History.

The Diocese of Saint-Dié originated in the celebrated abbey of that name. Saint Deodatus (Dié) (b. towards the close of the sixth century; died 679) came, according his legendary written in 1050 by benedictin monks of Moyenmoutier, from Nevers and the Nivernais.  According to some historians, we do not known where Deodatus comes from : a hypothesis proposed from Ireland which explained the Latin reading confusion between "Niverniensis" and "hiberniensis", others searchers think he could be a Christian who has travelled a lot, and may be lived in the North of Britain's Islands. He may be educated too in Austrasia by Scottish monks attracted by the reputation of Saint Columbanus.  Some sceptical scientists add this legend would definitely distinguish Déodat as a holy itinerant who was not a benedictin monk : he comes from nowhere. Maybe he was just a Christian chief. Only one fact is sure : Déodat is the founder and first patron of a Merovingian district with political and religious power, a ban decided by the king of Austrasia Childeric II. And, after his dead, he was considered and consacred by local populations as a holy man. As, for orthodoxic thinkers of these times, only monk could be perfect, Déodat was becoming gradually a monk.  Legendary versions show this holy man, in old French "Bonhomme" on little mountainous paths between Rambervillers and Colmar. They tell us he made the acquaintance of Saints Arbogast and Florentius and walked with through the passes. From Alsace, sometimes from the Heilige Wald, German term for Hollywood, near Haguenau, he withdrew to the Vosges, sojourning at Romont where he began a lot of miracles, and Arentelle, where the inhabitants were hostile. For some time he was a solitary at Wilra or Wibra, maybee near the present Katzenthal in Alsace, but being persecuted by the inhabitants, he walked with a big stick who planted in soil created always a spring of water. Above the pass of Bonhomme, on the top of Rossberg, he launched an ironed arm until a locus called Petit-Saint-Dié under the Kemberg, a mountain, precisely under rocks Saint-Martin. Springs of flowed on this left side of the Meurthe, and he founded a refuge under rocks and near above springs. Once he received this lands in 669 he decided to work. His first monastery hardly built with new brothership, he was tied and dreamed to build a monastery in a little hill "Juncturae" in the right side of the river, the future Galilée. Longtime a prairie, then a little town, and now the center of Saint-Dié-des-Vosges stand between this two places.  Before this time, Leudin Bodo, Bishop of Toul, had founded to the north-west of Saint-Dié the monastery of Bonmoutier for his daughter and to the south of Bonmoutier that of Etival; Saint Gondelbert, perhaps after resigning the Archbishopric of Sens, had just founded Senones Abbey to the east. These four monasteries formed, by their geographical position the four extremities of a cross. Later, Saint Hidulphus, Bishop of Trier (d 707), erected between them at the intersection of the two arms of the cross, the monastery of Moyenmoutier. Villigod and Martin (disciples of Saint Dié), Abbot Spinulus (Spin), John the priest, and the deacon Benignus (disciples of Saint Hidulphus) are honoured as saints.  In the 10th century the Abbey of Saint-Dié grew lax, and Frederick I, Duke of Lorraine, expelled the Benedictines, replacing them by the Canons Regular of St. Augustine. Pope Gregory V, in 996, agreed to the change and decided that the "grand prévôt", the principal dignitary of the abbey, should depend directly upon the Holy See.  During the sixteenth century, profiting by the long vacancy of the see of Toul, the abbots of the several monasteries in the Vosges, without actually declaring themselves independent of the diocese of Toul, claimed to exercise a quasi-episcopal jurisdiction as to the origin of which, however, they were not agreed; in the eighteenth century they pretended to be nullius dioceseos. In 1718, Thiard de Bissy, Bishop of Toul, requested the election of a see at Saint-Dié. Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, was in favour of this step, but the King of France opposed it; the Holy See refrained for the time from action.  This diocese was erected in 1777 after the French annexation of the duchy of Lorraine. The territory consists of numerous monastic Vosgian territories and other lands, belonging to the venerable Diocese of Toul: the new Diocese of Saint-Dié was until the end of the Ancien Régime, was a suffragan of Trier.  The diocese was transformed by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790 and officially called of Vosges and especially of Epinal: it had indeed been established in the new departemantal area. Nevertheless, it was sometimes referred to at that period as the diocese of Saint-Dié, because the bishop Monsieur de Chaumont decided to stay and keep his episcopal seat. During the Revolutionary period it was suppressed, after an overnight flight by the bishop.  The Holy See and the French Republic, represented by Napoléon Bonaparte, validated this "state of fact" as many others in the peaceful Concordat of 1801. It was decided to give this territory to the diocese of Nancy. The King Louis XVIII and Roman Catholic ecclesiastics later restored it in name by the Concordat of 1817, but local Christians waited much later, after a Papal bull of 6 October 1822, and a royal ordinance of 13 January 1823, as a suffragan of Besançon. According to a principle sanctioned by this last Concordat, the diocesan boundaries were realigned, however, to follow those of the civil department of the Vosges.  The Franco-German War closed by the Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) removed eighteen communes in the valley of the River Bruche from the department of the Vosges and the diocese of Saint-Dié, adding them respectively to Nieder-Elsass (Bas-Rhin) and the Diocese of Strasbourg. Louis Caverot, who died as Cardinal Archbishop of Lyon, was Bishop of Saint-Dié from 1849 to 1876.

Saints and religious of the diocese.

Besides the saints mentioned above and some others, bishops of Nancy and Toul, the, following are honoured in a special manner in the Diocese of Saint-Dié:  Elizabeth de Ranfaing (born at Remiremont, 1592; died 1649) founded in the Diocese of Toul the congregation of Our Lady of Refuge; Catherine de Bar (b. at Saint-Dié, 1614; d. 1698), known as Mére Mechtilde of the Blessed Sacrament, at first an Annunciade nun and then a Benedictine, founded at Paris, in 1654, the Order of the Benedictines of the Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament. Elizabeth Brem (1609–68, known as Mother Benedict of the Passion), a Benedictine nun at Rambervillers, established in that monastery the Institute of the Perpetual Adoration. The remains of Brother Joseph Formet (1724–84, known as the hermit of Ventron), are the object of a pilgrimage. Venerable Jean Martin Moye (1730–93), founder in Lorraine of the Congrégation de la Providence for the instruction of young girls and apostle of Su-Tchuen, was director for a brief period of the seminary of Saint-Dié, and established at Essegney, in the diocese, one of the first novitiates of the Soeurs de la Providence (hospitallers and teachers), whose mother-house at Portieux ruled over a large number of houses before the Law of 1901. Grandclaude, a village teacher who was sent to the Roman College in 1857 by Bishop Caverot, contributed, when a professor in the grand seminaire of Saint-Dié, to the revival of canon law studies in France.

Pilgrimages of the diocese.

The principal pilgrimages of the diocese are: Notre-Dame de Saint-Dié, at Saint-Dié, at the place where Saint Dié erected his first sanctuary; Notre-Dame du Trésor, at Remiremont; Notre-Dame de Consolation, at Epinal; Notre-Dame de la Brosse, at Bains; Notre-Dame de Bermont, near Domrémy, the sanctuary at which Joan of Arc prayed; and the tomb of Saint Peter Fourier at Mattaincourt.

Religious institutions in the diocese up to 1905.

There were in the diocese before the application of the Law of 1901 against the congregations: Augustianian Canons of Lateran; Clerks Regular of Our Saviour; Eudistes; Franciscans, Fathers of the Holy Ghost and the Holy Heart of Mary and various teaching orders of brothers. Among the congregations of nuns founded in the diocese may be mentioned besides the Soeurs de la Providence, the Soeurs du Pauvre Enfant Jésus (also known as the Soeurs de la bienfaisance chrétienne), teachers and hospitallers, founded in 1854 at Chemoy l'Orgueilleux; the mother-house was transferred to Remiremont.  At the close of the nineteenth century the religious congregations in the diocese directed 7 créchés, 55 day nurseries, 1 orphanage for boys and girls; 19 girls' orphanages, 13 workshops, 1 house of refuge; 4 houses for the assistance of the poor, 36 hospitals or hospices, 11 houses of nuns devoted to the care of the sick in their own homes and 1 insane asylum. The diocese of Saint-Dié had in 1905 (at the time of the rupture of the Concordat), 421,104 inhabitants in 32 parishes, 354 succursal parishes and 49 vicariates supported by the State.

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint-Dié (; is a diocese of the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church in France. The diocese has the same boundaries as the department of the Vosges. The bishop has his throne at Saint-Dié Cathedral in the town now named Saint-Dié-des-Vosges, but since 1944 has lived in Épinal, capital of the département. The diocese is currently a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Besançon. The current bishop is Jean-Paul Marie Mathieu, who was appointed in December 2005.

天主教圣迪耶教区(、)是法国一个罗马天主教教区,属贝桑松总教区。


Early career.

Jeremy Wariner attended Lamar High School in Arlington, Texas, participating in multiple sports and being recognized for his outstanding speed. Under the coaching of Mike Nelson, who also coached 110 meters hurdler Reggie Harrell at Lamar High School, he was the 2002 Texas 5A state sprint champion at both 200 meters and 400 meters, setting high school bests of 20.41 seconds (wind assisted) and 45.57 seconds, respectively. Enrolling at Baylor University, he quickly established himself as a collegiate sprint talent under the guidance of Clyde Hart, who was also coach of Baylor alumnus and four-time Olympic 400 m gold medal winner and two-time world champion Michael Johnson. Somewhat hampered by injuries late in his freshman year, Wariner regained form as a sophomore, winning both the 2004 NCAA Division I indoor and outdoor 400 metres titles. Later that year, he claimed the national 400 m title at the USATF Championships making him the favorite for the gold medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens.  Wariner then made his first appearance on the world athletic stage at the 2004 Summer Olympics. He won two Olympic gold medals, the first in the 400 m in a personal best 44.00 seconds and the second as the third leg of the U.S. 4 × 400 m relay team. Following his Olympic successes, he turned professional, forgoing the rest of his collegiate eligibility, though he remained at his parents' house and continued to be coached by Clyde Hart.

Professional career.

The next year, Wariner won the 400 m at the 2005 USATF championship with a time of 44.20 s. At the Helsinki World Championships on a cold and rainy day he won the 400 m in 43.93 seconds. He would then anchor the American team in the 4 × 400 m relay for the gold medal.  Early in 2006, Wariner competed in the 200 m lowering his personal best to 20.19 s. Later that year he would set a new personal best of 43.62 seconds at 400 m at the Golden Gala Meet in Rome. Together with Asafa Powell (100 m) and Sanya Richards (women's 400 m) he won his sixth out of six Golden League events (400 m) in the same season, which earned him a total of $250,000.  In 2007 he filled a summer with dominating 400 m performances culminating with the Osaka World Championships where on August 31, 2007 he would win the 400 m in 43.45 s thereby improving his personal best to become the then-third-fastest of all time (only Michael Johnson and Butch Reynolds had run faster).

Rivalry with Merritt.

In 2008, Wariner left long-time coach Clyde Hart in favor of working with Baylor assistant coach Michael Ford. This was an unexpected move as Wariner had much success under Hart, who had also coached his agent Michael Johnson. Wariner stated that he needed a change as Hart was nearing retirement, although the coach said that the split was due to a pay dispute. By the time of the 2008 USATF championship Wariner and Johnson had to face many probing questions regarding the reasons for such a change in an Olympic year. He finished second to LaShawn Merritt in the 400 m final of the USATF championship and secured his place on the U.S. Olympic team in the 400 m event and the 4×400 m relay team.  In the 2008 Olympics, Wariner qualified for the final with a time of 44.12 s, in a run which he slowed down considerably in the final fifty meters. This led to much anticipation that he could beat Michael Johnson's world record in the final, but instead he took the silver, losing to LaShawn Merritt by nearly a second. David Neville came in third completing a United States sweep of the 400 m.  Following his disappointment with the silver medal at the Olympics, Wariner admitted he had made a mistake in sacking Hart. He apologized to the emeritus coach after Johnson advised him that his new workout programme with Ford was lacking in some areas and took him back on as coach. The emergence of Merritt had left Wariner as the second-best athlete for the first time in his professional career.  In the 2009 World Championships, Wariner won the silver medal in the 400 m, again finishing behind LaShawn Merritt, and the gold medal in the 4 × 400 m relay.

2012 London Olympics.

Wariner was named to his third Olympic team as part of the Team USA 4 × 400 m relay squad. The two-time Olympic medalist in the 400m had failed to make the individual 400m event after starting poorly and finishing sixth in 45.24 seconds in the US Olympic Trials in Eugene, Oregon on June 24, 2012. At the Olympics, Wariner pulled out of the race due to a torn hamstring.

2013 comeback.

In March 2013, Wariner returned to victory by becoming the National Champion at 400 m at the USA Indoor Track & Field Championships. However at the 2013 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships, Wariner was unable to get out of the qualifying round, finishing dead last in his qualifying heat and the field. He ran 44.96 at the 2016 Mt. SAC Relays to qualify for the 2016 United States Olympic Trials. At the time it was the #2 time in the world behind only Martyn Rooney's 44.92 set a few minutes earlier on the same track. But at the trials, he pulled up 250 meters into the semifinal race.  He was Inducted into the Texas Track and Field Coaches Hall of Fame, Class of 2016.

Personal life.

Wariner married attorney Sarah Nichols (now Wariner) in 2011. Together, the couple raise three children: Isabella, Lincoln, and Elijah. Outside of their personal careers, the Wariners own a Jimmy John's franchise in Dallas, Texas, where Jeremy also serves as general manager.  In the summer of 2018, Wariner was a "flex" player for Godspeed, a flag football team made mostly of former professional American football players that participated in the American Flag Football League (AFFL). The team were crowned the champions of participating pro teams but lost in the final match to the amateur champion team.

Jeremy Matthew Wariner (born January 31, 1984) is a retired American track athlete specializing in the 400 meters. He has won four Olympic medals (three gold, one silver) and six World Championships medals. He is the fourth fastest competitor in the history of the 400 m event with a personal best of 43.45 seconds, behind Wayde van Niekerk (43.03 WR, 2016), Michael Johnson (43.18 WR, 1999) and Butch Reynolds (43.29 WR 1988) and the fifth fastest all-time mark when set in 2007.

杰里米·马修·瓦里纳(英语:Jeremy Mathew Wariner,1984年-1月31日),生于得克萨斯州欧文,美国田径运动员,专攻400米项目。他已夺得了四面奥运奖牌(三金一银)以及四面世界锦标赛奖牌。瓦里纳400米项目个人最佳纪录是43.45秒。


Overview.

It is one of Martha Nussbaum's ten principle capabilities (see capabilities approach). She defines bodily integrity as: "Being able to move freely from place to place; being able to be secure against violent assault, including sexual assault... having opportunities for sexual satisfaction and for choice in matters of reproduction".

Government and law.

Ireland.

In the Republic of Ireland, bodily integrity has been recognised by the courts as an unenumerated right, protected by the general guarantee of "personal rights" contained within Article 40 of the Irish constitution. In "Ryan v Attorney General" it was pronounced that "you have the right not to have your body or personhood interfered with. This means that the State may not do anything to harm your life or health. If you are in custody, you have a right not to have your health endangered while in prison".  In a separate case "M (Immigration - Rights of Unborn) -v- Minister for Justice and Equality & ors," the Irish Supreme Court ruled that the right to bodily integrity extended to the unborn. In a summary of the case in section 5.19, the Supreme Court stated:“...the only right of the unborn child as the Constitution now stands which attracts the entitlement to protection and vindication is that enshrined by the amendments in Article 40.3.3 namely, the right to life or, in other words, the right to be born and, possibly, (and this is a matter for future decision) allied rights such as the right to bodily integrity which are inherent in and inseparable from the right to life itself”.

United States.

The United States Constitution does not contain any specific provisions regarding the rights one has with respect to his or her physical body or the specific extent to which the state can act upon bodies. However, the U.S. Supreme Court has upheld right to privacy, which, as articulated by Julie Lane, often protects rights to bodily integrity. In "Griswold v. Connecticut" (1965) the Court supported women's rights to obtain birth control (and thus, retain reproductive autonomy) without marital consent. Similarly, a woman's right to privacy in obtaining abortions was protected by "Roe v. Wade" (1973). In "McFall v. Shimp" (1978), a Pennsylvania court ruled that a person cannot be forced to donate bone marrow, even if such a donation would save another person's life.  Conversely, the Supreme Court has also protected the right of governmental entities to infringe upon bodily integrity. Examples include laws prohibiting the use of drugs, laws prohibiting euthanasia, laws requiring the use of seatbelts and helmets, strip searches of prisoners, and forced blood tests.

Canada.

In general, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms defends personal liberty and the right not to be interfered with. However, in certain unique circumstances government may have the right to temporarily override the right to physical integrity in order to preserve the life of the person. Such action can be described using the principle of supported autonomy, a concept that was developed to describe unique situations in mental health (examples include the forced feeding of a person dying from the eating disorder anorexia nervosa, or the temporary treatment of a person living with a psychotic disorder with antipsychotic medication).  One unique example of a Canadian law that promotes bodily integrity is the Ontario Health Care Consent Act. This Ontario law has to do with the capacity to consent to medical treatment. The HCCA states that a person has the right to consent to or refuse treatment if they have mental capacity. In order to have capacity, a person must have the ability to understand and appreciate the consequences of the treatment decision. The law says that a person is capable with respect to a treatment, admission to a care facility or a personal assistance service if the person is able to "understand" and "appreciate" the information that is relevant to making such a decision.

Human rights.

Two key international documents protect these rights: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Further the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also requires protection of physical and mental integrity.  The Human Rights and Constitutional Rights project, funded by Columbia Law School, has defined four main areas of potential bodily integrity abuse by governments. These are: Right to Life, Slavery and Forced Labor, Security of One's Person, Torture and Inhumane, Cruel or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.

Women's rights.

Though bodily integrity is (according to the capabilities approach) afforded to every human being, women are more often affected in violations of gender-based violence. These include sexual assault, unwanted pregnancy, domestic abuse, and limited access to contraception. These principles were addressed in the CCL Working Conference on Women's Rights as Human Rights. The conference defined bodily integrity as a right deserved by all women: "bodily integrity unifies women and that no woman can say that it does not apply to them".  As defined by the conference participants, the following are bodily integrity rights that should be guaranteed to women:

Children's rights.

United States.

The debate over children's rights to bodily integrity has grown in recent years. In the wake of the highly publicized Jerry Sandusky trial, parents have been increasingly encouraged to promote their child's sense of bodily integrity as a method of reducing children's vulnerability to being victims of sexual violence, human trafficking and child prostitution.  Methods of increasing children's sense of bodily autonomy include:

Medicine.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights states the following: "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. In particular, no one shall be subjected without his free consent to medical or scientific experimentation".

Genital integrity.

Activists who oppose genital modification and mutilation define themselves as intactivists (a portmanteau of "intact" and "activist") or genital integrity activists, who strive to defend the rights of male, female, and intersex children and babies to keep their sex organs intact, to raise awareness about the forced genital mutilations and to prohibit genital mutilation and involuntary or forced circumcision on children internationally. Various organisations have been set up specifically for the purpose, other organisations have stated their support for the movement. Some intactivists consider themselves to be an LGBT social movement, and have participated in LGBT pride parades ever since 2006. In North America, the genital integrity movement primarily focuses on non-therapeutic circumcision of male infants and children and to a lesser but still prevalent extent, intersex surgery. Intactivists also promote bodily integrity and tend to have little or no issue with consenting and informed adults undergoing surgery, since their main concern is to secure children from genital mutilations.

Bodily integrity is the inviolability of the physical body and emphasizes the importance of personal autonomy, self-ownership, and self-determination of human beings over their own bodies. In the field of human rights, violation of the bodily integrity of another is regarded as an unethical infringement, intrusive, and possibly criminal.

身体完整性(英语:Bodily integrity),一个法律、伦理及哲学术语,意谓着人类的身体是不可以侵犯的。这个概念强调个人自主权的重要,认为人类对于他们自身拥有的肉体拥有自己决定的自主权力。不合伦理原则的侵犯、侵入,或是违反法律的侵犯,都违反了身体完整性的原则。在刑法上的伤害罪、谋杀、性侵犯,以及于社会上、堕胎等议题上,都经常讨论到这个原则。


联邦高地 (科罗拉多州)

History.

The community was named for its location on Federal Boulevard and was officially incorporated in 1940.

Geography.

Federal Heights is located at (39.866085, -105.014160).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all of it land.

Demographics.

At the 2000 census there were 12,065 people, 5,125 households, and 3,023 families living in the city. The population density was 6,721.0 people per square mile (2,588.0/km2). There were 5,311 housing units at an average density of 2,958.6 per square mile (1,139.2/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 80.03% White, 1.46% African American, 1.38% Native American, 6.09% Asian, 0.18% Pacific Islander, 7.80% from other races, and 3.06% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 22.62%.  Of the 5,125 households 28.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.7% were married couples living together, 13.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.0% were non-families. 31.4% of households were one person and 9.9% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.97.  The age distribution was 24.9% under the age of 18, 12.8% from 18 to 24, 31.6% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% 65 or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.4 males.  The median household income was $33,750 and the median family income was $38,468. Males had a median income of $31,054 versus $25,195 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,801. About 9.2% of families and 11.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.5% of those under age 18 and 3.7% of those age 65 or over.

Attractions.

Federal Heights is the home of a major family water park named Water World.

Federal Heights is a Home Rule Municipality located in Adams County, Colorado, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 11,467, although 2019 updated numbers indicate 12,827 people live in the city. The current Mayor is Linda S. Montoya, who was elected to a four-year term in 2019.

联邦高地(英语:Federal Heights)是美国科罗拉多州亚当斯县下属的一座城市。建市于1940年5月19日,面积大约为1.778平方英里(4.605平方公里)。根据2010年美国人口普查,该市有人口11,467人。2011年估计该市有人口11,724人,相比2010年人口增长率为2.24%。同时,论人口该市是科罗拉多州第40大城市。


Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of, of which is land and, or 2.74%, is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 12,973 people, 4,614 households, and 3,248 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 3,379.5 people per square mile (1,304.4/km2). There were 4,771 housing units at an average density of 1,242.9 per square mile (479.7/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 71.46% White, 1.58% African American, 1.76% Native American, 1.18% Asian, 0.12% Pacific Islander, 19.32% from other races, and 4.58% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 36.94% of the population.  There were 4,614 households out of which 36.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.1% were married couples living together, 15.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.6% were non-families. 22.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 4.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.80 and the average family size was 3.28.  In the CDP, the population was spread out with 28.3% under the age of 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 33.4% from 25 to 44, 19.1% from 45 to 64, and 8.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.2 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $41,430, and the median income for a family was $45,770. Males had a median income of $32,222 versus $26,057 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $17,002. About 6.1% of families and 8.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.2% of those under age 18 and 9.2% of those age 65 or over.

Welby is a census-designated place (CDP) in Adams County, Colorado, United States. The population was 14,846 at the 2010 census.

韦尔比(英语:Welby)是位于美国科罗拉多州亚当斯县的一个人口普查指定地区。


History.

A post office called Sterling has been in operation since 1874. The community was named for Sterling, Illinois, the native home of a railroad official.

Geography.

Sterling is northeast of Denver, and is located on Interstate 76, on the 'eastern plains' of northeastern Colorado.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land.

Climate.

According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Sterling has a semi-arid climate, abbreviated "BSk" on climate maps. <div style="width:65%">  </div styl>

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 11,360 people, 4,604 households, and 2,790 families living in the city. The population density was 1,653.1 people per square mile (638.4/km2). There were 5,171 housing units at an average density of 752.5 per square mile (290.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 90.75% Caucasian American, 0.75% African American, 0.79% Native American, 0.41% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 5.60% from other races, and 1.62% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14.20% of the population.  There were 4,604 households out of which 30.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.2% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.4% were non-families. 34.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 3.03.  In the city, the population was spread out with 25.5% under the age of 18, 12.9% from 18 to 24, 25.5% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 16.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.2 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $27,337, and the median income for a family was $39,103. Males had a median income of $27,921 versus $20,508 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,287.

Economy.

Major employers in Sterling include Northeastern Junior College, the RE-1 Valley School system, and the Sterling Correctional Facility.  Sterling is the major shopping hub for most of northeastern Colorado and hosts stores like Wal-Mart, The Home Depot, Maurices, and The Buckle, as well as many local retailers located primarily on Main Street. Six different banks have branches in Sterling and there are local AM and FM radio stations as well as a local television station, and a long established regional newspaper, the Sterling Journal-Advocate and South Platte Sentinel.

Government.

The Colorado Department of Corrections operates the Sterling Correctional Facility in Sterling.

Education.

Sterling is the home of Northeastern Junior College, a residential two year college in Colorado.  Sterling is also the location of the RE-1 Valley School District.

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Crosson Field Municipal Airport serves Sterling, but there are no scheduled flights available from there. The closest airport served by scheduled flights is Denver International Airport, located away.  Sterling is also served by railroads, although only freight carriers serve the town. The main rail operator is Burlington Northern Santa Fe (BNSF), but other operators, like Union Pacific, serve Sterling as well. The closest Amtrak station is located in Fort Morgan, about away.  Scheduled bus service is offered by Black Hills Stage Lines with service to Ft. Morgan and Denver in Colorado, as well as number of cities in Nebraska including North Platte, Kearney, and Omaha.

Health care.

Sterling is a regional center for health care as well, and is the home of the Sterling Regional Medical Center.

Sterling is a home rule municipality that is the county seat and the most populous city of Logan County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 14,777 at the 2010 census.

斯特林(英文:Sterling),是美国科罗拉多州洛根县下属的一座城市。建市于1884年12月3日,面积大约为7.61平方英里(19.709平方公里)。根据2010年美国人口普查,该市有人口14,777人。2011年估计该市有人口14,725人,相比2010年人口增长率为?0.35%。同时,论人口该市是科罗拉多州第35大城市。


History.

Origin.

The family stems from the Lords of Seinsheim, who had established themselves in Franconia during the Middle Ages. A branch of the Seinsheim family (the non-Schwarzenberg portion died out in 1958) was created when Erkinger of Seinsheim acquired the Franconian territory of Schwarzenberg and the castle of Schwarzenberg in Scheinfeld during the early part of the 15th century. He was then granted the title of "Freiherr" (Baron) of Schwarzenberg in 1429. At that time, the family also possessed some fiefdoms in Bohemia.

Ascent and expansion.

In 1599, the Schwarzenbergs were elevated to Imperial Counts, and the family was later raised to princely status in 1670. In 1623 came the Styrian Dominion of Murau into the Schwarzenberg family due to the marriage of Count Georg Ludwig of Schwarzenberg (1586 - 1646) with Anna Neumann von Wasserleonburg (1535 - 1623). Furthermore, the House of Schwarzenberg acquired extensive land holdings in Bohemia in 1661 through a marriage alliance with the House of Eggenberg. In the 1670s, the Schwarzenbergs established their primary seat in Bohemia and, until 1918, their main residence was in Český Krumlov, Bohemia (now in Czechia).

Schwarzenberg/Sulz family unification.

Due to the absence of a male heir and his only daughter Maria Anna married to Prince Ferdinand of Schwarzenberg, Johann Ludwig II. Count of Sulz proposed a family unification between the Counts of Sulz and Princes of Schwarzenberg at the Imperial Court. His request was granted, which not only transferred all legal and property rights upon his death in 1687 from the Sulz family to the Schwarzenberg family, but assured that the Sulz family continues in the Schwarzenberg family. The visible affirmation of this bond was the merging of the coat of arms.

Two princely lines.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the House of Schwarzenberg was divided into two princely-titled lines ("majorats"). This division was already foreseen in the will of Prince Ferdinand (*1652 - †1703). However, the absence of two male heirs until Joseph II. and Karl I. Philipp inhibited the execution. The senior branch,which held not only the Palais Schwarzenberg in Vienna, but also the Dominions of Scheinfeld, Krumlov, Frauenberg and Murau, died out in the male line in 1979 upon the death of Joseph III of Schwarzenberg, who was the 11th Prince of Schwarzenberg. The cadet branch, which was established by Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg at Orlík Castle, continues to the present day.  The two branches have now been re-united under the current head of the family, Karl VII of Schwarzenberg, who is the 12th Prince of Schwarzenberg. He is a Czech politician and served as Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic.

Present Time.

Due to the unification of the family-headship under Karl VII Schwarzenberg, the fidei commissa of both the primogeniture / Hluboka line and the secundogeniture / Orlik line came under the single ownership of the last-mentioned prince. Karl VII created in the 1980s the current structure of the family belongings. The German and Austrian properties from the primogeniture were embedded (with some exceptions) into the "Fürstlich Schwarzenberg'sche Familienstiftung" (Princely Schwarzenberg Family-Foundation) based in Vaduz. The art collection, which includes the painting "The Abduction of Ganymede" by Peter Paul Rubens or an important collection of works by Johann Georg de Hamilton, is held in the separate "Fürstlich Schwarzenberg'sche Kunststiftung" (Princely Schwarzenberg Art-Foundation). The Czech property of the secundogeniture is held privately. The members of the family follow careers in the private or military sector.

Frisian and Prussian line.

Michael II. Baron zu Schwarzenberg (†1469), oldest son of Erkinger I. (*1362 - †1437), was married twice. First with Gertrud (Bätze) von Cronberg (†1438), from whom the princely line descends. His second marriage was with Ursula ("Frankengrüner") Grüner († ca.1484), from whom the Frisian and later the Prussian line originates. The children of Michael's and Ursula's alliance were never recognized by their half-siblings, as their first born son was born out of wedlock and the legitimisation only took place with the subsequent wedding.  Johann Onuphrius (*1513–†1584), a great-grandson of Michael II. and Ursula, is considered to be the progenitor of the Frisian Line. His marriage with Maria von Grumbach (†1564) ensured "Groot Terhorne Castle" until 1879 as the family seat in the Netherlands. The Frisian line was made a member of the Dutch nobility by a Royal decree of King William I. of the Netherlands on August 28, 1814. Henceforth, the Dutch version thoe Schwartzenberg en Hohenlansberg was applied for this branch of the family.  The Prussian Line was established as a cadet branch of the Frisian line with Georg Baron thoe Schwartzenberg en Hohenlansberg (1842-1918), who served as a Rittmeister in the Imperial German Army. He and his descendants were made members of the Prussian nobility by an Imperial decree, issued by Emperor Wilhelm II., and are entitled to carry the German title "Freiherr".

Imperial immediate estates.

The Schwarzenberg family held three Imperial Immediate Estates in the Holy Roman Empire.  By coincidence the coat of arms of the "Princely Landgraviate of Klettgau" and the "Earldom of Buchan" in Scotland are the same. The Klettgau coat of arms can be found in the left heart shield of the Schwarzenberg coat of arms.

Notable family members.

The House of Schwarzenberg produced many military commanders, politicians, church dignitaries (including a Cardinal), innovators and patrons of the arts. They were related to a number of European aristocratic families, notably the Lobkowicz () family. Some of the most noteworthy members of the Schwarzenberg family are:

Property and residences.

Germany.

The Schwarzenberg family holding included the following residences in Germany:

Bohemia.

The Schwarzenberg land holdings in Bohemia included the Duchy of Krumlov, the town of Prachatice and Orlík Castle. The family also acquired the property of the House of Rosenberg (). On their lands, the Schwarzenbergs created ponds, planted forests and introduced new technologies in agriculture.  Upon the establishment of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia in 1939, the possessions of Prince Adolph of Schwarzenberg were seized by the Nazi authorities. He managed to flee, but his cousin Heinrich, Duke of Krumlov, was arrested and deported. After World War II, the Czechoslovakian government stated, by law No. 143/1947 from August 13, 1947 "(Lex Schwarzenberg)", that the assets of the Schwarzenberg-Hluboká primogeniture passed to the Land of Bohemia.  The Schwarzenberg family holding included the following residences in Bohemia:

Austria.

The Schwarzenberg family holdings included the following residences in Austria:

Ecclesiastical buildings and places.

The following religious places are linked to the Schwarzenberg family either as burial or memorial places:

Monuments and memorials.

The following monuments are erected for the Schwarzenberg family and its members:

The Family.

Dynasty.

The names hereby presented are those of all the direct successors of the Prince John I of Schwarzenberg (1742–1789). They have been respectively divided into the two branches of Krumlov and Orlik, including the contemporary generations. For the genealogy to be easier to consult, the male successors alone are listed, and they are accompanied with noteworthy information where necessary. In bold the names of the members of the eldest part of the family.

Titles.

Titles of the members of the family.

The title of the head of the princely family is:  The title of the wife of the head of the family would be:  The title of the first born son and heir of the family is:  The title of the wife of the first born son and heir of the family would be:  The title of all other female members of the family is:  The title of all other male members of the family is:  Although the family is entitled to use the "von und zu", only the "zu" is applied. Moreover, all members of the family are allowed to use the title "Fürst" / "Fürstin". However, this is not anymore practiced since the late 19th century and the cognates refer to themselves as "Prinz" / "Prinzessin".

Coat of arms.

Family coat of arms.

The ancestral arms of the Lords of Seinsheim consisted of six vertical stripes in silver and blue. However, the Schwarzenberg family's original coat of arms has four silver and four blue vertical stripes. Moreover, it starts with silver on the heraldic right (mirror-inverted perspective).  The family became "Freiherren" (Barons) of Schwarzenberg in 1429, and a silver tower on a black hill was added to their coat of arms to represent the city Scheinfeld and Schwarzenberg Castle.  In 1599, Adolf von Schwarzenberg became an Imperial Count, and was given by the emperor a quarter with a canting arms showing the head of a Turk being pecked by a raven. This was to commemorate Adolf's conquest on 19 March 1598 of the Turkish-held fortress and city Győr. The German name of the Hungarian town is "Raab", which means raven.  In 1670, the Schwarzenbergs were raised to princely status. However, only the marriage of Ferdinand, The 2nd Prince of Schwarzenberg (1652–1703) with Marie Anna Countess of Sulz (1653–1698), the daughter of Johann Ludwig II. Count of Sulz (1626–1687), led to the augmenting of their coat of arms, with quarters added for the domains of Sulz, Brandis (canting arms: a "brand") and the Landgraviate of Klettgau. Due to the absence of a male heir, Count Rudolf requested at the imperial court that the two families should be consolidated. This was granted, which meant for the Schwarzenberg family not only to assume all titles, rights and duties of the Counts of Sulz, but also to inherit all of Rudolf's properties.  The last augmentation of the family coat of arms was granted by the Austrian Emperor Franz II. / I.. He rewarded Field Marshal Karl I. Philipp Prince of Schwarzenberg with the right to bear the three-part arms of the Habsburg family with the addition of an upright standing sword. This unique distinction was granted to commemorate the field marshal's victory in the Battle of the Nations, where he was the Generalissimo of the Sixth Coalition.  The family motto is "NIL NISI RECTUM".

Municipal coat of arms.

Traces of the Schwarzenberg coat of arms can be found in various district and municipal coat of arms, which can be linked to the family:

Schwarzenberg is a Czech (Bohemian) and German (Franconian) aristocratic family, and it was one of the most prominent European noble houses. The Schwarzenbergs are members of the Czech nobility and German nobility and achieved the rank of Princes of the Holy Roman Empire. The family belongs to the high nobility and traces its roots to the Lords of Seinsheim during the Middle Ages.

施瓦岑贝格(德语:"Schwarzenberg",捷克语:"Švarcenberka")是神圣罗马帝国的一个邦国,位于现今巴伐利亚州北部。它的统治者是赛因斯海姆家族的一个分支。施瓦岑贝格1429年起为男爵领地,1599年成为伯爵领地,1670年升为亲王领地。1789年施瓦岑贝格重组为克林根贝格亲王领地。1806年,神圣罗马帝国解散,施瓦岑贝格原领土分属巴伐利亚王国和符腾堡王国。施瓦岑贝格亲王成为奥地利帝国和日后奥匈帝国的贵族。 1599年6月5日,施瓦岑贝格升为伯国,阿道夫成为帝国伯爵。


History.

Although control systems of various types date back to antiquity, a more formal analysis of the field began with a dynamics analysis of the centrifugal governor, conducted by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1868, entitled "On Governors". A centrifugal governor was already used to regulate the velocity of windmills. Maxwell described and analyzed the phenomenon of self-oscillation, in which lags in the system may lead to overcompensation and unstable behavior. This generated a flurry of interest in the topic, during which Maxwell's classmate, Edward John Routh, abstracted Maxwell's results for the general class of linear systems. Independently, Adolf Hurwitz analyzed system stability using differential equations in 1877, resulting in what is now known as the Routh–Hurwitz theorem.  A notable application of dynamic control was in the area of manned flight. The Wright brothers made their first successful test flights on December 17, 1903 and were distinguished by their ability to control their flights for substantial periods (more so than the ability to produce lift from an airfoil, which was known). Continuous, reliable control of the airplane was necessary for flights lasting longer than a few seconds.  By World War II, control theory was becoming an important area of research. Irmgard Flügge-Lotz developed the theory of discontinuous automatic control systems, and applied the bang-bang principle to the development of automatic flight control equipment for aircraft. Other areas of application for discontinuous controls included fire-control systems, guidance systems and electronics.  Sometimes, mechanical methods are used to improve the stability of systems. For example, ship stabilizers are fins mounted beneath the waterline and emerging laterally. In contemporary vessels, they may be gyroscopically controlled active fins, which have the capacity to change their angle of attack to counteract roll caused by wind or waves acting on the ship.  The Space Race also depended on accurate spacecraft control, and control theory has also seen an increasing use in fields such as economics and artificial intelligence. Here, one might say that the goal is to find an internal model that obeys the good regulator theorem. So, for example, in economics, the more accurately a (stock or commodities) trading model represents the actions of the market, the more easily it can control that market (and extract "useful work" (profits) from it). In AI, an example might be a chatbot modelling the discourse state of humans: the more accurately it can model the human state (e.g. on a telephone voice-support hotline), the better it can manipulate the human (e.g. into performing the corrective actions to resolve the problem that caused the phone call to the help-line). These last two examples take the narrow historical interpretation of control theory as a set of differential equations modeling and regulating kinetic motion, and broaden it into a vast generalization of a regulator interacting with a plant.

Open-loop and closed-loop (feedback) control.

Fundamentally, there are two types of control loops: open loop control and closed loop (feedback) control.  In open loop control, the control action from the controller is independent of the "process output" (or "controlled process variable" - PV). A good example of this is a central heating boiler controlled only by a timer, so that heat is applied for a constant time, regardless of the temperature of the building. The control action is the timed switching on/off of the boiler, the process variable is the building temperature, but neither is linked.  In closed loop control, the control action from the controller is dependent on feedback from the process in the form of the value of the process variable (PV). In the case of the boiler analogy, a closed loop would include a thermostat to compare the building temperature (PV) with the temperature set on the thermostat (the set point - SP). This generates a controller output to maintain the building at the desired temperature by switching the boiler on and off. A closed loop controller, therefore, has a feedback loop which ensures the controller exerts a control action to manipulate the process variable to be the same as the "Reference input" or "set point". For this reason, closed loop controllers are also called feedback controllers.  The definition of a closed loop control system according to the British Standard Institution is "a control system possessing monitoring feedback, the deviation signal formed as a result of this feedback being used to control the action of a final control element in such a way as to tend to reduce the deviation to zero."  Likewise; "A "Feedback Control System" is a system which tends to maintain a prescribed relationship of one system variable to another by comparing functions of these variables and using the difference as a means of control."

Other examples.

An example of a control system is a car's cruise control, which is a device designed to maintain vehicle speed at a constant "desired" or "reference" speed provided by the driver. The "controller" is the cruise control, the "plant" is the car, and the "system" is the car and the cruise control. The system output is the car's speed, and the control itself is the engine's throttle position which determines how much power the engine delivers.  A primitive way to implement cruise control is simply to lock the throttle position when the driver engages cruise control. However, if the cruise control is engaged on a stretch of non-flat road, then the car will travel slower going uphill and faster when going downhill. This type of controller is called an "open-loop controller" because there is no feedback; no measurement of the system output (the car's speed) is used to alter the control (the throttle position.) As a result, the controller cannot compensate for changes acting on the car, like a change in the slope of the road.  In a "closed-loop control system", data from a sensor monitoring the car's speed (the system output) enters a controller which continuously compares the quantity representing the speed with the reference quantity representing the desired speed. The difference, called the error, determines the throttle position (the control). The result is to match the car's speed to the reference speed (maintain the desired system output). Now, when the car goes uphill, the difference between the input (the sensed speed) and the reference continuously determines the throttle position. As the sensed speed drops below the reference, the difference increases, the throttle opens, and engine power increases, speeding up the vehicle. In this way, the controller dynamically counteracts changes to the car's speed. The central idea of these control systems is the "feedback loop", the controller affects the system output, which in turn is measured and fed back to the controller.

Classical control theory.

To overcome the limitations of the open-loop controller, control theory introduces feedback. A closed-loop controller uses feedback to control states or outputs of a dynamical system. Its name comes from the information path in the system: process inputs (e.g., voltage applied to an electric motor) have an effect on the process outputs (e.g., speed or torque of the motor), which is measured with sensors and processed by the controller; the result (the control signal) is "fed back" as input to the process, closing the loop.  Closed-loop controllers have the following advantages over open-loop controllers:  In some systems, closed-loop and open-loop control are used simultaneously. In such systems, the open-loop control is termed feedforward and serves to further improve reference tracking performance.  A common closed-loop controller architecture is the PID controller.

Closed-loop transfer function.

The output of the system "y(t)" is fed back through a sensor measurement "F" to a comparison with the reference value "r(t)". The controller "C" then takes the error "e" (difference) between the reference and the output to change the inputs "u" to the system under control "P". This is shown in the figure. This kind of controller is a closed-loop controller or feedback controller.  This is called a single-input-single-output ("SISO") control system; "MIMO" (i.e., Multi-Input-Multi-Output) systems, with more than one input/output, are common. In such cases variables are represented through vectors instead of simple scalar values. For some distributed parameter systems the vectors may be infinite-dimensional (typically functions).  If we assume the controller "C", the plant "P", and the sensor "F" are linear and time-invariant (i.e., elements of their transfer function "C(s)", "P(s)", and "F(s)" do not depend on time), the systems above can be analysed using the Laplace transform on the variables. This gives the following relations:  Solving for "Y"("s") in terms of "R"("s") gives  The expression formula_5 is referred to as the "closed-loop transfer function" of the system. The numerator is the forward (open-loop) gain from "r" to "y", and the denominator is one plus the gain in going around the feedback loop, the so-called loop gain. If formula_6, i.e., it has a large norm with each value of "s", and if formula_7, then "Y(s)" is approximately equal to "R(s)" and the output closely tracks the reference input.

PID feedback control.

A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a control loop feedback mechanism control technique widely used in control systems.  A PID controller continuously calculates an "error value" formula_8 as the difference between a desired setpoint and a measured process variable and applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms. "PID" is an initialism for "Proportional-Integral-Derivative", referring to the three terms operating on the error signal to produce a control signal.  The theoretical understanding and application dates from the 1920s, and they are implemented in nearly all analogue control systems; originally in mechanical controllers, and then using discrete electronics and later in industrial process computers. The PID controller is probably the most-used feedback control design.  If "u(t)" is the control signal sent to the system, "y(t)" is the measured output and "r(t)" is the desired output, and formula_9 is the tracking error, a PID controller has the general form  The desired closed loop dynamics is obtained by adjusting the three parameters formula_11, formula_12 and formula_13, often iteratively by "tuning" and without specific knowledge of a plant model. Stability can often be ensured using only the proportional term. The integral term permits the rejection of a step disturbance (often a striking specification in process control). The derivative term is used to provide damping or shaping of the response. PID controllers are the most well-established class of control systems: however, they cannot be used in several more complicated cases, especially if MIMO systems are considered.  Applying Laplace transformation results in the transformed PID controller equation  with the PID controller transfer function  As an example of tuning a PID controller in the closed-loop system formula_17, consider a 1st order plant given by  where formula_19 and formula_20 are some constants. The plant output is fed back through  where formula_22 is also a constant. Now if we set formula_23, formula_24, and formula_25, we can express the PID controller transfer function in series form as  Plugging formula_27, formula_28, and formula_29 into the closed-loop transfer function formula_17, we find that by setting  formula_32. With this tuning in this example, the system output follows the reference input exactly.  However, in practice, a pure differentiator is neither physically realizable nor desirable due to amplification of noise and resonant modes in the system. Therefore, a phase-lead compensator type approach or a differentiator with low-pass roll-off are used instead.

Linear and nonlinear control theory.

The field of control theory can be divided into two branches:

Analysis techniques - frequency domain and time domain.

Mathematical techniques for analyzing and designing control systems fall into two different categories: In contrast to the frequency domain analysis of the classical control theory, modern control theory utilizes the time-domain state space representation, a mathematical model of a physical system as a set of input, output and state variables related by first-order differential equations. To abstract from the number of inputs, outputs, and states, the variables are expressed as vectors and the differential and algebraic equations are written in matrix form (the latter only being possible when the dynamical system is linear). The state space representation (also known as the "time-domain approach") provides a convenient and compact way to model and analyze systems with multiple inputs and outputs. With inputs and outputs, we would otherwise have to write down Laplace transforms to encode all the information about a system. Unlike the frequency domain approach, the use of the state-space representation is not limited to systems with linear components and zero initial conditions. "State space" refers to the space whose axes are the state variables. The state of the system can be represented as a point within that space.

System interfacing - SISO & MIMO.

Control systems can be divided into different categories depending on the number of inputs and outputs.

Topics in control theory.

Stability.

The "stability" of a general dynamical system with no input can be described with Lyapunov stability criteria.  For simplicity, the following descriptions focus on continuous-time and discrete-time linear systems.  Mathematically, this means that for a causal linear system to be stable all of the poles of its transfer function must have negative-real values, i.e. the real part of each pole must be less than zero. Practically speaking, stability requires that the transfer function complex poles reside The difference between the two cases is simply due to the traditional method of plotting continuous time versus discrete time transfer functions. The continuous Laplace transform is in Cartesian coordinates where the formula_33 axis is the real axis and the discrete Z-transform is in circular coordinates where the formula_34 axis is the real axis.  When the appropriate conditions above are satisfied a system is said to be asymptotically stable; the variables of an asymptotically stable control system always decrease from their initial value and do not show permanent oscillations. Permanent oscillations occur when a pole has a real part exactly equal to zero (in the continuous time case) or a modulus equal to one (in the discrete time case). If a simply stable system response neither decays nor grows over time, and has no oscillations, it is marginally stable; in this case the system transfer function has non-repeated poles at the complex plane origin (i.e. their real and complex component is zero in the continuous time case). Oscillations are present when poles with real part equal to zero have an imaginary part not equal to zero.  If a system in question has an impulse response of  then the Z-transform (see this example), is given by  which has a pole in formula_37 (zero imaginary part). This system is BIBO (asymptotically) stable since the pole is "inside" the unit circle.  However, if the impulse response was  then the Z-transform is  which has a pole at formula_40 and is not BIBO stable since the pole has a modulus strictly greater than one.  Numerous tools exist for the analysis of the poles of a system. These include graphical systems like the root locus, Bode plots or the Nyquist plots.  Mechanical changes can make equipment (and control systems) more stable. Sailors add ballast to improve the stability of ships. Cruise ships use antiroll fins that extend transversely from the side of the ship for perhaps 30 feet (10 m) and are continuously rotated about their axes to develop forces that oppose the roll.

Controllability and observability.

Controllability and observability are main issues in the analysis of a system before deciding the best control strategy to be applied, or whether it is even possible to control or stabilize the system. Controllability is related to the possibility of forcing the system into a particular state by using an appropriate control signal. If a state is not controllable, then no signal will ever be able to control the state. If a state is not controllable, but its dynamics are stable, then the state is termed "stabilizable". Observability instead is related to the possibility of "observing", through output measurements, the state of a system. If a state is not observable, the controller will never be able to determine the behavior of an unobservable state and hence cannot use it to stabilize the system. However, similar to the stabilizability condition above, if a state cannot be observed it might still be detectable.  From a geometrical point of view, looking at the states of each variable of the system to be controlled, every "bad" state of these variables must be controllable and observable to ensure a good behavior in the closed-loop system. That is, if one of the eigenvalues of the system is not both controllable and observable, this part of the dynamics will remain untouched in the closed-loop system. If such an eigenvalue is not stable, the dynamics of this eigenvalue will be present in the closed-loop system which therefore will be unstable. Unobservable poles are not present in the transfer function realization of a state-space representation, which is why sometimes the latter is preferred in dynamical systems analysis.  Solutions to problems of an uncontrollable or unobservable system include adding actuators and sensors.

Control specification.

Several different control strategies have been devised in the past years. These vary from extremely general ones (PID controller), to others devoted to very particular classes of systems (especially robotics or aircraft cruise control).  A control problem can have several specifications. Stability, of course, is always present. The controller must ensure that the closed-loop system is stable, regardless of the open-loop stability. A poor choice of controller can even worsen the stability of the open-loop system, which must normally be avoided. Sometimes it would be desired to obtain particular dynamics in the closed loop: i.e. that the poles have formula_41, where formula_42 is a fixed value strictly greater than zero, instead of simply asking that formula_43.  Another typical specification is the rejection of a step disturbance; including an integrator in the open-loop chain (i.e. directly before the system under control) easily achieves this. Other classes of disturbances need different types of sub-systems to be included.  Other "classical" control theory specifications regard the time-response of the closed-loop system. These include the rise time (the time needed by the control system to reach the desired value after a perturbation), peak overshoot (the highest value reached by the response before reaching the desired value) and others (settling time, quarter-decay). Frequency domain specifications are usually related to robustness (see after).  Modern performance assessments use some variation of integrated tracking error (IAE, ISA, CQI).

Model identification and robustness.

A control system must always have some robustness property. A robust controller is such that its properties do not change much if applied to a system slightly different from the mathematical one used for its synthesis. This requirement is important, as no real physical system truly behaves like the series of differential equations used to represent it mathematically. Typically a simpler mathematical model is chosen in order to simplify calculations, otherwise, the true system dynamics can be so complicated that a complete model is impossible.  The process of determining the equations that govern the model's dynamics is called system identification. This can be done off-line: for example, executing a series of measures from which to calculate an approximated mathematical model, typically its transfer function or matrix. Such identification from the output, however, cannot take account of unobservable dynamics. Sometimes the model is built directly starting from known physical equations, for example, in the case of a system we know that formula_44. Even assuming that a "complete" model is used in designing the controller, all the parameters included in these equations (called "nominal parameters") are never known with absolute precision; the control system will have to behave correctly even when connected to a physical system with true parameter values away from nominal.  Some advanced control techniques include an "on-line" identification process (see later). The parameters of the model are calculated ("identified") while the controller itself is running. In this way, if a drastic variation of the parameters ensues, for example, if the robot's arm releases a weight, the controller will adjust itself consequently in order to ensure the correct performance.  Analysis of the robustness of a SISO (single input single output) control system can be performed in the frequency domain, considering the system's transfer function and using Nyquist and Bode diagrams. Topics include gain and phase margin and amplitude margin. For MIMO (multi-input multi output) and, in general, more complicated control systems, one must consider the theoretical results devised for each control technique (see next section). I.e., if particular robustness qualities are needed, the engineer must shift his attention to a control technique by including them in its properties.  A particular robustness issue is the requirement for a control system to perform properly in the presence of input and state constraints. In the physical world every signal is limited. It could happen that a controller will send control signals that cannot be followed by the physical system, for example, trying to rotate a valve at excessive speed. This can produce undesired behavior of the closed-loop system, or even damage or break actuators or other subsystems. Specific control techniques are available to solve the problem: model predictive control (see later), and anti-wind up systems. The latter consists of an additional control block that ensures that the control signal never exceeds a given threshold.

System classifications.

Linear systems control.

For MIMO systems, pole placement can be performed mathematically using a state space representation of the open-loop system and calculating a feedback matrix assigning poles in the desired positions. In complicated systems this can require computer-assisted calculation capabilities, and cannot always ensure robustness. Furthermore, all system states are not in general measured and so observers must be included and incorporated in pole placement design.

Nonlinear systems control.

Processes in industries like robotics and the aerospace industry typically have strong nonlinear dynamics. In control theory it is sometimes possible to linearize such classes of systems and apply linear techniques, but in many cases it can be necessary to devise from scratch theories permitting control of nonlinear systems. These, e.g., feedback linearization, backstepping, sliding mode control, trajectory linearization control normally take advantage of results based on Lyapunov's theory. Differential geometry has been widely used as a tool for generalizing well-known linear control concepts to the non-linear case, as well as showing the subtleties that make it a more challenging problem. Control theory has also been used to decipher the neural mechanism that directs cognitive states.

Decentralized systems control.

When the system is controlled by multiple controllers, the problem is one of decentralized control. Decentralization is helpful in many ways, for instance, it helps control systems to operate over a larger geographical area. The agents in decentralized control systems can interact using communication channels and coordinate their actions.

Deterministic and stochastic systems control.

A stochastic control problem is one in which the evolution of the state variables is subjected to random shocks from outside the system. A deterministic control problem is not subject to external random shocks.

Main control strategies.

Every control system must guarantee first the stability of the closed-loop behavior. For linear systems, this can be obtained by directly placing the poles. Non-linear control systems use specific theories (normally based on Aleksandr Lyapunov's Theory) to ensure stability without regard to the inner dynamics of the system. The possibility to fulfill different specifications varies from the model considered and the control strategy chosen.

People in systems and control.

Many active and historical figures made significant contribution to control theory including

Control theory deals with the control of continuously operating dynamical systems in engineered processes and machines. The objective is to develop a control model for controlling such systems using a control action in an optimum manner without "delay or overshoot" and ensuring control stability. Control theory may be considered a branch of control engineering, computer engineering, mathematics, cybernetics and operations research, since it relies on the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines.

控制理论是工程学与数学的跨领域分支,主要处理在有输入信号的动力系统的行为。系统的外部输入称为「参考值」,系统中的一个或多个变量需随着参考值变化,控制器处理系统的输入,使系统输出得到预期的效果。


Synthesis, basic properties, structure.

Cyanogen chloride is a molecule with the connectivity ClCN. Carbon and chlorine are linked by a single bond, and carbon and nitrogen by a triple bond. It is a linear molecule, as are the related cyanogen halides (NCF, NCBr, NCI). Cyanogen chloride is produced by the oxidation of sodium cyanide with chlorine. This reaction proceeds via the intermediate cyanogen ((CN)). The compound trimerizes in the presence of acid to the heterocycle called cyanuric chloride.  Cyanogen chloride is slowly hydrolyzed by water to release cyanate and chloride ions

Applications in synthesis.

Cyanogen chloride is a precursor to the sulfonyl cyanides and chlorosulfonyl isocyanate, a useful reagent in organic synthesis.

Safety.

Also known as CK, cyanogen chloride is a highly toxic blood agent, and was once proposed for use in chemical warfare. It causes immediate injury upon contact with the eyes or respiratory organs. Symptoms of exposure may include drowsiness, rhinorrhea (runny nose), sore throat, coughing, confusion, nausea, vomiting, edema, loss of consciousness, convulsions, paralysis, and death. It is especially dangerous because it is capable of penetrating the filters in gas masks, according to United States analysts. CK is unstable due to polymerization, sometimes with explosive violence.

Chemical weapon.

Cyanogen chloride is listed in schedule 3 of the Chemical Weapons Convention: all production must be reported to the OPCW.  By 1945, the U.S. Army's Chemical Warfare Service developed chemical warfare rockets intended for the new M9 and M9A1 Bazookas. An M26 Gas Rocket was adapted to fire cyanogen chloride-filled warheads for these rocket launchers. As it was capable of penetrating the protective filter barriers in some gas masks, it was seen as an effective agent against Japanese forces (particularly those hiding in caves or bunkers) because their standard issue gas masks lacked the barriers that would provide protection against cyanogen chloride. The US added the weapon to its arsenal but the CK rocket was never deployed or issued to combat personnel.

Cyanogen chloride is a toxic chemical compound with the formula NCCl. This linear, triatomic pseudohalogen is an easily condensed colorless gas. More commonly encountered in the laboratory is the related compound cyanogen bromide, a room-temperature solid that is widely used in biochemical analysis and preparation.

氯化氰(Cyanogen chloride)是由氰与氯组成的无机化合物,容易凝结无色剧毒气体。


Background.

The novel concerns the relationship between two fictional Victorian poets, Randolph Henry Ash (whose life and work are loosely based on those of the English poet Robert Browning, or Alfred, Lord Tennyson, whose work is more consonant with the themes expressed by Ash, as well as Tennyson's having been poet-laureate to Queen Victoria) and Christabel LaMotte (based on Christina Rossetti), as uncovered by present-day academics Roland Michell and Maud Bailey. Following a trail of clues from letters and journals, they collaborate to uncover the truth about Ash and LaMotte's relationship, before it is discovered by rival colleagues. Byatt provides extensive letters, poetry and diaries by major characters in addition to the narrative, including poetry attributed to the fictional Ash and LaMotte.  A. S. Byatt, in part, wrote "Possession" in response to John Fowles' novel "The French Lieutenant's Woman" (1969). In an essay in Byatt's nonfiction book, "On Histories and Stories", she wrote:

Plot summary.

Obscure scholar Roland Michell, researching in the London Library, discovers handwritten drafts of a letter by the eminent Victorian poet Randolph Henry Ash, which lead him to suspect that the married Ash had a hitherto unknown romance. He secretly takes away the documents – a highly unprofessional act for a scholar – and begins to investigate. The trail leads him to Christabel LaMotte, a minor poet and contemporary of Ash, and to Dr. Maud Bailey, an established modern LaMotte scholar and distant relative of LaMotte. Protective of LaMotte, Bailey is drawn into helping Michell with the unfolding mystery. The two scholars find more letters and evidence of a love affair between the poets (with evidence of a holiday together during which – they suspect – the relationship may have been consummated); they become obsessed with discovering the truth. At the same time, their own personal romantic lives – neither of which is satisfactory – develop, and they become entwined in an echo of Ash and LaMotte. The stories of the two couples are told in parallel, and include letters and poetry by the poets.  The revelation of an affair between Ash and LaMotte would make headlines and reputations in academia because of the prominence of the poets, and colleagues of Roland and Maud become competitors in the race to discover the truth, for all manner of motives. Ash's marriage is revealed to have been unconsummated, although he loved and remained devoted to his wife. He and LaMotte had a short, passionate affair; it led to the suicide of LaMotte's companion (and possibly lover), Blanche Glover, and the secret birth of LaMotte's illegitimate daughter during a year spent in Brittany. LaMotte left the girl with her sister to be raised and passed off as her own. Ash was never informed that he and LaMotte had a child.  As the Great Storm of 1987 strikes England, the interested modern characters come together at Ash's grave, where they intend to exhume documents buried with Ash by his wife, which they believe hold the final key to the mystery. They also uncover a lock of hair. Reading the documents, Maud Bailey learns that rather than being related to LaMotte's sister, as she has always believed, she is directly descended from LaMotte and Ash's illegitimate daughter. Maud is thus heir to the correspondence by the poets. Now that the original letters are in her possession, Roland Michell escapes the potential dire consequences of having stolen the original drafts from the library. He sees an academic career open up before him. Bailey, who has spent her adult life emotionally untouchable, sees possible future happiness with Michell.  In an epilogue, Ash has an encounter with his daughter Maia in the countryside. Maia talks with Ash for a brief time. Ash makes her a crown of flowers, and asks for a lock of her hair. This lock of hair is the one buried with Ash which was discovered by the scholars, who believed it to be LaMotte’s. Thus it is revealed that both the modern and historical characters "(and hence the reader)", have, for the latter half of the book, misunderstood the significance of one of Ash's key mementoes. Ash asks the girl to give LaMotte a message that he has moved on from their relationship and is happy. After he walks away, Maia returns home, breaks the crown of flowers while playing, and forgets to pass the message on to LaMotte.

Reception.

American writer Jay Parini in the "New York Times", wrote "a plenitude of surprises awaits the reader of this gorgeously written novel. A. S. Byatt is a writer in mid-career whose time has certainly come, because "Possession" is a tour de force that opens every narrative device of English fiction to inspection without, for a moment, ceasing to delight." Also "The most dazzling aspect of "Possession" is Ms. Byatt's canny invention of letters, poems and diaries from the 19th century".  Critic Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, writing in the "New York Times", noted that what he describes as the "wonderfully extravagant novel" is "pointedly subtitled 'A Romance'." He says it is at once "a detective story" and "an adultery novel."  Writing in the "Guardian" online, Sam Jordison, who described himself as "a longstanding Byatt sceptic", wrote that he was: "caught off-guard by "Possession's" warmth and wit"... "Anyone and everything that falls under Byatt's gaze is a source of fun." Commenting on the invented 'historical' texts he said their "effect is dazzling – and similarly ludic erudition is on display throughout."... "Yet more impressive are in excess of 1,700 lines of original poetry". "In short, the whole book is a gigantic tease – which is certainly satisfying on an intellectual level" but," "Possession's" true centre is a big, red, beating heart. It's the warmth and spirit that Byatt has breathed into her characters rather than their cerebral pursuits that makes us care". Concluding, "There's real magic behind all the brainy trickery and an emotional journey on top of the academic quest. So I loved it."

Adaptations.

The novel was adapted as a 2002 feature film by the same name, starring Gwyneth Paltrow as Maud Bailey; Aaron Eckhart as Roland Michell; and Jeremy Northam and Jennifer Ehle as the fictional poets Randolph Henry Ash and Christabel LaMotte, respectively. The film differs considerably from the novel.  The novel was also adapted as a radio play, serialised in 15 parts between 19 December 2011 and 6 January 2012, on BBC Radio 4's "Woman's Hour". it featured Jemma Redgrave as Maud, Harry Hadden-Paton as Roland, James D'Arcy as Ash and Rachael Stirling as LaMotte.

Possession: A Romance is a 1990 best-selling novel by British writer A. S. Byatt that won the 1990 Booker Prize. The novel explores the postmodern concerns of similar novels, which are often categorised as historiographic metafiction, a genre that blends approaches from both historical fiction and metafiction.

隐之书(英语:"Possession")为A·S·拜雅特于1990年的作品,此作品分于获得1990年布克奖及入选《卫报》评选出的「生命中不可缺少的100本书」。


Geography.

The krai lies in the middle of Siberia, and occupies nearly half of the Siberian Federal District, almost splitting it in half, stretching 3,000 km from the Sayan Mountains in the south along the Yenisei River to the Taymyr Peninsula in the north. It borders (counting clockwise from the sea) the Sakha Republic, Irkutsk, the Tuva Republic, the Republic of Khakassia, and Kemerovo, Tomsk, and Tyumen Oblasts, and the Kara Sea and Laptev Sea of the Arctic Ocean in the north.  The krai is located in the basin of the Arctic Ocean; a great number of rivers that flow through the krai drain into it eventually. The main rivers of the krai are the Yenisei, and its tributaries (from south to north): the Kan, the Angara, the Podkamennaya Tunguska, the Nizhnyaya Tunguska and the Tanama.  There are also several thousand lakes in the krai. The largest lakes include Beloye, Belyo, Glubokoye, Itat, Khantayskoye, Labas, Lama, Pyasina, Taymyr, and Yessey. The rivers and lakes are rich with fish.  The climate is strongly continental with large temperature variations during the year. For the central and southern regions where most of the krai's population lives, long winters and short, hot summers are characteristic. The territory of Krasnoyarsk Krai experiences conditions of three climate belts: Arctic, Subarctic, and moderate. In the north there are less than 40 days with temperature above, while in the south there are 110–120 such days.  The average temperature in January is in the north and in the south. The average temperature in July is in the north and in the south. The annual precipitation is (up to in foothills of the Sayan Mountains). Snow covers the central regions of the krai from early November until late March. The peaks of the Sayan Mountains higher than 2,400–2,600 m and those of the Putorana Plateau higher than 1,000–1,300 m are covered with permanent snow. Permafrost is widespread, especially in the north.  The coastline contains a number of prominent peninsulas - from west to east the main ones are the Minina Peninsula, Mikhailov Peninsula, the Taymyr Peninsula (by far the largest, and itself containing the Zarya Peninsula, Oskara Peninsula and Chelyuskin Peninsula) and the Khara-Tumus Peninsula.  There are also a large number of islands off the krai's coast, the most prominent of which are (from west to east) Sibiryakov Island, Nosok Island, Dikson Island, Vern Island, Brekhovskiye Island (in the Yenisei Gulf), Krestovskiy Island, the Kamennye Islands, the Zveroboy Islands, the Labyrintovye Islands, the Plavnikovye Islands, Kolosovykh Island, the Mona Islands, Rykacheva Island, Gavrilova Island, Belukha and Prodolgovatyy Islands, the Nordenskiöld Archipelago, the Firnley Islands, the Heiberg Islands, Starokadomsky Island, Maly Taymyr Island, the Komsomolskaya Pravda Islands, the Faddey Islands, and the Saint Peter Islands. There are also a number of islands further out that fall under the administration of Krasnoyarsk Krai - the most prominent being Bolshoy Island, Sverdrup Island, the Izvestiy TSIK Islands, the Arkticheskiy Institut Islands, the Kirov Islands, Uyedineniya Island, Voronina Island, Severnaya Zemlya (the largest group), and Ushakov Island. The highest point of the krai is Grandiozny Peak in the East Sayan Mountains at an elevation of.

History.

According to archaeologists, the first people reached Siberia circa 40,000 BC. The Andronovo culture, a group of Bronze Age peoples, lived in the area around 2000–900 BCE, the remains of which were discovered in 1914 near the village of Andronovo, Uzhursky District. The grave-mounds and monuments of the Scythian culture in Krasnoyarsk Krai belong to the 7th century BCE and are ones of the oldest in Eurasia. A prince's grave, the Kurgan Arshan, discovered in 2001, is also located in the krai.  Russian settlement of the area (mostly by Cossacks) began in the 17th century. After the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway the Russian colonization of the area strongly increased.  During both the Tsarist and the Bolsheviks' times the territory of Krasnoyarsk Krai was used as a place of exile of political enemies. The first leaders of the Soviet state, Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin were exiled to what is now the krai in 1897–1900 and 1903, respectively. In Stalin's era numerous Gulag camps were located in the region.  In 1822, the Yeniseysk Governorate was created with Krasnoyarsk as its administrative center that covered territory very similar to that of the current krai.  On June 30, 1908, in the basin of the Podkamennaya Tunguska River, there occurred a powerful explosion most likely to have been caused by the air burst of a large meteoroid or comet fragment at an altitude of 5–10 kilometers (3–6 miles) above Earth's surface. The force of the explosion is estimated to be about 10–15 megatons. It flattened more than 2,000 square kilometers (500,000 acres) of pine forest and killed thousands of reindeer.  Krasnoyarsk Krai was created in 1934 after disaggregation of the West Siberian and East Siberian Krais and later included Taymyr and Evenk Autonomous Okrugs and Khakas Autonomous Oblast. In 1991, Khakassia separated from the krai and became a republic within the Russian Federation.  On January 1, 2007, following a referendum on the issue held on April 17, 2005, territories of Evenk and Taymyr Autonomous Okrugs were merged into the krai.

Politics.

During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Krasnoyarsk CPSU Committee (who in reality had the most authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament.  The Charter of Krasnoyarsk Krai is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Krasnoyarsk Krai is the province's regional standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The legislative assembly consists of 52 deputies. 22 of them are elected in 22 one-mandate electoral districts by plurality system, 2 in Taymyr, 2 in Evenkia, and 26 are elected by proportional system from the lists offered by political parties. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the krai Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.  In December 1991, president Boris Yeltsin appointed Arkady Veprev as the first governor of Krasnoyarsk Krai. In January 1993 Yeltsin appointed Valery Zubov as the second governor of Krasnoyarsk Krai. In Krasnoyarsk Territory governor elections were called. Zubov was elected in a universal election for a five-year term. The Legislative Assembly of Krasnoyarsk Krai was created as well.  In 1998, Zubov lost in the gubernatorial election to General Aleksandr Lebed, a politician well known in all Russia. In 2002 Lebed died in a helicopter accident.  In 2002, Alexander Khloponin, the governor of Taymyr Autonomous Okrug and an influential businessman was elected a governor of Krasnoyarsk Krai. In 2007, he was nominated by president Vladimir Putin for re-election, and Khloponin was elected by the legislative assembly for the second term.  In 2010, after Khloponin was promoted to the office of the president's envoy in the North Caucasian Federal District, Lev Kuznetsov, a businessman and politician from Khloponin's circle, became the new governor of the region.  Krasnoyarsk Krai is represented in the Federation Council of Russia, the upper house of the Russian parliament by two senators. In 2007, eight deputies were elected to the State Duma from Krasnoyarsk regional lists of different political parties.

Economy.

Over 95% of the cities, a majority of the industrial enterprises, and all of the agriculture are concentrated in the south of the krai.

Natural resources.

The krai is among the richest of Russia's regions in natural resources: 80% of the country's nickel, 75% of its cobalt, 70% of its copper, 16% of its coal, and 10% of its gold are extracted here. Krasnoyarsk also produces 20% of the country's timber. More than 95% of Russian resources of platinum and platinoids are concentrated in the krai.

Industry.

The krai's major industries are: non-ferrous metallurgy, energy, forestry, chemicals, and oil refining. The major financial industrial groups of Krasnoyarsk Krai are:

Power generation.

The two most powerful hydroelectric plants in Russia are at the Yenisei River: Three are at its tributary Angara River:  It makes Krasnoyarsk Krai one of the most important producers of electric energy in Russia, and a desirable location for energy-intensive industries, such as aluminium plants.

Administrative divisions.

Krasnoyarsk Krai consists of forty-four districts and fourteen towns of district significance. Two of the districts (Evenkiysky and Taymyrsky; the former autonomous okrugs) have special status.

Demographics.

Population (including former Taymyr and Evenk Autonomous Okrugs):  "Ethnic groups": The population of the krai mostly consists of Russians, and some other peoples of the former Soviet Union. The indigenous Siberian peoples make up no more than 1% of the population.  The 2010 Census reported the following ethnic composition:  As of August 2009, Krasnoyarsk Krai recorded a natural growth of population for the first time in 16 years.  Total fertility rate: 2003 - 1,35 | 2004 - 1,35 | 2005 - 1,31 | 2006 - 1,33 | 2007 - 1,44 | 2008 - 1,55 | 2009 - 1,61 | 2010 - 1,64 | 2011 - 1,64 | 2012 - 1,75 | 2013 - 1,78 | 2014 - 1,81 | 2015 - 1,84 | 2016 - 1,82(e)

Religion.

As a survey conducted in 2012, 29.6% of the population of Krasnoyarsk Krai adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 5% declares to be a nondenominational Christian (excluding Protestant churches), 2% is an Orthodox Christian believer without belonging to any church or is a member of other (non-Russian) Orthodox churches, 1.5% is Muslim, 1% follows the Slavic native faith (Rodnovery), and 10.9% did not give an answer to the survey. In addition, 35% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious" and 15% to be atheist.

Education.

Krasnoyarsk is the site of the Siberian Federal University, one of the four largest educational institutions of Russia. Other notable higher education institutes of the region are:

Nature and ecology.

Many important industrial cities of Krasnoyarsk Krai, such as Krasnoyarsk, Norilsk, Achinsk, Kansk, Zheleznogorsk, and Minusinsk, suffer from environmental pollution.

Krasnoyarsk Krai () is a federal subject of Russia (a krai), with its administrative center in the city of Krasnoyarsk, the third-largest city in Siberia (after Novosibirsk and Omsk). Comprising half of the Siberian Federal District, Krasnoyarsk Krai is the largest krai in the Russian Federation, the second largest federal subject (after the neighboring Sakha Republic) and the third largest subnational governing body by area in the world, after Sakha and the Australian state of Western Australia. The krai covers an area of, which is nearly one quarter the size of the entire country of Canada (the next-largest country in the world after Russia), constituting roughly 13% of the Russian Federation's total area and containing a population of 2,828,187, or just under 2% of its population, per the 2010 Census.

克拉斯诺亚尔斯克边疆区()位于西伯利亚中部,是俄罗斯联邦主体之一。根据2005年4月17日的公民投票,两个主体级自治区泰梅尔(多尔干-涅涅茨)自治区和埃文基自治区于2007年1月1日合并入本区。面积2,339,700 km2(俄罗斯第2,占国土面积13%),人口2,966,042(2002年),首府克拉斯诺亚尔斯克。


History.

Madder has been cultivated as a dyestuff since antiquity in central Asia and Egypt, where it was grown as early as 1500 BC. Cloth dyed with madder root pigment was found in the tomb of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun and in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Corinth. In the Middle Ages, Charlemagne encouraged madder cultivation. Madder was widely used as a dye in Western Europe in the Late Medieval centuries. In 17th century England, alizarin was used as a red dye for the clothing of the parliamentary New Model Army. The distinctive red color would continue to be worn for centuries (though also produced by other dyes such as cochineal), giving English and later British soldiers the nickname of "redcoats".  The madder dyestuff is combined with a dye mordant. According to which mordant used, the resulting color may be anywhere from pink through purple to dark brown. In the 18th century the most valued color was a bright red known as "Turkey Red". The combination of mordants and overall technique used to obtain the Turkey Red originated in the Middle East or Turkey (hence the name). It was a complex and multi-step technique in its Middle Eastern formulation, some parts of which were unnecessary. The process was simplified in late 18th-century Europe. By 1804, a dye maker George Field in Britain had refined a technique to make "lake" madder by treating it with alum, and an alkali, that converts the water-soluble madder extract into a solid, insoluble pigment. This resulting "madder lake" has a longer-lasting color, and can be used more efficaciously, for example by blending it into a paint. Over the following years, it was found that other metal salts, including those containing iron, tin, and chromium, could be used in place of alum to give madder-based pigments of various other colors. This general method of preparing lakes has been known for centuries but was simplified in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.  In 1826, the French chemist Pierre-Jean Robiquet found that madder root contained two colorants, the red alizarin and the more rapidly fading purpurin. The alizarin component became the first natural dye to be synthetically duplicated in 1868 when the German chemists Carl Graebe and Carl Liebermann, working for BASF, found a way to produce it from anthracene. About the same time, the English dye chemist William Henry Perkin independently discovered the same synthesis, although the BASF group filed their patent before Perkin by one day. The subsequent discovery (made by Broenner and Gutzhow in 1871) that anthracene could be abstracted from coal tar further advanced the importance and affordability of alizarin's artificial synthesis.  The synthetic alizarin could be produced for a fraction of the cost of the natural product, and the market for madder collapsed virtually overnight. The principal synthesis entailed oxidation of anthraquinone-2-sulfonic acid with sodium nitrate in concentrated sodium hydroxide. Alizarin itself has been in turn largely replaced today by the more light-resistant quinacridone pigments developed at DuPont in 1958.

Structure and properties.

Alizarin is one of ten dihydroxyanthraquinone isomers. It is soluble in hexane and chloroform, and can be obtained from the latter as red-purple crystals, melting point 277–278 °C.  Alizarin changes color depending on the pH of the solution it is in, thereby making it a pH indicator.

Applications.

Alizarin Red is used in a biochemical assay to determine, quantitatively by colorimetry, the presence of calcific deposition by cells of an osteogenic lineage. As such it is an early stage marker (days 10–16 of in vitro culture) of matrix mineralization, a crucial step towards the formation of calcified extracellular matrix associated with true bone.  Alizarin's abilities as a biological stain were first noted in 1567, when it was observed that when fed to animals, it stained their teeth and bones red. The chemical is now commonly used in medical studies involving calcium. Free (ionic) calcium forms precipitates with alizarin, and tissue block containing calcium stain red immediately when immersed in alizarin. Thus, both pure calcium and calcium in bones and other tissues can be stained. These alizarin-stained elements can be better visualized under fluorescent lights, excited by 440–460 nm. The process of staining calcium with alizarin works best when conducted in acidic solution (in many labs, it works better in pH 4.1 to 4.3).  In clinical practice, it is used to stain synovial fluid to assess for basic calcium phosphate crystals. Alizarin has also been used in studies involving bone growth, osteoporosis, bone marrow, calcium deposits in the vascular system, cellular signaling, gene expression, tissue engineering, and mesenchymal stem cells.  In geology, it is used as a stain to differentiate the calcium carbonate minerals, especially calcite and aragonite in thin section or polished surfaces.  Madder lake had been in use as a red pigment in paintings since antiquity.

Alizarin (also known as 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone, Mordant Red 11, C.I. 58000, and Turkey Red) is an organic compound with formula that has been used throughout history as a prominent red dye, principally for dyeing textile fabrics. Historically it was derived from the roots of plants of the madder genus. In 1869, it became the first natural dye to be produced synthetically.

茜素即1,2-二羟基<unk>,是一个常用的染料。橘红色针状晶体或赭黄色粉末。微溶于水,可溶于乙醇、乙醚、吡啶和苯。可从茜草根部提取,但目前一般采用工业合成法得到,是用<unk>-2-磺酸、氢氧化钠与硝酸钾或氯酸钾共熔,或在水溶液加热条件下反应制取。它是第一个通过人工合成得到的天然染料。