Name.

In Danilo I's Code, dated to 1855, he explicitly states that he is the ""knjaz" and "gospodar" of "Crna Gora" and "Brda"" (; "prince and lord of Montenegro and Brda", "duke and lord of Montenegro and Brda"). In 1870, Nikola had the title of ""knjaz" of "Crna Gora" and "Brda"" (; "prince of Montenegro and Brda", "duke of Montenegro and Brda"), while two years later, the state was called ""Knjaževina" of "Crna Gora"" (; "Principality of Montenegro", "Duchy of Montenegro"). Principality

History.

Reign of Danilo.

The Principality was formed on 13 March 1852 when Danilo I Petrović-Njegoš, formerly known as Vladika Danilo II, decided to renounce to his ecclesiastical position as prince-bishop and married. With the first Montenegrin constitution being proclaimed in 1855, known as "Danilo's Code". After centuries of theocratic rule, this turned Montenegro into a secular principality.  Grand Voivode Mirko Petrović, elder brother of Danilo I, led a strong army of 7,500 and won a crucial battle against the Turks (army of between 7,000 and 13,000) at Grahovac on 1 May 1858. The Turkish forces were routed. This victory forced the Great Powers to officially demarcate the borders between Montenegro and Ottoman Turkey, de facto recognizing Montenegro's centuries-long independence. Montenegro gained Grahovo, Rudine, Nikšić, more than half of Drobnjaci, Tušina, Uskoci, Lipovo, Upper Vasojevići, and part of Kuči and Dodoši. The glory of the Montenegrins was soon immortalized in songs and literature of all South Slavs.

Reign of Nikola.

After the assassination of Danilo I on 13 August 1860, Nikola I, the nephew of Danilo, became the next ruler of Montenegro. Nikola sent aid to the Serb rebels in the Herzegovina Uprising (1875–78), and then led a war against the Ottomans, the Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1876–78). The advancement of Russian forces toward Turkey forced Constantinople to sign a peace treaty on 3 March 1878, recognising the independence of Montenegro, as well as Romania and Serbia, and also increased Montenegro's territory from 4,405 km2 to 9,475 km2. Montenegro also gained the towns of Nikšić, Kolašin, Spuž, Podgorica, Žabljak, Bar, as well as access to the sea. This was the Great Powers' official demarcation between Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire, "de facto" recognizing Montenegro's independence; Montenegro was recognized by the Ottoman Empire at the Treaty of Berlin (1878). Under the rule of Nikola I, diplomatic relations were established with the Ottoman Empire. Minor border skirmishes excepted, diplomacy ushered in approximately 30 years of peace between the two states until the deposition of Abdul Hamid II.  The political skills of Abdul Hamid and Nikola I played a major role on the mutually amicable relations. Modernization of the state followed, culminating with the draft of a Constitution in 1905. However, political rifts emerged between the parliamentary People's Party that supported the process of democratization and union with Serbia and those of the True People's Party who were monarchist.

Government.

Flags.

The historical war flags were the "krstaš-barjak", plain flags with crosses in the centre. The Montenegrin war flag used in the Battle of Vučji Do (1876) was red with a white cross pattée in the centre and a white border, and this flag was adopted from the Serbian war flag in the Battle of Kosovo (1389) which found itself in Montenegro after surviving knights brought it there. The same flag was used in Cetinje in 1878, upon recognition of independence by the Ottoman Empire at San Stefano. According to the 1905 constitution, the national flag was a tricolour of red-blue-white ("црвена, плаветна и бијела"), which was the Serbian tricolour.

Constitution of 1855.

Danilo I used the Law of Petar I Petrović-Njegoš, as an inspiration for his own "General Law of the Land" from 1855, also called "Danilo I's Code" ("zakonik Danila prvog"). Danilo's Code was based on Montenegrin traditions and customs and it is considered to be the first national constitution in Montenegrin history. It also stated rules, protected privacy and banned warring on the Austrian Coast (Bay of Kotor). It also stated: "Although there is no other nationality in this land except Serb nationality and no other religion except Eastern Orthodoxy, each foreigner and each person of different faith can live here and enjoy the same freedom and the same domestic right as Montenegrin or Highlander."

Constitution of 1905.

At the beginning of the 20th century, political differences were starting to culminate. The country was now enlarged territorially and saw almost four decades of peace, very unusual for the country which was in war practically the whole time since it fell to Ottoman hands. The ruler, Prince Nikola I, was the longest reigning of all the Balkan dynasties, and by many perceived as the most experienced diplomat and politician. On the other hand, there was a growing population of dissatisfied young people, educated mainly abroad, who saw his rule as absolutistic and autocratic. Gathered in Belgrade, where they had support from certain political parties, they were demanding the reorganisation of government administration, constitutionalisation and the introduction of parliament. The opposition grew as their demands were supported by certain number of old military leaders and various clans' representatives. These primitive forms of nobility were mainly old and conservative, but due to their own personal antagonisms towards the prince or because of their own political ambitions, they sided with the crowd which demanded the modernistaion of the country. For a long time prince and the circle of people around him defended his standpoint with the explanation that the times were not right and that Montenegrin society still hadn't evolved enough to understand the significance of constitutional monarchy. Moreover, they argued that the introduction of parliamentarism and of the political parties would again stir up the old feuds between clans and destabilise hard won unity. Neighboring Serbia by this time had already changed five constitutions and saw fifty years of political struggle between various different political parties and factions resulting in a coup and the assassination of the royal couple in 1903. Finally, Imperial Russia, the great protector of Montenegrin sovereignty in international politics and a model whose internal organisation was crudely copied by Montenegro, was still without a constitution. However, after the revolution of 1905 even Russia had to go through certain changes, thus leaving Montenegro to be the only country in Europe without a constitution alongside the Ottoman Empire, whose first constitution was short lived. Finally, after a huge media campaign against him and wide public pressure, both domestic and international, the prince at last decided to step back, so on 31 October 1905, he issued a public proclamation saying that he would grant the constitution. The proclamation also stated that he was granting the constitution of his free will and that the changes it would bring would not be radical at first because he felt that the existing institutions should be preserved from sudden changes. This caused a reply from students in Belgrade in a form of text entitled "The Word of Montenegrin University Youth", in which they criticised his intentions, saying that the new constitution would be merely formal and labeling the prince as the brake which was holding back Montenegro from modernisation and prosperity. Naturally, he did not want to give any power away or to tie his own hands in any means, so he trusted his friend Stevan Djurčić, a conservative journalist from Serbia, with the task of writing the constitution. The outcome was the constitution that was basically a copy of the Serbian constitution from 1869 (aka The Regency Constitution) with slight changes made by the prince himself. The changes were minor but necessary adaptations for domestic circumstances. The Constitution of the Principality of Montenegro was imposed by Nikola I on 19 December (6 December on the Julian calendar) 1905 in his speech from the throne in parliament. The parliament did not get to discuss the new constitution and was dissolved right after it formally accepted it, so despite being brought in by parliament it was de facto imposed. It became remembered as the St Nicholas day constitution. It had 15 chapters with 222 articles in total. The 1905 Constitution provided state organization, type of government, the state symbols (partially), competence of the state administration, election of the statesman, the military service, the finances, and human and citizens' rights.  Montenegro is now a constitutional hereditary monarchy. Legislative power is vested in parliament as well as in the prince. The prince is the supreme commander of the armed forces, representing the state in foreign affairs. He declares war and signs the peace and alliances and also informs parliament on the matter; he has the right to appoint government officials; he is the protector of all the recognised religions in the country and he has the right of abolition and amnesty. He calls up meetings of parliament in regular and irregular sessions, opens up and closes the sessions personally, by speech from the throne or by ministry council with his decree. He has the right to dissolve parliament as well as to postpone parliamentary sessions. The dissolution decree must be countersigned by all ministers. Every adult male citizen has the right to be elected as MP, who hasn't been convicted and was not under any form of investigation, no matter the amount of taxes he pays. Active officers, NCO's and soldiers in the army did not have the right to vote. Passive suffrage is available to every citizen older than 30, who permanently resides in Montenegro, enjoys full civil rights and pays at least 15 krones of taxes. Administrative officials cannot be elected to parliament. The elections were direct, and despite the fact that the method of voting was not regulated by constitution, it was usually done publicly. The deputies were elected for a four-year term. Aside from the elected MP's, there were 14 parliament seats for the so-called virile deputies (by the position they take in the government or society). These included the Metropolitan of Montenegro, the Archbishop of Bar and Primate of Serbia, the Montenegrin Mufti, the president and the members of the State Council, the president of the High Court, the president of the Main Control and three brigadiers named by the prince himself.  No law can be passed, repealed, changed or reviewed without the acceptance of parliament. However, the initiative for the law to be passed or for the existing one to be changed can come from government to parliament or vice versa, but formal legislative projects can be made by government only. The role and the position of parliament was quite damaged by this fact. Parliament had the right to pass the budget, but for doing so it could not ask for the conditions that were not related to it. In other words, rejection of the budget cannot be used to dissolve a government, so, if parliament was to repeal the budget, the prince could extend the validness of the last year's budget to the following year. This particular example shows that the constitution did not complete the task of limiting the ruler's power. Finally, no new tax can be imposed without the agreeance of parliament.  The prince is the one who appoints and dismisses the ministers. The Ministry Council stands as the head of country's bureaucracy and is subordinated directly to the prince. For their official actions, the ministers can be held responsible by either parliament or the prince. A minister can be charged for treason, for acting against the constitution, for corruption, for damaging the state out of his own interest and if his actions are against the law in the cases set by the Law of Ministerial Responsibility. A minister can be charged by government, parliament or prince and his statute of limitations is set at five years.  State Council, composed of six members, appointed by the prince, provides the role of supreme administrative court, reviews government's legal initiatives and has jurisdiction over some subjects of financial nature. There are also high courts and municipal courts. The courts are independent in providing justice. The judges cannot be transferred without legal standpoint. The constitution also introduced local self-management through municipal courts, municipal committees and municipal assemblies. It also provided civil rights and freedom, law equality, courts jurisdiction, abolition of death penalty for purely political reasons, excluding the attempt on the life of prince or the members of the royal family. The aforementioned abolition was also not valid in cases where aside from political quilt, some other criminal action was done, as well as in cases punished by death according to military law. Right to personal property, the freedom of press and the right of assembly were also guaranteed. The constitution was followed by Penal Law (1906), Penal Procedure Law, Commerce and Obligations Law and the Lawyer's Management Law (1910).  Despite all its flaws and restrictions, the Montenegrin Constitution of 1905 was an important introduction of modern liberal tendencies in European societies and of human rights and freedoms in a small patrimonial Balkan country.

Subdivisions.

The Principality of Montenegro was divided into 10 administrative divisions, called "nahija" ( "nahije").

Church.

The Metropolitanate of Cetinje was divided from the state by Danilo I. It was at the time nominally Serbian Orthodox, though "de jure" part of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, it was largely independent. The Russian Orthodox Church uncanonically entered the Eparchy of Montenegro in their list of autocephalous churches (Sintagma, V, 1855). In 1908, the Eparchy of Zahumlje-Raška was established, existing alongside the Eparchy of Cetinje.  The Metropolitans of Cetinje were: Ilarion Roganović (1876–1882), Visarion Ljubiša (1882–1884) and Mitrofan Ban (1884–1918).  The Serbian Orthodox Church was re-established in 1920, by merging the metropolitanates of Cetinje, Belgrade and Karlovci.

The Principality of Montenegro () was a former realm in Southeastern Europe that existed from 13 March 1852 to 28 August 1910. It was then proclaimed a kingdom by Nikola I, who then became king.

黑山公国是位于南欧的一个已不存在的国家。黑山公国的首都位于采蒂涅。其范围大致和今天的黑山一致。黑山公国在形式上是君主立宪制国家,实际上是君主专制国家。黑山虽是奥斯曼帝国的附属国,但一直拥有较强的自治权。1852年,黑山和土耳其发生军事冲突。1860年,黑山和土耳其爆发战争,虽然一开始黑山处于劣势,然而在俄罗斯和塞尔维亚的支持下,黑山最后获得了战争的胜利。1905年,黑山制定了宪法。1910年,国号正式改为黑山王国。


Description.

All lepospondyls are characterised by having simple, spool-shaped vertebrae that did not ossify from cartilage, but rather grew as bony cylinders around the notochord. In addition, the upper portion of the vertebra, the neural arch, is usually fused to the centrum (the main body of the vertebra).

Classification.

The position of the Lepospondyli within the Tetrapoda is uncertain because the earliest lepospondyls were already highly specialized when they first appeared in the fossil record. Some lepospondyls were once thought to be related or perhaps ancestral to modern salamanders (Urodela), but not the other modern amphibians. This view is no longer held and all modern amphibians (frogs, salamanders, and caecilians) are now grouped within the clade Lissamphibia. For a long time, the Lepospondyli were considered one of the three subclasses of Amphibia, along with the Lissamphibia and the Labyrinthodontia. However, the dissolution of "labyrinthodonts" into separate groups such as temnospondyls and anthracosaurs has cast doubt on these traditional amphibian subclasses. Much like "Labyrinthodontia", some studies proposed that Lepospondyli is an artificial (polyphyletic) grouping with some members closely related to extinct stem tetrapod groups and others more closely related to modern amphibians or reptiles. Early phylogenetic analyses conducted in the 1980s and 1990s often maintained the idea that lepospondyls were paraphyletic, with nectrideans close to colosteids and microsaurs close to temnospondyls, which were considered to be ancestral to modern amphibians.  However, a 1995 paper by Robert Carroll argued that lepospondyls were actually a monophyletic group closer to reptiles. Carroll considered them closer to reptiles than the seymouriamorphs, but not as close as the diadectomorphs. Many phylogenetic analyses since Carroll (1995) agreed with his interpretation, including Laurin & Reisz (1997), Anderson (2001), and Ruta "et al." (2003). A few have still considered lepospondyls ancestral to amphibians, but came to this conclusion without changing the position of lepospondyls compared to seymouriamorphs and diadectomorphs.  Lepospondyl and tetrapod classification is still controversial, and even recent studies have had doubts about lepospondyl monophyly. For example, a 2007 paper has suggested that adelospondyls are stem-tetrapods close to colosteids and a 2017 paper on "Lethiscus" has Aïstopoda in the tetrapod stem based on their primitive braincase. These studies differ in the internal and external relationships of the remaining lepospondyl taxa. The former places the remaining lepospondyls into a single clade along the amniote stem. The latter does not treat the relationships of nectrideans or adelospondyls, but finds microsaurs to be early amniotes, and places lysorophians within microsaurs.

Interrelationships.

Five main groups of lepospondyls are often recognized: Microsauria, a superficially lizard- or salamander-like and species-rich group; Lysorophia, a group with elongated bodies and very small limbs; Aïstopoda, a group of limbless, extremely elongated snake-like forms; Adelospondyli, a group of presumably aquatic forms that resemble aïstopods, but have more solidly built skulls; and Nectridea, another diverse group that includes terrestrial and aquatic newt-like forms. Microsauria is generally considered paraphyletic; rather than being a monophyletic group, it has been considered an evolutionary grade of basal ("primitive") lepospondyls, although there is growing consensus that a large subset of fossorially-adapted microsaurs, the Recumbirostra, is monophyletic. Lysorophia may belong within the Recumbirostran clade, distinct from other derived lepospondyls. Nectridea may also be paraphyletic, consisting of a range of more anatomically-specialized lepospondyls. The name Holospondyli has been proposed for a clade including aïstopods, and nectrideans, and possibly adelospondyls, although not all recent phylogenetic analyses support the grouping. The following cladogram, simplified, is after an analysis of tetrapods and stem-tetrapods presented by Ruta "et al." in 2003:

Position within Tetrapoda.

The "lepospondyl hypothesis" of modern amphibian origins proposes that lissamphibians are monophyletic (that is, they form their own clade) and that they evolved from lepospondyl ancestors. Two alternatives are the "temnospondyl hypothesis", in which lissamphibians originated within Temnospondyli, and the "polyphyly hypothesis", in which caecilians originated from lepospondyls while frogs and salamanders (collectively grouped within Batrachia) evolved from temnospondyls. Of the three hypotheses, the temnospondyl hypothesis is currently the most widely accepted among researchers. Strong support for this relationship comes from a suite of anatomical features shared between lissamphibians and a group of Paleozoic temnospondyls called dissorophoids. Under this hypothesis, Lepospondyli either falls outside crown group Tetrapoda (the smallest clade containing all living tetrapods, i.e. the smallest clade containing Lissamphibia and Amniota), or is closer to amniotes and therefore part of Reptiliomorpha. However, some phylogenetic analyses continue to find support for the lepospondyl hypothesis. The analysis by Vallin and Laurin (2004) found lissamphibians to be most closely related to lysorophians, followed by microsaurs. Pawley (2006) also found lysorophians to be the closest relatives of lissamphibians, but found aïstopods and adelogyrinids rather than microsaurs to be the second most closely related groups. Marjanović (2010) found holospondyls to be the most closely related group to lissamphibians, followed by lysorophians. Under this hypothesis, lepospondyls would be crown tetrapods and temnospondyls would be stem tetrapods.  Below is a cladogram from Ruta "et al." (2003) that supports the "temnospondyl hypothesis", showing the position of Lepospondyli within crown group Tetrapoda:

Lepospondyli is a diverse taxon of reptiliomorph tetrapods. With the exception of one late-surviving lepospondyl from the Late Permian of Morocco ("Diplocaulus minumus"), lepospondyls lived from the Early Carboniferous (Mississippian) to the Early Permian and were geographically restricted to what is now Europe and North America. Five major groups of lepospondyls are known: Adelospondyli; Aïstopoda; Lysorophia; Microsauria; and Nectridea. Lepospondyls have a diverse range of body forms and include species with newt-like, eel- or snake-like, and lizard-like forms. Various species were aquatic, semiaquatic, or terrestrial. None were large (the biggest genus, the diplocaulid "Diplocaulus", reached a meter in length, but most were much smaller), and they are assumed to have lived in specialized ecological niches not taken by the more numerous temnospondyl amphibians that coexisted with them in the Paleozoic. Lepospondyli was named in 1888 by Karl Alfred von Zittel, who coined the name to include some tetrapods from the Paleozoic, that shared some specific characteristics in the notochord and teeth. Lepospondyls have sometimes been considered to be either related or ancestral to modern amphibians or to Amniota (the clade containing reptiles and mammals).

壳椎亚纲(Lepospondyli)是一类细小但多样化的两栖动物,生存于石炭纪至二叠纪晚期。现时已知有六个不同的分支,包括Acherontiscidae、Adelospondyli、缺肢目、弛顶<unk>目、鳞<unk>目及游<unk>目,这些分类之间有像蝾<unk>、像鳗鱼或蛇及像蜥蜴的形态,且拥有不能分类的物种。这些物种是水中、半水中或陆地生活的。最长的盗首<unk>只有约1米长,而其他的更为细小,估计牠们是生存在没有被同期离片椎目占有特定的生态位。


Early life and career.

Wilson was born in Minerva, Ohio, the son of Thomas E. and Rosalind (née Unkefer) Wilson. After earning a degree in electrical engineering from the Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1909, he joined the Westinghouse Electric Company in Pittsburgh, where eventually he supervised the engineering of automobile electrical equipment, and during World War I, the development of dynamotors and radio generators for the Army and Navy. Wilson married Jessie Ann Curtis on September 11, 1912. They had five children.

General Motors career.

In 1919, Wilson moved to Remy Electric, a General Motors subsidiary, as chief engineer and sales manager. By January 1941 he was the president of General Motors. During World War II, Wilson directed the company's huge defense production effort, which earned him a Medal for Merit in 1946. He was still head of General Motors when Eisenhower selected him as Secretary of Defense in January 1953.

Secretary of Defense.

Wilson's nomination sparked a controversy that erupted during his confirmation hearings before the Senate Armed Services Committee, based on his large stockholdings in General Motors. Reluctant to sell the stock, valued at the time at more than $2.5 million (or about $24 million in 2018), Wilson agreed to do so under committee pressure. During the hearings, when asked if he could make a decision as Secretary of Defense that would be adverse to the interests of General Motors, Wilson answered affirmatively. But he added that he could not conceive of such a situation "because for years I thought what was good for our country was good for General Motors, and vice versa." That statement has frequently been misquoted as "What's good for General Motors is good for the country." Although Wilson tried for years to correct the misquote, he was reported, at the time of his retirement in 1957, to have accepted the popular impression.  Wilson was finally confirmed as Secretary of Defense by a Senate vote of 77 to 6 and began his duties in the Pentagon with his standing somewhat diminished by the confirmation debate.  Both Wilson and Eisenhower entered office committed to reorganizing the US Department of Defense. They succeeded in securing from Congress approval in June 1953 of Reorganization Plan No. 6, which made changes in OSD, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the chain of command. Wilson welcomed the reorganization plan, which became effective on June 30, 1953, as facilitating more efficient management of the Department of Defense. He looked on the assistant secretaries as his "vice presidents" and tried to run the Pentagon like an industrial corporation. Wilson took advantage of the reorganization to decentralize administration, giving the service secretaries more responsibility and importance. In his first annual report, he noted that the service secretaries were his principal assistants; decentralizing operational responsibility to them would make for effective exercise of civilian authority throughout the Department of Defense. In July 1954, to complement the 1953 reorganization, Wilson issued a directive to the JCS, the most important provision of which stated that "the Joint Staff work of each of the Chiefs of Staff shall take priority over all other duties," their tasks as chiefs of individual services. The directive also clarified the role of the JCS chairman and his authority over the Joint Staff while making clear that assignment of major tasks to the Joint Staff was the prerogative of the full JCS.  Internal reorganization was only one of several major changes during Wilson's tenure, the most important being the "New Look" defense concept. Eisenhower had criticized Truman's policies during the 1952 campaign, arguing that they were reactive rather than positive and that they forced the United States to compete with the Soviet Union on terms laid down by the latter. Eisenhower entered office with strong convictions about the need to reorient the nation's security policy, convictions reflecting his interest in maintaining a staunch defense while cutting government expenditures and balancing the budget.  The president inaugurated planning for the New Look in July 1953 by asking the incoming members of the JCS (Admiral Arthur W. Radford, chairman; General Matthew B. Ridgway, Army chief of staff; General Nathan F. Twining, Air Force chief of staff; and Admiral Robert B. Carney, chief of naval operations) to prepare a paper on overall defense policy. Although the JCS paper did not recommend any fundamental changes, the National Security Council in October 1953 adopted a key tenet of the New Look that a large-scale limited war or a general war would likely be fought with nuclear weapons. Eisenhower formally presented the New Look in his State of the Union message in January 1954, and Wilson helped to explain it. More defense for less money was possible, he said. With new weapons and techniques and ready reserves of troops and material, the United States could support capable military forces within budget allocations that Congress was willing to provide.  The major features of the New Look included greater reliance on nuclear weapons, using the advantage the United States had over the Soviet Union in such weapons; elevation of strategic air power, the major means to deliver nuclear weapons, to a more important position (not an expansion in the number of Air Force wings but rather development and production of better equipment); cuts in conventional ground forces, based both on reliance on strategic and tactical nuclear weapons and the expectation that US allies would provide ground troops for their own defense; an expanded program of continental defense, which, along with strategic air power, would serve as a principal ingredient of the New Look's deterrence program; and modernization and enlargement of reserve forces, enhancing the military manpower base while reducing active duty forces.  Although the Eisenhower administration generally adhered to the New Look throughout Wilson's term, the policy remained controversial. Some critics maintained that it made impossible the fighting of a limited non-nuclear war. The Army and the Navy felt that the increased emphasis on air power and nuclear weapons represented a departure from the concept of "balanced forces" in which individual service programs were balanced against overall requirements. Implicit in the policy was rejection of the idea that a year of crisis with the Soviet Union was imminent (to occur when the Soviets achieved offensive nuclear capability against the United States) or that a general war was just around the corner. Wilson pointed out frequently that defense policy should be long-term and not based on short-term projections of Soviet-American relations. "Military expenditures," he observed, "must be adequate, but not so great that they will become an intolerable burden which will harm the social and economic fabric of our country. True security cannot be founded on arms and arms alone."  Wilson worked hard to reduce the defense budget, which meant some immediate cutbacks in fiscal year 1953 funds and a concerted effort to economize in subsequent years. Total obligational authority approved by Congress during Wilson's tenure decreased significantly at first and then began to creep back up, but it remained lower than the Truman administration's last budgets, inflated because of the Korean War. The TOA for FY 1953, Truman's final Defense budget, was $44.2 billion. TOA in subsequent fiscal years was: 1954, $30.4 billion; 1955, $33.7 billion; 1956, $33.06 billion; 1957, $39.7 billion; and 1958, $41.1 billion. Especially after 1954, when the Democratic Party regained control of Congress, the Wilson-Eisenhower effort to curb defense expenditures provoked growing criticism. The Air Force, even though the New Look enhanced its role, opposed the decision to cut back from the Truman goal of 143 wings, and its congressional supporters tried repeatedly, sometimes successfully, to appropriate more money for air power than the administration wanted. The other services, especially the Army, objected to force reductions ordained by the New Look. Both General Ridgway, who retired as Army chief of staff in June 1955, and his successor, General Maxwell D. Taylor, believed that the Army was receiving too small a share of the military budget.  Its standing threatened by the New Look, the Army questioned the wisdom of reliance on "massive retaliation" and strategic air power to the neglect of other force elements. Wilson reportedly observed that the United States "can't afford to fight limited wars. We can only afford to fight a big war, and if there is one, that is the kind it will be." However, by 1955 the Army and, later that decade, the Navy, departed from their emphasis on preparation for total war by urging the need to prepare for limited war, non-global conflicts restricted in geographical area, force size, and weapons although tactical nuclear weapons were not ruled out. Generals Ridgway and Taylor stressed the need to have a variety of forces available and equipped to fight different kinds of war from a local non-nuclear war to a global strategic nuclear conflict. They rejected the notion that limited wars would occur only in less-developed areas and argued that such conflicts might occur in NATO as well.  The Army received indirect support from such critics of massive retaliation as Bernard Brodie, William W. Kaufmann, and Henry A. Kissinger, who noted that the United States and the Soviet Union had or were acquiring the power to destroy each other with strategic nuclear weapons, thus precluding their rational use in response to a limited attack. Taylor, concluding that the Soviet Union and the United States had achieved mutual nuclear deterrence, believed that limited-war forces would play an active role in future conflicts and that atomic retaliatory forces would play a passive role. The Army moved into missile and space programs in an effort to preserve for itself a part in planning for and fighting a nuclear war, but in the late 1950s, it continued to push for adoption of a new national security policy acknowledging the primacy of limited war. While the Eisenhower administration did not adopt the Army's position, by the time that Wilson left office, it had accepted both the need to prepare for limited war and the idea that deterrence of a direct attack on US interests required "sufficient," rather than "superior," retaliatory capability.  Increased competition among the services resulting from the New Look compelled Wilson to deal with the perennially troublesome question of service roles and missions, complicated by the introduction of new weapons, especially missiles. He noted in his semi-annual report at the end of FY 1956 that the services, which had eight categories of guided missiles available for various tasks, could not agree on their respective roles and missions in relation to these and other planned missile systems. Also at issue were aircraft types for the individual services and Air Force tactical support for the Army. To address those and other nagging questions, Wilson issued two important documents. The former, a memorandum to members of the Armed Forces Policy Council on November 26, 1956, dealt with five points of contention. First, Wilson limited the Army to small aircraft with specifically defined functions within combat zones. On the matter of airlift adequacy, which the Army questioned, the secretary declared current Air Force practices acceptable. As to air defense, the Army received responsibility for point defense of specified geographical areas, vital installations, and cities; the Air Force became responsible for area defense and the interception of enemy attacks away from individual vital installations; and the Navy could maintain ship-based air defense weapon systems. Wilson assigned to the Air Force primary responsibility for tactical support for the Army, although the Army could use surface-to-surface missiles for close support of its field operations. Finally, the secretary gave the Air Force sole authority to operate land-based intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) systems and the Navy the same responsibility for ship-based IRBMs. He enjoined the Army from planning operational employment of missiles with ranges beyond.  On March 18, 1957, Wilson issued a directive to clarify his earlier decisions on the Army-Air Force use of aircraft for tactical purposes. He made no major changes from the previous division of responsibility but provided a more detailed and specific listing of those functional areas for which the Army could procure its own aircraft and those for which it would rely on the Air Force.  Although Wilson found it necessary to clarify service roles and missions, he did not press for extensive further unification of the armed forces. He established in February 1956 an office of special assistant to the Secretary of Defense for guided missiles but made few other changes after implementation of Reorganization Plan No. 6 in 1953. When asked in 1957 about persistent demands for further unification, Wilson responded, "It's an oversimplification in the false hope that you could thus wash out the problems if you put the people all in the same uniform and that then they wouldn't disagree over what should be done. Of course, they would."  Wilson, a folksy, honest, and outspoken man, sometimes got into trouble because of casual remarks. In January 1957, for example, he referred to enlistees in the National Guard during the Korean War as "draft dodgers." That caused a storm of protest and even brought a rebuke from Eisenhower, who said he thought Wilson had made "a very... unwise statement, without stopping to think what it meant." On another occasion, Wilson jokingly referred to the White House as a "dung hill," generating further controversy.  Wilson indicated his intention to retire from office shortly after the start of the second Eisenhower term and left on October 8, 1957. Eisenhower noted when Wilson stepped down that under him, "the strength of our security forces has not only been maintained but has been significantly increased" and that he had managed the Defense Department "in a manner consistent with the requirements of a strong, healthy national economy."  On October 9, 1957, Eisenhower presented Wilson with the Medal of Freedom.

Human experimentation.

While serving as Secretary of Defense, Wilson enacted stronger rules against human medical experimentation. The 1953 Wilson Memo led the military to adopt the Nuremberg Code. Patients would have to provide written, informed consent.  Wilson wrote, "By reason of the basic medical responsibility in connection with the development of defense of all types against atomic, biological and/or chemical warfare agents, Armed Services personnel and/or civilians on duty at installations engaged in such research shall be permitted to actively participate in all phases of the program."  Jonathan Moreno and Susan Lederer wrote in a 1996 issue of the "Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal" that the Wilson Memo remained classified until 1975, limiting its availability to researchers. They found the Air Force and Army tried to implement the rules but found spotty compliance in actual Pentagon research.

Later life and death.

After he left the Pentagon, Wilson returned to Michigan, where he devoted his time to business and family affairs. He died in Norwood, Louisiana, and was interred at the Acacia Park Cemetery, a Masonic cemetery in Beverly Hills, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit.

Nickname.

Charles Erwin Wilson should not be confused with Charles Edward Wilson, who was the CEO of General Electric and served President Truman as the head of the Office of Defense Mobilization. The two were respectively nicknamed "Engine Charlie" and "Electric Charlie" so that they could be more easily distinguished.

Charles Erwin Wilson (July 18, 1890 – September 26, 1961) was an American engineer and businessman who served as United States Secretary of Defense from 1953 to 1957 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Known as "Engine Charlie", he was previously the president and chief executive officer of General Motors. In the wake of the Korean War, he cut the defense budget significantly.

查理·厄文·威尔逊(英语:Charles Erwin Wilson,1890年-7月18日-1961年-9月26日),生于俄亥俄州,美国商人与政治家。曾任通用汽车首席执行官,因此获得「引擎查理」(英语:Engine Charlie)的绰号。在1953年至1957年间,担任美国国防部长。


History.

Alfred Russel Wallace lived for 8 months at Simunjan District with a mining engineer, Robert Coulson, who had explored what is now northern Sarawak for mineral ores. Coulson later wrote to Wallace about finding bones in a number of caves in Sarawak. On further enquiry, Wallace learned that one cave in question "was situated in the district between Sarawak and Bruni (Brunei), on a mountain some distance inland." In March 1864, Wallace favoured Coulson to explore the caves. However, later in May 1864, G. J. Ricketts, a British Consul to Sarawak was appointed to undertake the work. Ricketts did not remain in the post for long and subsequently Alfred Hart Everett was chosen to undertake the work. Everett surveyed 32 caves in three areas, including Niah/Subis (near Miri) and "Upper Sarawak Proper" (to the south of Kuching).  In the 1950s, Tom Harrisson, the curator of Sarawak State Museum was searching for evidence of ancient human activity in Sarawak. He came across Niah Cave, which showed no evidence of ancient human activity in the area. However, he inferred that since the cave was cool and dry and there were millions of bats and swiflets which can used as food, ancient humans could have lived in the cave. Therefore, in October 1954, Harrisson with his two friends, Michael Tweedie and Hugh Gibb spent two weeks examining the Niah. They found evidence of long term human occupation, habitation, and burial. In 1957, the Sarawak museum organised a larger expedition with transport and equipment from Brunei Shell Petroleum and Sarawak Oilfields Ltd (Shell). Eathernware, shell scrapers, shell ornaments, stone pounders, bone tools, and food remains were found. Radiocarbon dating of the charcoal layers put the site at 40,000 years old, dating back to Paleolithic era. The expedition team led by Barbara Harrisson discovered the "Deep Skull" in the "Hell Trench" (for its unusually hot condition) at 101 to 110 inches below surface in February 1958. It is a partial skull with maxilla, two molar teeth and a portion of the base of the skull. The skull is highly fragile and is not fossilised. The morphology of the skull is suggestive of belonging to a female in her late teens to mid-twenties. Near the skull, a complete left femur and right proximal tibia were found which belongs to the same individual. Tom Harrisson also discovered Neolithic burial sites from 2,500 to 5,000 years ago. The discoveries led to more expeditions in 1959, 1965, and 1972.  In 1960, Don Brothwell concluded that the Deep Skull belonged to an adolescent male who may be closely related to an indigenous Australian from Tasmania. In the 1960s, 122 human remains from Niah were brough to Nevada, United States. There is lack of paleogeography, stratigraphy, and archeological relationships to support Tom Harrisson's work. Therefore, more fieldwork was conducted by University of Leicester, in collaboration with other universities from Britain, Australia, United States and Sarawak State Museum from 2000 to 2003 to establish a more detailed history of Niah Caves. It was known as the "Niah Cave Project". Another dating of the charcoal and the Deep Skull itself was done in 2000. It showed that the age of the skeleton to be 37,000 years old. In 2006, studies from the Niah Cave Project found out that the ancient humans living in the Niah Caves probably already used mammal and fish trapping technologies, projectile technology, tuber digging, plant detoxification, and forest burning. In 2013 to 2014, uranium–thorium dating also confirmed the age of the skull. In 2016, another research done by Darren Curnoe noted that the Deep Skull was more resembling of a female adolescent and is more closely resembling the indigenous people of Borneo rather than Tasmanians or the two layer hypothesis which stated that original population of Southeast Asia were emigrated from Australia and later integrated with people from China.  In 2010 and 2019, the Sarawak state goverfirnment nominated the park for an UNESCO's World Heritage Site title. In 2020, all the 122 pieces of Niah human remains were returned to Sarawak.

Geography.

Niah Caves is located on the northern edge of a limestone mountain named "Gunung Subis" (Mount Subis). The entrance is located at the west mouth of the cave. The location is 15 km from the South China Sea and 50 m above sea level. The west mouth of the Niah Caves is 150 m wide and 75 m high.

Archaeology.

The cave is an important prehistorical site where human remains from 40,000 years ago have been found. This is the oldest recorded human settlement in east Malaysia. More recent studies published in 2006 have shown evidence of the first human activity at the Niah caves from ca. 46,000 to ca. 34,000 years ago. Painted Cave, situated in a much smaller limestone block of its own, some 150 metres from the Great Cave block's south eastern tip, has rock paintings dated as 1,200 years old. Archeologists have claimed a much earlier date for stone tools found in the Mansuli valley, near Lahad Datu in Sabah, but precise dating analysis has not yet been published.  Items found at Niah Cave include Pleistocene chopping tools and flakes, Neolithic axes, adzes, pottery, shell jewellery, boats, mats, then iron tools and ceramics and glass beads dating to the Iron Age. The most famous find is the human skull dated at around 38,000 years BCE. Painted Cave has paintings and wooden coffin 'death ships'.

Current activities.

The caves are also well known for the bird's nest industry. They are a popular tourist destination in Sarawak. Every section of the ceiling in the caves where there are swiftlets roosting is privately owned and only the owner has the right to collect the nests. Collection is done half-yearly (usually in January and in June). The collector climbs up hundreds of feet on a single pole to the cave ceiling and scrapes off the nest in flickering candlelight.

Niah National Park, located within Miri Division, Sarawak, Malaysia, is the site of the Niah Caves limestone cave and archeological site.

尼亚洞(马来文:Gua Niah,英语:Niah Caves)是位于马来西亚砂拉越美里的尼亚国家公园内的溶洞穴群。


Plot.

Although the film is told in non-chronological order, the following synopsis tells the plot of the film in order.  Alex, a 16-year-old skateboarder, rides a freight train clandestinely with a man named Scratch whom he has just met at the Eastside Skatepark, known as "Paranoid Park". While the train is moving a security guard notices the pair, chases after them, and tries to get them off by hitting Scratch with his flashlight. During the melee, Alex hits him with his skateboard and the guard, losing balance, falls onto another track into the path of an oncoming freight train which cuts him in half. Alex tries to destroy some of the evidence. For example, he throws his skateboard into the Willamette River from the Steel Bridge, and when he arrives at his friend Jared's house, he showers and disposes of the clothes he had been wearing.  Alex is later questioned at school by Detective Richard Lu, as are several other students who had been skateboarding on the night in question. It is revealed that the police have recovered Alex's skateboard, though they have not traced it back to him, and have identified DNA evidence which places the skateboard at the scene of the security guard's death.  Throughout the film Alex keeps the incident to himself, and does not confide in anyone else. After having impassive sex with his girlfriend, Jennifer, he breaks up with her. Another of his friends, Macy, notices that he is worried about something. She advises him to write down whatever is bothering him as a cathartic release if nothing else. He initially rejects the idea, but eventually writes an account, which becomes the basis for the story. After completing the written account, Alex burns it.

Production.

Gus Van Sant chose to adapt American author Blake Nelson's novel "Paranoid Park" into a film of the same name because it was set in his hometown of Portland, Oregon, because he was an amateur skateboarder himself and because he found the story particularly interesting. At the time that he first read the novel, he was accumulating the finances for another film, but abandoned the project and decided instead to write a screenplay based on Nelson's story. His first draft of the script was written in two days, and the final draft was just 33 pages long.  Similar to his 2003 film "Elephant", Van Sant sought non-professional young actors to play the main roles, and so created a page for the film on social networking site MySpace. On the page, he posted an open casting call for males and females aged 14–18 who were "skaters, honor roll [students], cheerleaders, punks, drama kids, musicians, artists, student council [members], athletes, award winners, class skippers, photographers, band members, leaders, followers, shy kids, class clowns". Two audition sessions were held on August 3 and August 5, 2006, as well as an additional casting call for experienced skateboarders to act as extras in the film; a total of 2,971 people auditioned. Gabe Nevins, having never acted before, heard about the casting call from a skateboard store and originally auditioned as an extra. Nevins was cast in the lead role, which he says was based on his innocence that Van Sant believed trained actors to be lacking. Jake Miller, originally from Boise, Idaho, was on a road trip in Portland when he heard about the casting call and decided to audition with his friends. Taylor Momsen was a professional actor beforehand and received the "Paranoid Park" script through her agent. She won the role after sending her taped audition to Van Sant. The film features two cameo appearances: Alex's father is played by professional skateboarder Jay "Smay" Williamson, and his uncle is played by the film's cinematographer Christopher Doyle. Most of the actors wore their own clothes and wrote some of their characters' dialogue to maintain a sense of authenticity. Principal photography began in Oregon in October 2006. Filming locations included Portland State University, the Steel Bridge, St. Johns Bridge, Lloyd Center, Madison High School and Van Sant's own beach house. Scenes at the fictional Eastside Skatepark were filmed at Portland's Burnside Skatepark, which was, like Eastside, built illegally by skateboarders and subsequently approved by the city as a public skatepark. Van Sant said that his request to film at Burnside was treated with some suspicion by the park's users, as "What none of them wanted was for us to portray a corny image of the park." Cinematographer Christopher Doyle shot parts of the film with a wide-angle lens that is used to shoot skate videos. The film's skateboarding sequences were shot on Super 8 mm film, a medium commonly used in skate videos, and the remainder of the film was shot on 35mm film, Van Sant's medium of choice.

Distribution.

Theatrical release.

The world premiere of "Paranoid Park" was held on May 21, at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival. The film was subsequently screened at the Auckland International Film Festival, Edinburgh International Film Festival, Toronto International Film Festival, Athens Film Festival, Raindance Film Festival, New York Film Festival, Vienna International Film Festival and the Oslo Films from the South Festival before its theatrical release. Its international tour of the festival circuit continued after its U.S. release, and it was screened at the Rotterdam International Film Festival, Portland International Film Festival, London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival, Transilvania International Film Festival, Midnight Sun Film Festival and the Cinepur Choice Film Festival.  "Paranoid Park" was given a limited release in the United States on March 7, 2008. It grossed US$30,678 on its debut weekend, playing in two cinemas. The following week, it expanded to 22 locations and grossed $75,917 with a per-screen average of $3,451 and a total gross of $118,784. It earned another $90,403 from 36 locations in its third week with a per-screen average of $2,511 and a cumulative gross of $241,672. The film ended its theatrical run with a total domestic gross of $486,767 and a foreign gross of $3,994,693, giving a worldwide total of $4,481,460.

Home media.

"Paranoid Park" was released on DVD in Canada on July 22, 2008, and in the United States on October 7, 2008. The disc includes trailers for "The Last Winter" and "How to Rob a Bank" which precede the film.

Reception.

Critical reception.

"Paranoid Park" received mostly favorable reviews from critics. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 76% of 123 collected reviews for the film were positive, with an average score of 6.97 out of 10. The site's consensus states "Director Gus Van Sant once again superbly captures the ins and outs of teenage life in "Paranoid Park", a quietly devastating portrait of a young man living with guilt and anxiety." At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received an average score of 83 based on 27 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".  Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" described "Paranoid Park" as "a haunting, voluptuously beautiful portrait of a teenage boy" and as "a modestly scaled triumph without a false or wasted moment". She praised Van Sant's direction, the cinematography and the overall realism of the film. The "Los Angeles Times" Carina Chocano summarized the film as "a gorgeously stark, mesmerizingly elliptical story". She commended in particular the "dreamy camera work" and the "charged, simple direction". J. Hoberman wrote for "The Village Voice" that "Few directors have revisited their earliest concerns with such vigor [as Van Sant]." He concluded his review saying, ""Paranoid Park" is wonderfully lucid: It makes confusion something tangible and heartbreak the most natural thing in life." Todd McCarthy of "Variety" magazine wrote that "Through immaculate use of picture, sound and time, the director adds another panel to his series of pictures about disaffected, disconnected youth." He praised the "lovely" cinematography and the credibility of the female characters, though he felt that the soundtrack was sometimes distracting. Writing for "New York" magazine, David Edelstein opined that the film was "a supernaturally perfect fusion of Van Sant's current conceptual-art-project head-trip aesthetic and Blake Nelson's finely tuned first-person 'young adult' novel". He felt that "Paranoid Park" was different from Van Sant's previous "experimental" films in that "it works", though he criticized Nevins's "clinically inexpressive" acting. "Rolling Stone"s Peter Travers awarded the film 3.5 out of 4 stars and commented that the combination of the soundtrack with the "visual miracles" of the cinematography, "a defiant slap at slick Hollywood formula, is mesmerizing". In a review for "The Hollywood Reporter", Kirk Honeycutt named the film "one of [Van Sant's] best movies yet".  Alternatively, William Arnold of the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" graded the film as a C+ and described it as "a movie about its teen hero's inability to express his feelings: to himself, to his parents, to his friends and, unfortunately, to the audience". He criticized the "amateurish" cinematography, the "half-hearted attempts at mystery" and the "wooden" cast. Salon.com's Andrew O'Hehir wrote that "Paranoid Park"s "highly aestheticized and stylized depictions of teenage life sometimes seem as if they were shot through the wrong end of a telescope". He felt that the dialogue was "repetitious" and that teenage existence as portrayed in the film was less realistic than most Hollywood clichés. "New York Press" critic Armond White wrote that, in the film, "Van Sant reaches out to teen subculture, only to embalm its dissatisfaction in artiness" and found it to be "full of art-movie clichés". David Edwards, writing for "The Daily Mirror", called the film "Dreary with a capital D" and "slow, melancholic, but mostly just plain weird".

Top ten lists.

The film appeared on numerous critics' top ten lists of the best films of 2008:

Awards and nominations.

"Paranoid Park" was nominated for two Independent Spirit Awards for Best Feature and the Piaget Producers Award (Neil Kopp, also for "Old Joy"), winning the latter. After its debut at the Cannes Film Festival, the film won the festival's special 60th anniversary prize and was nominated for the prestigious Palme d'Or. The film won two awards from the Boston Society of Film Critics for Best Director (Gus Van Sant, also for "Milk") and Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle and Rain Kathy Li). It was nominated for but did not win the Bodil Award for Best American Film awarded by the Danish Film Critics Association.

Soundtrack.

Most of the music choices came about during the editing process; Van Sant and the editors listened to each other's iTunes collections while working, and would use the songs they heard which they thought worked well. The film's soundscapes—described by Sam Adams of the "Los Angeles Times" as "a wash of foreign noise"—were mostly made by musician Ethan Rose and described by Van Sant as "very complicated". "LA Weekly"s Randall Roberts praised the soundtrack highly, writing, "It doesn't happen too often that a film's music will tweak my visual and sonic filter to such an extent that I actually perceive a whole class of people [skateboarders] in a new light, with more depth or empathy or whatever." The soundtrack was first released in France in October 2007, and in the United States in March 2008 to coincide with the film's release.

Further reading.

Sorrento, Matthew. "Teen Crime and Redemption: Gus Van Sant's "Elephant" and "Paranoid Park".""The New American Crime Film". Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2012.

Paranoid Park is a 2007 drama film written and directed by Gus Van Sant. The film is based on the novel of the same name by Blake Nelson and takes place in Portland, Oregon. It's the story of a teenage skateboarder (played by Gabe Nevins) set against the backdrop of a police investigation into a mysterious death.

《迷幻公园》(英语:"Paranoid Park")是2007年由葛斯·范·桑执导编写的电影,改编自布雷克·尼尔森的同名小说。故事背景设在俄勒冈州波特兰市,由盖比·尼维斯主演意外杀害保安的滑板少年。


Early years and education.

Bogarde was the elder of two sons born to Ulric van den Bogaerde (1892–1972) and Margaret Niven (1898–1980). Ulric was born in Perry Barr, Birmingham, of Flemish ancestry. He was Art Editor of "The Times". Margaret Niven was Scottish, from Glasgow, and was a former actress.  Dirk Bogarde was born in a nursing home at 12 Hemstal Road, West Hampstead, London. He was baptised on 30 October 1921 at St. Mary's Church, Kilburn. He had a younger sister, Elizabeth (born 1924) and a brother, Gareth Ulric Van Den Bogaerde, an advertising film producer, born in July 1933, in Hendon.  Conditions in the family home in North London became cramped and Bogarde was moved to Glasgow to stay with relatives of his mother. He stayed there for over three years, returning at the end of 1937.  He attended University College School, and the former Allan Glen's High School of Science in Glasgow, a time he described in his autobiography as an unhappy one. From 1937 to 1938 he studied at the Chelsea School of Art. He began his acting career on stage in 1939, shortly before the start of the Second World War, with his first on-screen appearance being as an uncredited extra in the George Formby comedy, "Come On George!" (1939).

War service.

During the war, Derek "Pip" Bogaerde served in the British Army, initially with the Royal Corps of Signals before being commissioned at the age of 22 into the Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) as a second lieutenant in 1943. He served in both the European and Pacific theatres, principally as an intelligence officer. Taylor Downing's book "Spies in the Sky" tells of his work with a specialist Army unit that accompanied air force units for the interpreting of aerial photo-reconnaissance information, after D-Day moving to Normandy with RCAF units which by July 1944 were located at the "B.8" airfield at Sommervieu, near Bayeux. As an "Air Photographic Interpreter" with the rank of captain, and subsequently major, he was later with the headquarters of the Second Army where he selected ground targets in France, Holland, and Germany, for the Second Tactical Air Force (2TAF) and RAF Bomber Command to attack. In a 1986 Yorkshire Television interview with Russell Harty, Bogarde said: "I went to see quite a lot of them" [the targets that he had selected to be bombed], "I mean I went back to the villages, and saw what I had done. I used to go painting, as you know, when I had any time off, and I went to one village in Normandy, and painted it, because I had picked it particularly and it was a waste of time, because everybody" [the Germans] "had got through," [villages on key roads were heavily bombed to block the roads and hinder the Wehrmacht's movement of armour and other vehicles that were hurriedly attempting to reach the invasion lodgement areas before the Allies gained too firm a foothold] "and I found what I had thought in the rubble were a whole row of footballs, and they weren't footballs—I was sitting right beside them, painting—and they weren't footballs, they were children's heads, and what it was, I discovered later, was a whole school of kids, a convent, had been pulled out of school, out of class, and lined up in this little narrow alleyway between the buildings to save them from the bombing, and the whole thing had come in on top of them, plus the nuns, but by that time [when he was there] they were lice-ridden, and there was nothing. I can talk about it now at 65 because it's sort of, dispassionate about it, and I've seen worse things since, but that gave me a bit of a turn, yes, I didn't enjoy that. A row of kids' heads that you thought were footballs and you kick one and it wasn't, and it rolled away down the rubble."  Bogarde was one of the first Allied officers in April 1945 to reach the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in Germany, an experience that had the most profound effect on him and about which he found it difficult to speak for many years afterward.  "I think it was on the 13th of April—I'm not quite sure what the date was" [it was the 15th] "—in '44" [sic, the camp was liberated on the 15th April 1945, and it was the 20th April 1945 when Bogarde made his visit] "when we opened up Belsen Camp, which was the first concentration camp any of us had seen, we didn't even know what they were, we'd heard vague rumours that they were. I mean nothing could be worse than that. The gates were opened and then I realised that I was looking at Dante's "Inferno", I mean... I... I still haven't seen anything as dreadful. And never will. And a girl came up who spoke English, because she recognised one of the badges, and she... her breasts were like, sort of, empty purses, she had no top on, and a pair of man's pyjamas, you know, the prison pyjamas, and no hair. But I knew she was girl because of her breasts, which were empty. She was I suppose, oh I don't know, twenty four, twenty five, and we talked, and she was, you know, so excited and thrilled, and all around us there were mountains of dead people, I mean mountains of them, and they were slushy, and they were slimy, so when you walked through them... or walked—you tried not to, but it was like... well you just walked through them, and she... there was a very nice British MP [Royal Military Police], and he said 'Don't have any more, come away, come away sir, if you don't mind, because they've all got typhoid and you'll get it, you shouldn't be here swanning-around' and she saw in the back of the jeep, the unexpired portion of the daily ration, wrapped in a piece of the "Daily Mirror", and she said could she have it, and he" [the Military Police] "said 'Don't give her food, because they eat it immediately and they die, within ten minutes', but she didn't want the food, she wanted the piece of "Daily Mirror"—she hadn't seen newsprint for about eight years or five years, whatever it was she had been in the camp for.... she was Estonian.... that's all she wanted. She gave me a big kiss, which was very moving. The corporal" [Military Police] "was out of his mind and I was just dragged off. I never saw her again, of course she died. I mean, I gather they all did. But, I can't really describe it very well, I don't really want to. I went through some of the huts and there were tiers and tiers of rotting people, but some of them who were alive underneath the rot, and were lifting their heads and trying... trying to do the. That was the worst."  "After the war I always knew that nothing, nothing, could ever be as bad... but nothing could frighten me any more, I mean, no man could frighten me any more, no Director... nothing could be as bad as the war, or the things I saw in the war."  The horror and revulsion at the cruelty and inhumanity that he witnessed still left him with a deep-seated hostility towards Germany; in the late 1980s he wrote that he would disembark from a lift rather than ride with a German of his generation. Nevertheless, three of his more memorable film roles were as Germans, one of them as a former SS officer in "The Night Porter" (1974).  Bogarde was most vocal, towards the end of his life, on voluntary euthanasia, of which he became a staunch proponent after witnessing the protracted death of his lifelong partner and manager Anthony Forwood (the former husband of actress Glynis Johns) in 1988. He gave an interview to John Hofsess, London executive director of the Voluntary Euthanasia Society: "My views were formulated as a 24-year-old officer in Normandy... On one occasion the jeep ahead hit a mine... Next thing I knew, there was this chap in the long grass beside me. A bloody bundle, shrapnel-ripped, legless, one arm only. The one arm reached out to me, white eyeballs wide, unseeing, in the bloody mask that had been a face. A gurgling voice said, "Help. Kill me." With shaking hands I reached for my small pouch to load my revolver... I had to look for my bullets—by which time somebody else had already taken care of him. I heard the shot. I still remember that gurgling sound. A voice pleading for death...During the war I saw more wounded men being "taken care of" than I saw being rescued. Because sometimes you were too far from a dressing station, sometimes you couldn't get them out. And they were pumping blood or whatever; they were in such a wreck, the only thing to do was to shoot them. And they were, so don't think they weren't. That hardens you: You get used to the fact that it can happen. And that it is the only sensible thing to do."

Career.

His London West End theatre-acting debut was in 1939, with the stage name "Derek Bogaerde", in J. B. Priestley's play "Cornelius". After the war, Bogarde's agent renamed him "Dirk Bogarde" and he was handsome enough to begin a career as a film actor. He was contracted to the Rank Organisation under the wing of the prolific independent film producer Betty Box, who produced most of his early films and was instrumental in creating his matinée idol image.

Stardom.

One of Bogarde's earliest starring roles was in the 1949 film "Once a Jolly Swagman", where he played a daring speedway ace, riding for the "Cobras". This was filmed at New Cross Speedway, in South East London during one of the post-war years in which speedway was the biggest spectator sport in the UK.  During the 1950s, Bogarde was a matinee idol under extended contract to the Rank Organisation. His Rank contract began following his appearance in "Esther Waters" (1948), his first credited role, replacing Stewart Granger. Another early role was in "The Blue Lamp" (1950), playing a hoodlum who shoots and kills a police constable (Jack Warner) while in "So Long at the Fair" (1950), a film noir, he played a handsome artist who comes to the rescue of Jean Simmons during the World's Fair in Paris. He also had roles as an accidental murderer in "Hunted" (a.k.a. "The Stranger in Between", 1952); a young wing commander in Bomber Command in "Appointment in London" (1953) and a wrongly imprisoned man who regains hope in clearing his name when he learns his sweetheart, Mai Zetterling, is still alive in "Desperate Moment" (1953).  Bogarde featured as a medical student in "Doctor in the House" (1954), a film that made him one of the most popular British stars of the 1950s. The film co-starred Kenneth More and Donald Sinden, with James Robertson Justice as their crabby mentor. The production was initiated by Betty Box, who picked up a copy of the book at Crewe during a long rail journey, and saw its possibility as a film. But Box and Ralph Thomas had difficulties convincing Rank executives that people would go to a film about doctors, and that Bogarde, who up to then had played character roles, had sex appeal and could play light comedy. They were allocated a modest budget, and were only allowed to use available Rank contract artists. The film was the first of the Doctor film series based on the books by Richard Gordon.  In "The Sleeping Tiger" (1954), Bogarde played a neurotic criminal with co-star Alexis Smith. It was Bogarde's first film for American expatriate director Joseph Losey. He did his second Doctor film, "Doctor at Sea" (1955), co-starring Brigitte Bardot in one of her first film roles; as a returning colonial who fights the Mau-Mau with Virginia McKenna and Donald Sinden in "Simba" (1955); "Cast a Dark Shadow" (1955), as a man who marries women for money and then murders them; "The Spanish Gardener" (1956), with Michael Hordern, Jon Whiteley, and Cyril Cusack; "Doctor at Large" (1957), again with Donald Sinden, another entry in the Doctor film series, with later Bond-girl Shirley Eaton; the Powell and Pressburger production "Ill Met by Moonlight" (1957) co-starring Marius Goring as the German General Kreipe, kidnapped on Crete by Patrick "Paddy" Leigh Fermor (Bogarde) and W. Stanley Moss (David Oxley) and a fellow band of Cretan resistance fighters based on W. Stanley Moss' real-life account, ("Ill Met by Moonlight"), of the Second World War abduction; "A Tale of Two Cities" (1958), a faithful retelling of Charles Dickens' classic; as a flight lieutenant in the Far East who falls in love with a beautiful Japanese teacher Yoko Tani in "The Wind Cannot Read" (1958);"The Doctor's Dilemma" (1959), based on a play by George Bernard Shaw and co-starring Leslie Caron and Robert Morley; and "Libel" (1959), playing three separate roles and co-starring Olivia de Havilland.

Later roles.

After leaving the Rank Organisation in the early 1960s, Bogarde abandoned his heart-throb image for more challenging parts. He starred in the film "Victim" (1961), playing a London barrister who fights the blackmailers of a young man with whom he has had a deeply emotional relationship. The young man commits suicide after being arrested for embezzlement, rather than ruin his beloved's career. In exposing the ring of extortionists, Bogarde's character risks his reputation and marriage in order to see that justice is done. "Victim" was the first British film to portray the humiliation gay people were exposed to via discriminatory law, and as a victimized minority; it is said to have had some effect upon the later Sexual Offences Act 1967 ending the illegal status of male homosexual activity.  Other later roles included decadent valet Hugo Barrett in "The Servant" (1963), which garnered him a BAFTA Award, directed by Joseph Losey and written by Harold Pinter; "The Mind Benders" (1963), a film ahead of its times in which Bogarde plays an Oxford professor conducting sensory deprivation experiments at Oxford University (precursor to "Altered States" (1980)); the anti-war film "King & Country" (1964), directed by Joseph Losey, in which he played an army officer at a court martial, reluctantly defending deserter Tom Courtenay; a television broadcaster-writer Robert Gold in "Darling" (1965), for which Bogarde won a second BAFTA Award, directed by John Schlesinger; Stephen, a bored Oxford University professor, in Losey's "Accident", (1967) also written by Pinter; "Our Mother's House" (1967), an off-beat film-noir and British entry at the Venice Film Festival, directed by Jack Clayton, in which Bogarde plays a ne'er-do-well father who descends upon "his" seven children on the death of their mother; German industrialist Frederick Bruckmann in Luchino Visconti's "La Caduta degli dei, The Damned" (1969) co-starring Ingrid Thulin; as ex-Nazi, Max Aldorfer, in the chilling and controversial "Il Portiere di notte" (a.k.a. "The Night Porter") (1974), co-starring Charlotte Rampling, directed by Liliana Cavani; and most notably, as Gustav von Aschenbach in "Morte a Venezia, Death in Venice" (1971), also directed by Visconti; as Claude, the lawyer son of a dying, drunken writer (John Gielgud) in the well-received, multi-dimensional French film "Providence" (1977), directed by Alain Resnais; as industrialist Hermann Hermann who descends into madness in "Despair" (1978) directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder; and as Daddy in Bertrand Tavernier's "Daddy Nostalgie", (a.k.a."These Foolish Things") (1991), co-starring Jane Birkin as his daughter, Bogarde's final film role.  In some of his other roles during the 1960s and 1970s, Bogarde played opposite renowned stars, yet several of the films were of uneven quality, due to demands or limitations set by the studio or their scripts: "The Angel Wore Red" (1960), playing an unfrocked priest who falls in love with cabaret entertainer Ava Gardner during the Spanish Civil War; "Song Without End" (1960), as Hungarian composer and virtuoso pianist Franz Liszt, a flawed film made under the initial direction of Charles Vidor (who died during shooting), and completed by Bogarde's friend George Cukor, the actor's only disappointing foray into Hollywood; the campy "The Singer Not the Song" (1961), as a Mexican bandit co-starring John Mills as a priest; "H.M.S. Defiant" (a.k.a. "Damn the Defiant!") (1962), playing sadistic Lieutenant Scott-Padget, co-starring Sir Alec Guinness; "I Could Go On Singing" (1963), co-starring Judy Garland in her final screen role; "Hot Enough for June", (a.k.a. ""Agent 83⁄4"") (1964), a James Bond-type spy spoof co-starring Robert Morley; "Modesty Blaise" (1966), a campy spy send-up playing archvillain Gabriel opposite Monica Vitti and Terence Stamp and directed by Joseph Losey; "The Fixer" (1968), based on Bernard Malamud's novel, co-starring Alan Bates; "Sebastian" (1968), as Sebastian, a mathematician working on code decryption, who falls in love with Susannah York, a decrypter in the all-female decoding office he heads for British Intelligence, also co-starring Sir John Gielgud, and Lilli Palmer, co-produced by Michael Powell; "Oh! What a Lovely War" (1969), co-starring Sir John Gielgud and Sir Laurence Olivier and directed by Richard Attenborough; "Justine" (1969), directed by George Cukor; "Le Serpent" (1973), co-starring Henry Fonda and Yul Brynner; "A Bridge Too Far" (1977), in a controversial performance as Lieutenant General Frederick "Boy" Browning, also starring Sean Connery and an all-star cast and again directed by Richard Attenborough.  Bogarde claimed he had known General Browning from his time on Field Marshal Montgomery's staff during the war and took issue with the largely negative portrayal of the General that he played in the 1977 film "A Bridge Too Far". General "Boy" Browning's widow, the author Daphne du Maurier, ferociously attacked his characterisation and "the resultant establishment fallout, much of it homophobic, wrongly convinced [Bogarde] that the newly ennobled Sir Richard [Attenborough] had deliberately contrived to scupper his own chance of a knighthood."  In 1977, Bogarde embarked on his second career as an author. Starting with a first volume "A Postillion Struck by Lightning" (an allusion to the phrase "My postillion has been struck by lightning"), he wrote a series of 15 best-selling books; nine volumes of memoirs, six novels, as well as essays, reviews, poetry and collected journalism. As a writer Bogarde displayed a witty, elegant, highly literate and thoughtful style.

Missed roles.

While under contract with the Rank Organisation, Bogarde was set to play the role of T. E. Lawrence in a proposed film "Lawrence" to be directed by Anthony Asquith. On the eve of production, after one year of preparation by Bogarde and Asquith, the film was scrapped without full explanation, to the dismay of Bogarde and Asquith. The abrupt scrapping of "Lawrence", a role long researched and keenly anticipated by Bogarde, was among his greatest screen disappointments. Bogarde was also reportedly considered for the title role in MGM's "Doctor Zhivago" (1965). Earlier, he declined Louis Jourdan's role as Gaston in MGM's "Gigi" (1958).  In 1961, Bogarde was offered the chance to play Hamlet at the recently founded Chichester Festival Theatre by artistic director Sir Laurence Olivier, but had to decline due to film commitments. Bogarde later said that he regretted declining Olivier's offer and with it the chance to "really learn my craft."

Personal life.

For many years Bogarde shared his homes, first in Amersham, Buckinghamshire, and then in France, with Anthony Forwood. Forwood, who had been married to actress Glynis Johns during the 1940s, was the father of the actor Gareth Forwood, their only child. Bogarde repeatedly denied that his relationship to Forwood was anything other than platonic. This was perhaps a lie because male homosexual acts were criminal during most of his career, and could lead to prosecution and imprisonment. Rank Studio contracts included morality clauses, which provided for termination in the event of "immoral conduct" on the part of the actor. These included same-sex relationships, thus potentially putting the actor's career in jeopardy.  It is possible that Bogarde's refusal to enter into a marriage of convenience was a major reason for his failure to become a star in Hollywood, together with the critical and commercial failure of "Song Without End". His friend Helena Bonham Carter believed he would not have been able to come out during later life because this might have demonstrated that he had been forced to camouflage his sexual orientation during his film career.

Death.

Bogarde had a minor stroke in November 1987, while Forwood was dying of liver cancer and Parkinson's disease. In September 1996, he underwent angioplasty to unblock arteries leading to his heart and had a massive stroke following the operation. He was paralysed on one side of his body, which affected his speech. After the stroke he used a wheelchair. He then completed the final volume of his autobiography, which covered the stroke's effects, and published an edition of his collected journalism, mainly from "The Daily Telegraph". He spent some time with his friend Lauren Bacall the day before he died at his home in London from a pulmonary embolism on 8 May 1999, age 78. His ashes were scattered at his former estate in Grasse, Southern France.

Honours and awards.

Bogarde was nominated five times as Best Actor by BAFTA, winning twice, for "The Servant" in 1963, and for "Darling" in 1965. He also received the London Film Critics Circle Lifetime Award in 1991. He made a total of 63 films between 1939 and 1991. In 1983, he received a Special Award for service to the Cinema at the Cannes Festival. Awarded the British Film Institute Fellowship in 1987. In 1988, Bogarde was honoured with the first BAFTA Tribute Award for an outstanding contribution to cinema.  Bogarde was created a Knight Bachelor in the United Kingdom in 1992, awarded the "Commandeur" de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government in 1990, an honorary Doctorate of Literature on 4 July 1985 by St Andrews University in Scotland and an honorary Doctorate of Letters in 1993 by the University of Sussex in England.  In 1984, Bogarde served as president of the jury at the Cannes Film Festival. He was the first British person to serve in this capacity.

Filmography.

Titles preceded by an asterisk (*) are films made for television.

British box office ranking.

For several years British film exhibitors voted Bogarde one of the most popular local stars at the box office:

Sir Dirk Bogarde (born Derek Niven van den Bogaerde; 28 March 19218 May 1999) was an English actor and writer. Initially a matinée idol in films such as "Doctor in the House" (1954) for the Rank Organisation, he later acted in art-house films. In a second career, he wrote seven best-selling volumes of memoirs, six novels and a volume of collected journalism, mainly from articles in "The Daily Telegraph".

狄·保加第(英语:Dirk Bogarde,1921年-3月28日-1999年-5月8日),著名英国影星,亦是小说作家,约1950年代起窜红。


Description.

"Umbrina cirrosa" has a moderately elongated body which is deep and laterally compressed. Its small mouth has an inferior setting and contains villiform teeth while on its chin there is a short and rigid barbel which is perforated by a pore at its tip. Its scales are mainly ctenoid in form except for those on the breast, snout and sub-orbital region, where they are predominantly cycloid. It is greyish-silver to brownish in colour, with a metallic sheen and is marked with longitudinal dark lines on the dorsal regions; the membranes on hind margin of gill cover are jet black in colour while the fins are dusky. The maximum length recorded is 73 cm total length, although the average is 40 cm.

Distribution.

"Umbrina cirrosa" is found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the Bay of Biscay to southern Morocco and in the Mediterranean, although it is not found around the larger islands, and Black Sea and Sea of Azov. It has also spread into the Gulf of Suez through the Suez Canal, one of the few Lessepsian migrants to go from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, known as anti-Lessepsian migrants.

Habitat and behaviour.

"Umbrina cirrosa" is a demersal species which is found in inshore waters, over both rock and sandy sea beds. The juveniles occur in estuaries. The males produce pulses of sound to attract the females and spawning begins in May and peaks in June, the eggs being scattered over the substrate, each female lays more than one batch of spawn. The prey taken by this species includes on sardines, anchovies, mackerels, cuttlefish, molluscs and worms, but the main prey are benthic invertebrates.

Fisheries.

"Umbrina cirrosa" has been recorded as being landed by fishermen in seven Mediterranean countries, the largest catches have been in Turkey and Italy. There has been a steep decline in landings in these two countries over the last ten years. The average landing figures for the years 1986 to 1990 were 1,393t and this has declined by 80% compared with the average figures for the years 2001 to 2005 being 278t. In the European Union over 1,000t was landed in 1995 but this had fallen to less than 100t by 2008. The species is now being farmed in aquaculture in countries such a Cyprus. The European record for a fish caught by an angler is 11.2 kg, this fish was caught in 1992 off Corsica. This species is also pursued by spear fishers.

Umbrina cirrosa, the shi drum, is a species of marine fish from the warmer waters of the eastern Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. It is a commercially important species which is trawled for and farmed in aquaculture, as well as being a species pursued by anglers and spear fishermen for sport. The alternative vernacular names are gurbell, sea crow, bearded umbrine and corb.

波纹短须石首鱼(学名:Umbrina cirrosa)为辐鳍鱼纲鲈形目鲈亚目石首鱼科的其中一种,分布东大西洋区,从法国比斯开湾至摩洛哥海域,栖息深度可达100米,体长可达73公分,栖息在沙底质或岩石底质的海域,属肉食性,以底栖性无脊椎动物为食,可做为食用鱼或游钓鱼。


First generation.

The cab-over Elf (TL221) was originally introduced in August 1959. It was originally only available with the GL150 petrol engine with. It had single headlights and rear-hinged doors. A longer wheelbase version, on versus the of the regular version, was also available. This carries the TL251 chassis code.  In March 1960 a 2-liter diesel engine with was introduced (TL121/151), a first for the class in Japan - this was soon followed by diesel models from Isuzu's competitors. In 1962 the engines were updated, and now have respectively. The chassis codes were changed to TL321/351 for the diesel version, reflecting the installation of the all new DL201 engine. A little later, the chassis codes were reorganized and were now TLG10/11 for the petrol models and TLD10/11 for the diesels. In 1964 the long wheelbase model became the standard version. In 1964 the diesel was also upgraded to the larger 2.2-litre C220 with. In 1965 the front was redesigned, now with twin headlights.  Isuzu ended up offering a very wide variety of bodyworks for the first Elf. There was the original integrated bed, as well as a separate truckbed with dropsides. There was a double-cab version available, as well as special bodywork for dedicated purposes such as a soda truck, a dumper, and a tanker. There was also a "Route Van" model with a glazed rear compartment and seating either three or six, as well as the "Elf Bus" which was available in two models from 1960. The Elf Light Bus has integrated bodywork and the long wheelbase and seats 21 passengers (chassis codes BL171/271 for the diesel/petrol) while the Elf Micro Bus fit into the very narrow slot between the Route Van and the Light Bus. The Micro Bus originally had the Route Van's bodywork but was more passenger-oriented (seating 12 or 15). It carried the TL121/151/21/251B chassis codes, and from 1961 it received its own rear bodywork with bigger glazing. The Elf Bus later became its own line, called the Isuzu Journey.

Second generation.

In August 1967 the all-new "Isuzu Light Elf" was added to the existing lineup; this lighter duty version was rated for a. It had single round headlights and a KA-series chassis code; it came with the same 1471 cc G150 engine as fitted to period Isuzu Belletts, providing. This was the first of the second generation Elfs to be introduced, heavier duty models soon followed and replaced first generation variants.  In April 1968 the second generation Elf appeared (TL21/TLD21 series). A walk-through van ("Elf Hi-Roof") was also introduced, another first for Japan. In September 1969 the "Light Elf" was upgraded to and now offered a more powerful 1.6-liter engine (G161AB) with. In October 1970 this part of the range became the Elf 150 while the regular Elf (2-2.5 tonnes) became the Elf 250; the 250 was updated to a 2.4-litre diesel engine. This was combined with the introduction of the heavier duty, Elf 350. This re-shake of the lineup was then followed by the very modern Elf Mi-Pack in April 1972. The Mi-Pack was a front-wheel drive model with a flat and low loading floor, only off the ground. Because of its high price combined with customer reluctance to a front-wheel drive truck it was retired after only a few years on the market. Instead a low-floor model of the Elf 150 was added to the lineup in 1974, featuring small twinned rear tires.  The heavier duty Elf 350 was not immediately replaced but continued in production until the 1980 model year, when in February a 350 model of the third generation Elf was introduced ("350 Wide").

Third generation.

The third generation Elf arrived in June 1975, in Elf 150 and 250 forms. It was nicknamed "Tora-san" after Kiyoshi Atsumi's (a famous Japanese actor) most beloved film character which supposedly looked similar. In January 1977 a 250 Low-Flat model was added, followed in 1978 by a facelift and an altered front grille. In 1979 a bigger 3.3-liter version of the Elf 250 was introduced, called the "Elf 250 Super". There was also a "Elf 150 Super" version, which has the larger, 2.4-liter C240 diesel engine which was usually installed in the Elf 250. In 1978 Isuzu also sold their millionth Elf. In January 1980 the Elf was updated to meet Japan's 1979 emissions standards, which was also when the design was changed to accommodate a tilting cab. The Elf 250 Wide and 350 Wide were added, with KT and KS chassis codes respectively, meaning that the second generation Elf 350 could finally be retired. The Elf Wide has a cabin wide, rather than the cabin used in the TL and KA series Elfs.  In 1981 the Elf range underwent another facelift, with an updated dashboard as well. For the third generation Elf the diesel engines had been modernized for more ease of operation, while the world's then smallest direct injection diesel engine - the 3.3-liter 4BC2 - was also introduced. It arrived in 1982 and replaced the less powerful 4BC1 which had appeared in 1979. In March 1983 the diesel engines were again modified, reflecting new Japanese emissions standards for commercial vehicles. While the third generation Elf was mostly replaced in 1984, the "Route Van" (three- or six-seater van version) continued in production until the early 1990s. With the same bodywork there was also a more habitable bus version available; this was marketed as the Isuzu Journey S and was built on Elf 150 basis (KAD51ZB).

Fourth generation.

The fourth generation Elf range appeared in July 1984. This Elf was exported widely across the world and manufactured in several different countries, including the United States. It was sold as the Chevrolet Tiltmaster, and also as the GMC Forward. GMC's Forward replaced their L series and has a turbodiesel straight-six engine. It was also the first model to use the long-running Isuzu N-series label. In 1986 a heavier duty 8.4-litre diesel version of the Forward was added to the US market.  In Japan this generation was only offered with direct injection diesel engines, introducing the new 2.8-liter 87ps 4JB1 family industrial version with dual mode transmission depending in application.and the 3.6-liter 4BE1 direct injection engine for the Elf 250 and Elf 350 NPR. which replaced the long running 4ba1 as the standard Elf 150 10 ft. And Elf 150 14 ft. 6 wheel. In September 1987 a 16 ft. heavier version Elf 350 wide has arrived. With The long stroke direct injection with dual mode manual transmission 3.9-liter 4BD1 and 4BD1 turbo diesel engine and the four-wheel drive version of the Elf 250 was introduced, this was originally only available with the 4BE1 engine.  The fourth Elf/N series originally had twin rectangular headlamps and a grille with five separate segments (seven for the Wide Cab models). In February 1987 a facelifted version with a grille of only two larger segments appeared, at which time the engine lineup was also altered. This was followed by a second facelift in June 1990, after which the grille became a single. lower opening and the headlights were changed to more aerodynamic, single-piece units.  This model was also manufactured in China, by BLAC (Beijing Light Automobile Corporation) from 1984 until 2002. Later it was also built by YCACO, a subsidiary of Guangzhou. After a company reorganization it has been built by them as the Guangzhou Hino 300J (YC5040XXY) since 2008, with a redesigned front and various other improvements.

Fifth generation.

The fifth generation Isuzu Elf appeared in July 1993, with more sculpted headlights. The 2.8 4JB1 and 4JB1T are standard on both Elf 150 10 ft/14 ft. and Elf 250 along with 3.6 4BE1. The non turbo 4JB1 features a new VE Rotary injection pump which increase power to 90ps and euro emission. In May 1995 it received a minor change, including upgraded, cleaner diesel engines. The H-series 4.0-liter 4HE1 and 4.3-liter 4HF1. The 16 ft. Chassis with H-series engine are standard while the 14 ft. Version are still in production. OEM deal with Nissan led to the Elf also being sold badged as a Nissan Atlas and a Nissan Diesel Condor 20/30/35 beginning at this time, followed by the Nissan Atlas Max from 1996 until 2000. The Atlas Max was based on the new, lighter duty Elf 100 (June 1995) which was available with a 2-liter petrol or a 2.5 or 2.7-liter diesel engine. In the U.S. the Elf was marketed as the Isuzu NPR and Chevrolet/GMC W series, each available with either the 4HE1 4.8-liter turbocharged diesel engine or GM's L31 Vortec 5.7-liter gas engine and 4L80-E Automatic Transmission. The gas engine produced 275 hp (205 kW) to 325 hp (242 kW) at 4600 rpm and 330 lb·ft (447 N·m) to 350 lb·ft (475 N·m) of torque at 2800 rpm.  In May 2004, subsequent to a few minor changes, the Elf underwent a more major facelifts with new, larger, trapezoidal headlamps. Another OEM deal was forged at this time and the Elf was now also marketed as a Mazda Titan in parallel.  In Malaysia, this truck is manufactured by Heavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia (Isuzu HICOM Malaysia) under the name of HICOM Perkasa, but carrying the Isuzu N-Series Commando badge.

Sixth generation.

The sixth generation Elf/N series was released in December 2006 (High Cab and Wide Cab) and February 2007 (Regular Cab). By the time the full range was available, the fifth generation Elf was retired. This was also assembled in Colombia (alongside the heavier F series), where it was sold as the Chevrolet NKR, NPR, or NQR. GM began assembling Isuzu trucks in Chile in 1984. The headlight-turnsignal cluster is now configured in the shape of the Isuzu "twin bar" logo, which was used from 1974-1991. In North America, GM sold the Isuzu N series as the Chevrolet and GMC W-Series until 2009. In 2016, it reintroduced the model as the Low Cab Forward (LCF) series, named simply the Chevrolet 3500, 4500, or 5500, and available with the same gasoline or diesel engines.  The design of the 6th-generation Isuzu Elf cabin bears some resemblance to an all-fiberglass cabin fitted to trucks made by the Brazilian company Agrale since 2003. Agrale introduced an all-steel Chinese copy of the Isuzu wide cab to its truck range in late 2015, but the fiberglass cab was not phased out.

Nomenclature.

The Elf is sold as an Elf in some markets aside from the domestic Japanese, such as Mexico and Indonesia, but in most export markets it is called the Isuzu N series. The second letter denotes weight rating, with H and K being used for the regular cab, M for the High Cab, and P, Q, and R for the Wide Cab model. The third letter denotes drivetrain layout; here an R means rear-wheel drive while S signifies four-wheel drive.

The is a medium duty truck produced by Isuzu since 1959. Outside Japan it is known as N series. The range was originally mainly available in Japan and other Asian countries. Australia was another important market for the Elf and N series – to the extent that it was manufactured there from the 1970s using many local components. Since the early 1980s, it has also been sold and built in the United States (under the Chevrolet and GMC brand as a W-Series), and also as the Isuzu N-Series. North America only receives the wide-cab version.

五十铃ELF,是日本五十铃汽车于1959年所推出的一款轻型货车车型,车身重量为5.5吨以下。日本以外一般都称作N系列。其主要竞争对手为日野Dutro、三菱扶桑Canter、丰田Dyna、日产Atlas和奔驰斯宾特。