Early life.

D'Onofrio was born in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn. He is of Italian descent, with ancestors from Naples. His parents Gennaro and Phyllis D'Onofrio met while Gennaro was stationed in Hawaii with the U.S. Air Force. His father was trained as an interior decorator but spent most of his spare time in amateur theater. Vincent is the youngest of three siblings. In 1956, they had their first child, Antoinette. Their second child, Elizabeth (born 1957), is an actress and drama coach residing in Fort Myers Beach, Florida. He was raised in Hawaii and Colorado during his early years.  D'Onofrio's parents divorced when he was young; his mother later married George Meyer. He became step-brother to Meyer's children from a previous marriage (Guy and Connie). The family moved to the Hialeah, Florida area. D'Onofrio described himself as a shy boy who spent "a lot of time in my room, staying in my head", later became interested in magic and sleight of hand, tricks he learned from Cuban entertainers who owned a small magic shop.  In his teens, he worked backstage in set building and sound production at a number of community theaters run by his father. He graduated from Hialeah-Miami Lakes Senior High School.

Career.

Acting and filmmaking.

After graduating from high school, D'Onofrio started to appear on stage. During an 18-month stint at the University of Colorado in Boulder, Colorado, he was involved with small, community-theater productions. He later studied method acting at the American Stanislavsky Theater and the Actors Studio, under coaches Sonia Moore and Sharon Chatten, which landed him his first paid role in off-Broadway's "This Property Is Condemned". He went on to appear in a number of their productions, including "Of Mice and Men" and "Sexual Perversity in Chicago". D'Onofrio continued his career by performing in many New York University student productions while also working as a bouncer at the Hard Rock Cafe, a bodyguard for Robert Plant and Yul Brynner and a deliveryman.  In 1984, he made his Broadway debut as Nick Rizzoli in "Open Admissions". In 1986, D'Onofrio took on the role often considered the defining moment in his acting career, as Pvt. Leonard Lawrence, an overweight, clumsy Marine recruit in the movie "Full Metal Jacket". On a tip from friend Matthew Modine, D'Onofrio was urged to send audition tapes to director Stanley Kubrick, in England. Four tapes later, D'Onofrio landed the role. Originally, the character of Pvt. Lawrence had been written as a "skinny ignorant redneck"; however, Kubrick believed the role would have more impact if the character were big and clumsy. D'Onofrio gained 5 stone / for the role, bringing his weight to 20 stone /. This remains the record for most weight gained by an actor for a film. While filming an obstacle course scene for the movie, D'Onofrio injured his left knee, compounded by the excessive weight, which required surgical reconstruction.  After filming of "Full Metal Jacket" was completed, having lost nearly all the weight gained for the movie in nine months, D'Onofrio went on to play Dawson, the owner of Dawson's Garage in "Adventures in Babysitting" (1987). He appears in one scene near the end of the film. In 1988, he was cast in another supporting role in the film "Mystic Pizza", playing the fiancé of Lili Taylor's character. In the film, which was Julia Roberts' breakout film, he was billed under his full name Vincent Phillip D'Onofrio.  D'Onofrio continued to play a wide variety of minor or supporting roles, including the father of a saint in Nancy Savoca's "Household Saints" (1993), director Orson Welles in Tim Burton's "Ed Wood" (1994), farmer Edgar and the evil "Bug" that possesses him from "Men in Black" (1997), a man who claims to be from the future in "Happy Accidents" (2000), and the serial killer Carl Stargher, opposite Jennifer Lopez's character in "The Cell" (2000).  In 1992, he appeared in Robert Altman's "The Player", as an aspiring screenwriter. In 1997, he made a move to television and received an Emmy nomination for his appearance as John Lange in the "" episode "". In 1999, he turned down a role in "The Sopranos". D'Onofrio portrayed leftist radical Abbie Hoffman in "Steal This Movie" in 2000, starring Janeane Garofalo as his wife.  In 2001, he took on what became his longest and perhaps best-known role as Det. Robert Goren on the NBC/USA Network television show "". On March 1, 2008, D'Onofrio made a cameo appearance in a presidential election-related sketch in a "Saturday Night Live" episode as his character Det. Robert Goren. In the sketch, he interrogates Hillary Clinton (played by Amy Poehler). His entrance to and exit from the skit are punctuated by the "Law & Order" "dun-DUN" sound.  In 2009, it was announced that D'Onofrio would be leaving "Law & Order: Criminal Intent" in the spring of 2010, with his last appearance occurring in the two-part, season-9 premiere. He was replaced by Jeff Goldblum, but after a drop in ratings, D'Onofrio and Kathryn Erbe agreed to return for a 10th (and final) season of the show.  In 2003, it was reported that D'Onofrio and Joe Pantoliano had begun work on a small film titled "Little Victories", about a 12-year-old boy whose perceptions of the world are forever changed when his gangster uncle comes to live with him. According to a television interview with Pantoliano, the film was not completed and went into turnaround due to a failure to raise the funds necessary for production.  In November 2005, D'Onofrio won Best Actor at the Stockholm International Film Festival for his role as Mike Cobb in the independent film "Thumbsucker". In 2006, he appeared in "The Break-Up", starring Jennifer Aniston and Vince Vaughn, playing Vaughn's eccentric brother. Vaughn and he had appeared together in two previous films, "The Cell" (2000), wherein Vaughn played an FBI agent pursuing D'Onofrio's character, and "Thumbsucker" (2005). He appears in the Oscar-winning short "The New Tenants" (2009).  Over the next few years, D'Onofrio co-starred in films such as: "Staten Island" (2009), "Brooklyn's Finest" (2010), "Kill the Irishman" (2011), "Crackers" (2011), "American Falls" (2012), "Fire with Fire" (2012), and "Ass Backwards" (2013).  In 2011, he began work on the Jennifer Lynch 2012 film "Chained" (previously titled "Rabbit") in which he portrays Bob, a serial killer who kidnaps a young boy, Rabbit, and makes him his protégé. When he becomes older, Rabbit must decide whether to follow in the footsteps of his captor or plan his escape. The film shot in areas in and around Regina and Moose Jaw, both in Saskatchewan.  On May 1, 2012, due to "explicit violence", the movie was given an NC-17 rating by the MPAA, despite an appeal by Jennifer Lynch, and the distributor, with scenes cut to maximize theater exposure and distribution. No stranger to the NC-17 ratings, Lynch, who responded to the ruling a day later also saw cuts made to her film "Boxing Helena". In July 2012, a press release from Anchor Bay announced that the film would be released on Blu-ray and DVD on October 2, 2012 and would include the deleted scene, involving a throat being cut, which caused the NC-17 rating.  On September 14, 2011, it was announced that D'Onofrio would star alongside Ethan Hawke in a new NBC show, "Blue Tilt", named after the harmful psychological effects homicide detectives experience after constantly dealing with horrific crimes.  D'Onofrio and Hawke had worked together in the films "The Newton Boys", "Staten Island", "Brooklyn's Finest" and "Sinister". The hour-long cop drama, in which D'Onofrio would play Sonny, was to follow the main characters' attempts to balance their careers with family life. Writer Chris Brancato, fresh from Season 10 of "Law and Order: Criminal Intent", was brought on board to pen the episodes. Filming of the pilot episode was set to start in February 2012. On March 27, 2012, a tweet from Kevin Dunigan, the co-creator and developer of the pilot, revealed that NBC had shelved the project because it did not have enough "pop to attract viewers".  On April 30, 2012, the short film "Crackers", starring D'Onofrio as Gus, won a People's Choice Award at the Fort Myers Beach Film Festival. The festival, which had been dormant for six years, was rekindled and partly organized by Vincent's sister, actress Elizabeth D'Onofrio.  Fresh from his role in Jennifer Lynch's "Chained", it was announced on August 11, 2012, that D'Onofrio would star in her upcoming film "A Fall From Grace". The film tells the story of Detective Michael Tabb, to be played by Tim Roth, as he investigates the murders of young girls burned and washing ashore along the Mississippi River. A further upcoming Lynch project, "The Monster Next Door", was set to also star D'Onofrio.  Also in November, filming began on the Vidhu Vinod Chopra movie, "Broken Horses", which focused on gang warfare around the border between the United States and Mexico. D'Onofrio starred alongside Chris Marquette and Anton Yelchin.  In 2013, D'Onofrio co-starred in the film "Escape Plan", filmed in New Orleans, also starring Sylvester Stallone, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and 50 Cent. D'Onofrio portrayed Lester Clark, deputy director of the Prisons Bureau.  D'Onofrio co-starred in the film drama "The Judge" (2014).  His other projects included a role in "Supreme Ruler" with Marcia Gay Harden and Jeffrey Dean Morgan, Eric Bogosian's "Mall" which he co-wrote with his former "Law & Order: Criminal Intent" co-star, and "Pawn Shop Chronicles".  In 2015, D'Onofrio made his Marvel Cinematic Universe debut as Wilson Fisk in the first season of "Daredevil". He reprised the role in an extended cameo appearance in season 2, and in season 3 as a series regular. He also portrayed Vic Hoskins in the action adventure film "Jurassic World" (2015), and Jack Horne in Antoine Fuqua's 2016 remake of "The Magnificent Seven".  In 2016, he played the role of the evil Duke Luca Abele in the video game Dishonored 2 for the PS4/Xbox1 platforms. He was able to draw upon his extensive acting experience to fully flesh out the voice of the corrupt Duke Abele in various public speeches that were broadcast in-game over large speakers suspended in the game area.

Directing.

D'Onofrio has also had success behind the camera, producing "The Whole Wide World" (1996), in which he also starred, and "Guy" (1997) as well as executive producing "The Velocity of Gary" (1998) and "Steal This Movie!" (2000). In 2005, he directed and starred in the short film "Five Minutes, Mr. Welles" (2005), which represented a culmination of D'Onofrio's desire to improve on his performance as Welles in "Ed Wood", which reportedly left director Tim Burton underwhelmed. Burton decided to procure the services of voiceover artist Maurice LaMarche due to being known for his imitation of Welles' voice to produce a more dramatically effective rendering of the character's dialogue. Disappointed with his performance, having been given two weeks notice to prepare for the role, D'Onofrio wrote, produced, directed, and starred in the short in answer to the critics and himself. The film depicts D'Onofrio as Welles preparing for his role in "The Third Man".  In 2008, he returned to directing with the feature-length musical slasher "Don't Go in the Woods" (2010), written by his friend Joe Vinciguerra, featuring a score by Sam Bisbee, and starring various unknown actors hand-picked by D'Onofrio. It follows an indie rock band who venture into the woods to write new music, only to meet a crazed murderer (Tim Lajcik). The film, shot in 13 days near Kingston, New York, had a budget of $100,000 and played at numerous festivals throughout 2009 and 2010. Initially slated for national release in December 2011, the film opened to limited theaters on January 13, 2012, and was released on DVD on June 12, 2012. His next project is directing and starring in the 2019 western "The Kid".

Music.

On October 27, 2009, D'Onofrio made his musical debut, appearing in character as comedic country singer George Geronimo Gerkie at Joe's Pub in New York City. He appeared as Gerkie again at New York's Hammerstein Ballroom on December 6, 2009, during Matt Pinfield's Holiday Extravaganza Show and at the premiere of his movie "Don't Go in the Woods" at Joe's Pub on May 28, 2010. A fourth concert was held at the pub on July 22, 2010, with proceeds from the event going to the Utah Meth Cops project.  On November 11, 2011, while teaching students at the Tribeca Flashpoint Media Arts Academy, D'Onofrio discussed plans for further concerts, and a George Gerkie documentary which is to be filmed by "Ultrasuede: In Search of Halston" director Whitney Smith.  In September 2011, Australian hip-hop band The Funkoars, released an album titled "The Quickening", featuring the song "Being Vincent D'Onofrio", an homage to D'Onofrio's career and his work on "Law and Order: Criminal Intent". In February 2012, the band announced their upcoming "Being Vincent D'Onofrio Tour 2012" with artwork featuring D'Onofrio's face in place of the band members'.  In 2014, D'Onofrio released two songs as part of an avant garde spoken-word project with multi-instrumentalist and composer Dana Lyn. The first single, "I'm a Hamster", gathered attention on social media. The full album was made available for purchase in March 2015, on the band's website.

Other work.

In 1998, D'Onofrio, with his father Gene and sister Elizabeth, founded the RiverRun International Film Festival in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. In 2003, former film producer and dean of the School of Filmmaking at the University of North Carolina School of the Arts, Dale Pollock, took over the festival and moved it from Brevard, North Carolina, to Winston-Salem. Annually, the festival showcases the best films offered from the independent and international industry, as well as those from student filmmakers.  In 2008, alongside his sister, Toni, D'Onofrio began hosting events to raise money for the Utah Meth Cops Project. He served as the project's spokesperson from 2009–2012.  In the fall of 2011, D'Onofrio became a member of the advisory board for the Woodstock Film Festival, which holds an annual event for independent films. Other members of the board include Griffin Dunne, Ethan Hawke, and Aidan Quinn.  In February 2011, D'Onofrio became a public face of the gun control debate, appearing in an ad by the Citizens Crime Commission of New York City urging a ban on large-capacity ammunition magazines.  In 2012, D'Onofrio returned to teach at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute where his daughter was a student.  On August 9, 2012, it was announced that D'Onofrio had been chosen to narrate the documentary, "Heroes Behind The Badge" (2012). The film follows four fallen officers and the impact their deaths have had on their families, colleagues, and communities. The proceeds are benefitting a memorial museum being built in Washington, DC. A longtime supporter of the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial, D'Onofrio has been the spokesperson for the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund and Museum since 2010. A follow up to the documentary, subtitled "Sacrifice and Survival", was released in the fall of 2013.  On November 13, 2012, D'Onofrio joined the cast of the off-Broadway production "Clive", alongside Brooks Ashmanskas and Zoe Kazan. Produced by Jonathan Marc Sherman and directed by Ethan Hawke, the play, based on "Baal" by Bertolt Brecht, opened at The New Group at Theatre Row on February 7, 2013.

Personal life.

In the early 1990s, D'Onofrio was in a relationship with actress Greta Scacchi, with whom he starred in several films during that period (including "The Player" and "Fires Within"). The couple had one daughter, Leila George (born 1992).  On March 22, 1997, D'Onofrio married Dutch model Carin van der Donk, and the couple had a son (born 1999). The couple split in the early 2000s, but reconciled and had a second son (born 2008).  On November 10, 2004, D'Onofrio collapsed on the set of "Law & Order: Criminal Intent". He collapsed again at home a few days later, and after further testing, was diagnosed with exhaustion. The cause of his exhaustion was explained later as his 14-hour days filming "Criminal Intent", coupled with the filming of his short film "Five Minutes, Mr. Welles" during the show's hiatus.  During an interview in January 2012, D'Onofrio discussed his frustration with conflicting reports on his current marital status, including inaccuracies on Internet Movie Database. He has stated that, despite some reports, he is currently married. He resides with his family in a townhouse in the Gramercy Park neighborhood of Manhattan.

External links.

! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Seattle International Film Festival ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Saturn Awards

Vincent Philip D'Onofrio (; born June 30, 1959) is an American actor, producer, director, and singer. He is known for his supporting and leading roles in both film and television. He has been nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and two Saturn Awards, winning one for his supporting role in "Men in Black".

文森·-{zh-tw:菲利浦;zh-hk:菲腊;zh-cn:菲利普;}-·唐诺佛利欧(英语:Vincent Philip D'Onofrio,1959年-6月30日)是一位美国男演员、导演、监制、编剧和歌手。他擅长出演多种角色,有「人类变色龙」之称。参演过较著名的如电影《金甲部队》(1987年)、《MIB星际战警》(1997年)、电视剧《法网游龙:犯案动机》(2001年-2011年)、《大法官》(2014年)和《一夜狂奔》(2015年)。2015年,唐诺佛利欧在《侏罗纪世界》中饰演维克。


Name.

The different regimes that held power in Catalonia and Spain during the 20th century sought to change the city's street names, and Avinguda Diagonal was permitted no exception. It has been known under the following names:  The name "Diagonal" has always prevailed in popular usage.

History.

Early history.

Ildefons Cerdà's so-called Pla Cerdà was not totally successful in transforming Barcelona's urban reality, as only parts of it were finally approved. The construction of Avinguda Diagonal is one of the projects it entailed that became reality, when a Royal Decree from Queen Isabella II of Spain and Leopoldo O'Donnell's Spanish government in Madrid allowed him to start the construction of the avenue in 1859. The city council of Barcelona had previously requested the approval of Antoni Rovira i Trias's alternative project instead, which had been rejected.  After the completion of its central section, from the current Plaça de Francesc Macià towards Glòries, it soon became one of Barcelona's most popular avenues and an ideal place for the Catalan aristocrats and bourgeoisie to exhibit their carriages. Francesc Cambó, leader of Lliga Regionalista proposed the construction of a new palace for the then monarch Alfonso XIII in 1919 (the royal palace in Ciutat Vella had been destroyed in the fire of 1875).

Recent history.

Avinguda Diagonal suffered several attacks by the Basque separatist organisation ETA in 2000. On 2 November, a car bomb exploded injuring a security officer and a municipal officer. A few days later, on 21 November, a car used by the killers of Enerst Lluch exploded in the middle of the avenue. On 20 December a municipal officer was shot dead.  Four venues in the area hosted competitions for the 1992 Summer Olympics.  During 2010, Diagonal reform proposals were on the headlines, as the Barcelona city council had plans to make the tram cross the whole avenue. A "popular consultation" (the word "referendum" being banned by Spanish law) was scheduled for May 2010 between two reform proposals, the so-called "rambla" or "boulevard". It resulted in a big political failure for the city mayor, Jordi Hereu. There was a bare participation of 12% of potential voters, and about 80% voted for the third option "none of the former two", that is, against any change.

Education.

Avinguda Diagonal is also home to several schools of both Universitat de Barcelona (UB) and Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, in the area that is commonly known as "Zona Universitària".  The following UB faculties and schools are located on the avenue:

Transport.

Metro.

The avenue is served by a number of metro stations:

Tram.

Trambaix Trambesòs

Avinguda Diagonal (, in Spanish La Avenida Diagonal) is the name of one of Barcelona's broadest and most important avenues. It cuts the city in two, diagonally with respect to the grid pattern of the surrounding streets, hence the name.

对角线大道(Avinguda Diagonal)是西班牙巴塞罗那的一条重要街道。它宽约50米,长约11公里,从东到西将城市切割为两部分,因而得名。


Toxicity.

Injection of MPTP causes rapid onset of Parkinsonism, hence users of MPPP contaminated with MPTP will develop these symptoms.  MPTP itself is not toxic, and as a lipophilic compound can cross the blood–brain barrier. Once inside the brain, MPTP is metabolized into the toxic cation 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) by the enzyme monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) of glial cells, specifically astrocytes. MPP+ kills primarily dopamine-producing neurons in a part of the brain called the pars compacta of the substantia nigra. MPP+ interferes with complex I of the electron transport chain, a component of mitochondrial metabolism, which leads to cell death and causes the buildup of free radicals, toxic molecules that contribute further to cell destruction.  Because MPTP itself is not directly harmful, toxic effects of acute MPTP poisoning can be mitigated by the administration of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) such as selegiline. MAOIs prevent the metabolism of MPTP to MPP+ by inhibiting the action of MAO-B, minimizing toxicity and preventing neural death.  Dopaminergic neurons are selectively vulnerable to MPP+ because DA neurons exhibit dopamine reuptake which is mediated by DAT which also has high-affinity for MPP+. The dopamine transporter scavenges for excessive dopamine at the synaptic spaces and transports them back into the cell. Even though this property is exhibited by both VTA and SNc neurons, VTA neurons are protective against MPP+ insult due to the expression of calbindin. Calbindin regulates the availability of Ca2+ within the cell, which is not the case in SNc neurons due to their high-calcium dependent autonomous pacemaker activity.  The resulting gross depletion of dopaminergic neurons has severe implications on cortical control of complex movements. The direction of complex movement is based from the substantia nigra to the putamen and caudate nucleus, which then relay signals to the rest of the brain. This pathway is controlled via dopamine-using neurons, which MPTP selectively destroys, resulting over time in parkinsonism.  MPTP causes Parkinsonism in primates including humans. Rodents are much less susceptible. Rats are almost immune to the adverse effects of MPTP. Mice were thought to only suffer from cell death in the substantia nigra (to differing degree according to the strain of mice used) but do not show Parkinsonian symptoms; however, most of the recent studies indicate that MPTP can result in Parkinsonism-like syndromes in mice (especially chronic syndromes). It is believed that the lower levels of MAO-B in the rodent brain's capillaries may be responsible for this.

Discovery in users of illicit drugs.

The neurotoxicity of MPTP was hinted at in 1976 after Barry Kidston, a 23-year-old chemistry graduate student in Maryland, US, synthesized MPPP with MPTP as a major impurity, and self-injected the result. Within three days he began exhibiting symptoms of Parkinson's disease. The National Institute of Mental Health found traces of MPTP and other pethidine analogs in his lab. They tested the substances on rats, but due to rodents' tolerance for this type of neurotoxin nothing was observed. Kidston's Parkinsonism was treated with levodopa but he died 18 months later from a cocaine overdose. Upon autopsy, Lewy bodies and destruction of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra were discovered.  In 1983, four people in Santa Clara County, California, US, were diagnosed with Parkinsonism after having used MPPP contaminated with MPTP. The neurologist J. William Langston in collaboration with NIH tracked down MPTP as the cause, and its effects on primates were researched. After performing neural grafts of fetal tissue on three of the patients at Lund University Hospital in Sweden, the motor symptoms of two of the three patients were successfully treated, and the third showed partial recovery.  Langston documented the case in his 1995 book "The Case of the Frozen Addicts", which was later featured in two "NOVA" productions by PBS, re-aired in the UK on the BBC science series "Horizon".

Contribution of MPTP to research into Parkinson's disease.

Langston "et al."(1984) found that injections of MPTP in squirrel monkeys resulted in Parkinsonism, symptoms of which were subsequently reduced by levodopa, the drug-of-choice in the treatment of Parkinson's disease along with carbidopa and entacapone. The symptoms and brain structures of MPTP-induced Parkinson's disease are fairly indistinguishable to the point that MPTP may be used to simulate the disease in order to study Parkinson's disease physiology and possible treatments within the laboratory. Mouse studies have shown that susceptibility to MPTP increases with age.  Knowledge of MPTP and its use in reliably recreating Parkinson's disease symptoms in experimental models has inspired scientists to investigate the possibilities of surgically replacing neuron loss through fetal tissue implants, subthalamic electrical stimulation and stem cell research, all of which have demonstrated initial, provisional successes.  It has been postulated that Parkinson's disease may be caused by minute amounts of MPP+-like compounds from ingestion or exogenously through repeated exposure and that these substances are too minute to be detected significantly by epidemiological studies.  In 2000, another animal model for Parkinson's disease was found. It was shown that the pesticide and insecticide rotenone causes Parkinsonism in rats by killing dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Like MPP+, rotenone also interferes with complex I of the electron transport chain.

Synthesis and uses.

MPTP was first synthesized as a potential analgesic in 1947 by Ziering "et al." by reaction of phenylmagnesium bromide with 1-methyl-4-piperidinone. It was tested as a treatment for various conditions, but the tests were halted when Parkinson-like symptoms were noticed in monkeys. In one test of the substance, two of six human subjects died.  MPTP is used in industry as a chemical intermediate; the chloride of the toxic metabolite MPP+, cyperquat, has been used as a herbicide.

MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) is a prodrug to the neurotoxin MPP+, which causes permanent symptoms of Parkinson's disease by destroying dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the brain. It has been used to study disease models in various animal studies.

MPTP(1-甲基-4-苯基-1,2,3,6-四氢吡啶)是一种神经毒素,能够通过破坏黑质中产生多巴胺的神经细胞而导致类似于帕金森氏症的症状。它被广泛运用于帕金森氏症各种动物模型的研究。


Gameplay.

"Defender" is a two-dimensional side-scrolling shooting game set on the surface of an unnamed planet. The player controls a spaceship as it navigates the terrain, flying either to the left or right. A joystick controls the ship's elevation, and five buttons control its horizontal direction and weapons. The object is to destroy alien invaders, while protecting astronauts on the landscape from abduction. Humans that are abducted return as mutants that attack the ship. Defeating the aliens allows the player to progress to the next level. Failing to protect the astronauts, however, causes the planet to explode and the level to become populated with mutants. Surviving the waves of mutants results in the restoration of the planet. Players are allotted three ships to progress through the game and are able to earn more by reaching certain scoring benchmarks. A ship is lost if it is hit by an enemy or its projectiles, or if a hyperspace jump goes wrong (as they randomly do). After exhausting all ships, the game ends.

Development.

"Defender" was Williams Electronics' first attempt at developing a new video game; the company's earlier game was a "Pong" clone. The popularity of coin-operated arcade games in 1979 spurred the company to shift its focus from pinball games to arcade games. The company chose Eugene Jarvis, who had a successful record of Williams pinball games, to head development. Larry DeMar, Sam Dicker, and Paul Dussault assisted Jarvis. At the time, Williams had a small staff and the management was unfamiliar with technology used for its electronic games. As a result, the staff was afforded a large amount of creative freedom.

Initial development.

Space was a popular setting for video games at the time, and Jarvis felt the abstract setting would help obscure simple graphics that lacked realism. Initially, Jarvis spent 3–4 months developing color variations of Taito's "Space Invaders" and Atari's "Asteroids". First inspired by "Space Invaders", he created a similar game with new gameplay mechanics. After spending a few weeks on the design, however, the team abandoned the idea, believing it lacked enjoyment. Development then shifted to emulating Atari's "Asteroids", but hardware differences between "Asteroids" and "Defender"s proposed specifications were problematic. "Asteroids" displays vector graphics on a special monitor, while the staff planned to use pixel graphics on a conventional monitor. The team experimented with recreating the game with pixel graphics, but also abandoned it because they felt the gameplay lacked enjoyment and visual appeal.  Believing their first attempts to be too derivative, the developers held brainstorming sessions. During a session, they agreed that one of "Asteroids"s favorable elements was its wrapping effect. They felt a game that allowed the player to fly off the screen would be exciting, and decided to create a game world larger than the screen displayed. The game's environment was made longer than the screen, with the visible area scrolling horizontally. Expanding on the idea, they envisioned a version of "Space Invaders" rotated 90 degrees. By changing the orientation of "Space Invaders" design, the ship moved up and down while flying horizontally. Large asteroids, an element from "Asteroids", were then added to the game world, but were later removed because the staff felt it lacked enjoyment. Jarvis intended the screen to scroll only from left to right; fellow Williams employee Steve Ritchie, however, convinced him the game should be able to scroll in either direction.  After six months of development, the team felt the game had not made enough progress. They examined other games and concluded that survival was a necessary component to implement. To achieve this, they devised enemies to present a threat, the first of which was the "Lander". Jarvis enjoyed violent, action entertainment, and wanted the game to have those elements. However, he felt the action should have a reasonable objective. Inspired by the 1960s television show "The Defenders", Jarvis titled the game "Defender", reasoning that the title helped justify the violence. He added astronauts to expand on the space theme and give players something to defend while they shot enemies. The element of flying over a planetscape was added after a brainstorming session between Jarvis and Ritchie. The landscape is depicted as a line only a pixel wide, primarily because the hardware was not powerful enough to generate anything more detailed.

Later development.

By July, development was behind schedule and Jarvis's superior began to pressure him to finish the game in time for a then-upcoming trade show, the AMOA, in September. Jarvis spent several weeks creating the astronauts, which his boss felt should be omitted if the process didn't speed up. The pressure frustrated him to the point he considered resigning. Around that time, a new programmer named Sam Dicker was hired. He assisted in programming the game and added visual and audio effects. For example, Dicker implemented a particle effect algorithm to generate unique explosions for destroyed enemies. The new elements re-invigorated Jarvis, who felt the project began to show promise.  Development then shifted focus to the enemies. Landers were given the ability to capture humans, and a new enemy was devised from the mechanic: "Mutants", captured humans that had turned hostile. The Mutants added a rescue element to the game that Jarvis believed made it more interesting to players and encouraged them to continue playing. The element of making a "comeback" from a dire situation was applied to the planet as well. Jarvis felt it mimicked the ups and downs of real life. "Bombers", enemies which release floating bombs on the screen, were added next. More enemies were added to create different gameplay elements. "Swarmers" and "Pods" were designed to attack the spaceship as opposed to the astronauts. "Baiters" were included to add pressure to the player by preventing them from lingering. The enemies quickly follow the spaceship to collide with it, and were based on a similar enemy in "Asteroids".  By September, the game was still unfinished, and almost every Williams programmer assisted in meeting the deadline for the AMOA trade show. The evening before the trade show, the arcade cabinets were delivered for display. The developers, however, forgot to create an attract mode—an automated sequence designed to entice an audience to play—for the game, and began working on it that night. Early the next morning, the team created the final EPROM chips for the mode and installed them in cabinets. The chips, however, did not work and the designers made additional attempts to correct the problem. Once the attract mode was operational, Jarvis and the team returned to their homes to prepare for the show. After the show, the developers expanded the game to allow users to play indefinitely. The display model featured five levels, which the team felt was more than enough because of the game's difficulty. Most Williams employees could not progress past the third level and Jarvis's score of 60,000 points seemed unbeatable to them. The developers decided it was best to be prepared for players that might exceed their expectations and added more levels that repeated.

Hardware.

The game features amplified monaural sound and pixel graphics on a CRT monitor. A Motorola 6809 central processing unit handles the graphics and gameplay, while a Motorola 6800 microprocessor handles the audio. A pack of three AA batteries provide power to save the game's settings and high scores when the machine is unplugged from an electrical outlet. The cabinet artwork is stenciled on the wooden frame.  Development started by focusing on the game's hardware. The staff first debated what type of monitor to use: black-and-white or color. They reasoned that using advanced technology would better establish them as good designers and chose a color monitor. The developers estimated that the game would require 4 colors, but instead chose hardware that could display each pixel in 16 colors. At the time, the designers believed that was more than they would ever need for a game. The monitor's resolution is 320×256, an expansion from the then-industry standard of 256×256. The staff believed that the wider screen provided a better aspect ratio and would improve the game's presentation. Video games at the time relied on hardware to animate graphics, but the developers decided to use software to handle animation and programmed the game in assembly language. The switch allowed them to display more on-screen objects at a lower cost.  The game's control scheme uses a two-way joystick and five buttons. Jarvis designed the controls to emulate both "Space Invaders" and "Asteroids" simultaneously. The player's left hand manipulates the joystick similar to "Space Invaders" and the right hand pushes buttons similar to "Asteroids". The button functions also use a similar layout to "Asteroids", with the button to shoot projectiles and accelerate on the far right and left, respectively. Jarvis reasoned that players were accustomed to the control schemes of past games, and felt altering past designs would prove difficult for them.

Reception.

The game was slow to gain popularity, not attracting much attention at the 1980 AMOA show. In retrospect, Jarvis believed many passersby were intimidated by its complexity. The game, however, was well-received in arcades, and crowds gathered around the cabinet during its first nights of play testing. The success spurred Williams to release a cocktail version as well. "Defender" eventually became Williams' best-selling arcade game, with over 55,000 units sold worldwide. It has become one of the highest grossing arcade games ever, earning over US$1 billion.  Six months after its release, the game was one of the top earners in the United States video game industry. Mark Stearny of "JoyStik" magazine called "Defender" the most successful game in 1981, commenting that it outperformed "Pac-Man". Co-designer Larry Demar was surprised by the game's popularity. At the time of its release, Stan Jarocki, director of marketing at then-competitor Midway Manufacturing, described the game as "amazing".  "Softline" in 1983 wrote that it "remains one of the hardest arcade games ever developed. Initial attempts lasting less than ten seconds are not uncommon for novices."  Ed Driscoll reviewed the Atari VCS version of "Defender" in "The Space Gamer" No. 57. Driscoll commented that "All in all, if you want a good game for your Atari, this qualifies. "Defender" lovers have a few gripes, but I would recommend this one to any VCS owner." The port won the "Best Science Fiction/Fantasy Videogame" category in the 1983 Arcade Awards.  In 1983 "Softline" readers named the Atari 8-bit version fifth on the magazine's Top Thirty list of Atari programs by popularity. The magazine was more critical, however, stating that "The game's appeal does not justify its unreasonable cost" of being shipped on ROM cartridges. David H. Ahl of "Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games" said in 1983 that the Atari 5200 version was "a substantial challenge to the most seasoned space gamers".

Retrospective.

"Next Generation" ranked the arcade version as number 13 on their 1996 "Top 100 Games of All Time", saying that its balanced difficulty makes gamers keep coming back for more instead of giving up. In 1999, "Next Generation" listed "Defender" as number 23 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that, "Despite exceptionally complicated controls, gamers fell in love at first sight. The difficulty is high but fair - when you die, it's always your fault, and that leaves you wanting one more chance to beat the game." In 2008, Guinness World Records listed it as the number six arcade game in technical, creative, and cultural impact. That same year, "Retro Gamer" rated the game number ten on their list of "Top 25 Arcade Games", citing it as a technical achievement and a difficult title with addictive gameplay. Also in 2008, "Edge" ranked "Defender" the sixth best game from the 1980s. The editors described its design as very "elegant" despite a lack of narrative and characters.  GameSpy's David Cuciz lauded "Defender"s challenging gameplay, commenting that it is representative of what other games should be. He described the graphics as "beautiful", citing the varied sprites and flashing explosions. Matt Barton and Bill Loguidice of Gamasutra stated the audio-visuals and gameplay's depth balanced the excessive difficulty. They praised the game's "catch and rescue" feature, as well as the mini-map. Cuciz also praised the mini-map, stating that the game is impossible without it and that it allows players to plan strategies. Author John Sellers praised the audio-visuals and the connection between the game's plot and gameplay.  GameDaily in 2009 rated "Defender" the ninth most difficult game, citing the attack and rescue gameplay. Author Steven L. Kent called it "one of the toughest games in arcade history". He also stated that novice players typically are able to play only a few seconds, and that enthusiasts saw proficiency at the game as a "badge of honor". David Cuciz echoed similar comments. Sellers described "Defender"'s difficulty as "humbling", saying that few could play it with proficiency. He further stated, however, that players would continue to play despite the difficulty. Author David Ellis attributes the game's success to its challenging design. Its difficulty is often attributed to its complex control scheme. "Edge" magazine called "Defender" "one of the most difficult-to-master" games, describing its controls as "daunting".

Impact and legacy.

Players have competed to obtain the highest score at the game and the longest play time on a single credit. Competitive playing for the longest play time was popularized by Mario Suarez from Atlantic City, who played "Defender" for over 21 and a half hours in 1982 at the Claridge Casino Hotel in Atlantic City. It was authenticated by the facility and the many witnesses that watched along with the press of Atlantic City; the media attention spurred other players to attempt the same feat. Expert players exploited software bugs to extend the length of their play time. "Defender" was the focus of the first Twin Galaxies video game contest. Players in 32 cities simultaneously competed on the weekend of April 3–4, 1982. Rick Smith was the victor with a score of 33,013,200 which took 38 hours. One bug, related to how the game keeps track of scoring, allows players to earn a large number of "extra lives". Players can then use the extra lives to leave the game unattended while they rest. Other bugs allow the ship to avoid damage from the enemies, also prolonging the length of play.  Professor Jim Whitehead listed "Defender" as the first horizontally scrolling shooting game, and describes it as a breakthrough title for its use of full 2D motion, multiple goals, and complex gameplay that provides players with several methods to play. James Hague of Dadgum Games called "Defender" a landmark title from the 1980s. Stearny said that the game's use of scrolling helped remove design limitations associated with the screen. Cuciz stated that "Defender"s use of scrolling introduced the "first true 'gaming environment'". He further said that though the game's mini-map feature had been introduced before, "Defender" integrated it into the gameplay in a more essential manner. Stearny described it as the most important space game in the early 1980s. He commented that its realism and technological advances pushed developers to create more popular games, citing "Gorf" and "Phoenix" as examples. Vince listed the game as a classic title that introduced new technology, specifically scrolling. Ellis stated that prior to "Defender", companies designed video games to have a balanced challenge. They believed games should be easy enough to attract players, but difficult enough to limit play time to a few minutes; anything too challenging would dissuade players. Loguidice and Barton commented that "Defender"s success, along with "", illustrated that video game enthusiasts were ready for more difficult games, which spurred developers to create more complex game designs.  Jarvis's contributions to the game's development are often cited among his accolades. Author John Vince considered him as one of the originators of "high-action" and "reflex-based" arcade games, citing "Defender"s gameplay among other games designed by Jarvis. Ellis stated that Jarvis established himself as an early "hard-core" designer with "Defender". In 2007, IGN listed Eugene Jarvis as a top game designer whose titles ("Defender", "Robotron: 2084" and "Smash TV") have influenced the video game industry. Barton and Loguidice stated that the game helped establish Williams and Jarvis as key figures in the arcade game industry. Sellers echoed similar comments. After the success of "Defender", Williams expanded their business by building a new facility and hired more employees. Before the expansion, Jarvis could work in isolation. But the influx of people created an environment he was unhappy with. He left Williams along with DeMar to found their own development company, Vid Kidz. The company served as a consulting firm to Williams and developed two games for them.

Remakes and sequels.

The success of "Defender" prompted Williams to approach Vid Kidz, who originally wanted to create a new game. DeMar, however, suggested creating an enhanced version of "Defender" to meet Williams' four-month deadline. Vid Kidz titled the game "Stargate", and developed it as a sequel to "Defender". It features new elements and improved the original's performance. Some home ports of "Stargate" were released under the title "Defender II" for trademark purposes.  Williams released a "Defender"-themed pinball machine in 1982. It has many elements from the original game: sound effects, enemies, waves, and weapons. Williams produced fewer than 400 units.  Midway's 1991 "Strike Force" is an arcade update to "Defender" in the same way that "Smash TV" is an update to "". Jarvis and DeMar assisted with the game, but it was not widely distributed.  Atari Corporation released "Defender 2000" in 1995 for the Atari Jaguar. It was written by Jeff Minter, who had previously updated "Tempest" as "Tempest 2000".  A 2002 remake, published simply as "Defender", uses 3D graphics and a third-person viewpoint. It was released for the Xbox, GameCube, and PlayStation 2.  In 1997 Tiger Electronics released a handheld edition of "Defender" with a grayscale LCD screen, which doubles as a keychain ornament. Emulated versions of "Defender" have been included in home compilations such as "Williams Arcade's Greatest Hits".

Influenced games and clones.

Home games that copied "Defender"s design include "Gorgon" (1981) and "Repton" (1983) for the Apple II, "Alien Defense" (1981) for the TRS 80 Model III, "Defender 64" (1983) and "Guardian" (1984) for the Commodore 64, "Invasion of the Body Snatchas!" (1983) for the ZX Spectrum, "Dropzone" (1984) for the Atari 8-bit family, and for the BBC Micro "Defender" (1982) was renamed to "Planetoid" (1984) to avoid litigation. It influenced Jeff Minter's "Andes Attack" for the VIC-20 home computer, and later his bigravitational Sheep in Space.  Other games built upon the core concept of protecting people or vehicles along the ground in a horizontally scrolling world, such as "Protector II" for the Atari 8-bit family, "Chopper Command" for the Atari 2600, and "Choplifter", all three of which were released in 1982.

Cultural references.

The game has been referenced in music: Lou Reed's song "Down At The Arcade" on his 1984 album "New Sensations", Manilla Road's song "Defender" on their 1982 album "Metal", Buckner & Garcia's song "The Defender" on their 1982 album "Pac-Man Fever", and the Beastie Boys' song "Body Movin'" on their 1998 album "Hello Nasty". Nerdcore rapper MC Chris mentions "Defender" in the chorus of his anthemic song "Never Give Up" from his 2008 album, "MC Chris is Dead". Other artists to have used sound effects from "Defender" include Aphex Twin (on "Mt Saint Michel + Saint Michaels Mount" and "Bucephalus Bouncing Ball"), and Limp Bizkit (used to censor swearing on the clean version of "My Generation"). The game was featured prominently in the music video for the Sheena Easton song "Almost Over You".  In 2004, Tim Waggoner authored a novel called "Hyperswarm" based on the video game.  The game is used as a running gag in the film "," where Groot is playing the game despite being told not to.  In the 2018 movie "Ready Player One", Nolan Sorrento tries to convince Parzival into joining IOI with "Do you want the ship from "Defender"?", mentioning its ability to jump into hyperspace.

Defender is an arcade video game developed and released by Williams Electronics in 1981. A horizontally scrolling shoot 'em up, the game is set on an unnamed planet where the player must defeat waves of invading aliens while protecting astronauts. Development was led by Eugene Jarvis, a pinball programmer at Williams; "Defender" was Jarvis' first video game project and drew inspiration from "Space Invaders" and "Asteroids".

是威廉姆斯电子开发,并于1981年2月发行的街机游戏。游戏为二维射击游戏,设定于虚构星球,玩家必须打败侵入的外星人并保护宇航员。开发由威廉姆斯弹球程序员尤金·贾维斯领导;《保卫者》是贾维斯的首个电子游戏项目,受到《太空侵略者》和《爆破彗星》的影响。威廉姆斯计划在娱乐及音乐运营商协会(AMOA)贸易展上展示游戏,但延期到展览开始时还在开发游戏。


Description.

Although many variations exist, a plasma lamp is usually a clear glass sphere filled with a mixture of various gases (most commonly neon, sometimes with other noble gases such as argon, xenon and krypton) at nearly atmospheric pressure. A crackle tube is a related device filled with phosphor-coated beads. Plasma lamps are driven by high-frequency (approximately ) alternating current at. The drive circuit is essentially a specialized power inverter, in which current from a lower-voltage DC supply powers a high-frequency electronic oscillator circuit whose output is stepped up by a high-frequency, high-voltage transformer. The radio-frequency energy from the transformer is transmitted into the gas within the globe through an electrode at its center. Additionally, some designs utilize the globe as a resonant cavity, which provides positive feedback to the drive transistor through the transformer. A much smaller hollow glass orb can also serve as an electrode when it is filled with metal wool or a conducting fluid that is in communication with the transformer output. In this case, the radio-frequency energy is admitted into the larger space by capacitive coupling right through the glass. Plasma filaments extend from the inner electrode to the outer glass insulator, giving the appearance of moving tendrils of colored light within the volume of the globe (see corona discharge and electric glow discharge). If a hand is placed close to the globe it produces a faint smell of ozone, as the gas is produced by high voltage interaction with atmospheric oxygen.  Some globes have a control knob that varies the amount of power going to the center electrode. At the very lowest setting that will light or "strike" the globe, a single tendril is made. This single tendril's plasma channel engages enough space to transmit this lowest striking energy to the outside world through the glass of the globe. As the power is increased, this single channel's capacity is overwhelmed and a second channel forms, then a third, and so on. The tendrils each compete for a footprint on the inner orb as well. The energies flowing through these are all of the same polarity so they repel each other as like charges: a thin dark boundary surrounds each footprint on the inner electrode.  Placing a finger tip on the glass creates an attractive spot for the energy to flow, because the conductive human body (having non-ohmic resistance of about 1000 ohms at room temperature) is more easily polarized than the dielectric material around the electrode (i.e. the gas within the globe) providing an alternative discharge path having less resistance. Therefore, the capacity of the large conducting body to accept radio frequency energy is greater than that of the surrounding air. The energy available to the filaments of plasma within the globe will preferentially flow toward the better acceptor. This flow also causes a single filament, from the inner ball to the point of contact, to become brighter and thinner. The filament is brighter because there is more current flowing through it and into the 150 pF capacity, or capacitance, presented by an object, a conducting body, the size of a human. The filament is thinner because the magnetic fields around it, augmented by the now-higher current flowing through it, causes a magnetohydrodynamic effect called self-focusing: the plasma channel's own magnetic fields create a force acting to compress the size of the plasma channel itself. Much of the movement of the filaments is due to heating of the gas around the filament. When gas along the filament is heated, it becomes more buoyant and rises, carrying the filament with it. If the filament is discharging into a fixed object (like a hand) on the side of the globe, it will begin to deform into a curved path between the central electrode and the object. When the distance between the electrode and the object becomes too great to maintain, the filament will break and a new filament will reform between the electrode and the hand. (See also Jacob's Ladder, which exhibits a similar behavior.)  An electric current is produced within any conductive object near the orb. The glass acts as a dielectric in a capacitor formed between the ionized gas and the hand.  The globe is prepared by pumping out as much air as is practical. The globe is then back-filled with neon to a pressure similar to one atmosphere. If the radio-frequency power is turned on, if the globe is "struck" or "lit", now, the whole globe will glow a diffuse red. If a little argon is added, the filaments will form. If a very small amount of xenon is added, the "flowers" will bloom at the ends of the filaments.  The neon available for purchase for a neon-sign shop often comes in glass flasks at the pressure of a partial vacuum. These cannot be used to fill a globe with a useful mixture. Tanks of gas, each with its specific, proper, pressure regulator and fitting, are required: one for each of the gases involved.  Of the other noble gases, radon is radioactive, helium escapes through the glass relatively quickly, and krypton is quite expensive. Other gases can be used, such as mercury vapor. Molecular gases may be dissociated by the plasma.

History.

In ("Incandescent Electric Light", 1894 February 6), Nikola Tesla describes a plasma lamp. This patent is for one of the first high-intensity discharge lamps. Tesla used an incandescent-type lamp globe with a single internal conductive element and excited the element with high voltage currents from a Tesla coil, thus creating the brush discharge emanation. He gained patent protection on a particular form of the lamp in which a light-giving small body or button of refractory material is supported by a conductor entering a very highly exhausted globe or receiver. Tesla called this invention the single terminal lamp, or, later, the "Inert Gas Discharge Tube".  The Groundstar style of plasma globe was created by James Falk and marketed to collectors and science museums in the 1970s and 1980s. Jerry Pournelle in 1984 praised Orb Corporation's Omnisphere as "the most fabulous object in the entire world" and "magnificent... a new kind of art object", stating "you can't buy mine for any price".  The technology needed to formulate gas mixtures used in today's plasma spheres was not available to Tesla. Modern lamps typically use combinations of xenon, krypton and neon, although other gases can be used as well. These gas mixtures, along with different glass shapes and integrated-circuit-driven electronics, create the vivid colors, range of motions and complex patterns seen in today's plasma spheres.

Applications.

Plasma globes are mainly used as curiosities or toys for their unique lighting effects and the "tricks" that can be performed on them by users moving their hands around them. They might also form part of a school's laboratory equipment for demonstration purposes. They are not usually employed for general lighting. However, as of recent years, some novelty stores have begun selling a miniature plasma lamp nightlight that can be mounted on a standard light socket.  Plasma globes can be used for experimenting with high voltages. If a conductive plate or wire coil is placed on the globe, capacitive coupling can transfer enough voltage to the plate or coil to produce a small arc or energize a high voltage load. This is possible because the plasma inside the globe and the conductor outside it act as plates of a capacitor, with the glass in between as a dielectric. A step-down transformer connected between the plate and the globe's electrode can produce lower-voltage, higher-current radio frequency output. Careful earth grounding is essential to prevent injury or damage to equipment.

Hazards.

Bringing conductive materials or electronic devices close to a plasma globe may cause the glass to become hot. The high voltage radio frequency energy coupled to them from within the globe may cause a mild electric shock to the person touching, even through a protective plastic casing. The radio frequency field produced by plasma lamps can interfere with the operation of touch-pads used on laptop computers, digital audio players, cell phones, and other similar devices. Some types of plasma globes can radiate sufficient radio frequency interference (RFI) to interfere with cordless telephones and Wi-Fi devices several feet or some meters away.  If an electrical conductor touches the outside of the globe, capacitive coupling can induce enough potential on it to produce a small arc. This is possible because the globe's glass acts as a capacitor dielectric: the inside of the lamp acts as one plate, and the conductive object on the outside acts as the opposite capacitor plate. This is a dangerous action which can damage the globe or other electronic devices, and presents a fire ignition hazard.

A plasma globe or plasma lamp (also called plasma ball, dome, sphere, tube or orb, depending on shape) is a clear glass container filled with a mixture of various noble gases with a high-voltage electrode in the center of the container.

等离子灯是一种装饰性的灯,在1980年代最为流行,商品名又名辉光球。等离子灯由物理学家尼古拉·特斯拉发明,他做了一个实验,在玻璃电子管通以高频率的电流,来研究高电压现象。特斯拉称之为惰性气体放电管。现代的等离子灯由比尔·帕克设计。


History.

The magazine began publication in 1985 in the UK under the name "For Him Magazine" and changed its title to FHM in May 1992, although the full "For Him Magazine" continued to be printed on the spine of each issue. The first women to appear on the cover was Gina Davies in February 1993. The trend towards female cover stars grew over the following year, with both Naomi Campbell and Andie Macdowell appearing.  Circulation expanded to newsagents as a quarterly by the spring of 1987 and then monthly in 1994. EMAP Consumer Media bought the magazine in 1994 and it subsequently went on to dominate the UK men's market and began to expand internationally, being published in 32 countries including Pakistan and India.  On 17 November 2015, British "FHM" announced their intention to suspend publication alongside that of fellow men's magazine "ZOO"; while the website would still be updated online.  In August 2016, under the guidance of BauerXcel Media, a property of Bauer Media Group, Nick Dimengo took over as the senior editor of FHM.com. FHM.com was subsequently shut down and redirected to Bauer's competition website, Win Something.

"FHM" 100 Sexiest Women in the World.

Each of "FHM"s international editions publish yearly rankings for the sexiest women alive based on public and editorial voting through the magazine's website. Dates of magazine issues, winners, ages of winners at the time of selection, and pertinent comments are listed below. The data below refer "only" to the British edition (the rankings for the international editions vary widely, with many top-ranking women in some editions not appearing at all in others).

FHM International.

"FHM" was published in the following territories.

FHM is a men's lifestyle magazine that is published in several international territories. Its master edition contained features such as the "FHM" 100 Sexiest Women in the World, which has featured models, TV presenters, reality stars and singers.

是英国的男性时尚生活杂志,是全英国最受欢迎的男性杂志之一,一向以性感的封面女郎及幽默的编辑内容著称,内容包括时尚、科技、生活、旅行、性、音乐、电玩及电影等,在近30个国家发行。


Anatomy of Masticatory System.

One cannot fully understand occlusion without an in depth understanding of the anatomy including that of the teeth, TMJ, musculature surrounding this and the skeletal components.  The Dentition and Surrounding Structures  The human dentition consists of 32 permanent teeth and these are distributed between the alveolar bone of the maxillary and mandibular arch. Teeth consist of two parts: the crown, which is visible in the mouth and lies above the gingival soft tissue and the roots, which are below the level of the gingiva and in the alveolar bone.  The periodontal ligament unites the cementum on the outside of the root and the alveolar bone. This bundle of connective tissue fibres is vital in dissipating forces that are applied to the underlying bone during the contact of teeth in function.  The teeth are highly specialised and different teeth are involved in specific functions. The masticatory system is largely influenced by these intra and inter-arch relationships and a wider understanding of the anatomy can greatly benefit those who want to understand occlusion.Skeletal Components  The maxilla forms a crucial aspect of the upper facial skeleton. Two irregularly shaped bones fuse at the intermaxillary suture during development forming the upper jaw. This forms the palate of the oral cavity and also supports the alveolar ridges that hold the upper teeth in place. The lower facial skeleton on the other hand, is formed of the mandible, a U shaped bone, which supports the lower teeth and also forms part of the TMJ. The mandibular condyle and the squamous portion of the temporal bone, at the base of the cranium articulate with one another.  TMJ  The TMJ is formed from the temporal bone of the cranium, specifically the glenoid fossa and articular tubercle and the condyle of the mandible, with a fibrocartilaginous disc lying in between. It is classified as a ginglymoarthrodial joint and can perform a range of gliding and hinge type movements. The disc, which lies in between is composed of dense fibrous tissue and is predominantly avascular and lacking nerves.  Muscles  There are various muscles that contribute to occlusion of the teeth including the muscles of mastication and other accessory muscles. The temporalis, masseter, medial and lateral pterygoids are the muscles of mastication and these contribute to the elevation, depression, protrusion and retraction of the mandible. The anterior and posterior belly of the digastric are also involved in the depression of the mandible and elevation of the hyoid bone and are therefore relevant to the masticatory system.  Ligaments  There are various ligaments associated with the TMJ and these limit and restrict border movements by acting as passive restraining devices. They do not contribute to joint function, rather exert a protective role. The key ligaments relevant to the TMJ are:

Development of occlusion.

As the primary (baby) teeth begin to erupt at 6 months of age, the maxillary and mandibular teeth aim to occlude with one another. The erupting teeth are moulded into position by the tongue, the cheeks and lips during development. Upper and lower primary teeth should be correctly occluding and aligned after 2 years whilst they are continuing to develop, with full root development complete at 3 years of age.  Around a year after development of the teeth is complete, the jaws continue to grow which results in spacing between some of the teeth (diastema). This effect is greatest in the anterior (front) teeth and can be seen from around age 4 – 5 years. This spacing is important as it allows space for the permanent (adult) teeth to erupt into the correct occlusion, and without this spacing there is likely to be crowding of the permanent dentition.  In order to fully understand the development of occlusion and malocclusion, it is important to understand the premolar dynamics in the mixed dentition stage. The mixed dentition stage is when both primary and permanent teeth are present. The permanent premolars erupt ~9–12 years of age, replacing the primary molars. The erupting premolars are smaller than the teeth they are replacing and this difference in space between the primary molars and their successors (1.5mm for maxillary, 2.5mm for mandibular), termed Leeway Space. This allows the permanent molars to drift mesially into the spaces and develop a Class I occlusion.

Incisor and molar classification.

Classification of occlusion and malocclusion plays an important role in diagnosis and treatment planning in orthodontics. In order to describe the relationship of the maxillary molars to the mandibular molars, the Angle’s classification of malocclusion has commonly been used for many years. This system has also been adapted in an attempt to classify the relationship between the incisors of the two arches.  Incisor Relationship  When describing the relationship between maxillary and mandibular incisors, the following categories make up Angle's incisal relationship classification:  Molar Relationship  When discussing the occlusion of the posterior teeth, the classification refers to the first molars and may be divided into three categories:  Any deviation from the normal relation of teeth (Class I) is considered a malocclusion.  Class I relationships are thought to be “ideal”, however this classification does not take into consideration the positions of the two TMJ’s. Class II and III molar and incisor relationships are thought to be forms of malocclusion, however not all of these are severe enough to require orthodontic treatment.The Index of Orthodontic Treatment Need (IOTN) is a system that attempts to rank malocclusions in terms of significance of various occlusal traits and perceived aesthetic impairment. The IOTN identifies those who would benefit most from orthodontic treatment and onward referral to an orthodontist.

Occlusal terminology.

Intercuspal Position (ICP), also known as Habitual Bite, Habitual Position or Bite of Convenience, is defined at the position where the maxillary and mandibular teeth fit together in maximum interdigitation. This position is usually the most easily recorded and is almost always the occlusion the patient closes into when they are asked to 'bite together'. This is the occlusion that the patient is accustomed to, hence sometimes termed the Habitual Bite.  Centric relation (CR) describes a reproducible jaw relationship (between the mandible and maxilla) and is independent of tooth contact. This is the position in which the mandibular condyles are located in the fossae in an antero-superior position against the posterior slope of the articular eminence. It is said that in CR, the muscles are in their most relaxed and least stressed state. This position is not influenced by muscle memory, but rather by the ligament which suspend the condyles within the fossa. Therefore it is the position that dentist’s use to create new occlusal relationships as for example, while making maxillary and mandibular complete dentures.  When the mandible is in this retruded position, it opens and closes on an arc of curvature around an imaginary axis drawn through the centre of the head of both condyles. This imaginary axis is termed the "terminal hinge axis". The first tooth contact that occurs when the mandible closes in the terminal hinge axis position, is termed Retruded Contact Position (RCP). RCP can be reproduced within 0.08mm of accuracy due to the non-elastic TMJ capsule and restriction by the capsular ligaments, thus it can be considered a ‘border movement’ in Posselt’s envelope.  Centric Occlusion (CO) is a confusing term, and is often incorrectly used synonymously with RCP. Both terms are used to define a position where the condyles are in CR, however RCP describes the initial tooth contact on closure, however this may be an interference contact. On the other hand, CO refers to the occlusion where the teeth are in maximum intercuspation in CR. Posselt (1952) determined that only in 10% of natural tooth and jaw relationships does ICP = CO (maximum intercuspation in CR) and so the term RCP is more appropriate when discussing the occlusion that occurs when the condyles are in their retruded position. CO is a term that is more relevant to complete denture application or where multiple fixed unit prosthodontics are provided, where the occlusion is arranged so that when the mandible is in CR, the teeth are interdigitating.

Posselt's Envelope of Border Movements.

Posselt’s Envelope of Border Movement (often referred to as the 'border movements of the mandible') is a schematic diagram of the maximum jaw movement in three planes (sagittal, horizontal and frontal). This encompasses all movements away from RCP, and includes:

Guidance, natural teeth and function.

Mandibular movements are guided by two different systems; the ‘posterior’ guidance system and the ‘anterior’ guidance system

Posterior guidance system.

Posterior guidance refers to TMJ articulations and associated structures. It is the condyles within the fossa and the associated muscles and ligaments together with its neuromuscular link that determines mandibular movements. Lateral, protrusive and repressive excursions of the mandible are guided by the posterior system.  "Lateral excursions"  It is important to define the movement of the condyles in lateral excursions:  - Working condyle: This is the condyle closest to the side which the mandible is moving (e.g. if the mandible moves laterally to the right, the right condyle is the working side condyle)  - Non-working condyle: This is the side to which the mandible is moving away from (e.g. if the mandible moves laterally to the right, the left condyle is the non-working side condyle)  "Protrusive movements"  "Retrusive movements"  We can not influence the posterior guidance system through dental restorative treatment.

Anterior guidance system.

Anterior guidance refers to the influence of contacting teeth on the paths of mandibular movements. The tooth contacts may be anterior, posterior tooth contacts or both - however termed anterior guidance as these contacts are still anterior to the TMJ. This can be further classified into:  "Canine Guidance"  "Group Function"  "Incisal Guidance"  In restorative treatment, it is possible to manipulate and design anterior guidance systems that is in harmony with the masticatory system.

Clinical relevance of guidance.

Tooth contact involved in guidance is particularly important as these occlude a vast number of times per day and so need to be able to resist both heavy and non-axial occlusal loads. When restoring the anterior guidance system should be compatible with the posterior guidance system. This means that excessive strain should not be applied on the posterior guidance system which is limited by the ligametous structures.  Upon restoration of the occlusal surfaces of teeth, it is likely to change the occlusion and therefore guidance systems. It is unlikely the TMJ will adapt to these changes in occlusion, but rather the teeth adapt to the new occlusion through tooth wear, tooth movement or fracture. For this reason, it is important to consider these guidance concepts when providing restorations. Guidance should also be considered before restorations as it should not be expected for a heavily restored tooth to provide guidance alone as this leaves the tooth vulnerable to fracture during function.

Organisation of the occlusion.

The arrangement of teeth in function is important and over the years three recognised concepts have been developed to describe how teeth should and should not contact:

Bilateral balanced occlusion.

This concept is based on the curve of Spee and curve of Wilson and is becoming outdated for the restored natural dentition. However, it still finds application in removable prosthodontics. This scheme involves contacts on as many teeth as possible (both on the working and non-working side) in all excursive movements of the mandible. This is especially important in the case of complete denture provision as contacting teeth on the NWS help stabilise the denture bases in mandibular movement. It was believed in the 1930's that this arrangement was ideal for the natural dentition when providing full occlusal reconstruction in order to distribute the stresses. However, it was found that the lateral forces placed on the restored posterior teeth produced damaging effects on the restorations.

Unilateral balanced occlusion.

On the other hand, unilateral balanced occlusion is a widely used tooth arrangement that is used in current dentistry and is commonly known as group function. This concept is based on the observation that NWS contacts were destructive and therefore the teeth on the NWS should be free of any ececntric contacts, and instead the contacts should be distributed on the WS thus sharing the occlusal load. Group function is used when canine guidance cannot be achieved and also in the Pankey-Mann Schuyler (PMS) approach where it was deemed better than canine guidance as it distributed the loading on the WS better.

Mutually protected occlusion.

"The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry" (2017) defines mutually protected occlusion as ‘an occlusal scheme in which the posterior teeth prevent excessive contact of the anterior teeth in maximal intercuspal position, and the anterior teeth disengage the posterior teeth in all mandibular excursive movements’  In eccentric movements, damaging forces are applied to the posterior teeth and the anteriors are best suited to receiving these. Therefore during protrusive movements, the contact or guidance of the anteriors should be adequate to disocclude and protect the posterior teeth.  In contrast, the posterior teeth are more suited to accept the forces that are applied during closure of the mandible. This is because the posteriors are positioned so the forces are applied directly along the long axis of the tooth and are able to dissipate them efficiently whereas the anteriors cannot accept these heavy forces as well due to their labial positioning and angulation. It is therefore accepted that the posterior teeth should have heavier contacts than the anteriors in ICP and act as a stop for vertical closure.  Additionally, in lateral excursions either canine or group function should act to disclude the posterior teeth on the WS because, as described above, the anterior teeth are best suited to dissipate damaging horizontal forces, as well as the contact being further away from the TMJ, so the forces created are decreased in strength. Group function or canine guidance should also provide disocclusion of the teeth on the NWS as the amount and direction of force applied to the TMJ and teeth can be destructive due to an increase in muscle activity. An absence of NWS contacts also allows smooth movement of the working side condyle as a contact may disengage the guidance of the condyle and therefore cause an unstable mandibular relationship.

Deflective contacts and interferences.

A deflective contact is a contact that diverts the mandible from its intended movement. An example of this is when the mandible is deflected into ICP by the RCP-ICP slide, which path is determined by the deflective tooth contacts. This is often involved in function (e.g. chewing), however in some cases these deflective contacts can be damaging and may lead to pain around the tooth (often associated with bruxism). However, some patients may be totally unaware of similar deflective contacts suggesting that it is the patient's adaptability rather than the contact that may influence the patient's presentation.  An occlusal interference is any tooth contact that prevents, or hinders harmonious mandibular movement (an undesirable tooth contact).  The occlusal interferences may be classified as follows:  When the dentist is providing restorations, it is important that these do not create an interference, otherwise the restoration will receive increased loading. As for deflective contacts, interferences may also be associated with parafunction such as bruxism (although evidence is weak) and may adversely affect the distribution of heavy occlusal forces. Interferences may also cause pain in the masticatory muscles due to altering their activity, however there is large controversy and debate as to whether there is a relationship between occlusion and temporomandibular disorders. Almost all dentate individuals have occlusal interferences, and therefore they are not seen to be an etiology of all TMDs. When there is an acute change or significant instability in the occlusal condition and subsequently represents an etiological factor for a TMD, occlusal treatment is required.  Occlusal adjustment (removal of occlusal interferences) may be carried out in order to obtain a stable occlusal relationship and is achieved by selectively grinding the occlusal interferences or through wear of a hard occlusal splint to ensure true retruded relationship is established.

'Ideal' occlusion.

When there is an absence of symptoms and the masticatory system is functioning efficiently, the occlusion is considered normal or physiological. It is understood that no such ‘ideal’ occlusion exists for everyone, but rather each individual has their own 'ideal occlusion'. This is not focused on any specific occlusal configuration but rather occurs when the person’s occlusion is in harmony with the rest of the stomatognathic system (TMJ, teeth and supporting structures, and the neuromuscular elements).  However, an optimal functional occlusion is important to consider when providing restorations as this helps to understand what is trying to be achieved. It is defined in established texts as:  1. Centric occlusion and centric relation being in harmony (CO=CR)  2. Freedom in CO  3. Immediate and lasting posterior disocclusion upon mandibular movement  4. Canine guidance is considered the best anterior guidance system  It is necessary to understand the concepts that influence the function and health of the masticatory system in order to prevent, minimise or eliminate any breakdown or trauma to the TMJs or teeth.

Patient adaptability.

There are various factors that play a role in the adaptive capability of a patient with regards to changes in occlusion. Factors such as the central nervous system and the mechanoreceptors in the periodontium, mucosa and dentition are all of importance here. It is in fact, the somatosensory input from these sources that determines whether an individual is able to adapt to changes in the occlusion, opposed to the occlusal scheme itself. Failure of adaptation to minor changes in the occlusion can occur, although rare. It is thought that patients who are increasingly vigilant to any changes in the oral environment are less likely to adapt to any occlusal changes. Psychological and emotional stress can also contribute to the patient's ability to adapt as these factors have an impact on the central nervous system.

Occlusal examination.

In individuals with unexplained pain, fracture, drifting, mobility and tooth wear, a full occlusal examination is vital. Similarly when complex restorative work is planned it is also essential to identify whether any occlusal changes are required prior to the provision of definitive restoration In some people even minor discrepancies in the occlusion can lead to symptoms involving the TMJ or acute orofacial pain so it is important to identify and eradicate this cause. Instruments Required  The examination should be carried out using a systematic approach whilst assessing the following:

Extra-oral examination.

1) Facial Appearance  The facial symmetry of the patient should be observed.  The skeletal relationship of the patient should then be identified and noted.  The facial height of the patient should be considered and it should be noted where there may have been a loss.  2) Muscles  Begin by simply palpating the muscles concerned with the occlusion of the teeth. These muscles include the muscles of mastication and other muscles within the head and neck area, such as the supra-hyoid muscles. It is best to palpate the muscles simultaneously and bilaterally. The temporalis, masseter, medial and lateral pterygoids, geniohyoid, mylohyoid and digastric muscles alongside the trapezius, posterior cervical muscles, occipitalis muscle and the sternocleidomastoid should all be checked for any signs of wasting or tenderness. Temporomandibular dysfunction commonly presents with muscular tenderness, but pain or palpable soreness associated with the muscles can also be linked to parafunctional activity.  3) TMJ  TMJ disorders can be detected through occlusal examination. Ask the patient to open and close whilst placing two fingers over the space of the TMJ. Opening of less than 35mm in the mandible is considered to be restricted and such restriction may be associated with intra-capsular changes within the joint. Following this, ask the patient to move their jaw to the right and following this, to the left. Note any clicking, crepitus, pain or deviation.

Intra-oral examination.

4) Maxillary / Mandibular Arch  Assess each arch and identify whether there are any signs of occlusal disharmony, overloading, tooth migration, wear, craze lines, cracking or mobility (not due to periodontal causes). Abfraction, faceting and possible vertical enamel fracture lesions should also be noted if present.  5) Contacts in ICP  Begin by assessing the incisor and molar relationship as described above. Similarly examine the overbite and overjet. An overbite of 3-5mm and an overjet of 2-3mms are considered to be within the range of normal.  To look at the ICP, articulating paper should be placed on the occlusal surface and the patient asked to bite together, which will mark their occlusal contacts. It is best to check these whilst the teeth are dry.  6) RCP  The patient may be guided into CR using one of the follow methods;  In some patients it may be difficult to guide the mandible into CR, for example in those with muscle tension, muscle splinting, occlusal disharmony or parafunctional habit. For these patients a Lucia Jig or deprogramming appliance can be constructed at chair-side.  Mark RCP tooth contacts using articulating paper, note the teeth which are contacting and identify whether this RCP position is causing problems related to the occlusion. For example if there is a heavy contact or interference in RCP this may be the cause of occlusal disturbance. It is important to be able to guide the patient into RCP, as a registration may need to be taken in this position particularly if the occlusion is being reorganised, the OVD is being changed or even just for diagnostic and treatment planning purposes.  7) RCP-ICP Slide  The patient should be supine and relaxed. They should be placed into RCP by the operator and then asked to bite together “normally”, this is moving them from RCP into their position of maximum intercuspation (ICP). Ask the patient to feel the slide and identify whether this is small or large. The slide should be smooth and the direction should be recorded. The operator should evaluate from both the side of the patient and the front of the patient, how far the mandible travels both forward and laterally (however this is difficult and it may be easier to observe by mounting casts onto an articulator). This can be done by observing the maxillary and mandibular incisors during the slide. The RCP-ICP slide for most dentate patients tends to be roughly 1–2 mm in an anterior and upward direction. A deflective RCP-ICP slide, can have some relation to an anterior thrust. An anterior thrust, which is likely to be associated with the anterior teeth or other teeth involved in guidance such as canine teeth, often causes the teeth to exhibit fremitus.  8) Protrusive Movements  The patient is asked to move their mandible forward from ICP. This is commonly around a distance of 8-10mm and would normally be until the lower incisors slide anterior to the incisal edges of the maxillary anteriors. Observe the contacts during this movement. Mark the contacts using coloured articulating paper alongside the ICP contacts, which should be in a different colour - any teeth providing guidance and any interferences should be noted.  9) Lateral Excursions  The patient is also asked to move their lower jaw to one side. Lateral movements should be measured and measurements of 12mm are thought to be normal. Both working side and non-working side should be observed during this movement. Record any teeth that are providing guidance during this movement and any interferences that are present (and the location of these). Smooth and unbroken contacts should be identified when these excursive movements are recorded  10) OVD  If occlusal wear can be seen, a Willis gauge is used to measure the occlusal-vertical dimension and the resting vertical dimension of an individual.  Take a measurement by placing two reference points on the patients face, one under the nose (usually the columella) and one under the chin. Take one measurement whilst the patient is resting (teeth should not be contacting) and one with the patient biting together i.e. in ICP and take this measurement away from the resting measurement to give the freeway space. The normal freeway space is usually 2-4mm.  Patients with considerable tooth wear may have lost occlusal vertical dimension (OVD). When restoring the dentition, it is important to be aware of the exact OVD the patient has and by how much you may be increasing this. Patient’s may not be able to adapt to a large increase in OVD and therefore this may have to be done in phases.

Clinical applications of occlusion.

Occlusion is a fundamental concept in dentistry yet it commonly overlooked as it perceived as being not important or too difficult to teach and understand. Clinicians should have a sound understanding of the principles regarding occlusal harmony in order to be able to recognise and treat common problems associated with occlusal disharmony. Some of the advantages associated with a working knowledge of these include:

Simple occlusal adjustment.

Involves simply grinding down involved cusps or restorations and may be indicated after careful examination when:

Complex occlusal adjustment or reorganisation.

May be required in more severe circumstances and some examples of these include:  Achieving a satisfactory occlusal reorganisation involves choosing a desired jaw relationship (either conforming to existing ICP or producing a new ICP coincident with CR), deciding on the intercuspal contacts (removing deflective contacts and adjusting shapes/inclines of teeth), adjusting excursive contacts (removing interferences) and aiming for a mutually protected occlusion. This is an extremely complex process and entails a clinical occlusal examination as described above, along with detailed examination of mounted study casts and diagnostic wax-ups.

Mounted study casts.

It is common practice to mount mandibular and maxillary casts (impressions are made of the teeth and poured in dental stone) in an articulator in ICP when constructing restorations that conform to the patient's existing occlusion. Casts mounted on an articulator in ICP are useful for diagnostic purposes or simple restorations, but where more extensive treatment is planned it is necessary to consider occlusal contacts relative to CR e.g. RCP -> ICP slide. Other situations a CR registration may be more appropriate than ICP include where there are plans to reorganise or adjust the existing occlusion (including changes to the occlusal vertical dimension). In these circumstances, in order to accurately stimulate mandibular movement around CR (particularly opening and closing of the mouth), using a facebow transfer, the maxillary cast should be mounted in a semi-adjustable articulator and then the mandibular cast should be mounted using a CR registration. The patients new occlusion is then arranged so that the new ICP occurs when patient is in CR.

Diagnostic wax-ups.

Wax-ups are indicated where changes to the occlusion or aesthetics are planned. Diagnostic wax-ups are when changes are made to the shapes of the teeth by methodically adding wax to the articulated stone casts representing the patient's teeth. This can be done in order to demonstrate to the patient what the planned restorations will look like, but can also be invaluable when simulating different occlusal schemes, studying the functional occlusion as well as providing temporary coverage whilst the restoration is being constructed by the lab through use of a matrix. Once an established plan has been constructed using the wax-ups, these can be used as a tool to guide the desired outcome in the mouth and provide a useful communication tool with both the dental laboratory and the patient.

Occlusion, in a dental context, means simply the contact between teeth. More technically, it is the relationship between the maxillary (upper) and mandibular (lower) teeth when they approach each other, as occurs during chewing or at rest.

咬合,又称(Occlusion),是牙科术语,即是牙齿对应;通常是指上颌骨与下颌骨的牙齿对应,当咀嚼或休息时两者的接触时间。<unk>字由四川大学华西口腔医学院第二任院长邹海帆在1920年代、1930年代创造。如果有咬合不良的情况,则会对牙齿及肌肉等造成问题。


Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia)

亚历山德拉·费奥多罗芙娜皇后 (尼古拉一世)

Princess of Prussia.

Empress Alexandra Feodorovna was born as Princess Friederike Luise Charlotte Wilhelmine of Prussia, at the Charlottenburg Palace in Berlin on.She was the eldest surviving daughter and fourth child of Frederick William III, King of Prussia, and Duchess Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and a sister of Frederick William IV and of William I, German Emperor. She was known as Charlotte, a name popular in the Prussian royal family, and nicknamed Lottchen by her family.  The princess's childhood was marked by the Napoleonic Wars and she was raised under difficult financial conditions. Her father was a kind, religious man but a weak and indecisive ruler who, following military defeats in 1806, lost half of his kingdom. Charlotte's mother, admired for her beauty, intellect, and charm, was considered more decisive than her husband. When the Prussians were defeated at the battle of Jena, Louise fled to Königsberg, taking her children with her, Charlotte then being eight years old. In East Prussia, they were given protection by Tsar Alexander I. "My daughter Charlotte is reserved and concentrated, but like her father, her seemingly cold appearance conceals the beating of her hot compassionate heart", wrote Queen Louise about her daughter. On 27 October 1806, Berlin fell under Napoleon’s control and Charlotte grew up in war-torn Memel, Prussia. In December 1809, Queen Louise finally returned to Berlin with her children, but after a few months, became ill and died of typhus at the age of 34, shortly after Charlotte’s twelfth birthday. As the eldest daughter, Charlotte was now the most senior lady at the court and had to undertake her mother’s duties. For the rest of her life, Charlotte treasured her mother’s memory.

Marriage.

In February 1814, Grand Duke Nicholas Pavlovich, future Tsar of Russia, and his brother Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich, visited Berlin. Arrangements were made between the two dynasties for Nicholas to marry Charlotte, then fifteen years old, to strengthen the alliance between Russia and Prussia. Nicholas was only second in line to the throne, as the heir was his brother Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich who, like Tsar Alexander I, was childless. On a second visit the following year, Nicholas fell in love with the then-seventeen-year-old Princess Charlotte. Nicholas was tall and handsome with classical features. The feeling was mutual, "I like him and am sure of being happy with him." She wrote to her brother, "What we have in common is our inner life; let the world do as it pleases, in our hearts we have a world of our own." Hand-in-hand, they wandered over the Potsdam countryside, and attended the Berlin Court Opera. By the end of his visit, in October 1816, Nicholas and Charlotte were engaged. They were third cousins as great-great-grandchildren of Frederick William I of Prussia.  On 9 June 1817 Princess Charlotte came to Russia with her brother William. After arriving in St. Petersburg she converted to Russian Orthodoxy, and took the Russian name "Alexandra Feodorovna". On her nineteenth birthday,, she and Nicholas were married in the Grand Church of the Winter Palace. "I felt myself very, very happy when our hands joined," she would later write about her wedding. "With complete confidence and trust, I gave my life into the hands of my Nicholas, and he never once betrayed it."

Grand Duchess.

At first, Alexandra Feodorovna had problems adapting to the Russian court, the change of religion affected her and she was overwhelmed by her new surroundings. She gained the favor of her mother-in-law, Maria Feodorovna, but did not get along well with the Empress Elizabeth Alexeievna, consort of her brother-in-law. "I was very weak, very pale and (they claimed) very interesting-looking", she recalled later.  Pregnant with her first child, Alexandra traveled to Moscow where, on, she gave birth to her first son, the future Tsar Alexander II. The next year, in Krasnoye Selo, she had a daughter, Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna. That summer, Tsar Alexander I announced privately to Nicholas and Alexandra his intention of eventually abdicating during his lifetime and that Nicholas would succeed him since their brother Constantine intended to marry morganatically. In 1820 Alexandra delivered a stillborn daughter, which brought on a deep depression. Her doctors advised a holiday, and in the autumn of 1820 Nicholas took her to see her family in Berlin, where they remained until the summer of 1821, returning again in the summer of 1824. They did not come back to St. Petersburg until March 1825 when Tsar Alexander I required their presence in Russia.  Alexandra Feodorovna spent her first years in Russia trying to learn the language and customs of her adopted country under the tutelage of the poet Vasily Zhukovsky, whom she characterized as being "too much of a poet to be a good tutor". The Imperial family spoke German and wrote their letters in French, which was widely spoken at the Russian court, and as a consequence, Alexandra never completely mastered the Russian language.  Alexandra Feodorovna wrote in her memoirs of her first years in Russia, "We both were truly happy only when we found ourselves alone in our apartments, with me sitting on his knees while he was loving and tender". Nicholas nicknamed his wife "Mouffy". For eight years, during the reign of Tsar Alexander I, the couple lived quietly. Tsar Alexander I had no surviving children and his heir, Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich, renounced his succession rights in 1822, making Nicholas heir to the throne.  In 1825 the Tsar gave Alexandra the Peterhof Palace, where she and Nicholas lived. It would remain her favorite summer residence.

Personality.

Alexandra was tall, thin, had a small head, and a pronounced brow. She had an air of regal majesty. Her quick, light walk was graceful. She was frail, often in poor health. Her voice was hoarse, but she spoke rapidly and with decision.  Alexandra Feodorovna was an avid reader and enjoyed music. Her favorite Russian writer was Lermontov. She was kind and liked privacy and simplicity. She dressed elegantly, with a decided preference for light colors, and collected beautiful jewels. Alexandra loved dancing and was particularly skillful at the mazurka enjoying court balls until dawn. Neither arrogant nor frivolous, Alexandra was not without intelligence and had an excellent memory; her reading was quite extensive; her judgment of men sure, slightly ironical. However, she took no active interest in politics and fulfilled the role of being an empress consort, rather than being active in the public sphere. She loved her family very dearly, and even developed facial tics whilst fearing the Decembrist Uprising and its plans to kill her family. The facial tics were a trait that ran in the royal German-Russian-British family in many branches.

Empress of Russia.

Alexandra Feodorovna became Empress consort upon her husband's accession as Tsar Nicholas I in December 1825 during a turbulent period marked by the bloody repression of the Decembrist revolt. She and her husband were consecrated and crowned at the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin on 3 September 1826.  By 1832 Nicholas and Alexandra had seven children whom they raised with care. In 1837, when much of the Winter Palace was destroyed by fire, Nicholas reportedly told an aide-de-camp, "Let everything else burn up, only just save for me the small case of letters in my study which my wife wrote to me when she was my betrothed."  After more than twenty-five years of fidelity Nicholas took a mistress, Barbara Nelidova, one of Alexandra's ladies-in-waiting; the doctors had forbidden the Empress from sexual activity due to her poor health and recurring heart-attacks. Nicholas continued to seek refuge from the cares of state in Alexandra's company. "Happiness, joy, and repose - that is what I seek and find in my old Mouffy." he once wrote.  In 1845, Nicholas wept when court doctors urged the Empress to visit Palermo for several months due to poor health. "Leave me my wife", he begged her physicians, and when he learned that she had no choice, he made plans to join her briefly. Nelidova went with them, and though Alexandra was jealous in the beginning, she soon came to accept the affair, and remained on good terms with her husband's mistress.  Alexandra Feodorovna was always frail and in poor health. At forty, she looked far older than her years, becoming increasingly thin. For a long time, she suffered from a nervous twitching that became a convulsive shaking of her head.  In 1837 the Empress chose a resort in the Crimea for a new residence. There, Nicholas ordered that the Palace of Oreanda be built for her. She was only able to visit the palace once however; the Crimean War began in 1852. Towards the end of 1854, Alexandra Feodorovna fell ill, and came close to death, though she managed to recover. In 1855 Tsar Nicholas I contracted influenza, and he died on 6/18 February.

Dowager Empress.

Alexandra Feodorovna survived her husband by five years. She retired to the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, and remained on good terms with her late husband's mistress Barbara Nelidova, whom she appointed as her personal reader.  The Dowager Empress's health became more and more fragile with the years. Unable to spend the harsh winters in Russia, she was forced to make long sojourns abroad in Switzerland, Nice and Rome. She wrote in September 1859 "I am homesick for my country and I reproached myself for costing so much money at a time when Russia has need of every ruble. But I cough and my sick lungs cannot go without a southern climate".  After returning from a trip abroad in July 1860 she did not cease to be ill. In the autumn of 1860, her doctors told her that she would not live through the winter if she did not travel once more to the south. Knowing the danger, she preferred to stay in St. Petersburg so that she might die on Russian soil. The night before her death, she was heard to say, "Niki, I am coming to you." She died in her sleep at the age of sixty-two on 1 November 1860 at the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo.

Alexandra Feodorovna (), born Princess Charlotte of Prussia (13 July 1798 – 1 November 1860), was Empress of Russia as the wife of Emperor Nicholas I ().

亚历山德拉·费奥多罗芙娜·罗曼诺娃皇后(',1798年-7月13日-1860年-11月1日),原名腓特烈卡·路易丝·夏洛特·威廉明娜('),是普鲁士王国霍亨索伦王朝的公主,普鲁士国王腓特烈·威廉三世与王后梅克伦堡-施特雷利茨的路易丝的长女,后来成为俄罗斯帝国罗曼诺夫皇朝的皇后,俄罗斯皇帝尼古拉一世之妻、亚历山大二世之母。