In Sumerian culture.

In the city of Eridu, Enki's temple was known as E-abzu (house of the deep waters) and was located at the edge of a swamp, an abzu. Certain tanks of holy water in Babylonian and Assyrian temple courtyards were also called abzu ("apsû"). Typical in religious washing, these tanks were similar to Judaism's mikvot, the washing pools of Islamic mosques, or the baptismal font in Christian churches.

In Sumerian cosmology.

The Sumerian god Enki (Ea in the Akkadian language) was believed to have lived in the abzu since before human beings were created. His wife Damgalnuna, his mother Nammu, his advisor Isimud and a variety of subservient creatures, such as the gatekeeper Lahmu, also lived in the abzu.

As a deity.

Abzu ("apsû") is depicted as a deity only in the Babylonian creation epic, the "Enûma Elish", taken from the library of Assurbanipal (c. 630 BCE) but which is about 500 years older. In this story, he was a primal being made of fresh water and a lover to another primal deity, Tiamat, a creature of salt water. The "Enuma Elish" begins: "When above the heavens ("e-nu-ma e-liš") did not yet exist nor the earth below, Apsu the freshwater ocean was there, the first, the begetter, and Tiamat, the saltwater sea, she who bore them all; they were still mixing their waters, and no pasture land had yet been formed, nor even a reed marsh." This resulted in the birth of the younger gods, who later murdered Apsu in order to usurp his lordship of the universe. Enraged, Tiamat gives birth to the first dragons, filling their bodies with "venom instead of blood", and made war upon her treacherous children, only to be slain by Marduk, the god of Storms, who then forms the heavens and earth from her corpse.

The Abzu or Apsu (Cuneiform:, ZU.AB; Sumerian: abzu; Akkadian: "apsû", ), also called engur (Cuneiform:, LAGAB×HAL; Sumerian: engur; Akkadian: "engurru"—lit., "ab"='water' "zu"='deep'), is the name for fresh water from underground aquifers which was given a religious fertilising quality in Sumerian and Akkadian mythology. Lakes, springs, rivers, wells, and other sources of fresh water were thought to draw their water from the abzu. In this respect, in Sumerian and Akkadian mythology it referred to the primeval sea below the void space of the underworld (Kur) and the earth (Ma) above.

阿勃祖(苏美尔语:“Abzu”,阿卡德语为阿普苏“Apsu”),也称为恩古拉(苏美尔语:“engur”;阿卡德语:恩古鲁“engurru”),从字面上看,Ab='水'(或'精液'),zu='知道'或'深',其名字是来自地下淡水的意思。人们认为阿勃祖位于地下深处。在那里藏着强大的神力“麦”(Me),众神也无法看到那里。恩基命令宁玛赫(Ninmah)用阿勃祖的泥土捏成人。湖泊、泉水、河流、水井及其他淡水均源自阿勃祖。


Background.

On July 16, 1861, the untried Union Army of Northeastern Virginia under Brigadier General (Brig. Gen.) Irvin McDowell, 35,000 strong, marched out of the Washington, D.C., defenses to give battle to the Confederate Army of the Potomac, which was concentrated around the vital railroad junction at Manassas. Moving slowly, the army reached Fairfax Court House on July 17; the next day, McDowell ordered division commander Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler to look for a fording point across Bull Run Creek and to "keep up the impression that we are moving on Manassas".  The Confederates, about 22,000 men under the command of Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard, were concentrated near Bull Run Creek, with detachments spread north of the creek to observe the Union troops. When McDowell started his advance from Washington, the Confederate detachments slowly retreated and rejoined the main body. Beauregard expected to be attacked either on the 18th or the 19th near Mitchell's Ford; meanwhile, he continued to ask for reinforcements, especially from Joseph E. Johnston's army in the Shenandoah Valley.

Battle.

On July 18, Tyler advanced to Centreville and was informed by local residents that the Confederates had retreated from the town. Milledge Bonham's troops in particular were reported to have retreated in the direction of Blackburn's Ford. Tyler then marched southeast to Mitchell's Ford and Blackburn's Ford, arriving at the latter about 11 a.m. Looking south across the stream, Tyler believed that the road to Manassas Junction was mostly clear, but he failed to see the Confederate brigade of Brig. Gen. James Longstreet concealed in the woods behind the ford. He ordered two howitzers under Captain (Capt.) Romeyn B. Ayres to bombard the Confederates he could seeguns of the Alexandria Artillery and the Washington Artillerybut the fire had no visible effect. As a result, Tyler ordered Colonel (Col.) Israel B. Richardson and part of his brigade forward.  Richardson sent out a portion of the 1st Massachusetts Infantry towards the Confederate line. The Massachusetts regiment wore gray uniforms instead of the standard Union blue, which caused initial confusion, as the Confederates were also clad in gray. After the 1st Massachusetts, Richardson deployed the 1st Michigan Infantry, 2nd Michigan Infantry, 3rd Michigan Infantry, and 12th New York Infantry regiments. The Union advance met initial resistance from the 1st Virginia Infantry, 11th Virginia Infantry, and 17th Virginia Infantry regiments of Longstreet's brigade. Tyler ordered Ayres to move his guns closer to the action, accompanied by cavalry, and he sent the rest of Richardson's brigade toward the ford. The 12th New York Infantry began to retreat under heavy fire, exposing the rest of Richardson's line, particularly the 1st Massachusetts, to Confederate fire. Ayres, his battery having used up much of its ammunition, withdrew his two howitzers from the field. During the exchange, Union cannons fired an estimated 415 shots, and the Confederate cannons fired an estimated 310. Tyler realized that the Confederates had a strong force at the ford, and ordered the rest of his infantry to withdraw. After Richardson's brigade had completed its withdrawal, a second of Tyler's brigades commanded by William T. Sherman arrived on the field, although Sherman's brigade was only subjected to light shelling.  Col. Jubal A. Early arrived with his Confederate brigade after marching two miles north from Beauregard's headquarters at Wilmer McLean's house. The availability of this additional firepower completed the Confederate victory, and a reinforced Washington Artillery kept the Union troops under fire as they retreated. Col. Patrick T. Moore of the 1st Virginia Infantry, later a Confederate brigadier general, received a severe head wound in the skirmish and was incapacitated for further field service.  Tyler's Union division suffered 83 casualties in the action, while the Confederates lost 68 men.

Aftermath.

The failed reconnaissance-in-force at Blackburn's Ford led McDowell to decide against a frontal assault along Bull Run Creek. He decided to attempt to cross the stream beyond the Confederate left flank, the maneuver he employed at the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21. The resulting battle ended in a defeat for McDowell's Union army, although the Confederates were in too much of disarray to provide a strong pursuit. Both Longstreet and Early later claimed that Blackburn's Ford "went a long way towards winning the victory of the 21st, for it gave our troops confidence in themselves". Two Union soldiers, both from the 12th New York, would later be awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions at Blackburn's Ford.  In June 1994, bodies from the 1st Massachusetts Infantry were found and later re-interred.  Today, the site of the skirmish is marked with an interpretive marker set by the Virginia Civil War Trails organization. The marker is located at the site of the old ford.

The Battle of Blackburn's Ford (also known as the Skirmish at Blackburn's Ford) took place on July 18, 1861, in the Confederate state of Virginia, as part of the Manassas campaign of the American Civil War. Union general Irvin McDowell's Army of Northeastern Virginia was marching south towards the Confederate capitol of Richmond, and encountered the Confederate Army of the Potomac under the command of P. G. T. Beauregard. McDowell sent troops from Daniel Tyler's division to probe the Confederate defenses along Bull Run Creek to locate the Confederate left flank. At Blackburn's Ford, the Union troops attempted to cross but Confederate fire broke up the attack. The repulse at Blackburn's Ford led McDowell to seek to attack the Confederates at a different point along their line, leading to the First Battle of Bull Run days later.

布力般浅滩之役于1861年7月18日发生在西维吉尼亚的布力般浅滩,是第一次马纳沙斯之役中的第二场小战役。北军军官为欧文·麦克道尔,南军则有P·G·T·博雷加德。


朱斯坦·阿奥马德贝-托莫坦

Early life and entry into politics.

Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin was born on January 16, 1917, a direct descendant of the kings of Abomey, the town of his birth. He attended the École William Ponty and the French West Africa School of Medicine in Dakar. He served in the French Army for a short while, where he attained the rank of sergeant. After his short military career, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin decided to pursue dentistry, opening an office in Porto-Novo.  Originally a member of the Dahomeyan Progressive Union (UPD), in 1946 he established the African People's Bloc (BPA), and was elected to the General Council shortly afterwards. He was re-elected in 1952. In 1955 the BPA merged with the UPD to established the Dahomeyan Democratic Union (UDD). He was a vocal critic of the French rule, and gained influence upon allying himself with trade unions. Using this, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin was elected Mayor of Abomey in November 1956 elections.  The results of the territorial elections of 1959 were as such: the Republican Party of Dahomey (PRD), led by Sourou-Migan Apithy received 37 seats with 144,038 votes; the Dahomeyan Democratic Rally (RDD), led by Hubert Maga received 22 seats with 62,132 votes; and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin's UDD receiving just 11 deputies for its 162,179 votes. What followed was described by journalist Robert Matthews as "an immediate explosion". Supporters of Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin started riots that were so severe that French soldiers were called in to quell them. Apithy and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin agreed to split the contested 18 seats in a southwest constituency among themselves as a result of a mediation performed by Félix Houphouët-Boigny. However, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin made it clear that he would not allow Apithy to remain the Prime Minister of Dahomey, but Apithy was not going to listen to his demands. Maga was chosen as a compromise for the premiership and was voted into this post on May 22, 1959.

Independence and dissent.

On August 1, 1960 Dahomey gained its independence and Maga became its first president. Shortly after independence, the three parties united into the "Patriotic Action Front" and redistricted Dahomey into one electoral constituency. Under this system, they would provide a list of candidates of whom whoever received a majority would win all legislative seats. It did not last long; soon, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin broke from the union and, using the discontent among people over the increasing rarity of jobs in the country, incited demonstrations. In September 1960 he claimed that a single-party state was the only solution to the stagnation of the economy; since he had just broken from one, he was looking for another party to be led by him.  Meanwhile, Maga made Houphouët-Boigny recognise the RDD as the Dahomeyan wing of his African Democratic Rally. Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin had always believed that the UDD was the sole representative of the Rally.  At the end of September Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin convinced the trade unions that he owned to begin another strike for Maga's inability to promote national development and ensure the welfare of the working class. The strike, which existed in Dahomey's capital of Porto-Novo and its largest city of Cotonou, became so serious that police forces used tear gas and ended when Maga sent down some faithful Northerners, carrying around bows and arrows and patrolling the streets at night. At the same time members of the UDD organised a motion of censure in the National Assembly. Maga relied on Apithy for help in opposing the motion, and it was ultimately rejected.  Right after the motion was rejected, UDD deputies began quitting their jobs. They were in turn replaced by deputies of the PRD Shortly after this the PRD and RDD merged to form the Dahomeyan Unity Party (PDU) and Maga was naturally elected its leader. On December 11, Maga was formally elected president and Apithy vice president. In the parliamentary elections the PDU received 69% of the vote and UDD 31%, although it was not represented in the National Assembly.

Maga assassination plot.

On May 26 Information Minister Albert Tévoédjrè notified Maga that Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin had plotted to assassinate the president but he and 11 other dissidents had been arrested. The trial date was set for December. It differed from many political trials in Africa being that it was held in public and the defence was allowed a lawyer from Paris. In any event, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin received five years for his role in the conspiracy, and the others were dealt from one- to ten-year sentences. The UDD was also banned. Maga ultimately released them in November 1962, saying in a broadcast that it was not only due to their good behavior in jail but also to reconcile with his former enemies.

Presidential council.

Background and 1970 election.

On December 10, 1969, Émile Derlin Zinsou was overthrown by Maurice Kouandété, who had installed him as president in the first place. The military, however, refused to recognize Kouandété, and as the two men could not reach agreement, a Military Directorate was established with Paul-Émile de Souza as its chairman. An election was held on March 28, 1970 to determine the true president. On this occasion, the triumvirate was allowed to campaign, and they did not miss the chance. Intimidation and bribery were commonplace, and the electoral campaign saw the comeback of regional loyalties. It was also marked by a series of violent outbursts; invalidated reports state that six people were killed or wounded at incidents in Parakou on the eve of the elections. Fellow candidate Zinsou asserted that Maga supporters had killed one of his supporters during said incidents.  These charges did not affect Maga's standing in the polls; he received a majority of the vote in the north, and Apithy and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin received a majority in the southeast and southwest/central, respectively. The election results were as follows: 252,551 citizens voted for Maga; 200,091 for Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, and 186,332 for Apithy. In the entire south, Maga received 24,000 votes compared to the 180,000 who voted for him in the Borgou Department, obtaining 97.3 percent of the 78 percent turnout. Zinsou, running to counter the constant tribal clashes, received 3 percent, with 17,551 votes.  Nonetheless, de Souza decided to nullify the results from Atakora, the region where Maga received the most votes, on April 3. Outraged, Maga formed the Assembly of the Peoples of the North, which threatened to secede unless he was declared President. He refused to leave his campaign headquarters at Parakou even to attend political meetings. Maga's reaction to the nullification prompted many southern workers to flee the north. Apithy stated that he would convince his region to join Nigeria if Maga took the presidency and took steps to bribe his way into that office. Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin claimed Maga had defrauded the electoral system to his advantage. In contrast with the other three former presidents, Zinsou admitted that he had been defeated and decided participate in bargaining, explaining that he rejected the idea of a coalition "for personal reasons". The other former Presidents, on the other hand, agreed to a hasty compromise on April 13 to prevent a civil war.

Under Maga.

A presidential council, consisting of Maga, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, and Apithy, was set up on May 7 with a presidency that changed every two years. Maga inaugurated this system for the first two years. Each man agreed to not use the military to extend their term or use any other means toward that consequence. If decisions were not unanimous during the first round of voting, a two councilman majority would suffice on the second round. The council served as the executive and legislative branch of Dahomey.  The cabinet was composed of four Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin allies, three Maga allies, and three allies of Apithy. Gabriel Lozès, appointed minister of finance; Theophile Paoletti, new minister of information and tourism; Edmond Doussou-Yovo, minister of education; and Karl Ahouansou, minister of communication, were all friends of Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin. Maga's colleagues in the cabinet were Pascal Chabi Kao, minister of finance; Albert Ouassa, minister of health; and Chabi Mama, minister of rural development; while Apithy friends were Ambroise Agboton, minister of labor; Joseph Keke, minister of economy and planning; and Michel Toko, minister of justice and guardian of the seals. Dauda Badaru, who had served as foreign minister under Zinsou, was allowed to keep his job.  Maga's economic policies during his chairmanship helped quiet union leaders whose protests during his presidency had been intense. He helped create a tax plan that would finance their salaries by cutting expenditures and cracking down on tax evasion. In 1970 Dahomey witnessed a surplus of 429 million CFA francs, rising to a 570 million CFA franc surplus the following year. With the national economy in a favorable position, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin and the rest of the council could afford a number of luxuries, including three houses and three Mercedes-Benz 300 automobiles to be shared amongst themselves, and festivals for the anniversary of the founding of the triumvirate.  The Council lost popularity with the Kutuklui Affair. By decree of Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin and the rest of the council, Togolese opposition leader Noe Kutuklui was officially expelled from Dahomey on October 27, 1971, where he had been practicing law since the late 1960s. It was at the request of General Étienne Eyadéma, president of Togo, as Kutuklui had been involved in several plots against Eyadema's military government. The Council's decision to extradite him spurred demonstrations in Cotonou. Maga was unable to carry out his decision; Alphonse Alley protected Kutuklui and took him to an unknown place outside of Dahomey. Col. Alley received no punishment whatsoever for his role in the Affair.  Students were some of those involved in the protests, and they soon had another reason to conflict with their government. On November 5, 1971, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin and his administration shut down the Union Général des Etudiants et Eleves de Dahomey (UGEED), a radical youth group which sought to "transform Dahomey into a battlefield" using "workers, soldiers, and policemen". This stemmed from UGEED-sponsored demonstrations against the minister of education when he failed to attend an educational meeting. Students whose schools followed the strike were allowed back to school on November 19, and only if their parents signed documents that said they would not participate in more demonstrations. If they failed to comply, they would be expelled from the educational system of Dahomey. Government-instituted rallies were arranged to support the ban.  The military was also aroused. The formation of a presidential council only further enraged the army. Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin was ambushed while traveling to a rally in Abomey on May 7, 1971. Maga initially denied its existence, and to this day details are unclear. An artillery camp at Ouidah was the location of another military uprising on January 28, 1972. The president sent two officers to overpower the rebels although no punishment was undertaken. Both Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin and Maga believed that the latter incident was an attempted coup.  Kouandété attempted to usurp power again at dawn on February 23. When he first heard of the mutiny, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin believed that it was an attempt by Maga to remain in power. Leading the Ouidah garrison, Kouandété also attempted to take over government buildings and murder de Souza. Over the course of the operation, assailant Major Moumouni was mortally wounded by de Souza's bullets. The plot was foiled, although Maga canceled a visit to France to attend to the matter at hand. A 12-member military commission would soon discover another plot, that would have been undertaken simultaneous to Kouandété's. According to its findings, Captains Glele and Pierre Boni were going to follow Kouandété until de Souza was assassinated, when they would eradicate their leader and insert Zinsou back into power. The recent events epitomised the Council's "fear and contempt" for the military.

Under Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin.

Maga transferred power to Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin on May 7, 1972. This was the first time in 12 years that the head of Dahomey was succeeded in a nonmilitary fashion. The new chairman congratulated Maga and praised the triumvirate as "one of [Dahomey's] most beneficial institutions." It was believed that the triumvirate would continually undermine each other, and the simple transition of power was viewed as a positive step toward Dahomeyan unity.  The Presidential Council was slow in organizing a military trial for the 1972 coup plotters, and it did not begin until May 12. The court tried 21 men besides Kouandété, mostly military officers but also including several commoners and even Maga bodyguards. The punishments were announced on May 16. Kouandété received the death penalty, as did Captains Josué and Glélé, Quartermaster Sergeant Agboton, and a corporal and a sergeant "in absentia". Lesser sentences were handed to five men who were given life imprisonment, two who would serve 20 years in prison, another with 15 years, two with ten, and two with five. An additional four were acquitted. The sentences were never carried out; the jurors believed that Kouandété would seize power in another coup.  Another delayed function of the Council was the formation of the Assemblée Consultative Nationale, an advisory assembly required by the 1970 constitution. As per the constitution, such an assembly would contain 30 members advising councilmen on economic, social, and other issues, with Paul Darboux presiding. It was not established until July 1972, due to, in the words of academic Samuel Decalo, "intensive horse-trading between the partners in the Presidential Council... and pressures from their political lieutenants for a position in the Assembly."  One of the most notable aspects of Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin's time in power was the Kovacs Affair. It began with Pascal Chabi Kao being given a monopoly over selling official stationary to the Presidential Council and spread to claims of bribery and embezzlement. Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin tried to fire Chabi Kao, but Maga, who was Chabi Kao's mentor, refused. Maga convinced Apithy to help and the bill was vetoed. Another coup was launched by soldiers of the Ouidah garrison on October 26. This one, however, was successful, and Major Mathieu Kérékou was installed as president. It occurred during a cabinet meeting between Maga and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin. Kérékou had served as Maga's aide-de-camp in 1961. According to reports at the scene, soldiers abruptly arrived in the Cabinet room of the presidential palace and started firing bullets, but no one was injured. Kérékou called the triumvirate "truly a monster" as it showed "unpardonable incompetence", amongst other charges which were used to justify the coup. Kouandété was pardoned, although the former council was not. Maga, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, and Apithy spent more than nine years in prison before being freed by Kérékou in 1981.

Later life and death.

After being released from incarceration, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin was elected a Member of Parliament in 1991 under the National Rally for Democracy ticket and served at until 1995. He continued to lead the U.D.D. until his death on March 8, 2002, at the Hubert Maga National University and Hospital Center in Cotonou. No cause of death was given, although he was said to have suffered for a long time. The last of the triumvirate to die, he was awarded a state funeral and seven days of mourning, beginning on March 11. Flags were ordered to be flown at half-staff throughout the country during that period. President Kerekou visited Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin's house shortly after his death, praising him as "a man of character, conviction, a fighter and a wise man".  The passing of Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, which dominated newspapers in Dahomey, was received with more ambivalence than Kerekou's positive sentiments. "Le Progres" went so far as to say that Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin was "the monster of Abomey", and that he was "envied by his brothers due to his frankness and integrity... Many of those now commending his patriotism, high morals and political exploits somehow killed him at one time or other." "Le Matinal" wrote an article on the man, entitled "Message from beyond: Ahomadegbe challenges Kerekou", questioning why "the perpetrators of crimes [are] so indecent as to shed crocodile tears". More neutral was "Fraternite", noting that "Ahomadegbe, whose political might was extraordinary, was among the most feared politicians in Benin's contemporary history. He was dangerous to have either as friend or foe. To him, politics was a winding sentence with several commas but no full stop."  "Le Republicain" compared his fall to that of a baobab tree, reflecting the mostly sad emotions that followed his departing. According to them, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin "was among the three great thinkers who took turns to lead Dahomey (now Benin) from May 1970 to October 1972". A long prison sentence did not affect his inspiratory qualities. "Les Echos du Jour" stated that "the dental surgeon who became president fought to the end against life and its mishaps, then against death... He resisted with all his might not to escape death, but merely to show that nothing was over until it was over." In an obituary, "Jeune Afrique" described the man as "humor[ous], loved good cheer, knew how to enjoy the good side of life, but his blows of anger were Homeric".

Justin Ahomadegbé-Tomêtin (January 16, 1917 – March 8, 2002) was a Beninese politician most active when his country was known as Dahomey. He arose on a political scene where one's power was dictated by what region of Dahomey one lived in. He served as president of the National Assembly of Dahomey from April 1959 to November 1960 and as prime minister of Dahomey from 1964 to 1965.

朱斯坦·阿奥马德贝-托莫坦(;1917年-1月16日-2002年-3月8日)是贝宁在达荷美时期活跃的政治人物,他出生在阿波美地区。1959年4月至1960年11月期间,他经由国民议会选举当选成为达荷美总统。1964年至1965年期间他又担任了贝宁总理,最后他于科托努逝世。


Characteristics.

Generally, teams employ a point forward when their best playmaker is a forward rather than a guard. A point forward is typically responsible for bringing the ball up the court and being the primary facilitator on offense, but may merely direct play once a guard brings the ball up-court.  Assuming the role of point forward may cut down on that player's scoring, as distributing the ball to others decreases shot attempts. Basketball Hall of Fame small forward Larry Bird, a prolific scorer with exceptional passing skills, quipped "I'm a point forward now" after his coaches sought him to score less and pass more.  Don Nelson, a coach often associated with the point forward in his Nellie Ball system, used the role when his guards were not strong ball-handlers. Other coaches have used point forwards to free their guards to score more, a strategy of increasing importance as the three-point shot has become the sport's primary offensive weapon.  ESPN analyst Dave Telep maintained a point forward needed to be more than merely an adept passer but also had to facilitate the offense for teammates at least half of the time.

Origin of the term.

The origin of the term "point forward" is cloudy. Two former members of the NBA's Milwaukee Bucks claim to have coined it: Bucks small forward Marques Johnson maintains he created it during the 1984 playoffs when the team became short on point guards after Nate Archibald was sidelined with a hamstring injury. When coach Don Nelson instructed Johnson to run the offense he says he responded, "OK, so instead of a point guard, I'm a point forward". Then-Bucks assistant coach Del Harris claims he first mentioned the term to Nelson while discussing how to best use Paul Pressey. Harris says he came up with the term while coaching Robert Reid with the Houston Rockets. Harris credits his predecessor as Rockets coach Tom Nissalke's use of small forward Rick Barry as originating the point forward position.

History.

Historically, one of the first to fill the role was John Johnson, who played it for the 1970s Seattle SuperSonics alongside two scoring-minded guards, Gus Williams and Dennis Johnson. During the 1980s Milwaukee Bucks Marques Johnson and Paul Pressey played point forward under coach Don Nelson. Larry Bird, a 6'9" small forward who excelled at both scoring and rebounding in that position was also an exceptional passer and facilitator of others on offense. In the flow of games, he often played a point forward role for the great Boston Celtics teams of the 1980s; the 6'9" Earvin "Magic" Johnson, who orchestrated the Los Angeles Lakers' offense in the 1980s as the team's point guard, moved to a point forward role upon returning heavier after his HIV announcement.

Point forward is a nontraditional position in basketball, with a small forward—or sometimes a power forward or combo forward—adding the responsibilities of point guard to their play.

控球前锋是篮球赛中一个非正式的位置名称,指在场上发挥控球后卫和小前锋双重作用的队员。如:格兰特·希尔、拉玛尔·奥多姆、拉里·伯德、勒布朗·詹姆斯。斯科蒂·皮蓬为NBA史上最佳的控球前锋之一。他具有前锋身材(6呎7吋)及后卫的得分及控球技巧,更是一名优秀的外围防守者,公牛王朝中,他是「三角战术」的实际发动者。他也为1990年代以后的控球前锋定下了新的标准、新的诠释。发明此位置的是以跑轰战术为主的唐·尼尔森(Don Nelson)


Statement.

The Schur decomposition reads as follows: if "A" is a "n" × "n" square matrix with complex entries, then "A" can be expressed as  where "Q" is a unitary matrix (so that its inverse "Q" is also the conjugate transpose "Q"* of "Q"), and "U" is an upper triangular matrix, which is called a Schur form of "A". Since "U" is similar to "A", it has the same spectrum, and since it is triangular, its eigenvalues are the diagonal entries of "U".  The Schur decomposition implies that there exists a nested sequence of "A"-invariant subspaces {0} = "V" ⊂ "V" ⊂... ⊂ "V" = C, and that there exists an ordered orthonormal basis (for the standard Hermitian form of C) such that the first "i" basis vectors span "V" for each "i" occurring in the nested sequence. Phrased somewhat differently, the first part says that a linear operator "J" on a complex finite-dimensional vector space stabilizes a complete flag ("V"...,"V").

Proof.

A constructive proof for the Schur decomposition is as follows: every operator "A" on a complex finite-dimensional vector space has an eigenvalue "λ", corresponding to some eigenspace "V". Let "V" be its orthogonal complement. It is clear that, with respect to this orthogonal decomposition, "A" has matrix representation (one can pick here any orthonormal bases "Z" and "Z" spanning "V" and "V" respectively)  where "I" is the identity operator on "V". The above matrix would be upper-triangular except for the "A" block. But exactly the same procedure can be applied to the sub-matrix "A", viewed as an operator on "V", and its submatrices. Continue this way n times. Thus the space C will be exhausted and the procedure has yielded the desired result.  The above argument can be slightly restated as follows: let "λ" be an eigenvalue of "A", corresponding to some eigenspace "V". "A" induces an operator "T" on the quotient space C/"V". This operator is precisely the "A" submatrix from above. As before, "T" would have an eigenspace, say "W" ⊂ C modulo "V". Notice the preimage of "W" under the quotient map is an invariant subspace of "A" that contains "V". Continue this way until the resulting quotient space has dimension 0. Then the successive preimages of the eigenspaces found at each step form a flag that "A" stabilizes.

Notes.

Although every square matrix has a Schur decomposition, in general this decomposition is not unique. For example, the eigenspace "V" can have dimension > 1, in which case any orthonormal basis for "V" would lead to the desired result.  Write the triangular matrix "U" as "U" = "D" + "N", where "D" is diagonal and "N" is strictly upper triangular (and thus a nilpotent matrix). The diagonal matrix "D" contains the eigenvalues of "A" in arbitrary order (hence its Frobenius norm, squared, is the sum of the squared moduli of the eigenvalues of "A", while the Frobenius norm of "A", squared, is the sum of the squared singular values of "A"). The nilpotent part "N" is generally not unique either, but its Frobenius norm is uniquely determined by "A" (just because the Frobenius norm of A is equal to the Frobenius norm of "U" = "D" + "N").  It is clear that if "A" is a normal matrix, then "U" from its Schur decomposition must be a diagonal matrix and the column vectors of "Q" are the eigenvectors of "A". Therefore, the Schur decomposition extends the spectral decomposition. In particular, if "A" is positive definite, the Schur decomposition of "A", its spectral decomposition, and its singular value decomposition coincide.  A commuting family {"A"} of matrices can be simultaneously triangularized, i.e. there exists a unitary matrix "Q" such that, for every "A" in the given family, "Q A Q*" is upper triangular. This can be readily deduced from the above proof. Take element "A" from {"A"} and again consider an eigenspace "V". Then "V" is invariant under all matrices in {"A"}. Therefore, all matrices in {"A"} must share one common eigenvector in "V". Induction then proves the claim. As a corollary, we have that every commuting family of normal matrices can be simultaneously diagonalized.  In the infinite dimensional setting, not every bounded operator on a Banach space has an invariant subspace. However, the upper-triangularization of an arbitrary square matrix does generalize to compact operators. Every compact operator on a complex Banach space has a nest of closed invariant subspaces.

Computation.

The Schur decomposition of a given matrix is numerically computed by the QR algorithm or its variants. In other words, the roots of the characteristic polynomial corresponding to the matrix are not necessarily computed ahead in order to obtain its Schur decomposition. Conversely, the QR algorithm can be used to compute the roots of any given characteristic polynomial by finding the Schur decomposition of its companion matrix. Similarly, the QR algorithm is used to compute the eigenvalues of any given matrix, which are the diagonal entries of the upper triangular matrix of the Schur decomposition. See the Nonsymmetric Eigenproblems section in LAPACK Users' Guide.

Applications.

Lie theory applications include:

Generalized Schur decomposition.

Given square matrices "A" and "B", the generalized Schur decomposition factorizes both matrices as formula_3 and formula_4, where "Q" and "Z" are unitary, and "S" and "T" are upper triangular. The generalized Schur decomposition is also sometimes called the QZ decomposition.  The generalized eigenvalues formula_5 that solve the generalized eigenvalue problem formula_6 (where "x" is an unknown nonzero vector) can be calculated as the ratio of the diagonal elements of "S" to those of "T". That is, using subscripts to denote matrix elements, the "i"th generalized eigenvalue formula_7 satisfies formula_8.

In the mathematical discipline of linear algebra, the Schur decomposition or Schur triangulation, named after Issai Schur, is a matrix decomposition. It allows one to write an arbitrary complex matrix as unitarily equivalent to an upper triangular matrix whose diagonal elements are the eigenvalues of the original matrix.

在线性代数中,舒尔分解或舒尔上三角化是一种矩阵分解方法,得名于德国数学家伊沙海·舒尔。


Legal basis in the Dayton Peace Agreements.

The Dayton Agreement created the legal basis for the OHR. Its Annex 10 provides for the institution of the "Office of the High Representative (OHR) in Bosnia and Herzegovina" to oversee the civilian implementation of the agreement, representing the countries involved in the Dayton Accords through the Peace Implementation Council.

The "Bonn Powers" of the OHR.

At its December 1997 meeting in Bonn, the Peace Implementation Council agreed in granting further substantial powers to the OHR, in order to avoid the implementation of the Dayton Agreement being delayed or obstructed by local nationalist politicians. The OHR was requested to:  The "Bonn powers" were extensively used by the OHR in the following decade. Some examples include the adoption of the Defence reform in April 2003, with the suppression of the Supreme Defence Council of the Republika Srpska, and the amendment of Entity Constitutional Laws.  Until 2004, the OHR had dismissed a total of 139 officials, including judges, ministers, civil servants and members of parliaments, sometimes along with freezing their bank accounts. After the 2002 elections, the OHR scrutinised all political candidates for major ministerial positions at Entity and State level.  Criticisms of the action of the OHR through its "Bonn powers" include: The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, which Bosnia and Herzegovina had joined in 2002, has voiced complaints against the actions of the OHR, requiring it to transfer his powers to the Bosnian authorities as soon as possible.  The OHR's prolonged interference in the politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina is also considered to be one of the causes of the low commitment of citizens towards the state (shown by low voter turnout) and of low accountability of politicians (whose actions are finally subject to external review).

Fusion with the EUSR post.

Between 2002 and 2011 the High Representative also served as the European Union Special Representative to Bosnia and Herzegovina.  Under Christian Schwarz-Schilling, the OHR seemed to soften its invasiveness, thanks to pressures from the Council of Europe and a growing EU involvement. The number of OHR legislative initiatives and of dismissed officials lowered.  On 27 February 2008, the PIC decided to end the High Representative's mandate on 30 June 2008. The EU decision to shut down the OHR by June 2007 unexpectedly aroused disappointment and concern in the Bosnian population, NGOs, and politicians. However, since the PIC February 2008 review, it was decided to extend that mandate indefinitely until a set of positive benchmarks have been fulfilled.  The "double hatting" between EUSR and OHR was discontinued in 2011, when the EU representative post was fused between the EUSR and the head of the EU delegation.

Conditions for closure of the Office of the High Representative.

In February 2008 the Peace Implementation Council set the conditions for closure of the OHR. The most critical issues will be considered objectives to be achieved by the BiH authorities before transition from OHR to a European Union presence can take place. From a long list of known priorities the PIC selected the key ones for transition, for closure of OHR: In addition to these objectives there are also two conditions: Additional non-written condition to be enforced through the "assessment by the PIC Steering Board" final condition, was adopted later by the US and some EU countries:  Closure of the OHR is considered by the Steering Board of the Peace Implementation Council to be a pre-condition for EU membership and even for candidate status.

The High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina, together with the Office of the High Representative (OHR) in Bosnia and Herzegovina, were created in 1995 immediately after the signing of the Dayton Agreement which ended the 1992–95 Bosnian War. The purpose of the High Representative and the OHR is to oversee the civilian implementation of the Dayton agreement. They also serve to represent the countries involved in the implementation of the Dayton Agreement through the Peace Implementation Council (PIC).

国际社会驻波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那高级代表(,),为1995年签署代顿协议后而设置的职位,职位持有人会于国际社会驻波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那高级代表办公室办公。为监督协议的执行,国际社会向波黑派驻了拥有广泛权力的高级代表和以北约为首的驻波黑多国稳定部队。2006年6月因不能适应波黑战后重建乃至加入欧盟和北约的要求,也未能化解依然严重的民族矛盾,国际社会驻波黑高级代表一职结束使命,欧盟也撤销欧盟驻波黑高级代表这一职位,另外设立一个欧盟特别代表的职位,结束了波黑目前这种实际上处于国际托管的地位。


History.

Early modern era.

In 1538, Francesco Maria della Rovere commissioned Filippo Negroli to create a bulletproof vest. In 1561, Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor is recorded as testing his armor against gun-fire. Similarly, in 1590 Sir Henry Lee expected his Greenwich armor to be "pistol proof". Its actual effectiveness was controversial at the time. The etymology of "bullet" and the adjective form of "proof" in the late 16th century would suggest that

Industrial era.

One of the first examples of commercially sold bulletproof armour was produced by a tailor in Dublin, Ireland in the 1840s. "The Cork Examiner" reported on his line of business in December 1847: Another soft ballistic vest, Myeonje baegab, was invented in Joseon, Korea in the 1860s shortly after the French campaign against Korea. The Heungseon Daewongun ordered development of bullet-proof armor because of increasing threats from Western armies. Kim Gi-Doo and Gang Yoon found that cotton could protect against bullets if 10 layers of cotton fabric were used. The vests were used in battle during the United States expedition to Korea, when the US Navy attacked Ganghwa

First World War.

The combatants of World War I started the war without any attempt at providing the soldiers with body armor. Various private companies advertised body protection suits such as the Birmingham Chemico Body Shield, although these products were generally far too expensive for an average soldier.  The first official attempts at commissioning body armor were made in 1915 by the British Army Design Committee, in particular a 'Bomber's Shield' for the use of bomber pilots who were notoriously under-protected in the air from anti-aircraft bullets and shrapnel. The Experimental Ordnance Board also reviewed potential materials for bullet and fragment proof armor, such as steel plate. A 'necklet' was successfully issued on a small scale (due to cost considerations), which protected the neck and shoulders from bullets traveling at 600 feet per second with interwoven layers of silk and cotton stiffened with resin. The Dayfield body shield entered service in 1916 and a hardened breastplate was introduced the following year.  The British army medical services calculated towards the end of the War, that three quarters of

Second World War.

In 1940, the Medical Research Council in Britain proposed the use of a lightweight suit of armor for general use by infantry, and a heavier suit for troops in more dangerous positions, such as anti-aircraft and naval gun crews. By February 1941, trials had begun on body armor made of manganese steel plates. Two plates covered the front area and one plate on the lower back protected the kidneys and other vital organs. Five thousand sets were made and evaluated

Postwar.

During the Korean War several new vests were produced for the United States military, including the M-1951, which made use of fibre-reinforced plastic or aluminium segments woven into a nylon vest. These vests represented "a vast improvement on weight, but the armor failed to stop bullets and fragments very successfully," although officially they were claimed to be able to stop 7.62×25mm Tokarev pistol rounds at the muzzle. Developed by Natick Laboratories and introduced in 1967, T65-2 plate carriers were the first vests designed to hold hard ceramic plates, making them capable of stopping 7 mm rifle rounds.  These "Chicken Plates" were made of either boron carbide, silicon carbide, or aluminium oxide. They were issued to the crew of low-flying aircraft, such as the UH-1 and UC-123, during the Vietnam War.  In 1969, American Body Armor was founded and began to produce a patented combination of quilted nylon faced with multiple steel plates. This armor configuration was marketed to American law enforcement agencies by Smith & Wesson under the trade name "Barrier Vest." The Barrier Vest was the first police vest to gain wide use during high threat police operations.  In 1971, research chemist

Recent years.

During the 1980s, the US military issued the PASGT kevlar vest, tested privately at NIJ level IIA by several sources, able to stop pistol rounds (including 9 mm FMJ), but intended and approved only for fragmentation. West Germany issued a similar rated vest called the Splitterschutzweste.  Kevlar soft armor had its shortcomings because if "large fragments or high velocity bullets hit the vest, the energy could cause life-threatening, blunt trauma injuries" in selected, vital areas. Ranger Body Armor was developed for the American military in 1991. Although it was the second modern US body armor that was able to stop rifle caliber rounds and still be light enough to be worn by infantry soldiers in the field, (first being the ISAPO, or Interim Small Arms Protective Overvest,) it still had its flaws: "it was still heavier than the concurrently issued PASGT (Personal Armor System for Ground Troops) anti-fragmentation armor worn by regular infantry and... did not have the same degree of

Performance standards.

Due to the various types of projectile, it is often inaccurate to refer to a particular product as "bulletproof" because this implies that it will protect against any and all threats. Instead, the term bullet resistant is generally preferred.  Body armor standards are regional. Around the world ammunition varies and as a result the armor testing must reflect the threats found locally. Law enforcement statistics show that many shootings where officers are injured or killed involve

Rifle-resistant armor.

Because of the limitations of the technology a distinction is made between handgun protection and rifle protection. See NIJ levels 3 and 4 for typical requirements for rifle resistant armor. Broadly rifle resistant armor is of three basic types: ceramic plate-based systems, steel plate with spall fragmentation protective coating, and hard fiber-based laminate systems. Many rifle armor components contain both hard ceramic components and laminated textile materials used together. Various ceramic materials types are in use, however: aluminum oxide, boron carbide and silicon carbide are the most common. The fibers used in these systems are the same as found in soft textile armor. However, for rifle protection high pressure lamination of ultra high molecular weight polyethylene with a Kraton matrix is the most common.  The Small Arms Protective Insert (SAPI) and the enhanced SAPI plate for the US DOD generally has this form. Because of the use of ceramic plates for rifle protection, these vests are 5–8 times as heavy on an area basis as handgun protection. The weight and stiffness of rifle armor is a major technical challenge. The density, hardness and impact toughness are among the materials properties that are balanced to design these systems. While ceramic materials have some outstanding properties for ballistics they have poor fracture toughness. Failure of ceramic plates by cracking must also be controlled. For this reason many ceramic rifle plates are a composite. The strike face is ceramic with the backface formed of laminated fiber and resin materials. The hardness of the ceramic prevents the penetration of the bullet while the tensile strength of the fiber backing helps prevent tensile failure. The U.S. military's Small Arms Protective Insert family is a well-known example of these plates.  When a ceramic plate is shot, it causes cracks to form in the vicinity of the site of the impact, which reduce the protection in this area; although NIJ 0101.06 requires a Level III plate to stop six rounds of 7.62x51mm M80 ball ammunition, it imposes a minimum distance between shots of 2.0 inches (51mm); if two rounds impact the plate closer than this requirement permits, it may result in a penetration. To counter this, some plates, such as the Ceradyne Model AA4 and IMP/ACT (Improved Multi-hit Performance/Advanced Composite Technology) series, use a stainless steel crack arrestor embedded between the strike face and backer. This layer contains cracks in the strike face to the immediate area around an impact, resulting in markedly improved multi-hit ability; in conjunction with NIJ IIIA soft armor, a 3.9lb IMP/ACT plate can stop eight rounds of 5.56x45mm M995, and a 4.2lb plate such as the MH3 CQB can stop either ten rounds of 5.56x45mm M995 or six rounds of 7.62x39mm BZ API. The Model AA4, which does not require a soft armor backer, weighs and is able to stop either twelve rounds of 7.62x39mm BZ API or one or more hits of 7.62x51mm RUAG Swiss P AP ammunition; its successor, the Model AA4+, maintained this level of protection while weighing a mere.. 7.62x51mm Swiss P AP is an armor-piercing round superior to M993; it is capable of penetrating most NIJ level IV plates out to 350 meters.

Explosive protection.

Bomb disposal officers often wear heavy armor designed to protect against most effects of a moderate sized explosion, such as bombs encountered in terror threats. Full head helmet, covering the face and some degree of protection for limbs is mandatory in addition to very strong armor for the torso. An insert to protect the spine is usually applied to the back, in case an explosion blasts the wearer. Visibility and mobility of

Stab and stab-ballistic armor.

Early "ice pick" test.

In the mid-1980s the state of California Department of Corrections issued a requirement for a body armor using a commercial ice pick as the test penetrator. The test method attempted to simulate the capacity of a human attacker to deliver impact energy with their upper body. As was later shown by the work of the former British PSDB, this test over stated the capacity of human attackers. The test used a drop mass or sabot that carried the ice pick. Using gravitational force, the height of the drop mass above the vest was proportional to the impact energy. This test specified 109 joules (81 ft·lb) of energy and a 7.3 kg (16 lb) drop mass with a drop height of 153 cm (60 in).  The ice pick has a 4 mm (0.16 in) diameter with a sharp tip with a 5.4 m/s (17 ft/s) terminal velocity in the test. The California standard did not include knife or cutting-edge weapons in the test protocol.

HOSDB-Stab and Slash standards.

Parallel to the US development of "ice pick" vests, the British police, PSDB, was working on standards for knife-resistant body armor. Their program adopted a rigorous scientific approach and collected data on human attack capacity. Their ergonomic study suggested three levels of threat: 25, 35 and 45 joules of impact energy. In addition to impact energy attack, velocities were measured and were found to be 10–20 m/s (much faster than the California test). Two commercial knives were selected for use in this PSDB test method. In order to test at a representative velocity, an air cannon method was developed to propel the knife and sabot at the vest target using compressed air. In this first version, the PSDB ’93 test also used oil/clay materials as the tissue simulant backing.

Combination stab and ballistic vests.

Vests that combined stab and ballistic protection were a significant innovation in the 1990s period of vest development. The starting point for this development were the ballistic-only offerings of that time using NIJ Level 2A, 2, and 3A or HOSDB HG 1 and 2, with compliant ballistic vest products being manufactured with areal densities of between 5.5 and 6 kg/m (1.1 and 1.2 lb/ft or 18 and 20 oz/ft). However police forces were evaluating their "street threats" and

Standards update US and UK.

As vest manufactures and the specifying authorities worked with these standards, the UK and US Standards teams began a collaboration on test methods. A number of issues with the first versions of the tests needed to be addressed. The use of commercial knives with inconsistent sharpness and tip shape created problems with test consistency. As a result, two new "engineered blades" were designed that could be manufactured to have reproducible penetrating behavior. The

Stab and spike vests.

These new standards created a focus on Level 1 at, Level 2 at, Level 3 at protection as tested with the new engineered knives defined in these test documents. The lowest level of this requirement at 25 joules was addressed by a series of textile products of both wovens, coated wovens and laminated woven materials. All of these materials were based on Para-aramid fiber. The co-efficient of friction for ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) prevented its use in this application. The TurtleSkin DiamondCoat and Twaron SRM products addressed this requirement using a combination of Para-Aramid wovens

Vest sizing, carriers and encapsulation.

In order for ballistic protection to be wearable the ballistic panels and hard rifle-resistant plates are fitted inside a special carrier. The carrier is the visible part of a ballistic vest. The most basic carrier includes pockets which hold the ballistic panels and straps for mounting the carrier on the user. There are two major types of carriers: military or tactical carriers that are worn over the shirt, and covert law enforcement type carriers that are worn under the shirt.

Military carriers.

The military type of carrier, English police waistcoat carrier, or police tactical carrier most typically has a series of webbing, hook and loop, and snap type connectors on the front and back face. This permits the wearer to mount various gear to the carrier in many

Concealable carriers.

Law enforcement carriers in some countries are concealable. The carrier holds the ballistic panels close to the wearer's body and a uniform shirt is worn over the carrier. This type of carrier must be designed to conform closely to the

Vest slips.

A third textile layer is often found between the carrier and the ballistic components. The ballistic panels are covered in a coated pouch or slip. This slip provides the encapsulation of the ballistic materials. Slips are

Research.

Non-standard designs of hard armor.

The vast majority of hard body armor plates, including the U.S. military's Small Arms Protective Insert family, are monolithic; their strike faces consist of a single ceramic tile. Monolithic plates are lighter than their non-monolithic counterparts, but suffer from reduced effectiveness when shot multiple times in a close area (i.e., shots spaced less than two inches/2.54 cm apart). However, several non-monolithic armor systems have emerged, the most well-known being the controversial Dragon Skin system. Dragon Skin, composed of dozens of overlapping ceramic scales, promised superior multi-hit performance and flexibility compared to the then-current ESAPI plate; however, it failed to deliver. When the U.S. Army tested the system against the same requirements as the ESAPI, Dragon Skin showed major issues with environmental damage; the scales would come

Progress in material science.

In recent years, advances in material science have opened the door to the idea of a literal "bulletproof vest" able to stop handgun and rifle bullets with a soft textile vest, without the assistance of additional metal or ceramic plating. However, progress is moving at a slower rate compared to other technical disciplines. The most recent offering from Kevlar, Protera, was released in 1996. Current soft body armor can stop most handgun rounds (which has been the case for roughly 15 years ), but armor plates are needed to stop rifle rounds and steel-core handgun rounds such as 7.62×25mm. The para-aramids have not progressed beyond the limit of 23 grams per denier in fiber tenacity.  Modest ballistic performance improvements have been made by new producers of this fiber type. Much the same can be said for the UHMWPE material; the basic fiber properties have only advanced to the 30–35 g/d range. Improvements in

Textile wovens and laminates research.

Finer yarns and lighter woven fabrics have been a key factor in improving ballistic results. The cost of ballistic fibers increases dramatically as the yarn size decreases, so it's unclear how long this trend can continue. The current practical limit of fiber size is 200 denier with most wovens limited at the 400 denier level. Three-dimensional weaving with fibers connecting flat wovens together into a 3D system are being considered for both hard and

Fibers used.

Ballistic nylon (until the 1970) or Kevlar, Twaron or Spectra (a competitor for Kevlar) or polyethylene fiber could be used to manufacture bullet

Manufacturing process.

Making the panel cloth.

1. To make Kevlar cloth, the Kevlar yarns are woven in a tabby weave: the over & under pattern of threads that interlace alternatively. 2. Unlike Kevlar, the Spectra used in bulletproof vests is usually not woven. Instead, the strong polyethelene polymer filaments are spun

Finishing the vest.

The shells for the panels are sewn together in the same standard industrial sewing machines with standard sewing practices. The panels are then slipped inside the shells and the accessories, such as the straps, are sewn on. The finished bulletproof vest is boxed and shipped to the customer.

Working principle.

When a hand gun bullet strikes body armor, it is caught in a "web" of extremely strong fibers. These fibers absorb and disperse the impact energy that is transmitted to the bullet proof vest from the bullet causing the bullet to deform, otherwise known as a "mushroom". Additional energy is absorbed

Developments in ceramic armor.

Ceramic materials, materials processing and progress in ceramic penetration mechanics are significant areas of academic and industrial activity. This combined field of ceramics armor research is broad and is perhaps summarized best by The American Ceramics Society. ACerS has run an annual armor conference for a number of years and compiled a proceedings 2004–2007. An area of special activity pertaining to vests is the emerging use of small ceramic components. Large torso sized ceramic plates are complex to manufacture and are subject to

Nanomaterials in ballistics.

Currently, there are a number of methods by which nanomaterials are being implemented into body armor production. The first, developed at University of Delaware is based on nanoparticles within the suit that become rigid enough to protect the wearer as soon as a kinetic energy threshold is surpassed. These coatings have been described as shear thickening fluids. These nano-infused fabrics have been licensed by BAE systems, but as of mid-2008, no products have been released based on this technology.  In 2005 an Israeli company, ApNano, developed a material that was always rigid. It was announced that this nanocomposite based on tungsten disulfide nanotubes

Graphene composite.

In late 2014, researchers began studying and testing graphene as a material for use in body armor. Graphene is manufactured from carbon and is the thinnest, strongest, and most conductive material on the planet. Taking the form of hexagonally arranged atoms, its tensile strength is known to be 200 times greater than steel, but studies from Rice University have revealed it is also 10 times better than steel at dissipating energy, an ability that had previously not been thoroughly explored. To test its properties, the University of Massachusetts stacked together graphene sheets only a single carbon atom thick, creating layers

Legality.

Australia.

In Australia, it is illegal to import body armour without prior authorisation from Australian Customs and Border

Canada.

In all Canadian provinces except for Alberta, British Columbia and Manitoba, it is legal to wear and to purchase body armour such as ballistic vests. Under the laws of these provinces, it is illegal to possess body armour without a license

Hong Kong.

Under Schedule C (item ML13) of Cap. 60G Import and Export (Strategic Commodities) Regulations,

United States.

United States law restricts possession of body armor for convicted violent felons. Many U.S. states also have penalties for possession or use of body armor by felons. In

European Union.

In European Union import and sale of ballistic vests and body armor are allowed in Europe, except protections that are developed under strict military specifications and/or for main military usage, shield above the level of protection NIJ 4, thus considered by the law as "armament materials" and forbidden to civilians. There are many shops in Europe that sell ballistic vests and body armor, used or new.

Italy.

In Italy, the purchase, ownership and wear of ballistic vests and body armor is not subject to any restriction, except for those ballistic protections that are developed under strict military specifications and/or

The Netherlands.

In the Netherlands the civilian ownership of body armour is subject to the European Union regulations. Body armour in various ballistic grades is sold by a range of different vendors, mainly aimed at providing to security guards and VIP's. The use of body armour while committing a crime is not an additional offense in itself, but may be interpreted as so under different laws such as resisting arrest.

A ballistic vest or bullet-resistant vest, often called a bulletproof vest, is an item of personal armor that helps absorb the impact and reduce or stop penetration to the body from firearm-fired projectiles and shrapnel from explosions, and is worn on the torso. Soft vests are made of many layers of woven or laminated fibres and can protect the wearer from small-calibre handgun and shotgun projectiles, and small fragments from explosives such as hand grenades.

护-{}-甲,又称防-{}-弹护甲,华人圈内通称防-{}-弹衣或防弹背心,而在香港、澳门和则称之为-{避}-弹衣。


History.

Phenacetin was introduced in 1887 in Elberfeld, Germany by German company Bayer, and was used principally as an analgesic; it was one of the first synthetic fever reducers to go on the market. It is also known historically to be one of the first non-opioid analgesics without anti-inflammatory properties.  Prior to World War One, Britain imported phenacetin from Germany. During the war, a team including Jocelyn Field Thorpe and Martha Annie Whiteley developed a synthesis in Britain.

Known mechanism of action.

Phenacetin's analgesic effects are due to its actions on the sensory tracts of the spinal cord. In addition, phenacetin has a depressant action on the heart, where it acts as a negative inotrope. It is an antipyretic, acting on the brain to decrease the temperature set point. It is also used to treat rheumatoid arthritis (subacute type) and intercostal neuralgia.  It is metabolized in the body to paracetamol (acetaminophen), which is also a clinically relevant analgesic.

Preparation.

The first synthesis was reported in 1878 by Harmon Northrop Morse.  Phenacetin may be synthesized as an example of the Williamson ether synthesis: ethyl iodide, paracetamol, and anhydrous potassium carbonate are heated in 2-butanone to give the crude product, which is recrystallized from water.

Uses.

Phenacetin was widely used until the third quarter of the twentieth century, often in the form of an A.P.C., or "aspirin-phenacetin-caffeine" compound analgesic, as a remedy for fever and pain. An early formulation (1919) was Vincent's APC in Australia.  In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration ordered the withdrawal of drugs containing phenacetin in November 1983, due to its carcinogenic and kidney-damaging properties. It was also banned in India. As a result, some branded, and previously phenacetin-based, preparations continued to be sold, but with the phenacetin replaced by safer alternatives. A popular brand of phenacetin was Roche's Saridon, which was reformulated in 1983 to contain propyphenazone, paracetamol and caffeine. Coricidin was also reformulated without phenacetin. Paracetamol is a metabolite of phenacetin with similar analgesic and antipyretic effects, but the new formulation has not been found to have phenacetin's carcinogenicity.  Phenacetin has been used as a cutting agent to adulterate cocaine in the UK and Canada, due to the similar physical properties.  Due to its low cost, phenacetin is used for research into the physical and refractive properties of crystals. It is an ideal compound for this type of research.  In Canada phenacetin is used as a laboratory reagent, and in a few hair dye preparations (as a stabilizer for hydrogen peroxide). While it is considered a prescription drug, no marketed drugs contain phenacetin.

Safety.

Phenacetin, and products containing phenacetin, have been shown in an animal model to have the side effect and after-effect of carcinogenesis. In humans, many case reports have implicated products containing phenacetin in urothelial neoplasms, especially urothelial carcinoma of the renal pelvis. Phenacetin is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as carcinogenic to humans. In one prospective series, phenacetin was associated with an increased risk of death due to urologic or renal diseases, death due to cancers, and death due to cardiovascular diseases. In addition, people with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency may experience acute hemolysis, or dissolution of blood cells, while taking this drug. Acute hemolysis is possible in the case of patients who develop an IgM response to phenacetin leading to immune complexes that bind to erythrocytes in blood. The erythrocytes are then lysed when the complexes activate the complement system.  Chronic use of phenacetin is known to lead to analgesic nephropathy characterized by renal papillary necrosis. This is a condition which results in destruction of some or all of the renal papillae in the kidneys. It is believed that the metabolite "p"-phenetidine is at least partly responsible for these effects.  One notable death that can possibly be attributed to the use of this drug was that of the aviation pioneer Howard Hughes. He had been using phenacetin extensively for the treatment of chronic pain; it was stated during his autopsy that phenacetin use may have been the cause of his kidney failure.

Phenacetin (acetophenetidin, "N"-(4-ethoxyphenyl)acetamide) is a pain-relieving and fever-reducing drug, which was widely used following its introduction in 1887. It was withdrawn from medicinal use as dangerous from the 1970s (e.g., withdrawn in Canada in 1973, and by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1983).

非那西丁(Phenacetin,或译非那西汀),化学式CHNO,在室温是白色结晶固体,熔点约134°C,是一种在许多国家被禁售的药物。


History.

NTNU is a young institution with a long history. The university, in its current form, was established in 1996 by the merger of six research and higher education institutions in Trondheim, as follows:  Prior to the merger, NTH, NLHT, DMF, and VM together constituted the "University of Trondheim ", which was a much looser organization. However, the university's root goes back to 1760, with the foundation of "Det Trondhiemske Selskab (Trondheim Academy)", which in 1767 became the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters.  The engineering education in Trondheim began with "Trondhjems Tekniske Læreanstalt (Trondheim Technical College)" in 1870, and in 1910, "Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH)" opened officially. In 2010, NTNU celebrated the 250th anniversary of Trondheim Academy. NTNU also celebrated the 100th anniversary of NTH in the same year. The centennial was also celebrated by the publication of several books, among them a history of the university, entitled "Turbulens og tankekraft. Historien om NTNU" which translates as "Turbulence and mindpower: The history of NTNU".

1700s.

Det Trondhiemske Selskab (Trondheim Academy), Norway's first academic society, was founded in 1760. In 1767, it changed its name to the Royal Norwegian Society of Science and Letters (DKNVS) upon receiving recognition from the Danish-Norwegian king. DKNVS library – today known as NTNU Gunnerus Library – was founded in 1768, and is Norway's oldest library.

1800s.

First proposal for a Norwegian Polytechnical Institute was made in 1833. "Trondhjems Tekniske Læreanstalt (Trondheim Technical College)" or "TTL" was founded in 1870. The newly formed school educated engineers of various fields. In 1898, TTL moved to a larger building in Munkegata. TTL was disbanded in 1900s, giving a way to a Norwegian Institute of Technology.

1900–1968.

In 1900, the Norwegian Parliament passed a resolution supporting the establishment of "Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH)" in Trondheim. NTH was officially opened on September 15, 1910. Five academical departments were originally present in the parliament's resolution of 31 May 1900, such as Architecture and Urban Planning, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering (a. General and b. Naval, i.e. ship and ship engine construction), Electrical engineering, and Chemistry (a. General and b. Electro-chemistry).  In 1922, "Norwegian College of Teaching in Trondheim (NLHT)" opened at Lade gård.  In 1950, "Stiftelsen for industriell og teknisk forskning (Industrial and Technical Research Centre)" or SINTEF was founded as part of NTH and as its link to Norwegian industry.

1968–1996.

"University of Trondheim (UNiT)" was established in 1968, and in Department of Medicine (later the Faculty of Medicine) established as part of UNiT in 1974. It was designed by the architect Henning Larsen. In 1984, NLHT also reformed into "Norwegian College of General Sciences (AVH)" as part of UNiT.

1996–2016.

On 1 January 1996, the University of Trondheim became the "Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)". Already in 1989, NTH Rector Karsten Jakobsen had launched the idea of a Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim. On March 21, 1995, the Parliament, with barely a majority after a long debate, decided to establish NTNU in Trondheim.

2016–present.

In 2014, the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research asked the country's universities and university colleges to provide suggestions, observations, and ideas for rebuilding Norway's institutions of higher education. The context of the request was that the Norwegian government wanted to cut back on the number of institutions in the sector.  The NTNU board decided on 28 January 2015 to merge NTNU with the University Colleges of Sør-Trøndelag, Ålesund and Gjøvik to form a new university that would retain the university's current name, Norwegian University of Science and Technology. The merger, which went into effect in January 2016, made NTNU Norway's largest single university.

Campus.

NTNU has several campuses in Trondheim; Gløshaugen - for engineering and natural sciences - and Dragvoll - for human sciences and social sciences - are the main two campuses. Other campuses include Tyholt for marine technology, Øya for medicine, Kalvskinnet for archaeology, Midtbyen for the music conservatory and Nedre Elvehavn for the art academy. NTNU Gløshaugen is an artistic combination of historical NTH buildings and modern buildings. Combined, the campuses span a total area of 734,000 m.  In addition to NTNU, the following research institutes are located at Gløshaugen, and cooperate closely with NTNU in several areas of research and development:  SINTEF, since its establishment in 1950, has its main departments at Gløshaugen. SINTEF was originally founded by NTH, but since 1980 it has been an independent research institute.  In 1998, the Paper and Fiber Institute (PFI), an independent research institute, moved into a new building at Gløshaugen, relocating from Gaustad in Oslo.  In April 2013, the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) moved into a new building south of the Natural Science building. NINA has a lot of collaboration with SINTEF and NTNU.  NTNU has long considered the possibility of bringing the activity of the two largest campuses together at or near NTNU Gløshaugen campus. In 2013, the Rector initiated a vision project, charges with defining different perspectives on future development in a 50-year perspective. The same year, 2013, the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research initiated a "choice of concept study" for the future co-localization of NTNU's two main campuses in Trondheim. The reports were presented in 2014, and both recommended bringing Dragvoll and Gløshaugen together, and better integrating them with the city. A unanimous NTNU board endorsed the recommendations in the vision report.

Merger.

On 1 January 2016, the merger between NTNU and the colleges in Gjøvik, Ålesund, and Sør-Trøndelag officially entered into force, and NTNU gained campuses in Ålesund and Gjøvik, as well as in Trondheim. 2016 was also a transitional year in terms of NTNU's leadership. On November 24, 2015, the new Board met for the first time. It was then extended to include board members from each of the three merging colleges and an external representative appointed by the Ministry of Education.

Organization.

NTNU is governed by a board of 11 members, in accordance with the provisions of the "Norwegian Act relating to universities and university colleges". Two of the members are elected by and from the students.  NTNU's overall budget in 2017 was 8,19 billion NOK, most of which came from the Norwegian Ministry of Education.  As a result of the university merger in 2016, the number of NTNU faculties increased from seven to nine - including the University Museum - with approximately 39,000 students and approximately 2,500 PhD students. The nine NTNU faculties are organized in 65 departments:

Faculty of Engineering.

Faculty of Engineering has eight departments:

Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering.

Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering has eight departments:

Faculty of Natural Sciences.

Faculty of Natural Sciences has eight departments:

Faculty of Architecture and Design.

Faculty of Architecture and Design has four departments:

Faculty of Economics and Management.

Faculty of Economics and Management has four departments:

The Faculty is integrated with St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, and is located in Campus Øya in Trondheim. Its main focus areas of research are translational research, medical technology and health surveys, biobanks and registers. The faculty has about 350 master's degree students, 250 bachelor's degree students, 720 medical students and more than 500 students attending other courses (2016 numbers).  Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences has eight departments:

Faculty of Social and Educational Sciences.

The Faculty of Social and Educational Sciences has seven departments:

Faculty of Humanities.

Faculty of Humanities has six departments:

University Museum.

NTNU University Museum forms part of the University on the same organizational level as the faculties. It has two departments:

Research.

NTNU's history of research in engineering goes back to early 20th century, when Norway's first electric railway, known as Thamshavn Line, was developed and constructed in Trondheim as an AC powered tramway, with Trondheim-based technologies. The tramway was launched in 1908 and remained in operation until 1974. Now, research is part of the ongoing activities at the NTNU Faculties as well as the University Museum. The university has 4377 scientific staff, that conduct research in more than 120 laboratories, and is at any time running more than 2,000 research projects. Students and staff can take advantage of roughly 300 research agreements or exchange programs with 58 institutions worldwide. NTNU has decided four Strategic Research Areas for the period 2014–2023, namely NTNU Energy, NTNU Health, NTNU Oceans and NTNU Sustainability, which were chosen on the basis of social relevance, professional quality and the potential for interdisciplinary cooperation.

Research centres.

The university hosts six National Centres of Excellence (SFF), 12 Centres for Research-based Innovation (SFI), and four Centres for Environment-friendly Energy Research (FME), which are mainly funded by The Research Council of Norway. NTNU is also co-organizing several centers with SINTEF.  The Trøndelag Health Study, with the HUNT Research Centre and HUNT Biobank located in Levanger, is organized under the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences.

Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience.

The fifteenth Kavli Institute was inaugurated at NTNU in 2007, as Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, which was the fourth Kavli Institute in neuroscience in the world and the first Kavli Institute in Northern Europe. In 2012, Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg opened the Norwegian Brain Centre as an outgrowth of NTNU's Kavli Institute one of the largest research laboratories of its kind in the world.

Enabling technologies.

NTNU has funded the fundamental long-term research and infrastructure through three Enabling Technologies such as NTNU Biotechnology, NTNU Digital and Nano@NTNU.

Research excellence.

NTNU Research Excellence is an initiative to develop elite researchers and research groups in international class, which was launched in 2013, and includes established and new initiatives. The established initiatives are financed by the Research Council of Norway, the EU, and private-sectors (R&D), while the new initiatives are funded by NTNU's own funds in light of strategic prioritization of NTNU's resources. These cover a number of research funding schemes including Outstanding Academic Fellows Programme, Onsager Fellowship Programme, K.G. Jebsen Centres, EU projects, and ERC grants. NTNU participates in about 70 projects in the EU Horizon 2020 Framework Program.

NTNU-SINTEF Partnership.

NTNU works closely with SINTEF, Scandinavia's largest independent research institute and one of the largest contract research organizations in Europe, which is integrated into NTNU Campuses. The cooperation of NTNU and SINTEF has been further developed through the project "Better Together", which was launched in 2014. The research collaboration includes a number of joint research laboratories, for example:

Publishing.

To increase Open Access publishing, NTNU has established a publishing fund.  In 2008 NTNU's digital institutional repository was founded. The intention was to establish a full-text archive for the documentation of the scientific output of the institution, and to make as much as possible of the material available online, both nationally and internationally.  In addition to the research articles and books, intended for academics and researchers both inside and outside the university, NTNU disseminates news to the public about the institution and its research and results.  "Universitetsavisa", which translates "The University Newspaper", is the news and discussion paper of the university, available only in Norwegian. It was established in 1991. For a period it existed in both printed and digital editions, but since 2002 it is only available online.  "GEMINI" publishes research news from NTNU and the independent research group SINTEF in both English and Norwegian. It is published in both a printed and a digital version.  The Norwegian University of Science and Technology publishes the "Nordic Journal of Science and Technology".

Ranking.

According to Times Higher Education World University Rankings published in March 2017, NTNU is ranked 1st in the world ranking of universities with the biggest corporate links, due to its research collaboration with SINTEF. Statistically, 9.1 percent of NTNU's total research output is generated in collaboration with SINTEF, which is the largest academic-industry partnership in the world.  NTNU was ranked 217th in the world in May 2019 in the CWTS Leiden Ranking, which is based on bibliometric indicators.  NTNU was ranked 57th in Europe and 188th in the World in January 2020 in the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities for its presence on the web.  Rankings by ARWU Global Ranking of Academic Subjects 2019:

Studies.

NTNU specializes in technology and the natural sciences, but also offers a range of bachelor's, master's and doctoral programmes in the humanities, social sciences, economics and public and business administration, and aesthetic disciplines. The university also offers professional degree programmes in medicine, psychology, architecture, the fine arts, music, and teacher education, in addition to technology.  According to the Norwegian Social Science Data Services, NTNU had 84,797 applicants in 2011 and a total student population of 19,054, of whom 9,062 were women. There were 6,193 students enrolled in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management, 3,518 students enrolled in the Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology, 3,256 students enrolled in the Faculty of Humanities, 3,090 students enrolled in the Faculty of Information Technology, Mathematics and Electrical Engineering, 2,014 students enrolled in the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology, 1,071 enrolled in the Faculty of Medicine, and 605 enrolled in the Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art.  About 3,500 bachelor's and master's degrees are awarded each year, and more than 5,500 participate in further education programmes.  NTNU has more than 300 cooperative or exchange agreements with 60 universities worldwide, and several international student exchange programmes. There are, at any given time, around 2,600 foreign students at the university.

NTNU Teaching Excellence.

In 2015, NTNU established an initiative called ′′NTNU Teaching Excellence′′.

Student life.

NTNU welcomes students from all over the world, and offers more than 60 international master programmes as well as PhD programmes, which all are taught in English. PhD vacancies are announced on the university website and are paid as academic staff, that offers one of the world's best PhD fellowships as well as employment benefits under Norwegian law. There are no tuition fees at NTNU. However, the international students have to guarantee their living expenses if they are not offered a scholarship.  NTNU students have a clear presence in the city of Trondheim. The most famous student organization is the Studentersamfundet i Trondhjem, also known as "the red round house" after its architectural form; every other year it organizes a cultural festival UKA. Another festival organized by students is the International Student Festival in Trondheim ISFiT, which awards a student peace prize and draws internationally known speakers. EMECS-thon is a student driven embedded systems marathon competition, organized by students from NTNU and implemented in some of the top universities worldwide, where participants have 48 hours to develop an embedded project from scratch. The student sports organization, NTNUI, has roughly 10 000 members in its many branches, with the largest groups including orienteering, cross-country and telemark skiing, but there are also groups for sports less common in Norway, like American football, lacrosse and aikido. A cabin and cottage organization owns several cabins in the countryside, available for students wishing to spend a few days away. There are also student fraternities, some of which conduct voluntary hazing rituals, which provide contact with potential employers and for social interaction between students. There are also alumni associations; religious and political organizations; clubs devoted to various topics such as innovation, human rights, beer, oatmeal, anime and computers; and The Association for Various Associations, which is a parody of the university's large number of student organizations. University recently started to offer "roof over your head" guarantee to the new coming student to Trondheim until they find proper housing.  The Gløshaugen campus of the university has been filmed with a quadcopter and may be seen as YouTube video here.  NTNU is a pioneer with of the concept of "Student Cabins", the University offers its students access to cabins on the outskirts of the city of Trondheim in which they can enjoy on vacations and weekends.

Nobel laureates and notable people.

Alumni and honorary doctors.

In 2006, "NTNU Alumni" was founded, primarily as a meeting place and professional network for former students and staff of NTNU and its precursors. The network is now also open to current employees and students. In 2014 the number of members was around 30,000.  NTNU annually awards honorary doctorates to scientists and others who have made an extraordinary contribution to science or culture.

The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (, NTNU) is a public research university in Norway with the main campus in Trondheim and smaller campuses in Gjøvik and Ålesund. The largest university in Norway, NTNU has over 8,000 employees and over 40,000 students. NTNU in its current form was established by the King-in-Council in 1996 by the merger of the former University of Trondheim and other university-level institutions, with roots dating back to 1760, and has later also incorporated some former university colleges. NTNU is consistently ranked in the top one percentage among the world's universities, usually in the 101–500 range depending on ranking.

挪威科技大学(,缩写作 NTNU),是座落在挪威特隆赫姆的一所公立大学。学生人数大约39,000人,为挪威八所大学之中第一大,是挪威全国最顶尖的工程学与工业技术的研究中心。


Biography.

The broad outlines of the poet's life are well known. He was born into the aristocratic, warrior class that dominated Mytilene, the strongest city-state on the island of Lesbos and, by the end of the seventh century BC, the most influential of all the North Aegean Greek cities, with a strong navy and colonies securing its trade-routes in the Hellespont. The city had long been ruled by kings born to the Penthilid clan but, during the poet's life, the Penthilids were a spent force and rival aristocrats and their factions contended with each other for supreme power. Alcaeus and his older brothers were passionately involved in the struggle but experienced little success. Their political adventures can be understood in terms of three tyrants who came and went in succession:  Sometime before 600 BC, Mytilene fought Athens for control of Sigeion and Alcaeus was old enough to participate in the fighting. According to the historian Herodotus, the poet threw away his shield to make good his escape from the victorious Athenians then celebrated the occasion in a poem that he later sent to his friend, Melanippus. It is thought that Alcaeus travelled widely during his years in exile, including at least one visit to Egypt. His older brother, Antimenidas, appears to have served as a mercenary in the army of Nebuchadnezzar II and probably took part in the conquest of Askelon. Alcaeus wrote verses in celebration of Antimenides' return, including mention of his valour in slaying the larger opponent (frag. 350), and he proudly describes the military hardware that adorned their family home (frag. 357).  Alcaeus was a contemporary and a countryman of Sappho and, since both poets composed for the entertainment of Mytilenean friends, they had many opportunities to associate with each other on a quite regular basis, such as at the "Kallisteia", an annual festival celebrating the island's federation under Mytilene, held at the 'Messon' (referred to as "temenos" in frs. 129 and 130), where Sappho performed publicly with female choirs. Alcaeus' reference to Sappho in terms more typical of a divinity, as "holy/pure, honey-smiling Sappho" (fr. 384), may owe its inspiration to her performances at the festival. The Lesbian or Aeolic school of poetry "reached in the songs of Sappho and Alcaeus that high point of brilliancy to which it never after-wards approached" and it was assumed by later Greek critics and during the early centuries of the Christian era that the two poets were in fact lovers, a theme which became a favourite subject in art (as in the urn pictured above).

Poetry.

The poetic works of Alcaeus were collected into ten books, with elaborate commentaries, by the Alexandrian scholars Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace sometime in the 3rd century BC, and yet his verses today exist only in fragmentary form, varying in size from mere phrases, such as "wine, window into a man" (fr. 333) to entire groups of verses and stanzas, such as those quoted below (fr. 346). Alexandrian scholars numbered him in their canonic nine (one lyric poet per Muse). Among these, Pindar was held by many ancient critics to be pre-eminent, but some gave precedence to Alcaeus instead. The canonic nine are traditionally divided into two groups, with Alcaeus, Sappho and Anacreon, being'monodists' or'solo-singers', with the following characteristics: The other six of the canonic nine composed verses for public occasions, performed by choruses and professional singers and typically featuring complex metrical arrangements that were never reproduced in other verses. However, this division into two groups is considered by some modern scholars to be too simplistic and often it is practically impossible to know whether a lyric composition was sung or recited, or whether or not it was accompanied by musical instruments and dance. Even the private reflections of Alcaeus, ostensibly sung at dinner parties, still retain a public function.  Critics often seek to understand Alcaeus in comparison with Sappho:  The Roman poet, Horace, also compared the two, describing Alcaeus as "more full-throatedly singing" — see Horace's tribute below. Alcaeus himself seems to underscore the difference between his own 'down-to-earth' style and Sappho's more 'celestial' qualities when he describes her almost as a goddess (as cited above), and yet it has been argued that both poets were concerned with a balance between the divine and the profane, each emphasising different elements in that balance.  Dionysius of Halicarnassus exhorts us to "Observe in Alcaeus the sublimity, brevity and sweetness coupled with stern power, his splendid figures, and his clearness which was unimpaired by the dialect; and above all mark his manner of expressing his sentiments on public affairs," while Quintilian, after commending Alcaeus for his excellence "in that part of his works where he inveighs against tyrants and contributes to good morals; in his language he is concise, exalted, careful and often like an orator;" goes on to add: "but he descended into wantonness and amours, though better fitted for higher things."

Poetic genres.

The works of Alcaeus are conventionally grouped according to five genres.

A drinking poem (fr. 346).

The following verses demonstrate some key characteristics of the Alcaic style (square brackets indicate uncertainties in the ancient text): The Greek meter here is relatively simple, comprising the Greater Asclepiad, adroitly used to convey, for example, the rhythm of jostling cups (). The language of the poem is typically direct and concise and comprises short sentences — the first line is in fact a model of condensed meaning, comprising an exhortation ("Let's drink!), a rhetorical question ("Why are we waiting for the lamps?") and a justifying statement (Only an inch of daylight left.) The meaning is clear and uncomplicated, the subject is drawn from personal experience, and there is an absence of poetic ornament, such as simile or metaphor. Like many of his poems (e.g., frs. 38, 326, 338, 347, 350), it begins with a verb (in this case "Let's drink!") and it includes a proverbial expression ("Only an inch of daylight left") though it is possible that he coined it himself.

A hymn (fr. 34).

Alcaeus rarely used metaphor or simile and yet he had a fondness for the allegory of the storm-tossed ship of state. The following fragment of a hymn to Castor and Polydeuces (the Dioscuri) is possibly another example of this though some scholars interpret it instead as a prayer for a safe voyage. <poem style="margin-left:2em"> Hither now to me from your isle of Pelops, You powerful children of Zeus and Leda, Showing youselves kindly by nature, Castor And Polydeuces!  Travelling abroad on swift-footed horses, Over the wide earth, over all the ocean, How easily you bring deliverance from Death's gelid rigor,  Landing on tall ships with a sudden, great bound, A far-away light up the forestays running, Bringing radiance to a ship in trouble, Sailed in the darkness! </poem>  The poem was written in Sapphic stanzas, a verse form popularly associated with his compatriot, Sappho, but in which he too excelled, here paraphrased in English to suggest the same rhythms. There were probably another three stanzas in the original poem but only nine letters of them remain. The 'far-away light' () is a reference to St Elmo's Fire, an electrical discharge supposed by ancient Greek mariners to be an epiphany of the Dioscuri, but the meaning of the line was obscured by gaps in the papyrus until reconstructed by a modern scholar—such reconstructions are typical of the extant poetry (see Scholars, fragments and sources below). This poem doesn't begin with a verb but with an adverb (Δευτέ) but still communicates a sense of action. He probably performed his verses at drinking parties for friends and political allies—men for whom loyalty was essential, particularly in such troubled times.

Tributes from other poets.

Horace.

The Roman poet Horace modelled his own lyrical compositions on those of Alcaeus, rendering the Lesbian poet's verse-forms, including 'Alcaic' and 'Sapphic' stanzas, into concise Latin — an achievement he celebrates in his third book of odes. In his second book, in an ode composed in Alcaic stanzas on the subject of an almost fatal accident he had on his farm, he imagines meeting Alcaeus and Sappho in Hades:

Ovid.

Ovid compared Alcaeus to Sappho in Letters of the Heroines, where Sappho is imagined to speak as follows:

Scholars, fragments and sources.

The story of Alcaeus is partly the story of the scholars who rescued his work from oblivion. His verses have not come down to us through a manuscript tradition — generations of scribes copying an author's collected works, such as delivered intact into the modern age four entire books of Pindar's odes — but haphazardly, in quotes from ancient scholars and commentators whose own works have chanced to survive, and in the tattered remnants of papyri uncovered from an ancient rubbish pile at Oxyrhynchus and other locations in Egypt: sources that modern scholars have studied and correlated exhaustively, adding little by little to the world's store of poetic fragments.  Ancient scholars quoted Alcaeus in support of various arguments. Thus for example Heraclitus 'The Allegorist' quoted fr. 326 and part of fr. 6, about ships in a storm, in his study on Homer's use of allegory. The hymn to Hermes, fr308(b), was quoted by Hephaestion (grammarian) and both he and Libanius, the rhetorician, quoted the first two lines of fr. 350, celebrating the return from Babylon of Alcaeus' brother. The rest of fr. 350 was paraphrased in prose by the historian/geographer Strabo. Many fragments were supplied in quotes by Athenaeus, principally on the subject of wine-drinking, but fr. 333, "wine, window into a man", was quoted much later by the Byzantine grammarian, John Tzetzes.  The first'modern' publication of Alcaeus' verses appeared in a Greek and Latin edition of fragments collected from the canonic nine lyrical poets by Michael Neander, published at Basle in 1556. This was followed by another edition of the nine poets, collected by Henricus Stephanus and published in Paris in 1560. Fulvius Ursinus compiled a fuller collection of Alcaic fragments, including a commentary, which was published at Antwerp in 1568. The first separate edition of Alcaeus was by Christian David Jani and it was published at Halle in 1780. The next separate edition was by August Matthiae, Leipzig 1827.  Some of the fragments quoted by ancient scholars were able to be integrated by scholars in the nineteenth century. Thus for example two separate quotes by Athenaeus were united by Theodor Bergk to form fr. 362. Three separate sources were combined to form fr. 350, as mentioned above, including a prose paraphrase from Strabo that first needed to be restored to its original meter, a synthesis achieved by the united efforts of Otto Hoffmann, Karl Otfried Muller and Franz Heinrich Ludolf Ahrens. The discovery of the Oxyrhynchus papyri towards the end of the nineteenth century dramatically increased the scope of scholarly research. In fact, eight important fragments have now been compiled from papyri — frs. 9, 38A, 42, 45, 34, 129, 130 and most recently S262. These fragments typically feature lacunae or gaps that scholars fill with 'educated guesses', including for example a "brilliant supplement" by Maurice Bowra in fr. 34, a hymn to the Dioscuri that includes a description of St Elmo's fire in the ship's rigging. Working with only eight letters (; tr. "pró...tr...ntes"), Bowra conjured up a phrase that brilliantly develops the meaning and the euphony of the poem (; tr. "próton' ontréchontes"), describing luminescence "running along the forestays".

Alcaeus of Mytilene (;, "Alkaios ho Mutilēnaios"; – BC) was a lyric poet from the Greek island of Lesbos who is credited with inventing the Alcaic stanza. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. He was a contemporary and an alleged lover of Sappho, with whom he may have exchanged poems. He was born into the aristocratic governing class of Mytilene, the main city of Lesbos, where he was involved in political disputes and feuds.

阿尔卡埃乌斯,(前620年-?,英语:Alcaeus, Alkaios、) )。古希腊莱斯沃斯的密提林抒情诗人之一。