Life.

Early life.

While Olga's birthdate is unknown, it could be as early as 890 AD and as late as 925 AD. According to the "Primary Chronicle" Olga was born and lived in Pskov (). Little is known about her life before her marriage to Prince Igor I of Kiev and the birth of their son, Svyatoslav. Igor was the son and heir of Rurik, founder of Rurik dynasty. After his father's death Igor was under guardianship of Oleg, who had consolidated power in the region, conquering neighboring tribes and establishing a capital in Kiev. This loose tribal federation became known as Kievan Rus’, a territory covering what are now parts of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus.  The Drevlians were a neighboring tribe with which the growing Kievan Rus’ empire had a complex relationship. The Drevlians had joined Kievan Rus’ in military campaigns against the Byzantine Empire and paid tribute to Igor's predecessors. They stopped paying tribute upon Oleg's death and instead gave money to a local warlord. In 945, Igor set out to the Drevlian capital, Iskorosten (today known as Korosten in northern Ukraine), to force the tribe to pay tribute to Kievan Rus’. Confronted by Igor's larger army, the Drevlians backed down and paid him. As Igor and his army rode home, however, he decided the payment was not enough and returned, with only a small envoy, seeking more tribute. Upon his arrival in their territory, the Drevlians murdered Igor. According to the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, Igor's death was caused by a gruesome act of torture in which he was “captured by them, tied to tree trunks, and torn in two.” D. Sullivan has suggested that Leo may have invented this sensationalist version of Igor's death, taking inspiration from Diodorus Siculus’ account of a similar killing method used by the robber Sinis, who lived near the Isthmus of Corinth and was killed by Theseus.

Regency.

After Igor's death in 945, Olga ruled Kievan Rus as regent on behalf of their son Svyatoslav. Little is known about Olga’s tenure as ruler of Kiev, but the "Primary Chronicle" does give an account of her accession to the throne and her bloody revenge on the Drevlians for the murder of her husband as well as some insight into her role as civil leader of the Kievan people.  According to archeologist, Knyaginya Olga, like all the other rulers before Vladimir the Great, was also using bident as her personal symbol.

Drevlian Uprising.

After Igor’s death at the hands of the Drevlians, Olga assumed the throne because her three-year-old son Svyatoslav was too young to rule. The Drevlians, emboldened by their success in ambushing and killing the king, sent a messenger to Olga proposing that she marry his murderer, Prince Mal. Twenty Drevlian negotiators boated to Kiev to pass along their king’s message and to ensure Olga’s compliance. They arrived in her court and told the queen why they were in Kiev: “to report that they had slain her husband...and that Olga should come and marry their Prince Mal.” Olga responded:Your proposal is pleasing to me’ indeed, my husband cannot rise again from the dead. But I desire to honor you tomorrow in the presence of my people. Return now to your boat, and remain there with an aspect of arrogance. I shall send for you on the morrow, and you shall say, ‘We will not ride on horses nor go on foot’ carry us in our boat.’ And you shall be carried in your boat.When the Drevlians returned the next day, they waited outside Olga's court to receive the honor she had promised. When they repeated the words she had told them to say, the people of Kiev rose up, carrying the Drevlians in their boat. The ambassadors believed this was a great honor, as if they were being carried by palanquin. The people brought them into the court where they were dropped into a trench that had been dug the day before under Olga’s orders where the ambassadors were buried alive. It is written that Olga bent down to watch them as they were buried and “inquired whether they found the honor to their taste.”  Olga then sent a message to the Drevlians that they should send “their distinguished men to her in Kiev, so that she might go to their Prince with due honor.” The Drevlians, unaware of the fate of the first diplomatic party, gathered another party of men to send “the best men who governed the land of Dereva.” When they arrived, Olga commanded her people to draw them a bath and invited the men to appear before her after they had bathed. When the Drevlians entered the bathhouse, Olga had it set on fire from the doors, so that all the Drevlians within burned to death.  Olga sent another message to the Drevlians, this time ordering them to “prepare great quantities of mead in the city where you killed my husband, that I may weep over his grave and hold a funeral feast for him.” When Olga and a small group of attendants arrived at Igor's tomb, she did indeed weep and hold a funeral feast. The Drevlians sat down to join them and began to drink heavily. When the Drevlians were drunk, she ordered her followers to kill them, “and went about herself egging on her retinue to the massacre of the Drevlians.” According to the "Primary Chronicle", five thousand Drevlians were killed on this night, but Olga returned to Kiev to prepare an army to finish off the survivors.  The initial conflict between the armies of the two nations went very well for the forces of Kievan Rus’, who won the battle handily and drove the survivors back into their cities. Olga then led her army to Iskorosten (what is today Korosten), the city where her husband had been slain, and laid siege to the city. The siege lasted for a year without success, when Olga thought of a plan to trick the Drevlians. She sent them a message: “Why do you persist in holding out? All your cities have surrendered to me and submitted to tribute, so that the inhabitants now cultivate their fields and their lands in peace. But you had rather tide of hunger, without submitting to tribute.” The Drevlians responded that they would submit to tribute, but that they were afraid she was still intent on avenging her husband. Olga answered that the murder of the messengers sent to Kiev, as well as the events of the feast night, had been enough for her. She then asked them for a small request: “Give me three pigeons...and three sparrows from each house.” The Drevlians rejoiced at the prospect of the siege ending for so small a price, and did as she asked.  Olga then instructed her army to attach a piece of sulphur bound with small pieces of cloth to each bird. At nightfall, Olga told her soldiers to set the pieces aflame and release the birds. They returned to their nests within the city, which subsequently set the city ablaze. As the "Primary Chronicle" tells it: “There was not a house that was not consumed, and it was impossible to extinguish the flames, because all the houses caught fire at once.” As the people fled the burning city, Olga ordered her soldiers to catch them, killing some of them and giving the others as slaves to her followers. She left the remnant to pay tribute.

Governance.

Olga remained regent ruler of Kievan Rus with the support of the army and her people. She changed the system of tribute gathering (poliudie) in the first legal reform recorded in Eastern Europe. She continued to evade proposals of marriage, defended the city during the Siege of Kiev in 968, and saved the power of the throne for her son.  After her dramatic subjugation of the Drevlians, the "Primary Chronicle" recounts how Olga “passed through the land of Dereva, accompanied by her son and her retinue, establishing laws and tribute. Her trading posts and hunting-reserves are there still.” As queen, Olga established trading-posts and collected tribute along the Msta and the Luga rivers. She established hunting grounds, boundary posts, towns, and trading-posts across the empire. Olga's work helped to centralize state rule with these trade centers, called "pogosti", which served as administrative centers in addition to their mercantile roles. Olga's network of "pogosti" would prove important in the ethnic and cultural unification of the Russian nation, and her border posts began the establishment of national boundaries for the kingdom.  During her son's prolonged military campaigns, she remained in charge of Kiev, residing in the castle of Vyshgorod with her grandsons.

Christianity.

The "Primary Chronicle" does not go into additional detail about Olga's time as regent, but does tell the story of her conversion to Christianity and subsequent effect on the acceptance of Christianity in Eastern Europe.

Conversion.

In the 950s, Olga traveled to Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, to visit Emperor Constantine VII. Once in Constantinople, Olga converted to Christianity with the assistance of the Emperor and the Patriarch. While the "Primary Chronicle" does not divulge Olga's motivation for her visit or conversion, it does go into great detail on the conversion process, in which she was baptized and instructed in the ways of Christianity:The reigning Emperor was named Constantine, son of Leo. Olga came before him, and when he saw that she was very fair of countenance and wise as well, the Emperor wondered at her intellect. He conversed with her and remarked that she was worthy to reign with him in his city. When Olga heard his words, she replied that she was still a pagan, and that if he desired to baptize her, he should perform this function himself; otherwise, she was unwilling to accept baptism. The Emperor, with the assistance of the Patriarch, accordingly baptized her. When Olga was enlightened, she rejoiced in soul and body. The Patriarch, who instructed her in the faith, said to her, ‘Blessed art thou among the women of Rus’, for thou hast loved the light, and quit the darkness. The sons of Rus’ shall bless thee to the last generation of thy descendants.’ He taught her the doctrine of the Church, and instructed her in prayer and fasting, in almsgiving, and in the maintenance of chastity. She bowed her head, and like a sponge absorbing water, she eagerly drank in his teachings. The Princess bowed before the Patriarch, saying, ‘Through thy prayers, Holy Father, may I be preserved from the crafts and assaults of the devil!’ At her baptism she was christened Helena, after the ancient Empress, mother of Constantine the Great. The Patriarch then blessed her and dismissed her.While the "Primary Chronicle" notes that Olga was christened with the name “Helena” after the ancient Saint Helena (the mother of Constantine the Great), Jonathan Shepard argues that Olga's baptismal name comes from the contemporary emperor's wife, Helena.  The observation that Olga was “worthy to reign with him in his city” suggests that the emperor was interested in marrying her. While the "Chronicle" explains Constantine's desire to take Olga as his wife as stemming from the fact that she was “fair of countenance and wise as well,” marrying Olga could certainly have helped him gain power over Rus’. The "Chronicle" recounts that Olga asked the emperor to baptize her knowing that his baptismal sponsorship, by the rules of spiritual kinship, would make marriage between them a kind of spiritual incest. Though her desire to become Christian may have been genuine, this request was also a way for her to maintain political independence. After the baptism, when Constantine repeated his marriage proposal, Olga answered that she could not marry him since Church law forbade a goddaughter to marry her godfather:After her baptism, the Emperor summoned Olga and made known to her that he wished her to become his wife. But she replied, ‘How can you marry me, after yourself baptizing me and calling me your daughter? For among Christians that is unlawful, as you yourself must know.’ Then the Emperor said, ‘Olga, you have outwitted me.’ He gave her many gifts of gold, silver, silks, and various vases, and dismissed her, still calling her his daughter.Francis Butler argues that the story of the proposal was a literary embellishment, describing an event that is highly unlikely to have ever actually occurred. In fact, at the time of her baptism, Constantine already had an empress. In addition to uncertainty over the truth of the "Chronicle"’s telling of events in Constantinople, there is controversy over the details of her conversion to Christianity. According to Russian sources, she was baptized in Constantinople in 957. Byzantine sources, however, indicate that she was a Christian prior to her 957 visit. It seems likely that she was baptized in Kiev around 955 and, following a second christening in Constantinople, took the Christian name Helen. Olga was not the first person from Rus’ to convert from her pagan ways-- there were Christians in Igor's court who had taken oaths at the St. Elias Church in Kiev for the Rus'–Byzantine Treaty in 945--but she was the most powerful Rus’ individual to undergo baptism during her life.

Efforts to Christianize Kievan Rus'.

"The Primary" "Chronicle" reports that Olga received the Patriarch's blessing for her journey home, and that once she arrived, she unsuccessfully attempted to convert her son to Christianity:Now Olga dwelt with her son Svyatoslav, and she urged him to be baptized, but he would not listen to her suggestion, though when any man wished to be baptized, he was not hindered, but only mocked. For to the infidels, the Christian faith is foolishness. They do not comprehend it, because they walk in darkness and do not see the glory of God. Their hearts are hardened, and they can neither hear with their ears nor see with their eyes. For Solomon has said, ‘The deeds of the unrighteous are far from wisdom. Inasmuch as I have called you, and ye heard me not, I sharpened my words, and ye understood not. But ye have set at nought all my counsel, and would have none of my reproach. For they have hated knowledge, and the fear of Jehovah they have not chosen. They would none of my counsel, but despised all my reproof.This passage highlights the hostility towards Christianity in Kievan Rus’ in the tenth century. In the "Chronicle," Svyatoslav declares that his followers would “laugh” if he were to accept Christianity. While Olga tried to convince her son that his followers would follow his example if he converted, her efforts were in vain. However, her son agreed not to persecute those in his kingdom who did convert, which marked a crucial turning point for Christianity in the area. Despite the resistance of her people to Christianity, Olga built churches in Kiev, Pskov, and elsewhere.

Relations with the Holy Roman Emperor.

Seven Latin sources document Olga's embassy to Holy Roman Emperor Otto I in 959. The continuation of Regino of Prüm mentions that the envoys requested the emperor to appoint a bishop and priests for their nation. The chronicler accuses the envoys of lies, commenting that their trick was not exposed until later. Thietmar of Merseburg says that the first archbishop of Magdeburg, Saint Adalbert of Magdeburg, before being promoted to this high rank, was sent by Emperor Otto to the country of the Rus' ("Rusciae") as a simple bishop but was expelled by pagan allies of Svyatoslav I. The same data is repeated in the annals of Quedlinburg and Hildesheim.  In 2018, Russian historian and writer Boris Akunin pointed out the importance 2-year gap between invitation and arrival of bishops: "The failure of Olga’s Byzantine trip has inflicted a severe blow to her party. The Grand Knyaginya made a second attempt to find a Christian patron, now in the West. But it seems, in the period between the sending of the embassy to Emperor Otto in 959 and the arrival of Adalbert in Kiev in 961, a bloodless coup took place. Pagan party prevailed, the young Sviatoslav pushed his mother into the background, and that's why the German bishops had to return empty-handed."  According to Russian historian Vladimir Petrukhin, Olga has invited Roman Catholic bishops because she wanted to motivate Byzantine Orthodox priests for more enthusiastic catechization of Rus' people, by the competition.

Death.

According to the "Primary Chronicle", Olga died from illness in 969, soon after the Pechenegs' siege of the city. When Svyatoslav announced plans to move his throne to the Danube region, the ailing Olga convinced him to stay with her during her final days. Only three days later, she passed away and her family and all of Kievan Rus’ wept:Svyatoslav announced to his mother and his boyars, ‘I do not care to remain in Kiev, but should prefer to live in Perya-slavets on the Danube, since that is the centre of my realm, where all riches are concentrated; gold, silks, wine, and various fruits from Greece, silver and horses from Hungary and Bohemia, and from Rus’ furs, wax, honey, and slaves.’ But Olga made reply, ‘You behold me in my weakness. Why do you desire to depart from me?’ For she was already in precarious health. She thus remonstrated with him and begged him first to bury her and then to go wheresoever he would. Three days later Olga died. Her son wept for her with great mourning, as did likewise her grandsons and all the people. They thus carried her out, and buried her in her tomb. Olga had given command not to hold a funeral feast for her, for she had a priest who performed the last rites over the sainted Princess.Although he disapproved of his mother's Christian tradition, Svyatoslav heeded Olga's request that her priest, Gregory, conduct a Christian funeral without the ritual pagan burial feast. Her tomb remained in Kiev for over two centuries, but was destroyed by the Mongolian-Tatar armies of Batu Khan in 1240.

Legacy.

Sainthood.

At the time of her death, it seemed that Olga's attempt to make Kievan Rus’ a Christian territory had been a failure. Nonetheless, Olga's Christianizing mission would be brought to fruition by her grandson, Vladimir, who officially adopted Christianity in 988. The "Primary Chronicle" highlights Olga's holiness in contrast to the pagans around her during her life as well as the significance of her decision to convert to Christianity:Olga was the precursor of the Christian land, even as the day-spring precedes the sun and as the dawn precedes the day. For she shone like the moon by night, and she was radiant among the infidels like a pearl in the mire, since the people were soiled, and not yet purified of their sin by holy baptism. But she herself was cleansed by this sacred purification.... She was the first from Rus’ to enter the kingdom of God, and the son of Rus’ thus praise her as their leader, for since her death she has interceded with God in their behalf.In 1547, nearly 600 years after her 969 death, the Russian Orthodox Church named Olga a saint. Because of her proselytizing influence, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church, and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church call Saint Olga by the honorific Isapóstolos, "Equal to the Apostles". She is also a saint in the Roman Catholic Church. Olga's feast day is July 11th, the date of her death. In keeping with her own biography, she is the patron of widows and converts.  Olga is venerated as Saint in East Slavic-speaking countries where churches uses the Byzantine Rite: Eastern Orthodox Church (especially in Russian Orthodox Church), Greek Catholic Church (especially in the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church), in churches with Byzantine Rite Lutheranism, in Roman Catholic Church in Russia (Latin rite)

Modern reception.

As an important figure in the history of Christianity, Olga's image as a saint lives on. But the question of Olga as a historical figure and character in the "Primary Chronicle" has been taken up in recent years.  Olga's historical characterization as a vengeful princess, juxtaposed with her estimation within the Orthodox tradition as a saint, has produced a variety of modern interpretations of her story. Scholars tend to be more conservative with their interpretations, focusing on what the "Primary Chronicle" makes explicit: Olga's role in the spread of Christianity to Eastern Europe and Russia. These texts, generally speaking, focus on Olga's role as advisor to her son, whose decision not to persecute Christians in the Kievan Rus' was a pivotal moment in the religious history of Russia and its neighboring lands. Academic work on Olga tends not to dwell on the narrative twists and turns of her story, instead focusing on extracting historical facts from the story.  Modern publications, however, have focused on her as an historical character. Journalists have penned articles with titles ranging from “Saint Olga of Kiev is the Best Warrior Princess You Never Knew” to “Meet the Murderous Viking Princess Who Brought the Faith to Eastern Europe.” These texts, written for a broader audience, tend to focus on Olga's exploits as a sort of historical drama. Her Viking heritage is always brought up, and often used as an explanation for her fiery spirit and military accomplishments. Authors focus on the most dramatic details of her story: her murder of two Drevlian negotiating groups, her wily deception of the Drevlian ruler, and her ultimate conquest of his people. A number of sources make her out to be a proto-feminist figure, a woman who did not allow contemporaneous expectations of gender roles to lock her out of the leadership role. Because there is little evidence to support the idea that Olga's rule was ever questioned by her people, this characterization of her rule is a medievalism — that is, an assumption made about history based not on facts but on preconceptions about the past, in this case the rigid relationship between gender and medieval rulership.  Though a number of these contemporary sources refer to Olga as a “warrior princess,” there is little evidence to suggest she actually participated in the fighting and killing of her enemies. Based on historical precedent, it is more likely that she was a commander of troops, a sort of general or commander-in-chief, than a warrior of particular skill. These assertions have still made their way into the public imagination, however, as evidenced by the appropriation of her image in the Eastern European heavy metal scene.  This duality of Olga's character — on the one hand a venerated saint, on the other a bloodthirsty commander of troops — has made her an attractive figure for subversive artists. Her image has been taken up in the heavy metal scene in some cases, most notably as the muse and cover figure for A Perfect Absolution, a concept album by French band Gorod about Olga of Kiev.  According to Russian politician Vladimir Medinsky, the influence of Olga's image as a ruler is underappreciated among the feminists: "Logically, Olga should have been a feminist icon. At least, Russian feminist icon. To stand up and throw a boat full of guys into a pit. And to bury them. Unfortunately (or maybe, in this case, fortunately), Russian ladies, the regular consumers of "Cosmopolitan" and "Sex & the City", do not know the history well. Seriously speaking, the fact of the second ruler of Russia being female is surprisingly poorly mastered by the public consciousness... For sure, the memory about Olga will be refreshed, alongside Catherine the Great's." Medinsky also pointed out Olga's successful political PR: "For politicians, it is very important to be perceived as wise and cunning. In their case, these two qualities merge and make them seem exceptional. And in this sense, Olga is the most successful politician of Ancient Russia. Her image of both clever and cunning has survived through the ages."  According to Russian historian Boris Akunin, the facts about Olga can be relatively clearly separated from the legends. For him, it's only plausible she's murdered the envoys who wanted to replace her husband Igor with their Prince Mal, as Iskorosten was just two days of the ride from Kiev, so it was impossible to conceal the first public murder. It's also obvious she's reconquered Drevlians. On the contrary, her large-scale administrative-economical reforms have had some controversial implications: "Olga has secured for herself "traps" () (hunting lands) and "camps" () (guesting places). She was generally very concerned about the separation of her personal property from the state. It gave the Grand Knyazes the opportunity to dispose of the funds more voluntary, but at the same time it has inserted a time bomb into the centralized state: after a period of time, the division of the country into “Grand Kniaz's” and “non-Grand-Kniaz's” parts will become one of the reasons for Kievan Rus' collapse. However, for the next 100 years, Olga had secured her family's power and wealth."

Saint Olga (, in the baptism — Elena; born c. 890–925, in Pskov – died 969 AD in Kiev) was a regent of Kievan Rus' for her son Svyatoslav from 945 until 960. Due to the imperfect transliteration between Old East Slavic and the English language, the name Olga is synonymous with Olha. The baptism of Olga took the name Elenа. She is known for her obliteration of the Drevlians, a tribe that had killed her husband Igor of Kiev. Even though it would be her grandson Vladimir that would convert the entire nation to Christianity, because of her efforts to spread Christianity through Rus’, Olga is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church with the epithet "Equal to the Apostles" and her feast day is the 11th of July.

圣奥丽加(俄语:Св. Ольга;890年-969年-7月11日)古罗斯国女政治家,基辅大公伊戈尔的夫人,斯维亚托斯拉夫·伊戈列维奇大公的母亲和摄政(945年—957年)。


Development.

In 1940, Captain M. S. Slattery RN, Director of Air Material at the Admiralty, proposed a scheme for converting merchant ships into aircraft carriers as a follow-up to the CAM ship project. Slattery proposed fitting a flight deck equipped with two arrester wires and a safety barrier onto an existing merchant ship hull. The resulting 'auxiliary fighter carrier' would be capable of operating six Hurricane fighters while retaining its cargo-carrying ability. The stumbling block for Slattery's proposal turned out to be objections from the Ministry of Supply that combining the merchant and aircraft carrier roles would be too complicated. While this would turn out to be over-stated, it seems to have had the effect of diverting attention away from the idea of hybrid merchant-warships towards the alternative of converting merchant ships into fully-fledged warships designated 'auxiliary aircraft carriers', the first of which, converted from the captured German cargo ship "Hannover", entered service as "Empire Audacity" (later "HMS Audacity") in June 1941.  The hybrid concept re-emerged early in 1942 when, in the face of mounting losses from U-boat attacks, it became apparent that escort carriers building in the US could not be delivered quickly enough in the numbers required. Various people have been credited with re-inventing the idea, including Captain B. B. Schofield RN, Director Trade Division, and John Lamb, Marine Technical Manager of the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company. Sir James Lithgow, Controller of Merchant Shipbuilding and Repair and joint-owner of Lithgows Ltd, the Clyde-based shipbuilders, also helped overcome Admiralty reservations about MACs. Lithgow is said to have sketched a rough design for one on the back of an envelope and offered to convert two ships about to be built at his family's shipyard on condition that "I am not interfered with by the Admiralty". While the timing of Lithgow's possibly apocryphal intervention is uncertain, his deputy, Sir Amos Ayre, the Director of Merchant Shipbuilding, was certainly discussing the requirements for MACs by May 1942. Ayre himself credits Sir Douglas Thomson of Ben Line and the Ministry of War Transport with having first suggested the idea.  There was some initial resistance to the MAC concept, in particular through concerns about operating aircraft from short, relatively slow ships. The Admiralty considered that a flight deck length of was needed for safe take-offs and landings and a speed of 15 kn. to provide a sufficient margin over convoy speeds and they were especially doubtful that tankers, with their low freeboards and volatile cargoes, could be utilised.<ref name="TNA MT59/1966(290642)">TNA:PRO, MT 59/1966, Minute dated 29 June 1942</ref> As the U-boat situation worsened, however, such concerns were out-weighed by the urgent need to provide convoy air support, and once it was accepted that the grain ship variant at least could be made to work, the Admiralty became more enthusiastic about the project.  By September 1942, the Admiralty was asking for 'about 50' MACs to be made available, to allow one to be included in every North Atlantic convoy and in October the requirement was set at 52. This ambitious target had been scaled back to 40 by the time the MAC project was formally endorsed by the War Cabinet in October 1942, but it was apparent that even this reduced number could not be produced sufficiently quickly without American help.<ref name="TNA FO371/32584(271042)">TNA:PRO, FO 371/32584, Construction of Merchant Aircraft Carriers: Joint Memorandum by First Lord of the Admiralty and Minister of War Transport dated 27 October 1942.</ref> The US was therefore asked to begin construction of 30 MACs to be delivered during the first half of 1943, but a Navy Department committee specially formed to consider the request turned it down because of concerns about the experimental nature of the ships. In the event, all the MACs were built and/or converted in British shipyards.

Conversion programme.

The first two MACs were ordered in June 1942 from the Burntisland Shipbuilding Company on the Firth of Forth and William Denny & Brothers of Dumbarton. These ships, which were not strictly conversions but brand-new grain ships that had not yet been laid down, would eventually enter service as "Empire MacAlpine" and "Empire MacAndrew" respectively. "Empire MacAlpine" was launched on 23 December 1942 and completed more-or-less on schedule on 21 April 1943. Five more new-build grain ships, "Empire MacAndrew", "Empire MacRae", "Empire MacCallum", "Empire MacKendrick" and "Empire MacDermott" followed at approximately two-month intervals, "Empire MacDermott" entering service in March 1944.  By late September 1942 it was finally agreed that tanker-MACs could be operated safely subject to various limitations about the cargoes they would be allowed to carry. Four new-build tankers were scheduled for conversion but work on these did not start until May 1943. "Empire MacKay" entered service in October 1943, followed at intervals by "Empire MacCabe", "Empire MacMahon" and "Empire MacColl" in November 1943. Additional hulls were still needed, however, and it was decided that existing tankers would have to be withdrawn from trade. The most efficient way to approach the task of converting these was to select ships of similar design and, at the beginning of 1943, the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company, which had actively promoted the MAC concept, offered up its entire fleet of British-registered 'Triple Twelve' tankers (sometimes referred to as the "Rapana" class) for government charter.  The desirability of converting foreign-owned tankers was also considered and in January 1943 the Ministry of War Transport asked the Norwegian government-in-exile if the modern Norwegian tanker "B.P. Newton" could be converted to a MAC under British command. The initial response was not helpful with Norway insisting on financial arrangements that War Transport officials described as "wholly unreasonable as between allies", but although these were later ameliorated, the proposal eventually foundered because the design effort was judged too much for what would have been a one-off conversion. At about the same time however, a further three tankers of the same class as the Anglo-Saxon 'Triple Twelves' were identified operating under Dutch registry (Anglo-Saxon Petroleum was a subsidiary of Royal Dutch Shell). The Netherlands authorities approved the British request but on condition that the ships, as MACs, would fly the Dutch flag and be under Dutch civilian command to which the Admiralty, citing potential language difficulties, only reluctantly agreed. In the event, only two of the Dutch ships were taken up as MACs but these, "Gadila" and "Macoma", crewed entirely by Dutch merchant seamen and with aircraft flights drawn from the Royal Netherlands Navy-manned 860 Naval Air Squadron would have the distinction of becoming the Netherlands' first aircraft carriers.

Civilian status.

Despite their military appearance and combatant function, MACs were civilian ships that did not appear in the "Navy List" nor were they commanded by commissioned officers: this unusual status is one of their defining characteristics. The hybrid nature of the MACs raised from the outset the question of whether they would be commissioned warships like the new escort carriers, or if they would operate as merchant ships under the Red Ensign like the earlier CAM ships. The Admiralty's preference was to operate them as regular warships but it soon became clear that there were not enough personnel available to man them to naval standards without causing serious shortfalls in other areas, in particular the large numbers of escort carriers that would soon arrive. The Admiralty and Ministry of War Transport therefore agreed that the MACs would be civilian-manned. Serious reservations about the proposed civilian status were raised, however, by Foreign Office officials, who were concerned that the ships would be "de facto" warships under international law but, without the protection afforded by the 1907 Hague Convention which applied only to members of the armed forces, their civilian crews would be liable to be treated as unlawful combatants, or "francs-tireurs". The potential for such action had been clearly demonstrated by the execution in 1916 of Captain Charles Fryatt, for attempting to ram a U-boat with his cross-Channel ferry. The risk to MAC crews was considered so great that it was explicitly put before the War Cabinet:  The War Cabinet ordered a review of the situation but the manning difficulties could not be resolved. The Foreign Office reluctantly agreed that the MACs would have to operate under the Red Ensign, provided that the merchant seamen and their unions were made aware of the risks involved, and that every possible precaution would be taken to ensure that the men did not fall into enemy hands. In the event, there is little to suggest that the MACs' crews were ever formally notified that they might be at special risk. There is evidence, however, that the authorities remained sensitive about the status of MAC ships which were specifically excluded from the publicity that was arranged for other'special service' merchant ships, e.g. rescue ships. As late as September 1944, masters were reminded to point out to their crews the need to maintain secrecy about the MACs' operations and functions.

Ship details.

The new-build grain ship MACs were based on the Ministry of War Transport's standard tramp hull which could just accommodate the Admiralty's revised requirement for a flight deck of not less than length and breadth: they were eventually built with flight decks of between. The standard design used for the new-build tankers enabled a longer flight deck of approximately with minor variations between individual ships. An important enhancement was specified for the MACs' machinery. A standard diesel tramp engine developed to give a service speed of 11 kn. but to provide some margin for flying operations, all the new-build MACs were fitted with engines rated at which, in the grain ships, produced a speed of about 12 kn. The new-build tankers with their higher displacements were still capable of 11 kn. as were the pre-existing 'Triple Twelves'. The most obvious modification was the flight deck and its supporting structure which was arranged in sections (three on the grain ships; four in the case of tankers) with expansion joints between each. The flight deck was built at the level that would normally have been occupied by the wheelhouse and in the 'Triple Twelves' this entailed removal of the existing wheelhouse and the funnel. The space immediately under the flight deck was utilised for the arrester gear mechanisms, four wires to each MAC with an additional unit fitted to the tankers to operate the trickle wire and safety barrier. A small island structure contained the bridge and wheelhouse and, in the tanker MACs, a chartroom that could be used as a pilots' briefing room. Less apparent modifications included; accommodation for 107 crew (about 50 more than normal); improved internal subdivision; additional ventilation, including exhaust arrangements that could be adjusted to vent to the leeward side; changes to lifeboat positions; and magazines for the safe stowage of bombs, depth charges, ammunition and pyrotechnics. There were minor variations between the types. In the grain MACs, the armament sponsons or 'zarebas' could not project outboard of the moulded line of the hull which necessitated them encroaching onto the flight deck area so that the ship would not be prevented from using commercial berths, but this constraint did not apply to the tankers whose zarebas were extended outboard of the side. One centre cargo tank in each tanker was adapted for the carriage of aircraft fuel (or 'Avgas') but in the grain ships this necessitated a special compartment containing two pressurised fuel tanks, together with a control room and associated piping.  The most significant difference between the grain ship and tanker MACs was the provision of hangar space within the grain ships. The three after holds were converted to provide a hangar long, wide to a height of in which the ship's full complement of four Swordfish aircraft could be stowed with wings folded. An elevator platform could lift a fully loaded aircraft from hangar to deck level in less than a minute. It was impracticable to fit tanker MACs with a hangar as this would have entailed very extensive structural alterations and a significant reduction in cargo capacity. Although capable of operating four aircraft, tanker MACs normally embarked three, which all had to be kept on deck: parked aircraft had to be moved to the forward end when other aircraft were landing on, and a collapsible safety barrier was fitted to prevent collisions. Hinged side screens or 'palisades' were fitted around the aft end of the flight deck to provide weather protection for parked aircraft but with only limited effect.  The net result of the modifications was a reduction in cargo capacity of about 10 per cent in the case of the tankers, but almost 30 per cent for the grain ships, the higher figure on account of the space taken up by the hangar. The modifications themselves were conceptually simple and with standardised designs and extensive use (about 51 per cent by weight of steel) of prefabricated components, the average conversion time was just over five months, but there were significant differences between the average time required to convert new-builds (about 14 weeks) and existing ships (about 27 weeks). There were wide variations within groups; the first 'Triple Twelve', "Rapana", was converted in five months while the final one, "Macoma", took ten months. Delays arose through a variety of reasons, including labour relations and conflicting priorities in the shipyards, but the supply of arrester gear which was also in high demand for the escort carrier programme was a particular bottleneck that limited the rate at which MACs could be completed. The 'Triple Twelves' retained their original names, but the new-builds were prefixed "Empire" in accordance with the policy for ships owned by the Ministry of War Transport and names that began with "Mac-", in a reference to their designation as MACs. "Empire MacKendrick" which was originally to have been named "Empire MacKenzie" had the unusual distinction of being renamed while still under construction in tribute to "HMS Audacity", whose captain, Commander D. W. McKendrick RN, had been killed when she was sunk on convoy escort duty in 1941. Eventually, to avoid confusion with ordinary merchant ships, the Admiralty formally directed that MACs should be designated 'MAC Ship' in all correspondence.

Cargo arrangements.

Although the most distinctive feature of MACs is their aircraft carrier function, they were conceived at a time when a shortage of shipping capacity threatened to undermine the Allied invasion of North Africa and beyond, and careful planning was needed to maximise their military effectiveness with as little detriment as possible to the carriage of cargo. In their trading role, MACs operated under the aegis of the Ministry of War Transport, with day-to-day management falling to their owners or allotted shipping companies, while control of military aspects fell to the Admiralty, with a new section (the Trade Division DEMS Air Section) specially set up to act as co-ordinating authority. The MACs operated on the North Atlantic route primarily in support of the 'ON' and 'HX' series of convoys. An alternative plan to operate tanker MACs with CU convoys between the United Kingdom and Curaçao was rejected because convoys on that route were too fast.<ref name="TNA ADM1/13087(040343)">TNA:PRO, ADM 1/13087, Minute by DTD dated 4 March 1943.</ref> Tankers on the North Atlantic route ordinarily loaded at New York City, but this was undesirable for the MACs because it would have been militarily wasteful to run them between the ON/HX landfall port of Halifax, Nova Scotia and New York, where convoys were already under the umbrella of land-based aircraft. An 'oil pool' was therefore established at Halifax specifically to enable the tanker MACs to load there, while grain MACs were already able to use the port's pre-existing bulk loading facility. The Firth of Clyde was initially designated as the UK terminus for all MAC cargoes because of its superior aviation training facilities. On discovering that it would take more than a week to unload a single ship at the un-modernised facility in Glasgow, it was decided that grain MACs would discharge at Alexandra Dock, Liverpool, where two grain ships could be unloaded simultaneously in thirty-six hours. Tanker MACs normally discharged on the Clyde, with the Mersey as an alternative.

Aviation arrangements.

There were widely differing opinions about the arrangements needed to support the MACs' aviation function. The Director of Trade Division, who had overall responsibility for co-ordination within the Admiralty, envisaged forming a new headquarters organisation to oversee MAC aviation. The Director of Naval Air Organisation disagreed on the basis that MACs were an adjunct to the main escort carrier programme, and said that their aircraft should be provided on an ad hoc basis from the squadrons earmarked for escort carriers, having earlier suggested that there might be few, if any, aircraft and crews available for MACs. However, the unfortunate loss of HMS "Dasher" in March 1943 freed up a squadron's-worth of Swordfish aircraft and in June, just after "Empire MacAlpine" entered service, it was announced that No. 836 Naval Air Squadron (NAS) was to relocate from Machrihanish to Belfast in Northern Ireland with nine aircraft as a core for the MAC ships, in addition to providing a common pool for the escort carriers. Before this could be put into place, it was decided that 836 NAS would move instead to Royal Naval Air Station (RNAS) Maydown, near Londonderry (later named HMS "Shrike") to become the nucleus squadron for MACs and that the MAC headquarters unit would be formed there. 840 Naval Air Squadron operated briefly from "Empire MacAndrew" until reorganised as M flight of 836 Squadron in August 1943. Also based at Maydown would be the Royal Netherlands Navy-manned No. 860 Naval Air Squadron, responsible for providing aircraft for the two Dutch MAC ships, "Gadila" and "Macoma"

Aircraft.

The only aircraft types to be flown operationally from MACs were the Fairey Swordfish Mks. II and III. The flight deck was not much wider than the Swordfish wing span, and a Swordfish fully loaded with rockets and depth charges might require rocket-assisted take-off gear (RATOG) to launch in unfavourable wind conditions. The normal complement of aircraft was four on grain ships and three on tankers. The tankers were capable of routinely carrying four aircraft and the Dutch MACs "Gadila" and "Macoma" did so on a number of occasions, while the only report of four aircraft on board a British tanker related to an emergency diversion. Lieutenant (later Captain) Eric "Winkle" Brown made a trial landing of a Martlet fighter onto "Amastra" in October 1943 when the use of MACs in the Pacific was being briefly considered.

MAC crews.

MAC crews were substantially larger than ordinary merchant ships of similar types. In addition to the air party, they carried extra Merchant Navy radio officers, engineer officers (to maintain and operate the arrester gear), catering staff and, because the total number of crew would exceed 100, a doctor, as required by the Merchant Shipping Act. In practice, it proved difficult to find civilian doctors and medical officers were normally provided by the Royal Navy.

Air party.

The air party were responsible for flying and supporting the aircraft. The official manning scale comprised a lieutenant commander RN or RNVR who, as Air Staff Officer, was the master's principal adviser on naval and aviation matters; a pilot, observer and air gunner for each aircraft carried; three signalmen; five communications and armament ratings; and at least seventeen aircraft fitters. A seventeen-strong DEMS team of RN and Royal Artillery personnel looked after the MAC's substantial defensive armament. To comply with the Board of Trade regulations, all naval and military personnel were signed onto the ship's Articles as supernumerary crew members, for which they received a nominal payment of one shilling per month and the more tangible reward of one can of beer per day. They also received a small 'Merchant Navy' badge, which many apparently wore on their uniforms with cheerful disregard for regulations.

Operational effectiveness.

By the time the MACs entered service the Battle of the Atlantic had already swung permanently in the Allies' favour through a variety of converging factors. From the beginning of 1944 almost every ON and HX convoy contained at least one MAC and frequently more. Although MAC Swordfish made a dozen attacks, no U-boat was ever destroyed by the four thousand sorties flown from the nineteen MACs. Nevertheless, according to the official Naval Staff History:  It is sometimes claimed that MACs enjoyed a near-perfect record in preventing U-boat attacks. In fact, a number of ships were lost to U-boats while sailing in convoys protected by MACs, including six merchantmen and three escorts from the combined convoys ONS 18/ON 202, despite the presence of MAC Ship "Empire MacAlpine" and two merchantmen and an escort from SC 143 protected by "Rapana". There can be little doubt, however, that the MACs' contribution to the Battle of the Atlantic was important and highly valued by the seafarers they protected. Merchant ship masters at a pre-convoy conference are said to have cheered when told that a MAC ship would be sailing with the convoy.  Early in 1944 it was agreed that MACs could be used to help clear a backlog of more than 500 aircraft awaiting shipment to the United Kingdom and, as the year progressed, a number of MACs made non-operational ferry crossings with full deck cargoes of aircraft. In September 1944, some MACs were fitted with equipment to refuel escorts by means of a hose streamed over the stern. By this time it was becoming apparent that all nineteen MACs were no longer required to protect Atlantic convoys. The possibility of using them in the Pacific as aircraft carriers or fleet oilers had been considered earlier but rejected on the grounds of cost-effectiveness and in September/October 1944, "Acavus", "Amastra", "Ancylus" and "Rapana" were taken out of service for reinstatement as conventional merchant ships at an estimated cost to the Government of £40,000 each. The remaining MACs were released for reinstatement at the end of May 1945.

MAC Ships.

New-build grain carriers.

Approximately 8,000 tons deep load, 12 knots, 4 aircraft, crew 107, entered service April 1943 – March 1944. Operated by the Hain Steamship Company except "Empire MacAlpine" and "Empire MacKendrick" which were operated by Ben Line Steamers. Equipped with hangar and lift. Armament: 1 x single 4 in (102 mm) QF MK IV, 2 x single 40 mm Bofors, 4 x single 20 mm Oerlikon cannons.

New-build oil tankers.

Approximately 9,000 tons deep load, 11 knots, 3/4 aircraft, crew 122, entered service October – December 1943. Operated by the British Tanker Company except "Empire MacKay" which was operated by Anglo Saxon Petroleum. No hangar and lift; aircraft maintained and stored on deck. Armament: 1 x single 4 in (102 mm) QF MK IV, 8 x single 20 mm Oerlikon cannons.

'Triple Twelve' oil tankers.

8,000 tons standard, 16,000 tons deep load, 12 knots, 3/4 aircraft, crew 118 (64 RN plus 54 MN), entered service (as MACs) July 1943 – May 1944. Operated by Anglo Saxon Petroleum except "Gadila" and "Macoma" which were under Dutch registry. No hangar and lift; aircraft maintained and stored on deck. Armament: 1 x single 4 in (102 mm) QF MK IV, 2 x single 40 mm Bofors, 6 x single 20 mm Oerlikon cannons. These ships were called "Triple Twelves" because with a deadweight tonnage of 12,000 each consumed 12 tons of fuel per day at a speed of twelve knots.  "Amastra" and "Ancylus" ceased operating Swordfish in late 1944, the empty decks often being used to ferry aircraft from the US to the UK.

A merchant aircraft carrier (also known as a MAC) was a limited-purpose aircraft carrier operated under British and Dutch civilian registry during World War II. MACs were adapted by adding a flight deck to a bulk grain ship or oil tanker enabling it to operate anti-submarine aircraft in support of Allied convoys during the Battle of the Atlantic.

商船航空母舰(MAC)是二战中英国皇家海军和荷兰海军的加装了最低限度航空设备的大型货轮或油轮,用作护航航空母舰的补充。。与护航空母相比,最主要的分别在于商船空母仍然保留货运能力。而运用上商船空母会与商船混合编队,而护航空母则会在商船的视野外编成护航舰队。它们建造的本来意图就是在护航航母大批入役前充当过渡舰只。


Early life.

Anderson was born in Chicago, Illinois, the daughter of Rosemary "Posie" Alyce ("née" Lane), a computer analyst, and Homer Edward "Ed" Anderson III, who owned a film post-production company. She is of English, German, and Irish ancestry. Soon after her birth, her parents moved to Puerto Rico for 15 months, then to London. The family relocated so that her father could attend the London Film School. During her childhood, she lived in north London's Crouch End and Harringay. She was a pupil of Coleridge Primary School. When Anderson was 11 years old, her family returned to the United States, settling in Grand Rapids, Michigan. They continued to keep a flat in London, and spent their summers there. Anderson later said that she had always intended to return to England. In Grand Rapids, she attended Fountain Elementary and City High-Middle School, a program for gifted students with a strong emphasis on the humanities.  Following the move to Grand Rapids, Anderson went through a rebellious stage as a teenager; taking drugs, dating a much older boyfriend, and cultivating a punk appearance (dyeing her hair various colors, shaving the sides of her head, sporting a nose piercing and an all-black wardrobe). She was put in therapy at the age of 14. Anderson listened to bands such as Dead Kennedys and Skinny Puppy. She was voted by her classmates as "class clown", "most bizarre girl" and "most likely to be arrested". She was arrested on graduation night for breaking and entering into her high school in an attempt to glue the locks of the doors. She later managed to reduce the charges to trespassing.  At an early age Anderson was interested in marine biology, but after becoming interested in theatre during her teenage years, she began acting in high school productions during her first year and later in community theatre. She also served as a student intern at the Grand Rapids Civic Theatre & School of Theatre Arts. After graduating from high school in 1986, she attended The Theatre School at DePaul University in Chicago, where she earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts in 1990. Anderson also participated in the National Theatre of Great Britain's summer program at Cornell University. To support herself financially during her student years, she worked at the Goose Island Brewpub in Chicago. After Anderson became famous, the brewery named one of their beers after her – a Belgian Style Farmhouse Ale, simply called "Gillian".  Anderson is the eldest of three siblings. Her brother Aaron – who was diagnosed with neurofibromatosis – died in 2011 of a brain tumor, at the age of 30. Aaron was a DJ, a mentor, and a practicing Buddhist. He was in his second year of a PhD program in Developmental Psychology at Stanford University when he was diagnosed with glioblastoma in 2008. Her sister Zoe is a ceramicist, whom Anderson calls "an exceptional artist". Zoe is openly gay and is married to her partner.  Anderson is bidialectal. With her English accent and background, she was mocked and felt out of place as a teenager in the American Midwest and soon adopted a Midwestern accent. To this day, she easily shifts between her American and English accents. In May 2013, during an interview with BlogTalkRadio, Anderson addressed the matter of her national identity: "I've been asked whether I feel more like a Brit than an American and I don't know what the answer to that question is. I know that I feel that London is home and I'm very happy with that as my home. I love London as a city and I feel very comfortable there. In terms of identity, I'm still a bit baffled."

Career.

1990s.

Anderson moved to New York when she was 22 years old. To support herself as she started her career, she worked as a waitress. She began her career in Alan Ayckbourn's play "Absent Friends" at the Manhattan Theatre Club alongside Brenda Blethyn; for her role she won the 1990–91 Theatre World Award for "Best Newcomer". Her next theatrical role was in Christopher Hampton's "The Philanthropist" at the Long Wharf Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut.  Anderson moved to Los Angeles in 1992, and spent a year auditioning. The same year, she appeared in her first feature-length film, "The Turning", starring Karen Allen and Tess Harper. The film drama is an adaptation of the play "Home Fires Burning".  Although she had once vowed she would never do television work, being out of work for a year changed her mind. Anderson recalled: "First of all, I swore I'd never move to Los Angeles, and once I did, I swore I'd never do television. It was only after being out of work for almost a year that I began going in [to auditions] on some stuff that I would pray that I wouldn't get because I didn't want to be involved in it." She broke into mainstream television in 1993, with a guest appearance on the collegiate drama, "Class of '96", on the fledgling Fox Network.  As a result of this guest appearance, Anderson was sent the script for "The X-Files". She was 24 when she decided to audition because, "for the first time in a long time, the script involved a strong, independent, intelligent woman as a lead character." Producer Chris Carter wanted to hire her, but Fox wanted someone with previous television exposure and greater sex appeal. Fox sent in more actresses, but Carter stood by Anderson, and she was eventually cast as FBI Special Agent Dana Scully. Anderson got the part assuming it would run for 13 episodes, the standard minimum order for American television networks. Filmed for the first five seasons in Vancouver, British Columbia, before moving to Los Angeles, the series ran for nine seasons. Two related films were also produced, released in 1998 and 2008. During her time on "The X-Files", Anderson won numerous awards for her portrayal of Special Agent Scully, including an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, a Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Television Series Drama, two Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series and a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television. Anderson is the first actress to win an Emmy, a Golden Globe, and a SAG Award in the same year. For the role, she received a total of four Emmy nominations, four Golden Globe nominations and nine SAG nominations.  Anderson was the first woman to write and direct an episode of the "X-Files" ("all things"). During "The X-Files" run – between the fifth and sixth seasons – Anderson co-starred in "", a 1998 motion picture that continued "The X-Files" storyline. Anderson also provided the voice for a parody of her Scully character in "The Springfield Files", an episode of the animated comedy television series "The Simpsons". While filming the "X-Files", she met assistant art director Clyde Klotz, who became her first husband. Anderson's character on "X-Files" initiated a phenomenon referred to as "The Scully Effect"; as the medical doctor and the FBI Special Agent inspired many young women to pursue careers in science, medicine and law enforcement. It contributed to the increase in the number of women in those fields. "The Scully Effect" remains a subject of academic inquiry.  In 1996, Anderson narrated the television documentaries "Spies Above" and "Why Planes Go Down". While hosting the BBC documentary series "Future Fantastic", she became impressed by the theme music of the show, by the electronic duo Hal and initiated a collaboration with them. In 1997, Anderson provided spoken word vocals and starred in the music video for their single "Extremis", which was frequently aired on MTV. She also helped to assemble an album of electronic music, "Future: A Journey Through The Electronic Underground", for Virgin Records, which won praise from European music critics.  In 1997, Anderson appeared in the independent film "Chicago Cab". In 1998, she starred in the film "Playing by Heart" with Sean Connery, Angelina Jolie, Ellen Burstyn and Jon Stewart. Anderson also had a supporting role in the film "The Mighty" with Gena Rowlands, Harry Dean Stanton, James Gandolfini and Sharon Stone. In 1999, Anderson had a supporting role in the English-language release of Hayao Miyazaki's "Princess Mononoke", where she voiced the character of Moro. Anderson is a fan of Studio Ghibli and Miyazaki's work. She also took part in Eve Ensler's "The Vagina Monologues".

2000s.

In 2000, Anderson starred in the film "The House of Mirth" with Eric Stoltz – Terence Davies' adaptation of the Edith Wharton novel of the same name – for which she won critical acclaim and awards such as the British Independent Film Award for Best Actress, Village Voice Film Poll Best Lead Performance, and a nomination for the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actress.  When "The X-Files" ended in 2002, she moved back to London for a complete change of pace and the opportunity to return to the stage. In 2002, Anderson made her West End debut in Michael Weller's play "What The Night Is For" at the Comedy Theatre. In 2004, Anderson starred in the Royal Court Theatre's production of Rebecca Gilman's play "The Sweetest Swing in Baseball", as artist Dana Fielding who assumes the personality of the troubled baseball player Darryl Strawberry – a role for which she earned rave reviews.  In 2005, she appeared as Lady Dedlock in the BBC adaptation of Charles Dickens' novel "Bleak House". She had a starring role in the Irish film "The Mighty Celt", for which she won an IFTA award for Best International Actress. The same year she also appeared in "A Cock and Bull Story" with Steve Coogan and Rob Brydon – a film version of the novel "Tristram Shandy". In 2006, Anderson won the Broadcasting Press Guild Television and Radio Award for Best Actress for her role in "Bleak House". She was nominated for a British Academy Television Award (BAFTA) for Best Actress, she also received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie, a nomination for a Golden Globe, a Satellite Award nomination, and came in second place in the Best Actress category of the 2005 BBC Drama website poll for her portrayal of Lady Dedlock in the adaptation.  During 2006 and 2007, Anderson appeared in two British films: "The Last King of Scotland" with Forest Whitaker and James McAvoy, (2006) and "Straightheads" with Danny Dyer (2007). In 2008, Anderson hosted "Masterpiece Theatre" during the Jane Austen series; she was the first woman to host the series since it began in 1971. The same year, Anderson starred in the second "X-Files" film, "" and appeared alongside Simon Pegg in the British comedy film "How to Lose Friends & Alienate People". In 2009, she starred in the British comedy film "Boogie Woogie" with Alan Cumming, Danny Huston and Stellan Skarsgård.  She portrayed Nora in Ibsen's "A Doll's House" at the Donmar Warehouse in London's West End during a limited engagement which ran from May 14, 2009, until July 18, 2009. Anderson received a nomination for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress, for productions which opened in the 2009 calendar year, for her portrayal of Nora.

2010s.

In November 2010, Anderson portrayed Wallis, Duchess of Windsor in "Any Human Heart" – a television adaptation of William Boyd's novel of the same name, for which she was nominated for a BAFTA for Best Supporting Actress on Television. In April 2011, she starred in the BBC adaptation "The Crimson Petal and the White" as Mrs. Castaway, for which she was nominated for the Broadcasting Press Guild Award for Best Actress. In August 2011, she appeared in the television miniseries "Moby Dick" based on Herman Melville's 1851 novel, as Elisabeth, Ahab's wife. The same year, Anderson appeared as the head of MI7, Pamela Thornton, in the British comedy "Johnny English Reborn". She starred as Miss Havisham in a three-part BBC adaptation of "Great Expectations" that aired in late December 2011. For her portrayal in the adaptation she won the Artistic Excellence Award, was nominated for the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Movie/Miniseries and for the Broadcasting Press Guild Award for Best Actress.  In 2012, Anderson appeared in a Swiss drama film, "Sister," and in "Shadow Dancer" – a British-Irish drama film based on the novel of the same name, about the Irish republican movement. Anderson voiced the character of Dr. Miki Hokuto in the English-language version of Studio Ghibli's "From Up on Poppy Hill", which was released in March 2013. The same year, she starred in the Canadian techno-thriller "I'll Follow You Down" and appeared in "Mr. Morgan's Last Love" with Michael Caine.  In May 2013, Anderson began starring as DSU Stella Gibson in "The Fall", a critically acclaimed crime drama series for BBC Two and RTÉ One. Anderson was praised for her portrayal of the cool, self-assured Gibson, and was nominated for several awards. She also became an executive producer for the programme from its second series. Between 2013 and 2015, Anderson played Dr. Bedelia Du Maurier, Hannibal Lecter's psychiatrist, on the NBC series "Hannibal". In 2014, Anderson was promoted from a recurring character during the first two seasons, to a series regular for the third season. In 2014, Anderson starred in the British independent science fiction film "Robot Overlords" alongside Sir Ben Kingsley. That year, she also appeared in Jeffrey D. Brown's drama "Sold", portraying Sophia, a character based on the humanitarian photographer Lisa Kristine. The film presents the issues of child trafficking and sexual slavery in India, and is based on Patricia McCormick's novel of the same name.  In July 2014, Anderson gained critical acclaim for her stage performance as Blanche DuBois in "A Streetcar Named Desire" by Tennessee Williams at the Young Vic Theatre in London. She won the "Evening Standard" Theatre Award for Best Actress and received her second Laurence Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress. The production became the fastest-selling show in the theatre's history, and the run was extended by two weeks due to the demand for tickets. In the first collaboration between the Young Vic Theatre and National Theatre Live, the show was broadcast live to over 1100 venues on September 16, 2014. Thus far, it has been screened in more than 2000 venues. In February 2015, Anderson directed and starred in a short film prequel to "A Streetcar Named Desire", titled "The Departure", written by novelist Andrew O'Hagan. This is part of the Young Vic's short film series, which is produced in collaboration with "The Guardian".  In October 2014, Anderson published her first book, "A Vision of Fire", co-authored with Jeff Rovin. The book is the first novel of what has developed as "The Earthend Saga" trilogy. The publisher describes it as "a science fiction thriller of epic proportions". In December 2015, Anderson and Rovin published their second novel of the trilogy, "A Dream of Ice". In January 2016, Anderson portrayed Anna Pavlovna Scherer in BBC One's television adaptation "War & Peace". The same month, she returned to portray FBI Special Agent Dana Scully in the six-episode tenth season of "The X-Files". Anderson has fought and succeeded in securing equal pay with her male co-star on "The X-Files" in the '90s and again in 2015, when negotiating her salary with the network. She has been outspoken about the ongoing issue throughout the years.  From April 23, 2016 through June 4, 2016, Anderson reprised her role of Blanche DuBois in "A Streetcar Named Desire" on stage at the new St. Ann's Warehouse in Brooklyn, New York City. On September 13, 2016, Anderson and Rovin published "The Sound of Seas"; their third and final novel of "The EarthEnd Saga" trilogy. The same month, she returned to portraying DSU Stella Gibson in the third series of "The Fall". Anderson is the narrator of the English dub of "Ronja the Robber's Daughter" – Studio Ghibli's anime, which began streaming on Amazon Prime in January 2017. In February 2017, Anderson portrayed Edwina Mountbatten in Gurinder Chadha's Partition drama film "Viceroy's House" (2017).  On March 7, 2017, Anderson and the journalist-activist Jennifer Nadel published their self-help guide book for women, titled "WE: A Manifesto for Women Everywhere". Anderson stated that the book is a "call-out to all women around the world – and by women I include girls, transgender, anyone who identifies themselves as being intrinsically female." In April 2017, she played goddess Media in the first season of "American Gods" – a television series adaptation of Neil Gaiman's science fiction novel of the same name. Following the departure as showrunners of the show's creators, Bryan Fuller and Michael Green, Anderson stated she would not return to the show. In October 2017, Anderson appeared alongside Glenn Close and Christina Hendricks in "Crooked House" – a film adaptation of Agatha Christie's novel of the same name. In January 2018, she was back playing FBI Special Agent Dana Scully in the eleventh season of "The X-Files". In January 2018, she confirmed that she would be leaving "The X-Files" after the end of the season. Anderson is set to portray the role of Captain MacLaren in "Star Citizen"s single-player component "Squadron 42". In January 2019, she began playing Jean Milburn in the Netflix dramedy "Sex Education".  From February 2, 2019 through May 11, 2019, Anderson portrayed Margo Channing in a stage production of "All About Eve" at the Noël Coward Theatre for which she received her third Laurence Olivier Award nomination. On September 7, 2019, it was officially announced that she will portray former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the fourth season of the Netflix historical drama series "The Crown". Anderson will become the second American actress (after Meryl Streep in "The Iron Lady") to portray Thatcher in a major production. In a statement Anderson said: "I am so excited to be joining the cast and crew of "The Crown" and to have the opportunity to portray such a complicated and controversial woman, Thatcher was undoubtedly formidable but I am relishing exploring beneath the surface and, dare I say, falling in love with the icon who, whether loved or despised, defined an era."

Personal life.

Anderson is an avid art collector. She spent her first paycheck from the "X-Files" to purchase an art piece, a David Blackburn lithograph. Her collection includes work by artists such as Diane Arbus, Helen Levitt, Cindy Sherman, Francesco Clemente, Alexis Rockman and Kiki Smith. Anderson enjoys architecture and interior design; she periodically works on floor and house planning projects. She has also expressed a desire to pursue mixed media ventures in the future.  Anderson identifies as a feminist. In an August 2014 interview with "Glamour" magazine, Anderson said: "I have feminist bones and when I hear things or see people react to women in certain ways I have very little tolerance." Anderson has several tattoos; all of them, as she described, are in some way about "peace of mind, right mind, right action". She practices meditation daily.

Relationships and children.

Anderson married her first husband, Clyde Klotz, an "X-Files" assistant art director, on New Year's Day 1994, in Hawaii in a Buddhist ceremony. Their daughter, Piper Maru, was born on September 25, 1994. Showrunner Chris Carter, Piper's godfather, named the "X-Files" episode of the same name after her. Anderson and Klotz divorced in 1997. On December 29, 2004, Anderson married Julian Ozanne, a documentary filmmaker, on Lamu Island, off the coast of Kenya. Anderson announced their separation on April 21, 2006. Anderson and former boyfriend, businessman Mark Griffiths, have two sons: Oscar, born on November 1, 2006 and Felix, born on October 15, 2008. She ended their relationship in 2012.  In March 2012, Anderson told "Out" magazine about her past relationships with women. Anderson identifies as heterosexual. In an interview with the "London Evening Standard" in December 2014, she stated: "I am an actively heterosexual woman who celebrates however people want to express their sexuality." In an interview with "The Daily Telegraph" in March 2015, Anderson said that she was not closed to the idea of entering another same-sex relationship, adding: "To me a relationship is about loving another human being; their gender is irrelevant."  Anderson resides with her three children in London, where she has lived since 2002. She has been in a relationship with screenwriter and dramatist Peter Morgan since 2016.

Activism and charity work.

Anderson has been active in supporting numerous charity organizations, global and social causes, as well as running her own humanitarian ventures. She supports The Trevor Project organization, focused on suicide prevention efforts among LGBTQ youth and attended three of the Trevor Project's "Cracked X-Mas" events to benefit the organization. In 2013, Anderson was made a patron of the Charles Dickens Statue Fund, and was instrumental in securing the funding for UK's first Dickens statue, located in Portsmouth, Hampshire. In June 2016 she became a patron of the Temple Legal Centre, a London-based organization that assists people through the legal process by providing them free family law advice and support. In June 2016, Anderson expressed her support for the United Kingdom to remain a member of the European Union in the run-up to June's referendum on that issue. In January 2018, Anderson was given a City Lit Lifetime Fellowship Award by the adult education college City Literary Institute.

Neurofibromatosis.

Anderson is an honorary spokesperson for the Neurofibromatosis Network. She often holds auctions with the profits benefiting the NF Network. Her brother Aaron died from the disease in 2011. In May 1996, Anderson addressed the United States Congress urging for more education and funding for NF research projects. She partners with "Doodle 4 NF" – an annual fundraiser for the NF Network. She also supported the Children with Tumours organization and the Global Genes movement, which is devoted to helping children with NF.

Africa and SAYes.

In 2008, Anderson co-founded South African Youth Education for Sustainability (SAYes), which helps in empowering marginalised young people in South Africa through youth mentoring. The nonprofit organization provides youth leaving children's homes with guidance that enables them to develop their skills, further their education, and source suitable housing in order to participate in society as independent adults.  While filming "The Last King of Scotland" in 2005, Anderson started a crowdfunding venture that benefited the Alinyiikira Junior School in Kampala, Uganda. She ran the philanthropic project until 2011. Anderson is a member of the board of directors for Artists for a New South Africa and a campaigner for. She was a patron of the Friends of Treatment Action Campaign (FoTAC) which worked with the Treatment Action Campaign in South Africa to ensure greater access to treatment to reduce the effects of HIV and prevent new infections. Anderson also supported Buskaid – a charitable trust aiming to help young black musicians in South Africa.

Women's rights.

Anderson is a supporter of various women's organizations and social movements. She has been a long-time supporter of the Feminist Majority Foundation (FMF). In 1996, Anderson became FMF's spokesperson and participated as a team leader in the FMF's "Million4Roe" campaign. In March 1999, she attended an FMF event to stop gender apartheid in Afghanistan and in April 2002, she appeared on "Hollywood Squares" to benefit the FMF's campaign to aid Afghan women and girls. Anderson participated in Eve Ensler's "Vagina Monologues", including a stage performance on February 14, 1999. Anderson is a supporter of Ensler's V-Day movement aiming to end violence against women and girls.  Anderson is an advocate for reproductive rights. In 2001, she emceed the Rock for Choice concert fundraiser, featuring musicians Sarah McLachlan, Paula Cole, and Melissa Etheridge as well as actresses Helen Hunt, Ellen DeGeneres, Portia de Rossi, and Kathy Najimy. The concert supported reproductive options for unplanned pregnancies, including the morning-after pill. For International Women's Day 2014, Anderson was one of the artist signatories of Amnesty International's letter to UK Prime Minister David Cameron campaigning for women's rights in Afghanistan. In March 2015, Anderson backed the Women at the Well drop-in centre for vulnerable women in London, which is supported financially by Comic Relief. Anderson supports the Refuge, a United Kingdom charity providing specialist support for women and children experiencing domestic violence. For International Women's Day 2016, Anderson was one of the high-profile women that signed Burma Campaign UK's pledge to end and investigate crimes of sexual violence against girls and women in Myanmar. Anderson is a speaker for Thomson Reuters Foundation's Trust Women Conference.

Children's rights.

Anderson is a patron of Childreach International, a London-based charity that works in partnership with local communities in the developing world to secure children's basic rights; she addressed the problem of child trafficking during the press for the "Sold" film that presents the issue. Anderson also supports their "Taught Not Trafficked" campaign that was launched in July 2014. In 2015, Anderson became a patron of the International Literacy Centre (ILC) – European home of Reading Recovery. In January 2016 she helped launch ILC's Reading Recovery Read Aloud campaign. During February and March 2016, Anderson held an internet charity auction benefiting Great Ormond Street Hospital (GOSH) children's hospital in the Bloomsbury area of London. In March 2016, it was reported that Anderson is one of the artists sponsoring an unaccompanied refugee minor in the "Jungle" camp in Calais. In July 2017, Anderson was awarded a UCL Honorary Fellowship for her support of the International Literacy Centre's Reading Recovery program.

Indigenous rights.

In late 2010, Anderson and other artists joined a campaign to boycott Botswana diamonds over the government's treatment of the Kalahari San. Anderson supports tribal rights charity Survival International, an organization that champions tribal peoples around the world and in early 2010 she participated in a performance in a London stage fundraiser for its cause. In February 2011, Anderson narrated a short film about recent footage of an uncontacted tribe, in which the Amazon Indians were spotted from the air on the Brazil-Peru border. Anderson has said: "What comes across powerfully from this amazing footage is how healthy and confident these people appear. I hope they can be left alone – but that will only happen if the loggers are stopped." In June 2011, Anderson became an ambassador for Survival International. In September 2015, Anderson was among the artists who signed a letter calling for a new approach to conservation that would respect tribal peoples' rights.

Animals rights and environmental advocacy.

Anderson is an active member of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) and supports animal rights. In 2006, Anderson was honoured with PETA's Humanitarian Award for her consistent work for the organization. In October 2008, Anderson narrated for PETA a video of undercover footage from rabbit fur farms in China and France. In April 2009, Anderson sent a letter – on behalf of PETA – to every Member of the European Parliament (MEP) urging to vote in favor of the proposed directive on the protection of animals used in scientific procedures. In October 2010, Anderson participated in's controversial short film, "No Pressure", as part of the global warming mitigation campaign's aim to encourage the reduction of CO emissions.  In 2012, Anderson joined Greenpeace in standing with the people of Brazil for a zero-deforestation law to save the Amazon. In 2013, she backed the Cheetah Conservation Fund by creating a short film together with the fund, advocating CCF's action to prevent the extinction of the cheetah. In 2013, she joined the "Fishlove" campaign, supporting the fight against unsustainable fishing practices that harm the marine ecosystem. In October 2015, Anderson wrote a letter to the Indian Ministry of Health and Family Welfare requesting a ban on repeat experiments on animals in toxicity tests. In November 2015, Anderson was named a friend and supporter of Positive Luxury, a company that informs consumers on brands' commitment to quality, craftsmanship, service and sustainability. In February 2018, she posed nude for PETA's "I'd Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur" campaign.

Awards and honours.

In 2009, Anderson was named as one of 20 most powerful women in British theatre and was dubbed "The Honorary Brit" by "Harper's Bazaar" and Tiffany & Co.'s list. In 2010, Anderson was named Honorary Associate of The London Film School (LFS).  In 2016, Anderson was appointed an honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE) for her services to drama. In 2018, she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

Gillian Leigh Anderson, (born August 9, 1968) is an American-British actress. Her credits include the roles of FBI Special Agent Dana Scully in the long-running series "The X-Files", ill-fated socialite Lily Bart in Terence Davies' film "The House of Mirth" (2000), DSU Stella Gibson on the BBC crime drama television series "The Fall", and sex therapist Jean Milburn in the Netflix comedy-drama "Sex Education". Among other honours, Anderson has won a Primetime Emmy Award, a Golden Globe Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards. She has resided in London since 2002, after earlier years divided between the United Kingdom and the United States.

吉莲·李·安德森(Gillian Leigh Anderson,1968年-8月9日),是一位美国女演员,曾获得艾美奖及金球奖。著名于电视系列剧《X档案》中所演出的女主角黛娜·史卡利。


Seven Years' War.

Although the Seven Years' War was a global conflict, it took a specific intensity in the European theater based on the recently concluded War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). The 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle concluded the earlier war in which Prussia and Austria were a part; its influence among the European powers was little better than a truce. Frederick II of Prussia, known as Frederick the Great, acquired the prosperous province of Silesia, but had wanted much of the Saxon territories as well. Empress Maria Theresa of Austria had signed the treaty to gain time to rebuild her military forces and forge new alliances; she was intent upon regaining ascendancy in the Holy Roman Empire. By 1754, escalating tensions between Britain and France in North America offered the Empress the opportunity to regain her lost Central European territories and to limit Prussia's growing power. Similarly, France sought to break the British control of Atlantic trade. France and Austria put aside their old rivalry to form a coalition of their own. Faced with this sudden turn of events, the British king, George II, aligned himself with his nephew, Frederick, and the Kingdom of Prussia; this alliance drew in not only the British king's territories held in personal union, including Hanover, but also those of his and Frederick's relatives in the Electorate of Hanover and the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel. This series of political maneuvers became known as the Diplomatic Revolution.

Situation in 1757.

At the start of the war, Frederick had one of the finest armies in Europe: his troops—any company—could fire at least four musket volleys a minute, and some of them could fire five; his army could march a day, and was able to conduct, under fire, some of the most complex maneuvers known. After overrunning Saxony, Frederick campaigned in Bohemia and defeated the Austrians on 6May 1757 at the Battle of Prague. He was initially successful, but after the Battle of Kolín,

Terrain and maneuver.

The story of the Battle of Rossbach is as much the story of the five days of maneuver leading to the battle as it is of those famous 90 minutes of battle, and the maneuvers were shaped by the terrain. Initial activity focused on the village of Weissenfels, where the middle Saale emerges from the Buntsandstein of the Thuringian Basin in the Leipzig highlands, not far from the modern-day A9 highway. Parts of the valley between Leipzig and Saale were relatively narrow, cut by the river and its tributaries; the hillsides were steep, and there were limited river crossings; this influenced the troop movements leading to the battle, as the various armies competed for sites to cross the river.  The scene of the battle, Rossbach, lay southwest of Merseburg on a wide plateau dotted by hillocks with elevations up to. The locale was a wide plain largely without trees or hedges. The ground was sandy in some areas, and marshy in others; a small stream ran between Rossbach and Merseburg, south of which rose two low hills, the Janus and the Pölzen. Thomas Carlyle later described these as unimpressive, although certainly horses dragging cannons would notice them, as the animals slipped in loose stones and sand. To the west, the Saale flowed past a small town of Weissenfels, a few miles southeast of Rossbach.  On 24 October, the Prussian Field Marshal James Keith was in Leipzig when the Imperial Army occupied Weissenfels. Frederick joined him there two days later. Over the next couple of days, the King's brother, Prince Henry, arrived with the main body of the army and his brother-in-law, Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, arrived from Magdeburg. Prince Moritz of Anhalt-Dessau arrived by 28 October; although his men had marched up to in a day, they were still eager to face the Allied forces, who had established a post close to Markranstädt, and maintained some line of control along the Saale river. This gave Prussia a complement of 22,000 men. On 30 October, the King led the army out of Leipzig, toward Lützen, with Colonel Johann von Mayr and his "Freibatallion", an independent unit of 1500 mixed troops, in the lead to flush out Allied pickets and reconnaissance parties; this cleared the way for the main army. The next day, Frederick moved out of Lützen at 3:00 pm, during heavy rain. Despite the weather, the Széchenyi Hussars harassed their line of march, but, in the hussars'

Battle.

Initial battlefield dispositions.

On the morning of 5November 1757 the Prussian camp lay between Rossbach on the left and the village of Bedra on the right, facing the Allies. Charles, the Prince Soubise, commanding the French, and the Prince Saxe-Hildburghausen, commanding the Holy Roman Empire's forces, had maneuvered in the preceding days without giving Frederick an opportunity to begin fighting. Their forces were located to the west, with their right flank near the town of Branderoda and their left at Mücheln. The advanced posts of the Prussians stood in villages immediately west of their camp, those of the Allies

Opening moves.

Frederick realized the gambit by 2:30 pm. By 3:00 pm, the entire Prussian army had struck camp, loaded their tents and gear, and fallen into line. Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz took his 38 squadrons of cavalry and moved toward the Janus and Pölzen, small hills between Rossbach and Reichardtswerben. Except for a few moments, the advance was hidden entirely from view. He was followed by Colonel Karl Friedrich von Moller's battery of 18 guns, which positioned themselves temporarily on the reverse of the Janus between the

Trap.

When the Prussians broke camp, they left a handful of light troops to demonstrate before the French advance post commanded by the Comte de Saint-Germain. These light troops constituted the flank guard on the Schartau hill, which lay at right angles to the Janus and Pölzen. Frederick had no intention of either forming a line parallel to the enemy or of retreating. His army could move as a unit twice as fast as the Allies' army. If, at the moment of contact, the Allies had already formed their line of battle facing north, then his attack would strike their right flank; if they were still on the move in columns eastwards or northeastwards, the heads of their columns would be crushed before the rest could deploy in the new direction, deployment being a lengthy affair for most armies.  The Allies marched in normal order in two main columns, the first line on the left, the second line on the right; farther to the right, though, marched a column consisting of the foot reserve, and between the first and second lines trundled the reserve artillery. The right wing cavalry advanced at the head and the

Aftermath.

The battle had lasted less than 90 minutes and the last episode of the infantry fight no more than fifteen minutes. Only seven Prussian battalions had engaged with the enemy, and these had expended five to fifteen rounds per man.  Soubise and Saxe-Hildburghausen, who had been wounded, succeeded in keeping one or two regiments together, but the rest scattered over the countryside. The French and Imperial troops lost six generals, an unusually high count in eighteenth century warfare, although not surprising given the emphasis on cavalry action in this battle. Among the French and German Imperial troops, the Austrian demographer Gaston Bodart counted 1,000 dead (including six generals) and approximately 3,500 wounded (including four generals), for a total of 8.3% wounded or dead, and 12.2% (approximately 5,000) missing or captured. Other historians might place

Assessment.

After the battle, Frederick reportedly said: "I won the battle of Rossbach with most of my infantry having their muskets shouldered." This was indeed true: less than twenty-five percent of his entire force had been engaged. Frederick had discovered the use of operational maneuvers and with a fraction of his entire force—3,500 horsemen, 18 artillery pieces, and three battalions of infantry—had defeated an army of two of the strongest European powers. Frederick's tactics at Rossbach became a landmark in the history of the military arts. Rossbach also highlighted the extraordinary talents of two of Frederick's officers, the artillery colonel Karl Friedrich von Moller and his cavalry general, Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz. Both men possessed the much-coveted "coup d'œil militaire", the ability to discern at one glance the tactical advantages and disadvantages of the terrain. This attribute allowed them to use the artillery and cavalry to full potential. Frederick himself called this "[T]he perfection of that art to learn at one just and determined view the benefits and disadvantages of a country where posts are to be placed and how to act upon the annoyance of the enemy. This is, in a word, the true meaning of a "coup d'œil", without which an officer may commit errors of the greatest consequence." On the morning of the battle Frederick had passed over two senior generals and placed Seydlitz in command of the whole of his cavalry, much to those men's annoyance and to Seydlitz' satisfaction. Seydlitz had spent

Battlefield today.

From 1865 to 1990, the area was mined for lignite. The extensive open-cast mining operations caused fundamental changes in the landscape and the population: a total of 18 settlements and some 12,500 people were resettled over the time of the mining and manufacturing. Residents of Rossbach itself were resettled in 1963 and most of the town was destroyed by mining operations that same year. Today, most of the battlefield is covered in some farmland, vineyards and a nature park created from flooding the old lignite mine with water; the resulting lake has a surface area of ; at its deepest point, the lake is deep. In the course of filling the old pit, archaeologists found fossils 251–243 million years old.  Four separate monuments dedicated to the battle were erected in the town of Reichardtswerben. The first monument was erected 16 September 1766, in gratitude to God for sparing the town of Reichardtswerben during the battle. The stone at Burgwerben castle was erected 9July 1844, and bears the following inscription: After the Battle of Rossbach on 5November 1757, at six o'clock in the evening, the King of Prussia Frederick II, the Great, with only a small entourage, arrived at the castle. All rooms were occupied by wounded officers. His Majesty would not allow any of the [wounded] officers to be disturbed, and set up his field bed in an alcove and, after giving the orders for the day, spent the night there. The present owner was Superintendent Funcke; his grandson, Hauptmann [Franz Leopold] von Funcke, organized this in his memory.<br> Schloss Burgwerben the 9July 1844, Franz Leopold v. Funcke. K2169, the county highway passing through Reichardtswerben, is named "Von-Seydlitz-Straße".

The Battle of Rossbach took place on 5November 1757 during the Third Silesian War (1756–1763, part of the Seven Years' War) near the village of Rossbach (Roßbach), in the Electorate of Saxony. It is sometimes called the Battle of, or at, Reichardtswerben, after a different nearby town. In this 90-minute battle, Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, defeated an Allied army composed of French forces augmented by a contingent of the Reichsarmee (Imperial Army) of the Holy Roman Empire. The French and Imperial army included almost 42,000 men, opposing a considerably smaller Prussian force of 22,000. Despite overwhelming odds, Frederick employed rapid movement, a flanking maneuver and oblique order to achieve complete surprise.

罗斯巴赫会战(Battle of Rossbach),是七年战争中普鲁士与法国神圣罗马帝国联军在1757年11月5日的战役。以普军大胜作结。此战被誉为是腓特烈大帝最辉煌的战绩,18世纪欧洲经典战役之一。