gain of any observation formula_83isformula_84

Special case: constant random variable.

If formula_85 above, formula_4 degenerates to a constant random variable with probability distribution deterministically given by formula_87 and probability measure the Dirac measure formula_88. The only value formula_4 can take is deterministically formula_90, so the information content of any measurement of formula_4 isformula_92In general, there is no information gained from measuring a known value.

Categorical distribution.

Generalizing all of the above cases, consider a categorical discrete random variable with support formula_93 and given by  formula_94  For the purposes of information theory, the values formula_95 do not even have to be numbers at all; they can just be mutually exclusive events on a measure space of finite measure that has been normalized to a probability measure formula_96. Without loss of generality, we can assume the categorical distribution is supported on the set formula_97; the mathematical structure is isomorphic in terms of probability theory and therefore information theory as well.  The information of the outcome formula_98 is given  formula_99  From these examples, it is possible to calculate the information of any set of independent DRVs with known distributions by additivity.

Relationship to entropy.

The entropy is the expected value of the information content of the discrete random variable, with expectation taken over the discrete values it takes. Sometimes, the entropy itself is called the "self-information" of the random variable, possibly because the entropy satisfies formula_100, where formula_101 is the mutual information of formula_4 with itself.

Derivation.

By definition, information is transferred from an originating entity possessing the information to a receiving entity only when the receiver had not known the information a priori. If the receiving entity had previously known the content of a message with certainty before receiving the message, the amount of information of the message received is zero.  For example, quoting a character (the Hippy Dippy Weatherman) of comedian George Carlin, "“Weather forecast for tonight: dark. Continued dark overnight, with widely scattered light by morning.”" Assuming one does not reside near the Earth's poles or polar circles, the amount of information conveyed in that forecast is zero because it is known, in advance of receiving the forecast, that darkness always comes with the night.  When the content of a message is known a priori with certainty, with probability of 1, there is no actual information conveyed in the message. Only when the advance knowledge of the content of the message by the receiver is less than 100% certain does the message actually convey information.  Accordingly, the amount of self-information contained in a message conveying content informing an occurrence of event, formula_103, depends only on the probability of that event.  for some function formula_105 to be determined below. If formula_106, then formula_107. If formula_108, then formula_109.  Further, by definition, the measure of self-information is nonnegative and additive. If a message informing of event formula_110 is the intersection of two independent events formula_111 and formula_112, then the information of event formula_110 occurring is that of the compound message of both independent events formula_111 and formula_112 occurring. The quantity of information of compound message formula_110 would be expected to equal the sum of the amounts of information of the individual component messages formula_111 and formula_112 respectively:  Because of the independence of events formula_111 and formula_112, the probability of event formula_110 is  However, applying function formula_105 results in  The class of function formula_105 having the property such that  is the logarithm function of any base. The only operational difference between logarithms of different bases is that of different scaling constants.  Since the probabilities of events are always between 0 and 1 and the information associated with these events must be nonnegative, that requires that formula_129.  Taking into account these properties, the self-information formula_130 associated with outcome formula_103 with probability formula_132 is defined as:  The smaller the probability of event formula_103, the larger the quantity of self-information associated with the message that the event indeed occurred. If the above logarithm is base 2, the unit of formula_135 is bits. This is the most common practice. When using the natural logarithm of base formula_136, the unit will be the nat. For the base 10 logarithm, the unit of information is the hartley.  As a quick illustration, the information content associated with an outcome of 4 heads (or any specific outcome) in 4 consecutive tosses of a coin would be 4 bits (probability 1/16), and the information content associated with getting a result other than the one specified would be ~0.09 bits (probability 15/16). See above for detailed examples.

In information theory, the information content, self-information, surprisal, or Shannon information is a basic quantity derived from the probability of a particular event occurring from a random variable. It can be thought of as an alternative way of expressing probability, much like odds or log-odds, but which has particular mathematical advantages in the setting of information theory.

在信息论中,自信息(英语:self-information),由克劳德·夏农提出,是与概率空间中的单一事件或离散随机变量的值相关的资讯量的量度。它用信息的单位表示,例如 bit、nat或是hart,使用哪个单位取决于在计算中使用的对数的底。自信息的期望值就是信息论中的熵,它反映了随机变量采样时的平均不确定程度。


Discovery and observation.

Observation of X-ray emissions allows astronomers to study celestial phenomena involving gas with temperatures in the millions of degrees. However, because X-ray emissions are blocked by the Earth's atmosphere, observation of celestial X-ray sources is not possible without lifting instruments to altitudes where the X-rays can penetrate. Cygnus X-1 was discovered using X-ray instruments that were carried aloft by a sounding rocket launched from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. As part of an ongoing effort to map these sources, a survey was conducted in 1964 using two Aerobee suborbital rockets. The rockets carried Geiger counters to measure X-ray emission in wavelength range 1– across an 8.4° section of the sky. These instruments swept across the sky as the rockets rotated, producing a map of closely spaced scans.  As a result of these surveys, eight new sources of cosmic X-rays were discovered, including Cyg XR-1 (later Cyg X-1) in the constellation Cygnus. The celestial coordinates of this source were estimated as right ascension 1953 and declination 34.6°. It was not associated with any especially prominent radio or optical source at that position.  Seeing a need for longer duration studies, in 1963 Riccardo Giacconi and Herb Gursky proposed the first orbital satellite to study X-ray sources. NASA launched their Uhuru Satellite in 1970, which led to the discovery of 300 new X-ray sources. Extended Uhuru observations of Cygnus X-1 showed fluctuations in the X-ray intensity that occurs several times a second. This rapid variation meant that the energy generation must take place over a relatively small region of roughly, as the speed of light restricts communication between more distant regions. For a size comparison, the diameter of the Sun is about.  In April–May 1971, Luc Braes and George K. Miley from Leiden Observatory, and independently Robert M. Hjellming and Campbell Wade at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, detected radio emission from Cygnus X-1, and their accurate radio position pinpointed the X-ray source to the star AGK2 +35 1910 = HDE 226868. On the celestial sphere, this star lies about half a degree from the 4th-magnitude star Eta Cygni. It is a supergiant star that is, by itself, incapable of emitting the observed quantities of X-rays. Hence, the star must have a companion that could heat gas to the millions of degrees needed to produce the radiation source for Cygnus X-1.  Louise Webster and Paul Murdin, at the Royal Greenwich Observatory, and Charles Thomas Bolton, working independently at the University of Toronto's David Dunlap Observatory, announced the discovery of a massive hidden companion to HDE 226868 in 1971. Measurements of the Doppler shift of the star's spectrum demonstrated the companion's presence and allowed its mass to be estimated from the orbital parameters. Based on the high predicted mass of the object, they surmised that it may be a black hole as the largest possible neutron star cannot exceed three times the mass of the Sun.  With further observations strengthening the evidence, by the end of 1973 the astronomical community generally conceded that Cygnus X-1 was most likely a black hole. More precise measurements of Cygnus X-1 demonstrated variability down to a single millisecond. This interval is consistent with turbulence in a disk of accreted matter surrounding a black hole—the accretion disk. X-ray bursts that last for about a third of a second match the expected time frame of matter falling toward a black hole. Cygnus X-1 has since been studied extensively using observations by orbiting and ground-based instruments. The similarities between the emissions of X-ray binaries such as HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 and active galactic nuclei suggests a common mechanism of energy generation involving a black hole, an orbiting accretion disk and associated jets. For this reason, Cygnus X-1 is identified among a class of objects called microquasars; an analog of the quasars, or quasi-stellar radio sources, now known to be distant active galactic nuclei. Scientific studies of binary systems such as HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 may lead to further insights into the mechanics of active galaxies.

Binary system.

The compact object and blue supergiant star form a binary system in which they orbit around their center of mass every 5.599829 days. From the perspective of the Earth, the compact object never goes behind the other star; in other words, the system does not eclipse. However, the inclination of the orbital plane to the line of sight from the Earth remains uncertain, with predictions ranging from 27–65°. A 2007 study estimated the inclination is, which would mean that the semi-major axis is about, or 20% of the distance from the Earth to the Sun. The orbital eccentricity is thought to be only ; a nearly circular orbit. Earth's distance to this system is about.  The HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 system shares a common motion through space with an association of massive stars named Cygnus OB3, which is located at roughly 2,000 parsecs from the Sun. This implies that HDE 226868, Cygnus X-1 and this OB association may have formed at the same time and location. If so, then the age of the system is about. The motion of HDE 226868 with respect to Cygnus OB3 is ; a typical value for random motion within a stellar association. HDE 226868 is about from the center of the association, and could have reached that separation in about —which roughly agrees with estimated age of the association.  With a galactic latitude of 4 degrees and galactic longitude 71 degrees, this system lies inward along the same Orion Spur in which the Sun is located within the Milky Way, near where the spur approaches the Sagittarius Arm. Cygnus X-1 has been described as belonging to the Sagittarius Arm, though the structure of the Milky Way is not well established.

Compact object.

From various techniques, the mass of the compact object appears to be greater than the maximum mass for a neutron star. Stellar evolutionary models suggest a mass of, while other techniques resulted in 10 solar masses. Measuring periodicities in the X-ray emission near the object has yielded a more precise value of. In all cases, the object is most likely a black hole—a region of space with a gravitational field that is strong enough to prevent the escape of electromagnetic radiation from the interior. The boundary of this region is called the event horizon and has an effective radius called the Schwarzschild radius, which is about for Cygnus X-1. Anything (including matter and photons) that passes through this boundary is unable to escape.  Evidence of just such an event horizon may have been detected in 1992 using ultraviolet (UV) observations with the High Speed Photometer on the Hubble Space Telescope. As self-luminous clumps of matter spiral into a black hole, their radiation will be emitted in a series of pulses that are subject to gravitational redshift as the material approaches the horizon. That is, the wavelengths of the radiation will steadily increase, as predicted by general relativity. Matter hitting a solid, compact object would emit a final burst of energy, whereas material passing through an event horizon would not. Two such "dying pulse trains" were observed, which is consistent with the existence of a black hole.  The spin of the compact object is not yet well determined. Past analysis of data from the space-based Chandra X-ray Observatory suggested that Cygnus X-1 was not rotating to any significant degree. However, evidence announced in 2011 suggests it is rotating extremely rapidly, approximately 790 times per second.

Formation.

The largest star in the Cygnus OB3 association has a mass 40 times that of the Sun. As more massive stars evolve more rapidly, this implies that the progenitor star for Cygnus X-1 had more than 40 solar masses. Given the current estimated mass of the black hole, the progenitor star must have lost over 30 solar masses of material. Part of this mass may have been lost to HDE 226868, while the remainder was most likely expelled by a strong stellar wind. The helium enrichment of HDE 226868's outer atmosphere may be evidence for this mass transfer. Possibly the progenitor may have evolved into a Wolf–Rayet star, which ejects a substantial proportion of its atmosphere using just such a powerful stellar wind.  If the progenitor star had exploded as a supernova, then observations of similar objects show that the remnant would most likely have been ejected from the system at a relatively high velocity. As the object remained in orbit, this indicates that the progenitor may have collapsed directly into a black hole without exploding (or at most produced only a relatively modest explosion).

Accretion disk.

The compact object is thought to be orbited by a thin, flat disk of accreting matter known as an accretion disk. This disk is intensely heated by friction between ionized gas in faster-moving inner orbits and that in slower outer ones. It is divided into a hot inner region with a relatively high level of ionization—forming a plasma—and a cooler, less ionized outer region that extends to an estimated 500 times the Schwarzschild radius, or about 15,000 km.  Though highly and erratically variable, Cygnus X-1 is typically the brightest persistent source of hard X-rays—those with energies from about 30 up to several hundred keV—in the sky. The X-rays are produced as lower-energy photons in the thin inner accretion disk, then given more energy through Compton scattering with very high-temperature electrons in a geometrically thicker, but nearly transparent corona enveloping it, as well as by some further reflection from the surface of the thin disk. An alternative possibility is that the X-rays may be Compton scattered by the base of a jet instead of a disk corona.  The X-ray emission from Cygnus X-1 can vary in a somewhat repetitive pattern called quasi-periodic oscillations (QPO). The mass of the compact object appears to determine the distance at which the surrounding plasma begins to emit these QPOs, with the emission radius decreasing as the mass decreases. This technique has been used to estimate the mass of Cygnus X-1, providing a cross-check with other mass derivations.  Pulsations with a stable period, similar to those resulting from the spin of a neutron star, have never been seen from Cygnus X-1. The pulsations from neutron stars are caused by the neutron star's magnetic field; however, the no-hair theorem guarantees that black holes do not have magnetic poles. For example, the X-ray binary V 0332+53 was thought to be a possible black hole until pulsations were found. Cygnus X-1 has also never displayed X-ray bursts similar to those seen from neutron stars. Cygnus X-1 unpredictably changes between two X-ray states, although the X-rays may vary continuously between those states as well. In the most common state, the X-rays are "hard", which means that more of the X-rays have high energy. In the less common state, the X-rays are "soft", with more of the X-rays having lower energy. The soft state also shows greater variability. The hard state is believed to originate in a corona surrounding the inner part of the more opaque accretion disk. The soft state occurs when the disk draws closer to the compact object (possibly as close as ), accompanied by cooling or ejection of the corona. When a new corona is generated, Cygnus X-1 transitions back to the hard state.  The spectral transition of Cygnus X-1 can be explained using a two component advective flow solution, as proposed by Chakrabarti and Titarchuk. A hard state is generated by the inverse Comptonisation of seed photons from the Keplarian disk and likewise synchrotron photons produced by the hot electrons in the Centrifugal Pressure-supported Boundary Layer (CENBOL).  The X-ray flux from Cygnus X-1 varies periodically every, especially during superior conjunction when the orbiting objects are most closely aligned with the Earth and the compact source is the more distant. This indicates that the emissions are being partially blocked by circumstellar matter, which may be the stellar wind from the star HDE 226868. There is a roughly periodicity in the emission that could be caused by the precession of the accretion disk.

Jets.

As accreted matter falls toward the compact object, it loses gravitational potential energy. Part of this released energy is dissipated by jets of particles, aligned perpendicular to the accretion disk, that flow outward with relativistic velocities. (That is, the particles are moving at a significant fraction of the speed of light.) This pair of jets provide a means for an accretion disk to shed excess energy and angular momentum. They may be created by magnetic fields within the gas that surrounds the compact object.  The Cygnus X-1 jets are inefficient radiators and so release only a small proportion of their energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. That is, they appear "dark". The estimated angle of the jets to the line of sight is 30° and they may be precessing. One of the jets is colliding with a relatively dense part of the interstellar medium (ISM), forming an energized ring that can be detected by its radio emission. This collision appears to be forming a nebula that has been observed in the optical wavelengths. To produce this nebula, the jet must have an estimated average power of 4–, or. This is more than 1,000 times the power emitted by the Sun. There is no corresponding ring in the opposite direction because that jet is facing a lower density region of the ISM.  In 2006, Cygnus X-1 became the first stellar mass black hole found to display evidence of gamma ray emission in the very high energy band, above. The signal was observed at the same time as a flare of hard X-rays, suggesting a link between the events. The X-ray flare may have been produced at the base of the jet while the gamma rays could have been generated where the jet interacts with the stellar wind of HDE 226868.

HDE 226868.

HDE 226868 is a supergiant star with a spectral class of O9.7 Iab, which is on the borderline between class O and class B stars. It has an estimated surface temperature of 31,000 K and mass approximately 20–40 times the mass of the Sun. Based on a stellar evolutionary model, at the estimated distance of 2,000 parsecs this star may have a radius equal to about 15–17 times the solar radius and is approximately 300,000–400,000 times the luminosity of the Sun. For comparison, the compact object is estimated to be orbiting HDE 226868 at a distance of about 40 solar radii, or twice the radius of this star.  The surface of HDE 226868 is being tidally distorted by the gravity of the massive companion, forming a tear-drop shape that is further distorted by rotation. This causes the optical brightness of the star to vary by 0.06 magnitudes during each 5.6-day binary orbit, with the minimum magnitude occurring when the system is aligned with the line of sight. The "ellipsoidal" pattern of light variation results from the limb darkening and gravity darkening of the star's surface.  When the spectrum of HDE 226868 is compared to the similar star Epsilon Orionis, the former shows an overabundance of helium and an underabundance of carbon in its atmosphere. The ultraviolet and hydrogen alpha spectral lines of HDE 226868 show profiles similar to the star P Cygni, which indicates that the star is surrounded by a gaseous envelope that is being accelerated away from the star at speeds of about 1,500 km/s.  Like other stars of its spectral type, HDE 226868 is thought to be shedding mass in a stellar wind at an estimated rate of solar masses per year. This is the equivalent of losing a mass equal to the Sun's every 400,000 years. The gravitational influence of the compact object appears to be reshaping this stellar wind, producing a focused wind geometry rather than a spherically symmetrical wind. X-rays from the region surrounding the compact object heat and ionize this stellar wind. As the object moves through different regions of the stellar wind during its 5.6-day orbit, the UV lines, the radio emission, and the X-rays themselves all vary.  The Roche lobe of HDE 226868 defines the region of space around the star where orbiting material remains gravitationally bound. Material that passes beyond this lobe may fall toward the orbiting companion. This Roche lobe is believed to be close to the surface of HDE 226868 but not overflowing, so the material at the stellar surface is not being stripped away by its companion. However, a significant proportion of the stellar wind emitted by the star is being drawn onto the compact object's accretion disk after passing beyond this lobe.  The gas and dust between the Sun and HDE 226868 results in a reduction in the apparent magnitude of the star as well as a reddening of the hue—red light can more effectively penetrate the dust in the interstellar medium. The estimated value of the interstellar extinction (A) is 3.3 magnitudes. Without the intervening matter, HDE 226868 would be a fifth-magnitude star and, thus, visible to the unaided eye.

Stephen Hawking and Kip Thorne.

Cygnus X-1 was the subject of a bet between physicists Stephen Hawking and Kip Thorne, in which Hawking bet against the existence of black holes in the region. Hawking later described this as an "insurance policy" of sorts. In his book "A Brief History of Time" he wrote:  According to the updated tenth-anniversary edition of "A Brief History of Time", Hawking has conceded the bet due to subsequent observational data in favor of black holes. In his own book, "Black Holes and Time Warps", Thorne reports that Hawking conceded the bet by breaking into Thorne's office while he was in Russia, finding the framed bet, and signing it. (While Hawking referred to the bet as taking place in 1975, the written bet itself (in Thorne's handwriting, with his and Hawking's signatures) bears additional witness signatures under a legend stating "Witnessed this tenth day of December 1974". This date was confirmed by Kip Thorne on the January 10, 2018 episode of "Nova" on PBS.)

Cygnus X-1 (abbreviated Cyg X-1) is a galactic X-ray source in the constellation Cygnus, and the first such source widely accepted to be a black hole. It was discovered in 1964 during a rocket flight and is one of the strongest X-ray sources seen from Earth, producing a peak X-ray flux density of (). It remains among the most studied astronomical objects in its class. The compact object is now estimated to have a mass about 14.8 times the mass of the Sun and has been shown to be too small to be any known kind of normal star, or other likely object besides a black hole. If so, the radius of its event horizon has "as upper bound to the linear dimension of the source region" of occasional X-ray bursts lasting only for about 1 ms.

天鹅座X-1(简称Cyg X-1)是一个银河系内位于天鹅座的双星系统,是著名的X射线源。它在1964年的一次火箭弹道飞行时被发现,是从地球观测最强的X射线源之一,其顶峰X射线通量为2.3 WmHz。天鹅座X-1是最先被广泛承认为黑洞的候选星体,也是同类星体中最受研究关注的。现在估计其质量为太阳质量的14.8倍,而其密度之高使黑洞成为唯一一种解释。如果如此,它的事件视界半径约为26公里。