Early life.

Philip Andre Rourke Jr. was born in Schenectady, New York, the son of Annette (née Cameron) and Philip Andre Rourke. His father was of Irish descent and his mother had Scottish ancestry. He was raised Catholic and still practices his faith. His father, an amateur body builder, left the family when Mickey was six years old. After his parents divorced, his mother married Eugene Addis, a Miami Beach police officer with five sons, and moved Rourke, his younger brother (Joey), and their sister (Patricia) to South Florida. There, he graduated from Miami Beach Senior High School in 1971.

Career.

Amateur boxing.

During his teenage years, Rourke focused his attention mainly on sports. He took up self-defense training at the Boys Club of Miami. It was there that he learned boxing skills and decided on an amateur career.  At age 12, Rourke won his first boxing match as a flyweight, fighting some of his early matches under the name Phil Rourke. He continued his boxing training at the famed 5th Street Gym, in Miami Beach, Florida. In 1969, Rourke, then weighing 140 pounds (63.5 kg), sparred with former World Welterweight Champion Luis Rodríguez. Rodriguez was the number one–rated middleweight boxer in the world and was training for his match with world champion Nino Benvenuti. Rourke claims to have received a concussion from his sparring match with Rodriguez.  At the 1971 Florida Golden Gloves, Rourke suffered another concussion in a boxing match. After being told by doctors to take a year off and rest, Rourke temporarily retired from the ring. From 1964 to 1973, Rourke compiled an amateur boxing record of 27 wins (including 12 straight knockouts) and 3 defeats, which included a first-round knockout win over John Carver and decision victories over Ronnie Carter and Javier Villanueva.

Amateur boxing record.

Rourke's amateur boxing record was 27 wins and 3 losses.

Early acting roles.

In 1971, as a senior at Miami Beach Senior High School, Rourke had a small acting role in the Jay W. Jensen–directed school play "The Serpent". However, Rourke's interests were geared to boxing, and he never appeared in any other school productions. Soon after he temporarily gave up boxing, a friend at the University of Miami told Rourke about a play he was directing, "Deathwatch", and how the man playing the role of Green Eyes had quit. Rourke got the part and immediately became enamored with acting. Borrowing $400 from his sister, he moved to New York, working an assortment of odd jobs while studying with Actors Studio alumni Walter Lott and Sandra Seacat. It was under the latter's tutelage, Rourke later recalled, that "everything started to click."  Seacat motivated Rourke to find his father, from whom he had been separated for more than twenty years. During his appearance on "Inside the Actors Studio", after the release of "The Wrestler", host James Lipton disclosed that Rourke had been selected to the Actors Studio in his first audition, which Elia Kazan is reported to have said was the "best audition in thirty years".  Appearing primarily in television films during the late 1970s, Rourke made his feature film debut with a small role in Steven Spielberg's "1941". He played Ritchie, Dennis Christopher's bullying and ill-fated co-worker in the 1980 slasher film "Fade to Black". However, it was in 1981, with his portrayal of an arsonist in "Body Heat", that Rourke first received significant attention, despite his modest time on screen. The following year, he drew further critical accolades for his portrayal as the suave compulsive gambler "Boogie" Sheftell in Barry Levinson's "Diner", in which Rourke co-starred, alongside Paul Reiser, Daniel Stern, Steve Guttenberg, Tim Daly and Kevin Bacon; the National Society of Film Critics named him Best Supporting Actor that year. Soon thereafter, Rourke starred in "Rumble Fish", Francis Ford Coppola's follow-up to "The Outsiders".  Rourke's performance in the film "The Pope of Greenwich Village" alongside Daryl Hannah and Eric Roberts also caught the attention of critics, although the film was not financially successful. In the mid-1980s, Rourke earned himself additional leading roles. His role alongside Kim Basinger in the erotic drama "91⁄2 Weeks" helped him gain sex symbol status. He received critical praise for his work in "Barfly" as the alcoholic writer Henry Chinaski (the literary alter ego of Charles Bukowski) and in "Year of the Dragon".  In 1987, Rourke appeared in "Angel Heart". The film was nominated for several awards. It was seen as controversial by some, owing to a sex scene involving "Cosby Show" cast member Lisa Bonet, who won an award for her part in the film. Although some of Rourke's work was viewed as controversial in the US, he was well received by European, and especially French, audiences, who loved the "rumpled, slightly dirty, sordid... rebel persona" that he projected in "Year of the Dragon", "91⁄2 Weeks", "Angel Heart", and "Desperate Hours". Director Adrian Lyne said that had Rourke died after the release of "Angel Heart", he would have become a bigger phenomenon than James Dean.  In the late 1980s, Rourke performed with David Bowie on the "Never Let Me Down" album. Around the same time he also wrote his first screenplay, "Homeboy", a boxing tale in which he starred. In 1989 Rourke starred in the docudrama "Francesco", portraying St. Francis of Assisi. This was followed by "Wild Orchid", another critically panned film, which gained him a nomination for a Razzie award (also for "Desperate Hours"). In 1991 he starred in the box office bomb "Harley Davidson and the Marlboro Man" as Harley Davidson, a biker whose best friend, Marlboro, was played by Don Johnson. In his last role before departing for the boxing ring, Rourke played an arms dealer chased by Willem Dafoe and Samuel L. Jackson in "White Sands", a film noir that reviewers found stylish but incoherent.  Rourke's acting career eventually became overshadowed by his personal life and career decisions. Directors such as Alan Parker found it difficult to work with him. Parker stated that "working with Mickey is a nightmare. He is very dangerous on the set because you never know what he is going to do." In a documentary on the special edition DVD of "Tombstone", actor Michael Biehn, who plays the part of Johnny Ringo, mentions that his role was first offered to Rourke. Rourke has allegedly turned down several roles in high-profile films, including "48 Hrs.", "Platoon", "Top Gun", "Beverly Hills Cop", "Rain Man", "The Silence of the Lambs", and "Pulp Fiction".

Professional boxing career.

In 1991, Rourke decided that he "had to go back to boxing" because he felt that he "was self-destructing... [and] had no respect for [himself as] an actor". Rourke was undefeated in eight fights, with six wins (four by knockout) and two draws. He fought internationally in countries including Spain, Japan, and Germany. During his boxing career, Rourke suffered a number of injuries, including a broken nose, toe, and ribs, a split tongue, and a compressed cheekbone. He also suffered from short term memory loss.  His trainer during most of his boxing career was Hells Angels member, actor, and celebrity bodyguard Chuck Zito. Freddie Roach also trained Rourke for seven fights. Rourke's entrance song into the ring was often Guns N' Roses' "Sweet Child o' Mine" (to which reference is made in his film "The Wrestler", in which Rourke's character enters his final match of the film to the song playing over the loudspeakers). Boxing promoters said that Rourke was too old to succeed against top-level fighters. Indeed, Rourke himself admits that entering the ring was a sort of personal test: "[I] just wanted to give it a shot, test myself that way physically, while I still had time." Rourke's boxing career resulted in a notable physical change in the 1990s, as his face needed reconstructive surgery to mend his injuries. His face was later called "appallingly disfigured".

Return to boxing in 2014.

On November 28, 2014, Rourke briefly returned to the boxing ring and fought 29-year-old Elliot Seymour in Moscow, Russia. It was Rourke's first boxing match in over 20 years. Talks of him being involved in four more matches were released by Rourke himself after the match. He won the exhibition fight in the second round by TKO. The fight is not counted in his professional record since it was an exhibition match. The opponent later stated that he threw the fight, having been promised payment to take a dive in the second round.

1990s: Return to acting.

In the early 1990s, Rourke was offered and declined the role of Butch Coolidge, which later became Bruce Willis's role in "Pulp Fiction". After his retirement from boxing, Rourke did accept supporting roles in several 1990s films, including Francis Ford Coppola's adaptation of John Grisham's "The Rainmaker", Vincent Gallo's "Buffalo '66", Steve Buscemi's "Animal Factory", Sean Penn's "The Pledge", and Sylvester Stallone's remake of "Get Carter". Rourke also has written several films under the name Sir Eddie Cook, including "Bullet", in which he co-starred with Tupac Shakur.  While Rourke was also selected for a significant role in Terrence Malick's "The Thin Red Line", his part ended up on the cutting room floor. Rourke also played a small part in the film "Thursday", in which he plays a crooked cop. He also had a lead role in 1997's "Double Team", which co-starred martial arts actor Jean-Claude Van Damme and former NBA player Dennis Rodman. It was Rourke's first over-the-top action film role, in which he played the lead villain. During that same year, he filmed "Another 91⁄2 Weeks", a sequel to "91⁄2 Weeks", which received only limited distribution. He ended the 1990s with the direct-to-video films "Out in Fifty", "Shades" and television film "Shergar", about the kidnapping of Epsom Derby-winning thoroughbred racehorse Shergar. Rourke has expressed his bitterness over that period of his career, stating that he came to consider himself a "has-been" and lived for a time in "a state of shame".

2000–2009.

In 2001, Rourke appeared as the villain in Enrique Iglesias's music video for "Hero", which also featured Jennifer Love Hewitt. In 2002 he took the role of The Cook in Jonas Åkerlund's "Spun", teaming up once again with Eric Roberts. His first collaborations with directors Robert Rodriguez and Tony Scott, in "Once Upon a Time in Mexico" and "Man on Fire", respectively, were in smaller roles. Nonetheless, these directors subsequently decided to cast Rourke in lead roles in their next films. In 2005, Rourke made his comeback in mainstream Hollywood circles with a lead role in Robert Rodriguez's adaptation of Frank Miller's "Sin City". Rourke received awards from the Chicago Film Critics Association, the IFTA, and the Online Film Critics Society, as well as Man of the Year from "Total Film" magazine that year. Rourke followed "Sin City" with a supporting role in Tony Scott's "Domino" alongside Keira Knightley, in which he played a bounty hunter. Rourke played the role of "The Blackbird" in an adaptation of Elmore Leonard's "Killshot", and appeared as Darrius Sayle in the adaptation of the Alex Rider novel "Stormbreaker". In addition, in 2004, Rourke provided the voice for "Jericho" in the third installment of the Driver video game series. Rourke also appeared in a 40-page story by photographer Bryan Adams for Berlin's "Zoo Magazine". In an article about Rourke's return to steady acting roles, entitled "Mickey Rourke Rising", Christopher Heard stated that actors/musicians Johnny Depp, Sean Penn, and Brad Pitt have "animated praise for Rourke and his work". During a roundtable session of Oscar-nominated actors held by "Newsweek", Brad Pitt cited Rourke as one of his early acting heroes along with Sean Penn and Gary Oldman.  Despite having withdrawn from acting at various points, and having made films that he now sees as a creative "sellout" (the action film "Harley Davidson and the Marlboro Man"), Rourke has stated that "all that I have been through...[has] made me a better, more interesting actor". Rourke's renewed interest in pursuing acting can be seen in his statement that "my best work is still ahead of me".  Rourke had a role in the film version of "The Informers", playing Peter, an amoral former studio security guard who plots to kidnap a small child. In 2008, Rourke played the lead in Darren Aronofsky's "The Wrestler", winner of the Golden Lion Award for Best Film at the Venice Film Festival, about washed-up professional wrestler Randy "The Ram" Robinson. Regarding first reading the screenplay, he stated that he originally "didn't care for it".  He also spoke on personal concern and hesitance of being in a film about wrestling, for he perceived it as being "pre-arranged and pre-choreographed". As he trained for the film, he developed an appreciation and respect for what real-life pro wrestlers do to prepare for the ring:  He trained under former WWE wrestler Afa the Wild Samoan for the part, and has received a BAFTA award, a Golden Globe award, an Independent Spirit Award, and an Oscar nomination as Best Actor. Rourke lost the Oscar to Sean Penn, while Penn did acknowledge Rourke in his acceptance speech.  Rourke has written or co-written six scripts: "Homeboy", "The Last Ride", "Bullet", "Killer Moon", "Penance" and the latest, "Pain". Of these, the first three were produced as films between 1988 and 1996.

2010–present.

In 2010, Rourke played the role of the main villain Whiplash in the film "Iron Man 2". In an interview with "Rip It Up" magazine he revealed that he prepared for the role by visiting Russian jail inmates. In 2011, he portrayed the villainous King Hyperion in "Immortals" and received praise for his performance, while the film received mixed-to-positive reviews and became a box office success. He also had a minor role as Tool in Sylvester Stallone's "The Expendables". Though he had little screen time, his performance was met with rave reviews and cited as one of the film's highlights.  Just before the end of the year, he confirmed on a British TV talk show that he would play Gareth Thomas in an upcoming film about the Welsh rugby star who came out as gay the previous year. As of February 2011, he had begun research on the film, but noted, "We're not going to make this movie until we've done all the proper research. We need to do our homework and I need to train for from nine to eleven months." In 2011, Rourke was cast in the film "Java Heat" as an American citizen shadowing terrorist groups in Java, Indonesia. The film was released in 2013.

Personal life.

Rourke has dated several celebrities, including Terry Farrell and Sasha Volkova. He has been married twice and has no children. In 1981 he married Debra Feuer, whom he met on the set of "Hardcase" (1981) and who co-starred with him in "Homeboy" (1988) as his love interest. The marriage ended in 1989, with Rourke subsequently commenting that making the film "91⁄2 Weeks" "was not particularly considerate to my wife's needs." The two have remained good friends, according to an interview Feuer gave in 2009. "Wild Orchid" co-star Carré Otis was briefly a "cause célèbre" following the release of the film owing to rumors that she and then-lover Rourke filmed an unsimulated sex scene. Otis married Rourke on June 26, 1992. In 1994, Rourke was arrested on suspicion of spousal abuse. The charges were later dropped. The couple reconciled and also starred together in "Exit in Red", but their marriage ended in December 1998. Otis and writer Hugo Schwyzer co-wrote "", an autobiography that detailed Otis' marriage to Rourke that was published in October 2011 by HarperCollins. In November 2007, Rourke was arrested again, this time on DUI charges in Miami Beach.  In numerous TV and print interviews, he attributes his comeback after 14 years to his agent David A. Unger, weekly meetings with a psychiatrist, "Steve", and a Catholic priest, Father Peter Colapietro. Rourke has been described as a "real good Catholic" by friend Tom Sizemore.  From 2009 to 2015, Rourke was in a relationship with Russian model Anastassija Makarenko.

Political views.

In May 1989, Rourke revealed that he had donated most of his £1.5 million earnings from the film "Francesco" to support Joe Doherty in his campaign for political asylum in the United States. Doherty, a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) member, was wanted by UK authorities for his part in an ambush using an M60 machine gun which killed a member of Britain's elite Special Air Service in Belfast, Northern Ireland in 1980. Doherty was later arrested and charged for his part in the attack but escaped with seven other prisoners after holding a prison officer hostage and engaging in a shoot-out with members of the Royal Ulster Constabulary. Doherty was eventually imprisoned in the UK, but was later released under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement.  In June 2006, Rourke publicly gave his support to US President George W. Bush and the Iraq War. In January 2009, Rourke expressed admiration for Bush in an interview with "GQ" magazine. He also expressed his astonishment that Islamic fundamentalists were allowed to continue their activities in the UK after the 7 July 2005 London bombings.  In August 2014, Rourke came under scrutiny for purchasing and wearing a T-shirt bearing the likeness of Russian President Vladimir Putin at a time when most of the Western world was criticizing and sanctioning Russia for its violations of Ukrainian sovereignty. When questioned by the press, Rourke explained: "If I didn't like him, I wouldn't buy the T-shirt, believe me. I met him a couple of times and he was a real gentleman. A very cool, regular guy. Looked me right in the eye. Good guy." In an appearance on the August 12, 2014, episode of "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon", Rourke said he had purchased the T-shirt because the proceeds were going to benefit an ill Ukrainian boy in need of an operation.  In 2015, Rourke expressed his support for Ben Carson for the Republican presidential nomination. He also denounced Republican frontrunner Donald Trump as a "bully".

Dogs.

In addition to his faith, Rourke has publicly attributed his comeback to his dogs. He is well known as a pet lover, particularly fond of small-breed dogs. A spay/neuter advocate, Rourke participated in a protest outside a pet shop in 2007 and has done a public service announcement for PETA.  His first little dog was reportedly a gift from his second wife. Though Rourke's dogs are generally referred to as "chihuahuas", some are not purebred. Loki, his most-publicized dog whom he described as "the love of my life", was a chihuahua-terrier mix. So reliant was Rourke on Loki's companionship, he spent US$5,400 to have her flown to England while he was on the set of the film "Stormbreaker".  Rourke gave his dogs credit during his Golden Globe Best Actor acceptance speech January 11, 2009: "I'd like to thank all my dogs. The ones that are here, the ones that aren't here anymore because sometimes when a man's alone, that's all you got is your dog. And they've meant the world to me." The day of the 2009 Golden Globes show, he told Barbara Walters that "I sort of self-destructed and everything came out about 14 years ago or so... the wife had left, the career was over, the money was not an ounce. The dogs were there when no one else was there." Asked by Walters if he had considered suicide, he responded:  Beau Jack sired two of Rourke's later pets, Loki and her littermate Chocolate. Beau Jack died in 2002, although Rourke reportedly gave him 45 minutes of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Chocolate was the subject of a children's book, "Chocolate at the Four Seasons", about his temporary stay with producer Bonnie Timmerman. Chocolate returned to Rourke and died in 2006. In addition to those dogs and several other past pets, Rourke currently owns a chihuahua named Jaws who appeared with him in his 2009 PETA ad, as well as in the film "Once Upon a Time in Mexico". He has had as many as seven dogs at one time, back in 2005. Jaws originally was named "Little Mickey" and was originally slated to be euthanized. Rourke also believed Jaws had been previously abused. At the time of his Golden Globes tribute to his pets, Rourke owned five chihuahuas: Loki, Jaws, Ruby Baby, La Negra and Bella Loca. About a month later, on February 16, 2009, Loki died in Rourke's arms at the age of 18.

Other works.

Rourke made his stage debut in a revival of Arthur Miller's "A View from the Bridge". He lent his voice to the video games "Driv3r" (2004) as Charles Jericho and "" (2005) as Terrence "Terry" Higgins, which was his fifth and last work with actor Christopher Walken. He also appeared in a Japanese TV commercial for Suntory Reserve (early '90s) and a commercial for Daihatsu and Lark cigarettes. In 2009, Rourke voiced the character of Dick Marcinko for the biographical video game "Rogue Warrior", which was released on December 1, 2009. Rourke's portrayal of Marcinko was a source of humorous praise from a few critics (although many others criticized Rourke's role to the same degree that they did every other aspect of the game).  In 2010, he appeared in a Dutch TV commercial for Bavaria Beer.  Rourke appeared as a gangster in the music video for "Hero" by Enrique Iglesias. Actress Jennifer Love Hewitt also made an appearance in the clip. Rourke also provided the mid-song rap on the David Bowie song "Shining Star (Makin' My Love)" on his album "Never Let Me Down" (1987).  Rourke has been the subject of two extensive biographies on his life and career "Stand Alone: The Films of Mickey Rourke" and "Hollywood Outlaw: The Life of Mickey Rourke" both were written by British author Saurav Dutt. In 2014 Dutt announced he was producing and writing a novelization inspired by an undeveloped script for a movie that Rourke wrote titled "Wild Horses" which was eventually released in Fall 2015.

Philip Andre "Mickey" Rourke Jr. (; born September 16, 1952) is an American actor, screenwriter, and former boxer, who has appeared primarily as a leading man in drama, action, and thriller films.

米基·洛克(Philip Andre "Mickey" Rourke, Jr.,1952年-9月16日)是一名美国男演员,编剧和已退休的拳击手。他主要在动作、剧情和惊悚片中演出。


Geography.

The strait stretches in a roughly northeast/southwest orientation, with a minimum width of at its northeastern end between Cape Tua on Sumatra and Cape Pujat on Java. It is very deep at its western end, but as it narrows to the east it becomes much shallower, with a depth of only 20 m (65 feet) in parts of the eastern end. It is notoriously difficult to navigate because of this shallowness, very strong tidal currents, sandbanks, and man-made obstructions such as oil platforms off the Java coast. It had been an important shipping route for centuries, especially during the period when the Dutch East India Company used it as the gateway to the Spice Islands of Indonesia (1602-1799). However, the strait's narrowness, shallowness, and lack of accurate charting make it unsuitable for many modern, large ships, most of which use the Strait of Malacca instead.  The strait is dotted by a number of islands, many of which are volcanic in origin. They include: Sangiang (Thwart-the-Way), Sebesi, Sebuku, and Panaitan (Prince's). The most famous volcano, however, is Krakatoa, which exploded in 1883 in one of the deadliest and most destructive eruptions in recorded history. The islands in the strait and the nearby surrounding regions of Java and Sumatra were devastated in that eruption, primarily due to intense pumice fall and huge tsunamis caused by the collapse of the volcano. The eruption drastically altered the topography of the strait, with as much as 18–21 km3 of ignimbrite being deposited over an area of 1.1 million km2 around the volcano. Some areas, such as the coastal region of Java now incorporated into the Ujung Kulon National Park, have never been resettled, but much of the coastline is now very densely populated. Aside from Krakatoa's sole remaining peak, Rakata, the Krakatoa Archipelago consists of the islands of Lang (Panjang or Rakata Kecil), Verlaten (Sertung), and most recently, Anak Krakatau, which emerged in 1927 from the original Krakatoa's shattered remains.

The Battle of Sunda Strait.

On March 1, 1942, the Battle of Sunda Strait—part of the larger Battle of the Java Sea—took place when the Allied cruisers HMAS "Perth" and USS "Houston" encountered a Japanese amphibious landing force near Bantam, commanded by Rear Admiral Kenzaburo Hara. That force included a light cruiser and eleven destroyers, four heavy cruisers and a light aircraft carrier. The two Allied cruisers were sunk, while a Japanese minesweeper and a transport vessel were sunk by friendly fire.

Planned bridge.

In the 1960s proposals were made for a bridge across the Sunda Strait, and in the 1990s further suggestions arose. A new plan was announced in October 2007. It would use the islands of Ular, Sangiang and Prajurit to create a four-part suspension bridge reaching above sea level. This bridge would have a maximum span of 3 kilometers, nearly 50% longer than the current record holder, the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge. Construction was projected to begin in 2014 if funding of at least US$10 billion could be secured.  An accord was signed in April 2012 with China Railway Construction Corporation for an $11 billion road and double track rail bridge. However, in November 2014 the incoming government of President Joko Widodo shelved plans to build the bridge.

The Sunda Strait (Indonesian: "Selat Sunda") is the strait between the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra. It connects the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean. The name came from Sunda Kingdom, a kingdom ruling the west part of Java (now including West Java, Banten, and some west part of Central Java). It also comes from the name of the Sundanese people, the native people of West Java, with the Javanese people being found mostly in Central and East Java.

他海峡(英文:Sunda Strait;印尼语:)是印尼爪哇岛与苏门答腊之间的海峡,连接爪哇海与印度洋。


History.

Although the area was first settled by the Latins, the modern city was founded by Benito Mussolini on 30 June 1932 as Littoria, named for the fascio littorio. The city was inaugurated on 18 December of the same year. Littoria was populated with settlers coming mainly from Friuli and Veneto, who formed the so-called Venetian-Pontine community (today surviving only in some peripheral boroughs). The edifices and the monuments, mainly in rationalist style, were designed by famous architects and artists such as Marcello Piacentini, Angiolo Mazzoni and Duilio Cambellotti.  In 1934 it became a provincial capital and, after World War II, renamed Latina in 1946. With the arrival of other people mostly from Lazio itself, the original Venetian-like dialect was increasingly substituted by a form of Romanesco dialect.  The city coat of arms is a blue shield with a stylized drawing of the City Hall Clock Tower in the middle, standing on a field of green, and flanked by two stalks of wheat tied at the base with a red ribbon engraved with the motto ""LATINA OLIM PALUS"" ("Latina, once a swamp") in Latin. The shield is surmounted by a mural crown.

Economy.

The city has some pharmaceutical, chemical industry and a strong service sector. Latina is also an important centre for agriculture (vegetables, flowers, sugar, fruit, cheese and derivates).  The former Latina nuclear power plant has been shut down and is currently undergoing decommissioning.

"Frazioni".

The frazioni of Latina are: Latina Lido, Latina Scalo, Borgo Bainsizza, Borgo Carso, Borgo Faiti, Borgo Grappa, Borgo Isonzo, Borgo Montello, Borgo Piave, Borgo Podgora, Borgo Sabotino, Borgo Santa Maria, Borgo San Michele, Chiesuola, and Tor Tre Ponti.

Geography.

Latina is located in the Province of Latina, part of the southern section of the region of Lazio. The city is about south of Rome The municipality borders on Aprilia, Cisterna di Latina, Nettuno, Pontinia, Sabaudia, Sermoneta and Sezze.

Climate.

Latina has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification "Csa") like most of southern Italy.

In popular culture.

The Italian film "My Brother Is an Only Child" is set in Latina.

International relations.

Twin towns / Sister cities.

Latina is twinned with:

Latina () is the capital of the province of Latina in the Lazio region, in central Italy., the city has 115,895 inhabitants and is the second-largest city of the region, after the national capital Rome. It was founded in 1932 under the fascist administration, as Littoria, when the area surrounding it which had been a swamp since antiquity was drained.

拉蒂纳(意大利语:)位于意大利中部拉齐奥大区,是拉蒂纳省的首府,人口119,895(2005年)。


History.

In 1987 China had two news agencies, the Xinhua News Agency and the China News Service ("Zhongguo Xinwenshe"). Xinhua was the major source of news and photographs for central and local newspapers. The party's newspapers "People's Daily" and "Enlightenment Daily" (or "Guangming Daily"), and the People's Liberation Army's "PLA Daily" continued to have the largest circulation.  In addition to these major party and army organs, most professional and scientific organizations published newspapers or journals containing specialized information in fields as varied as astronomy and entomology.  Local morning and evening newspapers concentrating on news and feature stories about local people and events were extremely popular, selling out each day shortly after they arrived at the newsstands. In June 1981 the English-language "China Daily" began publication. This newspaper, which was provided for foreigners living or traveling in China but which also was read by a large number of Chinese literate in English, offered international news and sports from the major foreign wire services as well as interesting domestic news and feature articles.  "Reference News", an official news organ that carried foreign news items in Chinese translation, was available to cadres and their families. In 1980 it enjoyed a circulation of 11 million, but, with the subsequent proliferation of other news sources, its circulation dropped to 4 million in 1985, causing the subscription policy to be changed to make it available to all Chinese. Another source of foreign reporting was "Reference Information" ("Cankao Ziliao"), a more restricted Chinese reprint of foreign reportage available only to middle- and upper-level cadres. Both of these publications often included foreign reports critical of China.

This is a list of newspapers in China. number of newspapers in China has increased from 42—virtually all Communist Party papers—in 1968 to 382 in 1980 and more than 2,200 today. In 2006, China was the largest market for daily newspapers, with 96.6m copies sold daily, followed by India with 78.7m, Japan with 69.7m, the US with 53.3m, and Germany with 21.5m. China newspaper advertisement revenues increased by 128% from 2001 to 2006.

本条目是在中国发行的报纸的列表。中国境内共有日报816家,非日报1344家。


Name.

The Ainu called the Asahi River "Chiu Pet" meaning "River of Waves", but it was misunderstood as "Chup Pet", meaning "Sun River", and so it came to be called Asahi River in Japanese (Asahi meaning "morning sun").

Overview.

On August 1, 1922, Asahikawa was founded as Asahikawa "City". As the central city in northern Hokkaido, Asahikawa has been influential in industry and commerce. There are about 130 rivers and streams including the Ishikari River and Chūbetsu River, and over 740 bridges in the city. Asahibashi, a bridge over Ishikari River, has been one of the symbols of Asahikawa since its completion in 1932, and it was also registered as one of the Hokkaido Heritage sites on October 22, 2001.  Every winter, the Asahikawa Winter Festival is held on the bank of the Ishikari River, making use of Asahikawa's cold climate and snow. On January 25, 1902, a weather station recorded, the lowest temperature in Japanese history. Due to its climate and location surrounded by mountains, there are some ski resorts in the outskirts of the city.

History.

Asahikawa was populated by mainland Japanese in the Meiji period (1868 – July 1912) as a "tondenhei", or state-sponsored farmer-militia settlement.  Kamikawa District set up under Ishikari Province with the villages of Asahikawa, Nagayama and Kamui in 1890.  Asahikawa was elevated to city status in 1922.  Asahikawa thrived as a military city before World War II, when the IJA 7th Division was posted there. Today, the 2nd Division of the Northern Army of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force is headquartered in Asahikawa.

Climate.

The climate is hemiboreal humid continental ("Dfb," according to Köppen classification). Asahikawa winters are long and cold, with below-freezing average monthly temperatures from November through March. The city also sees an extraordinary amount of snowfall, averaging just under of snow per year. Summers are generally warm and humid in Asahikawa, with average high temperatures in the warmest months hovering around. Spring and fall are generally short and transitional in the city.  It is one of the coolest Japanese cities as well as one of the most "continental". Japan's lowest temperature ever () was recorded in Asahikawa, colder than other cities registered in Hokkaido, but cold in absolute numbers than Mount Fuji. On Jan 12, 1909 the temperature did not rise from being one of the coldest in history. Some sources consider it the coldest city in Japan.

Economy.

Asahikawa developed as an industrial center in Hokkaido after World War II. The city is noted for its lumber and brewing industries, as well as the production of furniture and paper pulp.

Transportation.

Airport.

Asahikawa is served by Asahikawa Airport which stretches over the outskirts of Asahikawa City and Higashikagura, Hokkaido. The airport was first proposed by the Asahikawa City Council in 1955, opened in 1961, and daily flights to Tokyo started in 1970. The present terminal of Asahikawa Airport opened in 2000. It is a second class airport, and also a single-runway regional airport. It serves domestic destinations including Tokyo, but some airlines offer destinations in South Korea. EVA Air added Asahikawa as a destination from Taipei on May 2, 2013.

Rail.

Asahikawa is one of the major rail hubs of Hokkaido. The Hakodate Main Line connects Asahikawa to Hakodate in the south of Hokkaido, and the Sōya Main Line connects Asahikawa with Wakkanai at the north of Hokkaido. The Sekihoku Main Line connects the city with Abashiri on the Sea of Okhotsk. The Furano Line connects Abashiri with nearby Furano.

Bus.

Municipal buses also serve the city.

On July 31, 2011, the city had an estimated population of 352,105, with 173,961 households, and a population density of 470.96 persons per km2 (1,219.8 persons per sq. mi.). The total area is.

旭川市()是日本北海道上川综合振兴局境内的一个城市,是北海道仅次于札幌市的第二大城,现为中核市,也是该振兴局的行政中心所在地。近年来以旭山动物园和旭川拉面闻名日本国内外,现与钏路市同被指定为北海道的国际会议观光城市。


History.

When Hong Kong was established as a free trading port in 1841, there was no local currency in everyday circulation. Foreign currencies such as Indian rupees, Spanish and Mexican 8 reales, and Chinese cash coins circulated. Since 1825, it had been the policy of the British government to introduce sterling silver coinage to all of its colonies, and to this end, in 1845 the Spanish and Mexican 8 reales coins were set at a legal tender value of 4 shillings, 2 pence sterling (50 pence). But just as in the case of the British North American colonies, the attempts to introduce the sterling coinage failed to overcome the strong local adherence to the silver Spanish dollar system.  By 1858, the British government gave up all attempts to influence the currency situation in Canada, and by the 1860s it came to the same realisation in Hong Kong: that there was no point in trying to displace an already existing currency system. In 1863, the Royal Mint in London began issuing special subsidiary coinage for use in Hong Kong within the dollar system, though other national currencies circulated unofficially for years afterwards. In 1866, a local mint was established at Cleveland Street in Causeway Bay on Hong Kong Island for the purpose of minting Hong Kong silver dollar and half dollar coins of the same value and similar likeness to their Mexican counterparts. The Chinese did not however receive these new Hong Kong dollars well, and in 1868 the Hong Kong Mint was closed down with a loss of $440,000. The machinery at the Hong Kong mint was sold first to Jardine Matheson and in turn to the Japanese and used to make the first Yen coins in 1870. In the 1860s, banknotes of the new British colonial banks, the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, denominated in dollars, also began to circulate in both Hong Kong and the wider region.  In 1873, the international silver crisis resulted in a devaluation of silver against gold-based currencies. Since the silver dollars in the US and Canada were attached to a gold exchange standard, this meant that the silver dollars circulating along the China coast dropped in value as compared to the US dollar and the Canadian dollar.

Early 20th Century.

By 1895, the circumstances had changed to the extent that there was now a dearth of Mexican dollars and the authorities in both Hong Kong and the Straits Settlements were putting pressure on the authorities in London to take measures to have a regular supply of silver dollar coins. London eventually acquiesced and legislation was enacted in attempts to regulate the coinage. New British trade dollars were coined at the mints in Calcutta and Bombay for use in both Hong Kong and the Straits Settlements. In 1906, the Straits Settlements issued their own silver dollar coin and attached it to a gold sterling exchange standard at a fixed value of 2 shillings and 4 pence. This was the point of departure as between the Hong Kong unit and the Straits unit.  By 1935, only Hong Kong and China remained on the silver standard. In that year, Hong Kong, shortly after China, abandoned silver and introduced a crawling peg to sterling of £1 = HK$15.36 to HK$16.45. It was from this point in time that the concept of a Hong Kong dollar as a distinct unit of currency came into existence. The One-Dollar Currency Note Ordinance of that year led to the introduction of one-dollar notes by the government and the government acknowledged the Hong Kong dollar as the local monetary unit. It was not until 1937 that the legal tender of Hong Kong was finally unified. In 1939, the Hong Kong dollar was put on a fixed peg of HK$16 = £1 ($1 = 1s 3d).  The discussion about switching from the silver standard to the gold standard began as early as 1930. A commission report was released in May 1931. It concluded that it was important for Hong Kong to facilitate free flow of capital with China and the same monetary standard was thus preferred. The report also recommended the Hong Kong Government only to take over the burden of note issuance when the banks failed to do so. Actually, the Hong Kong Government was not willing to take up the logistics of note issuance, and some officials even thought that the public had greater degree of confidence in the notes issued by those long-established banks than that by the government.  During the Japanese occupation, the Japanese military yen were the only means of everyday exchange in Hong Kong. When the yen was first introduced on 26 December 1941, the exchange rate was ¥1 yen = HK$2. However, in August 1942, the rate was changed to HK$4 to ¥1 yen. The yen became the only legal tender on 1 June 1943. The issue of local currency was resumed by the Hong Kong government and the authorised local banks after liberation, with the pre-war rate of HK$16 = £1 being restored. The yen was exchanged at a rate of ¥100 = HK$1. On 6 September 1945, all military yen notes used in Japanese colonies were declared void by the Japanese Ministry of Finance.

Post-WWII Period.

The Hong Kong dollar in the Sterling Area.

After the end of the Second World War, the United Kingdom made efforts in maintaining the Sterling Area with countries of the British Commonwealth as well as its colonies. It imposed exchange controls on non-Sterling Area countries, barring them from freely converting British pound into US dollar, but no such restriction was placed on Sterling area countries. As a colony of the British Empire, Hong Kong was obliged to observe the Sterling Area regulations. Nevertheless, its unique position afforded Hong Kong to defy exchange controls by operating a dual system with the Sterling Area and a free exchange market, which was technically illegal from 1949 to 1967. Hong Kong economy specialist Leo Goodstadt argues that ministers and officials in London were bound to tolerate Hong Kong's situation, given Hong Kong's extensive trade with China, and the long collision between officials in Hong Kong and bankers and local business communities.

The impacts of the devaluation of the pound on the Hong Kong dollar in 1967.

In the 1960s, the UK found it difficult to keep the value of Sterling as it was with its role as official reserve currency even within the Sterling Area. In 1964, sterling was 83% of the official reserves of overseas Sterling Area countries, but this share had decreased to 75% in 1966 and to 65% in 1967. When sterling was devalued by the UK in 1967, and Hong Kong dollar's peg to the pound resulted in a re-valuation of Hong Kong dollar from $16 to $14.5, a 10% re-valuation against the pound and 5.7% devaluation against the US dollar. The unilateral devaluation sparked a circle of grievances among local business communities as well as colonial officials in Hong Kong because the official reserves and private savings in Sterling were substantial from Hong Kong. In the 1950-60s, Hong Kong accumulated significant reserves in Sterling with its economic growth, money supply was exponentially expanded from 140-160 million pound in the late 1950s to 363 million pound in October 1967, equivalent to 10% of the UK's total Sterling liabilities to Overseas Sterling Area before the devaluation. Subsequently, Hong Kong and London engaged in talks about compensation and protection against further losses. Considering the potential diversification of official reserves from Sterling to the US dollar by the Hong Kong government officials, London agreed to offer exchange guarantees to protect Hong Kong against potential devaluation of Sterling in the future, which was the first to receive such guarantees among the Sterling Area countries.

Floating currency system 1974-1983.

After the US's cessation of the convertibility between gold and the US dollar in October 1971, Britain abandoned the fixed exchange rate with the US dollar and extended the exchange controls also to the Sterling Area countries, which put an effective end to the Sterling Area in 1972. In the same year, the Hong Kong dollar was pegged to the U.S. dollar at a rate of HK$5.65 = US$1. This was revised to HK$5.085 = US$1 in 1973. Since 1974, the Hong Kong dollar was no longer anchored in another currency, which officially changed the monetary regime from currency broad system to a floating currency system.

Linked Exchange Rate System since 1983.

On 17 October 1983, Hong Kong dollar was officially pegged to the US dollar at a rate of HK$7.8 = US$1, officially switching back to the currency board system. The peg of Hong Kong dollar to the US dollar in 1983 actually took place in the context of Sino-British negotiation regarding the future of Hong Kong after 1997. Due to the lack of public confidence in the talks, on 24 September 1983, Hong Kong dollar was devalued by 15% over 2 days to a historical low at HK$9.6 to US$1. Public panic set in and there were runs on foodstuff on this Black Saturday (1983). Amidst the monetary crisis, John Greenwood, an economist who was later dubbed the "architect of the Linked Exchange Rate System" in Hong Kong, advocated the proposal to peg the Hong Kong dollar to the US dollar with a return to the former currency board system. The proposal received support from two government officials within the Monetary Affairs Branch of the Hong Kong Government, namely, the Deputy Secretary for Monetary Affairs Tony Latter and the Government Economist Alan McLean as a practical way to restore confidence in the Hong Kong dollar. After discussions between London and Hong Kong, the Financial Secretary of Hong Kong Government John Bremridge announced to peg the Hong Kong dollar with the US dollar at a rate of HK$7.8 to US$1 in a currency board fashion on 17 October 1983.  When recalling the choice of rate, Tony Latter notes that a rate of HK$7.25 to HK$7.50 was considered a reasonable range in macroeconomic terms, given the rate against the US dollar around HK$6.60 before the crisis and the rate around HK$8.30 to HK$8.80 when the government's intention to change monetary regime was revealed in early October. In political terms, the government did not want to set the rate too weak so as to warrant international allegations of currency manipulation for competitive advantages, or too strong a rate that would result in high interest rates and the eventual abandonment of the rate. HK$7.8 was finally selected, as the government hoped to demonstrate that the situation has been properly stablized and it was felt that the rate below HK$8.0 can achieve this purpose psychologically.  John Bremridge was once quoted saying that the rate was somewhat "a number off the air", but the most important thing was the restoration of public confidence in Hong Kong dollar with the peg amidst the crisis. The solution in its current form was favored by government officials for reasons beyond monetary considerations. Financially, the currency peg was designed not to require the Bank of England to lend its reserves to maintain Hong Kong's currency peg. Politically, the currency broad system well demonstrated the autonomy London has given to Hong Kong in economic policymaking amidst British negotiation with China to grant Hong Kong's higher autonomy after 1997. As envisioned, the currency broad monetary regime continues to function with the same pegged rate beyond the handover of sovereignty of Hong Kong to China in 1997.

Post-1997 Period.

The Basic Law of Hong Kong and the Sino-British Joint Declaration provides that Hong Kong retains full autonomy with respect to currency issuance. Currency in Hong Kong is issued by the government and three local banks (HSBC, Bank of China and Standard Chartered) under the supervision of the territory's "de facto" central bank, the Hong Kong Monetary Authority. Banknotes are printed by Hong Kong Note Printing Limited. A bank can issue a Hong Kong dollar only if it has the equivalent exchange in US dollars on deposit. The currency board system ensures that Hong Kong's entire monetary base is backed with US dollars at the linked exchange rate. The resources for the backing are kept in Hong Kong's exchange fund, which is among the largest official reserves in the world. Hong Kong also has huge deposits of US dollars, with official foreign currency reserves of US$361 billion as of March 2016.  In a speech addressing the issue of who determines the monetary policy in Hong Kong on 13 May 2002, Tony Latter, in the position of the Deputy Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA), contended that the Financial Secretary together with the HKMA in the Hong Kong SAR Government were responsible for that. He acknowledged the heavy and direct influence of the Federal Reserve of the United States on Hong Kong's monetary policy under the currency peg, but argued that "It was Hong Kong's choice, and we do not require any permission from Washington or New York to continue or discontinue it".  As of 18 May 2005, in addition to the lower guaranteed limit, a new upper guaranteed limit was set for the Hong Kong dollar at HK$7.75 to the US dollar. The lower limit has been lowered from 7.80 to 7.85 (by 100 pips per week from 23 May to 20 June 2005). The Hong Kong Monetary Authority indicated this move is to narrow the gap between the interest rates in Hong Kong and those of the United States. A further aim of allowing the Hong Kong dollar to trade in a range is to avoid the HK dollar being used as a proxy for speculative bets on a renminbi revaluation.

Terminology.

In formal Cantonese, the or () character is used. In informal Cantonese, () is used. The use of the character () originate from the tone change of the currency denomination used in China in imperial times (), which was the chief denomination until the introduction of the yuan in the late 19th century.  The dollar is divided into 100 cents, with the character (, a transliteration of “cent”) used on coins and in informal Cantonese. However, is now only used in the stock market, as now it no longer has a note or coin form due to its small value, and is no longer used in regular cash transactions. The amount of 10 cents is called 1 "hou" () in Cantonese.  To express prices in informal Cantonese, for example HK$7.80, the phrase is (); in financial terms, where integer values in cents exist, e.g., HK$6.75, the phrase is (; fives in cents is normally expressed as “half”, unless followed by another five, such as 55 cents when preceded by a dollar value); $7.08 is ().

Slang terms.

In Hong Kong, the following are slang terms used to refer to various amounts of money:  Some of these terms are also used by overseas Chinese to refer their local currency. A slang term in English sometimes used for the Hong Kong dollar is "Honkie".

Coins.

In 1863, 1-mil (-cent), 1-cent and 10-cent coins were introduced, followed in 1866 by 5- and 20- cents, half-dollar and 1-dollar. The 1-mil and 1-cent were struck in bronze, with the 1 mil a holed coin. The remaining coins were struck in silver. Production of the 1-mil ended in 1866, whilst that of the half-dollar and 1-dollar ceased in 1868, with only the half-dollar (now with the denomination given as 50 cents) resuming production in 1890. Production of all silver coins was suspended in 1905, only briefly resumed in 1932 and 1933 for the production of 5-cent coins.  In 1934, the last 1-cent coins were issued, but the last minting was 1941. These were not issued because the Japanese sank a ship carrying 1-cent coins bound for Hong Kong in the Second World War. The following year (1935), cupro-nickel 5 and 10 cents were introduced, replaced by nickel in 1937 and nickel-brass between 1948 and 1949. Copper-nickel 50 cents were issued in 1951 and first bore the name "fifty cents" in both Chinese and English, but these were changed to nickel-brass in 1977.  In 1960, cupro-nickel 1-dollar coins were introduced, these were then reduced in size in 1978. They were followed in 1975 by nickel-brass 20 cents and cupro-nickel 2-dollar (both scallop shaped), and in 1976 by decagonal, cupro-nickel 5-dollar coin, changed to a round thicker shape in 1980. The 5-cent coin was last issued in 1979, but last struck in 1988. In 1994, a bimetallic 10-dollar coin was introduced.  Starting in 1993, prior to the establishment of the HKSAR, coins with Queen Elizabeth II's portrait were gradually withdrawn from circulation. Most of the notes and coins in circulations feature Hong Kong's "Bauhinia" flower or other symbols. Coins with the Queen's portrait are still legal tender and can be seen, but these are slowly being phased out. However, most still remain in legal tender and are in circulation. Because the redesign was highly sensitive with regard to political and economic reasons, the designing process of the new coins could not be entrusted to an artist but was undertaken by Joseph Yam, Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority, himself who found in the bauhinia the requested "politically neutral design" and did a secret "scissors and paste job".  In 1997, to commemorate Hong Kong's transfer of sovereignty from Britain to the PRC, the government issued a new commemorative coin set which depicted Chinese cultural themes and Hong Kong's landmarks and 19 and 97, marking the year 1997, on each side of the designs.  As of today, coins in denominations of HK$10, HK$5, HK$2, HK$1, 50 cents, 20 cents and 10 cents are issued by Hong Kong Monetary Authority on behalf of the Government of Hong Kong.

Banknotes.

The issue of Hong Kong dollar notes is governed today by the Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA), the governmental currency board of Hong Kong. Under licence from the HKMA, three commercial banks issue their own banknotes for general circulation in the region. They are Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited; the Bank of China (Hong Kong) Limited; and the Standard Chartered Bank (Hong Kong) Limited. Notes are also issued by the HKMA itself. In most countries of the world the issue of banknotes is handled exclusively by a single central bank or government. The arrangements in Hong Kong are unusual but not unique; a comparable system is used in the United Kingdom, where seven banks issue banknotes.  As of today, the three commercial banks, HSBC, Bank of China and Standard Chartered issue their own designs of banknotes in denominations of HK$20, HK$50, HK$100, HK$500 and HK$1000, with all designs being similar to the other in the same denomination of banknote. While only the HK$10 banknote is issued solely by Hong Kong Monetary Authority on behalf of the Government of Hong Kong, which in total makes up the banknote circulation arrangement to four different note issuers.  In 1845, the first private bank, the Oriental Bank, was founded. However, banknotes were not produced until the 1860s, when the Oriental Bank, the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China and the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Company began issuing notes. Denominations issued in the 1860s and 1870s included 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 500 dollars. These notes were not accepted by the Treasury for payment of government dues and taxes, although they were accepted for use by merchants. 25 dollar notes did not survive beyond the end of the 19th century, whilst the 1-dollar notes (only produced by the HSBC) were issued until 1935.  Under the Currency Ordinance of 1935, banknotes in denominations of 5 dollars and above issued by the three authorised local banks, the Mercantile Bank of India Limited, the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China and the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, were all declared legal tender. The government took over production of 1 dollar notes. In 1941, the government introduced notes for 1, 5 and 10 cents due to the difficulty of transporting coins to Hong Kong caused by the Second World War (a ship carrying 1941 1-cent coins was sunk, making this unissued coin very rare). Just before the Japanese occupation, an emergency issue of 1 dollar notes was made consisting of overprinted Bank of China 5 yuan notes.  In 1945, paper money production resumed essentially unaltered from before the war, with the government issuing 1, 5 and 10 cents, and 1-dollar notes, and the three banks issuing 5, 10, 50, 100 and 500-dollar notes. 1-dollar notes were replaced by coins in 1960, with only the 1-cent note issued by the government after 1965.  In 1975, the 5-dollar notes were replaced by a coin, whilst 1,000-dollar notes were introduced in 1977. The Mercantile Bank was absorbed by the HSBC in 1978 and ceased issuing notes. In 1985, 20-dollar notes were introduced, whilst, in 1993, a 10-dollar coin was introduced and the banks stopped issuing 10 dollar notes. In 1994 the HKMA gave authority to the Bank of China to issue notes.  After a less-than-successful trial from 1994 to 2002 to move the 10-dollar denomination from the banknote format (issued by the banks) to the coin format (Government-issued), 10 dollar banknotes are currently the only denomination issued by the HKMA, having acquired the note printing plant at Tai Po from the De La Rue Group of the UK on behalf of the Government. The older 10-dollar banknotes are, although rare and being phased out, still circulating.  A commemorative polymer ten dollar note was issued in July 2007 to commemorate the 10th anniversary of Hong Kong's return to China. The new notes will circulate along with other issues for a trial period of two years, though the initial batch released was largely snapped up by collectors.  A new series of banknotes was issued starting in 2010. In 2015, HSBC issued 150-dollar notes in celebration for its 150th anniversary.

Economics.

Linked exchange rate system.

Since 1983, the linked exchange rate system is a unique type of exchange rate regime used for the Hong Kong dollar to be pegged with the United States dollar at a fixed rate of HK$7.80 = US$1. In this unique linked exchange rate system, the Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA) authorises the three note-issuing banks (HSBC, Bank of China and Standard Chartered) to issue new banknotes provided that they deposit an equivalent value of United States dollars with the HKMA.  In practice, in the unique linked exchange rate system, the exchange rate of HK$7.80 = US$1, is strictly controlled by the Hong Kong Monetary Authority in the foreign exchange market by controlling supply and demand of Hong Kong dollars in order to influence the exchange rate being fixed. By this arrangement the HKMA guarantees to exchange United States dollar into Hong Kong dollars and vice versa, at the rate of 7.80. When the market rate is below 7.80, the banks will convert United States dollar for Hong Kong dollars from the HKMA, Hong Kong dollars supply will increase, and the market rate will climb back to 7.80. The same mechanism also works when the market rate is above 7.80, and the banks will convert Hong Kong dollars for United States dollars.  By this arrangement, the Hong Kong dollar is backed by one of the world's largest foreign exchange reserves, which is over 7 times the amount of money supplied in circulation or about 48% of Hong Kong dollar M3 at the end of April 2016.

Renminbi peg debate.

Following the Internationalization of the renminbi and the inclusion of the Renminbi in the special drawing rights, there has been debates to peg the Hong Kong dollar with the Renminbi, instead of the United States dollar. Studies shows that, if the Hong Kong dollar were to be re-pegged to the Renminbi, it would need over 2 trillion Renminbi worth of assets to replace the HKMA's US$340 billion in foreign reserves as of 2015, which exceeds the amount of existing Renminbi assets in Hong Kong's offshore market. Moreover, according to figures from the HKMA as of the end of 2014, Renminbi deposits and certificates of deposits stood at 1.158 trillion Renminbi, while outstanding Renminbi bonds amounted to 381 billion and Renminbi-denominated loans stood at 188 billion. Other studies shows, while the Hong Kong's financial and economic links are increasingly dominated by mainland China, and previous concerns about the openness of China's capital account are slowly receding, if China continues to open its capital account, the peg could shift from United States dollar to renminbi.  However, in January 2016, the volatility in the Renminbi and China's financial markets expanded to Hong Kong's markets and its currency. Renminbi offshore overnight borrowing rate, CNH HIBOR, soared to 66.8% on 12 January after People's Bank of China – China's central bank (PBOC) intervened in the effort of squeezing out Renminbi short speculations by tightening liquidity at Hong Kong commercial banks. The PBOC's move at the offshore market, coupled with another plunge in Chinese stocks, has led to investors’ fears that the Hong Kong Dollar may be de-pegged from the US Dollar in the foreseeable future. In response to the market speculation, Hong Kong Monetary Authority said on 27 January that the regulator will protect Hong Kong dollar's linked exchange rate regime. Yet, many investors no longer consider Hong Kong as a safe haven as they once had given increasing financial influence by mainland China. As Hong Kong's financial markets are highly impacted by mainland China, the Renminbi exchange rate as well as China's equity market remain in a state of high volatility and continues to weigh on Hong Kong markets and the Hong Kong dollar.

The Hong Kong dollar (sign: HK$; code: HKD) is the official currency of Hong Kong. It is subdivided into 100 cents. The Hong Kong Monetary Authority is the governmental currency board and also the "de facto" central bank for Hong Kong and the Hong Kong dollar.

港元(单位:元),原称「港圆」(单位:圆),亦称为「港币」或「港纸」,广东省俗称咸龙,是香港的法定流通货币。货币及基金代码之表示法为HKD(英语:Hong Kong Dollars),标志为HK$。


Life.

He was born around 1510 in the town of Bassano del Grappa, located about 65 km from the city of Venice. His father, Francesco il Vecchio, was a locally successful painter who had established a family workshop that primarily produced religious works in the local style. During his early youth Bassano was an apprentice in his father's workshop. He eventually made his way to Venice in the 1530s, during which he studied under Bonifazio de Pitati (also known as Bonifazio Veronese) and was exposed to such famous artists as Titian and il Pordenone. After his father's death in 1539 he returned to Bassano del Grappa and permanently set up residence there, even taking a local woman, Elisabetta Merzari, as his wife in 1546. He took over the management of his family workshop, which would eventually come to include his four sons, Leandro Bassano, Francesco Bassano the Younger, Giovanni Battista da Ponte, and Girolamo da Ponte. After his death in 1592, his sons continued to produce numerous works in his style, making it difficult for later art historians to establish which pieces were created by Jacopo himself and which works were created at the hands of his progeny.  Jacopo Bassano was considered unique amongst his fellow Renaissance artists by his ability to incorporate diverse artistic influences (including Dürer, Parmigianino, Tintoretto, and Raphael) into his work despite his reluctance to leave the comfort of his home town. He is believed to have learned about their art by seeing their prints, of which he was most likely an avid collector.

Works.

Early period.

Bassano's ability to experiment and absorb stylistic qualities from other contemporary artists is evident in the four distinct periods seen in his artistic legacy. Each period shows the artist's work in reconciling his own aesthetics with the styles of his peers.  Early works, 1530s and onward. Bonifazio de Pitati imparted upon his young pupil a lasting appreciation of Titian's work, the influence of which is clearly seen in his early pieces. Bassano's earliest paintings exhibit his lifelong obsession with brilliant colors that he had seen in Titian's beginning works, particularly in Bassano's "Supper at Emmaus" (1538). In this commission for a local church, Bassano fills the canvas with rich, luminous colors that help the distinguish the figures from their surrounding environment. He breaks away from the practices of his contemporaries by placing the figure of Christ towards the back of the scene and allowing the lay-people around him to play a more significant part in the composition of the piece. They are also unique in their dress. Instead of clothing his figures in the draping, shapeless fabrics many Renaissance artists equated with Classical Roman fashion, Bassano chose to feature figures in 16th-century clothing. The details of this piece are the most often discussed aspect of it. To many art historians his inclusion of various food on the tables, a dog lying down and a cat slinking around the chairs, as well as numerous secondary characters is a testament to Bassano's practice of drawing from life instead of relying on stylistic conventions of the age.

Mannerism.

Bassano's piece, "The Last Supper" (1542), shows his new interest in Mannerism in Italian art. Within the piece he expressed influences related to contemporary prints of Dürer and paintings of Raphael. This is especially expressed in the highly charged emotions of the subjects and the dynamic and highly stylized posture of the figures. The Mannerist preoccupation with highly developed design elements is evident in Bassano's careful placement and "character" of the figures to create an active composition that leads the viewer's eyes around every detail of the canvas. Compared to earlier figures, which were more staid, Bassano's figures in "The Last Supper" seem alive, their skin suggesting muscles and sinews below rather than the wooden, tired postures of his early work.  Bassano started experimenting with light and his subjects around 1550s–1570s. It was during this period that he was one of the first artists to paint a "nocturne", or a painting in a nighttime landscape with artificial lighting. This type of painting was extremely popular with local audiences and made Bassano paintings highly valued. His works also began to feature more prominently pastoral elements, which were both painted by his father and part of his environment. Rather than placing religious scenes in Classical Roman settings (as his Renaissance counterparts did), he placed figures in a more natural landscape, where the trees and the flowers were as carefully rendered as his figures.

Jacopo Bassano (ca. 1510 – 14 February 1592), known also as Jacopo dal Ponte, was an Italian painter who was born and died in Bassano del Grappa near Venice, and took the village as his surname. Trained in the workshop of his father, Francesco the Elder, and studying under Bonifazio Veronese in Venice, he painted mostly religious paintings including landscape and genre scenes. Bassano's pictures were very popular in Venice because of their depiction of animals and nocturnal scenes. His four sons: Francesco Bassano the Younger, Giovanni Battista da Ponte, Leandro Bassano, and Girolamo da Ponte, also became artists and followed him closely in style and subject matter.

雅格布·巴萨诺(1510年-1592年-2月14日),又名:。出生并卒于威尼斯附近盛产葡萄的小镇,Bassano del Grappa,画风属威尼斯派。师承 Bonifazio Veronese,画作大多是田野乡景。 伴随他画室的两个儿子Leandro Bassano与Francesco Bassano the Younger在威尼斯也因其简约田野描绘享誉盛名。


Early life and education.

Taylor was born in St. John's Wood, London. His father, Edward Ingram Taylor, was an artist, and his mother, Margaret Boole, came from a family of mathematicians (his aunt was Alicia Boole Stott and his grandfather was George Boole). As a child he was fascinated by science after attending the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, and performed experiments using paint rollers and sticky-tape. Taylor read mathematics and physics at Trinity College, Cambridge from 1905 to 1908. Then he obtained a scholarship to continue at Cambridge under J. J. Thomson.

Career and research.

Taylor is best known to students of physics for his very first paper, published while he was still an undergraduate, in which he showed that interference of visible light produced fringes even with extremely weak light sources. The interference effects were produced with light from a gas light, attenuated through a series of dark glass plates, diffracting around a sewing needle. Three months were required to produce a sufficient exposure of the photographic plate. The paper does not mention quanta of light (photons) and does not reference Einstein's 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, but today the result can be interpreted by saying that less than one photon on average was present at a time. Once it became widely accepted ca. 1927 that the electromagnetic field was quantized, Taylor's experiment began to be presented in pedagogical treatments as evidence that interference effects with light cannot be interpreted in terms of one photon interfering with another photon—that, in fact, a "single" photon must travel through "both" slits of a double-slit apparatus. Modern understanding of the subject has shown that the conditions in Taylor's experiment were not in fact sufficient to demonstrate this, because the light source was not in fact a single-photon source, but the experiment was reproduced in 1986 using a single-photon source, and the same result was obtained.  He followed this up with work on shock waves, winning a Smith's Prize. In 1910 he was elected to a Fellowship at Trinity College, and the following year he was appointed to a meteorology post, becoming Reader in Dynamical Meteorology. His work on turbulence in the atmosphere led to the publication of "Turbulent motion in fluids", which won him the Adams Prize in 1915.  In 1913 Taylor served as a meteorologist aboard the Ice Patrol vessel "Scotia", where his observations formed the basis of his later work on a theoretical model of mixing of the air. At the outbreak of World War I, he was sent to the Royal Aircraft Factory at Farnborough to apply his knowledge to aircraft design, working, amongst other things, on the stress on propeller shafts. Not content just to sit back and do the science, he also learned to fly aeroplanes and make parachute jumps.  After the war Taylor returned to Trinity and worked on an application of turbulent flow to oceanography. He also worked on the problem of bodies passing through a rotating fluid. In 1923 he was appointed to a Royal Society research professorship as a Yarrow Research Professor. This enabled him to stop teaching, which he had been doing for the previous four years, and which he both disliked and had no great aptitude for. It was in this period that he did his most wide-ranging work on fluid mechanics and solid mechanics, including research on the deformation of crystalline materials which followed from his war work at Farnborough. He also produced another major contribution to turbulent flow, where he introduced a new approach through a statistical study of velocity fluctuations.  In 1934, Taylor, roughly contemporarily with Michael Polanyi and Egon Orowan, realised that the plastic deformation of ductile materials could be explained in terms of the theory of dislocations developed by Vito Volterra in 1905. The insight was critical in developing the modern science of solid mechanics.

Manhattan Project.

During World War II, Taylor again applied his expertise to military problems such as the propagation of blast waves, studying both waves in air and underwater explosions. Taylor was sent to the United States in 1944–1945 as part of the British delegation to the Manhattan Project. At Los Alamos, Taylor helped solve implosion instability problems in the development of atomic weapons particularly the plutonium bomb used at Nagasaki on 9 August 1945.  In 1944 he also received his knighthood and the Copley Medal from the Royal Society.  Taylor was present at the Trinity (nuclear test), July 16, 1945, as part of General Leslie Groves' "VIP List" of just 10 people who observed the test from Compania Hill, about 20 miles (32 km) northwest of the shot tower. By a strange twist, Joan Hinton, another direct descendant of the mathematician, George Boole, had been working on the same project and witnessed the event in an unofficial capacity. They met at the time but later followed different paths. Joan, strongly opposed to nuclear weapons, defected to Mao's China, while Taylor maintained that political policy was not within the remit of the scientist.  In 1950, he published two papers estimating the yield of the explosion using the Buckingham Pi theorem, and high speed photography stills from that test, bearing timestamps and physical scale of the blast radius, which had been published in Life magazine. His estimate of 22 kt was remarkably close to the accepted value of 20 kt, which was still highly classified at that time.

Later life.

Taylor continued his research after the war, serving on the Aeronautical Research Committee and working on the development of supersonic aircraft. Though he officially retired in 1952, he continued research for the next twenty years, concentrating on problems that could be attacked using simple equipment. This led to such advances as a method for measuring the second coefficient of viscosity. Taylor devised an incompressible liquid with separated gas bubbles suspended in it. The dissipation of the gas in the liquid during expansion was a consequence of the shear viscosity of the liquid. Thus the bulk viscosity could easily be calculated. His other late work included the longitudinal dispersion in flow in tubes, movement through porous surfaces, and the dynamics of sheets of liquids.  Aspects of Taylor's life often found expression in his work. His over-riding interest in the movement of air and water, and by extension his studies of the movement of unicellular marine creatures and of weather, were related to his lifelong love of sailing. In the 1930s he invented the 'CQR' anchor, which was both stronger and more manageable than any in use, and which was used for all sorts of small craft including seaplanes.  His final research paper was published in 1969, when he was 83. In it he resumed his interest in electrical activity in thunderstorms, as jets of conducting liquid motivated by electrical fields. The cone from which such jets are observed is called the Taylor cone, after him. In the same year Taylor received the A. A. Griffith Medal and Prize and was appointed to the Order of Merit.

Personal life.

Taylor married Grace Stephanie Frances Ravenhill, a school teacher in 1925. They stayed together until Stephanie's death in 1965. Taylor suffered a severe stroke in 1972 which effectively put an end to his work. He died in Cambridge in 1975.

Sir Geoffrey Ingram Taylor OM FRS HFRSE (7 March 1886 – 27 June 1975) was a British physicist and mathematician, and a major figure in fluid dynamics and wave theory. His biographer and one-time student, George Batchelor, described him as "one of the most notable scientists of this (the 20th) century".

杰弗里·泰勒爵士,OM(英语:Sir Geoffrey Taylor, 1886年-3月7日-1975年-6月27日),英国物理学家,数学家。他研究的领域是流体动力学与波理论。


House of Isenburg.

The House of Isenburg was an old aristocratic family of medieval Germany, named after the castle of Isenburg in Rhineland-Palatinate. Occasionally referred to as the House of Rommersdorf before the 12th century, the house originated in the Hessian comitatus of the Niederlahngau in the 10th century. It partitioned into the lines of Isenburg-Isenburg and Isenburg-Limburg-Covern in 1137, before partitioning again into smaller units, but by 1500 only the lines of Isenburg-Büdingen (in Upper Isenburg) and Lower Isenburg remained. In 1664 the Lower Isenburg branch died out. The Büdingen line continued to partition, and by the beginning of the 19th century the lines of Isenburg-Büdingen, Isenburg-Birstein, Isenburg-Meerholz and Isenburg-Wächtersbach existed. Today still exist the (Roman Catholic) princes of Isenburg (at Birstein), the (Lutheran) princes of Ysenburg (at Büdingen and Ronneburg) and the (Lutheran) counts of Ysenburg-Philippseich.

"Family tree" of the Isenburg countships.

Isenburg, the original countship was divided in 1137 into:

Principality of Isenburg.

It was not until 1806 that there was a state called simply ""Isenburg"". When the Holy Roman Empire was defeated by Napoleon I of France in that year, the empire was abolished and the Confederation of the Rhine was established amongst the various German states. As an incentive to join the Confederation, it was stated that any state which joined could mediatise their neighbours. Prince Charles of Isenburg-Birstein joined the Confederation and was granted the mediatized Isenburgian Countships of Isenburg-Büdingen, Isenburg-Meerholz, Isenburg-Philippseich, and Isenburg-Wächtersbach. His Principality was renamed to Isenburg.  The Principality continued under the rule of Prince Charles through the Napoleonic era, but was mediatised by Austria in December 1813, at the insistence of King Frederick William III of Prussia, who was angered that Isenburg had raised a regiment for French service by recruiting Prussian deserters and vagabonds. Isenburg was one of only three original member princes of the Empire to be mediatized at the end of the Napoleonic era (the others being Leyen and prince-primate Dalberg). This decision was confirmed at the Congress of Vienna. The lands of the principality were divided between the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt and the Electorate of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel).

Isenburg was a region of Germany located in southern present-day Hesse, located in territories north and south of Frankfurt. The states of Isenburg emerged from the Niederlahngau (located in the Rhineland-Palatinate), which partitioned in 1137 into Isenburg-Isenburg and Isenburg-Limburg-Covern. These countships were partitioned between themselves many times over the next 700 years.

伊森堡位于今天德意志联邦共和国莱茵兰-普法尔茨州北部,黑森州南部。1137年,尼德朗郜(Niederlahngau)分出伊森堡-林堡(Isenburg-Limburg)、伊森堡-肯佩尼希(Isenburg-Kempenich)和伊森堡-布劳恩斯贝格(Isenburg-Braunsberg)。以后分为许多支系。1744年,伊森堡-比尔施泰因升为侯国。1806年,伊森堡诸系重新合并,成为莱茵邦联的一个邦。1814年并入黑森和莱茵沿岸大公国。