Definition.

Formally, a structure can be defined as a triple formula_1 consisting of a domain "A", a signature σ, and an interpretation function "I" that indicates how the signature is to be interpreted on the domain. To indicate that a structure has a particular signature σ one can refer to it as a σ-structure.

Domain.

The domain of a structure is an arbitrary set; it is also called the underlying set of the structure, its carrier (especially in universal algebra), or its universe (especially in model theory). In classical first-order logic, the definition of a structure prohibits the empty domain.  Sometimes the notation formula_2 or formula_3 is used for the domain of formula_4, but often no notational distinction is made between a structure and its domain. (I.e. the same symbol formula_4 refers both to the structure and its domain.)

Signature.

The signature formula_6 of a structure consists of a set formula_7 of function symbols and relation symbols along with a function formula_8 that ascribes to each symbol "s" a natural number formula_9 which is called the arity of "s" because it is the arity of the interpretation of "s".  Since the signatures that arise in algebra often contain only function symbols, a signature with no relation symbols is called an algebraic signature. A structure with such a signature is also called an algebra; this should not be confused with the notion of an algebra over a field.

Interpretation function.

The interpretation function "I" of formula_4 assigns functions and relations to the symbols of the signature. Each function symbol "f" of arity "n" is assigned an "n"-ary function formula_11 on the domain. Each relation symbol "R" of arity "n" is assigned an "n"-ary relation formula_12 on the domain. A nullary function symbol "c" is called a constant symbol, because its interpretation "I(c)" can be identified with a constant element of the domain.  When a structure (and hence an interpretation function) is given by context, no notational distinction is made between a symbol "s" and its interpretation "I(s)". For example, if "f" is a binary function symbol of formula_4, one simply writes formula_14 rather than formula_15.

Examples.

The standard signature σ for fields consists of two binary function symbols + and ×, where additional symbols can be derived, such as a unary function symbol ― (uniquely determined by +) and the two constant symbols 0 and 1 (uniquely determined by + and × respectively). Thus a structure (algebra) for this signature consists of a set of elements "A" together with two binary functions, that can be enhanced with a unary function, and two distinguished elements; but there is no requirement that it satisfy any of the field axioms. The rational numbers "Q", the real numbers "R" and the complex numbers "C", like any other field, can be regarded as σ-structures in an obvious way:  In all three cases we have the standard signature given by with  Interpretation functions: and formula_27 and formula_28 are similarly defined.  But the ring "Z" of integers, which is not a field, is also a σ-structure in the same way. In fact, there is no requirement that "any" of the field axioms hold in a σ-structure.  A signature for ordered fields needs an additional binary relation such as < or ≤, and therefore structures for such a signature are not algebras, even though they are of course algebraic structures in the usual, loose sense of the word.  The ordinary signature for set theory includes a single binary relation ∈. A structure for this signature consists of a set of elements and an interpretation of the ∈ relation as a binary relation on these elements.

Induced substructures and closed subsets.

formula_4 is called an (induced) substructure of formula_30 if  The usual notation for this relation is formula_38.  A subset formula_39 of the domain of a structure formula_4 is called closed if it is closed under the functions of formula_4, i.e. if the following condition is satisfied: for every natural number "n", every "n"-ary function symbol "f" (in the signature of formula_4) and all elements formula_43, the result of applying "f" to the "n"-tuple formula_44 is again an element of "B": formula_45.  For every subset formula_39 there is a smallest closed subset of formula_3 that contains "B". It is called the closed subset generated by "B", or the hull of "B", and denoted by formula_48 or formula_49. The operator formula_50 is a finitary closure operator on the set of subsets of formula_3.  If formula_52 and formula_53 is a closed subset, then formula_54 is an induced substructure of formula_4, where formula_56 assigns to every symbol of σ the restriction to "B" of its interpretation in formula_4. Conversely, the domain of an induced substructure is a closed subset.  The closed subsets (or induced substructures) of a structure form a lattice. The meet of two subsets is their intersection. The join of two subsets is the closed subset generated by their union. Universal algebra studies the lattice of substructures of a structure in detail.

Examples.

Let σ = {+, ×, −, 0, 1} be again the standard signature for fields. When regarded as σ-structures in the natural way, the rational numbers form a substructure of the real numbers, and the real numbers form a substructure of the complex numbers. The rational numbers are the smallest substructure of the real (or complex) numbers that also satisfies the field axioms.  The set of integers gives an even smaller substructure of the real numbers which is not a field. Indeed, the integers are the substructure of the real numbers generated by the empty set, using this signature. The notion in abstract algebra that corresponds to a substructure of a field, in this signature, is that of a subring, rather than that of a subfield.  The most obvious way to define a graph is a structure with a signature σ consisting of a single binary relation symbol "E". The vertices of the graph form the domain of the structure, and for two vertices "a" and "b", formula_58 means that "a" and "b" are connected by an edge. In this encoding, the notion of induced substructure is more restrictive than the notion of subgraph. For example, let "G" be a graph consisting of two vertices connected by an edge, and let "H" be the graph consisting of the same vertices but no edges. "H" is a subgraph of "G", but not an induced substructure. The notion in graph theory that corresponds to induced substructures is that of induced subgraphs.

Homomorphisms and embeddings.

Homomorphisms.

Given two structures formula_4 and formula_30 of the same signature σ, a (σ-)homomorphism from formula_4 to formula_30 is a map formula_63 that preserves the functions and relations. More precisely:  The notation for a homomorphism "h" from formula_4 to formula_30 is formula_70.  For every signature σ there is a concrete category σ-Hom which has σ-structures as objects and σ-homomorphisms as morphisms.  A homomorphism formula_70 is sometimes called strong if for every "n"-ary relation symbol "R" and any elements formula_72 such that formula_73, there are formula_64 such that formula_75 and formula_76 The strong homomorphisms give rise to a subcategory of σ-Hom.

Embeddings.

A (σ-)homomorphism formula_77 is called a (σ-)embedding if it is one-to-one and  Thus an embedding is the same thing as a strong homomorphism which is one-to-one. The category σ-Emb of σ-structures and σ-embeddings is a concrete subcategory of σ-Hom.  Induced substructures correspond to subobjects in σ-Emb. If σ has only function symbols, σ-Emb is the subcategory of monomorphisms of σ-Hom. In this case induced substructures also correspond to subobjects in σ-Hom.

Example.

As seen above, in the standard encoding of graphs as structures the induced substructures are precisely the induced subgraphs. However, a homomorphism between graphs is the same thing as a homomorphism between the two structures coding the graph. In the example of the previous section, even though the subgraph "H" of "G" is not induced, the identity map id: "H" → "G" is a homomorphism. This map is in fact a monomorphism in the category σ-Hom, and therefore "H" is a subobject of "G" which is not an induced substructure.

Homomorphism problem.

The following problem is known as the "homomorphism problem":  Every constraint satisfaction problem (CSP) has a translation into the homomorphism problem. Therefore, the complexity of CSP can be studied using the methods of finite model theory.  Another application is in database theory, where a relational model of a database is essentially the same thing as a relational structure. It turns out that a conjunctive query on a database can be described by another structure in the same signature as the database model. A homomorphism from the relational model to the structure representing the query is the same thing as a solution to the query. This shows that the conjunctive query problem is also equivalent to the homomorphism problem.

Structures and first-order logic.

Structures are sometimes referred to as "first-order structures". This is misleading, as nothing in their definition ties them to any specific logic, and in fact they are suitable as semantic objects both for very restricted fragments of first-order logic such as that used in universal algebra, and for second-order logic. In connection with first-order logic and model theory, structures are often called models, even when the question "models of what?" has no obvious answer.

Satisfaction relation.

Each first-order structure formula_83 has a satisfaction relation formula_84 defined for all formulas formula_85 in the language consisting of the language of formula_83 together with a constant symbol for each element of "M", which is interpreted as that element. This relation is defined inductively using Tarski's T-schema.  A structure formula_83 is said to be a model of a theory "T" if the language of formula_83 is the same as the language of "T" and every sentence in "T" is satisfied by formula_83. Thus, for example, a "ring" is a structure for the language of rings that satisfies each of the ring axioms, and a model of ZFC set theory is a structure in the language of set theory that satisfies each of the ZFC axioms.

Definable relations.

An "n"-ary relation "R" on the universe "M" of a structure formula_83 is said to be definable (or explicitly definable, or formula_91-definable) if there is a formula φ("x"...,"x") such that  In other words, "R" is definable if and only if there is a formula φ such that  is correct.  An important special case is the definability of specific elements. An element "m" of "M" is definable in formula_83 if and only if there is a formula φ("x") such that

Definability with parameters.

A relation "R" is said to be definable with parameters (or formula_96-definable) if there is a formula φ with parameters from formula_83 such that "R" is definable using φ. Every element of a structure is definable using the element itself as a parameter.  Some authors use "definable" to mean "definable without parameters", while other authors mean "definable with parameters". Broadly speaking, the convention that "definable" means "definable without parameters" is more common amongst set theorists, while the opposite convention is more common amongst model theorists.

Implicit definability.

Recall from above that an "n"-ary relation "R" on the universe "M" of a structure formula_83 is explicitly definable if there is a formula φ("x"...,"x") such that  Here the formula φ used to define a relation "R" must be over the signature of formula_83 and so φ may not mention "R" itself, since "R" is not in the signature of formula_83. If there is a formula φ in the extended language containing the language of formula_83 and a new symbol "R", and the relation "R" is the only relation on formula_83 such that formula_104, then "R" is said to be implicitly definable over formula_83.  By Beth's theorem, every implicitly definable relation is explicitly definable.

Many-sorted structures.

Structures as defined above are sometimes called s to distinguish them from the more general s. A many-sorted structure can have an arbitrary number of domains. The sorts are part of the signature, and they play the role of names for the different domains. Many-sorted signatures also prescribe on which sorts the functions and relations of a many-sorted structure are defined. Therefore, the arities of function symbols or relation symbols must be more complicated objects such as tuples of sorts rather than natural numbers.  Vector spaces, for example, can be regarded as two-sorted structures in the following way. The two-sorted signature of vector spaces consists of two sorts "V" (for vectors) and "S" (for scalars) and the following function symbols:  If "V" is a vector space over a field "F", the corresponding two-sorted structure formula_106 consists of the vector domain formula_107, the scalar domain formula_108, and the obvious functions, such as the vector zero formula_109, the scalar zero formula_110, or scalar multiplication formula_111.  Many-sorted structures are often used as a convenient tool even when they could be avoided with a little effort. But they are rarely defined in a rigorous way, because it is straightforward and tedious (hence unrewarding) to carry out the generalization explicitly.  In most mathematical endeavours, not much attention is paid to the sorts. A many-sorted logic however naturally leads to a type theory. As Bart Jacobs puts it: "A logic is always a logic over a type theory." This emphasis in turn leads to categorical logic because a logic over a type theory categorically corresponds to one ("total") category, capturing the logic, being fibred over another ("base") category, capturing the type theory.

Other generalizations.

Partial algebras.

Both universal algebra and model theory study classes of (structures or) algebras that are defined by a signature and a set of axioms. In the case of model theory these axioms have the form of first-order sentences. The formalism of universal algebra is much more restrictive; essentially it only allows first-order sentences that have the form of universally quantified equations between terms, e.g. "x" "y" ("x" + "y" = "y" + "x"). One consequence is that the choice of a signature is more significant in universal algebra than it is in model theory. For example, the class of groups, in the signature consisting of the binary function symbol × and the constant symbol 1, is an elementary class, but it is not a variety. Universal algebra solves this problem by adding a unary function symbol.  In the case of fields this strategy works only for addition. For multiplication it fails because 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse. An ad hoc attempt to deal with this would be to define 0 = 0. (This attempt fails, essentially because with this definition 0 × 0 = 1 is not true.) Therefore, one is naturally led to allow partial functions, i.e., functions that are defined only on a subset of their domain. However, there are several obvious ways to generalize notions such as substructure, homomorphism and identity.

Structures for typed languages.

In type theory, there are many sorts of variables, each of which has a type. Types are inductively defined; given two types δ and σ there is also a type σ → δ that represents functions from objects of type σ to objects of type δ. A structure for a typed language (in the ordinary first-order semantics) must include a separate set of objects of each type, and for a function type the structure must have complete information about the function represented by each object of that type.

Higher-order languages.

There is more than one possible semantics for higher-order logic, as discussed in the article on second-order logic. When using full higher-order semantics, a structure need only have a universe for objects of type 0, and the T-schema is extended so that a quantifier over a higher-order type is satisfied by the model if and only if it is disquotationally true. When using first-order semantics, an additional sort is added for each higher-order type, as in the case of a many sorted first order language.

Structures that are proper classes.

In the study of set theory and category theory, it is sometimes useful to consider structures in which the domain of discourse is a proper class instead of a set. These structures are sometimes called class models to distinguish them from the "set models" discussed above. When the domain is a proper class, each function and relation symbol may also be represented by a proper class.  In Bertrand Russell's "Principia Mathematica", structures were also allowed to have a proper class as their domain.

In universal algebra and in model theory, a structure consists of a set along with a collection of finitary operations and relations that are defined on it.

在数学学科模型论中,语言 formula_1 的结构 formula_2(也叫做 'formula_1-结构',并通常写为哥特体大写)是一个有序对,它的第一个成员是论域或全集 formula_4 (对应于可能带有定义在其上的关系和函数的集合,并通常写为相应于结构名字的罗马体大写),它的第二个成员是一个释义 formula_5,就是 formula_1 的一个偏函数,它完全定义在 formula_1 的非逻辑符号之上,使得 formula_1 的常量符号对应于 formula_4 上的元素,如果有的话;formula_1 的函数符号对应于 formula_4 上的函数,如果有的话;而 formula_1 的关系符号对应于 formula_4 上的关系;如果有的话。


History.

The history of the ambulance begins in ancient times, with the use of carts to transport incurable patients by force. Ambulances were first used for emergency transport in 1487 by the Spanish, and civilian variants were put into operation during the 1830s. Advances in technology throughout the 19th and 20th centuries led to the modern self-powered ambulances.

Functional types.

Ambulances can be grouped into types depending on whether or not they transport patients, and under what conditions. In some cases, ambulances may fulfill more than one function (such as combining emergency ambulance care with patient transport:

Vehicle types.

In the US, there are four types of ambulances. There are Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV. Type I is based upon a heavy truck chassis with a custom rear compartment that is often referred to as a "box." Type I ambulances are primarily used for Advanced Life Support(ALS), also referred to as Mobile Intensive Care Unit(MICU) in some jurisdictions, and rescue work. A Type II ambulance is based on a commercial heavy-duty van with few modifications except for a raised roof and a secondary air conditioning unit for the rear of the vehicle. These types of ambulances are primarily used for Basic Life Support(BLS) and transfer of patients but it is not uncommon to find them used for advanced life support and rescue. Type III is a van chassis but with a custom-made rear compartment and has the same uses as Type I ambulances. Type IV is for smaller ad hoc patient transfer that use smaller utility vehicles in which passenger vehicles and trucks would have difficulty in traversing, such as large industrial complexes, commercial venues, and special events with large crowds; they generally do not fall under Federal Regulations.  Ambulances can be based on many types of vehicle although emergency and disaster conditions may lead to other vehicles serving as makeshift ambulances:

Design and construction.

Ambulance design must take into account local conditions and infrastructure. Maintained roads are necessary for road-going ambulances to arrive on scene and then transport the patient to a hospital, though in rugged areas four-wheel drive or all-terrain vehicles can be used. Fuel must be available and service facilities are necessary to maintain the vehicle.  Methods of summoning (e.g. telephone) and dispatching ambulances usually rely on electronic equipment, which itself often relies on an intact power grid. Similarly, modern ambulances are equipped with two-way radios or cellular telephones to enable them to contact hospitals, either to notify the appropriate hospital of the ambulance's pending arrival, or, in cases where physicians do not form part of the ambulance's crew, to confer with a physician for medical oversight.  Ambulances often have two manufacturers. The first is frequently a manufacturer of light or medium trucks or full-size vans (or in some places, cars) such as Mercedes-Benz, Nissan, Toyota, or Ford. The second manufacturer (known as second stage manufacturer) purchases the vehicle (which is sometimes purchased incomplete, having no body or interior behind the driver's seat) and turns it into an ambulance by adding bodywork, emergency vehicle equipment, and interior fittings. This is done by one of two methods – either coachbuilding, where the modifications are started from scratch and built on to the vehicle, or using a modular system, where a pre-built 'box' is put on to the empty chassis of the ambulance, and then finished off.  Modern ambulances are typically powered by internal combustion engines, which can be powered by any conventional fuel, including diesel, gasoline or liquefied petroleum gas, depending on the preference of the operator and the availability of different options. Colder regions often use gasoline-powered engines, as diesels can be difficult to start when they are cold. Warmer regions may favor diesel engines, as they are thought to be more efficient and more durable. Diesel power is sometimes chosen due to safety concerns, after a series of fires involving gasoline-powered ambulances during the 1980s. These fires were ultimately attributed in part to gasoline's higher volatility in comparison to diesel fuel. The type of engine may be determined by the manufacturer: in the past two decades, Ford would only sell vehicles for ambulance conversion if they are diesel-powered. Beginning in 2010, Ford will sell its ambulance chassis with a gasoline engine in order to meet emissions requirements.

Standards.

Many regions have prescribed standards which ambulances should, or must, meet in order to be used for their role. These standards may have different levels which reflect the type of patient which the ambulance is expected to transport (for instance specifying a different standard for routine patient transport than high dependency), or may base standards on the size of vehicle.  For instance, in Europe, the European Committee for Standardization publishes the standard CEN 1789, which specifies minimum compliance levels across the build of ambulance, including crash resistance, equipment levels, and exterior marking. In the United States, standards for ambulance design have existed since 1976, where the standard is published by the General Services Administration and known as KKK-1822-A. This standard has been revised several times, and is currently in version 'F' change #10, known as KKK-A-1822F, although not all states have adopted this version. The National Fire Protection Association has also published a design standard, NFPA 1917, which some administrations are considering switching to if KKK-A-1822F is withdrawn. The Commission on Accreditation of Ambulance Services (CAAS) has published its Ground Vehicle Standard for Ambulances effective July 2016. This standard is similar to the KKK-A-1822F and NFPA 1917-2016 specifications.  The move towards standardisation is now reaching countries without a history of prescriptive codes, such as India, which approved its first national standard for ambulance construction in 2013.

Safety.

Ambulances, like other emergency vehicles, are required to operate in most weather conditions, including those during which civilian drivers often elect to stay off the road. Also, the ambulance crew's responsibilities to their patient often preclude their use of safety devices such as seat belts. Research has shown that ambulances are more likely to be involved in motor vehicle collisions resulting in injury or death than either fire trucks or police cars. Unrestrained occupants, particularly those riding in the patient-care compartment, are particularly vulnerable. When compared to civilian vehicles of similar size, one study found that on a per-accident basis, ambulance collisions tend to involve more people, and result in more injuries. An 11-year retrospective study concluded in 2001 found that although most fatal ambulance crashes in the United States occurred during emergency runs, they typically occurred on improved, straight, dry roads, during clear weather. Furthermore, paramedics are also at risk in ambulances while helping patients, as 27 paramedics died during ambulance trips in the US between 1991 and 2006.

Equipment.

In addition to the equipment directly used for the treatment of patients, ambulances may be fitted with a range of additional equipment which is used in order to facilitate patient care. This could include:

Intermediate technology.

In parts of the world that lack a high level of infrastructure, ambulances are designed to meet local conditions, being built using intermediate technology. Ambulances can also be trailers, which are pulled by bicycles, motorcycles, tractors, or animals. Animal-powered ambulances can be particularly useful in regions that are subject to flooding. Motorcycles fitted with sidecars (or motorcycle ambulances) are also used, though they are subject to some of the same limitations as more traditional over-the-road ambulances. The level of care provided by these ambulances varies between merely providing transport to a medical clinic to providing on-scene and continuing care during transport.  The design of intermediate technology ambulances must take into account not only the operation and maintenance of the ambulance, but its construction as well. The robustness of the design becomes more important, as does the nature of the skills required to properly operate the vehicle. Cost-effectiveness can be a high priority.

Appearance and markings.

Emergency ambulances are highly likely to be involved in hazardous situations, including incidents such as a road traffic collision, as these emergencies create people who are likely to be in need of treatment. They are required to gain access to patients as quickly as possible, and in many countries, are given dispensation from obeying certain traffic laws. For instance, they may be able to treat a red traffic light or stop sign as a yield sign ('give way'), or be permitted to break the speed limit. Generally, the priority of the response to the call will be assigned by the dispatcher, but the priority of the return will be decided by the ambulance crew based on the severity of the patient's illness or injury. Patients in significant danger to life and limb (as determined by triage) require urgent treatment by advanced medical personnel, and because of this need, emergency ambulances are often fitted with passive and active visual and/or audible warnings to alert road users.

Passive visual warnings.

The passive visual warnings are usually part of the design of the vehicle, and involve the use of high contrast patterns. Older ambulances (and those in developing countries) are more likely to have their pattern painted on, whereas modern ambulances generally carry retro-reflective designs, which reflects light from car headlights or torches. Popular patterns include 'checker board' (alternate coloured squares, sometimes called 'Battenburg', named after a type of cake), chevrons (arrowheads – often pointed towards the front of the vehicle if on the side, or pointing vertically upwards on the rear) or stripes along the side (these were the first type of retro-reflective device introduced, as the original reflective material, invented by 3M, only came in tape form). In addition to retro-reflective markings, some services now have the vehicles painted in a bright (sometimes fluorescent) yellow or orange for maximum visual impact, though classic white or red are also common. Fire department-operated ambulances are often painted red to match the fire apparatuses.  Another passive marking form is the word "ambulance" (or local language variant) spelled out in reverse on the front of the vehicle. This enables drivers of other vehicles to more easily identify an approaching ambulance in their rear view mirrors. Ambulances may display the name of their owner or operator, and an emergency telephone number for the ambulance service.  Ambulances may also carry an emblem (either as part of the passive warning markings or not), such as a Red Cross, Red Crescent or Red Crystal (collective known as the Protective Symbols). These are symbols laid down by the Geneva Convention, and all countries signatory to it agree to restrict their use to either (1) Military Ambulances or (2) the national Red Cross or Red Crescent society. Use by any other person, organization or agency is in breach of international law. The protective symbols are designed to indicate to all people (especially combatants in the case of war) that the vehicle is neutral and is not to be fired upon, hence giving protection to the medics and their casualties, although this has not always been adhered to. In Israel, Magen David Adom, the Red Cross member organization use a red Star of David, but this does not have recognition beyond Israeli borders, where they must use the Red Crystal.  The Star of Life is widely used, and was originally designed and governed by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, because the Red Cross symbol is legally protected by both National and international law.  Ambulance services that have historical origins such as the Order of St John, the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps and Malteser International often use the Maltese cross to identify their ambulances. This is especially important in countries such as Australia, where St. John Ambulance operate one state and one territory ambulance service, and all of Australia's other ambulance services use variations on a red Maltese cross.  Fire service operated ambulances may display the Cross of St. Florian (often incorrectly called a Maltese cross) as this cross is frequently used as a fire department logo (St. Florian being the patron saint of firefighters).

Active visual warnings.

The active visual warnings are usually in the form of flashing lights. These flash in order to attract the attention of other road users as the ambulance approaches, or to provide warning to motorists approaching a stopped ambulance in a dangerous position on the road. Common colours for ambulance warning beacons are blue, red, amber, and white (clear). However the colours may vary by country and sometimes by operator.  There are several technologies in use to achieve the flashing effect. These include flashing a light bulb or LED, flashing or rotating halogen, and strobe lights, which are usually brighter than incandescent lights. Each of these can be programmed to flash singly or in groups, and can be programmed to flash in patterns (such as a left -> right pattern for use when the ambulance is parked on the left hand side of the road, indicating to other road users that they should move to the right (away from the ambulance)). Incandescent and LED lights may also be programmed to burn steadily, without flashing, which is required in some provinces.  Emergency lights may simply be mounted directly on the body, or may be housed in special fittings, such as in a lightbar or in special flush-mount designs (as seen on the Danish ambulance to the right), or may be hidden in a host light (such as a headlamp) by drilling a hole in the host light's reflector and inserting the emergency light. These hidden lights may not be apparent until they are activated. Additionally, some of the standard lights fitted to an ambulance (e.g. headlamps, tail lamps) may be programmed to flash. Flashing headlights (typically the high beams, flashed alternately) are known as a wig-wag. Additional white lights may be placed strategically around the vehicle to illuminate the area around it when it is dark, almost always at the rear for loading and unloading stretchers and often at the sides as well. In areas very far North or South where there are times of year with long periods of darkness, additional driving lights at the front are often fitted as well to increase visibility for the driver.  In order to increase safety, it is best practice to have 360° coverage with the active warnings, improving the chance of the vehicle being seen from all sides. In some countries, such as the United States, this may be mandatory. The roof, front grille, sides and rear of the body, and front fenders are common places to mount emergency lights. A certain balance must be made when deciding on the number and location of lights: too few and the ambulance may not be noticed easily, too many and it becomes a massive distraction for other road users more than it is already, increasing the risk of local accidents.  See also Emergency vehicle equipment.

Audible warnings.

In addition to visual warnings, ambulances can be fitted with audible warnings, sometimes known as sirens, which can alert people and vehicles to the presence of an ambulance before they can be seen. The first audible warnings were mechanical bells, mounted to either the front or roof of the ambulance. Most modern ambulances are now fitted with electronic sirens, producing a range of different noises which ambulance operators can use to attract more attention to themselves, particularly when proceeding through an intersection or in heavy traffic.  The speakers for modern sirens can be integral to the lightbar, or they may be hidden in or flush to the grill to reduce noise inside the ambulance that may interfere with patient care and radio communications. Ambulances can additionally be fitted with airhorn audible warnings to augment the effectiveness of the siren system, or may be fitted with extremely loud two-tone air horns as their primary siren.  A recent development is the use of the RDS system of car radios. The ambulance is fitted with a short range FM transmitter, set to RDS code 31, which interrupts the radio of all cars within range, in the manner of a traffic broadcast, but in such a way that the user of the receiving radio is unable to opt-out of the message (as with traffic broadcasts). This feature is built into every RDS radio for use in national emergency broadcast systems, but short-range units on emergency vehicles can prove an effective means of alerting traffic to their presence. It is, however, unlikely that this system could replace audible warnings, as it is unable to alert pedestrians, those not using a compatible radio or even have it turned off.

Costs.

The cost of an ambulance ride may be paid for from several sources, and this will depend on the local situation type of service being provided, by whom, and to whom.

Crewing.

There are differing levels of qualification that the ambulance crew may hold, from holding no formal qualification to having a fully qualified doctor on board. Most ambulance services require at least two crew members to be on every ambulance (one to drive, and one to attend the patient). It may be the case that only the attendant need be qualified, and the driver might have no medical training. In some locations, an advanced life support ambulance may be crewed by one paramedic and one EMT-Basic.  Common ambulance crew qualifications are:

Military use.

Military ambulances have historically included vehicles based on civilian designs and at times also included armored, but unarmed, vehicle ambulances based upon armoured personnel carriers (APCs). In the Second World War vehicles such as the Hanomag Sd Kfz 251 half-track were pressed into service as ad hoc ambulances, and in more recent times purpose-built AFVs such as the U.S. M1133 Medical Evacuation Vehicle serve the exclusive purpose of armored medical vehicles. Civilian based designs may be painted in appropriate colors, depending on the operational requirements (i.e. camouflage for field use, white for United Nations peacekeeping, etc.). For example, the British Royal Army Medical Corps has a fleet of white ambulances, based on production trucks. Military helicopters have also served both as ad hoc and purpose-built air ambulances since they are extremely useful for MEDEVAC. In terms of equipment, military ambulances are barebones, often being nothing more than a box on wheels with racks to place manual stretchers, though for the operational conditions and level of care involved this is usually sufficient.  Since laws of war demand ambulances be marked with one of the Emblems of the Red Cross not to mount offensive weapons, military ambulances are often unarmed. It is a generally accepted practice in most countries to classify the personnel attached to military vehicles marked as ambulances as non-combatants; however, this does not always exempt medical personnel from coming under fire—accidental or deliberate. As a result, medics and other medical personnel attached to military ambulances are usually put through basic military training, on the assumption that they may have to use a weapon. The laws of war do allow non-combatant military personnel to carry individual weapons for protecting themselves and casualties. However, not all militaries exercise this right to their personnel.  Recently, the Israeli Defense Forces has modified a number of its Merkava main battle tanks with ambulance features in order to allow rescue operations to take place under heavy fire in urban warfare. The modifications were made following a failed rescue attempt in which Palestinian gunmen killed two soldiers who were providing aid for a Palestinian woman in Rafah. Since M-113 armored personnel carriers and regular up-armored ambulances are not sufficiently protected against anti-tank weapons and improvised explosive devices, it was decided to use the heavily armored Merkava tank. Its rear door enables the evacuation of critically wounded soldiers. Israel did not remove the Merkava's weaponry, claiming that weapons were more effective protection than emblems since Palestinian militants would disregard any symbols of protection and fire at ambulances anyway. For use as ground ambulances and treatment & evacuation vehicles, the United States military currently employs the M113, the M577, the M1133 Stryker Medical Evacuation Vehicle (MEV), and the RG-33 Heavily Armored Ground Ambulance (HAGA) as treatment and evacuation vehicles, with contracts to incorporate the newly designed M2A0 Armored Medical Evacuation Vehicle (AMEV), a variant of the M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicle (formerly known as the ATTV).  Some navies operate ocean-going hospital ships to lend medical assistance in high casualty situations like wars or natural disasters. These hospital ships fulfill the criteria of an ambulance (transporting the sick or injured), although the capabilities of a hospital ship are more on par with a Mobile Army Surgical Hospital. In line with the laws of war, these ships can display a prominent Red Cross or Red Crescent to confer protection under the appropriate Geneva Convention. However, this designation has not always protected hospital ships from enemy fire.

Ambulette.

Ambulettes provide patient transport service for non-emergency situations. Scheduling is a major factor in their effective use.

Reuse of retired ambulances.

When an ambulance is retired, it may be donated or sold to another EMS provider. Alternately, it may be adapted into a storage and transport vehicle for crime scene identification equipment, a command post at community events, or support vehicle, such as a logistics unit. Others are refurbished and resold, or may just have their emergency equipment removed to be sold to private businesses or individuals, who then can use them as small recreational vehicles. They may also have a perfectly serviceable body or vehicle (or both) separated from the other and reused.  Toronto City Council has begun a "Caravan of Hope" project to provide retired Toronto ambulances a second life by donating them to the people of El Salvador. Since laws in Ontario require ambulances to be retired after just four and a half years in service, the City of Toronto decommissions and auctions 28 ambulances each year.

An ambulance is a medically equipped vehicle which transports patients to treatment facilities, such as hospitals. Typically, out-of-hospital medical care is provided to the patient.

救护车(英语:Ambulance)专指接载病患由伤病现场往医院,或用作接载病情严重者作转院服务的陆上紧急交通工具。但在「Ambulance」用语中,指不局限于任何运送方式的各种交通工具,包括了救护车、医护船、固定翼飞机、直升机、救生艇、医院列车,以及可克服地形障碍的全地形车、皮卡、训练有素的快马等等的交通工具,所以有别于中文所称单一陆上交通工具「救护车」。


Background.

Named after the Latin word for "healing" (""sanatio""), the Sanation movement mainly comprised former military officers who were disgusted with the perceived corruption in Polish politics. Sanation was a coalition of rightists, leftists and centrists whose main focus was the elimination of corruption and the reduction of inflation.  Sanation appeared prior to the May 1926 "Coup d'État" and lasted until World War II but was never formalized. Piłsudski, though he had been the former leader of the Polish Socialist Party, had grown to disapprove of political parties, which he saw as promoting their own interests rather than supporting the state and the people. For this reason, the Sanation movement never led to the creation of a political party. Instead, in 1928 Sanation members created a "Bezpartyjny Blok Współpracy z Rządem" ("Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government"), a pro-government grouping that denied being a political party.

History.

Although Piłsudski never claimed personal power, he exercised extensive influence over Polish politics after Sanation took power in 1926. For the next decade, he dominated Polish affairs as strongman of a generally popular centrist regime. Kazimierz Bartel's government and all subsequent governments were first unofficially approved by Piłsudski before they could be confirmed by the President.  In the course of pursuing "sanation", Piłsudski mixed democratic and authoritarian elements. Poland's internal stability was enhanced, while economic stagnation was ended by Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski's reforms. At the same time, the Sanation regime prosecuted communist parties (on the ostensible formal grounds that they had failed to legally "register" as political parties) and sought to limit the influence of opposition parties by splitting their forces.  A distinguishing feature of the regime was that, unlike the situation in most of non-democratic Europe, it never transformed itself into a full-scale dictatorship. Freedom of speech and press and political parties were never legally abolished, and opponents were usually dealt with via "unidentified perpetrators" rather than court sentences. Sanation allowed the 1928 election to be relatively free, but was dealt a setback when its supporters in the BBWR came up far short of a majority. For the 1930 election, Sanation left nothing to chance; more than 20 prominent opposition leaders were arrested and the opposition press was gagged. Under these conditions, the BBWR won over 46 percent of the vote and a large majority in both houses.  Józef Piłsudski's personal cult stemmed from his general popularity among the nation rather than from top-down propaganda; this is notable, considering Piłsudski's disdain for democracy. Sanation's ideology never went beyond populist calls to clean up the country's politics and economy; it did not occupy itself with society, as was the case with contemporary fascist regimes. From 1929, the semi-official newspaper of Sanation, and thus of the Polish government, was "Gazeta Polska" (the "Polish Gazette").

Legislative agenda.

The Sanation government invalidated the May 1930 election results by disbanding the parliament in August and with increasing pressure on the opposition started a new campaign, the new elections being scheduled to November. Using the anti-government demonstrations as a pretext, 20 members of the opposition parties, including most of the leaders of "Centrolew" alliance (from the Socialists, Polish People's Party "Piast" and Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie") were arrested in September without a warrant, only on the order of Piłsudski and the then-Minister of Internal Security, Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski, accusing them of plotting an anti-government coup. The opposition members (who included the former prime minister Wincenty Witos, and Wojciech Korfanty) were imprisoned in the Brest Fortress, where their trial took place (thus the popular name for the election: the 'Brest election'). A number of less known activists were arrested throughout the country. They were released after the end of the election in the same month. The Brest trial ended in January 1932, with 10 accused receiving sentences up to three years of imprisonment; the appeals of 1933 confirmed the sentences. The government however gave the accused choice of emigrating: five of them took it, the other five to serve the prison term instead.  In April 1935, shortly before Piłsudski's death, a new constitution (the "April Constitution") was adopted, which supported Sanation's principal ideas: a strong centralized state with a presidential system of government. Piłsudski died soon after, however, and Sanation faced some serious internal problems. Eventually it devolved into three separate movements:  The first of these Sanation movements soon lost much of its importance, but the other two continued the ideological struggle within the country until the outbreak of war.

World War II.

During the 1939 invasion of Poland, many Sanation members were taken prisoner-of-war by the Germans, while others evacuated to Romania, where they remained until war's end or were able to go on to France or Britain.  Though France insisted on excluding "Sanationists" from the Polish Government in Exile, many remained highly influential. During the war, Sanation members created several resistance organizations, including in 1942 the Fighting Poland Movement ("Obóz Polski Walczącej") and the Convention of Independence Organizations ("Konwent Organizacji Niepodległościowych"), which in 1943 became subordinate to the Home Army and in 1944 merged into the Union of Independence Organizations ("Zjednoczenie Organizacji Niepodległościowych").  After World War II, the Soviet-installed communist regime forced many "Sanationists" into permanent exile, and branded them enemies of the state.

Sanation (, ) was a Polish political movement that was created in the interwar period, prior to Józef Piłsudski's May 1926 "Coup d'État", and came to power in the wake of that coup. In 1928 its political activists would go on to form the Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government (BBWR).

萨纳齐亚()或治愈运动,是波兰在两次世界大战之间的一场政治运动,开始于约瑟夫·毕苏斯基1926年五月政变前,并于政变后夺取政权。萨纳齐亚运动得名于毕苏斯基所希望的使波兰政体实现道德上的“治愈”,运动一直持续至1935年毕苏斯基去世,此后运动逐渐分裂。


Description.

The "pink film," or "eroduction" (erotic production) as it was first called, is a cinematic genre without an exact equivalent in the West. Though called pornography, the terms "erotica", "soft porn" and "sexploitation" have been suggested as more appropriate, although none of these precisely matches the pink film genre.  The Japanese film ethics board Eirin has long enforced a ban on the display of genitals and pubic hair. This restriction forced Japanese filmmakers to develop sometimes elaborate means of avoiding showing the "working parts", as author Donald Richie puts it. To work around this censorship, most Japanese directors positioned props—lamps, candles, bottles, etc.—at strategic locations to block the banned body parts. When this was not done, the most common alternative techniques are digital scrambling, covering the prohibited area with a black box or a fuzzy white spot, known as a mosaic or "fogging."  Some have claimed that it is this censorship that gives the Japanese erotic cinema its particular style. Donald Richie says, "American pornography is kept forever on its elemental level because, showing all, it need do nothing else; Japanese eroductions have to do something else since they cannot show all. The stultified impulse has created some extraordinary works of art, a few films among them. None of these, however, are found among eroductions." Richie is making a distinction between the erotic films of the major studios such as Nikkatsu and Toei as against the low-budget pink films produced by independents such as OP Eiga.  Contrasting the pink film with Western pornographic films, Pia Harritz says, "What really stands out is the ability of pinku eiga to engage the spectator in more than just scenes with close-ups of genitals and finally the complexity in the representation of gender and the human mind."  Richie and Harritz enumerate the fundamental elements of the pink film formula as:

History.

Background.

In the years since the end of World War II, eroticism had been gradually making its way into Japanese cinema. The first kiss to be seen in Japanese film—discreetly half-hidden by an umbrella—caused a national sensation in 1946. Although throughout the 1940s and early 1950s nudity in Japanese movie theaters, as in most of the world, was a taboo, some films from the mid-50s such as Shintoho's female pearl-diver films starring buxom Michiko Maeda, began showing more flesh than would have previously been imaginable in the Japanese cinema. During the same period, the "taiyozoku" films on the teen-age "Sun Tribe", such as Kō Nakahira's "Crazed Fruit" (1956), introduced unprecedented sexual frankness into Japanese films.  Foreign films of this time, such as Ingmar Bergman's "Summer with Monika" (1953), Louis Malle's "Amants" (1958), and Russ Meyer's "Immoral Mr. Teas" (1959) introduced female nudity into international cinema, and were imported to Japan without problem. Nevertheless, until the early 1960s, graphic depictions of nudity and sex in Japanese film could only be seen in single-reel "stag films," made by film producers such as those depicted in Imamura's film "The Pornographers" (1966).

First wave (The "Age of Competition" 1962–1971).

The first wave of the pink film in Japan was contemporary with the similar U.S. sexploitation film genres, the "nudie-cuties" and "roughies". Nudity and sex officially entered Japanese cinema with Satoru Kobayashi's controversial and popular independent production "Flesh Market" ("Nikutai no Ichiba", 1962), which is considered the first true pink film. Made for 8 million yen, Kobayashi's independent feature film took in over 100 million yen. Kobayashi remained active in directing pink films until the 1990s. Tamaki Katori, the star of the film, went on to become one of the leading early pink film stars, appearing in over 600, and earning the title "Pink Princess".  In 1964, maverick kabuki, theater and film director Tetsuji Takechi directed "Daydream", a big-budget film distributed by the major studio Shochiku. Takechi's "Black Snow" (1965), resulted in the director's arrest on charges of obscenity and a high-profile trial, which became a major battle between Japan's intellectuals and the establishment. Takechi won the lawsuit, and the publicity surrounding the trial helped bring about a boom in the production of pink films.  In her introduction to the Weisser's "Japanese Cinema Encyclopedia: The Sex Films", actress Naomi Tani calls this period in "pink film" production "The Age of Competition". Though Japan's major studios, such as Nikkatsu and Shochiku made occasional forays into erotica in the 1960s, such as director Seijun Suzuki's "Gate of Flesh" (1964)—the first mainstream Japanese film to contain nudity, the majority of erotic films were made by the independents. Independent studios such as Nihon Cinema and World Eiga made dozens of cheap, profitable "eroductions". Among the most influential independent studios producing "pink films" in this era were Shintōhō Eiga (the second studio to use this name), Million Film, Kantō, and Ōkura. Typically shown on a three-film program, these films were made by these companies to show at their own chain of specialty theaters.  Another major "pink film" studio, Wakamatsu Studios, was formed by director Kōji Wakamatsu in 1965, after quitting Nikkatsu. Known as "The Pink Godfather", and called "the most important director to emerge in the pink film genre", Wakamatsu's independent productions are critically respected works usually concerned with sex and extreme violence mixed with political messages. His most controversial early films dealing with misogyny and sadism are "The Embryo Hunts In Secret" (1966), "Violated Angels" (1967), and "Go, Go Second Time Virgin" (1969).  Three other important "pink film" directors of this time, Kan Mukai, Kin'ya Ogawa and Shin'ya Yamamoto (director) are known as "The Heroes of the First Wave". In 1965, the same year as Wakamatsu became independent, directors Kan Mukai and Giichi Nishihara established their own production companies—Mukai Productions and Aoi Eiga.  The "first queen of Japanese sex movies" was Noriko Tatsumi, who made films at World Eiga and Nihon Cinema with director Kōji Seki. Other major Sex Queens of the first wave of "pink film" included Setsuko Ogawa, Mari Iwai, Keiko Kayama, and Miki Hayashi. Other "pink film" stars of the era include Tamaki Katori, who appeared in many films for Giichi Nishihara and Kōji Wakamatsu; Kemi Ichiboshi, whose specialty was playing the role of a violated innocent; and Mari Nagisa. Younger starlets like Naomi Tani, and Kazuko Shirakawa were starting their careers and already making names for themselves in the "pink film" industry, but are best remembered today for their work with Nikkatsu during the 1970s.

Toei Pinky Violence.

Until the late 1960s, the "pink film" market was almost entirely the domain of low-budget independent companies. At the beginning of the 1970s, now losing their audiences to television and imported American films, Japan's major film studios were struggling for survival. In 1972, Richie reported, "In Japan, the eroduction is the only type of picture that retains an assured patronage." To tap into this lucrative audience, major studio Toei entered the sexploitation market in 1971. In films like his ero-guro series and "Joys of Torture" series of the late 1960s director Teruo Ishii provided a model for Toei's sexploitation ventures by "establishing a queasy mix of comedy and torture." Producer Kanji Amao designed a group of series—"shigeki rosen" (Sensational Line), "ijoseiai rosen" (Abnormal Line), and "harenchi rosen" (Shameless Line), today collectively referred to as Toei's "Pinky Violence". Most of Toei's films in this style used eroticism in conjunction with violent and action-filled stories. Several of these films have the theme of strong women exacting violent revenge for past injustices. The series was launched with the "Delinquent Girl Boss" ("Zubeko Bancho") films starring Reiko Oshida. Other series in the "Pinky Violence" genre included Norifumi Suzuki's "Girl Boss" ("Sukeban") films, and the "Terrifying Girls' High School" films, both starring Reiko Ike and Miki Sugimoto.  Other examples of Toei's films in this genre include Shunya Ito's "Sasori" (Scorpion) series of women in prison films based on Toru Shinohara's manga. Starting with "" (1972), the "Scorpion" series starred Meiko Kaji, who had left Nikkatsu Studios to distance herself from their "Roman Porno" series. Toei also set the standard for Japanese nunsploitation films (a subgenre imported from Italy) with the critically acclaimed "School of the Holy Beast" (1974) directed by Norifumi Suzuki. Toei also produced a whole series of erotic samurai pictures such as "Bohachi Bushido: Clan of the Forgotten Eight" (Bōhachi Bushidō: Poruno Jidaigeki) (1973).

Nikkatsu Roman Porno.

In 1971 Takashi Itamochi, president of Nikkatsu, Japan's oldest major film studio, decided to stop his own company's involvement with action films and start making sexploitation films. Like Toei, Nikkatsu had made some previous films in the sexploitation market, such as "Story of Heresy in Meiji Era" (1968) and "Tokyo Bathhouse" (1968), which featured over 30 sex-film stars in cameo appearances. Nikkatsu launched its "Roman Porno" series in November 1971 with "", starring Kazuko Shirakawa. The film became a huge hit, inspired 20 sequels within seven years, established Shirakawa as Nikkatsu's first "Queen", and successfully launched the high-profile "Roman porno" series. Director Masaru Konuma says that the process of making Roman Porno was the same as that of making a pink film except for the higher budget. Nikkatsu made these higher-quality pink films almost exclusively, at an average rate of three per month, for the next 17 years.  Nikkatsu gave its "Roman porno" directors a great deal of artistic freedom in creating their films, as long as they met the official minimum quota of four nude or sex scenes per hour. The result was a series that was popular both with audiences and with critics. One or two "Roman Pornos" appeared on the top-ten lists of Japanese critics every year throughout the run of the series. Nikkatsu's higher-quality sex films essentially took the pink film market away from the smaller, independent studios until the mid-1980s, when adult videos began to lure away much of the pink film's clientele.  Tatsumi Kumashiro was one of the major directors of the "Roman Porno". Kumashiro directed a string of financial and critical hits unprecedented in Japanese cinematic history, including "Ichijo's Wet Desire" (1972) and "Woman with Red Hair" (1979), starring Junko Miyashita. He became known as the "King of Nikkatsu "Roman porno"" Noboru Tanaka, director of "A Woman Called Sada Abe" (1975), is judged by many critics today to have been the best of Nikkatsu's "Roman Porno" directors. The S&M subgenre of the "Roman Porno" was established in 1974 when the studio hired Naomi Tani to star in "Flower and Snake" (based on an Oniroku Dan novel), and "Wife to be Sacrificed", both directed by Masaru Konuma. Tani's immense popularity established her as Nikkatsu's third "Roman Porno" Queen, and the first of their S&M Queens. Other subgenres of the pink film developed under the "Roman Porno" line included "Violent Pink", established in 1976 by director Yasuharu Hasebe.

1980s.

When ownership of VCRs first became widespread in the early 1980s, adult videos made their appearance, and quickly became highly popular. As early as 1982 the AVs had already attained an approximately equal share of the adult entertainment market with theatrical erotic films. In 1984, new government censorship policies and an agreement between Eirin (the Japanese film-rating board) and the pink-film companies added to Nikkatsu's difficulties by putting drastic new restrictions on theatrical films. Theatrical pink movie profits dropped 36% within a month of the new ruling. Eirin dealt a serious blow to the pink film industry in 1988 by introducing stricter requirements for sex-related theatrical films. Nikkatsu responded by discontinuing their Roman Porno line. "Bed Partner" (1988) was the final film of the venerable 17-year-old "Roman Porno" series. Nikkatsu continued to distribute films under the name Ropponica, and pink films through Excess Films, however these were not nearly as popular or critically respected as the Roman Porno series had been in its heyday. By the end of the 1980s, adult videos had become the main form of adult cinematic entertainment in Japan.  The dominant directors of "pink films" of the 1980s, Genji Nakamura, Banmei Takahashi and Mamoru Watanabe are known collectively as "The Three Pillars Of Pink". All three were veterans of the "pink film" industry since the 1960s. Coming to prominence in the 1980s, a time when the theatrical porn film was facing considerable difficulties on several fronts, this group is known for elevating the "pink film" above its low origins by concentrating on technical finesse and narrative content. Some critics dubbed the style of their films ""pink" art".  By the time Nakamura joined Nikkatsu in 1983, he had already directed over 100 films. While the plots of his films, which could be extremely misogynistic, were not highly respected, his visual style earned him a reputation for "erotic sensitivity." Nakamura directed one of Japan's first widely distributed, well-received films with a homosexual theme, "Legend of the Big Penis: Beautiful Mystery" (1983), for Nikkatsu's ENK Productions, which was founded in 1983 to focus on gay-themed "pink films". Some of Nakamura's later "pink films" were directed in collaboration with Ryūichi Hiroki, and Hitoshi Ishikawa under the group pseudonym Go Ijuin.  Banmei Takahashi directed "intricate, highly stylistic "pinku eiga"", including "New World of Love" (1994), the first Japanese theatrical film to display genitals. Another prominent cult director of this era, Kazuo "Gaira" Komizu, is known for his Herschell Gordon Lewis-influenced "splatter-eros" films, which bridge the genres of horror and erotica.

1990s.

Nikkatsu, Japan's largest producer of "pink films" during the 1970s and 1980s, filed for bankruptcy protection in 1993. Nevertheless, even in this most difficult period for the "pink film", the genre never completely died out, and continued exploring new artistic realms. Indeed, at this time the pink film was viewed as one of the last refuges of the "auteur" in Japan. So long as the director provided the requisite number of sex scenes, he was free to explore his own thematic and artistic interests.  Three of the most prominent "pink film" directors of the 1990s, Kazuhiro Sano, Toshiki Satō and Takahisa Zeze all made their directorial debuts in 1989. A fourth, Hisayasu Satō, debuted in 1985. Coming to prominence during one of the most precarious times for the "pink film", these directors worked under the assumption that each film could be their last, and so largely ignored their audience to concentrate on intensely personal, experimental themes. These directors even broke one of the fundamental "pink" rules by cutting down in the sex scenes in pursuit of their own artistic concerns. Their films were considered "difficult"—dark, complex, and largely unpopular with the older "pink" audience. The title

"Pink film" today.

The newest prominent group of seven "pink film" directors all began as assistant directors to the "shitenno". Their films display individualistic styles and introspective character indicative of the insecurity of Japan's post-bubble generation. Known together as the they are Toshiya Ueno, Shinji Imaoka, Yoshitaka Kamata, Toshiro Enomoto, Yūji Tajiri, Mitsuru Meike and Rei Sakamoto. Ueno was the first director of this group to rise to prominence, acting as an "advance guard" for the group when his "" (1994) won the "Best Film" award at the Pink Grand Prix. Founded in 1989, the Pink Grand Prix has become a yearly highlight for the "pink film" community by awarding excellence in the genre and screening the top films.  The 2000s have seen a significant growth in international interest in the "pink film". Director Mitsuru Meike's "The Glamorous Life of Sachiko Hanai" (2003) made an impression in international film festivals and gained critical praise. A planned annual "women-only" "pink film" festival was first held in South Korea in 2007, and again in November 2008. In 2008 a company called Pink Eiga, Inc. was formed with the sole purpose of releasing "pink films" on DVD in the U.S.

Directors.

While some directors have used pink films as a steppingstone for their careers, others work exclusively with the genre. Some notable directors of pink films include:

Actresses.

Some notable "pinku eiga" actresses include:

Awards.

Outstanding "Pink films" and their actors and directors have been given awards both from the adult entertainment industry and from the mainstream film community. The following is a partial listing.

Hochi Film Award.

Mainstream film award.<br> 1979

Kinema Junpo awards.

Cinema bi-weekly journal film award.<br> 1969 1972

Nikkatsu awards.

Nikkatsu studio's in-house awards.<br> 1985 1987

Ona-Pet Award.

Tabloid magazine award for "the girl you think of while masturbating". The other yearly award was given for the "Tsuma No Mibun", or "girl you would like to marry."<br> 1976

Pink Grand Prix.

Hosted every April by "PG" magazine. Currently the major "pink film" award ceremony. Founded 1989, covers 1988–present.

Pinky Ribbon Awards.

Annual award held by the Kansai region "Pink Link" magazine. 2004–present.

Yokohama Film Festival.

Mainstream film festival awards.<br> 1985

Zoom-Up Awards.

The Zoom-Up Film Festival (ズームアップ映画祭) pink film awards began in 1980 for movies released in the previous year. The awards continued to at least 1994. Since no listing of the awards seems to be presently available, the following scattered references are what items can be gleaned from the web.  1st Zoom-Up Awards (1980)  2nd Zoom-Up Awards (1981)  3rd Zoom-Up Awards (1982)  5th Zoom-Up Awards (1984)  6th Zoom-Up Awards (1985) - Held in Shinjuku, Tokyo in May 1985.  7th Zoom-Up Awards (1986)  8th Zoom-Up Awards (1987)  9th Zoom-Up Awards (1988)

However, some writers have reserved the term 'pink film' for Japanese sex movies produced and distributed by smaller independent studios such as OP Eiga, Shintōhō Eiga, Kokuei and Xces. In this narrower sense, Nikkatsu's Roman Porno series, Toei's Pinky Violence series and the Tokatsu films distributed by Shochiku would not be included as these studios have much larger distribution networks.

粉红色电影(),也有人称为桃色电影,是一种含有情色或软式色情成分的日本成人电影,而所谓的「软式」是指以镜头与借位等方式来模拟性爱的场景。


Plot.

The story focuses on an orphan named Seiya who was forced to go to the Sanctuary in Greece to obtain one of the, the Bronze Cloth of the Pegasus constellation, a protective armor worn by the Greek goddess Athena's 88 warriors known as. Upon awakening his, the power of the Saints which is an inner spiritual essence originated in the Big Bang, Seiya quickly becomes the Pegasus Saint and returns to Japan to find his older sister.  Because his sister disappeared the same day Seiya went to the Sanctuary, Saori Kido, the granddaughter of Mitsumasa Kido (the person who sent all the orphans to train) makes a deal with him to go to fight in a tournament called the Galaxian Wars. In this tournament, all the orphans who survived and became Bronze Saints must fight to win the most powerful Cloth: The Sagittarius Gold Cloth. If Seiya goes to compete there and wins, Saori would start a search to find Seiya's sister. The tournament is interrupted by the revengeful Phoenix Bronze Saint, Ikki, who wishes to eliminate track from the people who forced him undergo his training. He steals parts from the Sagittarius Cloth and eventually fights against the remaining Bronze Saints: Seiya, Shun (Ikki's brother), Shiryū, and Hyōga, to complete it.  Upon Ikki's defeat, the Bronze Saints are attacked by the Silver Saints sent by the Sanctuary's Pope to eliminate them. When they remain victorious, the Bronze Saints learn that Saori is Athena's reincarnation and that the Pope once tried to kill her as a baby. The Sagittarius Gold Saint Aiolos saved Saori but was killed shortly afterwards and gave Saori to her adopted grandfather, Mitsumasa Kido. Deciding to join forces with Saori, the Bronze Saints go to the Sanctuary to defeat the Pope, but upon their arrival, Saori is severely wounded by a gold arrow from a Silver Saint. Believing the Pope may be able to heal her, the Bronze Saints go to find him. To do so, they have to go through 12 temples, each one guarded by one Gold Saint (the most powerful Saints of Athena). Following several battles, Seiya gets to the Pope's temple and learns that he is the Gold Saint Gemini Saga, who in his madness killed the real Pope to obtain more power. With help from his friends' Cosmos, Seiya is able to knock out Saga and use the shield from Athena's statue to heal Saori. Shortly afterwards, Saga, having come to his senses, commits suicide as a self-punishment.  In the second story arc, the Greek god Poseidon reincarnates within the body of Julian Solo, the heir to a rich and powerful family, who follows his will of flooding the Earth. Saori goes to his Temple, where Julian offers her to reduce the flooding by absorbing the water inside the Oceans' Central Pillar. Following Saori, Seiya, Hyōga, Shun and Shiryū go to Poseidon's underwater Temple and are confronted by his underlings, the Marines. As Seiya, Hyōga, and Shiryū make their way to Julian, Ikki learns that the mastermind behind this war is Saga's twin, Gemini Kanon, who is manipulating Poseidon. During the final battle, Poseidon's spirit awakes within Julian and manages to defeat his opponents. Saved by the Saints from the Pillar, Saori seals Poseidon's soul within her amphora.  The third and last arc follows how Hades, the Underworld god, is freed from his seal and revives the deceased Gold Saints and the Pope Aries Shion, and alongside some of his 108 Specters, sends them to the Sanctuary to kill Athena. The remaining Gold Saints serving Athena are able to subdue the enemies, but Saori then commits suicide. This act is instead meant to directly send her to the Underworld to face Hades, and the Bronze Saints follow her. Shion reveals that the revived Gold Saints' true intentions were of giving Saori her own Cloth, and gives it to Seiya's group before dying once again. In the Underworld, as the Saints fight Hades' Specters, Shun is possessed by Hades. Saori reaches Hades and expels his soul from Shun's body. Hades then takes Saori to Elysium, and the five Bronze Saints follow them. In the final fight against Hades and his two followers, Hypnos and Thanatos, the Saints gain the strongest God Cloths and use them to aid Saori in defeating Hades. However, Seiya also sacrifices himself by receiving one of Hades' attacks, and the Saints return to Earth with his body.

Production.

When Masami Kurumada was in the process of creating "Saint Seiya", he gave Seiya the name Rin at first, since Kurumada was going to title his manga "Ginga no Rin" (Rin of the Galaxy). However, as Kurumada continued developing his manga, he decided to change the name to Seiya, which was more fitting. First he spelled the name with the kanji that meant "Holy Arrow", to relate it to Seiya's condition as a Saint, but later decided to use the kanji that meant "Star Arrow", to emphasize the constellation and mythological motif. Finally, he changed his manga title as well, to "Saint Seiya", once he fully developed the concept of the Saints. Also, Kurumada stated that one of the first ideas he conceived for "Saint Seiya" was the Pegasus Meteor Fist. Since his manga was going to use the constellations as a very important and ever-present theme, he wanted his protagonist to have a special move that would be like a shower of meteors.  When Kurumada designed Seiya's likeness, he was inspired by his character Ryūji Takane, the protagonist of his hit manga "Ring ni Kakero", which he created 9 years before Seiya. Most protagonists of Kurumada's works bear a resemblance to Ryūji, as Kurumada subscribes to the revered Osamu Tezuka's Star System (a stable cast of characters) technique. The same process is done with almost all the other characters from the series.

Media.

Manga.

Written and illustrated by Masami Kurumada, "Saint Seiya" was serialized in "Weekly Shōnen Jump" magazine from January 1, 1986 to November 19, 1990. The individual chapters were collected and published into 28 "tankōbon" volumes by Shueisha. The series has three main parts or acts: "Sanctuary Act" (volumes 1 to 13), "Poseidon Act" (volumes 14 to 18), and "Hades Act" (volumes 19 to 28). Volume 13 also contains a separate short story called. In addition to Japan the manga of Saint Seiya has been published since 1986 in various nations of the world and then translated into various languages including: Chinese (Taiwan), Filipino, Korean, Thai, Portuguese, English, Italian, French, Spanish, German.  In addition to the original 28 "tankōbon" volumes, the series has been reissued several times. The first as 15 "aizōban" volumes in 1995, the "Collector's Version." The second reissue was 2001 "bunkoban", the "Library Version." The series was released again in 2003 in 19 volumes with art design images from the anime adaptation, and called the "Remix Version." The fourth reissue, in 22 volumes and called the "Complete Version", contains additional colored pages as well as colored armor schematics. Another "Remix Version" was published at the end of 2007 to coincide with the broadcast of Chapter Elysion of the anime. Another "Remix Version" was published at the end of 2012.  The series is licensed in English in North America by Viz Media under the title "Saint Seiya: Knights of the Zodiac". Viz released the first collected volume of the series on January 21, 2004, and as of February 2, 2010 all twenty-eight volumes have been released.  To celebrate 30 years of the original classic manga of Saint Seiya, in Akihabara (Tokyo) in June 2016 there will be a convention commemorating the historic series, with numerous commemorative gadgets on sale.  For the 30 years of the classic manga Saint Seiya, has also opened a website official called seiya30th  A second exhibition commemorating the 30th anniversary of the manga by Masami Kurumada, will be held in Hong Kong in September 2016.  "Saint Seiya 30 Shunen Keny Gashu, Seiiki - Sanctuary": Illustration artwork of 130 pg by Masami Kurumada for the 30th anniversary of the Saint Seiya Manga Original classic (1986-1990), launched on October 21, 2016 by Takarajimash in Japan.  A third exhibition commemorating the 30th anniversary of the manga by Masami Kurumada, will be held in China (Hong Kong) in April 2018.  Between 2018 and 2019 the original author Masami Kurumada published in the Champion Red magazine a series of special in-depth chapters of events from the original Saint Seiya manga called "Episode 0 and Saint Seiya Origin".

Other series.

During 2002, a new manga called "Saint Seiya Episode.G" started being serialized. The story is situated 7 years before the events at the beginning of the original "Saint Seiya" manga, and 6 years after the death of the Gold Saint Sagittarius Aiolos, making Leo Aiolia the main character. During the series, Titans are brought back to life with the mission of recovering their realm, and the Gold Saints are assigned to stop them to protect the humans. This new series is written and illustrated by Megumu Okada, under the authorization of Masami Kurumada. The individual chapters were published in Akita Shoten's "Champion Red" magazine and they have been compiled into a total of 20 "tankōbon".  In the summer of 2006, Kurumada resumed the story of "Saint Seiya" in "". The official and canonical sequel of the original manga, the story continues with the previous Holy War between the deities in the "Saint Seiya" universe. Heroes from the present journey back in time to save Pegasus Seiya from his imminent death. The manga tells about the events of two different periods, alternating between the twentieth century and the eighteenth century. The full color series is being published in Akita Shoten's "Shōnen Champion" magazine at irregular dates, with 12 compiled "tankōbon" volumes released so far.  Also, during the fall of 2006, another new manga series called "" started being published. This series tells an alternate not canonical interpretation of the previous Holy War that took place in the 18th century, 250 years before the original series in the "Saint Seiya" universe. The story centers on the relations between Tenma, the Pegasus Saint, and his beloved friend, Alone, who would eventually become his greatest enemy, Hades. Along with "Saint Seiya: Next Dimension", it was published in Akita Shoten's "Shōnen Champion" magazine. Written and illustrated by Shiori Teshirogi under the authorization of Kurumada, the chapters have been compiled into 25 "tankōbon".  In June 2013, a third "Saint Seiya" spin-off manga series was announced. Titled "", it began serialization in the September 2013 issue of "Champion Red" magazine. The series features a female Saint named Shō as the protagonist and is authored by Chimaki Kuori, under commission by Masami Kurumada.

Anime.

Overview.

An anime adaptation based on the "Saint Seiya" manga was created by Toei Animation and broadcast on TV Asahi from October 11, 1986 to 1989. It was directed first by Kōzō Morishita (episodes 1–73) and then by Kazuhito Kikuchi (episodes 74–114). The character designers and aestheticists were Shingo Araki and Michi Himeno, and Seiji Yokoyama composed the soundtracks. Following Kurumada's storylines from the manga closely, the chief scriptwriters were Takao Koyama (1-73) and Yoshiyuki Suga (74-114). The series has three main parts: "Sanctuary" (episodes 1–73), "Asgard", which exists only in the anime adaptation (episodes 74–99), and "Poseidon" (episodes 100–114). The anime was cancelled and left unfinished in 1989, leaving one arc of the manga not animated, until finally being adapted into a series of OVAs in 2002.  There are three English dubs of the anime series, one of which is heavily edited, and the other two of which are uncensored. The first two dubs to be produced are incomplete. In North America, the edited dub premiered on Cartoon Network on August 30, 2003, with only the first 32 episodes airing on Cartoon Network and 40 on YTV before the series was cancelled. This dub, re-titled "Knights of the Zodiac", was licensed by DIC Entertainment. The edits made to this dub included cutting overly violent scenes, adding in previously non-existent digital scene transitions, coloring all instances of blood blue and renaming it "magical energies," rewriting the scripts, renaming several characters, and replacing the opening theme, ending theme, background music, and sound effects.  ADV Films licensed the home video rights to the series and released the DIC-dubbed episodes. In addition to this, ADV also released a separate DVD series featuring the original, uncut Japanese version of the show with English subtitles, which also included a new, uncut dub (with a different voice cast than the one used by DIC). ADV's dub, in addition to being uncut, also kept all of the original music and featured dub scripts that were much closer to the original Japanese dialogue. The first 60 episodes were released in this way. In early 2009, the uncut version was reissued in two box sets, and ADV had expressed an interest in releasing the rest of the series uncut and completing their uncut dub. However, ADV shut down and ceased operations later that year.  A DVD set entitled "Saint Seiya: Sanctuary Classic Complete Collection" was released to DVD in the US on April 15, 2014 by New Video, containing the first 73 episodes in Japanese with English subtitles. On June 20, 2014 and September 2, 2014 two Blu-ray boxsets were released in Japan, containing all 114 episodes of the classic series, restored in high definition video and audio along with extra materials. Additionally, on April 1, 2015, TV Asahi in Japan began re-airing the original anime series to commemorate its 30th anniversary, as well as the 30th anniversary of the manga upon which it is based.  A third English dub, also uncensored, was released on Netflix on October 15, 2019. This dub utilizes the same voice cast as that of "". As of October 18, 2019, 41 episodes have been dubbed. Episodes 42 to 73 were added in January 2020. Episodes 74 to 114 were added in April of 2020, in effect making the Netflix dub the only complete English dub of the entire original series.  On April 1, 2012, "Saint Seiya Omega" aired with a total of 97 episodes, ending its run on March 30, 2014. As an anime original story, it does not take place in the continuity of Kurumada's manga. In most English-speaking countries, "Saint Seiya Omega" is available in English-subtitled format through Crunchyroll.  A new CG project for the series was revealed to be in the works as of December 2016, at CCXP in Brazil. Titled "", Cinematoday.jp published an article on August 2, 2017 which revealed that the project was a collaboration with Netflix to make a new adaptation of the manga and anime classic series. Yoshiharu Ashino was announced as the director, and Eugene Son among others as the writers. The first season would follow the Galaxian Wars arc to the Silver Saints arc with twelve episodes. The series was released on Netflix on July 19, 2019.

Novels.

On November 9, 1988, "Weekly Shōnen Jump" released a Jump Gold Selection Anime Special 2, written by Takao Koyama, with illustrations by the series' animation character designers Shingo Araki and Michi Himeno. This special is just a detailed flashback to Gemini Saga's assassination attempt on the newborn Athena.  There is also a series of two novels written by Kurumada and Tatsuya Hamazaki with the name of "Saint Seiya – Gigantomachia", which were published by Jump J Books. The first novel was released in Japan on August 23, 2002, while the second was released on December 16, 2002.

Films.

Four animated feature films were shown in Japanese theaters from 1987 to 1989. A fifth animated film came out in Japanese theaters in 2004,, which was supposed to follow the regular chronology right after the end of the manga (which finished being adapted on August 1, 2008) as a prologue to a new chapter. Toei Animation first announced that this new chapter would be a new animated series, but later Kurumada stated that he wanted the film to be part of a trilogy. Tōru Furuya revealed Kurumada's wishes for the series during a press conference. After Pegasus Seiya eventually defeats Zeus, he is to go on and face Chronos, the God of Time. Toru was not allowed to say anything more. With the serialization of "Saint Seiya: Next Dimension", Kurumada removed "Overture" from the canon of the "Saint Seiya" universe, although some elements that appeared in it remain in the continuity.  Despite the first movie being released in 1987, none of the movies received an official English release in North America until it was announced by Discotek in 2012 that they had acquired the home video rights to the first four movies and intended to release them across two DVDs, each containing two movies. The DVDs contain Japanese audio with English subtitles.  In 2003, the French magazine AnimeLand published an interview with Masami Kurumada where the author revealed that a company in Hollywood had approached him some years prior with a fifteen-minute pilot of a live-action movie of "Saint Seiya". The project was abandoned as Kurumada did not feel the essence of the series had been preserved. In a later interview published in 2005 the reporter was allowed to see the video and commented on how the names of the main characters were changed and noted that one of them, Andromeda Shun had been changed from male to female.  On June 21, 2014, "" was released. Animated in CGI, "Legend of Sanctuary" is based on the classic 1986 series. It was produced by Toei to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the franchise.\  In 2017, a collaboration between Toei Animation and Hong Kong based production company A Really Good Film Company was announced. In the press conference, plans for a live action Saint Seiya movie were detailed, and Polish director Tomasz Bagiński was announced as being in charge of filming, based on the classic 1986 series, which is supposed to take place in Summer 2019. The official title for the movie is "Saint Seiya: Knights Of The Zodiac".

Original video animations.

These are a series of original video animations (OVAs) that cover the last arc of the manga, which was not previously adapted into anime. The first 13 episodes were broadcast on Animax (a Japanese pay-per-view channel) from November 9, 2002 to April 12, 2003, and then released on DVD during the year 2003. These 13 episodes were named and adapt volumes 19 to 22 of the manga. This OVA series was directed by Shigeyasu Yamauchi, still with animation character designs by Shingo Araki and Michi Himeno, while the scripts were adapted from the manga this time by Michiko Yokote, and the soundtrack was entirely taken from Yokoyama's work on the previous TV series.  Two years after the first part of the Hades saga, Chapter Sanctuary, a second part was produced in 2005. This second chapter was named and consists of six episodes, adapting volumes 23 to 25 of the manga. However, most of the original voice actors did not reprise their roles, aside from Hideyuki Tanaka as the narrator. Hirotaka Suzuoki, the original voice actor of Dragon Shiryū, died on August 6, 2006 due to lung cancer.  On the same Animax channel, Toei Animation released the first two OVAs on December 17, 2005, followed by the next two on January 21, 2006. The last pair were released on February 18, 2006. Shortly after their TV broadcasting, which lasted for 2 months, the episodes were released on DVD in 2006. This short OVA series was directed by Tomoharu Katsumata, but the other staff remained the same. Toei Animation officially announced the news on its website on July 18, 2006. Then,, which contains 6 episodes in total, was released, adapting volumes 25 to 26 of the manga.  On June 28, Masami Kurumada announced on his personal blog that production on the OVAs had begun. It was thought that the release was to be in mid-December 2007, as of the last two years with the performance of the two Inferno chapters (Zenshō and Kōshō), but no preview or released images were available as of the end of October. In November 2007, Toei Animation announced that the official release of the Elysion Chapter would be in March 2008 and not December 2007 as originally planned The Elysion OVAs were released in March (episodes #26 and #27), May (#28 and #29), and August (#30 and #31), and adapted the final two volumes of the manga, 27 and 28.  An original net animation series titled "" began streaming in 2015.

Musicals.

In August 1991, a musical, sponsored by Bandai, was performed at the Aoyama theater in Tokyo, Japan. The story retells the Sanctuary and Poseidon chapters. The cast included members of SMAP as the five Bronze Saints and Poseidon. The characters Aries Mu, Leo Aiolia, and Scorpio Milo were portrayed by members of another band, Tokio.  As of May 2011, Masami Kurumada announced in his website that a new "Saint Seiya" musical was in the works. Debuting in late 2011, the stage play was titled "Saint Seiya Super Musical", and presented a live-action adaptation of the first "Saint Seiya" film, "Evil Goddess Eris".

Video games.

Several video games have been released based on the series. Most video games refer mainly to the classic series from 1986.

Discography.

Seiji Yokoyama was the main composer for the "Saint Seiya" original anime series 1986/90. A selection is listed below:

Merchandise.

Of the characters of the manga and anime classic of 'Saint Seiya 1986/1990' very many action figures have been made over the years, in various versions and models:  "Saint Seiya" began to be known in the West as "Knights of the Zodiac" after it became successful in France at the end of the 1980s, where it was given the name of "Les Chevaliers du Zodiaque". This was also the very first release of the series outside Asia, in 1988.  The series was also broadcast starting from 1989 in Italy, under the title of "I Cavalieri dello Zodiaco" (following the French renaming). This edition is known to differ substantially from other foreign editions of "Saint Seiya", not only because many names of characters, places, and fighting techniques were changed, but especially because the whole tone of the dialogues was modified to become more aulic and ceremonious, in step with the tone of the ancient epic Greek drama, and with occasional quotations from various pieces of poetry and classical literature; the main characters were also given adult voices in the dubbing, instead of teenage voices.  The series was also released in Spanish-speaking countries, under the title of "Los Caballeros del Zodiaco" (again, following the French renaming), enjoying great success in both Spain and Latin America. In 2003, the three acts of the original anime (Sanctuary, Asgard and Poseidon arcs) were aired again on Cartoon Network's Toonami programming block. Starting in 2006, the Hades arc was also aired, with new dubbing.  In the mid-1980s a line of "Saint Seiya" action figures, called Saint Cloth Series, were produced by Bandai, featuring most of the series characters. The toy line was a huge success inside of Japan, but also in other countries such as Hong-Kong, Taiwan, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Mexico. The figures have now acquired collector status and the Japanese originals are highly sought after. Some, like Odin's God Robe or Kraken Isaac, have a very high value.  Starting in 2002, for their popular gashapon high-quality PVC figurines line, Bandai released several "Saint Seiya" themed sets, each one containing an average of 5 figurines. Seven sets were released, the sixth of which was a Special release that included the 12 Gold Saints. The seventh set was released in 2004 to commemorate the release of the "Tenkai Hen Josō Overture" movie, raising the number of figurines released to date to 34.  In 2003, Bandai created a new line of figures called. Originally, only the five main Bronze Saints wearing their Cloths from the Poseidon Arc would be released, in commemoration of the Hades arc of the manga being animated, but were so well received that they decided to continue the line and it continues to sell very well internationally. As of July 2010, there are over 100 figures available, and Bandai continues to release new figures regularly. The line seems to be nowhere near its end.  In 2006, Bandai created a separate gashapon line named. It differed from the original gashapon line in that the figurines were poseable and their armor could be removed. Five sets, each containing five figurines, were released.  In 2008, Bandai released a line of PVC figurines. Each set includes an average of five figures, and four sets have been released to date.  More recently, the Japanese hobby figurine and collectible manufacturer Megahouse released in 2007 a line of very high-quality, non-poseable resin figures named Saint Seiya Excellent Model, which are part of the line Excellent Model, composed of various well-known characters from manga and anime. Three figures have been released so far, Pegasus Seiya, Dragon Shiryū and Athena.  Starting in 2008, the Japanese collectible manufacturer Medicos Entertainment, is releasing the, a line that consists in various resin figurines of the Cloths worn by the Saints. Three volumes have been released so far, each one containing 6 figures.  Continuing with its "Saint Seiya" themed lines, Medicos Entertainment also released a line of non-poseable resin figures named, composed of various figures of Saint Seiya characters. Nine figures have been released so far. Medicos also released a very high-quality resin figure of Aiolos and Seiya, wearing the Sagittarius Gold Cloth, as part of their Art Collection line. All three sub-lines form part of their Chōzō (Super Figures) line.  Recently, Megahouse has announced the release of two sets of chibi PVC figures portraying the Gold Saints, titled. Both sets include seven figures, set 1 is slated for release in July 2012 and set 2 is slated for release in September 2012.  D.D.Panoramation, new line (2016) of action figures about 17 characters of the original series (years 80s)(1986/1990), 12 Gold Saints and 5 Bronze Saints. A new line of action figures called Saint Seiya Daizenshuu on 12 characters of the original series (years 80s)(1986\1990) Saint Seiya in "Superdeformer" version will start to come out in Japan in November 2016.  A new line of action figures called 'Saint Seiya Revival'(2019) on characters of the original series (years 80s)(1986/1990), 5 Bronze Saints and 12 Gold Saints.  The Funko Pop action figures of the 5 protagonists of the classic animated series 1986/1990 Saint Seiya were made in 2020.  High quality statues of the main characters of the classic series of Saint Seiya 1986/1990 as Seiya Pegasus are produced by Bampresto.  In Brazil in 2020 action figures are produced on the 5 Bronze Saints protagonists and 12 Gold Saints of the classic animated series 1986/1990 Saint Seiya.

Reception.

The original manga of Masami Kurumada has sold over 25 million copies in Japan as of 2007, and over 35 million copies as of 2017. When TV Asahi, a television network in Japan, conducted a nationwide survey for the one hundred most popular animated television series, "Saint Seiya" anime came in twenty-fifth place. In his number #271 of January 2001, Animage listed the anime series among the "Best 100" animes of the Twentieth Century. The anime series won the Animage Anime Grand Prix prize in 1987.  The series was considered one of the biggest phenomenons of the 1980s. It would become the inspiration for future series, including several Gundam series such as "Mobile Suit Gundam Wing" and "Mobile Fighter G Gundam", "Legend of Heavenly Sphere Shurato", "Ronin Warriors", "Wild Knights Gulkeeva", and Kurumada's later work "B't X". In "The Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917", Jonathan Clements and Helen McCarthy praises the series' complex plot and felt that animation designers' Shingo Araki and Michi Himeno had worked "magic" with both the anime series and the films. They also praised the grand soundtrack and director Shigeyasu Yamauchi's ability to stretch out the tension and chose the perfect places to stop an episode to keep audiences waiting for the next one. Clements and McCarthy did, however, find the series disturbing in that its main emotional impact comes from the audience seeing "older boys and men fighting brave but naive teenagers" and through victories earning more weapons. Jason Thompson describes the series as being "almost pure battle".  Yaoi dōjinshi based on "Saint Seiya" popularized the term "yaoi" in 1987. "Saint Seiya" was particularly popular as a subject in yaoi as it had a large cast which was predominantly male. This allowed "an incredible number" of pairings, although Andromeda Shun was one of the more popular characters to create yaoi for.  Tite Kubo, the author of the manga series "Bleach", considers "Saint Seiya" to be one of his biggest inspirations for the designs of the different types of weapons that his characters use in the story as well as the battle scenes.  In the NHK ranking: "Best Anime 100", celebrating a century of Japanese Animation, the Japanese voted the "Classic Anime Saint Seiya (1986-1990)", making it the 123rd place among the more than 5,000 Japanese animations produced in the first century, resulting the 123rd Anime of all time preferred by Japanese fans, also "Anime Classic of Saint Seiya" is the animated product of Saint Seiya preferred by fans of the Japan.

External links.

, also known as Saint Seiya: Knights of the Zodiac or simply Knights of the Zodiac, is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Masami Kurumada. The story follows five mystical warriors called the Saints who fight wearing sacred sets of armor named "Cloths", the designs of which derive from the various constellations the characters have adopted as their destined guardian symbols, and empowered by a mystical energy called "Cosmo". The Saints have sworn to defend the reincarnation of the Greek goddess Athena in her battle against other Olympian gods who want to dominate Earth. It was serialized in "Weekly Shōnen Jump" from 1986 to 1990, with the chapters collected into 28 "tankōbon" volumes by Shueisha.

《圣斗士星矢》()是日本漫画家车田正美的漫画代表作,从1985年12月起在集英社《周刊少年Jump》上连载,至1990年11月在《V Jump》上发表完结篇。单行本共有28卷。在1986年推出动画。