Club career.

Early career.

Sessègnon began his career in Cotonou with Benin Premier League side Requins de l'Atlantique, which means the "Sharks of the Atlantic" in French. After spending only a year in the club's senior team, he moved to France to join Créteil, based in the Parisian suburbs, where he joined fellow international Noël Séka. Sessègnon made his debut on the opening match day of the 2004–05 Ligue 2 season against Stade Reims as a substitute in a 2–1 defeat. He scored his first goals on 14 January 2005, a brace in a span of four minutes, in a 3–0 win over Gueugnon. Though Créteil finished in 15th position, Sessègnon was labelled a revelation as he was the primary bright spot in helping the club escape relegation.

Le Mans.

Keen on a move to Ligue 1, Sessègnon signed a three-year deal with Le Mans on 19 May 2006. He made his debut for the club in a league match against Troyes, appearing as a substitute in a 2–2 draw. After featuring as a substitute in his first five appearances, and receiving a straight red card in a match against Sedan, he earned his first start on 4 November 2006 against Auxerre. Two weeks later, he scored his first career goal for Le Mans in a 1–1 draw with Rennes.  Initially used as a holding midfielder at Le Mans, Sessègnon was given a more advanced role for the 2007–08 season, often starting on the right side of the midfield or as an attacker. In this new role, he scored both goals in the club's 3–2 defeat to giants Lyon on 1 September 2007. He scored again the following week in a 1–0 victory over Valenciennes. Sessègnon also helped the club reach the semi-finals of the Coupe de la Ligue that season although they lost to Lens in a thrilling 5–4 defeat in extra time, Sessègnon playing the entire 120 minutes.

Paris Saint-Germain.

Due to his success at Le Mans, Sessègnon was scouted by larger clubs such as Premier League sides Arsenal and Newcastle United. However, he remained in France by signing a four-year deal with Paris Saint Germain. The fee was said to be in the range of €8–10 million.  Sessègnon made his league debut with the club on 16 August 2008, starting in the 1–0 win against Bordeaux. The following match day, he scored his first goal for PSG in a 1–1 draw with Sochaux. On 13 December 2008, Sessègnon scored his third career brace against Auxerre in a 2–1 victory. For his positive performances, he was named the UNFP Player of the Month for December. Sessègnon also appeared in nine matches in the UEFA Cup, scoring one goal against Dutch club Twente.  Several clubs contacted PSG in the off-season to discuss Sessègnon's availability, with Premier League clubs Chelsea, Liverpool, Arsenal, Everton and Manchester City being the primary suitors. Taking advantage of the considerable interest in him, Sessègnon issued a public demand on 23 June that his parent club give him a pay raise, stating, "I think I am one of the best performers in the club." The firing of PSG manager Paul Le Guen also played a role in his demands, and two weeks later, Sessègnon and the club reached an agreement on a contract extension with the player set to receive a substantial pay raise.  In the 2010–11 season, Sessègnon struggled to make an impact with the first team after manager Antoine Kombouaré relegated him to a substitute's role. Friction between player and manager reached its zenith in December 2010, when Sessègnon accused Kombouaré of insulting him during a one-on-one interview ahead of the team's match against Nancy on 19 December. Sessègnon subsequently confirmed his desire to leave the club in the January window and, as a sign of his intent, refused to join Paris Saint-Germain on its winter training camp in Morocco.

Sunderland.

2010–11 season.

On 29 January 2011, Sessègnon departed Paris Saint-Germain to join English club Sunderland. He signed a three-and-a-half-year contract and the transfer fee was priced at £6 million, and made his debut on 1 February against Chelsea. He made his second start for the "Black Cats" in 3–2 away loss against Stoke City on 5 February 2011. His first real successful moment as a Sunderland player after a disappointing start came on 23 April, where he scored his first goal for the club in the 4–2 win over Wigan Athletic. He converted a penalty of his own making in the 73rd minute, beating Ali Al-Habsi after being tripped by Antolín Alcaraz. Sessègnon had been forced to play in an unfamiliar role as a lone striker, after injuries to strikers Danny Welbeck and Asamoah Gyan during the match.  Sessègnon scored in Sunderland's home defeat against Wolverhampton Wanderers, and again in the final match of the season, a 0–3 win at West Ham United.

2011–12 season.

In his second season at Sunderland, Sessègnon scored his first goal of the season against Bolton Wanderers on 22 October 2011. He followed this up with an 89th-minute equaliser against Aston Villa a week later, also providing an assist and winning man of the match.  On 8 February 2012, in a FA Cup fourth round replay, Sessègnon scored a dramatic late winner against Middlesbrough in the 113th minute during extra time to take Sunderland into the fifth round again Arsenal. On 4 March, he was sent-off in the match against Newcastle United for an elbow to the chest of Cheick Tioté, with Sunderland leading the Tyne-Wear derby 1–0. Newcastle went on to equalise in stoppage time. Sessègnon served a three-match ban returning to score the third goal in Sunderland's 3–1 win against Queens Park Rangers at the Stadium of Light on 24 March. Against Manchester City, although he did not score in the match, he set up two assists, one for a Sebastian Larsson opener in the 31st minute and the second for a Nicklas Bendtner header deep in the first half of injury time to make the match 2–1 for Sunderland at half time. The match finished in a 3–3 draw, with Larsson in the 55th minute scoring to put Sunderland 3–1 ahead after Sessègnon started that attack, then in the 85th minute, Mario Balotelli scored to make the score 3–2 and Aleksandar Kolarov scored Manchester City's equalising goal in the 86th. Sessègnon won the Player of the Season award for the season.

2012–13 season.

On 30 August 2012, Sessègnon signed a new contract that would keep him at the Stadium of Light until 2015.  In Paolo Di Canio's second match as Sunderland manager, on 14 April 2013, Sessègnon scored against Sunderland's fiercest rivals Newcastle to put Sunderland 1–0 up. Sunderland went on to win the encounter with their rivals 3–0, with Sessègnon assisting David Vaughan for the third goal. The following week, Sessègnon scored the only goal as Sunderland defeated Everton 1–0 at home. His season ended prematurely after he was sent off during Sunderland's 6–1 defeat against Aston Villa.

West Bromwich Albion.

On 2 September 2013, Sessègnon joined West Bromwich Albion for a club record fee of £5.5 million, rising to £6 million with extras. On 21 September, Sessègnon scored the first goal in a 3–0 win on his debut for West Bromwich Albion against Sunderland, his previous club. On 9 November, he scored against Chelsea in controversial 2–2 draw at Stamford Bridge. On 15 March 2014, Sessegnon scored the first Albion goal of a 1–2 away victory against Swansea City at the Liberty Stadium, helping Pepe Mel gain his first win as head coach. Sessègnon, thus far, has been a fan favourite at the club and his substitution in matches has often lead to a negative reaction from the fans. He scored his first goal of his second season at the club against Manchester United with a well-taken strike in a 2–2 draw at The Hawthorns.  After almost leaving the club at the end of the season after falling out with manager Tony Pulis over selection issues, Sessegnon would return to the first team in the 2015–16 season with consistent performances.  On 18 May 2016, it was announced that Sessègnon and Victor Anichebe would leave the club.

Montpellier.

On 26 September 2016, Sessègnon signed for Ligue 1 side Montpellier on a two-year deal.

Gençlerbirliği.

On 23 January 2018, Sessègnon signed a one and a half-year contract with Süper Lig side Gençlerbirliği.

International career.

Sessègnon made his debut for Benin on 6 June 2004 in a 2006 World Cup qualification match against Cameroon starting in the team's 2–1 loss.

Style of play.

Upon signing for Sunderland, manager Steve Bruce described Sessègnon as a player who "can play on the left, on the right, through the middle – he's lightning quick and he's a match-winner." Bruce also went on to say, "Stéphane's a little powerhouse with a low centre of gravity, some great dribbling skills and a good shot."

Personal life.

He is a distant cousin of twin brothers Ryan, who plays for Tottenham Hotspur and Steven, who plays for Fulham.

Honours.

Club.

PSG

International.

Benin

Stéphane Sessègnon (born 1 June 1984) is a Beninese professional footballer who plays for Turkish club Gençlerbirliği. He is a Benin international having starred for the nation at both the 2008 and 2010 editions of the Africa Cup of Nations. Sessègnon plays a variety of positions as a forward, a winger and as a midfield offensive playmaker. He is Benin's all-time top scorer and appearance maker with 24 international goals in 82 matches.

斯特凡·塞塞尼翁(,1984年-6月1日),出生于非洲贝宁,司职进攻中场,曾效力法甲勒芒及巴黎圣日耳曼,现时效力法甲蒙彼利埃,又同时是贝宁国家足球队队长。


Definition.

The first formal definition of covering dimension was given by Eduard Čech, based on an earlier result of Henri Lebesgue.  A modern definition is as follows. An open cover of a topological space "X" is a family of open sets whose union includes "X". The "ply" or "order" of a cover is the smallest number "n" (if it exists) such that each point of the space belongs to, at most, "n" sets in the cover. A refinement of a cover "C" is another cover, each of whose sets is a subset of a set in "C". The covering dimension of a topological space "X" is defined to be the minimum value of "n", such that every open cover "C" of "X" (regardless of ply) has an open refinement with ply "n" + 1 or below. If no such minimal "n" exists, the space is said to be of infinite covering dimension.  As a special case, a topological space is zero-dimensional with respect to the covering dimension if every open cover of the space has a refinement consisting of disjoint open sets so that any point in the space is contained in exactly one open set of this refinement.

Examples.

Any given open cover of the unit circle will have a refinement consisting of a collection of open arcs. The circle has dimension one, by this definition, because any such cover can be further refined to the stage where a given point "x" of the circle is contained in "at most" two open arcs. That is, whatever collection of arcs we begin with, some can be discarded or shrunk, such that the remainder still covers the circle but with simple overlaps.  Similarly, any open cover of the unit disk in the two-dimensional plane can be refined so that any point of the disk is contained in no more than three open sets, while two are in general not sufficient. The covering dimension of the disk is thus two.  More generally, the "n"-dimensional Euclidean space formula_1 has covering dimension "n".  A non-technical illustration of these examples is given below.

In mathematics, the Lebesgue covering dimension or topological dimension of a topological space is one of several different ways of defining the dimension of the space in a topologically invariant way.

拓扑空间 formula_1 的拓扑维数是 "n",当且仅当 "n" 是最小的整数使得以下陈述成立:


Geography.

The total land area of Shikotan is 225 km2. The island is hilly, averaging 300 metres in elevation. The shores of the island are very indented and covered with oceanic meadows. The highest altitude is 412 m. The island is formed by the volcanic rock and sandstone of the Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic periods. There are two extinct volcanoes on Shikotan: Mount Tomari and Mount Notoro.  Shikotan's vegetation consists mostly of Sakhalin fir, larch, deciduous trees, bamboo underbrush, and juniper brushwood.  There are two villages: Malokurilskoye, formerly ; and Krabozavodskoye, formerly.

History.

Russia recognised Japanese sovereignty over the island in the 19th century. In 1885, Hanasaki District, to which the island belongs, was split off of Nemuro Province and incorporated into Chishima Province.  In September 1945, during the final days of World War II, the island, which had a population of 1,038 at the time, was invaded by 600 Soviet troops. It is one of the islands (along with the Habomai Islands) which the Soviet Union agreed in 1956 to transfer to Japan in the event of a peace treaty between the two countries (such a peace treaty has never been concluded). Between the late-1950s and to the 1960s, the Soviet Union fortified the island with old tanks (mainly IS-2 and IS-3 heavy tanks) repurposed as coastal-defence artillery against a possible seaborne invasion, by digging them into the ground and employing them as fixed gun emplacements.  An earthquake and subsequent tsunami caused major damage on the island's coastline on October 4, 1994.

In popular culture.

The 2014 anime film "Giovanni's Island" is a fictionalized account of the fate of Japanese civilians living on Shikotan at the time of the 1945 Soviet occupation.

Shikotan (Russian: Шикотан; ; ), also known as Shpanberg (after Martin Spangberg), is an island in the Kurils administered by the Russian Federation as part of Yuzhno-Kurilsky District of Sakhalin Oblast. It is claimed by Japan as the nominal, part of Nemuro Subprefecture of Hokkaido Prefecture.

色丹岛(),俄罗斯称之为希科坦岛(,一译施科坦岛),是日俄争议领土南千岛群岛中的一个岛屿。现为俄罗斯实际控制,属远东联邦管区萨哈林州管辖。日本宣称对该岛拥有主权,要求俄罗斯将包括该岛在内的南千岛群岛(日本称北方四岛)归还给日本。


Description.

The salute was executed by extending the right arm to neck height and then straightening the hand so that it is parallel to the arm. Usually, an utterance of ""Heil Hitler!"", or ""Heil!"" accompanied the gesture. If one saw an acquaintance at a distance, it was enough to simply raise the right hand. If one encountered a superior, one would also say ""Heil Hitler"". If physical disability prevented raising the right arm, it was acceptable to raise the left.  The form ""Heil, mein Führer!"" was for direct address to Hitler. ""Sieg Heil"" was repeated as a chant on public occasions. Written communications would be concluded with either "mit deutschem Gruß" ("with German regards"), or with ""Heil Hitler"". In correspondence with high-ranking Nazi officials, letters were usually signed with ""Heil Hitler"".  Hitler gave the salute in two ways. When reviewing his troops or crowds, he generally used the traditional stiff armed salute. When greeting individuals, he used a modified version of the salute, bending his right arm while holding an open hand towards those greeted at shoulder height.

Origins and adoption.

The spoken greeting ""Heil"" became popular in the pan-German movement around 1900. It was used by the followers of Georg Ritter von Schönerer, the head of the Austrian "Alldeutsche Partei", ("Pan-German Party") who considered himself leader of the Austrian Germans, and has been described by Carl E. Schorske as "The strongest and most thoroughly consistent anti-Semite that Austria produced" before the coming of Hitler. Hitler took both the "Heil" greeting – which was popularly used in his "hometown" of Linz when he was a boy – and the title of "Führer" for the head of the Nazi Party from Schönerer.  The extended arm saluting gesture is widely, and erroneously, believed to be based on an ancient Roman custom, but no known Roman work of art depicts it, nor does any extant Roman text describe it. Jacques-Louis David's 1784 painting "Oath of the Horatii" displayed a raised arm salutatory gesture in an ancient Roman setting. The gesture and its identification with ancient Rome was advanced in other French neoclassic art.  In 1892, Francis Bellamy introduced the American Pledge of Allegiance, which was to be accompanied by a visually similar saluting gesture, referred to as the Bellamy salute. A raised arm gesture was then used in the 1899 American stage production of "Ben-Hur", and its 1907 film adaptation. The gesture was further elaborated upon in several early Italian films. Of special note was the 1914 silent film "Cabiria", whose screenplay had contributions from the Italian ultra-nationalist Gabriele d'Annunzio, arguably a forerunner of Italian Fascism. In 1919, when he led the occupation of Fiume, d'Annunzio used the style of salute depicted in the film as a neo-Imperialist ritual and the Italian Fascist Party quickly adopted it.  By autumn 1923, some members of the Nazi Party were using the rigid, outstretched right arm salute to greet Hitler, who responded by raising his own right hand crooked back at the elbow, palm opened upwards, in a gesture of acceptance. In 1926, the "Heil Hitler" salute was made compulsory. It functioned as a display of commitment to the Party and a declaration of principle to the outside world. Gregor Strasser wrote in 1927 that the greeting in and of itself was a pledge of loyalty to Hitler, as well as a symbol of personal dependence on the Führer. Even so, the drive to gain acceptance did not go unchallenged.  Some party members questioned the legitimacy of the so-called Roman salute, employed by Fascist Italy, as un-Germanic. In response, efforts were made to establish its pedigree by inventing a tradition after the fact. In June 1928, Rudolf Hess published an article titled "The Fascist Greeting", which claimed that the gesture was used in Germany as early as 1921, before the Nazis had heard about the Italian Fascists. He admits in the article: "The NSDAP's introduction of the raised-arm greeting approximately two years ago still gets some people's blood boiling. Its opponents suspect the greeting of being un-Germanic. They accuse it of merely aping the [Italian] Fascists", but goes on to ask, "and even if the decree from two years ago [Hess' order that all party members use it] is seen as an adaption of the Fascist gesture, is that really so terrible"? Ian Kershaw points out that Hess did not deny the likely influence from Fascist Italy, even if indeed the salute had been used sporadically in 1921 as Hess claimed.  On the night of 3 January 1942, Hitler said of the origins of the salute:

From 1933 to 1945.

Under a decree issued by Reich Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick on 13 July 1933 (one day before the ban on all non-Nazi parties), all German public employees were required to use the salute. The decree also required the salute during the singing of the national anthem and the "Horst-Wessel-Lied." It stipulated that "anyone not wishing to come under suspicion of behaving in a consciously negative fashion will therefore render the Hitler Greeting," and its use quickly spread as people attempted to avoid being labelled as a dissident. A rider to the decree, added two weeks later, stipulated that if physical disability prevented raising of the right arm, "then it is correct to carry out the Greeting with the left arm." On 27 September, prison inmates were forbidden to use the salute, as were Jews by 1937.  By the end of 1934, special courts were established to punish those who refused to salute. Offenders, such as Protestant preacher Paul Schneider, faced the possibility of being sent to a concentration camp. Foreigners were not exempt from intimidation if they refused to salute. For example, the Portuguese Consul General was beaten by members of the "Sturmabteilung" for remaining seated in a car and not saluting a procession in Hamburg. Reactions to inappropriate use were not merely violent but sometimes bizarre. For example, a memo dated 23 July 1934 sent to local police stations stated: "There have been reports of traveling vaudeville performers training their monkeys to give the German Greeting.... see to it that said animals are destroyed."  The salute soon became part of everyday life, a historically unique phenomenon that politicised all communication in Germany for twelve years, superseding all prior forms of greeting (such as "guten tag" and "auf wiedersehen"). Postmen used the greeting when they knocked on people's doors to deliver packages or letters. Small metal signs that reminded people to use the Hitler salute were displayed in public squares and on telephone poles and street lights throughout Germany. Department store clerks greeted customers with "Heil Hitler, how may I help you?" Dinner guests brought glasses etched with the words "Heil Hitler" as house gifts. The salute was required of all persons passing the "Feldherrnhalle" in Munich, site of the climax of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch, which the government had made into a shrine to the Nazi dead; so many pedestrians avoided this mandate by detouring through the small "Viscardigasse" behind that the passage acquired the nickname "Dodgers' Alley" ("Drückebergergasse"). The daughter of the American Ambassador to Germany, Martha Dodd, describes the first time she saw the salute:  Children were indoctrinated at an early age. Kindergarten children were taught to raise their hand to the proper height by hanging their lunch bags across the raised arm of their teacher. At the beginning of first grade primers was a lesson on how to use the greeting. The greeting found its way into fairy tales, including classics like "Sleeping Beauty". Students and teachers would salute each other at the beginning and end of the school day, between classes, or whenever an adult entered the classroom.  Some athletes used the Nazi salute in the opening ceremony of the 1936 Berlin Olympics as they passed by Hitler in the reviewing stand. This was done by delegates from Afghanistan, Bermuda, Bulgaria, Bolivia, France, Greece, Iceland, Italy and Turkey. The Bulgarian athletes performed the Nazi salute and broke into a goose-step; Turkish athletes maintained the salute all around the track. There is some confusion over the use of the salute, since the stiff-arm Nazi salute could have been mistaken for an Olympic salute, with the right arm held out at a slight angle to the right from the shoulder. According to the American sports writer Jeremy Schaap, only half of the athletes from Austria performed a Nazi salute, while the other half gave an Olympic salute. According to the historian Richard Mandell, there are conflicting reports on whether athletes from France performed a Nazi salute or an Olympic Salute. In football, the England football team bowed to pressure from the British Foreign Office and performed the salute during a friendly match on 14 May 1938.  Jehovah's Witnesses came into conflict with the Nazi regime because they refused to salute Adolf Hitler with the traditional "Heil Hitler" salute, believing that it conflicted with their worship of God. Because refusing to salute Hitler was considered a crime, Jehovah's Witnesses were arrested, and their children attending school were expelled, detained and separated from their families.

Military use.

The "Wehrmacht" refused to adopt the Hitler salute officially and was able for a time to maintain its customs. A compromise edict from the Reich Defense Ministry, issued on 19 September 1933, required the Hitler salute of soldiers and uniformed civil servants while singing the "Horst-Wessel-Lied" and national anthem, and in non-military encounters both within and outside the "Wehrmacht" (for example, when greeting members of the civilian government). At all other times they were permitted to use their traditional salutes. However, according to (pre-Nazi) "Reichswehr" and "Wehrmacht" protocol, the traditional military salute was prohibited when the saluting soldier was not wearing a uniform headgear (helmet or cap). Because of this, all bareheaded salutes used the Nazi salute, making it "de facto" mandatory in most situations.  Full adoption of the Hitler salute by the military was discussed in January 1944 at a conference regarding traditions in the military at Hitler's headquarters. Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, head of the Armed Forces, had expressed a desire to standardize the salute across all organizations in Germany. After the 20 July Plot in 1944, the military was ordered to fully adopt the Hitler salute as a show of loyalty since Army officers had been responsible for the assassination attempt. The order went into effect on 24 July 1944.  On the night of 3 January 1942, Hitler stated the following about the compromise edict of 1933:

Satiric responses.

Despite indoctrination and punishment, the salute was ridiculed by some people. Since "heil" is also the imperative of the German verb "heilen" ("to heal"), a common joke in Nazi Germany was to reply with "Is he sick?", "Am I a doctor?", or "You heal him!" Jokes were also made by distorting the phrase. For example, "Heil Hitler" might become "Ein Liter" ("One liter"). Cabaret performer Karl Valentin would quip, "It's lucky that Hitler's name wasn't 'Kräuter'. Otherwise, we'd have to go around yelling Heilkräuter ('medicinal herbs')". Similar puns were made involving "Bronn" (rendering "Heilbronn", a German city), and "Butt" (rendering "Heilbutt", the German word for halibut).  Satirical use of the salute dates back to anti-Nazi propaganda in Germany before 1933. In 1932, photomontage artist John Heartfield used Hitler's modified version, with the hand bent over the shoulder, in a poster that linked Hitler to Big Business. A giant figure representing right-wing capitalists stands behind Hitler, placing money in his hand, suggesting "backhand" donations. The caption is, "the meaning of the Hitler salute" and "Millions stand behind me". Heartfield was forced to flee in 1933 after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany.  Another example is a cartoon by New Zealand political cartoonist David Low, mocking the Night of the Long Knives. Run in the "Evening Standard" on 3 July 1934, it shows Hitler with a smoking gun grimacing at terrified SA men with their hands up. The caption reads: "They salute with both hands now". When Achille Starace proposed that Italians should write in letters, Mussolini wrote an editorial in "Il Popolo d'Italia" mocking the idea.

"Sieg Heil".

Sieg Heil was a verbal salute used at the Nazis' mass rallies, where enthusiastic crowds answered "Heil" (Hail!) to the call of "Sieg" (Victory). For example, at the 1934 Nuremberg Rally, Rudolf Hess ended his climactic speech with, "The Party is Hitler. But Hitler is Germany, just as Germany is Hitler. Hitler! Sieg Heil!" At his total war speech delivered in 1943, audiences shouted "Sieg Heil" as Joseph Goebbels solicited from them "a kind of plebiscitary 'Ja to total war. ('Ja' means 'yes' in German.)  On 11 March 1945, less than two months before the capitulation of Nazi Germany, a memorial for the dead of the war was held in Marktschellenberg, a small town near Hitler's Berghof residence. The British historian Ian Kershaw remarks that the power of the Führer-cult and the "Hitler Myth" had vanished, which is evident from a report given in the little Bavarian town of Markt Schellenberg on 11 March 1945:  The Swing Kids () were a group of middle-class teenagers who consciously separated themselves from Nazism and its culture, greeting each other with "Swing-Heil!" and addressing one another as "old-hot-boy". This playful behaviour was dangerous for participants in the subculture; on 2 January 1942, Heinrich Himmler ordered that the leaders be put in concentration camps to be drilled and beaten.

Post-1945.

Today in Germany, Nazi salutes in written form, vocally, and even straight-extending the right arm as a saluting gesture (with or without the phrase), are illegal. The offence is punishable by up to three years in prison (Strafgesetzbuch section 86a). Usage for art, teaching and science is allowed unless "the existence of an insult results from the form of the utterance or the circumstances under which it occurred." Use of the salute, or any phrases associated with the salute, has also been illegal in Austria since the end of World War II.  Usage that is "ironic and clearly critical of the Hitler Greeting" is exempt, which has led to legal debates as to what constitutes ironic use. One case involved Prince Ernst August of Hanover who was brought to court after using the gesture as a commentary on the behavior of an unduly zealous airport baggage inspector. On 23 November 2007, the Amtsgericht Cottbus sentenced Horst Mahler to six months of imprisonment without parole for having, according to his own claims, ironically performed the Hitler salute when reporting to prison for a nine-month term a year earlier. The following month, a pensioner named Roland T was given a prison term of five months for, amongst other things, training his dog Adolf to raise his right paw in a Nazi salute every time the command "Heil Hitler!" was uttered.  The Supreme Court of Switzerland ruled in 2014 that Nazi salutes do not breach hate crime laws if expressed as one's personal opinion, but only if they are used in attempt to propagate Nazi ideology.  Modified versions of the salute are sometimes used by neo-Nazis. One such version is the so-called "Kühnen salute" with extended thumb, index and middle finger, which is also a criminal offence in Germany. In written correspondence, the number 88 is sometimes used by some neo-Nazis as a substitute for "Heil Hitler" ("H" as the eighth letter of the alphabet). Swiss neo-Nazis were reported to use a variant of the Kühnengruss, though extending one's right arm over their head and extending said three fingers has a different historical source for Switzerland, as the first three Eidgenossen or "confederates" are often depicted with this motion. Hezbollah supporters in Lebanon often raise their arms in a Nazi-style salute.  The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging, a South African neo-Nazi organization known for its militant advocacy of white separatism, has espoused brown uniforms as well as Nazi German-esque flags, insignia, and salutes at meetings and public rallies. Hundreds of supporters in 2010 delivered straight-arm salutes outside the funeral for AWB leader Eugène Terre'Blanche, who was murdered by two black farm workers over an alleged wage dispute.  On 28 May 2012, BBC current affairs programme "Panorama" examined the issues of racism, antisemitism and football hooliganism, which it claimed were prevalent among Polish and Ukrainian football supporters. The programme, titled "Euro 2012: Stadiums of Hate", included footage of Ukrainian supporters giving the Nazi salute and shouting "Sieg Heil". The two countries hosted the international football competition UEFA Euro 2012.  On 16 March 2013, Greek footballer Giorgos Katidis of AEK Athens F.C. was handed a life ban from the Greek national team for performing the salute after scoring a goal against Veria F.C. in Athens' Olympic Stadium.  On 18 July 2015, "The Sun" published an image of the British Royal Family from private film shot in 1933 or 1934, showing Princess Elizabeth (the future Queen, then a young girl) and the Queen Mother both performing a Nazi salute, accompanied by Edward VIII, taken from 17 seconds of home footage (also released by "The Sun"). The footage ignited controversy in the UK, and there have been questions as to whether the release of this footage was appropriate. Buckingham Palace described the release of this footage as "disappointing", and has considered pursuing legal action against "The Sun", whereas Stig Abell (managing director of "The Sun") said that the footage was "a matter of national historical significance to explore what was going on in the [1930s] ahead of the Second World War".  American white supremacist Richard B. Spencer drew considerable media attention in the weeks following the 2016 U.S. presidential election, where, at a National Policy Institute conference, he quoted from Nazi propaganda and denounced Jews. In response to his cry "Hail Trump, hail our people, hail victory!", a number of his supporters gave the Nazi salute and chanted in a similar fashion to the "Sieg Heil" chant.  CNN fired political commentator Jeffrey Lord on August 10, 2017, after he tweeted "Sieg Heil!" to Angelo Carusone, president of Media Matters for America, suggesting Carusone was a fascist.

Incidents involving American students.

In May 2018, students at Baraboo High School, in Baraboo, Wisconsin, appeared to perform a Nazi salute in a photograph taken before their junior prom. The image went viral on social media six months later, sparking outrage. The school decided the students could not be punished because of their First Amendment rights.  In November 2018, a group of students of Pacifica High School of Garden Grove Unified School District in California were shown in a video giving the Nazi salute and singing an obscure Nazi marching song. The incident took place at an after-hours off-campus student athletics banquet. The school administration did not learn about the incident until March 2019, at which time the students were disciplined. The school did not release details of what the discipline entailed, but released a statement saying that they would continue to deal with the incident "in collaboration with agencies dedicated to anti-bias education." On August 20, 2019, the school district announced that it was reopening the investigation into the incident because new photographs and another video has surfaced of the event, along with "new allegations" and "new claims". Parents and teachers criticized the school's administration for their initial secrecy about the incident, for which the school's principal apologized.  In March 2019, students from Newport Beach, California, attending a private party made a swastika from red-and-white plastic party cups and gave Nazi salutes over it. Some of the students may have been from Newport Harbor High School of Newport-Mesa Unified School District, a very large district which encompasses 58 square miles and includes the cities of Newport Beach and Costa Mesa. Officials from the district condemned the students' behavior, and said they were working with law enforcement to collect information on the incident.

References.

Informational notes Citations Bibliography

The Nazi salute, Hitler salute (,, also called in by the Nazi Party, or Sieg Heil salute, is a gesture that was used as a greeting in Nazi Germany. The salute is performed by extending the right arm from the neck into the air with a straightened hand. Usually, the person offering the salute would say ""Heil Hitler!"" (Hail Hitler!), ""Heil, mein Führer!"" (Hail, my leader!), or ""Sieg Heil!"" (Hail victory!). It was adopted in the 1930s by the Nazi Party to signal obedience to the party's leader, Adolf Hitler, and to glorify the German nation (and later the German war effort). The salute was mandatory for civilians but mostly optional for military personnel, who retained the traditional military salute until the failed assassination attempt on Hitler on 20 July 1944.

纳粹礼(),亦称“德国式问候”(),是纳粹德国的一种敬礼,动作为右臂和右手伸直并垂直于胸口或稍微举起,手心向下。其形式起源于意大利法西斯支持者的敬礼方法,由罗马式敬礼改造而来。通常敬礼时亦会说“希特勒万岁!”()、“我的元首万岁!”()或“胜利万岁!”()。


History.

Allison began in 1909 when James A. Allison, along with three business partners, helped fund and build the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. In 1911, Allison's new track held the first Indianapolis 500 mile race. In addition to funding several race teams, James Allison established his own racing team in 1915 and quickly gained a reputation for his work on race cars and automotive technology in general.  When World War I began, Allison suspended racing, and the Allison Experimental Company began machining parts, tools, and masters for the Liberty airplane engine — the main power plant used in the US war effort. After the war, Allison entered a car in the 1919 Indy 500 and won. It was the last race Allison's team ever entered as he turned his company's attention to aviation engineering. The company's expertise in aviation was the major factor in General Motors decision to buy the company following James Allison's death in 1928.  Shortly after the sale to General Motors in 1929, Allison engineers began work on a 12-cylinder engine to replace the aging Liberty engines. The result was the V1710 12-cylinder aircraft engine and it made the company, now known as the Allison Engine Company, a major force in aviation.  Toward the end of World War II, General Motors formed Allison Transmission to put the engineers’ expertise to work in a new field — power transmissions for tracked military vehicles. The new division developed a transmission combining range change, steering and braking.  After WWII, Allison Transmission turned its attention to civilian transportation. Allison designed, developed and manufactured the first-ever automatic transmissions for heavy-duty vehicles including delivery trucks, city buses, and locomotives.

Timeline.

2000s.

Hybrid bus series transit clients.

GM-Allison introduced hybrid technology for transit buses in 2003. Through 2011, it intends to introduce 16 hybrid models.  As of 2008, there are more than 2,700 GM-Allison hybrid buses operating in 81 cities in the U.S., Canada and Europe. This includes:

Allison Transmission is an American manufacturer of commercial duty automatic transmissions and hybrid propulsion systems. Allison products are specified by over 250 vehicle manufacturers and are used in many market sectors including bus, refuse, fire, construction, distribution, military, and specialty applications. With headquarters in Indianapolis, Indiana, Allison Transmission has regional offices all over the world and manufacturing facilities in Indianapolis, Chennai, India, and Szentgotthárd, Hungary.

Allison Transmission是美国一家自动变速器和混合动力驱动系统制造厂。


History.

In 1880, Carl von Thieme, a native of Erfurt, who was the representative in Bavaria of the Thuringia insurance company, founded Münchener Rückversicherungs-Gesellschaft together with Wilhelm von Finck (co-owner of the Merck Finck & Co bank) and Theodor von Cramer-Klett. This was followed by the founding of Allianz Versicherungs-Gesellschaft in 1890. Carl von Thieme was head of Munich Re until 1921, and Wilhelm von Finck served as Chairman of the supervisory board until 1924. Munich Re became renowned after the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 as the only insurer that remained solvent after paying out all the claims.  During the Nazi dictatorship Munich Re benefited from anti-Semitic persecution. Jewish customers had to cancel their life insurances prematurely leading to huge profits for the insurance companies. At the same time Munich Re could acquire several properties owned by Jews at prices below the market rate. Starting from 1940 the company was involved in Allianz' insurance business with the SS: Munich Re served as reinsurance company for contracts insuring the barracks and operations in the concentration and extermination camps Auschwitz, Buchenwald, Dachau, Neuengamme, Ravensbrück, Sachsenhausen and Stutthof. Supervisory board member Kurt Schmitt joined the NSDAP and SS in 1933 and took the position as Reich Economy Minister for one year. In 1938 he became Director General of Munich Re and stayed in this position until the American military authorities relieved him of all offices at the end of the war.  In February 2010, U.S. investor Warren Buffett became Munich Re's largest single shareholder of the company. As of December 2015, he reduced his holdings to less than 3 percent.  In 2018, the company's shareholders' equity amounted to €26.5 billion. The group's premium income for the year (gross premiums written) was €49.1 billion, with its consolidated result amounting to €2,275 million.

Structure.

Besides its reinsurance business, the Munich Re Group also transacts primary insurance business through the ERGO Group and, since 1999, asset management through MEAG (MUNICH ERGO AssetManagement GmbH).

Reinsurance.

Munich Re has clients (insurance companies) worldwide. It assures part of the risk covered by these insurance companies, as well as providing comprehensive advice on insurance business. In addition to its Munich head office, Munich Re has more than 50 Business Units around the world. Munich Re provides reinsurance cover for life, health, casualty, transport, aviation, space, fire and engineering business. In 2018, gross premiums written in the reinsurance segment amounted to around €31.3bn.

Primary insurance – ERGO Group.

Munich Re's primary insurance operations are mainly concentrated in the ERGO Insurance Group. ERGO writes all types of life and health insurance and most types of property and casualty insurance. Outside Germany, ERGO is present in more than 30 countries around the world, servicing around 35 million clients. Members of the ERGO Group include the insurance subsidiaries D.A.S., DKV and Europäische Reiseversicherung AG, and the IT service provider "ITERGO". With a gross premium written of about €17.8bn in 2018, ERGO is one of the largest primary insurers in Germany and Europe.

Asset management.

Founded in 1999, MEAG MUNICH ERGO AssetManagement GmbH manages the assets of Munich Re, ERGO, and external clients. Their purpose is to manage and increase investments of Munich Re and ERGO and third parties. MEAG manages Munich Re's global investments amounting to €264bn.

Ownership.

Free float is stated to be nearly 100%, with around 236,000 shareholders (June 2019).  Shareholder profile:  Most shareholders are located in Germany (around 39.4%), followed by North America (24.9%), other European countries (28.8%), UK (13.4%), other countries (0.5%).

Key figures.

Accounts prepared according to IFRS.

Munich Re Foundation.

The "Munich Re Foundation" is a charitable organisation, which was founded by Munich Re; the foundation started its work on 7 April 2005.  The foundation is equipped with a capital of €50 million and works predominantly in newly industrializing and developing countries. The main topics of the foundation are:  The prime concern of the foundation is to develop solutions for people at risk. The knowledge of Munich Re's experts should therefore be translated into action. Hence, the working motto of the foundation is ‘Munich Re Foundation – from knowledge to action’. The main activities of the foundation concentrate on four fields: knowledge accumulation and implementation, clarification and sensitisation, networking of experts as well as direct help and support of local projects.  The foundation works with local, national as well as international partners. The majority of projects fit within a global framework. Since adaptation to climate and environmental change is much more difficult for poorer countries, the focus of the foundation is primarily on people in the developing world.

Munich Re Art Collection.

The Munich Re Art Collection's history begins with the company's founding by Carl von Thieme, who commissioned artists such as Reinhold Max Eichler and Fritz Erler to decorate the new company headquarters built on Munich's Königinstraße in 1912-13. The Collection was geared to modern art, which from the outset has been successively expanded over the decades with works by important artists. It includes works by Rudolf Belling, Barbara Hepworth, Rupprecht Geiger (“Concave rounded”, 1973), Norbert Kricke and Joseph Beuys.  Purchases for the Collection increased from the mid-1990s. The Walking Man by Jonathan Borofsky has stood outside a Munich Re building on Leopoldstraße since 1995 and has since become a symbol of Munich. Sculptures and installations from the Munich Re Art Collection by artists such as Olafur Eliasson (“Light Curtain”, 2002) and Roxy Paine (“Discrepancy”, 2011) are also found in the public spaces.  Artists like Angela Bulloch, Keith Sonnier and James Turrell have designed light installations for the extensive network of underground passages that link the company's buildings in Schwabing, Munich.  The Collection, which now comprises more than 3,000 works, is being constantly enlarged and is displayed in the company's Munich offices. Employees can also borrow art works from the Collection to display in their offices. In addition to internationally famous artists such as Jenny Holzer, Andy Hope 1930 and Wolfgang Tillmans, the Collection also acquires works by up-and-coming artists. The offices on Berliner Strasse, designed by the architectural practice of Sauerbruch Hutton, hold regularly changing exhibitions of contemporary art.

Investments.

In Oct, 2019, Munich Re invested $250 million in Next Insurance Inc. in a funding round that valued the small-business insurance provider at more than $1 billion.

Munich Re Group or Munich Reinsurance Company () is a reinsurance company based in Munich, Germany. It is one of the world's leading reinsurers. ERGO, a Munich Re subsidiary, is the Group's primary insurance arm. Munich Re's shares are listed on all German stock exchanges and on the Xetra electronic trading system. Munich Re is included in the DAX index at the Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the Euro Stoxx 50, and other indices.

慕尼黑再保险集团 或 慕尼黑再保险公司 () 是一家世界领先的保险公司。位于德国慕尼黑。


Description.

Swainson's hawk is a raptor and a medium-sized member of the genus "Buteo". It broadly overlaps in size with the red-tailed hawk ("B. jamaicensis"), a related species found as a breeding resident almost throughout North America. Swainson's hawk is on average a little shorter in length, long, and weighs a bit less,. However, Swainson's hawk has a slightly longer wingspan at, with more slender, elongated wings, than the red-tailed hawk. Female Swainson's hawks, at an average weight of, are somewhat larger and heavier than males, at an average of. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is, the tail is, the tarsus is and the bill (from the gape) is. In flight, Swainson's hawk holds its wings in a slight dihedral; it tips back and forth slightly while soaring.  There are two main color variations. Over 90% of individuals are light-morph; the dark morph is most common in the far west of the range:

Range and migration.

Swainson's hawk inhabits North America mainly in the spring and summer, and winters in South America. Breeding areas include south-central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southwestern Manitoba, and west and southern Minnesota. They will breed as far north as east-central Alaska, and southwestern Yukon. Breeding continues south through the eastern parts of Washington and Oregon, locally to the central valley of California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and most of Texas. The eastern part of its range includes Minnesota, northwestern Iowa, most of Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma, and all but eastern Texas. It periodically occurs in Iowa and rarely in northwestern Missouri, northern Illinois, and southwestern Wisconsin. Small populations winter in southeastern Florida and along the Texas coast, probably having failed to find the way south around the Gulf of Mexico. Individuals reported north of these areas in winter (for example, on Christmas Bird Counts) are almost invariably misidentified buteos of other species. Immature Swainson's hawks winter on the pampas of South America in Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil. It is not known with certainty where most of the adults spend the winter.  Swainson's hawk is probably the longest migrant of any North American raptor. The flight from breeding ground to South American pampas in southern Brazil or Argentina can be as long as. Each migration can last at least two months.  They leave the breeding grounds from August to October. Fall migration begins each clear day on which a wind blows in the general direction of travel. Birds gain altitude by soaring in circles on a rising thermal and then set their wings and close their tails as they glide, slowly losing altitude until they find another thermal and rise with it. Thus, waves and small groups are strung out across the sky.  The birds gradually head southwards toward Central America where virtually the entire population funnels through the Isthmus of Panama. Concentrations over locations like Ancon Hill, Balboa, and Panama City are spectacular. In the Andes, it migrates along a narrow corridor and rarely strays off course; for example, it was only recorded in the Serranía de las Quinchas of Colombia – just or so off its usual migration route – in 2000/2001.  In Brazil, migrating birds pass through the western states of Acre and Mato Grosso, while wintering birds may stray to the southern states of Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul and São Paulo. But surprisingly, the occasional Swainson's hawk — including birds one or two years of age — has also been recorded in the eastern states of Maranhão, Pará, Pernambuco, Piauí and Tocantins, thousands of kilometers away from their usual migration route and wintering grounds and sometimes in mid-summer. This suggests that individuals occasionally become lost during migration, and/or that they may spend a whole year in the tropical regions and range about, rather than just overwintering at one site.  In Uruguay, the first dedicated studies show it to be not uncommon but patchily distributed across the country in winter. Notably, it had been underreported in Flores and Paysandú Departments, where it seems in fact to be a regular visitor. In recent years, the first birds were seen in early November, and some stayed until late February. Numbers increase throughout November and peak in December, when flocks of many dozen roam the open lands. But many stay only for a scant few weeks before leaving again.  Spring migration broadens once the birds have passed through Mexico as they disperse through the breeding range. Migrant groups are noted in the southern U.S. states in March. The earliest Swainson's hawks arrive in southern Canada in late March, with migration peaking from mid April onwards.

Ecology.

The habitat of Swainson's hawk consists of open and semi-open country – deserts, grasslands and prairies – in both its breeding and wintering ranges. It favors wild prairie, hayfields, and pastures over wheat fields and alfalfa fields, which may offer its prey too much cover. It requires elevated perches for hunting and a supply of small mammals such as young ground squirrels as prey for its nestlings. The breeding distribution of Swainson's hawk is tied very closely to the distribution of various small mammals for this reason. In Saskatchewan, for example, the distribution of Richardson's ground squirrel and Swainson's hawk are precisely the same.  Swainson's hawk will defend its breeding territory from other buteos. Breeding densities may vary from one area to the next but averages one pair per. The average home range estimate for this hawk is. It gathers in groups for feeding and migrating. However, in each case, such gathering is not social, but motivated by good feeding or migrating conditions.  Swainson's hawk, the red-tailed hawk ("B. jamaicensis") and the ferruginous hawk ("B. regalis") compete for territory, and defend territories against each other. In many parts of the plains these three species nest in the same general area and exploit much the same prey base. Although diets overlap greatly, habitats may not overlap as much. In Oregon, Swainson's hawk selects nesting trees having a different configuration than those used by red-tailed or ferruginous hawks. In southern Alberta, different nesting habitats help reduce food competition, with Swainson's hawk favoring areas with scattered trees or riparian borders, while red-tailed hawks nest in stands of tall trees, and ferruginous hawks nest on the open plains.  Reduced reproductive success may result from Swainson's hawk's nesting proximity to these two other buteos. Swainson's hawk is generally tolerant of people. The bird is attracted to haying, mowing, and plowing operations. House sparrows, European starlings, and other small birds may nest in or near a Swainson's hawk's nest.  In winter quarters, they are far more tolerant, though many birds will still fend for themselves. In Uruguay, the species likes largely open but broken (with rocks or woods) plains or low hills, where it can be seen to gather in larger groups. Groups of a few dozen birds are not uncommon. Flocks of over one hundred birds have been recorded several times, e.g. one that roamed the Cuchilla Marincho region south of Andresito (Flores Department) in mid-late December 2005.

Hunting and food.

Swainson's hawks hunt using various methods. Many still-hunt, watching for prey activity from a perch such as a tree, bush, pylon, telephone pole, hummock or other high object. Others hunt by soaring over open ground with wings held in a dihedral, using their stellar vision to watch for prey activity below. It occasionally courses low over the ground like a northern harrier ("Circus cyaneus") or hovers like a rough-legged hawk ("B. lagopus") while hunting. They frequently engage in transect-glides while actively hunting in flight. It commonly perches on the ground both during migration and on the breeding grounds. While hunting on the ground, almost entirely for large insects, their gait can appear awkward but they are often successful in pinning down several insects per day. During migration, it typically roosts for the night on bare ground with scattered trees, a habit that distinguishes it from fellow long-distance migrants such as the broad-winged hawk ("B. platypterus"), which roosts in closed-canopy woodlands.  These birds patrol open areas or scan for prey from a perch; they may also catch insects in flight. They take advantage of insects turned up by farm equipment or driven out by fire. A hunting Swainson's hawk will use several strategies. It hunts insects such as dragonflies or dobsonflies while in flight, flapping little as it rides a wind current and stoops upon a fly, grabbing it with its foot and immediately transferring the prey to its bill. It uses a similar strategy to grab individual free-tailed bats from flying streams of bats. Also, when dragonfly hordes are grounded by weather, Swainson's hawk will stand near groups sheltering from the wind and pluck at individual insects. Swainson's hawk closely follows both tractors and wild fires for injured or fleeing food. It will also run down insect prey on the ground. Occasionally a hawk will stand still on a dirt bank or elevated mound waiting for prey to appear. It commonly hunts from elevated perches such as telephone poles, stooping on prey when it is sighted. Swainson's hawks may be largely insectivorous except when nesting. Insect prey commonly taken includes grasshoppers, crickets, and locusts. Other "Buteo" hawks in this species range, including smaller-bodied species, do not normally prefer insects in their diet but instead focus on rodents and other small vertebrates. However, breeding birds switch mainly to capturing vertebrate prey, which pairs then bring to their nestlings. Breeding Swainson's hawks rely heavily upon small mammals such as young ground squirrels, young cottontails, pocket gophers, mice, young jackrabbits, and, at least locally, small birds and other vertebrates including reptiles and amphibians. Birds taken include large birds such as Mallards, and Sage Grouse which may have been injured initially.  Other unusual bird species taken include American kestrel, and young short-eared owls. More typical in size are young lark buntings taken at their fledging time. Reptiles, which can comprise large parts of a diet, include snakes such as racers, gopher snakes and striped whipsnakes, and lizards. Amphibians may include tiger salamanders and toads. Swainson's hawk is an opportunistic feeder which responds quickly to local concentrations of food.  In Argentina, flocks of immature Swainson's hawks feed on flocks of the migratory darner dragonfly "Rhionaeschna bonariensis", following the hordes of insects and feeding mostly on the wing. Local outbreaks of locusts may also be exploited for food by one or more age-classes of birds. The immatures wintering in southern Florida apparently feed upon either insects, mice, or both, when turned up from field plowing. They move from one freshly ploughed field to the next.  There is also some evidence that road-killed birds and animals are also consumed both on the wintering grounds and on the breeding grounds. The species commonly follows tractors and other agricultural equipment during haying or ploughing, where rodents are exposed for the hawks to capture, or insects are uncovered after crop cutting. Wildfires often attract foraging Swainson's hawks, especially grass fires in their South American wintering range. In South American grass fires, the hawks frequently wait around the edges of the fire, picking off not only insects but also vertebrates including nothuras, lizards and snakes.

Reproduction and life span.

When Swainson's hawks arrive at their nesting sites in March or April, they may return to their original nests as these hawks are noted to be monogamous. Research indicates that they have a high degree of mate and territorial fidelity. This is unusual in a long-distance migrant. Seven to fifteen days after the birds arrive, the males begin constructing nests on the ground, ledges or in a trees. The nest consists of twigs and grasses and can take up to two weeks to complete. New nests may be constructed, old nests refurbished, or abandoned nests of other species — namely corvids (e.g. common raven, black-billed magpie, and American crow) — are refurbished.  The courtship displays of Swainson's hawk are not well known. One activity involves circling and diving above a potential nest site. The underwings and rump are flashed and the birds call. The display may end with one bird diving to land on the edge of the nest. Copulation occurs mainly in the morning and evening on the dead limbs of trees. The female may assume the receptive position without a prior display. During treading one of the birds calls.  Swainson's hawks typically nest in isolated trees or bushes, shelterbelts, riparian groves, or around abandoned homesteads. Occasionally, a pair will nest on the ground or on a bank or ledge. Nest trees and bushes include ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, spruce, cottonwood, domestic poplar, aspen, elm, mesquite, willow, saguaro cactus, and soaptree yuccas. Nests are located from above the ground, often in the shaded canopy but near the top of the tree. Nests are flimsy structures, usually smaller than the nests of the red-tailed hawk, and often blow down after nesting season. Clutch size ranges from one to four eggs, but averages two to three. Each egg is elliptical in shape, about long and wide. The egg is smooth with fine granulations and the ground color is white, often tinted bluish or greenish. During incubation the shell color quickly wears to dull white. Some eggs are plain; others are lightly marked with spots and blotches of light brown. The incubation period is 34 to 35 days, with the female incubating while the male brings food.  Young Swainson's hawks are fed small, young mammals. Flight feathers begin to emerge on the young at 9 to 11 days. High nestling mortality often occurs when the young are 15 to 30 days old and may be a result of fratricide. The young begin to leave the nest for surrounding branches at 33 to 37 days, fledging occurs at about 38 to 46 days. The fledglings are dependent upon their parents for 4 to 5 weeks. This species has one brood a year and apparently does not lay replacement clutches.  The oldest wild Swainson's hawk on record is 26 years 1 month (Swainson's Hawk 26 years 01 months 07/06/1986 California Local Unknown 07/24/2012 California Saw or photographed neck collar, color band, or other marker (not federal band) while bird was free Alive - Released/Left On Bird). Swainson's hawks die because of collisions with traffic, illegal shooting, electrocution, and even during severe prairie weather such as hailstorms. Wind storms and hail caused 30% nest failure in one study. When sharing a grove with nesting great horned owls, the hawks suffer much egg loss due to owl predation. The species also suffers from frequent, unexplained egg infertility.

Status and conservation.

Swainson's hawk has suffered population declines since the first half of the twentieth century and was Blue-listed in the United States from 1972 to 1982. It has since been placed on the National Audubon's List of Special Concern in 1986. It is now listed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service as a Category 3C candidate. Swainson's hawk was removed from the active federal list because it was found to be more abundant than previously thought; it is not considered a threatened species by the IUCN. It remains listed as a threatened species by the California Department of Fish and Game as it has been since 1983.  A major cause of Swainson's hawk population decline was pesticide use in its wintering grounds of Argentina. Farmers there were using pesticides (DDT and monocrotophos) to control grasshopper and locust infestations, and Swainson's hawks were ingesting these pesticides in several different ways, but mainly by gorging themselves on the insects as they lay dying. The U.S. has worked with Argentine farmers to resolve this problem.  Swainson's hawk has adapted well to grazing and pastureland and seems to be holding its own over much of its breeding range, from northern Mexico to the southern parts of the prairie provinces. However, far western populations, like that of Oregon, and southern California, have drastically declined, often due to habitat loss or incompatible agricultural practices. A possible reason for declines in parts of its range may be agriculturally motivated reductions in populations of both ground squirrels and grasshoppers, major seasonal foods.  Although often nesting close to human activity, some Swainson's hawks are very easily disturbed at the nest and often desert, especially early in the season. The bird is often quite tame and an easy target for shooters traveling isolated prairie roads. The species may also be affected in ways yet to be understood by some insecticides and herbicides, including those used on its wintering grounds.

Observing Swainson's hawk.

One of the best places to view the hawk is in the Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area (NCA) in Idaho. Birds in the NCA are most frequently sighted in mid March, May, and June, in the early morning and evening when they are actively hunting. In April, Swanson's hawks engage in more sedentary breeding and egg-guarding, and are thus more difficult to spot. In July, rising canyon temperatures make prey scarce, so many birds of prey migrate away.

Swainson's hawk ("Buteo swainsoni"), is a large "Buteo" hawk in the Accipitriformes order. This species was named after William Swainson, a British naturalist. It is colloquially known as the grasshopper hawk or locust hawk, as it is very fond of Acrididae (locusts and grasshoppers) and will voraciously eat these insects whenever they are available.

斯温氏<unk>(学名:"")是一种大型的<unk>。牠们的名字是为纪念英国博物学家威廉·斯文森(William John Swainson)。牠们非常喜欢吃蝗科的昆虫。


Composition.

Sparklers are generally formed around a thin non-combustible metallic wire, about 8-12 inches long, that has been dipped in a thick batter of slow-burning pyrotechnic composition and allowed to dry. The combustible coating contains these components, one or more of each category:  The colored spot on the top of each rod indicates the color of the sparkles emitted when ignited.  A more modern type of sparkler, known as the "Morning Glory", consists of a long, thin paper tube filled with composition and attached to a wooden rod using brightly colored tissue paper and ribbon. Several different compositions can be packed into a single tube, resulting in a sparkler that changes color.

Safety issues.

A 2009 report from the National Council on Fireworks Safety indicated that sparklers are responsible for 16 percent of legal firework-related injuries in the United States. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission's statistics from the Fourth of July festivities in 2003 indicate that sparklers were involved in a majority (57%) of fireworks injuries sustained by children under five years of age.  Subsequent reports from the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission about "Fireworks-Related Deaths, Emergency Department-Treated Injuries, and Enforcement Activities" indicate: The devices burn at a high temperature (as hot as 1000°C to 1600°C, or 1800°F to 3000°F), depending on the fuel and oxidizer used, more than sufficient to cause severe skin burns or ignite clothing. Safety experts recommend that adults ensure children who handle sparklers are properly warned, supervised and wearing non-flammable clothing. As with all fireworks, sparklers are also capable of accidentally initiating wildfires. This is especially true in drier areas; in Australia, for instance, sparkler-related bushfire accidents have led to their banning at public outdoor events during summer like Australia Day celebrations.  Sparkler bombs are constructed by binding together as many as 300 sparklers with tape, leaving one extended to use as a fuse. In 2008 three deaths were attributed to the devices, which can be ignited accidentally by heat or friction. Because they usually contain more than 50 milligrams of the same explosive powder found in firecrackers, they are illegal under U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) regulations.

In art and popular culture.

An art group, monochrom, was planning to light 10,000 bound sparklers which it described as "symbolic liberation" to reflect that sparklers are generally used in monotheistic traditions. A large group from Toronto, Ontario, Canada also held an event displaying 10,000 sparklers to symbolize brightness, intensity, warmth and creativity. In 1999 the two artists Tobias Kipp and Timo Pitkämö developed a technique of drawing portraits with burning sparklers on paper, which they called pyrografie. Since then the two artists have drawn more than 20,000 pyroportraits.

A sparkler is a type of hand-held firework that burns slowly while emitting colored flames, sparks, and other effects.

仙女棒(英语:Sparkler)是一种烟花,别名手持烟花或手持喷泉,为可燃性小型烟火(发光物)。其形状、大小多种多样,因为其操作简便、安全环保且价格低廉,深受小朋友的喜爱。仙女棒一点燃就会散发出耀眼的火花,但其缺点是火花很快就会烧尽熄灭,观赏时间较短。


美国陆军训练及准则司令部

Mission.

The official mission statement for TRADOC states: U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command develops, educates and trains Soldiers, civilians, and leaders; supports unit training; and builds and integrates a versatile mix of capabilities, formations, and equipment to strengthen the U.S. Army as America's Force of Decisive Action.

History.

TRADOC was established as a major U.S. Army command on 1 July 1973. The new command, along with the U.S. Army Forces Command (FORSCOM), was created from the Continental Army Command (CONARC) located at Fort Monroe, Virginia. That action was the major innovation in the Army's post-Vietnam reorganization, in the face of realization that CONARC's obligations and span of control were too broad for efficient focus. The new organization functionally realigned the major Army commands in the continental United States. CONARC, and Headquarters, U.S. Army Combat Developments Command (CDC), situated at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, were discontinued, with TRADOC and FORSCOM at Fort Belvoir assuming the realigned missions. TRADOC assumed the combat developments mission from CDC, took over the individual training mission formerly the responsibility of CONARC, and assumed command from CONARC of the major Army installations in the United States housing Army training center and Army branch schools. FORSCOM assumed CONARC's operational responsibility for the command and readiness of all divisions and corps in the continental U.S. and for the installations where they were based.  Joined under TRADOC, the major Army missions of individual training and combat developments each had its own lineage. The individual training responsibility had belonged, during World War II, to Headquarters Army Ground Forces (AGF). In 1946 numbered army areas were established in the U.S. under AGF command. At that time, the AGF moved from Washington, D.C. to Fort Monroe. In March 1948, the AGF was replaced at Fort Monroe with the new Office, Chief of Army Field Forces (OCAFF). OCAFF, however, did not command the training establishment. That function was exercised by Headquarters, Department of the Army through the numbered armies to the corps, division, and Army Training Centers. In February 1955, HQ Continental Army Command (CONARC) replaced OCAFF, assuming its missions as well as the training missions from DA. In January, HQ CONARC was redesignated U.S. Continental Army Command. Combat developments emerged as a formal Army mission in the early 1950s, and OCAFF assumed that role in 1952. In 1955, CONARC assumed the mission. In 1962, HQ U.S. Army Combat Development Command (CDC) was established to bring the combat developments function under one major Army command.

Commanders.

The current Commanding General is GEN Paul E. Funk II. The Command Sergeant Major is currently CSM Timothy A. Guden.  Comparable organizations

Established 1 July 1973, the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) is a major command of the United States Army headquartered at Fort Eustis, Virginia. It is charged with overseeing training of Army forces and the development of operational doctrine. TRADOC operates 37 schools and centers at 27 different locations. TRADOC schools conduct 1,304 courses and 108 language courses. The 1,304 courses include 516,000 seats (resident, on-site and distributed learning) for 443,231 soldiers; 36,145 other-service personnel; 8,314 international soldiers; and 28,310 civilians.

美国陆军训练及准则司令部(英语:United States Army Training and Doctrine Command,缩写为英语:TRADOC),美国陆军司令部之一,建立于1973年7月1日,总部位于维吉尼亚州尤斯蒂斯堡(Fort Eustis)。负责美国陆军各级单位及特战单位训练课程的制定,编定教材及作战手册,以及新武器系统的研发。


Plot.

King Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon is troubled as she has not produced a living male heir to the throne, having only one surviving child, Mary. Mary Boleyn marries William Carey. After the festivities, Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk and his brother-in-law Thomas Boleyn plan to install Boleyn's eldest daughter, Anne Boleyn, as the king's mistress, with the hope that Anne will bear him a son and that she'll be able to improve her family's wealth and status. Anne's mother, Lady Elizabeth Boleyn, is disgusted by the plot, but Anne eventually agrees as a way to please her father and uncle.  While visiting the Boleyn estate, Henry is injured in a hunting accident that was indirectly caused by Anne. Urged by her scheming uncle, Mary nurses Henry. Henry becomes smitten with Mary and invites her to court, to which Mary and her husband reluctantly agree, aware that the king has invited her because he desires her. Mary and Anne become ladies-in-waiting to Queen Catherine and Henry sends William Carey abroad on an assignment. Separated from her husband, Mary begins an affair with the king and finds herself falling in love with him. Anne secretly marries the nobleman Henry Percy, although he is already betrothed to Lady Mary Talbot. Anne confides in her brother, George Boleyn, about the marriage. Overjoyed, George proceeds to tell Mary. Fearing Anne will ruin the Boleyn family by marrying such a prominent earl without the king's consent, Mary alerts her father and uncle. They confront Anne, forcibly annul the marriage, and exile her to France.  Mary eventually becomes pregnant with Henry's child. Her family receives new grants and estates, their debts are paid, and Henry arranges George's marriage to Jane Parker. When Mary nearly suffers a miscarriage, she is confined to bed until her child is born. Norfolk recalls Anne to England and is tasked to keep Henry's attention from wandering to another rival while Mary is confined. Believing that Mary had her exiled to increase her own status, Anne gets back at her by successfully winning Henry over. When Mary gives birth to a son, Henry Carey, Thomas and Norfolk are overjoyed, but the celebration is short lived as Anne tells Henry that the baby is born a bastard and that, for her to accept his advances, he must stop talking to Mary. This infuriates Norfolk, as the king refuses to acknowledge the child as his heir. Henry then has Mary sent to the countryside at Anne's request. Shortly after, Mary is widowed.  Anne encourages Henry to break from the Catholic Church when the Pope refuses to annul his marriage to Queen Catherine. Henry succumbs to Anne's demands, declares himself Supreme Head of the Church of England, and gets Cardinal Thomas Wolsey to annul the marriage. Having fulfilled Anne's requests, Henry comes to Anne's room but she refuses to have sex with him until they are married. In a fit of rage, he rapes her. A pregnant Anne marries Henry to please her family and becomes Queen of England. As a wife, Henry slowly starts despising her, and, as a queen, she is hated by the public, being deemed a witch. Despite the birth of a healthy daughter, Elizabeth, Henry blames Anne for not producing a son and begins courting Jane Seymour in secret.  After Anne suffers the miscarriage of a son, she begs George to have sex with her to replace the child she lost, for fear of being passed over by Henry and burned as a witch. George at first reluctantly agrees, realising that it is Anne's only hope, but they do not go through with it. However, George's neglected wife Jane, under orders from Norfolk to spy on Anne, witnesses enough of their encounter to become suspicious. She reports what she has seen, and both Anne and George are arrested. The two are found guilty and sentenced to death for treason, adultery, and incest. Distraught by the news of the execution of George, his mother disowns her husband and brother, vowing never to forgive them for what their greed has done to her children.  After Mary learns that she was late for George's execution, she returns to court to plead for Anne's life. Believing that Henry will spare her sister, she leaves to see Anne right before the scheduled execution. Anne asks Mary to take care of her daughter Elizabeth if anything should happen to her. Mary watches from the crowd as Anne makes her final speech, waiting for the execution to be cancelled as Henry promised. A letter from Henry is given to Mary, warning her not to come to his court any more, and implicitly revealing his decision to execute Anne after all. Ten days after Anne's execution, Henry and Jane Seymour are married. Norfolk is imprisoned and the next three generations of his family are executed for treason in their turn. Mary marries William Stafford and they have two children, Anne and Edward. Mary takes an.

Locations.

Much of the filming took place in Kent, England, though Hever Castle was not used, despite being the original household of Thomas Boleyn and family from 1505–1539. The Baron's Hall at Penshurst Place featured, as did Dover Castle, which stood in for the Tower of London in the film, and Knole House in Sevenoaks was used in several scenes. The home of the Boleyns was represented by Great Chalfield Manor in Wiltshire, and other scenes were filmed at locations in Derbyshire, including Cave Dale, Haddon Hall, Dovedale and North Lees Hall near Hathersage.  Dover Castle was transformed into the Tower of London for the execution scenes of George and Anne Boleyn. Knole House was the setting for many of the film's London night scenes and the inner courtyard doubles for the entrance of Whitehall Palace where the grand arrivals and departures were staged. The Tudor Gardens and Baron's Hall at Penshurst Place were transformed into the interiors of Whitehall Palace, including the scenes of Henry's extravagant feast.

Historical accuracy.

Historian Alex von Tunzelmann criticised "The Other Boleyn Girl" for its portrayal of the Boleyn family and Henry VIII, citing factual errors. She stated, "In real life, by the time Mary Boleyn started her affair with Henry, she had already enjoyed a passionate liaison with his great rival, King François I of France. Rather ungallantly, François called her'my hackney', explaining that she was fun to ride. Chucked out of France by his irritated wife, Mary sashayed back to England and casually notched up her second kingly conquest. The film's portrayal of this Boleyn girl as a shy, blushing damsel could hardly be further from the truth." She further criticised the depiction of Anne as a "manipulative vixen" and Henry as "nothing more than a gullible sex addict in wacky shoulder pads". The film presents other historical inaccuracies, such as the statement by a character that, through marrying Henry Percy, Anne Boleyn would become Duchess of Northumberland, a title that was only created in the reign of Henry's son, Edward VI. Also, it places Anne's time in the French court after her involvement with Percy, something that occurred before the affair. On top of that, Anne was portrayed inaccurately as the older sister in the movie, in real life she was Mary's younger sister.

Release.

Theatrical.

The film was first released in theatres on February 29, 2008, though its world premiere was held at the 58th Berlin International Film Festival held on February 7–17, 2008. The film earned $9,442,224 in the United Kingdom, and $26,814,957 in the United States and Canada. The combined worldwide gross of the film was $75,598,644, more than double the film's $35 million budget.

Home media.

The film was released in Blu-ray and DVD formats on June 10, 2008. Extras on both editions include an audio commentary with director Justin Chadwick, deleted and extended scenes, character profiles, and featurettes. The Blu-ray version includes BD-Live capability and an additional picture-in-picture track with character descriptions, notes on the original story, and passages from the original book.

Critical reception.

The film received mixed reviews. Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 43%, based on 145 reviews, with a weighted average of 5.34/10. The site's general consensus is: "Though it features some extravagant and entertaining moments, "The Other Boleyn Girl" feels more like a soap opera than historical drama." Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 50 out of 100, based on 34 reviews.  Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" called the film "more slog than romp" and an "oddly plotted and frantically paced pastiche." She added, "The film is both underwritten and overedited. Many of the scenes seem to have been whittled down to the nub, which at times turns it into a succession of wordless gestures and poses. Given the generally risible dialogue, this isn’t a bad thing."  Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" said, "This in an enjoyable movie with an entertaining angle on a hard-to-resist period of history... Portman's performance, which shows a range and depth unlike anything she's done before, is the No. 1 element that tips "The Other Boleyn Girl" in the direction of a recommendation... [She] won't get the credit she deserves for this, simply because the movie isn't substantial enough to warrant proper attention."  Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" stated, "The film moves in frustrating herks and jerks. What works is the combustible teaming of Natalie Portman and Scarlett Johansson, who give the Boleyn hotties a tough core of intelligence and wit, swinging the film's sixteenth-century protofeminist issues handily into this one."  Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" awarded the film three out of five stars, describing it as a "flashy, silly, undeniably entertaining Tudor romp" and adding, "It is absurd yet enjoyable, and playing fast and loose with English history is a refreshing alternative to slow and tight solemnity; the effect is genial, even mildly subversive... It is ridiculous, but imagined with humour and gusto: a very diverting gallop through the heritage landscape."  Sukhdev Sandhu of "The Telegraph" said, "This is a film for people who prefer their costume dramas to gallop along at a merry old pace rather than get bogged down in historical detail... Mining relatively familiar material here, and dramatising highly dubious scenarios, [Peter Morgan] is unable to make the set-pieces seem revelatory or tart... In the end, "The Other Boleyn Girl" is more anodyne than it has any right to be. It can't decide whether to be serious or comic. It promises an erotic charge that it never carries off, inducing dismissive laughs from the audience for its soft-focus love scenes soundtracked by swooning violins. It is tasteful, but unappetising."

The Other Boleyn Girl is a 2008 historical romantic drama film directed by Justin Chadwick. The screenplay by Peter Morgan was adapted from Philippa Gregory’s 2001 novel of the same name. It is a fictionalised account of the lives of 16th-century aristocrats Mary Boleyn, one-time mistress of King Henry VIII, and her sister, Anne, who became the monarch's ill-fated second wife, though much history is distorted.

是一部英国传记剧情片,于2008年5月全球首映。由贾斯汀·乔维克执导。


Name.

Upon inception, the Royal Brunei Armed Forces were originally known as the Brunei Malay Regiment (). On 31 May 1965, the word " (Malay for 'Royal') was added to the title, hence it became known as the Royal Brunei Malay Regiment (). It finally adopted its current name on 1 January 1984, that is on the day Brunei proclaimed independence from the United Kingdom.

Organisation.

Royal Brunei Land Forces.

The Royal Brunei Land Forces () is a brigade sized formation that consists of three battalions and a support battalion. The role of the Royal Brunei Land Forces is to maintain the security of Brunei and to defend the sovereignty of the country. Its main responsibility is to oppose any threat from within or outside the country and to maintain peace and security in the country. The Royal Brunei Land Forces is the largest of the armed services.

Royal Brunei Air Force.

The Royal Brunei Air Force () is a small, mainly helicopter-based force which is tasked with supporting the other branches of the armed services and defending Bruneian air space. It was established in 1965 and consists of a range of helicopters, including: 10 Bell 212 and 4 Sikorsky S-70. The Bell 212s are to be replaced between 2013–15 by 12 Sikorsky S-70i.  The Royal Brunei Air Force fixed-wing inventory is limited to around 4 Pilatus PC-7 training aircraft and Airbus CN-235 transport aircraft. On 14 July 2014, the Commander of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces announced plans to order the C-130J in the near future. On 7 October 2014, Brunei purchased a single C-130J with spare parts and logistic support for 343 million dollars.

Royal Brunei Navy.

The Royal Brunei Navy () is the naval defence force of Brunei Darrussalam. It is a small but relatively well-equipped force whose main responsibility is to conduct search and rescue missions and to deter and defend the Brunei waters against attack mounted by sea borne forces.

Support Services.

The Support Services Royal Brunei Armed Forces had the responsibility of providing support services to units in the RBAF in all aspects pertaining to their administration, security, health, logistics, communication, transportation and technical equipment service support to all units in the Royal Brunei Armed Forces. The Support Services or the Royal Brunei Armed Forces also worked closely with other units in the Royal Brunei Armed Forces to undergo and help co-ordinate military training and operations  As part of the reorganisation of the RBAF, the Support Services was disbanded in early 2009 and its various units were relocated.

Training Institute.

The Training Institute of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces is also known as the Military Training Institution. It provides basic military training to all new recruits to the Royal Brunei Armed Forces. Other military courses are also offered and conducted in the institution to personnel of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces.

Recruitment.

Only Brunei citizens of the Malay ethnicity (Bumiputera) are allowed to enlist in the Royal Brunei Armed Forces. The Malay ethnicity comprises the Belait, Bisaya, Brunei, Dusun, Kedayan, Murut, and Tutong indigenous races as defined in the Brunei constitution. Military service is not compulsory for any segment of the population; there is no conscription. Both women and men work in the military.  The Royal Brunei Armed Forces(RBAF) Military Cadet should not be confused with the RBAF Military Cadets of Higher Institutions(Not officially members) despite sharing the same name. They could be identified by the uniforms they are wearing(the old woodland camouflage for the higher institutions while the official Military cadets wore digital camouflage).

Miscellaneous.

The Royal Brunei Armed Forces (RBAF) use a wide range of foreign equipment, with a large percentage originating from the United Kingdom, France/Europe and the United States. The Bruneian military lacks any recent combat experience but has been deployed regionally in humanitarian and peacekeeping missions. Brunei also has extensive military relations with Singapore.  31 May is the Armed Forces Day of Brunei, which celebrates the founding of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces. It is an annual national holiday and the events on the day include military parade in front of the Sultan and public exhibition of the armament. On 31 May 2011, Royal Brunei Armed Forces celebrated its golden jubilee.

The Royal Brunei Armed Forces (RBAF;, "ABDB") are the military forces of Brunei. They consist of the Royal Brunei Land Forces, Royal Brunei Navy and Royal Brunei Air Force. The head of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces is the Supreme Commander and is held by the Sultan of Brunei, and the incumbent is Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah. They are managed under the Ministry of Defence. The Royal Brunei Armed Forces were formed on 31 May 1961.

文莱皇家武装部队(RBAF)是负责文莱和平之国的国土完整及国家主权独立的军事武装力量,大致上分成四个组成部分构成:


Background.

The war had its roots in the discomfort generated in Catalan society by the large presence of Castilian troops during the Franco-Spanish War between the Kingdom of France and the Monarchy of Spain as part of the Thirty Years' War. Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, the chief minister of Philip IV, had been trying to distribute more evenly the huge economic and military burden of the Spanish Empire, until then supported mainly by the Crown of Castile. But his Union of Arms (Spanish: "Union de Armas") policy raised hostilities and protests all across the states of the Monarchy of Spain. Resistance in Catalonia was especially strong; the Catalan Courts of 1626 and 1632 were never concluded, due to the opposition of the estates against the economical and military measures of Olivares, many of which violated the Catalan constitutions.  In 1638, the canon of La Seu d'Urgell Pau Claris, known for his opposition against non-Catalan bishops who always collaborated with the Crown, was elected by ecclesiastic estate as president of the Generalitat, while Francesc de Tamarit was elected member of the Generalitat by the military estate and Josep Miquel Quintana for the popular estate. Around 1639, both causes approached and the identification and solidarity of the peasants took place with the attitude of political distrust of the authorities. Thus the political doctrine of the uprising and the popular ideology of the revolt were formed. Catalan peasants, who were forced to quarter Castilian troops and reported events such as religious sacrileges, destruction of personal properties and rape of women by the soldiers, responded in a series of local rebellions against their presence. The revolt grew, until the Corpus Christi day of May 1640 in Barcelona, with an uprising known as 'Bloody Corpus' (Catalan: "Corpus de Sang"), under the slogans "Long live the faith of Christ!", "The King our Lord has declared war on us!""Long live the land, death to bad government", "Reape our chains". When the bishop of Barcelona, after blessing the furious crowd, asked them: "Who is your captain? What is your flag?" They raised a big Christ in the Cross Statue covered with an all black cloth and shouted "Here is our captain, this is our flag!". This 'Bloody Corpus' which began with the death of a reaper (Catalan: "segador"), and led to the somewhat mysterious death of The 2nd Count of Santa Coloma, the Spanish Viceroy of Catalonia, marked the beginning of the conflict. The irregular militia involved were known as 'Miquelets'. The situation took Olivares by surprise, with most of the Spanish army fighting on other fronts far from Catalonia. The Council of Aragon demanded more military presence in Barcelona as the only way to restore the order.

Conflict.

Pau Claris, President of the Generalitat of Catalonia, called the politician members of the all Principality in order to form a "Junta de Braços" or "Braços Generals" (States-General), a consultive body. The calling was a success, and the presence of royal cities and feudal villages was exceptionally large. This assembly, which worked with individual voting, began to create and apply various revolutionary measures, such as the establishment of a Council of Defense of the Principality and a special tax for the nobility (the "Batalló"), while the tension with the monarchy grew.  At the same time, the Generalitat maintained contacts with France, in order to establish an alliance between the Principality of Catalonia and this country. By the pact of Ceret, French promised to help the Principality. In this way, the States-General presided by Pau Claris proclaimed the Catalan Republic under the protection of the French monarchy, on January 17, 1641, which lasted a week until January 21, 1641, when they declared the French king Louis XIII Count of Barcelona as Louis I. The threat of the French enemy establishing a powerful base south of the Pyrenees caused an immediate reaction from the Habsburg monarchy. The Habsburg government sent a large army of 26,000 men under Pedro Fajardo to crush the Catalan Revolt. On its way to Barcelona, the Spanish army retook several cities, executing hundreds of prisoners, and a rebel army of the Catalan Republic was defeated in Martorell, near Barcelona, on January, 23. In response the Catalans reinforced their efforts and the Franco-Catalan armies obtained an important military victory over the Spanish army in the Battle of Montjuïc (January 26, 1641).  Despite this success, the peasant uprising was becoming uncontrollable in some places, progressively focusing on the Catalan nobility and Generalitat itself. In effect, the conflict was also a class war, with the peasants revolting both against the Habsburg monarchy and against their own ruling classes, which turned to France for support. For the next decade the Catalans fought under French vassalage, taking the initiative after Montjuïc. Meanwhile, increasing French control of political and administrative affairs (maritime ports, taxes, key bureaucratic positions, etc.) and a firm military focus on the neighbouring Spanish kingdoms of Valencia and Aragon, in line with Richelieu's war against Spain, gradually undermined Catalan enthusiasm for the French. A Franco-Catalan army under Philippe de La Mothe-Houdancourt moved south and gained several victories against the Spanish, but the sieges of Tarragona, Lleida and Tortosa finally failed and the allies had to withdraw. In the north of Catalonia in Roussillon, they were more successful. Perpignan was taken from the Spanish after a siege of 10 months, and the whole of Roussillon was under French control. Shortly after, Spanish relief armies were defeated at the Battle of Montmeló and Battle of Barcelona. In 1652 a Spanish offensive captured Barcelona bringing the Catalan capital under Spanish control again. Irregular resistance continued for several years afterwards and some fighting took place north of the Pyrenees but the mountains would remain from then on the effective border between Spanish and French territories.  The war was concurrent with the Arauco War in Chile where the Spanish fought a coalition of native Mapuches. With the Arauco War being a lengthy and costly conflict the Spanish crown ordered its authorities in Chile to sign a peace agreement with the Mapuche in order to concentrate the empire's resources in fighting the Catalans. This way the Mapuche obtained a peace treaty and a recognition on behalf of the crown in a case unique for any indigenous group in the Americas.

Resolution.

The conflict extended beyond the Peace of Westphalia, which concluded the Thirty Years' War in 1648 but remained part of the Franco-Spanish War (1635-1659) with the confrontation between two sovereigns and two Generalitats, one based in Barcelona, under the control of Spain and the other in Perpinyà (Perpignan), under the occupation of France. In 1652 the French authorities renounced Catalonia, but held control of Roussillon, thereby leading to the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659.

The Reapers' War (,, ), also known as the Catalan Revolt was a conflict that affected a large part of the Principality of Catalonia between the years of 1640 and 1659. It had an enduring effect in the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), which ceded the County of Roussillon and the northern half of the County of Cerdanya to France (see French Cerdagne), splitting these northern Catalan territories off from the Principality of Catalonia and the Crown of Aragon, and thereby receding the borders of Spain to the Pyrenees.

收割者战争(加泰罗尼亚语:Guerra dels Segadors)是1640年～1659年间,发生在加泰罗尼亚的战争。战争终结后,根据比利牛斯条约,加泰罗尼亚的鲁西永和塞达尼北半部割让给法兰西王国。


Geography and climate.

Guigang is located in eastern Guangxi. It is located between Guangxi's five major cities: Nanning, Guilin, Liuzhou, Beihai, and Wuzhou. Its location makes it a major transportation and business hub, connecting central China with the south, especially Hong Kong and Macau. Guigang has a rail line, several major highways, an expressway, and most importantly a large port on the Xi River, its direct connection to the Pearl River Delta. The area is.  Climate is sub-tropical and monsoonal with an annual mean temperature of. Annual precipitation is.

Administration.

Guigang has 1 county-level city, 3 urban districts, and 1 counties.  Districts:  County-level city:  County:

Demographics.

Guigang's population is 4,400,000, mainly Cantonese Chinese along with a number of minority tribes.

Economy.

The 2015 GDP was 86.5 billion yuan; nominal GDP per capita was roughly $2,400, making it a relatively poor county in southern China. Transportation, shipping, and logistics are a vital part of Guigang's economy. More than 10 million tons of goods pass through its ports in one year. Major industries include chemical manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, metallurgy, tannery, textiles, printing, and food stuffs. Agriculture is also important with major crops including cereals such as rice and corn, sugar, medicinal herbs, tobacco, tea, lotus root, and green vegetables.

Sports.

The Guigang Sports Centre Stadium is located in Guigang. It has a capacity of 30,000 and it is used mostly for football matches. The venue opened on 21 June 2016.

Guigang (; Zhuang: "Gveigangj") is a prefecture-level city in eastern Guangxi in the People's Republic of China. Prior to 1988, it was known as Gui County or Guixian ().

贵港市,古称贵县、贵州,是中华人民共和国广西壮族自治区下辖的地级市,位于广西东南部。市境东邻梧州市,南接玉林市,西界南宁市,北连来宾市。地处桂东南丘陵区,郁江、黔江横贯,于境内汇合成浔江。全市总面积10,602平方公里,人口429.37万,以汉族为主,有壮族等少数民族,市人民政府驻港北区。


Etymology.

The Tahitian language name means "bright sky". "Ulitea" is an obsolete transcription commonly used in the 19th century. The term recurs elsewhere in Polynesia as a local place name - on Rarotonga (), in New Zealand (), and on the Hawaiian islands of Hawai'i and O'ahu ().  The extinct Raiatea starling inhabited the island; there is only one drawing of it in the world - in the Natural History Museum, London.

Geography and population.

The islands of Raiatea and Tahaa are enclosed by a single coral reef, and may once have been a single island. Raiatea is both the largest and most populated island in the Leeward Islands, with a land area of and a total population of 12,024 inhabitants at the August 2007 census. The population density is 72 inhabitants per km2. The largest commune of Raiatea is Uturoa on the north side of Raiatea and has a population of nearly 10,000.

History.

The Polynesian navigator Tupaia, who sailed with explorer James Cook, was born in Raiatea around 1725. Cook visited Raiatea in 1769 and again in 1773-1774. He named the island "Ulitea". Omai (c.1751-1780), another young man from Raiatea, travelled with European explorers to London in 1774 and also served as an interpreter to Captain Cook on his second and third journeys.  King Tamatoa VI was the last monarch, reigning from 1884-1888.

Transportation.

Raiatea has a small road that runs around the entire island. Raiatea Airport is an airport in Uturoa.

Administration.

The island is divided into three administration communes (municipalities): These three communes are inside the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands.

Economy.

The island economy is mainly agricultural with exports of vanilla, pineapple and coconut. The plant "Nono" (or "noni") ("Morinda citrifolia") is also grown. Fa'aroa Valley is a large and important agricultural region with the rural economy and the cultivation of vanilla supported by a local research facility. Pearl farming is also an important industry while farming cattle, sheep and pigs has recently decreased. There is less tourism compared to the other islands in the archipelago. The local tourist infrastructure comprises boarding houses, two marinas, a four star hotel, The Hawaiki Nui and a port for visiting cruise ships. There is also a fledgling local industry in the maintenance of yachts and shipbuilding. The main source of employment is the island's public service and the consumer market.

Raiatea () is the second largest of the Society Islands, after Tahiti, in French Polynesia. The island is widely regarded as the "centre" of the eastern islands in ancient Polynesia and it is likely that the organised migrations to the Hawaiian Islands, New Zealand and other parts of East Polynesia started at Raiatea.

赖阿特阿岛(,大溪地旧名:Hava'i, Ioretea)或译拉依亚泰岛、瑞亚堤亚岛是南太平洋法属波利尼西亚的环礁,属于背风群岛的一部分,位于大溪地西北约220公里,长20公里、宽14公里,面积194平方公里,最高点海拔高度1,032米,2007年人口12,024。