Background.

Despite the fact that Esarhaddon had been the crown prince of Assyria for three years and the designated heir of King Sennacherib, with the entire empire having taken oaths to support him, it was only with great difficulty that he successfully ascended the Assyrian throne.  Sennacherib's first choice as successor had been his eldest son, Ashur-nadin-shumi, who he had appointed as the ruler of Babylon in about 700 BC.' Shortly thereafter, Sennacherib attacked the land of Elam (modern day southern Iran) in order to defeat some Chaldean rebels which had fled there. In response to this attack, the Elamites invaded the south of Sennacherib's empire and in 694 successfully captured Ashur-nadin-shumi at the city of Sippar. The prince was taken back to Elam and probably executed.'  After Ashur-nadin-shumi's presumed death, Sennacherib elevated his second eldest surviving son, Arda-Mulissu, as crown prince. After several years as crown prince, Arda-Mulissu was replaced as heir by Esarhaddon in 684. The reason for Arda-Mulissu's sudden dismissal from the prominent position is unknown, but it is clear that he was very disappointed. Esarhaddon described the reaction of his brothers to his appointment as heir in a later inscription:  Arda-Mulissu was forced to swear loyalty to Esarhaddon by

Reign.

Paranoia.

As a result of his tumultuous rise to the throne, Esarhaddon was distrustful of his servants, vassals and family members. He frequently sought the advice of oracles and priests on whether any of his relatives or officials wished to harm him.' Although highly distrustful of his male relatives, Esarhaddon seems to not have been paranoid in regards to his female relatives. During his reign his wife Esharra-hammat, his mother Naqi'a and his daughter Serua-eterat all wielded considerably more influence and political power than women during earlier parts of Assyrian history.'  Esarhaddon's paranoia was also reflected by where he chose to live. One of his main residences was a palace in the city of Kalhu originally constructed as an armory by his predecessor Shalmaneser III (r. 859–824 BC) almost two hundred years earlier. Rather than occupying a central and visible spot within the cultic

Reconstruction of Babylon.

Esarhaddon wished to ensure the support of the inhabitants of Babylonia, the southern part of his empire. To this end, the king sponsored building and restoration projects throughout the south to a far greater extent than any of his predecessors had. Babylonia had only become part of the Assyrian empire relatively recently, having been ruled by native kings as vassals of the Assyrians until its conquest and annexation by the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III in the previous century. Through his building program, Esarhaddon likely hoped to show the benefits of continuing Assyrian rule over the region and that he meant to rule Babylon with the same care and generosity as a native Babylonian king.  The city of Babylon, which gave its name to Babylonia, had been the political and religious center of southern Mesopotamia for more than a thousand years. In an effort to quell Babylonian aspirations of independence, the city had been

Military campaigns.

Vassals who had hoped to use the unstable political climate in Assyria to free themselves, perhaps believing that the new king hadn't yet consolidated his position well enough to stop them, and foreign powers eager to expand their territory soon realized that (despite Esarhaddon's distrust) the governors and soldiers of Assyria fully supported the new king.' Two of the principal threats to Assyria were the kingdom of Urartu under King Rusa II in the north, a sworn enemy of Assyria which still sheltered his brothers, and the Cimmerians, a nomadic tribe which was harassing his western borders.'  Esarhaddon allied with the nomadic Scythians, famous for their cavalry, in order to dissuade the Cimmerians from attacking but it doesn't appear to have helped. In 679 BC, the

Deteriorating health and depression.

By the time of Esarhaddon's first failed invasion of Egypt in 673 BC, it had become apparent that the king's health was deteriorating.' This presented a problem since one of the chief requirements of being the Assyrian king was that one had perfect mental and physical health.' The king was constantly suffering from some illness and would often spend days in his sleeping quarters without food, drink and human contact. The death of Esharra-hammat, his beloved wife, that same year is unlikely to have improved his condition. Surviving court documents overwhelmingly point to Esarhaddon often being sad and the death of his wife and their recently born infant child made Esarhaddon depressed. This can clearly be seen in letters written by the king's chief exorcist Adad-shumu-usur, the

Planning the succession.

Seeing as he himself had only acquired the Assyrian throne with great difficulty, Esarhaddon took several steps in order to ensure that the transition of power following his own death would be a smooth and peaceful one. A treaty concluded between Esarhaddon and his vassal Ramataia, the ruler of a Median kingdom in the east called Urakazabarna in 672 BC makes it clear that all of Esarhaddon's sons were still minors at the time, which was problematic. The same treaty also shows that Esarhaddon was worried that there might be several factions who might oppose his successor's rise to the throne after his death, listing potential opposing forces

Conquest of Egypt and substitute kings.

In the early months of 671 BC, Esarhaddon again marched against Egypt.' The army assembled for this second Egytian campaign was considerably larger than the one Esarhaddon had used in 673 and he marched at a much slower speed in order to avoid the problems that had plagued his previous attempt.' On his way he passed through Harran, one of the major cities in the western parts of his empire. Here, a prophecy was revealed to the king, which predicted that Esarhaddon's conquest of Egypt would be a

Conspiracy of 671–670 BC.

Shortly following Esarhaddon's victory in Egypt, news spread throughout his empire of a new prophecy at Harran. Since Esarhaddon had conquered Egypt and proven the previous prophecy from the city right, the oracles of Harran were seen as trustworthy. The prophecy, spoken by an ecstatic woman, was the following:  The meaning of the prophecy was clear: it provided a possible religious foundation for a revolt against Esarhaddon's rule by declaring all of Sennacherib's descendants as usurpers.' It is possible that Esarhaddon's skin condition would have become apparent during his visit to Harran, which might be the reason for declaring him illegitimate. The identity of the Sasî who was proclaimed as the rightful king is unknown but he must have been connected to previous Assyrian royalty in some manner as he would otherwise not have been eligible for the throne. It is possible that he was a descendant of Esarhaddon's grandfather Sargon II. Sasî managed to rally a large amount of support throughout the empire quickly, even rallying Esarhaddon's chief eunuch Ashur-nasir to his side.'  It did

Death.

Although he had successfully survived the conspiracy, Esarhaddon remained diseased and paranoid. Just a year later, in 669 BC, he once more performed the "substitute king" ritual. Around this time, the defeated Pharaoh Taharqa appeared from the south and, perhaps combined with the chaotic political situation within Assyria, inspired Egypt to attempt to free itself from Esarhaddon's control.  Esarhaddon received word of this rebellion and learnt that even some of

Diplomacy.

Diplomacy with the Arabs.

The support of the Arabic tribes of the Sinai Peninsula had been crucial in Esarhaddon's 671 BC Egyptian campaign. Esarhaddon was also determined to retain the loyalty of the Arabic tribes who had been subjugated by his father in the Arabian Peninsula, particularly around the city of Adummatu. The king of Adummatu, Hazael, paid tribute to Esarhaddon and sent him several presents, which were reciprocated by Esarhaddon through returning the statues of Hazael's gods which had been seized by Sennacherib years earlier. When Hazael died and was succeeded by his son

Diplomacy with the Medes.

The reign of Esarhaddon saw many of the Medes becoming Assyrian vassals. Esarhaddon's armies had proven to the Medes that Assyria was a great power to be feared when the Assyrians defeated the Median kings Eparna and Shidirparna near Mount Bikni (the location of which is unknown beyond being located somewhere in central Media) at some point before 676 BC. As a result of this victory, many of the Medes willingly swore allegiance to Assyria and brought gifts to

Family and children.

Esarhaddon had at least 18 children. Some of these children suffered from constant illness, similar to Esarhaddon, and required permanent and constant medical attention by the court physicians.' Contemporary letters by Esarhaddon's subjects discussing the king's "numerous children" confirm that his family was viewed as large by ancient Assyrian standards.' Those of Esarhaddon's children known by name are the

Legacy.

Assyria after Esarhaddon's death.

After Esarhaddon's death, his son Ashurbanipal became the king of Assyria. After attending his brother's coronation, Shamash-shum-ukin returned the stolen statue of Bel to Babylon and became the king of Babylon.' At Babylon, Ashurbanipal sponsored a lavish coronation festival for his brother.' Despite his royal title, Shamash-shum-ukin was a vassal to Ashurbanipal; Ashurbanipal continued to offer the royal sacrifices in Babylon (traditionally offered by the Babylonian monarch) and the governors in the south were Assyrian. The army and guards present in the south were also Assyrians. Most of Shamash-shum-ukin's early reign in Babylon was spent peacefully, restoring fortications and temples.  After he and his brother had been properly inaugurated as monarchs, Ashurbanipal left in 667 BC to complete Esarhaddon's unfinished final campaign against Egypt. In his 667 campaign, Ashurbanipal marched as far south as Thebes, plundering on his way, and upon his victory he left

Assessment by historians.

Esarhaddon, his predecessor Sennacherib and his successor Ashurbanipal are recognized as three of the greatest Assyrian kings.' He is typically characterized as gentler and milder than his predecessor, taking greater efforts to pacify and integrate the peoples he conquered.' The king has been described as one of the most successful of the Neo-Assyrian rulers on account of his many achievements, including the subjugation of Egypt, the successful and peaceful control

Titles.

In an inscription describing his appointment as crown prince and his rise to power, Esarhaddon uses the following royal titles:  In another inscription, the titles of Esarhaddon read as follows:  A longer version of Esarhaddon's royal titles, and an accompanying boast of his gifts from the gods, preserved in another of his inscriptions, reads:  Perhaps the longest and most elaborate version of Esarhaddon's royal titles are presented on the victory stele he erected after his victorious campaign against Egypt:

Esarhaddon, also spelled Essarhaddon,' Assarhaddon and Ashurhaddon (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform:, also "Aššur-aḫa-iddina", meaning "Ashur has given me a brother"), was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from the death of his father Sennacherib in 681 BC to his own death in 669. The third king of the Sargonid dynasty, Esarhaddon is most famous for his conquest of Egypt in 671,' which made his empire the largest the world had ever seen, and for his reconstruction of Babylon, which had been destroyed by his father.

阿萨尔哈东(阿卡德语:Aššur-ahhe-iddina),(?-前669年),亚述国王(前681年～前669年在位)。名亚述-阿哈-丁(阿卡德语:Aššur-aha-iddina)。在旧约和希腊语文献中,他被称做以撒哈顿。


Battle account.

The battle took place at Kerreri, north of Omdurman. Kitchener commanded a force of 8,000 British regulars and a mixed force of 17,000 Sudanese and Egyptian troops. He arrayed his force in an arc around the village of Egeiga, close to the bank of the Nile, where a twelve gunboat flotilla waited in support, facing a wide, flat plain with hills rising to the left and right. The British and Egyptian cavalry were placed on either flank.  Abdullah's followers, calling themselves the "Ansar" and known to the British as the Dervishes, numbered around 50,000, including some 3,000 cavalry. They were split into five groups—a force of 8,000 under Osman Azrak was arrayed directly opposite the British, in a shallow arc along a mile (1.6 km) of a low ridge leading onto the plain, and the other Mahdist forces were initially concealed from Kitchener's force. Abdullah al-Taashi and 17,000 men were concealed behind the Surgham Hills to the west and rear of Osman Azrak's force, with 20,000 more positioned to the north-west, close to the front behind the Kerreri hills, commanded by Ali wad Hilu and Osman Sheikh ed-Din. A final force of around 8,000 was gathered on the slope on the right flank of Azrak's force.  The battle began in the early morning, at around 6:00 a.m. After the clashes of the previous day, the 8,000 men under Osman Azrak advanced straight at the waiting British, quickly followed by about 8,000 of those waiting to the northwest, a mixed force of rifle and spear-men. The 52 quick firing guns of the British artillery opened fire at around, inflicting severe casualties on the Mahdist forces before they even came within range of the Maxim guns and volley fire. The frontal attack ended quickly, with around 4,000 Mahdist forces casualties; none of the attackers got closer than 50 m to the British trenches. A flanking move from the Ansar right was also checked, and there were bloody clashes on the opposite flank that scattered the Mahdist forces there.  While the Anglo-Egyptian infantry were able to make use of their superior firepower from behind a zariba barricade without suffering significant casualties, the cavalry and camel corps deployed to the centre-north of the main force found themselves under threat from the Mahadist Green Standard force of about 15,000 warriors. The commander of the Anglo-Egyptian mounted troops Lieutenant Colonel R.G. Broadwood used his cavalry to draw off part of the advancing Ansar attackers under Osman Digna but the slower-moving camel troops, attempting to regain the protection of the zariba, found themselves being closely pursued by Green Standard horsemen. This marked a crucial stage of the battle but Kitchener was able to deploy two gunboats to a position on the river where their cannon and Nordenfelt guns broke up the Mahadist force before it could destroy Broadwood's detachment and possibly penetrate the flank of the Anglo-Egyptian infantry.  Kitchener was anxious to occupy Omdurman before the remaining Mahdist forces could withdraw there. He advanced his army on the city, arranging them in separate columns for the attack. The British light cavalry regiment, the 21st Lancers, was sent ahead to clear the plain to Omdurman. They had a tough time of it. The 400-strong regiment attacked what they thought were only a few hundred dervishes, but in fact there were 2,500 infantry hidden behind them in a depression. After a fierce clash, the Lancers drove them back (resulting in three Victoria Crosses being awarded to Lancers who helped rescue wounded comrades). One of the participants of this fight was Lieutenant Winston Churchill. On a larger scale, the British advance allowed the Khalifa to re-organize his forces. He still had over 30,000 men in the field and directed his main reserve to attack from the west while ordering the forces to the northwest to attack simultaneously over the Kerreri Hills.  Kitchener's force wheeled left in echelon to advance up Surgham ridge and then southwards. To protect the rear, a brigade of 3,000 mainly Sudanese, commanded by Hector MacDonald, was reinforced with Maxims and artillery and followed the main force at around. Curiously, the supplies and wounded around Egeiga were left almost unprotected.  MacDonald was alerted to the presence of around 15,000 enemy troops moving towards him from the west, out from behind Surgham. He wheeled his force and lined them up to face the enemy charge. The Mahdist infantry attacked in two prongs. Lewis's Egyptian Brigade managed to hold its own but MacDonald was forced to repeatedly re-order his battalions. The brigade maintained a punishing fire. Kitchener, now aware of the problem, "began to throw his brigades about as if they were companies". MacDonald's brigade was soon reinforced with flank support and more Maxim guns and the Mahdist forces were forced back; they finally broke and fled or died where they stood. The Mahdist forces to the north had regrouped too late and entered the clash only after the force in the central valley had been routed. They pressed Macdonald's Sudanese brigades hard, but Wauchope's brigade with the Lincolnshire Regiment was quickly brought up and with sustained section volleys repulsed the advance. A final desperate cavalry charge of around 500 horsemen was utterly destroyed. The march on Omdurman was resumed at about 11:30.

Awards.

Four awards were made of the Victoria Cross, all for gallantry shown on 2 September 1898. Queen's Sudan Medal, British campaign medal awarded to British and Egyptian forces which took part in the Sudan campaign between 1896 and 1898. Khedive's Sudan Medal (1897), Egyptian campaign medal awarded to British and Egyptian forces which took part in the Sudan campaign between 1896 and 1898.

Aftermath.

Around 12,000 Muslim warriors were killed, 13,000 wounded and 5,000 taken prisoner. Kitchener's force lost 47 men killed and 382 wounded, the majority from MacDonald's command. One eyewitness described the appalling scene:  The battle was the first time that the Mark IV hollow point bullet, made in the arsenal in Dum Dum, was used in a major battle. It was an expanding bullet, and the units that used it considered them to be highly effective.  Controversy over the killing of the wounded after the battle began soon afterwards. The debate was ignited by a highly critical article published by Ernest Bennett (present at the battle as a journalist) in the "Contemporary Review", which evoked a fierce riposte and defense of Kitchener by Bennet Burleigh (another journalist also present at the battle). Winston Churchill privately agreed with Bennett that Kitchener was too brutal in his killing of the wounded. This opinion was reflected in his own account of the battle when it was first published in 1899. However, mindful of the effect that patriotic public opinion could have on his political career, Churchill significantly moderated criticism of Kitchener in his book's second edition in 1902.  The Khalifa, Abdullah al-Taashi, escaped and survived until 1899, when he was killed in the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat.  Several days after the battle, Kitchener was sent to Fashoda, due to the developing Fashoda Incident.  Kitchener was ennobled as a baron, Kitchener of Khartoum, for his victory. Four Victoria Crosses were awarded, three to members of the 21st Lancers, as a result of this action: 2nd Lieutenant Raymond H.L.J. De Montmorency, Captain Paul A. Kenna, Private Thomas Byrne and one to Captain Nevill Smyth of the 2nd Dragoon Guards (Queen's Bays).  Winston Churchill was present at the battle and he rode with the 21st Lancers. He published his account of the battle in 1899 as ""The River War: An Account of the Reconquest of the Soudan"". Present as a war correspondent for "The Times" was Colonel Frank Rhodes, brother of Cecil, who was shot and severely wounded in the right arm. For his services during that battle he was restored to the army active list.  The Battle of Omdurman has also lent its name to many streets in British and Commonwealth cities, for example 'Omdurman Road' in Southampton and 'Omdurman Street' in Freshwater, Sydney, Australia.

Fictional accounts.

The 1939 film adaptation of the novel "The Four Feathers" is set in the time of this battle, and covers other aspects of the Sudan Campaign.  The 2008 novel "After Omdurman" by John Ferry is partly set during the 1898 re-conquest of the Sudan, with the book's lead character, Evelyn Winters, playing a peripheral role in the Battle of Omdurman.  In the British television sitcom "Dad's Army", the character of Corporal Jones often refers to the days he spent serving under General Kitchener at the Battle of Omdurman. In the episode called "The Two and a Half Feathers" there is an extended flashback to the days directly before the battle, narrated by Jones.  The 1972 film "Young Winston" includes a depiction of the initial Anglo-Egyptian artillery bombardment at the start of the battle as well as a recreation of the charge of the 21st Lancers.  The 2009 novel "The Devil's Paintbrush" by Jake Arnott involves a retelling of the life of Hector MacDonald, and includes the battle and Kitchener's railway-building drive through Sudan.  The 2005 novel "The Triumph of the Sun" by Wilbur Smith depicts the siege of Khartoum and the Battle of Omdurman with a mixture of historical and fictional characters  The novel "With Kitchener in the Soudan" by G.A. Henty tells the story of the British military expedition and the destruction of the Mahdi's followers during the Mahdist War (1881–1899). It was first published in 1903.

In art.

The subject of the battle made its appearance in several oil paintings exhibited in Britain at the time. In particular, the charge of the 21st Lancers held special appeal and several artists portrayed the scene including Stanley Berkeley, Robert Alexander Hillingford, Richard Caton Woodville, William Barnes Wollen, Gilbert S. Wright, Edward Mathew Hale, Capt. Adrian Jones, Major John C. Mathews, and Allan Stewart. The pictorial press covered the campaign extensively and employed several artists to record the events.

At the Battle of Omdurman (2 September 1898), an army commanded by the British General Sir Herbert Kitchener defeated the army of Abdullah al-Taashi, the successor to the self-proclaimed Mahdi, Muhammad Ahmad. Kitchener was seeking revenge for the 1885 death of General Gordon. It was a demonstration of the superiority of a highly disciplined army equipped with modern rifles, machine guns, and artillery over a force twice its size armed with older weapons, and marked the success of British efforts to re-conquer the Sudan. However, it was not until the 1899 Battle of Umm Diwaykarat that the final Mahdist forces were defeated.

恩图曼战役发生在1898年,是英国在马赫迪战争后期远征苏丹恩图曼的一场战役。交战方分别是英国和埃及的联军与当地的伊斯兰教马赫迪军。这起战役英军大规模使用马克沁机枪,造成苏丹士兵的大量死伤。


Career.

Germany.

Baumjohann began his youth career in 1991 with Teutonia Waltrop and in summer 2000, joined Schalke 04. After only two appearances in the first team he was signed by to Mönchengladbach in January 2007 on the promise of greater first team exposure. On 27 January 2007 he made his debut with Mönchengladbach against Energie Cottbus.  In July 2009, he moved to Bayern Munich on the recommendation of Jupp Heynckes, who personally scouted the player. Six months before the move, Heynckes foreshadowed a deal, saying that "Talent makes Alex a 'Bayern player', even though he has yet to make the breakthrough in the Bundesliga." However, after six months with Bayern and sporadic Bundesliga game time, he rejoined FC Schalke.  On 21 August 2012, Baumjohann joined 2. Bundesliga club Kaiserslautern on a one-year contract. In Baumjohann's 27th game for the club, he netted his sixth goal, scoring with a free-kick in a playoff vs. Hoffenheim for a place in the Bundesliga.  On 8 June 2013, it was announced that Baumjohann would leave Kaiserslautern, who lost to Hoffenheim in their Bundesliga play-off over two legs, for newly promoted Hertha BSC, signing a three-year contract with the capital club. On 18 March 2016, he extended his contract until 2017.

Brazil.

After the 2016–17 season, Baumjohann considered playing in Brazil, the country of his wife. In July 2017, he signed with Coritiba. Having limited playing time at Coritiba due to a broken hand, Baumjohann left the club after its relegation, although wanting to renew his contract. In 2018, he joined Vitória.

Australia.

On 9 August 2018, Baumjohann was brought to the A-League by coach Markus Babbel, signing with Western Sydney Wanderers. At the end of the season, the Wanderers released Baumjohann choosing not to renew his contract.  On 2 June 2019, Baumjohann signed a two-year deal with local rivals Sydney FC.

Personal life.

Baumjohann grew up in Waltrop, and attended the Gesamtschule Berger Feld.  In addition to his native German, Baumjohann can also speak Portuguese.  Baumjohann has a wife and two daughters.

Alexander Baumjohann (born 23 January 1987) is a German footballer who plays for Sydney FC as an attacking midfielder. After developing as a star junior with Schalke 04, he moved to Borussia Mönchengladbach and enjoyed great success with the Bundesliga club, earning a move to Bayern Munich in 2009.

亚历山大·鲍姆约翰(,1987年-1月23日)是一名德国足球运动员,司职中场,现效力于澳洲职业足球联赛球队西悉尼流浪者 。


Site.

The church stands on the Vračar plateau in Belgrade. It is located at the sight axes of the important commercial traffic artery from the old city to the SE outskirts. It is visible from the Ulica Kralja Milana, between Terazije and Slavija Square, which is in extension of the axis. The church is the terminus and landmark of the intended boulevard in the first urban plan of Belgrade made by Emilijan Josimović from the second half of the 19th century. With its architectural form paraphrasing the Byzantine Haghia Sophia, the builders hoped that it will eventually evolve into a universal center of Orthodoxy. Moscow also had at the time lost prominence within Orthodoxy, as the October revolution sidelined religion in Russia and a compensation was intended. Unfortunately, the Yugoslav communists also obstructed Saint Sava, as they banned further construction at the site

History.

Background.

Saint Sava (1175–1235), the patron saint and national hero of the Serbian people, was born Rastko Nemanja in 1175, the son of Serbian Grand Župan Stephen (r. 1166-1196). Serbia was still a relatively young nation, having freed itself from the Byzantine Empire in the previous century. In 1077 Duklja became the first Serb kingdom, its founding being intimately interconnected with the establishment of the Roman Catholic Bishopric of Bar. Toward the end of the 12th century, the new state Raška, centered in what is now southern Serbia, rose as a second Serbian nation. Stephen Nemanja ruled Raška.

Planning.

Date and location of the Burning of Saint Sava's relics remained disputed. Given years are 1594 and 1595, while the proposed locations, as the name Vračar was applied to the much wider territory than it occupies today, include: Crveni Krst, suggested by who erected reddish Vozarev Krst at the spot, which gave name to the entire neighborhood of Crveni Krst ("Red Cross"); mound of "Čupina Humka", in Tašmajdan, previously known as Little Vračar, which is the preferred location of modern historians; Vračar

First competition.

In 1906, an architectural design competition for the future church was announced. Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences was authorized to judge the project, and it rejected all five applications as insufficient. A series of wars followed (First Balkan War in 1912, Second Balkan War in 1913, World War I in 1914–1918), which stopped all construction activities. After the war, in 1919, the Society was re-established.  A renewed competition was announced in 1926. Beside the church itself, it was to include buildings of the Patriarchate, Ministry of Religion, Seminary and. The competition rules stipulated that the new church must be in the style of the Serbo-Byzantine architecture, from the period

Second competition.

After World War I, Serbia was integrated into the new Yugoslav State, thus the idea for the memorial church transformed into a more ambitious project. In the second competition a church with a ground area of 60 x 60 m was publicly announced. A new impetus came from the foundation of an association to build a memorial church on Vračar. The managing board was held by the patriarch Dimitrije. The church was thought to have a built area of 3000 m2, to tower 80 m and offer space to 6.000 faithful. The church was to pay reference to close national building traditions and resemble edifices in late Byzantine art of the so-called "Morava style", highlighting locally built

Public controversy.

Five years after the second competition, 1932, and two years after the new Patriarch Patriarch Varnava took office, the Committee unexpectedly announced that the second-prize entry and the runners-up were chosen to be combined for the final project. That was followed by the similarly unexpected suggestion that the new cathedral should be reminiscent of Haghia Sophia. Bogdan Nestorović's entry 1927 was based upon the Gračanica model and had only touched some elements that resemble the plan of the Hagia Sophia, while the entry of Aleksandar Deroko even more reminiscent of Haghia Sophia was by no means a copy or anywhere close to the appearance of the imperial church. There were additional complaints about the plan to build an immense monument that was to be of national importance for Yugoslavs, given the fact that the cult of Saint Sava was a largely Serbian legacy. Despite the public debate, the realization of the Nestorović-Deroko project took shape after 1932. Vojislav Zađin was chosen as the engineer. Still, construction of the church couldn't start for several more years, in which the architects finalized their plans, as the size of the church and the dimensions grew. The decision process occurred amidst political

Synthetic redraft and invocation of Haghia Sophia.

With the invocation of Justinian's Haghia Sophia the size of the church was even larger than that called for in the initial competition. As they developed their project, Nestoroviċ and Deroko reflected the growing enthusiasm of one part of the population that wanted Belgrade to have one of the largest Orthodox churches in the world. The size, height and weight of the dome were meant to surpass the grandeur of Haghia Sophia. From the initially planned 60 x 60 m, the church had now grown to a square of 80 x 90 m and could hold 10.000 instead of 6.000 worshippers. The diameter of the dome had much enlarged and was to compete with some of the great domed cathedrals of late antiquity, renaissance, baroque and the historicism epoch. As thus the only reference for the synthetic redraft of the Nestorović/Deroko design came from the Haghia Sophia, which possessed a dome that initially had a diameter of 33 m. As it had been the cathedral of the capital city of the Byzantine Empire, its design was naturally imposed on the Belgrade Cathedral, as it was more appropriate for its urban context, than were the minor monastic churches of rural areas. With it, the idea to orient to national tradition was abandoned. This decision was highly criticised by public opinion, but not by the professional public, which didn't find many

Construction.

Forty years after the initial idea, construction of the church began on 10 May 1935, 340 years after the burning of Saint Sava's remains. The cornerstone was laid by Metropolitan Gavrilo of Montenegro, (the future Serbian Patriarch Gavrilo V). The project was designed by Aleksandar Deroko and Bogdan Nestorović, aided by civil engineer Vojislav Zađina. The work lasted until Second World War Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941.  The church's foundation had been completed, and the walls erected to the height of 7 and 11 meters. After

Construction ban.

After the end of World War II, the building site was closed due to the changing political situation and the dominant ideological position of communism in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.  Soon after the war, material and financial possibilities to return to the continuation of works were dim. The communist elite identified themselves as atheists and rejected request of the Serbian Orthodox Church to build the site. The unfinished building was transformed to a playground and even various circus troupes used it for their purposes.  Despite decades of efforts by the Serbian Patriarch German to continue building (and after he made 88 requests from 1958 onwards, of which 82 were sent to the President of Yugoslavia Josip

Resuming of work.

Architect Branko Pešić was selected as the new architect of the church. He revised the original plans in order to make better use of new materials and building techniques. Construction of the building began again on 12 August 1985. The original design project proposed a structure composed of masonry and partly reinforced concrete. The state of the existing foundations was learned after detailed investigative work. The four central bell towers were founded on 532 "Simplex" piles, 6 m in depth. The massive perimeter walls are laid on strip foundation 4 m in depth. The quality of the various materials used, i.e. brick, concrete, reinforcement, marble, etc. had been established through investigative work. Detailed survey of the existing structure, the as-built outlines were determined, and served as a

Lifting of the dome.

The greatest achievement of the construction process was lifting of the 4,000 ton central dome, which was built on the ground, together with the copper plate and the cross, and later lifted onto the vaulted arches. The lifting, which took 20 days with the specially constructed hydraulic machines, was finished on 26 June 1989.  Before the dome could be lifted, the four main arches had to be brought into place. The four arches are the elements linking the bell towers both physically and in terms of communication. All four pairs of arches were very successfully lifted and fixed into position between January and June 1988. On the outer arches, which belong to the wing section, the semi-domes were formed, each consisting of eight curved, reinforced concrete trusses covered with curved slab decking. The assembly of the arches was done on the ground from pre-fabricated slabs, with their weight of 4000 kN each, they were lifted with "chains" to their intended position. The

Interruption of works.

After the NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999, the works were halted again. Patriarch Pavle, known for his asceticism, thought that

Final works.

, the exterior of the church was complete. The bells and windows had been installed, and the façade completed. The Russian Academy of Arts under the guidance of Nikolay Mukhin is currently working on the internal decoration. On 22 February 2018, during the presentation of the new internal decoration, the decorated cupola was donated to the Serbian Orthodox Church.

Financing.

The financing of the church was accompanied by many problems. During the initial building phase 1935 to 1941 financing was secured through a public association and donations from the king. From 1985 to 1999 public donations and collections were the only available resources. In 2001 Zoran Djinđić reinstalled the association for the construction of the church which worked from 2002 on. In 2004 the exterior of the church would be completed. Greek donations financed the facade, for which marble slabs from the same country were installed. In 2004 Boris Tadiċ took the chair of the association, and at the end of 2004 help from the Russian Orthodox Church was asked for the finalization of the interior. A fundraising event was hold at the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow, where the Russian Patriarch Alesej II welcomed

Architecture.

Exterior.

The church is centrally planned edifice, having the form of a Greek Cross. It has a large central dome supported on four pendentives and buttressed on each side by a lower semi-dome over an apse. Beneath each semi-dome is a gallery supported on an arcade. The general concept is heavily based on the Hagia Sophia. Its main construction idea stems from the central square beneath the dome, it is closely related to the geometry used by Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. The central square in both churches has sidelines of 31 m, resulting in domes with approximately the same diameter (the dome of Hagia Sophia is slightly larger as it extends by approximately 0,5 the central square). The main differences in the dome structure is the high tambour in Saint Sava and that it is double-shelled. The low dome of Haghia Sophia was designed as calotte in which base 40 windows were set. As thus, both domes are built on pendetifs at 40 m height, the dome of Saint Sava is approximately 10 m higher (54 to 67 m). The naos of the church is 46 m wide and 46 m long. The space behind the iconostasis will not be public, it is 21,80 wide and 17 m long. The church interior has on three sides narthexes of which two have 9 m depth and 31,70 m width. Within the north and south narthex two small chapels will be created. The narthex to the main entrance in the west is 2 m longer and has four more columns than the other two. Above the

Interior.

It has a surface area of on the ground floor, with three galleries of on the first level, and a gallery on the second level. The church can hold 10,000 faithful. The choir gallery seats 800 singers. The basement contains a crypt, the treasury of Saint Sava, and the grave church of Saint Lazar the Hieromartyr, with a total surface of.  The material of the sixteen great columns in the choir were imported from Italy in 1939. The capitals are made of Carrara marble, the columns by green marble from Baveno. The motifs of the capitals were designed by Aleksandar Deroko and were largely executed by Josif Grassi before WW II.  The main iconostasis is made of iron trusses on which

Mosaics.

Sculptures.

Capitals and cornices show a variety of sculptures. The heraldic symbols of the Nemanjić-Dynasty are a dominant motif. Floral motifs and anthorpomorphic figures are inspired by the rich sculptural tradition of the Morava school. The main author of the stone ornaments of the interior decoration was initially Aleksandar Deroko, whose plans were executed on all of the capitals at the columns between narthexes and naos and the altar apse. They were executed by the Swiss sculptor Josif Grassi prior to WW II. After the long delay during the communist period, the decorative work was overseen by Dragomir Acović and executed by Nebojša Savović Neš. A variety of different white marbles from Italy and Greece, green marbles from Italy, South America and India, dark and bright red marbles from Italy and India, yellow and greenish onyx, white limestone, red and white travertin and blue lapis lazuli. These decorative stones cover 1500 m2.

Further details.

Bells.

The church has 49 bells. Four free-swinging bells are in the SW tower. The remaining 45 are part of a carillon, the only ones in the Balkans. All bells were manufactured at the Grassmayr Bell Foundry in Innsbruck,

Criticism.

The architecture of the church has been criticised in several ways through several epochs. It was especially debated after the second competition for Saint Sava in 1926/27, when no first prize was awarded, and after Patriarch Varnava assigned Bogdan Nestorović (1901–1975) in 1930 as winner of a second prize as principal architect to synthesise his plan with Aleksandar Deroko (1894-1988). The result was now asked to resemble the appearance of the Haghia Sophia in Istanbul, which hadn't been a requirement during the competition. The guidelines required an edifice in the Serbian tradition of the late medieval period under Stefan Lazar (i.e. the five-domed churches of the Morava monasteries). Nestorović's own competition entry, based on the most-acclaimed achievement of Serbian medieval architecture, the katholikon of the Gračanica monastery, had also circumvented competition guidelines. Most of the 22 participants had deliberately chosen Haghia Sophia as inspiration. Few entries used modern designs with expressionistic features. Thus Haghia Sophia was the chosen archetype even during the official contest. Most Serbian critics considered this unfitting, as it was not in the national tradition. The universal sacral expression of the Haghia Sophia did albeit fit requirements in the heterogeneous Yugoslav state, which consisted of many different religions and nationalities.  After a criticism campaign started early 1932 in the newsletter Vreme, the most important art debate in the former Yugoslavia began to unfold. It led to the intervention of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia, who approved the reworked plans of Nestoroviċ and Deroko. Nestorović's change of model from "Gracanica" to "Haghia Sophia" is attributed to the new demands of the king and the clerics. The architects had each to present a plaster model at 1:100 scale, that appeared on 6 and 7 January 1932 in the Politika newspaper. Later that year, a new design, the final model, was presented.  Even after this had been adopted, the debate continued. Especially modern art-critics, analyzing the ideological circumstances

Arts.

Pošta Srbije depicted on 14 November 2019 a floorplan and Aleksandar Deroko on a stamp to commemorate his 125th birthday.

The Church of Saint Sava () is a Serbian Orthodox church which sits on the Vračar plateau in Belgrade, Serbia. It was planned as the bishopric seat and main cathedral of the Serbian Orthodox Church. The church is dedicated to Saint Sava, the founder of the Serbian Orthodox Church and an important figure in medieval Serbia. It is built on the presumed location of St. Sava's grave. His coffin had been moved from Mileševa Monastery to Belgrade. It was placed on a pyre and burnt in 1595 by Ottoman Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha. Bogdan Nestorović and Aleksandar Deroko were finally chosen to be the architects in 1932 after a second revised competition in 1926/27 (first awarded to the Krstić Brothers). This sudden decision instigated an important debate in interwar Yugoslavia which centred around the temple's size, design and symbolic national function. It was even thought to transform Belgrade into the centre of Orthodoxy. This was accompanied by a sizeable increase in the base area of the ambitiously conceived project. The new design departed from the competition guidelines issued in 1926, and was to replicate the dimensions and architecture of Hagia Sophia.

圣萨瓦教堂()是塞尔维亚贝尔格莱德的一座塞尔维亚东正教会教堂,是全世界最大的东正教教堂之一,位世界最大教堂之列。该教堂供奉的圣萨瓦,是塞尔维亚东正教会的创始人和中世纪塞尔维亚的重要人物。教堂位于弗拉查尔高原,那是1595年奥斯曼帝国首相思南帕夏焚烧他遗体的地方。它主宰着贝尔格莱德的市容,也许这个城市中最宏伟的建筑。计划中的牧首府位于附近。


Etymology.

The name is recorded in three variants by Jordanes, and an additional two by copyists: "Balaber", "Balamber", "Balamur", "Balambyr", "Balamir". "Balaber" with omission of "-m-" may be a corruption of "Balamber". "Balamir" has the Gothic onomastic suffix "-mir/-mer".  Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen argued that the original form of the name was "Balimber" and that its meaning is unknown.  Omeljan Pritsak considered "Balamur" as the only original Hunnic form of the name. He derived it from a word akin to Mongolian,, (savage, wild, venturous, daring). Pristak thus reconstructs the name as coming from "bala + mur", meaning "the greatest among the venturous, daring".  Hyun Jin Kim argues that the name is simply a corruption of the name Valamir, who he argues to have been the basis of the figure in Jordanes. Kim notes that "Valamir" was written "Βαλαμηρ" ("Balamêr") in Greek. He argues that the name is of uncertain meaning but "seems to have an eastern origin" and suggests a connection to a city in Central Asia called "Balaam" ("Βαλαάμ").

History.

Jordanes recounts:  Those events were preceded by the Huns' attack on the Alans at the Don River, who bordered the Greuthungi, and according to Ammianus Marcellinus, occurred an alliance between them.  The events and names which followed vary according to Ammianus and Cassiodorus (from whose "Gothic History" was summarized "Getica"):  Ammianus wrote that after death of Ermanaric in 375, Vithimiris became the king of the Greuthungi, he resisted the Huns and Alans, but was killed in battle and was succeeded by young son Videric, so they were ruled by "duces" Alatheus and Safrax. They managed to make a confederation of Greuthungi, Alans and Huns, who escaped from the majority of Huns, crossed the Danube in 376, and fought Battle of Adrianople in 378.  Cassiodorus, i.e. Jordanes recounts that after Ermanaric's death Goths separated in Western Visigoths and Eastern Ostrogoths, the latter remained in ""their old Scythian settlements"" under Hunnic rule. The Amal Vinitharius retained the ""insignia of his princely rank"", and trying to escape from the Huns, he invaded the lands of the Antes and their king Boz for merely one year, but Balamber put an end to Ostrogoths independence. After the subjection, followed more complex Ostrogoths royal descending; Ermanaric > Hunimund-Thorismund-Berimud moved with his son Videric with the Visigoths to the West because ""despised the Ostrogoths for their subjection to the Huns"". Then happened forty years of interregnum and Ostrogoths decided to give the rule to Vandalaris's son Valamir, a relative of Thorismund. Valamir eventually deserted Attila's sons in c. 454.  Herwig Wolfram argued the possibility that unknown river "Erac" could be identified with the river Phasis in Lazica. Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen denied the connection with ancient "Erax", and considered Tiligul or lower Dnieper. Wolfram puts the geographical location of events after the battle in 376, in Scythia, but the term shifted more westward and actually meant Dacia and Pannonia.  Maenchen-Helfen considered that Cassiodorus would not admit that the Gothic princess became a wife of Balamber if he was not some sort of a king.  Wolfram argued that although scholars often identify "Vithimiris" with Vinitharius, and "Videric" with Vandalarius, onomatological and genealogical methods do not go along with historical events, and many difficulties arise. One of them was that Balamber lived in the time of Valamir. However, although of similar etymological names, Balamber, Wolfram related to Iranian "Balimber", and as such considered them two different personalities.  A number of scholars such as Edward Arthur Thompson, Hyun-Jin Kim, and Peter Heather consider Balamber's story historically improbable, and he may be a version of the better-attested Valamir, or was an invention by the Goths to explain who defeated them.

Balamber (also known as Balamir, Balamur and many other variants) was ostensibly a chieftain of the Huns, mentioned by Jordanes in his "Getica" ( 550 AD). Jordanes simply called him "king of the Huns" () and writes the story of Balamber crushing the tribes of the Ostrogoths in the 370s; somewhere between 370 and more probably 376 AD.

巴兰比尔(Balamber)是罗马帝国官员约达尼斯在其所著《哥特史》中提到的一位匈人君主。


The Canon in the tradition.

The Canon is traditionally described by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha ("buddhavacana"), though this is not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples.  The traditional Theravādin (Mahavihārin) interpretation of the Pali Canon is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole Canon, compiled by Buddhaghosa (fl. 4th–5th century CE) and later monks, mainly on the basis of earlier materials now lost. Subcommentaries have been written afterward, commenting further on the Canon and its commentaries. The traditional Theravādin interpretation is summarized in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga.  An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma: the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvāna; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations. In Sri Lanka and Thailand, "official" Buddhism has in large part adopted the interpretations of Western scholars.  Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its earlier oral nature has not been forgotten in actual Buddhist practice within the tradition: memorization and recitation remain common. Among frequently recited texts are the Paritta. Even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one understands the meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learned the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth Council (again according to the usual Theravada numbering).  The relation of the scriptures to Buddhism as it actually exists among ordinary monks and lay people is, as with other major religious traditions, problematic: the evidence suggests that only parts of the Canon ever enjoyed wide currency, and that non-canonical works were sometimes very much more widely used; the details varied from place to place. Rupert Gethin suggests that the whole of Buddhist history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures.

Origins.

According to a late part of the Pali Canon, the Buddha taught the three pitakas. It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon originated from the Buddha and his immediate disciples. According to the scriptures, a council was held shortly after the Buddha's passing to collect and preserve his teachings. The Theravada tradition states that it was recited orally from the 5th century BCE to the first century BCE, when it was written down. The memorization was enforced by regular communal recitations. The tradition holds that only a few later additions were made. The Theravādin pitakas were first written down in Sri Lanka in the Alu Viharaya Temple no earlier than 29–17 BCE.  The geographic setting of identifiable texts within the Canon generally corresponds to locations in the Ganges region of northeastern India, including the kingdoms of Kosala, Kasi, Vajji, and Magadha. While Theravada tradition has generally regarded Pali as being synonymous with the language of the kingdom of Magadhi as spoken by the Buddha, linguists have identified Pali as being more closely related to other prakrit languages of western India, and found substantial incompatibilities with the few preserved examples of Magadhi and other north-eastern prakrit languages. Linguistic research suggests that the teachings of the Buddha may have been recorded in an eastern India language originally, but were transposed into the west Indian precursor of Pali sometime before the Asokan era.  Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically Theravādin, but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey, it contains material which is at odds with later Theravādin orthodoxy. He states that "the Theravādins, then, may have "added" texts to the Canon for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period." A variety of factors suggest that the early Sri Lankan Buddhists regarded canonical literature as such and transmitted it conservatively.  Theravada tradition generally treats the Canon as a whole as originating with the Buddha and his immediate disciples (with the exception certain, generally Abhidhamma texts, that explicitly refer to events long after his death). Scholars differ in their views regarding the ultimate origin of the Pali Canon, but generally believe that the Canon includes several strata of relatively early and late texts, but with little consensus regarding the relative dating of different sections of the Canon or which texts belong to which era.

Authorship.

Authorship according to Theravadins.

Prayudh Payutto argues that the Pali Canon represents the teachings of the Buddha essentially unchanged apart from minor modifications. He argues that it also incorporates teachings that precede the Buddha, and that the later teachings were memorized by the Buddha's followers while he was still alive. His thesis is based on study of the processes of the first great council, and the methods for memorization used by the monks, which started during the Buddha's lifetime. It's also based on the capability of a few monks, to this day, to memorize the entire canon.  Bhikkhu Sujato and Bhikkhu Brahmali argue that it is likely that much of the Pali Canon dates back to the time period of the Buddha. They base this on many lines of evidence including the technology described in the canon (apart from the obviously later texts), which matches the technology of his day which was in rapid development, that it doesn't include back written prophecies of the great Buddhist ruler King Ashoka (which Mahayana texts often do) suggesting that it predates his time, that in its descriptions of the political geography it presents India at the time of Buddha, which changed soon after his death, that it has no mention of places in South India, which would have been well known to Indians not long after Buddha's death and various other lines of evidence dating the material back to his time.

Authorship according to academic scholars.

The views of scholars concerning the authorship of the Pali Canon can be grouped into three categories: Scholars have both supported and opposed the various existing views.

Views concerning authorship of the Buddha himself.

Several scholars of early Buddhism argue that the nucleus of the Buddhist teachings in the Pali Canon may derive from Gautama Buddha himself, but that part of it also was developed after the Buddha by his early followers. Richard Gombrich says that the main preachings of the Buddha (as in the Vinaya and Sutta Pitaka) are coherent and cogent, and must be the work of a single person: the Buddha himself, not a committee of followers after his death.  Other scholars are more cautious, and attribute part of the Pali canon to the Buddha's early followers. Peter Harvey also states that "much" of the Pali Canon must derive from the Buddha's teaching, but also states that "parts of the Pali Canon clearly originated after the time of the Buddha." A.K. Warder has stated that there is no evidence to suggest that the shared teaching of the early schools was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers. J.W. de Jong has said it would be "hypocritical" to assert that we can say nothing about the teachings of earliest Buddhism, arguing that "the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas." Alex Wynne has said that some texts in the Pali Canon may go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha's teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words.. He suggests that the canon was composed early on soon after Buddha's paranirvana, but after a period of free improvisation, and then the core teachings were preserved nearly verbatim by memory. Hajime Nakamura writes that while nothing can be definitively attributed to Gautama as a historical figure, some sayings or phrases must derive from him.

Views concerning authorship in the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism.

Most scholars do agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature that a relatively early community maintained and transmitted.  Much of the Pali Canon is found also in the scriptures of other early schools of Buddhism, parts of whose versions are preserved, mainly in Chinese. Many scholars have argued that this shared material can be attributed to the period of Pre-sectarian Buddhism. This is the period before the early schools separated in about the fourth or third century BCE.

Views concerning agnosticism.

Some scholars see the Pali Canon as expanding and changing from an unknown nucleus. Arguments given for an agnostic attitude include that the evidence for the Buddha's teachings dates from (long) after his death.  Some scholars of later Indian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism say that little or nothing goes back to the Buddha. Ronald Davidson has little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historical Buddha. Geoffrey Samuel says the Pali Canon largely derives from the work of Buddhaghosa and his colleagues in the 5th century CE. Gregory Schopen argues that it is not until the 5th to 6th centuries CE that we can know anything definite about the contents of the Canon. This position was criticized by A. Wynne.

Authorship of the Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Western scholarship suggests that the Abhidhamma Pitaka was likely began to be composed around 300 BCE, but may have drawn on an earlier tradition of lists and rubrics known as'matrika'. Traditional accounts include it among the texts recited at the First Buddhist Council and attribute differences in form and style to its composition by Sariputra.

The earliest books of the Pali Canon.

Different positions have been taken on what the earliest books of the Canon are. The majority of Western scholars consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works, the Vinaya (excluding the Parivāra) and the first four nikāyas of the Sutta Pitaka, and perhaps also some short verse works such as the Suttanipata. However, some scholars, particularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipāta is the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udāna. However, some of the developments in teachings may only reflect changes in teaching that the Buddha himself adopted, during the 45 years that the Buddha was teaching.  Scholars generally agree that the early books include some later additions. Aspects of these late additions are or may be from a much earlier period. Other aspects of the Pali Canon, such as the information about society and South Asian history, are in doubt because the Pali Canon was extensively redacted in the 5th- or 6th-century CE, nearly a thousand years after the death of the Buddha. Further, this redacted Pali Canon of Sri Lanka itself mentions that the compilation had previously been redacted towards the end of 1st-century BCE. According to the Early Buddhism scholar Lars Fogelin, the Pali Canon of Sri Lanka is a modified Canon and "there is no good reason to assume that Sri Lankan Buddhism resembles Early Buddhism in the mainland, and there are numerous reasons to argue that it does not."  One of the edicts of Ashoka, the 'Calcutta-Bairat edict', lists several works from the canon which he considers advantageous. According to Alexander Wynne:  The general consensus seems to be that what Asoka calls Munigatha correspond to the Munisutta (Sn 207-21), Moneyasute is probably the second half of the Nalakasutta (Sn 699-723), and Upatisapasine may correspond to the Sariputtasutta (Sn 955-975). The identification of most of the other titles is less certain, but Schmithausen, following Oldenberg before him, identifies what Asoka calls the Laghulovada with part of a prose text in the Majjhima Nikaya, the Ambalatthika-Rahulovada Sutta (M no.61).  This seems to be evidence which indicates that some of these texts were already fixed by the time of the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BCE), which means that some of the texts carried by the Buddhist missionaries at this time might also have been fixed.  According to the Sri Lankan Mahavamsa, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagāmini () (1st century BCE) in Sri Lanka, at the Fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that little if anything was added to the Canon after this, though Schopen questions this.

Texts.

Manuscripts.

The climate of Theravāda countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manuscripts known are from late in the fifteenth century, and there is not very much from before the eighteenth.

Printed editions and digitized editions.

The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes. The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West:  No one edition has all the best readings, and scholars must compare different editions.

Translations.

"Pali Canon in English Translation", 1895-, in progress, 43 volumes so far, Pali Text Society, Bristol; for details of these and other translations of individual books see the separate articles. In 1994, the then President of the Pali Text Society stated that most of these translations were unsatisfactory. Another former President said in 2003 that most of the translations were done very badly. The style of many translations from the Canon has been criticized as "Buddhist Hybrid English", a term invented by Paul Griffiths for translations from Sanskrit. He describes it as "deplorable", "comprehensible only to the initiate, written by and for Buddhologists".  Selections: see List of Pali Canon anthologies.  A translation by Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi of the Majjhima Nikaya was published by Wisdom Publications in 1995.  Translations by Bhikkhu Bodhi of the Samyutta Nikaya and the Anguttara Nikaya were published by Wisdom Publications in 2003 and 2012, respectively.  In 2018, new translations of the entirety of the five Nikayas were made freely available on the website suttacentral by the Australian Bhikkhu Sujato, the translations were also released into the Public Domain.  A Japanese translation of the Canon, edited by Takakusu Junjiro, was published in 65 volumes from 1935 to 1941 as The Mahātripiṭaka of the Southern Tradition (南伝大蔵経 "Nanden daizōkyō").  A Chinese translation of the above-mentioned Japanese translation was undertaken between 1990-1998 and thereafter printed under the patronage of Kaoshiung's Yuan Heng Temple.

Contents of the Canon.

As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas.  Details are given below. For more complete information, see standard references on Pali literature.

Vinaya Pitaka.

The first category, the "Vinaya Pitaka", is mostly concerned with the rules of the "sangha", both monks and nuns. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts:

Sutta Pitaka.

The second category is the "Sutta Pitaka" (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: "Sutra Pitaka", following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions, or nikayas:

Abhidhamma Pitaka.

The third category, the "Abhidhamma Pitaka" (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: "Abhidharma Pitaka"), is a collection of texts which give a scholastic explanation of Buddhist doctrines particularly about mind, and sometimes referred to as the "systematic philosophy" basket. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka:  The traditional position is that "abhidhamma" refers to the absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas: Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions.

Use of Brahmanical Language.

The Pali Canon uses many Brahmanical terminology and concepts. For example, the "Sundarika Sutta" includes an analogy, quoted in several other places in the Canon, where the Buddha describes the Agnihotra as the foremost sacrifice and the Gayatri mantra as the foremost meter:  These Brahmanical motives are sometimes introduced in order to "establish a link with the deeds and beliefs of Brahmins", referencing "shared ideas" that were part of the culture of ancient India. In many other instances, they are introduced in order to establish unfavorable comparisons with Buddhist teachings or practices- after identifying the fire sacrifice as the foremost of the Brahminist sacrifices, the Buddha goes on to explain how it is surpassed by the kindling of "inner light" that he practices as an arahant.

Comparison with other Buddhist canons.

The other two main Buddhist canons in use in the present day are the Chinese Buddhist Canon and the Tibetan Kangyur.  The standard modern edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon is the Taishō Revised Tripiṭaka, with a hundred major divisions, totaling over 80,000 pages. This includes Vinayas for the Dharmaguptaka, Sarvāstivāda, Mahīśāsaka, and Mahāsaṃghika schools. It also includes the four major Āgamas, which are analogous to the Nikayas of the Pali Canon. Namely, they are the Saṃyukta Āgama, Madhyama Āgama, Dīrgha Āgama, and Ekottara Āgama. Also included are the Dhammapada, the Udāna, the Itivuttaka, and Milindapanha. There are also additional texts, including early histories, that are preserved from the early Buddhist schools but not found in Pali. The canon contains voluminous works of Abhidharma, especially from the Sarvāstivāda school. The Indian works preserved in the Chinese Canon were translated mostly from Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit, or from regional Prakrits. The Chinese generally referred to these simply as "Sanskrit" (Ch. 梵語, Fànyǔ). The first woodblock printing of the entire Chinese Buddhist Canon was done during the Song dynasty by imperial order in China in CE 971; the earliest dated printed Buddhist sutra was the Diamond Sutra printed in CE 868 (printed by an upāsaka for free distribution); although printing of individual Buddhist sutras and related materials may have started as early as the 7th century CE.  The Tibetan Kangyur comprises about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka, the Dhammapada (under the title "Udanavarga") and parts of some other books. Due to the later compilation, it contains comparatively fewer early Buddhist texts than the Pali and Chinese canons.  The Chinese and Tibetan canons are not translations of the Pali and differ from it to varying extents, but contain some recognizably similar early works. However, the Abhidharma books are fundamentally different works from the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Chinese and Tibetan canons also consist of Mahāyāna sūtras and Vajrayāna tantras, which have few parallels in the Pali Canon.

The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school.

巴利三藏(;英语:Pāli Canon),在汉地又作巴利文大藏经、南传大藏经、巴利圣典,指锡兰上座部所传用巴利语写成之佛教三藏,是早期佛教经典的结集。


History.

Like the other mountains in China with strong Taoist presence, Heng Shan has been considered a sacred mountain since the Zhou Dynasty. Due to its northerly location, often under control of non-Chinese nations, the mountain has a weaker history of pilgrimage than its four fellows. Indeed, to this day it is the least-visited and least-developed of the five, also the smallest in area. Because of this, Hengshan is not nearly as religiously important in China as the other Taoist mountains. But as a further consequence, it is also less commercialized—there are no hotels on the mountain, for instance. The main peak is a lovely hike of around three hours round trip from the parking lot (a few miles up the mountain from where you buy the ticket), with the summit covered in fragrant lilac blossoms in June, and temples set into the cliffs. The slopes are largely covered with hemlocks, pines, elm, fir, poplar, and hawthorn, in the barer areas.

Temples.

During the Han Dynasty, a temple called the Shrine of the Northern Peak (Beiyue Miao), dedicated to the mountain god was built on Hengshan's slopes. While periodically destroyed and rebuilt, this temple has an uninterrupted history from Han times to the present day. During times of occupation by non-Han Chinese people, worship to Hengshan was done at the Beiyue Temple in Quyang.  Another temple of the area is the famous Hanging Temple, built more than 1,500 years ago into a cliff near the Mount.

Mount Heng, also known by its Chinese name Hengshan, is a mountain in north-central China's Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.

恒山又名元岳、常山、北岳,明代之前指河北大茂山,清代顺治时因改祭北岳于山西省浑源县玄岳山,遂称浑源玄岳山为恒山。恒山山脉为东北-西南走向,绵延150公里。恒山主峰天峰岭海拔2016.1米,主庙北岳庙,供奉着恒山神,即北岳大帝。


乔瑟夫·麦克吉帝·尼克尔

Early life.

Joseph McGinty Nichol was born in Kalamazoo, Michigan, and grew up in Newport Beach, California. As his uncle and grandfather were also named Joe, his mother nicknamed him "McG" to avoid confusion.  McG attended Corona del Mar High School, where he met Mark McGrath. Initially he wanted to become the lead singer of a band he formed with McGrath. However, he failed as a front man and persuaded McGrath to take over. Instead he worked behind the scenes as producer and marketer for the band until he was 22. He then obtained a Bachelor of Arts in psychology from UC Irvine. The band had several hit singles as Sugar Ray, signed with a label, and went on tour. McG worked as a still photographer, shooting local bands and musicians. This led him to form a record label known as G Recordings in 1993.

Career.

Early work.

In 1995, McG produced Sugar Ray's first album and co-wrote several songs on their second, including their smash hit "Fly". His music career included directing over fifty music videos such as Smash Mouth's "All Star", The Offspring's "Pretty Fly (For a White Guy)", and directing documentaries on Korn and Sugar Ray. In 1997, he was awarded the Billboard's Pop Video of the Year Award for Smash Mouth's "Walking on the Sun" and the Music Video Production Association's Pop Video of the Year Award for Sugar Ray's "Fly". Eventually, this landed him in the television commercial business, directing advertisements for Major League Baseball and Coca-Cola. A notable one was a commercial for Gap, which was honored at the 1999 London International Film Festival.

2000–2007.

Impressed with McG's music videos, Drew Barrymore approached him about directing a "Charlie's Angels" film. He accepted, wanting to take on bigger projects, and pitched the movie to the studio executives, who were initially reluctant but later approved the project after much persistence. The film, for which he was paid $350,000, was released in 2000 and went on to gross over $250 million worldwide with mixed critical reception from critics and fans alike. However, he won the Hollywood Breakthrough Award at the 6th Annual Hollywood Film Festival held in 2002. Proving himself to be quite bankable, Sony paid him $2.5 million to helm the military action-drama "Dreadnought" for Red Wagon Entertainment. He was also set to develop a sequel to "Charlie's Angels" and present his film producing debut with "Airshow", the latter of which has yet to be made.  In February 2002, Jon Peters and Lorenzo di Bonaventura attached him onto the fifth installment in the "Superman" film series that was in development hell, thus putting his previous projects on hold. McG and Peters hired J. J. Abrams to pen a new script for the film entitled "Superman: Flyby", which was submitted in July 2002. Bailing out of the project in favor of "" in September 2002, McG was replaced by Brett Ratner. Meanwhile, he developed and co-created a television series with John McNamara called "Fastlane" (2002), which was eventually canceled after one season due to the high costs of each episode. Josh Schwartz approached him and his producing partner, Stephanie Savage, about another television series as well, "The O.C." (2003), which revolved around the lives of several teenagers based in McG's hometown of Newport Beach. McG was set to direct the pilot, but because of scheduling conflicts with "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle", he was replaced by Doug Liman. The show ended after four seasons in 2007.  The sequel to "Charlie's Angels" followed in 2003, and although not as successful as the first, "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle" (2003) also made over $250 million worldwide. Shortly thereafter, Sony extended its first-look production deal with Wonderland Sound and Vision for an additional three years, with "Hot Wheels", "Airshow", and "Radiant" on their film slate. Since then, none of those films have been developed with the former, which was previously supposed to be a directing vehicle for him in 2003 (he later chose to produce instead in 2006), being put into turnaround in 2009.  Warner Bros., still satisfied with his bankability, re-hired him to direct "Superman: Flyby" in April 2003 after Ratner had dropped out due to casting and pre-production difficulties. During his tenure, McG and the producers spent more than $15 million planning storyboards, concept art, and locations, as well as having script revisions and the film completely pre-visualized. However, McG later left the project, citing his fear of flying to Sydney. This eventually brought Bryan Singer on board in July 2004, resulting in "Superman Returns". McG produced the television series, "The Mountain" (2004), on the same year, also getting canceled after one season.  His next television work was "Supernatural" (2005), for which he served as an executive producer until 2013. The following year saw Warner Bros. allowing McG, who "looked to improve as a storyteller and wanted to get more substantial material," to direct "We Are Marshall" (2006), a sports drama film. Although the film received mixed critical reception, McG was complimented for his ability of emotional storytelling. Jessica Reaves of the "Chicago Tribune" noted that "McG shows new maturity. Scenes that could have been played for ghoulish effect, like the plane crash and its fiery aftermath, are handled with skillful efficiency." At a budget of $35 million, the film only made $43.5 million. He had also produced the horror film "Stay Alive" (2006), which received largely negative reception.  Along with Adam Brody, McG was next set to produce a remake of the cult comedy hit "Revenge of the Nerds", planned for a release in 2007 with a budget of $12.5 million and filming to begin at Emory University. However, after reviewing the script, university officials backed out two weeks before filming, citing it as "too bawdy." This led the film to be shot at Agnes Scott College for two weeks, but producers Fox Atomic shelved it due to the "lack of wide open space Emory's campus would have afforded them and [the fact that] winter was fast approaching making the prospect of shooting the movie's many outdoor scenes problematic." Furthermore, studio executive Peter Rice was disappointed with the dailies.  In 2007, McG worked mostly on television, producing "" (2007) and "Chuck" (2007). Co-created by Josh Schwartz, his partner on "The O.C.", he directed the latter's pilot and continues to be an executive producer on the ongoing series. Fox had also given a script commitment to "Invisible", a television pilot written by Ari Eisner about a criminal who becomes invisible he was supposed to produce, and "We Are Marshall" writer Jamie Linden was working with him on a TV pilot called "Flash Back". However, as of 2011, there have been no updates on these shows.

2007–present.

On August 2, 2007, McG signed a three-year first-look production deal for his Wonderland Sound and Vision company with Warner Bros., planning to "produce three movies a year" and directing "one of them every year." The first four films set up were "Nightcrawlers" (now known as "Monster Squad"), an untitled spy project, "Yucatan", and "Maintenance". The former, about an aberrant father who must confront his childhood tormentor to rid of his fear of monsters and the dark, was arranged to start in November 2007, but McG dropped out and was later replaced by Mike Mitchell; the untitled spy project was rewritten by Phil Alden Robinson and was to be produced by Basil Iwanyk; "Yucatan", based on Steve McQueen's leftover notes and storyboards of his passion project, is an epic adventurous heist film, though Warner Bros. has now placed the project under Team Downey; and "Maintenance" was a film adaptation of Jim Massey's comic book series of the same name about two janitors who work for a weapons manufacturer that supply to the world's most evil super villains, but the rights of the film has moved to DreamWorks Animation. As a result, none of them will feature the involvement of McG.  On October 30, 2007, Fox approved a pilot for an American remake of the British cult show "Spaced", which McG served as an executive producer, even though Simon Pegg and fans were outraged at the prospect of having a remake without the original creators' involvement. Nonetheless, the pilot, written by Adam Barr, was panned before its airing, resulting in Fox scrapping the series. McG then executive produced "" (2008). The "Pussycat Dolls Present" series was canceled afterward. He was the executive producer for the WB Television Network's online series, "Sorority Forever" (2008) and "Exposed" (2010), as well.  McG's next film project was "Terminator Salvation" (2009), the fourth installment of the "Terminator" film series that introduces the future war fought between humanity and Skynet. After the Halcyon Company purchased the rights, they signed McG onto the project, for which he was paid $6 million. Although he promised fans that he would bring back credibility to the saga, with the casting of Christian Bale and a personal talk with James Cameron, the film, released on May 21, 2009 in the United States and Canada, received mixed reviews. It grossed $371 million worldwide, well below industry expectations considering its high budget.  Following "Terminator Salvation", he was expected to direct a remake of "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" for Disney, for which he was interested in casting Sam Worthington for Captain Nemo. However, after spending nearly $10 million on pre-production work, Walt Disney Studios' movie chief Rich Ross put the project on hold indefinitely due to creative concerns, and McG is no longer attached. Subsequently, he went into negotiations with 20th Century Fox to direct "This Means War", a spy comedy project about two best friends who go to war against each other after falling for the same girl. Though initially troubled with numerous casting dropouts, including Bradley Cooper, Seth Rogen, and Sam Worthington, the film was finally filmed in Vancouver and was released in 2012. Since then, he has been in negotiations for the directing duties for Universal Pictures' "Oujia" (a film based on the Hasbro board game of the same name,) and has been attached to Lorene Scafaria's pitch based on a "Rolling Stone" article about the true life events of Esther Reed named "The Girl Who Conned the Ivy League," along with Amanda Seyfried, and a high-profile untitled space adventure project written by David Callaham for 20th Century Fox. McG was also in discussions to supervise development and direct the fifth installment of the "Terminator" film series, having made a $10 million right-of-first-refusal deal with the Halcyon Company, but with the rights of the series transferred to hedge fund Pacificor, his further involvement is unlikely. The film adaptation of Peter M. Lenkov's graphic novel series "R.I.P.D." was another project he was circling, but because of his commitment to "This Means War", he was replaced by Robert Schwentke. He produced "The Duff" (2015), a teen comedy based on a book.  McG has also delved into comics with Wonderland set to publish the original "Haunted City", written by Chap Taylor, that will expand into a feature film, which he plans to direct, a television show, and a video game.  He has been actively developing a film adaptation of the rock musical "Spring Awakening", planning to independently produce and film it in six weeks for $25 million, with additional producing duties for: a film adaptation of Jon Stock's "Dead Spy Running" novel that is meant to reinvent the spy genre; "I Am A Genius of Unspeakable Evil and I Want to be Your Class President", a film adaptation of the book of the same name by Josh Lieb; "Medieval", a film he was previously set to direct but is now being helmed by Rob Cohen; "Elysium", a modern retelling of a classic Greek myth written by Matt Cirulnick for New Regency; "Medallion", an action thriller starring Nicolas Cage about a former master thief on the search for his kidnapped daughter; "Tink", a live action romantic comedy based on Disney's Tinkerbell; and CBS Films' "Face It". Other projects he has expressed interest in include a World War II film and an adaptation of "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?", which was previously filmed by Ridley Scott as 1982's "Blade Runner".  For his television work, Wonderland Sound & Vision sold three pilots for the 09–10 season: "Thunder Road", a reality show described as an automobile version of "Wipeout", for CBS; "Limelight", a contemporary version of "Fame" based on the life of Pharrell Williams, who was also executive producing, for ABC; and "Human Target", loosely based on the comic book of the same name about a bodyguard hired to protect his clients, for Fox. Only the latter ended up airing on network TV, debuting on January 17, 2010, and ending after two seasons. On the same year, The CW gave a series order to "Nikita", a remake of "La Femme Nikita", which premiered on September 9.  Since 2009, McG and Wonderland Sound & Vision have been lined up to produce numerous shows for a variety of networks: the Josh Friedlander-developed "Camp Morningwood"; "Our Show", an NBC comedy project co-developed with Larry Charles about "a disparate group of people who begin making episodes of their favorite sci-fi show after it ends"; the Danny Comden-penned "The Intruders"; an untitled space Western conceived by Scott Rosenbaum; and "Clive Barker's Hotel" for ABC, about "a series of ghoulish incidents at a haunted hotel." However, like the majority of shows that get green-lit every season, none of them has actually aired or picked up for a full season.  The recent line-up of shows he's been attached to are "Zombies vs. Vampires", a buddy cop series about two officers, one of whom is a vampire, that deal with "zombie crimes"; a private eye series named "I, PI" he co-developed with Paul Scheuring; and the web series "Aim High", premiered on October 18, 2011 on Facebook.  On December 11, 2008, he was awarded the Kodak filmmaker of the year by CineAsia.  In October 2011 McG was set to direct "Puzzle Palace" for the Summit Entertainment.  On January 22, 2016, Deadline reported that McG will direct the reboot film for "Masters of the Universe" and will also oversee a rewrite of the script. It was announced on April 26, 2017, that McG would no longer be directing or involved with the film.

Personal life.

McG has suffered from agoraphobia. He was unable to board a plane going to Australia to shoot "" and dropped from the film as a result. McG told people he suffered from fear of flying despite the issue being persistent agoraphobia. "It was easier to say it was a fear of flying because, while it might make me look weak, people can understand it and I don't have to say, 'Well, I'm kind of crazy,'" he told Fast Company.  His brother died of a cocaine overdose in 2007, which he says has kept him grounded and reminds him not to take life for granted.  He and actress Bridget Moynahan dated for a time, starting in late 2010, after having met on an airplane.

Filmography.

Film.

Producer only

Television.

Executive Producer only

Joseph McGinty Nichol (born August 9, 1968), known professionally as McG, is an American director, producer, and former record producer.

乔瑟夫·麦克吉帝·尼克尔(英语:Joseph McGinty "McG" Nichol,1968年-8月9日)是一名美国男导演。因为他的母亲姓McGinty,因而其家人和公众媒体也常称呼他为麦克G(英语:McG)。尼克尔曾多次参与过《霹雳娇娃》、《橘郡风云》和《邪恶力量》的创作与导演。


Life and career.

Legrand, who was of Armenian descent, was born in Paris to his father, Raymond Legrand, who was himself a conductor and composer, and his mother, Marcelle Ter-Mikaëlian, who was the sister of conductor Jacques Hélian. Raymond and Marcelle were married in 1929.  Legrand composed more than two hundred film and television scores. He won three Oscars and five Grammys. He studied music at the Conservatoire de Paris from age 11, working with, among others, Nadia Boulanger and graduated with top honors as both a composer and a pianist. He burst upon the international music scene at 22 when his album "I Love Paris" became a surprise hit. He established his name in the United States by working with such jazz stars as Miles Davis and Stan Getz. His sister Christiane Legrand was a member of The Swingle Singers and his niece Victoria Legrand is a member of the dream pop band Beach House.  Legrand composed music for Jacques Demy's films "The Umbrellas of Cherbourg" (1964) and "The Young Girls of Rochefort" (1966), and appeared and performed in Agnès Varda's "Cléo from 5 to 7" (1961). He also composed music for "The Thomas Crown Affair" (1968) (which features "The Windmills of Your Mind"), "The Lady in the Car with Glasses and a Gun" (1970), "The Go-Between" (1971), "Summer of '42" (1971), Orson Welles's last-completed film "F for Fake" (1974) and would later compose the score for Welles's posthumously-released movie "The Other Side of the Wind" (2018). He also composed the score for "Yentl" (1983), as well as the film score for Louis Malle's film "Atlantic City" (1980). His instrumental version of the theme from "Brian's Song" charted 56th in 1972 on the "Billboard"'s pop chart.  Legrand died of sepsis, during the night of 25 to 26 January 2019, at the American Hospital of Paris in Neuilly-sur-Seine, where he had been hospitalized for two weeks for a pulmonary infection. His funeral was held in Paris at the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral on 1 February 2019. He was interred at the Père Lachaise Cemetery. He remained active until his death and had concerts scheduled to take place in the spring.

Musical theatre.

In 1997, Legrand composed the score for the musical "Le Passe-muraille", with a book by Didier Van Cauwelaert. It premiered on Broadway in 2002 as "Amour" and was translated into English by Jeremy Sams and was directed by James Lapine. This musical was his Broadway debut and he was nominated for a Tony Award in 2003 for Best Score. Later he recorded "Legrand Affair" with Melissa Errico, a 100-piece symphony orchestra that included songs with lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman.  The world premiere of the new musical "Marguerite" from Alain Boublil and Claude-Michel Schönberg, the creators of "Les Misérables" and "Miss Saigon", included music by Michel Legrand and lyrics by Herbert Kretzmer. "Marguerite" is set during World War II in occupied Paris, and was inspired by the romantic novel "La Dame aux Camélias" by Alexandre Dumas fils. It premiered in May 2008 at the Haymarket Theatre, London and was directed by Jonathan Kent.

Awards.

Legrand has won three Oscars (from 13 nominations), five Grammys, and was nominated for an Emmy. His first Academy Award win was in 1969 for the song "The Windmills of Your Mind", followed with the Academy Award for his music for "Summer of ’42" in 1972 and for "Yentl" in 1984.  Following are a selection of the awards and nominations with which Legrand's works have been honored:

Academy Award awards and nominations.

Source: AllMovie

Golden Globe awards and nominations.

Source: All Movie

Grammy Award awards and nominations.

Source: Grammy.com

Michel Jean Legrand (; 24 February 1932 – 26 January 2019) was a French musical composer, arranger, conductor, and jazz pianist. Legrand was a prolific composer, having written over 200 film and television scores, in addition to many songs. His scores for the films of French New Wave director Jacques Demy, "The Umbrellas of Cherbourg" (1964) and "The Young Girls of Rochefort" (1967), earned Legrand his first Academy Award nominations. Legrand won his first Oscar for the song "The Windmills of Your Mind" from "The Thomas Crown Affair" (1968).

米切尔·莱格兰德(,,1932年-2月24日-2019年-1月26日),法国作曲家、编曲家、指挥家和爵士乐钢琴师。职业生涯共为200多部影视作品创作配乐和歌曲,作品包括法国新浪潮导演雅克·德米的《瑟堡的雨伞》(1964年)和《柳媚花娇》(1967年),后者使得他首次获得奥斯卡金像奖提名。他最终凭借1968年电影《龙凤斗智》歌曲《心中的风车》赢得个人首个奥斯卡奖。


Past no-fly zones.

Iraq, 1991–2003.

Following the invasion of Iraq by the United States, the United Kingdom, France and other states in the first Gulf War, the United States along with allied nations established two no-fly zones in Iraq. The US stated that the northern no-fly zone was intended to prevent attacks against the Kurdish people by the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein, and that the southern no-fly-zone was intended to protect Iraq's Shia population. In 1998, the Iraqi Air Force deployed chemical weapons against Kurdish civilians killing ~5000. This air-to-ground event served as part of the motivation used by former Coalition Forces in order to extend and expand the NFZs, as well as citing parts of Chapter 42 within the U.N. Charter. The southern no-fly zone originally extended to the 32nd parallel but was extended to the 33rd parallel in 1996.

Legal status.

This military action was not authorised by the UN.  The Secretary-General of the UN at the time the resolution was passed, Boutros Boutros-Ghali called the no-fly zones "illegal" in a February 2003 interview with John Pilger. In 1996 France withdrew from the operation, with French Foreign Minister Hubert Vedrine saying that "there is no basis in international law for this type of bombing".

Civilian deaths.

The United Nations found that in 1999 alone 144 civilians were killed by US and UK bombing. Reports from Baghdad say that more than 1,400 civilians were killed in the US and British attacks in the NFZs. An internal UN Security Sector report found that, in one five-month period, 41% of the victims were civilians.

Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1993–1995.

In 1992, the United Nations Security Council passed United Nations Security Council Resolution 781, prohibiting unauthorized military flights in Bosnian airspace. This led to Operation Sky Monitor, where NATO monitored violations of the no-fly zone but did not take action against violators of the resolution. In response to 500 documented violations by 1993, including one combat violation, the Security Council passed Resolution 816, which prohibited all unauthorized flights and allowed all UN member states to "take all necessary measures...to ensure compliance with [the no-fly zone restrictions]." This led to Operation Deny Flight. NATO later launched air strikes during Operation Deny Flight and during Operation Deliberate Force.

Lessons from Iraq and Bosnia.

A 2004 Stanford University paper published in Journal of Strategic Studies, "Lessons from Iraq and Bosnia on the Theory and Practice of No-fly Zones," reviewed the effectiveness of the air-based campaigns in achieving military objectives. The paper's findings were: 1) A clear, unified command structure is essential. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, during "Operation Deny Flight," a confusing dual-key coordination structure provided inadequate authority and resulted in air forces not being given authority to assist in key situations; 2) To avoid a "perpetual patrol problem," states must know in advance their policy objectives and the exit strategy for no-fly zones; 3) The effectiveness of no-fly zones is highly dependent on regional support. A lack of support from Turkey for the 1996 Iraq no-fly zone ultimately constrained the coalition's ability to effectively enforce it.

Libya, 2011.

As part of the 2011 military intervention in Libya, the United Nations Security Council approved a no-fly zone on 17 March 2011. The resolution includes provisions for further actions to prevent attacks on civilian targets. NATO seized the opportunity to take the offensive, bombing Libyan government positions during the civil war. The NATO no fly zone was terminated on 27 October after a unanimous vote by the UNSC.

Libya, 2018 and 2019.

A no-fly zone was declared by the Libyan National Army (LNA) in the country's south during the LNA's offensive in the region in 2018. It was later re-implemented for 10 days in 2019 as the LNA established control over oil fields in the region. The LNA declared another no-fly zone in the country's west, during the 2019 Western Libya offensive. These no-fly zones can be distinguished by the fact that they are implemented by one belligerent party to a civil war on another, instead of being enforced by a foreign power.

A no-fly zone, or no-flight zone (NFZ), air exclusion zone (AEZ), is a territory or area established by a military power over which certain aircraft are not permitted to fly. Such zones are usually set up by a foreign power in an enemy power's territory during a conflict, somewhat like a demilitarized zone in the sky, and usually intend to prohibit the country's military aircraft from operating in the region. Aircraft that violate a no-fly zone may be shot down by the enforcing state, depending on the terms of the NFZ. Air exclusion zones and anti-aircraft defences are sometimes set up in a civilian context, for example to protect sensitive locations, or events such as the 2012 London Olympic Games, against terrorist air attack.

禁-{}-航区(英语对应词:英语:no-fly zone、英语:no-flight zone,简写为英语:NFZ),又称禁-{}-飞区,是指禁止任何未经特别申请许可的航空器(包括飞机、直升机、热气球、无人机等)飞入或飞越的空中区域。其划定大多出于国防考量,例如军事基地、重要政府机构、重要公共设施(如核电厂、水坝)上空等。另外也有基于飞行安全的理由,例如摩天大楼、火山活动区上空等。此外在国际社会上,在发生战乱的国家或地区,为了人道的需求,会由联合国出面划设禁航区。