Toponymy.

In modern German, "Saarbrücken" literally translates to "Saar bridges" ("Brücken" is the plural of "Brücke"), and indeed there are about a dozen bridges across the Saar river. However, the name actually predates the oldest bridge in the historic center of Saarbrücken, the "Alte Brücke", by at least 500 years.  The name "Saar" stems from the Celtic word "sara" ("streaming water"), and the Roman name of the river, "saravus".  However, there are three theories about the origin of the second part of the name Saar"brücken".

Briga (rock).

The most popular theory states that the historical name of the town, "Sarabrucca", derived from the Celtic word "briga" ("hill", or "rock", "big stone"), which became "Brocken" (can mean "rock" or "boulder") in High German. The castle of "Sarabrucca" was located on a large rock by the name of "Saarbrocken" overlooking the river Saar.

Brucca (ford).

A minority opinion holds that the historical name of the town, "Sarabrucca", derived from the Old High German word "Brucca", meaning "bridge", or more precisely a Corduroy road, which was also used in fords. Next to the castle, there was a ford allowing land-traffic to cross the Saar.

Bruco (swamp).

A mostly rejected theory claims that the historical name of the town, "Sarabrucca", derived from the Germanic word "bruco" ("swamp", "marsh"). There is an area in St Johann called "Bruchwiese" ("wiese" meaning "meadow"), which used to be swampy before it was developed, and there were flood-meadows along the river, and those are often marshy. However, the Saarbrücken area was first settled by Celts and not by Germanic peoples.

History.

Roman Empire.

In the last centuries BC, the Mediomatrici settled in the Saarbrücken area. When Julius Caesar conquered Gaul in the 1st century BC, the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire.  From the 1st century AD to the 5th century, there was the Gallo-Roman settlement called "vicus Saravus" west of Saarbrücken's "Halberg" hill, on the roads from Metz to Worms and from Trier to Strasbourg. Since the 1st or 2nd century AD, a wooden bridge, later upgraded to stone, connected "vicus Saravus" with the south-western bank of the Saar, today's St Arnual, where at least one Roman villa was located. In the 3rd century AD, a Mithras shrine was built in a cave in "Halberg" hill, on the eastern bank of the Saar river, next to today's old "Osthafen" harbor, and a small Roman camp was constructed at the foot of Halberg hill next to the river.  Toward the end of the 4th century, the Alemanni destroyed the castra and "vicus Saravus", removing permanent human presence from the Saarbrücken area for almost a century.

Middle Ages to 18th century.

The Saar area came under the control of the Franks towards the end of the 5th century. In the 6th century, the Merovingians gave the village "Merkingen", which had formed on the ruins of the villa on the south-western end of the (in those times still usable) Roman bridge, to the Bishopric of Metz. Between 601 and 609, Bishop Arnual founded a community of clerics, a "Stift", there. Centuries later the "Stift", and in 1046 "Merkingen", took on his name, giving birth to "St Arnual".  The oldest documentary reference to Saarbrücken is a deed of donation from 999, which documents that Emperor Otto III gave the "castellum Sarabrucca" (Saarbrücken castle) to the Bishops of Metz. The Bishops gave the area to the Counts of "Saargau" as a fief. By 1120, the county of Saarbrücken had been formed and a small settlement around the castle developed. In 1168, Emperor Barbarossa ordered the slighting of Saarbrücken because of a feud with Count Simon I. The damage cannot have been grave, as the castle continued to exist. In 1321/1322 Count Johann I of Saarbrücken-Commercy gave city status to the settlement of Saarbrücken and the fishing village of St Johann on the opposite bank of the Saar, introducing a joint administration and emancipating the inhabitants from serfdom.  From 1381 to 1793 the counts of Nassau-Saarbrücken were the main local rulers. In 1549, Emperor Charles V prompted the construction of the "Alte Brücke" (old bridge) connecting Saarbrücken and St Johann. At the beginning of the 17th century, Count Ludwig II ordered the construction of a new Renaissance-style castle on the site of the old castle, and founded Saarbrücken's oldest secondary school, the "Ludwigsgymnasium". During the Thirty Years' War, the population of Saarbrücken was reduced to just 70 by 1637, down from 4500 in 1628. During the Franco-Dutch War, King Louis XIV's troops burned down Saarbrücken in 1677, almost completely destroying the city such that just 8 houses remained standing. The area was incorporated into France for the first time in the 1680s. In 1697 France was forced to relinquish the Saar province, but from 1793 to 1815 regained control of the region. During the reign of Prince William Henry from 1741 to 1768, the coal mines were nationalized and his policies created a proto-industrialized economy, laying the foundation for Saarland's later highly industrialized economy. Saarbrücken was booming, and Prince William Henry spent on building and on infrastructure like the "Saarkran" river crane (1761), far beyond his financial means. However, the famous baroque architect Friedrich Joachim Stengel created not only the "Saarkran", but many iconic buildings that still shape Saarbrücken's face today, like the "Friedenskirche" (Peace Church), which was finished in 1745, the "Old City Hall" (1750), the catholic "St. John's" "Basilica" (1754), and the famous "Ludwigskirche" (1775), Saarbrücken's landmark.

19th century.

In 1793, Saarbrücken was captured by French Revolutionary troops and in the treaties of Campo Formio and Lunéville, the county of Saarbrücken was ceded to France.  After 1815 Saarbrücken became part of the Prussian Rhine Province. The office of the mayor of Saarbrücken administered the urban municipalities Saarbrücken and St Johann, and the rural municipalities "Malstatt", "Burbach", "Brebach", and "Rußhütte". The coal and iron resources of the region were developed: in 1852, a railway connecting the Palatine Ludwig Railway with the French Eastern Railway was constructed, the Burbach ironworks started production in 1856, beginning in 1860 the Saar up to Ensdorf was channeled, and Saarbrücken was connected to the French canal network.  At the start of the Franco-Prussian War, Saarbrücken was the first target of the French invasion force which drove off the Prussian vanguard and occupied Alt-Saarbrücken on 2 August 1870. Oral tradition has it that 14-year-old French Prince Napoléon Eugène Louis Bonaparte fired his first cannon in this battle, an event commemorated by the "Lulustein" memorial in Alt-Saarbrücken. On 4 August 1870 the French left Saarbrücken, driven away towards Metz in the Battle of Spicheren on 6 August 1870.

20th century.

In 1909 the cities of Saarbrücken, St Johann and Malstatt-Burbach merged and formed the major city of Saarbrücken with a population of over 100,000.  During World War I, factories and railways in Saarbrücken were bombed by British forces. The Royal Naval Air Service raided Saarbrücken with 11 DH4s on 17 October 1917, and a week later with 9 HP11s. The Royal Air Force raided Saarbrücken's railway station with 5 DH9s on 31 July 1918, on which occasion one DH9 crashed near the town centre.  Saarbrücken became capital of the Saar territory established in 1920. Under the Treaty of Versailles (1919), the Saar coal mines were made the exclusive property of France for a period of 15 years as compensation for the destruction of French mines during the First World War. The treaty also provided for a plebiscite, at the end of the 15-year period, to determine the territory's future status, and in 1935 more than 90% of the electorate voted for reunification with Germany, while only 0.8% voted for unification with France. The remainder wanted to rejoin Germany but not while the Nazis were in power. This "status quo" group voted for maintenance of the League of Nations' administration. In 1935, the Saar territory rejoined Germany and formed a district under the name Saarland.

World War II.

Saarbrücken was heavily bombed in World War II. In total 1,234 people (1.1 percent of the population) in Saarbrücken were killed in bombing raids 1942–45. 11,000 homes were destroyed and 75 percent of the city left in ruins.  The British Royal Air Force (RAF) raided Saarbrücken at least 10 times. Often employing area bombing, the RAF used total of at least 1495 planes to attack Saarbrücken, killing a minimum of 635 people and heavily damaging more than 8400 buildings, of which more than 7700 were completely destroyed, thus dehousing more than 50,000 people. The first major raid on Saarbrücken was done by 291 aircraft of the RAF on 29 July 1942, targeting industrial facilities. Losing 9 aircraft, the bombers destroyed almost 400 buildings, damaging more than 300 others, and killed more than 150 people. On 28 August 1942, 113 RAF planes raided Saarbrücken doing comparably little damage due to widely scattered bombing. After the RAF mistakenly bombed Saarlouis instead of Saarbrücken on 1 September 1942, it raided Saarbrücken with 118 planes on 19 September 1942, causing comparably little damage as the bombing scattered to the west of Saarbrücken due to ground haze. There were small raids with 28 Mosquitos on 30 April 1944, with 33 Mosquitos on 29 June 1944, and with just 2 Mosquitos on 26 July 1944. At the request of the American Third Army, the RAF massively raided Saarbrücken on 5 October 1944, to destroy supply lines, especially the railway. The 531 Lancasters and 20 Mosquitos achieved these goals, but lost 3 Lancasters and destroyed large parts of Malstatt and nearly all of Alt-Saarbrücken. From 13 to 14 January, the RAF raided Saarbrücken three times, targeting the railway yard. The attacks with 158, 274, and 134 planes, respectively, were very effective.  The 8th US Air Force raided Saarbrücken at least 16 times, from 4 October 1943, to 9 November 1944. Targeting mostly the marshalling yards, a total of at least 2387 planes of the 8th. USAF killed a minimum of 543 people and heavily damaged more than 4400 buildings, of which more than 700 were completely destroyed, thus depriving more than 2300 people of shelter. Donald J. Gott and William E. Metzger, Jr. were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions during the bombing run on 9 November 1944.  On the ground, Saarbrücken was defended by the 347th Infantry Division commanded by Wolf-Günther Trierenberg in 1945. The US 70th Infantry Division was tasked with punching through the Siegfried Line and taking Saarbrücken. As the fortifications were unusually strong, it first had to take the Siegfried Line fortifications on the French heights near Spicheren overlooking Saarbrücken. This "Spichern-Stellung" had been constructed in 1940 after the French had fallen back on the Maginot Line during the Phoney War. The 276th Infantry Regiment attacked Forbach on 19 February 1945, and a fierce battle ensued, halting the American advance at the rail-road tracks cutting through Forbach on 22 February 1945. The 274th and 275th Infantry Regiments took Spicheren on 20 February 1945. When the 274th Infantry Regiment captured the Spicheren Heights on 23 February 1945, after a heavy battle on the previous day, the Germans counter-attacked for days, but by 27 February 1945, the heights were fully under American control. A renewed attack on 3 March 1945, allowed units of the 70th Infantry Division to enter Stiring-Wendel and the remainder of Forbach. By 5 March 1945, all of Forbach and major parts of Stiring-Wendel had been taken. However, fighting for Stiring-Wendel, especially for the "Simon" mine, continued for days. After the German defenders of Stiring-Wendel fell back to Saarbrücken on 12 and 13 March 1945, the 70th Infantry Division still faced a strong segment of the Siegfried Line, which had been reinforced around Saarbrücken as late as 1940. After having the German troops south of the Saar fall back across the Saar at night, the German defenders of Saarbrücken retreated early on 20 March 1945. The 70th Infantry Division flanked Saarbrücken by crossing the Saar north-west of Saarbrücken. The 274th Infantry Regiment entered Saarbrücken on 20 March 1945, fully occupying it the following day, thus ending the war for Saarbrücken.

After World War II.

In 1945, Saarbrücken temporarily became part of the French Zone of Occupation. In 1947, France created the nominally politically independent Saar Protectorate and merged it economically with France to exploit the area's vast coal reserves. Saarbrücken became capital of the new Saar state. A referendum in 1955 came out with over two-thirds of the voters rejecting an independent Saar state. The area rejoined the Federal Republic of Germany on 1 January 1957, sometimes called "Kleine Wiedervereinigung" (little reunification). Economic reintegration would, however, take many more years. Saarbrücken became capital of the "Bundesland" (federal state) Saarland. After the administrative reform of 1974, the city had a population of more than 200,000.  From 1990 to 1993, students and an arts professor from the town first secretly, then officially, created an invisible memorial to Jewish cemeteries. It is located on the fore-court of the Saarbrücken Castle.  On 9 March 1999 at 4:40 am, there was a bomb attack on the controversial Wehrmachtsausstellung exhibition next to Saarbrücken Castle, resulting in minor damage to the Volkshochschule building housing the exhibition and the adjoining "Schlosskirche" church; this attack did not cause any injuries.

Geography.

Climate.

Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).

Region.

Some of the closest cities are Trier, Luxembourg, Nancy, Metz, Kaiserslautern, Karlsruhe and Mannheim. Saarbrücken is connected by the city's public transport network to the town of Sarreguemines in France, and to the neighboring town of Völklingen, where the old steel works were the first industrial monument to be declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1994 – the Völklinger Hütte.

Infrastructure.

The city is served by Saarbrücken Airport (SCN), and since June 2007 ICE high speed train services along the LGV Est line provide high speed connections to Paris from Saarbrücken Hauptbahnhof. Saarbrücken's Saarbahn (modelled on the Karlsruhe model light rail) crosses the French–German border, connecting to the French city of Sarreguemines.

Science and education.

Saarbrücken is also the home of the main campus of Saarland University ("Universität des Saarlandes"). There are several research institutes and centres on or near the campus, including:  The Saarland University also has a "Centre Juridique Franco-Allemand", offering a French and a German law degree program.  The Botanischer Garten der Universität des Saarlandes (a botanical garden) was closed in 2016 due to budget cuts.  The main campus of the Saarland University also houses the office of the Schloss Dagstuhl – Leibniz-Zentrum für Informatik computer science research and meeting center.  Furthermore, Saarbrücken houses the administration of the Franco-German University ("Deutsch-Französische Hochschule"), a French-German cooperation of 180 institutions of tertiary education mainly from France and Germany but also from Bulgaria, Canada, Spain, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Great Britain, Russia and Switzerland, which offers bi-national French-German degree programs and doctorates as well as tri-national degree programs.  Saarbrücken houses several other institutions of tertiary education as well:  Saarbrücken also houses a Volkshochschule.  With the end of coal mining in the Saar region, Saarbrücken's Fachhochschule for mining, the "Fachhochschule für Bergbau Saar", was closed at the beginning of the 21st century. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Trier's "Katholische Hochschule für Soziale Arbeit", a Fachhochschule for social work, was closed in 2008 for cost cutting reasons. The Saarland's Fachhochschule for administrative personnel working for the government, the "Fachhochschule für Verwaltung des Saarlandes", was moved from Saarbrücken to "Göttelborn" in 2012.  Saarbrücken houses several institutions of primary and secondary education. Notable is the Saarland's oldest grammar school, the "Ludwigsgymnasium", which was founded in 1604 as a latin school. The building of Saarbrücken's bi-lingual French-German "Deutsch-Französisches Gymnasium", founded in 1961 and operating as a laboratory school under the Élysée Treaty, also houses the "École française de Sarrebruck et Dilling", a French primary school which offers bi-lingual German elements. Together with several Kindergartens offering bi-lingual French-German education, Saarbrücken thus offers a full bi-lingual French-German formal education.

Sport.

The city is home to several different teams, most notable of which is association football team based at the Ludwigsparkstadion, 1. FC Saarbrücken, which also has a reserve team and a women's section. In the past a top-flight team, twice the country's vice-champions, and participant in European competitions, the club draws supporters from across the region.  Lower league SV Saar 05 Saarbrücken is the other football team in the city.  The Saarland Hurricanes are one of the top American football teams in the country, with its junior team winning the German Junior Bowl in 2013.  Various sporting events are held at the Saarlandhalle, most notable of which was the badminton Bitburger Open Grand Prix Gold, part of the BWF Grand Prix Gold and Grand Prix tournaments, held in 2013 and 2012.

International relations.

Saarbrücken is a fellow member of the QuattroPole union of cities, along with Luxembourg, Metz, and Trier (formed by cities from three neighbouring countries: Germany, Luxembourg and France).

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Saarbrücken is twinned with:  Saarbrücken has a "Städtefreundschaft" (city friendship) with: Some boroughs of Saarbrücken are also twinned:

Saarbrücken (,, ; ; Rhine Franconian: "Saarbrigge" ; ) is the capital and largest city of the state of Saarland, Germany. Saarbrücken is Saarland's administrative, commercial and cultural centre and is next to the French border.

萨尔布吕肯(德语:Saarbrücken)是德国萨尔州的首府,人口约为17万9千人。


Dispenser types.

Wall-mounted / recessed.

The wall-mounted type is connected to the building's water supply for a continuous supply of water and electricity to run a refrigeration unit to cool the incoming water, and to the building's waste disposal system to dispose of unused water. Wall-mounted water coolers are frequently used in commercial buildings like hospitals, schools, businesses, and other facilities where a facility manager is present to monitor its installation and maintenance.  In the standard wall-mounted cooler, also commonly referred to as a water fountain or drinking fountain, a small tank in the machine holds chilled water so the user does not have to wait for chilled water. Water is delivered by turning or pressing a button on a spring-loaded valve located on the top of the unit, that turns off the water when released. Some devices also offer a large button on the front or side. Newer machines may not have a button at all; instead, a sensor that detects when someone is near and activates the water. Water is delivered in a stream that arches up, allowing the user to drink directly from the top of the stream of water. These devices usually dispense water directly from the municipal water supply, without treatment or filtering.  Wall mount water coolers come in a wide variety of styles, from recessed models to splash resistant, contoured basins protruding out from the wall, traditional rounded square edge designs, bottle filler and water cooler combination units, bi-level designs, with other features and options. These are sometimes installed to meet local, state or federal codes.

Bottom-load water dispenser.

Water dispensers commonly have the water supply vessel mounted at the top of the unit. Bottom-load water dispensers have the vessel mounted at the bottom of the unit to make loading easier.

Tabletop water dispenser.

There are also smaller versions of the water dispensers where the dispenser can be placed directly on top of a table. These dispensers are commonly classified as household appliances and can often be found in household kitchens and office pantries.

Direct-piping water dispenser (POU).

Water dispensers can be directly connected to the in-house water source for continuous dispensing of hot and cold drinking water. It is commonly referred to as POU (Point of Use) water dispensers. POU units are generally more hygienic than bottled water coolers, provided the end user has access to clean water sources.

Freestanding.

A freestanding design generally involves bottles of water placed spout-down into the dispensing machine.  Tabletop or kitchen worktop versions are available which utilize readily available five-liter water bottles from supermarkets. These coolers use air pumps to push the water into the cooling chamber and Peltier devices to chill the water.  New development within the water cooler market is the advent of countertop appliances which are connected to the mains and provide an instant supply of not only chilled water but also hot and boiling water. This is often visible in the horeca industry.  Water will flow faster when the handle is in the upright position. The water is aerated which allows the water to come through the spout at a faster rate.

Water source.

Water dispensed from water coolers may originate from many different sources, but are often classified into two major categories, namely natural mineral and spring water, and purified water.

Natural mineral and spring water.

Natural mineral and spring water are waters emanating from underground geological rock formations collected from boreholes or emerging springs. Legislation in each respective country further differentiates between these two types of water and stipulates strict naming and labeling criteria based on natural source protection, total dissolved solids, and the amount of processing the water may undergo prior to bottling.

Purified water.

Purified water is water from groundwater or municipal water supply and is produced by any one of several methods of purification including reverse osmosis, distillation, deionization, and filtration. The water is often treated by ultraviolet light or ozone for antimicrobial reasons and re-mineralized by injection of soluble inorganic salts.

Water delivery.

The delivery of water in a water cooler comes in two main forms, namely bottled variants, or plumbed directly from the main water supply. The water is normally pumped into a water tank to be heated or chilled, depending on the model of the water Modern versions include hybrid models that are able to utilize both methods.

Bottled water coolers.

To install the bottle, the bottle is tipped upside down and set onto the dispenser; a probe punctures the cap of the bottle and allows the water to flow into the machine's internal reservoir. These gravity-powered systems have a device to dispense water in a controlled manner.  These machines come in different sizes and vary from table units, intended for occasional use to floor-mounted units intended for heavier use. Bottled water is normally delivered to households or businesses on a regular basis, where empty returnable polycarbonate bottles are exchanged for full ones. In developing markets, PET is often used for large bottles despite shrinkage and lower washing temperature will lead to making it a more challenging material to use.  The bottle size varies with the size of the unit, with the larger versions in the US using bottles. This is also the most common size elsewhere, labeled as 18.9 liters in countries that use the metric system. Originally, these bottles were manufactured at 3,5 or 6 US gallon capacity (11.4, 18.9 or 22.7 liters) and supplied to rented water cooler units. These units usually do not have a place to dump excess water, only offering a small basin to catch minor spills. On the front, a lever or pushbutton dispenses the water into a cup held beneath the spigot. When the water container is empty, it is lifted off the top of the dispenser, and automatically seals to prevent any excess water still in the bottle from leaking.

Material.

For many years and throughout the 20th century, glass was the main material used for bottling until the evolution of thermoplastics following World War II. PVC evolved as a multi-purpose plastic material and gained mass adoption as an ideal mass production material. Only dark green glass bottles were retained for packaging carbonated waters. The 1980s saw the re-development of PVC bottles due to cost reduction. Advances in manufacturing and materials technology such as new blow and injection molding techniques have reduced the wall thickness and weight of bottles while improving durability and increasing service life.

Direct plumbed.

Directly plumbed water coolers use tap water and therefore do not need bottles due to their use of the main water supply. Usually, some method of purification is used. Log reduction (i.e. 6-log reduction or 99.9999% effective) is used as a measure on the effectiveness of sanitization and disinfection.

Purification.

Filtration.

Filtration methods include reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and activated carbon. Reverse osmosis works differently from chemical or ultraviolet protection, using a membrane that has fine pores, passing HO while preventing larger molecules such as salts, carbonates, and other micro-organisms from passing through it. If there is insufficient energy to naturally force the water through the membrane, a powerful pump is required, resulting in potential high energy costs. In addition, RO units are capable of softening water. Some living micro-organisms, including viruses, are capable of passing through an RO unit filter.  Deionizers or demineralizers use resins exchange to remove ions from the stream of water and are most commonly twin-bed or mixed-bed deionizers. It is often used in sterile manufacturing environments such as computer chips, where deionized water is a poor conductor of electricity.  Inactivated carbon, raw materials such as lignite, coal, bone charcoal, coconut shells, and wood charcoal are used, developing pores during activation when partly burning away carbon layers. In most cases, activated carbon is a single-use material as regeneration is often not possible on-site. Granular activated carbon (GAC) is most commonly used in the filtration of the water cooler. Regular sanitization using hot water and steam is required to limit bacterial growth.

Sanitization & disinfection.

The sanitization of water is defined by the reduction of the number of micro-organisms to a safe level. According to the AOAC suspension test method, a sanitizer should be capable of killing 99.999% of a specific bacterial test population within 30 seconds at 25°C (77°F). Sanitizers may or may not necessarily destroy pathogenic or disease-causing bacteria. The sanitizer used must comply with regulations applicable in the geographic location. In the US, sanitizers are regulated by the EPA and FDA, and must pass the AOAC test in the reduction of microbial activity of two standard test organisms ("staphylococcus aureus" and "Escherichia coli") from a designated microbial load by a 5-log reduction.  The main difference between a sanitizer and a disinfectant is that at a specific use dilution, the disinfectant must have a higher kill capability for pathogenic bacteria than that of a sanitizer. If these micro-organisms are not destroyed, the bottled water being produced may be contaminated.  UVGI (Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation) is a commonly used disinfection method to kill or inactivate micro-organisms and leaving them unable to perform vital cellular functions. Drawbacks to UV light water purifiers include turbidity. If the fluid is unclear, the UV light will not pass through completely, leaving the stream partially sterilized.

Cooling and heating methods.

Cooling.

Most modern units offer a refrigeration function to chill the water, using Vapor compression refrigeration or Thermoelectric cooling.

Vapor compression refrigeration.

Water coolers using vapor compression refrigeration come in one of the following systems:

Thermoelectric cooling.

Thermoelectric cooling is a green alternative to HFC refrigerant that uses a solid state device that acts as a heat pump to transfer heat from one side of the device to another using the Peltier effect. It is made up of numerous pairs of semiconductors enclosed by ceramic wafers. Thermoelectric coolers use direct current power rather than refrigerant gas and a compressor and have no moving parts or complex assemblies.

Heating.

Some versions also have a second dispenser that delivers room-temperature water or even heated water that can be used for tea, hot chocolate or other uses. The water in the alternate hot tap is generally heated with a heating element and stored in a hot tank (much like the traditional hot water heaters used in residential homes). Additionally, the hot tap is usually equipped with a push-in safety valve to prevent burns from an accidental or inadvertent pressing of the lever.

Additional features.

Bottle Filler.

Newer variants of water coolers include an additional dispenser designed to fill water bottles directly on wall-mounted units. This is increasingly common in public water coolers as they have also been spotted in public places such as airports and railway stations. These bottle filling units also can indicate the number of single-use plastic bottles saved as part of an ongoing public effort to reduce plastic pollution.

Carbonation.

Modern variants of water coolers have been equipped with options for sparkling water as a result of increasing demand for carbonated beverages and also a greater awareness to healthy living, resulting in preference for carbonated water over sweetened carbonated beverages. This works with the addition of a mixer tank filled with compressed CO located inside the cooling tank. This brings the temperature of the CO gas down to the temperature of the cooling tank. As carbonated water is dispensed, the mixer tank is automatically refilled with cold water and carbon dioxide, ensuring a continuous supply of carbonated water is readily available.

Maintenance.

All bottled water coolers need to be periodically cleaned to prevent mineral build-up inside the heating tank, also known as scaling. The frequency of the cleaning can be determined by the concentration of the minerals and the amount of water used. Descaling agents such as citric acid can be used for this cleaning process.  Heating tanks will require cleaning when normal hot water flow appears to be restricted or when noisy heating cycles can be heard during operation. Additional symptoms include water coming from the cooling tank is very warm as well as a change of taste in the water resulting from mineral build-up.

A water dispenser, known as water cooler (if used for cooling only), is a machine that cools or heats up and dispenses water with a refrigeration unit. It is commonly located near the restroom due to closer access to plumbing. A drain line is also provided from the water cooler into the sewer system.

水机,又称纯水机,是一个机器里面装满了纯净水、矿泉水或其他饮品,供大家饮用的机器。饮水机还有很多种类型,例如喷嘴式饮水机、按压式饮水机等。跟热水器不同的是,饮水机会提供两种不同的水温给人饮用,机器本身应该有降温及冷却,抑或是加热及保温的功能。


Principle.

If the closed-loop dynamics can be represented by the state space equation (see State space (controls))  with output equation  then the poles of the system transfer function are the roots of the characteristic equation given by  Full state feedback is utilized by commanding the input vector formula_4. Consider an input proportional (in the matrix sense) to the state vector,  Substituting into the state space equations above, we have  The poles of the FSF system are given by the characteristic equation of the matrix formula_8, formula_9. Comparing the terms of this equation with those of the desired characteristic equation yields the values of the feedback matrix formula_10 which force the closed-loop eigenvalues to the pole locations specified by the desired characteristic equation.

Example of FSF.

Consider a system given by the following state space equations:  The uncontrolled system has open-loop poles at formula_12 and formula_13. These poles are the eigenvalues of the formula_14 matrix and they are the roots of formula_15. Suppose, for considerations of the response, we wish the controlled system eigenvalues to be located at formula_12 and formula_17, which are not the poles we currently have. The desired characteristic equation is then formula_18, from formula_19.  Following the procedure given above, the FSF controlled system characteristic equation is  where  Upon setting this characteristic equation equal to the desired characteristic equation, we find  Therefore, setting formula_5 forces the closed-loop poles to the desired locations, affecting the response as desired.  This only works for Single-Input systems. Multiple input systems will have a formula_10 matrix that is not unique. Choosing, therefore, the best formula_10 values is not trivial. A linear-quadratic regulator might be used for such applications.

Full state feedback (FSF), or pole placement, is a method employed in feedback control system theory to place the closed-loop poles of a plant in pre-determined locations in the s-plane. Placing poles is desirable because the location of the poles corresponds directly to the eigenvalues of the system, which control the characteristics of the response of the system. The system must be considered controllable in order to implement this method.

全状态回授(Full state feedback)也称为极点安置(pole placement),是反馈控制系统理论中的一种控制方式,规划受控体的闭回路极点在S平面中事先定义的位置上。在规划控制系统时,会希望可以规划极点的位置,因为极点位置直接对应系统的特征值,而特征值直接影响系统的反应特性。若要用此方法控制,系统必须有可控制性。在多输入及多输出的系统中常用此方式控制,例如主动悬架系统。


Concept.

Rémi Gaillard became known for his videos, in which he displays an "outrageous" style of humour. Recurring themes include dressing up as and interpreting the behaviour of various animals in public, racing unsuspecting car-drivers whilst dressed up as Mario "à la" "Mario Kart", and numerous provocative interactions with parking enforcement officers and the police.  Gaillard's satirical motto is "C'est en faisant n'importe quoi qu'on devient n'importe qui". The literal meaning is, "It is by doing whatever that we become whoever". The understood meaning is satirical because "n'importe quoi" implies doing something ridiculous and "n'importe qui" implies no one important. It plays on a classic French proverb "C'est en forgeant qu'on devient forgeron." Literally translated the proverb reads, "It is by smithing that one becomes a blacksmith".

Sketches.

The majority of Gaillard's sketches are of the hidden camera type, often disguising himself in outlandish costumes for his pranks. In some videos, Gaillard is accompanied by a crowd of friends, giving the action a flashmob-like nature.  Gaillard shot his first sketch in 1999 with a friend in Montpellier, and in 2001, he launched his website nimportequi.com.  He gained fame in 2002 at the finals of the Coupe de France.  He achieved further YouTube popularity through his Rocky Balboa parodies, Pac-Man, "Mario Kart" and Santa Claus pranks, as well as his football videos. His recent pranks often entail dressing up in large animal costumes; including a kangaroo and a bat. He has also dressed up as a bomb, a Traffic enforcement camera, and staying locked in an animal cage for 87 hours to raise funds for animal shelters.  On his official site, Gaillard claims over 2.5 billion views on his videos on the web. His YouTube channel has 1.6 billion total views and his most popular YouTube video, "Kangaroo", has 86 million views.  English comedian Dom Joly stated in 2010 that many of Gaillard's sketches plagiarize from Joly's show, "Trigger Happy TV", a statement backed up by YouTube channel CopyComic in December 2017. Gaillard responded by noting that many pranks by Dom Joly may have been plagiarized from his own work.

Movie.

Gaillard starred in his first full-length feature film titled "N'importe qui". It was directed by Raphaël Frydman and released on March 5, 2014, in France.

Rémi Gaillard (; born 7 February 1975 in Montpellier, France) is a French prankster who uploads videos on YouTube., his channel is the 26th most subscribed comedy channel on YouTube.

雷米·盖拉德(,1975年-2月7日),是一个将影片上载至YouTube的法国幽默家。当他失去了他于鞋店的工作,雷米便开始利用其空闲时间于公众地方制造恶作剧。截至2012年3月13日,他于YouTube受最多订阅的幽默家排名中排第17位。


Biography.

Josipović's parents, originally from Baška Voda, a small town near Makarska in Dalmatia, had moved to capital Zagreb in 1956, about a year before he was born. As a high school student, Josipović attended both the V. Gymnasium and a secondary music school in Zagreb from 1972 to 1976. As a teenager he was a promising football player. He is married to Tatjana, a civil law professor and legal expert. They have one daughter, Lana (born c. 1991).  Apart from his native Croatian, he speaks English fluently and has some understanding of German.

Law.

Ivo Josipović attended the Faculty of Law of the University of Zagreb, from which he graduated passing his bar examination in 1980. He completed his MA in criminal law in 1985 and his PhD in criminal sciences in 1994. He began as a lecturer at the same law faculty in 1984, and has since become a Professor for criminal procedure law, "international criminal law" and "misdemeanour law".  Josipović has been a visiting researcher at a number of prestigious institutes including the Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law in Freiburg in Breisgau, Germany, the "Institute for Criminal Law" of the University of Graz, Austria, as well as the HEUNI "Institute (European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control)" in Helsinki, Finland. He has also spent time as a private researcher at the "Max Planck Institute for Foreign and Private International Law" in Hamburg, Germany as well the Yale University in the US. As member of several domestic and international legal and artists' associations he published over 85 academic and professional papers in domestic and international journals. In year 1994, he co-founded the independent "Hrvatski pravni centar" (Croatian Law Center). Josipović helped to save 180 Croatian prisoners of war from Serbian detention centers and has represented Croatia before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). He participated in several international projects and acted as a Council of Europe expert in evaluation of prisons in Ukraine, Mongolia and Azerbaijan.

Music.

After graduating from a secondary music school he enrolled at the Composition Department of the Zagreb Music Academy under the tutelage of renowned scholar Stanko Horvat. He graduated in 1983 majoring in composition. Between 1987 and 2004 Josipović was also a lecturer at the Zagreb Music Academy.  Josipović composed some 50 chamber music pieces for various instruments, chamber orchestra and symphony orchestra. In 1985 he won an award from the European Broadcasting Union for his composition "Samba da Camera" and in 1999 he was awarded the Porin Award for the same composition, which was followed by another Porin Award in 2000 for his piece titled "Tisuću lotosa" ("A Thousand Lotuses"). His most successful pieces also include "Igra staklenih perli" (The Glass Bead Game) and "Tuba Ludens". These pieces are performed by numerous musicians in Croatia and abroad. Since 1991 Josipović also served as director of the Music Biennale Zagreb (MBZ), an international festival of contemporary classical music.  During the 2010 election campaign Josipović announced that as president he will compose an opera based on the murder of John Lennon.

Film.

Josipović was interviewed in Boris Malagurski's documentary film "The Weight of Chains 2" (2014). Ivo Josipović lent his voice to the third film of the Toy Story series and in a short animated film "Night and Day". Josipović at the beginning of the film pronounces the sentence, in Croatian, 'Best things in life are unknown, turn to new things'. Opening the Pula film festival, in 2014, President Josipović called for the audience to enjoy movies and art. 'For some, film is the most beautiful and noble fraud, while for some, filmmakers are magicians. Indeed, they put in a big hat under the stars a lot of important spices and most importantly the talent and love for the art', said Josipovic.

Politics.

In 1980 Ivo Josipović became a member of the League of Communists of Croatia. He played a key role in the democratic transformation of this party as the author of the first statute of the Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP). In 1994, he left politics and the SDP, dedicating himself to law and music. Upon the invitation of Ivica Račan, acting Prime Minister at the time, he returned to politics in 2003, and became an independent MP with the SDP and Vice-President of the SDP Representatives' Group in the Croatian Parliament. During his mandate in 2005, he was also a representative in the Assembly of the City of Zagreb. In 2007, he was re-elected to the Croatian Parliament. He formally renewed his SDP membership in 2008. On 12 July 2009 he was elected as the party's official presidential candidate. As MP he served on various parliamentary committees dealing with legislative, judiciary and constitutional questions, as well as for defining parliamentary rules of procedure and the political system.

Presidential election 2010.

After serving two consecutive five-year terms, the incumbent president Stjepan Mesić was not eligible to run in the scheduled 2009 presidential election. On 20 June 2009, Josipović was nominated as one of the official SDP candidates for the Croatian presidential election, 2009–2010. He won in a primary against Ljubo Jurčić on 12 July, becoming the party's official candidate.  Josipović based his campaign on the slogan 'Justice for Croatia' and kicked off his campaign with a rally in front of the Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb. He attacked the current Croatian government and the prime minister Jadranka Kosor for ignoring the needs of the little man and criticized her for not dealing with corruption.  On 27 December 2009, Josipović won the first round of the presidential election with 32.42% of the vote. He faced Milan Bandić, an expelled member of the SDP running as an independent, (runner-up with 14.83%) in the second round on 10 January 2010. Subsequently, on 10 January 2010 he was elected as the 3rd president of Croatia with 60.26% of the vote, beating Milan Bandić in the second round.

President of Croatia.

In April 2010, Josipović met with the Bosnian Croat Catholic archbishop cardinal Vinko Puljić and the head of the Islamic Community reis Mustafa Cerić and the three made a joint visit at the sites of Ahmići massacre and Križančevo selo killings, and paid respect to the victims. Ivo Josipović made an official visit to Bosnia during which he addressed the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and in his speech he expressed a "deep regret" for Croatia's involvement in efforts to divide Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990s, resulting in the Croat–Bosniak war and suffering for many people on both sides. The presidency of the Croatian Democratic Union condemned the apology. Jadranka Kosor, the current Prime Minister and member of the Croatian Democratic Union, criticized Josipović and accused him of breaching the constitution. The vice president of the Croatian Democratic Union, Andrija Hebrang, contested that Josipović should have visited Bleiburg before Ahmići and Grabovica.  He has chosen a couple of counselors who have caused scandals. Josipović's first option as counselour for rural areas and agriculture was Mato Mlinarić, who was dismissed two hours after being appointed when the press discovered that he had some non-paid tax debts. Former journalist Drago Pilsel served as Josipović's counselor for a month, but left the position after a publishing a column in which he insulted his opponents.  In May 2010, Josipović met the leaders of the Republika Srpska Rajko Kuzmanović and Milorad Dodik, as well as the prominent Bosniak leader Sulejman Tihić, and visited the site of the Sijekovac killings to pay respect to the victims. The site and the visit provoked some controversy in the Croatian public, with allegations of impropriety levelled against President Josipović and the authorities of Republika Srpska for misattributing some of the casualties. During a visit to Israel in February 2012, Josipović apologized for atrocities committed against Jews by the Croatian Ustaše regime during the 1940s. Josipović's apology was accompanied by criticism in Croatia because his predecessor Stjepan Mesić had already apologized earlier for the crimes. Josipović also said that "he is the son of Tito's partisan". During a speech at the commemoration for the victims of the Jasenovac concentration camp in May 2014, Josipović described the crimes that happened in Jasenovac as genocide. During his speech, Josipović stressed that the vast majority of Croatian people fought against Ustasha policies during the Second World War by participating in an anti-fascist movement, urging everyone not to forget that "exclusivity, hatred and intolerance and the evils of fascism and other totalitarian ideologies" are still present in today's societies so that WWII crimes would never repeat, stating that "unity and determination are the only true power against the new Aushwitz, Jasenovac, Ovčara and Srebrenica".

Standing in opinion polls.

In the year 2010, President Josipović had on average maintained a very high 81% approval rating (according to Ipsos), surpassing the former president Stjepan Mesić. With ratings reaching as high as 84% in May, August and December in 2010 and 2011, Ivo Josipović was ranked as the most popular Croatian politician in the past 20 years (with the possible exception of Franjo Tuđman), since Croatia's secession from Yugoslavia. However, while he remains the most popular Croatian active politician, in the first half of the 2012 his popularity suffered a decline: from ratings of over 80% at the end of 2011 and 84% in February 2012, to 74.2% in March 2012 and 68.8% in April 2012. Also, according to the polls for the 2015 presidential elections, he had a lead of about 10% against the winner of the elections, raising doubts about the methodology of the surveys.

Presidential election 2015.

President Josipović announced plans to seek reelection in the 2014 presidential election, with his electoral program focusing on amendments to the constitution and the decentralization of Croatia.  The first round of elections took place on 28 December 2014, with Josipović narrowly coming in ahead of his main challenger Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović of the conservative Croatian Democratic Union. Ivo Josipović received 38.46% of the vote, which represented 22.000 more votes than Grabar-Kitarović, who was at 37.22%, but both failed to win more than 50% of the vote, leading to a runoff. As the two most voted candidates, Josipović and Grabar-Kitarović proceeded to the second round on 11 January 2015. As the votes were being counted on election night, Grabar-Kitarović was predicted as the winner by media sources, taking 51.4% according to exit polls. However, as official results began to come in, Josipović took an initial lead, but Grabar-Kitarović overtook the incumbent to ultimately win by a margin of only 32.509 votes, even as voting continued to take place in parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, where problems had arisen due to issues with voting papers. Josipović lost the election by a wafer-thin margin of 1.989 votes if the diaspora vote is not taken into account and he conceded defeat to Grabar-Kitarović, who thus became the first female President-elect of Croatia, later in the evening. His term formally expired at midnight on 18 February 2015, while his successor had already been inaugurated on 15 February.  After having lost his bid for reelection Josipović founded a new political party called Forward Croatia-Progressive Alliance and announced that he planned to contest the upcoming parliamentary elections that were to be held late in 2015. Josipović also refused to have his own office and staff, to which he was entitled for a period of five years after leaving office as president.

Parliamentary election 2015.

Josipović's Forward Croatia-Progressive Alliance signed a coalition agreement with the People's Party - Reformists, led by former Economy minister Radimir Čačić. Josipović was a candidate in the 1st electoral district, where the coalition won only 1.01% of the vote (or 2365 votes), compared with the 1.54% it received nationwide.

Ivo Josipović (; born 28 August 1957) is a Croatian jurist, composer and politician who served as President of Croatia from 2010 to 2015.

伊沃·约西波维奇(,1957年-8月28日),是克罗地亚政治人物、法学家、作曲家和大学教授。他在2010年至2015年间担任克罗地亚总统。


History.

Active use of (or, rather, the breve over ) began around the 15th and the 16th centuries. Since the middle of the 17th century, the differentiation between and is obligatory in the Russian variant of Church Slavonic orthography (used for the Russian language as well). During the alphabet reforms of Peter I, all diacritic marks were removed from the Russian writing system, but shortly after his death, in 1735, the distinction between and was restored. was not officially considered a separate letter of the alphabet until the 1930s.  Because was considered to be a vowel and not a consonant, it was not required to take a hard sign when it came at the end of a word in pre-reform orthography.

Usage.

In Russian, it appears predominantly in diphthongs like in широкий ("shirokiy" 'wide'), in край ("kray" 'end', 'krai'), in долей ("doley" 'portion'), in горой ("goroy"'mountain'), and in буйство ("buystvo" 'rage'). It is used in other positions only in foreign words, such as Йopк (York, not with), including fellow Slavic words like Йовович (Yovovich).  In Serbo-Croatian and Macedonian, the Cyrillic letter Ј is used to represent the same sound. Latin-based Slavonic writing systems, such as Polish, Czech and the Latin version of Serbian and Croatian use the Latin letter J (not the letter Y, as in English or French), for that purpose.

Related letters and other similar characters.

Note that breve in Й may be quite different from ordinary breve, the former having a thinner central part and thicker ends (the opposite holds for ordinary breve). This is often seen in serif fonts, cf. Й (Cyrillic Short I) and Ŭ (Latin U with breve).

Short I or Yot (Й й; italics: "Й й") is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It is made of the Cyrillic letter И with a breve.

Й, й 是一个西里尔字母。它在俄语中称呼为 и краткое, "i kratkoje"(短 I),在乌克兰语中称呼为 йот, "jot" 或 йи, "ji",在保加利亚语中称呼为 и кратко, "i kratko"(短 I)。留意小写 й 的斜体写法为,与正体字母的写法分别很大。


Education and early career.

Margary was born in the city of Belgaum, in British India as the third son of Major General Henry Joshua Margary (d. 1876). Margary was educated in France, at Brighton College and University College in London. Having failed the entrance exam for the foreign service three times, Margary finally passed the exam and was appointed student interpreter in the British consular service in China in February 1867 and left for China the following month. In China, he served in the British Legation in Beijing, and the British consulates in Taiwan, Shanghai and Yantai.

The "Margary Affair".

As part of efforts to explore overland trade routes between British India and China, Margary was sent from Shanghai through southwest China to Bhamo in Upper Burma, where he was supposed to meet Colonel Horace Browne. It took Margary six months to make the 1800-mile journey through the provinces of Sichuan, Guizhou and Yunnan, after which he met Browne in Bhamo in late 1874. On the journey back to Shanghai, Margary heard rumors that the return route was not safe and changed the route to Tengyue, where he and his personal staff were murdered on 21February 1875.  According to Jonathan Spence, Margary was part of a survey team exploring routes from Burma into Yunnan. Susan Orlean gives a different account: "The linguist and plant collector Augustus Margary survived toothache, rheumatism, pleurisy, and dysentery while sailing the Yangtze only to be murdered when he completed his mission and sailed beyond Bhamo"

Consequences.

The murder of Margary, or the "Margary Affair" as it was known, created a diplomatic crisis and gave British authorities an excuse to put pressure on the Qing government on a number of unrelated issues. The crisis was only resolved in 1876 when Thomas Francis Wade and Li Hongzhang signed the Chefoo Convention, which covered a number of diplomatic/political items. The British demanded, and got, according to Spence, an indemnity of 700,000 taels of silver, a mission of apology to Queen Victoria, and four more treaty ports.  In 1880, a memorial was erected to the memory of Margary, which was moved to the Public Gardens in 1907. The memorial was removed during the Japanese occupation of Shanghai and was never restored after Japan's defeat in World War Two.

Augustus Raymond Margary (26 May 1846 – 21 February 1875) was a British diplomat and explorer. The murder of Margary and his entire staff, while surveying overland Asian trade routes, sparked the Margary Affair which led to the Chefoo Convention.

奥古斯都·雷蒙德·马嘉里(英语:Augustus Raymond Margary,1846年-5月26日-1875年-2月21日),是英国的外交官、探险家。1874年,英国以考察云南地区的商贸情况为由,派遣上校霍勒斯·柏朗以探险队的名义,擅自带领一支英军由缅甸进入了云南,不顾当地民众劝阻,开枪打死中国居民。当地人民奋起抵抗,打死充当翻译官的马嘉理等人,探路队只能退回缅甸新街。之后,英国借此事件,强迫清政府签订了《烟台条约》。


仰望天空的少女瞳中的世界

Plot.

In the distant past of "Munto" when the world of the Heavens did not exist, humans lived a prosperous civilization. One day, beings of unknown origins fell out of the sky and onto human world. These beings could control a power called Akuto, or human emotions. They could take the human spirit, which is an accretion of feelings, wishes and dreams and turn that into a physical power or physical object. These beings, obsessed with their powers, destroyed the human civilization within a few days. However, they did not realize that the humans created the Akuto; these beings who descended from the skies killed off the very source of their power. They then discovered several alternate universes which they could draw more Akuto from. They depleted all the other dimensions of Akuto and used it to create their own empire in the skies above the humans. This new civilization was known as the Heavens and was populated by the Heavenly Beings who could control Akuto.  The leaders of the Heavens soon grew corrupt due to the unlimited amount of Akuto they had stolen from other planets in other space times, and the Heavens began to collapse into disarray. At this time, the humans launched an attack against the Heavens. They were the very humans that were defeated when the Heavenly Beings first showed up. The humans who supplied the Akuto then defeated the Heavenly Beings. During the battle, the leaders of the Heavens decided to sever the supply of Akuto, cutting themselves away from Earth rather than be killed by the rebelling humans. They sealed themselves into a parallel dimension in order to sever the link of Akuto, though this resulted in the pillars that connected Earth to the Heavens to fall from the sky causing massive destruction. This day was called the "Calamitous Day" when both worlds lost contact with each other. From that day on, the Heavenly Beings considered linking the two dimensions together to be a taboo and appointed a guardian to guard this link to make sure it is never connected again.  In the present day, the Heavens are in disarray due to the lack of Akuto flowing into the Heavens. The Heavens, divided into kingdoms, battle each other. The Magical Kingdom is blamed for using the Akuto the most and the other kingdoms seek to destroy the Magical Kingdom in hopes of preserving what little is left of the Akuto. Should the Heavens be destroyed due to a lack of Akuto, the floating islands in the sky will fall to the Earth and the Heavens and human civilization will perish. The Magical Kingdom is led by their king Munto who believes the only way to save the Heavens from destruction is to seek out Yumemi Hidaka who holds the key to restoring the Akuto to the Heavens.

Production.

"Munto" is a Japanese original video animation (OVA) series containing two episodes that were released on March 18, 2003 and April 23, 2005. The episodes were directed by Yoshiji Kigami and were produced by Kyoto Animation. While the first episode is entitled simply "Munto", the second episode is titled. The OVAs were licensed by Central Park Media in North America and are distributed by U.S. Manga Corps.  An animated television series remake and sequel to the OVAs entitled "Sora o Miageru Shōjo no Hitomi ni Utsuru Sekai", again directed by Kigami and produced by Kyoto Animation, began airing in Japan on January 14, 2009 on Chiba TV. The episodes started airing at later dates on AT-X, KBS Kyoto, Mie TV, Sun TV, Tokyo MX, TV Kanagawa, TV Saitama, and TV Wakayama. The music for the TV series is composed by Satoru Kōsaki, who previously worked on the second OVA under the Shinji Ikeda alias while employed at Namco. The TV series' opening theme, entitled, is performed by Eufonius and its ending theme, entitled, is performed by Ceui. The CD single for "Anemoi" was released on February 4, 2009 and the CD single for "Hikari to Yami to Toki no Hate" was released on February 25, 2009.  An animated film entitled was released on April 18, 2009. The film's theme song is called, sung by Mai Aizawa, the voice actress of Yumemi. The CD single for the theme song was released on May 27, 2009. The film, like the OVAs and TV series before it, is also directed by Yoshiji Kigami and produced by Kyoto Animation.

Munto is a two-episode original video animation (OVA) project by Kyoto Animation, first released in 2003 titled "Munto" followed by a 2005 sequel "Munto: Beyond the Walls of Time". An animated television series entitled "Sora o Miageru Shōjo no Hitomi ni Utsuru Sekai" based on the OVAs was produced by Kyoto Animation and directed by Yoshiji Kigami. The TV series is a nine-episode remake and continuation of the OVAs, and aired in Japan between January and March 2009 on Chiba TV. The TV series includes an updated director's cut of the OVA episodes with new animation and footage. A manga adaptation of the TV series illustrated by Makoto 2-gō began serialization in the May 2009 issue of Kadokawa Shoten's "Comp Ace" magazine. An animated film named was released on April 18, 2009.

《MUNTO》系列是京都动画制作的原创动画系列作品。以2003年推出的OVA《MUNTO》为起点,2005年推出另一部OVA《MUNTO～穿越时空之壁》后。2009年春推出电视动画《仰望天空的少女瞳中的世界》,在电视播放时进行调整,第一话至第六话前半沿用重新编辑的OVA旧作画面,再加上部分新绘制画面组合而成;而后半开始则是新的故事。声优和前两作不尽相同,音乐和主题曲亦重新制作。2009年3月11日宣布推出剧场版《天上人和アクト人》(天上人与亚克-{托}-人最后的战斗),4月11日上映。


Early life and ministry.

Vincent Gerard Nichols was born in 1945, The Precincts, in Crosby, Lancashire, to Henry Joseph and Mary (née Russell) Nichols, both teachers. As a child he wanted to be a lorry driver, but felt a calling to the priesthood as a teenager.  He attended St Peter and Paul's Junior School on Liverpool Road, Crosby before joining St Mary's College, Crosby, from 1956 to 1963. From St. Mary's he entered the Venerable English College, Rome. He was ordained for the Archdiocese of Liverpool on 21 December 1969 by Archbishop Paul Marcinkus. He obtained an STL in Theology & Philosophy from the Pontifical Gregorian University in 1970.  Upon his return to Britain, Nichols studied at the University of Manchester for a year and earned an MA degree in Theology in 1971, specialising in the theology of St. John Fisher. He then served as assistant pastor at St Mary's Church, Wigan, as well as chaplain to St John Rigby College, Wigan, and St Peter's Catholic High School, Wigan.  He received a MEd degree from Loyola University Chicago in 1974 and was assigned to St. Anne's Church in Edge Hill in 1975. Father Nichols spent a total of 14 years in the Liverpool archdiocese. In 1980, he was appointed director of the Upholland Northern Institute. He also sat on the archiepiscopal council.  Nichols served as General Secretary of the Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales (CBCEW) from 1984 to 1993. In addition to his role within the CBCEW, he was moderator of the Steering Committee of the Council of Churches for Britain and Ireland from 1989 to 1996. He was chairman of the Catholic Education Service from 1998.

Episcopal ministry.

Auxiliary bishop of Westminster.

On 5 November 1991, Nichols was appointed Auxiliary bishop of Westminster and Titular bishop of "Othona" by Pope John Paul II. He received his episcopal consecration on 24 January 1992 from Cardinal Basil Hume, OSB, with Archbishop Derek Worlock and Bishop Alan Clark serving as co-consecrators, at Westminster Cathedral.  At the age of 46, he was the youngest Catholic bishop in the United Kingdom. He selected as his episcopal motto: "Fortis Ut Mors Dilectio", meaning, "Love Is Strong As Death" Song of Solomon 8:6.  As an auxiliary, Nichols served as vicar for North London. He was appointed to the finance advisory committee of the National Catholic Fund in 1994 and to the CBCEW's Committee for the Roman Colleges in 1995, and became Episcopal Liaison of the CBCEW for the National Conference of Diocesan Financial Secreatries in 1996.  In 1998, he was made chairman of the CBCEW Department for Catholic Education and Formation, as well as chairman of the Catholic Education Service. Nichols represented the European bishops at the November 1998 Synod of Bishops from Oceania, and was a special secretary at the Synod of Bishops for Europe in September 1999. He was celebrant of the Requiem Mass for Cardinal Hume in 1999.

Archbishop of Birmingham.

On 15 February 2000, Nichols was appointed the eighth Archbishop of Birmingham by Pope John Paul II, succeeding the French-born Maurice Couve de Murville. He was installed as archbishop on the following 29 March. He received the pallium from Pope John Paul II in Rome on 29 June 2000, the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul, at the same time as Cormac Murphy-O'Connor received his as Metropolitan of Westminster. Prior to his appointment to Birmingham, he had been considered a leading contender to replace the late Cardinal Hume as Archbishop of Westminster; the position went to Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, although Nichols would later succeed him.  In 2001, Nichols became chairman of the management board of the Catholic Office for the Protection of Children and Vulnerable Adults. He is also a patron of the International Young Leaders Network based at Blackfriars, Oxford. In 2008, he was named President of the Commission for Schools, Universities, and Catechesis in the Council of the Bishops' Conferences of Europe. He is lead episcopal trustee of the three English seminaries outside the United Kingdom – The Royal English College, Valladolid, as well as the Beda College and the Venerable English Colleges in Rome. He is assisted in this role by two further episcopal trustees – Archbishop Arthur Roche, Secretary of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, and Mark Jabalé, Bishop Emeritus of Menevia. He undertakes at least one "visitation" to each of these seminaries in each academic year.  He provided the commentary for the BBC's coverage of the funeral of Pope John Paul II in 2005.  By virtue of his status as ordinary of the Birmingham diocese, Nichols was Chairman of the Governing Body of Newman University College (now Newman University). Nichols has been an advocate of the cause of canonisation for Cardinal John Henry Newman. Nichols oversaw the attempted removal of Newman's remains from his grave in Worcestershire to the Birmingham Oratory in 2008, however on the opening of the grave no human remains were recoverable.  Nichols wrote two books: "Promise of Future Glory" and "Missioners"; and had the inspiration for the "Walk with Me" programme, which sought to bring people together in spiritual accompaniment through the seasons of the Church’s year. The initiative later spread to other dioceses.

Archbishop of Westminster.

Nichols was appointed the eleventh Archbishop of Westminster by Pope Benedict XVI on 3 April 2009, and solemnly installed on 21 May 2009. The diocese, the principal see of the Church in England and Wales, serves 472,600 Catholics. It was reported that Benedict XVI personally selected Nichols for the post after the Congregation for Bishops failed to reach a consensus.  In the time leading up to the appointment, Nichols' name had been repeatedly mentioned as a possible successor to Cardinal Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, and his name was the only one to be on both "ternas", or shortlist of candidates submitted to the Congregation for Bishops. A group of English Catholic bishops, as well as a member of parliament, had even expressed their concerns of promoting Nichols to Westminster to the Apostolic Nuncio, Faustino Sainz Muñoz, citing the archbishop's ambition.  In his decision to accept the "daunting" role of Archbishop of Westminster, Nichols said he "just swallowed hard and said 'yes.'"  He succeeded Cardinal Murphy-O'Connor, who reached the mandatory retirement age of 75 in 2007. Cardinal Murphy-O'Connor described his successor as "competent, compassionate, and experienced."  As expected, Nichols was elected President of the Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales by unanimous acclamation on 30 April 2009.  He received his second pallium from Pope Benedict XVI in Rome on 29 June 2009, the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul.  He was appointed a member of the Congregation for Bishops on 16 December 2013 by Pope Francis. On 19 February 2014. he was appointed a member of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches.

Appointment to the College of Cardinals.

On 12 January 2014 Pope Francis announced that Nichols would be created a cardinal at the consistory of the Church held on 22 February 2014. Cardinal Nichols was formally elevated to the Sacred College of Cardinals by Pope Francis on 22 February 2014, receiving the traditional red biretta and gold ring during a ceremony in Saint Peter's Basilica. He was created Cardinal-Priest of Santissimo Redentore e Sant'Alfonso in Via Merulana.  His coat of arms includes a blue wavy band on a silver shield to represent the River Mersey, scallop shells to represent the Venerable English College in Rome, the red rose of Lancashire and anchors representing Liverpool: surmounted by the customary red galero (ecclesiastical hat) with thirty red cords and tassels (for a cardinal).

Views.

Once considered to be liberal, Nichols was described by Damian Thompson of "The Daily Telegraph" as having moved to more conservative positions. Elena Curti of "The Tablet" suggested this was the result of advice early in his career from Archbishop Worlock to make himself more "Vatican-friendly" if he was to get ahead in the Church hierarchy. Before his enthronement as Archbishop of Westminster, he was vocal in defending the public reputation of the Catholic Church, notably criticising the BBC for what he called "biased and hostile" programming, which contributed to the decision by the BBC not to show the animated sitcom "Popetown".  In August 2010, Nichols expressed support for the echoes of Catholic social teaching emerging in the language of the new Coalition Government. In particular, he supported Prime Minister David Cameron's call for a "Big Society". Nichols said that "It gives us an experience of being together in a place that turns things on their head a bit". He expressed excitement at the potential for the Coalition and wrote that he had become disillusioned with the previous Labour government: "The last government was too overarching. In attempting to create a state that provided everything, it ended up losing touch with the people it was trying to serve." In April 2011, however, he was critical about the effectiveness of the Big Society, saying, "It is all very well to deliver speeches about the need for greater voluntary activity, but there needs to be some practical solutions. The Big Society [...] has no teeth [...] and should not be used as a cloak for masking central cuts"  Nichols defended the ban of the church on communion for the divorced and remarried. He hoped that the Synod on the Family would clarify the teachings of the church on the Eucharist. He said that although usually one partakes in communion based on one's own conscience, the divorced remarried publicly defied church teachings.

Church child abuse scandal.

While he was Archbishop of Birmingham, he had to respond to the sexual abuse cases that were alleged in that diocese. Among his first public acts in his role as Archbishop of Westminster was a statement on the issue of clerical physical and sexual abuse in Ireland following a government report into the running of industrial schools. In his own words: "Every time there is a single incident of abuse in the Catholic Church it is a scandal. And I'm glad it's a scandal." He was, however, criticised widely on the issue of priests facing up to their crimes, where he claimed, "That takes courage, and also we shouldn't forget that this account today will also overshadow all of the good that they also did."

Interfaith relations.

Nichols played a prominent role in producing the 1996 CBCEW document, "Common Good and Catholic Social Teaching", in which the English Catholic bishops condemned the rhetoric of greed in a move interpreted as an endorsement of New Labour.  In 2004, he prominently intervened in an argument pitching religious offence against artistic freedom when he criticised Birmingham Repertory Theatre for showing the play "Behzti" ("Dishonour"), which depicted scenes of sexual abuse and murder in a Sikh temple. He argued that the Sikh community had acted in a "reasonable and measured way" in representing their concerns. ""Such a deliberate, even if fictional, violation of the sacred place of the Sikh religion demeans the sacred places of every religion. People of all faiths, therefore, will be offended by this presentation.""  In March 2009, he allowed the Catholic chapel at a Roman Catholic college in Birmingham to be used for the commemoration of the birth of the Islamic prophet Muhammad with interfaith debate in the college chapel, sparking some local controversy. Nichols defended the location of the celebration, saying through his spokesman, "Christian/Muslim dialogue is an important part of the Catholic Church's agenda."  In November 2009, he "offered flowers at the altar to the deities" during a visit to the Hindu Temple in Neasden. When the action occasioned press comment, details of the episode were removed from the Diocese of Westminster's website.

Reception of former Anglicans.

On 20 October 2009, Cardinal William Levada and Archbishop Joseph Di Noia held a press conference in which they announced that Pope Benedict XVI was preparing to release an apostolic constitution that would allow Anglicans, both laity and clergy, to join the Catholic Church in groups and maintain their corporate identity in new Personal Ordinariates for former Anglicans entering the Roman Catholic Church.  A joint statement on the new protocol from Nichols and the Anglican Communion's head, Archbishop Rowan Williams of Canterbury, was issued at the same time in London. The joint statement said that the development reflected "substantial overlap in faith, doctrine and spirituality between the Catholic Church and the Anglican tradition" and affirmed "on-going official dialogue between the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion", including the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) and International Anglican Roman Catholic Commission for Unity and Mission (IARCCUM).  However, Canon Giles Fraser, an Anglican canon of St Paul's Cathedral, preaching at an ecumenical service at Nichols' own cathedral in Westminster, suggested "...there are some – and indeed in both churches – who do not see it like this at all. For from the Anglican perspective, this new invitation to swim the Tiber can sometimes have a slightly predatory feel; in corporate terms, a little like a take over bid in some broader power play of church politics."

Homosexuality.

Nichols supported the effort to have Catholic adoption agencies exempted from sexual orientation regulations. His position was qualified by his statement during a BBC interview that he would not oppose adoption by a gay person that was single. Mary Ann Sieghart, a journalist, commenting for "The Times" on Nichols' statements on the subject, observed that "had the Catholic position been more hardline, it might have stood more of a chance."  In 2012 Nichols condemned same-sex marriage proposals, calling it an "undemocratic, Orwellian shambles". Nichols also told teachers at Catholic schools that they could not marry divorced people, enter into civil unions or same-sex marriages and yet retain their jobs. In 2013 Nichols put an end to masses for LGBT people at Our Lady of the Assumption Church in Warwick Street, Soho. The church would instead be used by conservative converts from Anglicanism.  Archbishop Nichols said: "The moral teaching of the Church is that the proper use of our sexual faculty is within a marriage, between a man and a woman, open to the procreation and nurturing of new human life."

Education.

In 2006, Nichols denounced then-Secretary for Education Alan Johnson's plan to introduce a quota for non-Catholic pupils at Catholic schools as "insulting", "divisive" and "ill thought-out, unworkable and contradictory of empirical evidence". He mobilised over 2,000 Catholic school headteachers in his campaign and the plan was eventually dropped.  In August 2009, he warned that in his view the overuse by young people of online social networking websites (such as Facebook and MySpace) encouraged teenagers to build "transient relationships" that can leave them traumatised and even suicidal when they collapse: "We're losing some of the ability to build interpersonal communication that's necessary for living together and building a community."

Prison chaplaincy.

In October 2010 Nichols made a defence of Catholic prison chaplaincy in a speech at HM Prison Brixton in London. He criticised suggestions that amid budget cuts the state should only fund a single "generic chaplaincy" in British prisons. He said:

Petition.

In 2011, Nichols and former MP Ann Widdecombe supported a petition to stop the owners of a London pub changing its name. "The Cardinal", near Westminster Cathedral, was due to be renamed the "Windsor Castle" when it reopened after refurbishment. More than 150 people signed the petition organised by the Independent Catholic News newspaper. The pub had been named after a former Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster, Henry Edward Manning. Nichols said that although the pub was originally called the Windsor Castle, the name "the Cardinal" has a better historical connection to the area and that "The reason why it was changed was because of the great impact that Cardinal Manning had on the life of London". Despite the petition, the pub was renamed.

Poverty.

Nichols has urged Catholic academics, charities, politicians, theologians and lay Catholics to work towards the ""Church for the poor"" that Pope Francis advocated. Nichols believes society has a moral imperative  Nichols stressed the need for fair wages, stating the private sector, the social sector, the state and all who have people depending on them for a livelihood are challenged by this.  Nichols argued in 2014 that government changes to social security had ""torn apart"" the "" basic safety net"" for very poor families and called them a ""disgrace"". He claimed that people are risking ""destitution"" and that the administration of social security has become steadily more ""punitive"", forcing people to rely on food banks and leaving them with nothing if forms are filled in incorrectly.  He is the patron of the Passage, a day centre for homeless people founded by the Daughters of Charity near Westminster Cathedral.

Immigration.

As Cardinal Nichols, he spoke out against the use of arguments and campaigns which stoke up "distress" about foreigners coming to the UK. His comments came amid a furore over a £1.5 million advertising campaign by the UK Independence Party which includes billboards suggesting to people that millions of foreigners are after their job.

Seafarers' welfare.

During a visit to the port of Tilbury in June 2015, Cardinal Nichols paid tribute to seafarers' professionalism and dedication and the sacrifices they make to support their families. He stressed the Church, through its maritime mission agency, the Apostleship of the Sea, would continue to support their faith and welfare needs.

Acknowledgement of adoption controversy.

On 3 November 2016 it was reported that Cardinal Nichols officially acknowledged that the Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales had pressurized young, unmarried mothers in the country to put their children up for adoption in agencies linked to the Catholic Church throughout the decades following World War II and offered an apology.

External links.

Vincent Gerard Nichols (born 8 November 1945) is an English cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, Archbishop of Westminster and President of the Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales. He previously served as Archbishop of Birmingham from 2000 to 2009. On 22 February 2014, Pope Francis admitted Archbishop Nichols to the Sacred College of Cardinals at a general consistory.

云先·尼科尔斯(英语:Vincent Nichols;1945年-11月8日)是英国籍天主教司铎级枢机及现任威斯敏斯特总教区总主教。


Discovery of the route.

In 1521, a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed west across the Pacific using the westward trade winds. The expedition discovered the Mariana Islands and the Philippines and claimed them for Spain. Although Magellan died there, one of his ships, the "Victoria", made it back to Spain by continuing westward. In order to settle and trade with these islands from the Americas, an eastward maritime return path was necessary. The first ship to try this a few years later failed. In 1529, Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón also tried sailing east from the Philippines, but could not find the eastward winds across the Pacific. In 1543, Bernardo de la Torre also failed. In 1542, however, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo helped pave the way by sailing north from Mexico to explore the Pacific coast, reaching as far north as the Russian River, just north of the 38th parallel.  The Manila-Acapulco galleon trade finally began when Spanish navigators Alonso de Arellano and Andrés de Urdaneta discovered the eastward return route in 1565. Sailing as part of the expedition commanded by Miguel López de Legazpi to conquer the Philippines in 1565, Arellano and Urdaneta were given the task of finding a return route. Reasoning that the trade winds of the Pacific might move in a gyre as the Atlantic winds did, they had to sail north to the 38th parallel north, off the east coast of Japan, before catching the eastward-blowing winds ("westerlies") that would take them back across the Pacific.  Reaching the west coast of North America, Urdaneta's ship the "San Pedro" hit the coast near Cape Mendocino, California, then followed the coast south to San Blas and later to Acapulco, arriving on October 8, 1565. Most of his crew died on the long initial voyage, for which they had not sufficiently provisioned. Arellano, who had taken a more southerly route, had already arrived.  The English privateer Francis Drake also reached the California coast, in 1579. After capturing a Spanish ship heading for Manila, Drake turned north, hoping to meet another Spanish treasure ship coming south on its return from Manila to Acapulco. He failed in that regard, but staked an English claim somewhere on the northern California coast. Although the ship's log and other records were lost, the officially accepted location is now called Drakes Bay, on Point Reyes south of Cape Mendocino.  By the 18th century, it was understood that a less northerly track was sufficient when nearing the North American coast, and galleon navigators steered well clear of the rocky and often fogbound northern and central California coast. According to historian William Lytle Schurz, "They generally made their landfall well down the coast, somewhere between Point Conception and Cape San Lucas... After all, these were preeminently merchant ships, and the business of exploration lay outside their field, though chance discoveries were welcomed".  The first motivation for land exploration of present-day California was to scout out possible way-stations for the seaworn Manila galleons on the last leg of their journey. Early proposals came to little, but in 1769, the Portola expedition established ports at San Diego and Monterey (which became the administrative center of Alta California), providing safe harbors for returning Manila galleons.  In Manila, the safety of ocean crossings was commended to the virgin Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga in masses held by the Archbishop of Manila. If the expedition was successful the voyagers would go to the La Ermita (church) to pay homage, and offer gold and other precious gems or jewelries from Hispanic countries, to the image of the virgin. So it came to be that the Virgin was named the "Queen of the Galleons".

The Manila Galleon and California.

Monterey, California was about two months and three weeks out from Manila in the 18th century, and the galleon tended to stop there 40 days before arriving in Manila. Galleons stopped in Monterey prior to California's settlement by the Spanish in 1769; however visits become regular between 1777 and 1794 because the Crown ordered the galleon to stop in Monterey.

Spice trade.

Trade with Ming China via Manila served a major source of revenue for the Spanish Empire and as a fundamental source of income for Spanish colonists in the Philippine Islands. Until 1593, two or more ships would set sail annually from each port. The Manila trade became so lucrative that Seville merchants petitioned king Philip II of Spain to protect the monopoly of the Casa de Contratación based in Seville. This led to the passing of a decree in 1593 that set a limit of two ships sailing each year from either port, with one kept in reserve in Acapulco and one in Manila. An "armada" or armed escort of galleons, was also approved. Due to official attempts at controlling the galleon trade, contraband and understating of ships' cargo became widespread.  Between 1609 and 1616, 9 galleons and 6 galleys were constructed in Philippine shipyards. The average cost was 78,000 pesos per galleon and at least 2,000 trees. The galleons constructed included the "San Juan Bautista", "San Marcos", "Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe", "Angel de la Guardia", "San Felipe", "Santiago", "Salbador", "Espiritu Santo", and "San Miguel". "From 1729 to 1739, the main purpose of the Cavite shipyard was the construction and outfitting of the galleons for the Manila to Acapulco trade run." Due to the route's high profitability but long voyage time, it was essential to build the largest possible galleons, which were the largest class of European ships known to have been built until then. In the 16th century, they averaged from 1,700 to 2,000 tons, were built of Philippine hardwoods and could carry 300 - 500 passengers. The "Concepción", wrecked in 1638, was long and displacing some 2,000 tons. The "Santísima Trinidad" was 51.5 m long. Most of the ships were built in the Philippines and only eight in Mexico. The Manila-Acapulco galleon trade ended in 1815, a few years before Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821. After this, the Spanish Crown took direct control of the Philippines, and governed directly from Madrid. Sea transport became easier in the mid-19th century upon the invention of steam power ships and the opening of the Suez Canal, which reduced the travel time from Spain to the Philippines to 40 days.  The galleon trade was supplied by merchants largely from port areas of Fujian who traveled to Manila to sell the Spaniards spices, porcelain, ivory, lacquerware, processed silk cloth and other valuable commodities. Cargoes varied from one voyage to another but often included goods from all over Asia - jade, wax, gunpowder and silk from China; amber, cotton and rugs from India; spices from Indonesia and Malaysia; and a variety of goods from Japan, including fans, chests, screens and porcelain.  Galleons transported the goods to be sold in the Americas, namely in New Spain and Peru as well as in European markets. East Asia trading primarily functioned on a silver standard due to Ming China's use of silver ingots as a medium of exchange. As such, goods were mostly bought by silver mined from Mexico and Potosí. In addition, slaves from various origins were transported from Manila. The cargoes arrived in Acapulco and were transported by land across Mexico to the port of Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico, where they were loaded onto the Spanish treasure fleet bound for Spain.  Around 80% of the goods shipped back from Acapulco to Manila were from the Americas - silver, cochineal, seeds, sweet potato, tobacco, chickpea, chocolate and cocoa, watermelon, vine and fig trees. The remaining 20% were goods transhipped from Europe and North Africa such as wine and olive oil, and metal goods such as weapons, knobs and spurs.  This Pacific route was the alternative to the trip west across the Indian Ocean, and around the Cape of Good Hope, which was reserved to Portugal according to the Treaty of Tordesillas. It also avoided stopping over at ports controlled by competing powers, such as Portugal and the Netherlands. From the early days of exploration, the Spanish knew that the American continent was much narrower across the Panamanian isthmus than across Mexico. They tried to establish a regular land crossing there, but the thick jungle and malaria made it impractical.  It took at least four months to sail across the Pacific Ocean from Manila to Acapulco, and the galleons were the main link between the Philippines and the viceregal capital at Mexico City and thence to Spain itself. Many of the so-called "Kastilas" or Spaniards in the Philippines were actually of Mexican descent, and the Hispanic culture of the Philippines is somewhat close to Mexican culture. Soldiers and settlers recruited from Mexico and Peru were also gathered in Acapulco before they were sent to settle at the presidios of the Philippines. Even after the galleon era, and at the time when Mexico finally gained its independence, the two nations still continued to trade, except for a brief lull during the Spanish–American War.  The wrecks of the Manila galleons are legends second only to the wrecks of treasure ships in the Caribbean. In 1568, Miguel López de Legazpi's own ship, the "San Pablo" (300 tons), was the first Manila galleon to be wrecked en route to Mexico. Between the years 1576 when the "Espiritu Santo" was lost and 1798 when the "San Cristobal (2)" was lost there were twenty Manila galleons wrecked within the Philippine archipelago.  At least one galleon, probably the "Santo Cristo de Burgos", is believed to have wrecked on the coast of Oregon in 1693. Known as the Beeswax wreck, the event is described in the oral histories of the Tillamook and Clatsop, which suggest that some of the crew survived.  Between 1565 and 1815 Spain owned 108 galleons, of which 26 were lost at sea for various reasons. Significant galleon captures by the British occurred in 1587 when the "Santa Anna" was captured by Thomas Cavendish, in 1709 with the "Encarnacion", in 1743 when the "Nuestra Senora de la Covadonga" was taken by George Anson on his voyage around the world, and in 1762 with the "Nuestra Senora de la Santisima Trinidad". Until 1593, four galleons travelled at the same time, later only two.

Crews.

Sailors averaged age 28 or 29 while the oldest were between 40 and 50. Ships pages were children who entered service mostly at age 8, many orphans or poor taken from the streets of Seville, Mexico and Manila. Apprentices were older than the pages and if successful would be certified a sailor at age 20. Because mortality rates were high with ships arriving in Manila with a majority of their crew often dead from starvation, disease and scurvy, especially in the early years, Spanish officials in Manila found it difficult to find men to crew their ships to return to Acapulco. Many "indios" of Filipino and Southeast Asian origin made up the majority of the crew. Other crew were made up of deportees and criminals from Spain and the colonies. Many criminals were sentenced to serve as crew on royal ships. Less than a third of the crew was Spanish and they usually held key positions onboard the galleon.

Possible discovery of Hawaii.

For 250 years, hundreds of Manila galleons traveled from present-day Mexico to the Philippines, with their route taking them south of the Hawaiian Islands. And yet, no historical records of any contact between the two cultures exist. British historian Henry Kamen maintains that the Spanish did not have the ability to properly explore the Pacific Ocean, and were not capable of finding the islands which lay at a latitude 20° north of the westbound galleon route and its currents. However, Spanish activity in the Pacific was paramount until the late 18th century. Spanish expeditions discovered Guam, the Marianas, the Carolines and the Philippines in the North Pacific, as well as Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Solomon Islands and New Guinea in the South Pacific. Spanish navigators also discovered the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos during their search for Terra Australis in the 17th century.  This navigational activity poses questions as to whether Spanish explorers did arrive in the Hawaiian Islands two centuries before Captain James Cook's first visit in 1778. Ruy López de Villalobos commanded a fleet of six ships that left Acapulco in 1542 with a Spanish sailor named Ivan Gaetan or Juan Gaetano aboard as pilot. Depending on the interpretation, Gaetano's reports seem to describe either the discovery of Hawaii or the Marshall Islands in 1555. If it was Hawaii, Gaetano would have been one of the first Europeans to find the islands.  The westward route from Mexico passed south of Hawaii, making a short stopover in Guam before heading for Manila. The exact route was kept secret to protect the Spanish trade monopoly against competing powers, and to avoid Dutch and English pirates. Due to this policy of discretion, if the Spanish did find Hawaii during their voyages, they would not have published their findings and the discovery would have remained unknown. From Gaetano's account, the Hawaiian islands were not known to have any valuable resources, so the Spanish would not have made an effort to settle them. This happened in the case of the Marianas and the Carolines, which were not effectively settled until the second half of the 17th century. Spanish archives contain a chart that depicts islands in the latitude of Hawaii but with the longitude ten degrees east of the Islands (reliable methods of determining longitude were not developed until the mid-eighteenth century). In this manuscript, the Island of Maui is named "La Desgraciada" (the unhappy, or unfortunate), and what appears to be the Island of Hawaii is named "La Mesa" (the table). Islands resembling Kahoolawe, Lanai, and Molokai are named "Los Monjes" (the monks).  The theory that the first European visitors to Hawaii were Spanish is reinforced by the findings of William Ellis, a writer and missionary who lived in early 19th century Hawaii, and recorded several folk stories about foreigners who had visited Hawaii prior to first contact with Cook. According to Hawaiian writer Herb Kawainui Kane, one of these stories: concerned seven foreigners who landed eight generations earlier at Kealakekua Bay in a painted boat with an awning or canopy over the stern. They were dressed in clothing of white and yellow, and one wore a sword at his side and a feather in his hat. On landing, they kneeled down in prayer. The Hawaiians, most helpful to those who were most helpless, received them kindly. The strangers ultimately married into the families of chiefs, but their names could not be included in genealogies".  Some scholars, particularly American, have dismissed these claims as lacking credibility. Debate continues as to whether the Hawaiian Islands were actually visited by the Spanish in the 16th century with researchers like Richard W. Rogers looking for evidence of Spanish shipwrecks.

Pending UNESCO nominations.

In 2014, the idea to nominate the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade Route as a World Heritage Site was initiated by the Mexican and Filipino ambassadors to UNESCO. Spain has also backed the nomination and suggested that the archives related to the route under the possession of the Philippines, Mexico, and Spain be nominated as part of another UNESCO list, the Memory of the World Register.  In 2017, the Philippines established the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Museum in Metro Manila, one of the necessary steps in nominating the trade route to UNESCO.

The Manila Galleons (; ) were Spanish trading ships which for two and a half centuries linked the Philippines with Mexico across the Pacific Ocean, making one or two round-trip voyages per year between the ports of Acapulco and Manila, which were both part of New Spain. The name of the galleon changed to reflect the city that the ship sailed from. The term "Manila Galleons" is also used to refer to the trade route itself between Acapulco and Manila, which lasted from 1565 to 1815.The Manila Galleons were also known in New Spain as "La Nao de la China" (The China Ship) on their return voyage from the Philippines because they carried mostly Chinese goods, shipped from Manila.

马尼拉大帆船(),因通常运载大量中国商品又有「中国船」()之称。自1565年至1815年期间,航行于菲律宾马尼拉与新西班牙总督区阿卡普尔科(今墨西哥阿卡普尔科Acapulco)之间的船队。该船队每年定期航行一次或两次,横跨太平洋,将大量的中国商品,经菲律宾中转,运往美洲及西欧。同时也将大量的美洲白银经菲律宾中转输入到中国。船队一直到墨西哥独立战争后才停运,历时达两百五十年。该船队曾被认为是西班牙珍宝船队中的一支。


History.

Early years.

On 11 September 1953, the Council of Ministers of Spain ordered the urgent construction of an airport to serve the city of A Coruña. This was the first airport to serve the area, as the hilly topography and meteorological conditions in the region made construction difficult. At the time, the only air service to the province of Galicia was through the Lavacolla Airport in Santiago de Compostela, which opened in 1935.  The first airport was built on the Alvedro meseta in the municipality of Culleredo. The original air field was very sparse; subsequent projects included the construction of parking facilities and a terminal.  In 1961, radio, and electric monitoring facilities were constructed. In 1962, a terminal building was constructed, and landing lights and other signals were installed on the runway. At the same time, the legislature of A Coruña ordered the construction of a road to connect the airport with the cities of A Coruña and Santiago de Compostela. In 1963, a services building was added to the airport.  The construction was completed in May 1963, when the airport was opened to national commercial traffic. The inauguration of the airport took place on 25 May 1963, when the first commercial airliner arrived from Madrid. This first flight was operated by the Spanish Aviaco airline.  During 1964, Aviaco operated a Vigo-A Coruña-Santander-San Sebastián-Barcelona line served by Convair 440s. The routing proved to be spectacularly unpopular and unprofitable, and was discontinued after a year of service. A brief attempt in 1971 to run an identical routing was equally unsuccessful. By the end of the 1960s, the airport had begun receiving charter flights from Switzerland and London, England.  A customs office was opened in 1979, and an air traffic control room was added in 1990. A number of improvements were made during the 1980s, including an increase of runway gradation of 1 degree 12 minutes and the installation of an Instrument Landing System (ILS).

Development since the 1990s.

By 1994, yearly passenger numbers had surpassed 259,000. Further expansion of the airport and its facilities, including a new terminal building, as well as the urbanization of the surrounding area has prompted continuous growth and the increasing popularity of the airport. In 2001, the airport installed jet bridges and a cargo terminal. Currently the airport has a single runway (03/21), long, and is capable of supporting up to 12 take-offs and landings per hour.  Current and future projects include the expansion of parking facilities, an upgrade of the ILS system from Category II to Category III, a short runway expansion, and expanded aircraft parking facilities.

A Coruña Airport, formerly known as Alvedro Airport, is the airport serving the Galician city of A Coruña in northwestern Spain. The airport is located in the municipality of Culleredo, approximately from the city center. It is a part of the network of airports managed by Aena, a Spanish state-owned company responsible for airport management. Air traffic control is provided by Ferronats. In 2019, 1,352,583 passengers used the airport.

拉科鲁尼亚机场(,前称:Aeropuerto de Alvedro;)是位于西班牙西北部加利西亚自治区拉科鲁尼亚省库列雷多市的一个小型国际机场,距离市中心约7公里。