Biography.

Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov was born in Moscow into the respectable noble family of Lermontov, and he grew up in the village of Tarkhany (now Lermontovo in Penza Oblast). His paternal family descended from the Scottish family of Learmonth, and can be traced to Yuri (George) Learmonth, a Scottish officer in the Polish-Lithuanian service who settled in Russia in the middle of the 17th century. He had been captured by the Russian troops in Poland in the early 17th century, during the reign (1613–1645) of Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov. Family legend asserted that George Learmonth descended from the famed 13th-century Scottish poet Thomas the Rhymer (also known as Thomas Learmonth). Lermontov's father, Yuri Petrovich Lermontov, like his father before him, followed a military career. Having moved up the ranks to captain, he married the sixteen-year-old Maria Mikhaylovna Arsenyeva, a wealthy young heiress of a prominent aristocratic Stolypin family. Lermontov's maternal grandmother, Elizaveta Arsenyeva (née Stolypina), regarded their marriage as a mismatch and deeply disliked her son-in-law. On October 15, 1814, in Moscow where the family temporarily moved to, Maria gave birth to her son Mikhail.

Early life.

The marriage proved ill-suited and the couple soon grew apart. "There is no strong evidence as to what had precipitated the quarrels they've had. There are reasons to believe Yuri has got tired of his wife's nervousness and frail health, and his mother-in-law's despotic ways," according to literary historian and Lermontov scholar Alexander Skabichevsky. An earlier biographer, Pavel Viskovatov, suggested the discord might have been caused by Yuri's affair with a young woman named Yulia, a lodger who worked in the house. Apparently it was her husband's violent, erratic behavior and the resulting stresses that accounted for Maria Mikhaylovna's early demise. Her health quickly deteriorated, she developed tuberculosis and died on 27 February 1817, aged only 21.  Nine days after Maria's death a final row broke out in Tarkhany

School years.

After having received a year of private tutoring, in February 1829 the thirteen-year old Lermontov took exams and joined the 5th form of the Moscow University's boarding-school for the nobility's children. Here his personal tutor was poet Alexey Merzlyakov, alongside Zinoviev, who taught Russian and Latin. Under their influence the boy started to read a lot, making the best of his vast home library, which included books by Mikhail Lomonosov, Gavrila Derzhavin, Ivan Dmitriev, Vladislav Ozerov, Konstantin Batyushkov, Ivan Krylov, Ivan Kozlov, Vasily Zhukovsky, and Alexander Pushkin. Soon he started editing an amateur student journal. One of his friends, his cousin Yekaterina Sushkova (Khvostova, in marriage) described the young man as "married to a hefty volume of Byron". Yekaterina had at one time been the object of Lermontov's affections and to her he dedicated some

Moscow University.

In August 1830 Lermontov enrolled in Moscow University's philological faculty. "Petty arrogance" (as Skabichevsky puts it) prevented him from joining any of the three radical students' circles (those led respectively by Vissarion Belinsky, Nikolai Stankevich and Alexander Hertzen). Instead he drifted towards an aristocracic clique, but even this cream of the Moscow's "golden youth" detested the young man for being too aloof, while still giving him credit for having charisma. "Everyone could see that Lermontov was obnoxious, rough and daring, and yet there was something alluring in his firm moroseness," fellow-student Wistengof admitted. Attending lectures faithfully, Lermontov would often read a book in the corner of the auditorium, and never took part in student life, making exceptions only for incidents involving grand-scale trouble-making. He took an active part in the notorious 1831 Malov scandal (when a jeering mob drove the unpopular professor out of the auditorium), but wasn't formally reprimanded (unlike Hertzen, who found himself incarcerated).

1832–1837.

In mid-1832 Lermontov, accompanied by grandmother, traveled to Saint Petersburg, with a view of joining the Saint Petersburg University's second-year course. This proved impossible and, unwilling to repeat the first year, he enrolled into the prestigious School of Cavalry Junkers and Ensign of the Guard, under pressure from his male relatives but much to Arsenyeva's distress. Having passed the exams, on November 14, 1832, Lermontov joined the Life-Guard Hussar regiment as a junior officer. One of his fellow cadet-school students, Nikolai Martynov, the one whose fatal shot would kill the poet several years later, in his biographical "Notes" decades later described him as "the young man who was so far ahead of everybody else, as to be beyond comparison," a "real grown-up who'd read and thought and understood a lot about the human nature." The sort of glittering army career which tempted young noblemen of the time proved a challenge for Lermontov. Books there were a rarity and reading was frowned upon. Lermontov had to indulge mostly in physical competitions, one of which resulted in a horse-riding accident which left him with a broken knee that produced a limp. Learning to enjoy the heady mix of drills and discipline, wenching and drinking sprees, Lermontov continued to sharpen the poisonous wit and cruel humour which would often earn him enemies. "The time of my dreams has passed; the time for believing is long gone; now I want material pleasures, happiness that I can touch, happiness

First exile.

In the Caucasus Lermontov found himself quite at home. The stern and gritty virtues of the mountain tribesmen against whom he had to fight, no less than the scenery of the rocks and of the mountains themselves, were close to his heart. The place of his exile was also the land he had loved as a child. Attracted to the nature of the Caucasus and excited by its folklore, he studied the local languages (such as Kumyk), wrote some of his most splendid poems and painted extensively. "Good people are here aplenty. In Tiflis, especially, people are very honest... The mountain air acts like balsam for me, all spleen has gone to hell, the heart starts beating, the chest heaves," Lermontov wrote to Rayevsky. By the end of the year he had travelled all along the Caucasian line, from Kizlyar Bay to Taman Peninsula, and visited central Georgia.  Lermontov's first Caucasian exile was short: due to Benkendorff's intercession the poet was transferred to the Grodno cavalry regiment based at Nizhny Novgorod. His voyage back was a prolonged one, he made a point of staying wherever he was welcome. In Shelkozavodskaya Lermontov met A. A. Khastatov (his grandmother's sister's son), a man famous for his bravery, whose stories were later incorporated into "A Hero of Our Times". In Pyatigorsk he had talks with poet and translator Nikolai Satin (a member of Hertzen and Ogaryov circle) and with some of the Decembrists, notably with the poet Alexander Odoyevsky (with whom, judging by "In Memoriam", 1839, he became quite close); in Stavropol became friends with Dr. Mayer who served as a prototype for Doctor Werner (a man Pechorin meets in "town S."). In Tiflis he drifted towards a group of Georgian intellectuals led by

Second exile.

Shallow pleasures offered by Saint Petersburg's high society had started to wear Lermontov down, his bad temper growing even worse. "What an extravagant man he is. Looks like he's heading for the imminent catastrophe. Insolent to a fault. Dying of boredom, getting vexed by his own frivolousness but having no will to break free from these surroundings. A strange kind of man," wrote Alexandra Smirnova, the lady-in-waiting and Saint Petersburg fashionable salon hostess.  Lermontov's popularity at the salons of Princess Sofja Shcherbatova and of Countess Emilia Musina-Pushkina caused a lot of ill feeling among men vying for attention of these two most popular Petersburg society girls of the time. In early 1840 Lermontov insulted one of these men, Ernest de Barante, the son of the French ambassador, in the presence of Shcherbatova. De Barante issued a challenge. The duel took place almost at the exact spot where Pushkin had received his fatal wound: by Tchernaya Retchka. Lermontov found himself slightly injured, then arrested and jailed. His visitors

Death.

After visiting Moscow (where he produced no fewer than eight poetic pieces of invective aimed at Benkendorff), on May 9, 1841, Lermontov arrived to Stavropol, introduced himself to general Grabbe and asked for permission to stay in the town. Then, on a whim, he changed his course, found himself in Pyatigorsk and sent his seniors a letter informing them of his having fallen ill. The regiment's special commission recommended him treatment at Mineralnye Vody. What he did instead was embark upon the several weeks' spree. "In the mornings he was writing, but the more he worked, the more need he felt to unwind in the evenings," Skabichevsky wrote. "I feel I'm left with very little of my life," the poet confessed to his friend A. Merinsky on July 8, a week before his death.

Private life.

Mikhail Lermontov was a romantic who seemed to be continuously struggling with strong passions. Not much is known about his private life, though in verses dedicated to loved ones his emotional strife seems to have been exaggerated, while rumours concerning his real life adventures were unreliable and occasionally misguiding.  Lermontov fell in love for the first time in 1825, while at the Caucasus, a girl of nine being the object of his desires. Five years later he wrote about it with great seriousness, seeing this early awakening of romantic feelings as a sign of his own exclusiveness. "So early in life, at ten! Oh, this mystery, this Paradise Lost, it will be tormenting my mind till the very grave. Sometimes I feel funny about it and am ready to laugh at this first love of mine, but more often I'd rather cry," the 15-year-old wrote in a diary. "Some people, like Byron, think early love is akin to the soul prone to fine arts, but I suppose this is the sign of soul that's got much music in it," added the young man for whom the English poet was an idol.  At sixteen Lermontov fell in love with Yekaterina Sushkova (1812–1868), a friend of his cousin Sasha Vereshchagina, whom he often visited in Srednikovo village. Yekaterina failed to take her suitor seriously and in her "Notes" described him thus:At Sashenka [Vereshchagina]'s I often met her cousin, a clumsy bow-legged boy of 16 or 17, with reddened eyes, which were clever and expressive nevertheless, who had a turned-up nose and caustic sneer... Everybody was calling him just Michel and so did I, never caring about his second name. Assigned to be my 'errand boy' he was carrying my hat, umbrella and gloves, leaving them behind from time to time... Both Sashenka and I, while giving him credit for his intelligence, still treated him like a baby which drove him mad. Trying to be

Works.

In his lifetime, Mikhail Lermontov published only one slender collection of poems (1840). Three volumes, much mutilated by censorship, were published a year after his death in 1841. Yet his legacy – more than 30 large poems, and 600 minor ones, a novel and 5 dramas – was immense for an author whose literary career lasted just six years.  Inspired by Lord Byron, Lermontov started to write poetry at the age of 13. His late 1820s poems like "The Corsair", "Oleg", "Two Brothers", as well as "Napoleon" (1830), borrowed somewhat from Pushkin, but invariably featured a Byronic hero, an outcast and an avenger, standing firm and aloof against the world.  In the early 1830s Lermontov's poetry grew more introspective and intimate, even diary-like, with dates often serving for titles. But even his love lyric, addressed to Yekaterina Sushkova or Natalya Ivanova, could not be relied upon as autobiographical; driven by fantasies, it dealt with passions greatly hypertrophied, protagonists posing high and mighty in the center of the Universe, misunderstood or ignored.  In 1831 Lermontov's poetry ("The Reed", "Mermaid", "The Wish") started to get less confessional, more ballad-like. The young author, having found taste for plots and structures, was trying consciously to rein in his emotional urge and master the art of storytelling. Critic and literature historian D.S. Mirsky regards "The Angel" (1831) as the first of Lermontov's truly great poems, calling it "arguably the finest Romantic verse ever written in Russian." At least two other poems of that period – "The Sail" and "The Hussar" – were later rated among his best.  In 1832 Lermontov tried his hand at prose for the first time. The unfinished novel "Vadim", telling the story of the 1773–1775 Yemelyan Pugachev-led peasant uprising, was stylistically flawed and short on ideas. Yet, free of Romantic pathos and featuring well-crafted characters as well as scenes from peasant life, it marked an important turn for the author now evidently intrigued more by history and folklore than by his own dreams.  Two branches of Lermontov's early 1830s poetry – one dealing with the Russian Middle Age history, another with the Caucasus – couldn't differ more. The former were stern and stark, featured a dark, reserved hero ("The Last Son of Freedom"), its straightforward storyline developing fast. The latter, rich with ethnographical side issues and lavish in colourful imagery, boasted flamboyant characters ("Ismail-Bey", 1832).  Even as a Moscow University's boarding school student Lermontov was a socially aware young man. His "The Turk's Lament" (1829) expressed strong anti-establishment feelings ("This place, where a man suffers from slavery and chains; my friend, this is my fatherland"), the "July 15, 1830" poem greeted the July Revolution, while "The Last Son of Freedom" was a paean to (obviously, idealized) Novgorod Republic. But Lermontov, a fiery tribune, has never become a political poet. Full of inner turmoil and anger, his protagonists were riotous but never rational or promoting any particular ideology.  The Cadet School seemed to have stymied in Lermontov all interests except one, for wanton debauchery. His pornographic (and occasionally sadistic) Cavalry Junkers' poems which circulated in manuscripts, marred his subsequent reputation so much so that admission of familiarity with Lermontov's poetry was not permissible for any young upper-class woman for a good part of the 19th century. "Lermontov churned out for his pals whole poems in improvisational manner, dealing with things which were apparently part of their barrack and camp lifestyle. Those poems, which I've never read, for they weren't intended for women, bear all the mark of the author's brilliant, fiery temperament, as people who've read them attest", Yevdokiya Rostopchina admitted. These poems were published only once, in 1936, as part of a scholarly edition of Lermontov's complete works, edited by Irakly Andronikov.  This lean period bore a few fruits: "Khadji-Abrek" (1835), his first ever published poem, and 1836's "Sashka" (a "darling son of Don Juan," according to Mirsky), a sparkling concoction of Romanticism, realism and what might be termed a cadet-style verse. The latter remained unfinished, as did "Princess Ligovskaya" (1836), a society tale which was influenced at least to some extent by Gogol's "Petersburg Stories" and featured characters and dilemmas not far removed from those that would form the base of "A Hero of Our Time". Arrested, jailed and sent to the Caucasus in 1837, Lermontov dropped "Princess Ligovskaya" and never got back to it. Much more important to him was "The Masquerade"; written in 1835, it got re-worked several times – the author tried desperately to publish it. Close to French melodrama and influenced by Victor Hugo and Alexander Dumas (but also owing a lot to Shakespeare, Griboyedov and Pushkin), "Masquerade" featured another hero whose want was to 'throw a gauntlet' to the unsympathetic society and then get tired of his own conflicting nature, but was interesting mostly for its realistic sketches of the high society life, which Lermontov was getting more and more critical of.  Lermontov's fascination with Byron has never waned. "Having made the English pessimism a brand of his own, he's imparted it a strong national favour to

Memory.

The town of Lermontov, Russia (granted municipal status in 1956), the cruise liner MS "Mikhail Lermontov" (launched in 1970) and the minor planet 2222 Lermontov (discovered in 1977) were named after him.  The crew of Soyuz TMA-21 selected "Tarkhany" as their call sign, after the estate where Lermontov spent his childhood and where his remains are preserved.  The 2011 contemporary classical album Troika includes a setting of Lermontov's French-language

External links.

Dual-language links  Russian-language links

Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (; ; – ) was a Russian Romantic writer, poet and painter, sometimes called "the poet of the Caucasus", the most important Russian poet after Alexander Pushkin's death in 1837 and the greatest figure in Russian Romanticism. His influence on later Russian literature is still felt in modern times, not only through his poetry, but also through his prose, which founded the tradition of the Russian psychological novel.

米哈伊尔·尤列维奇·莱蒙托夫(俄语:;1814年-10月15日-1841年-7月27日),俄国作家、诗人。被视为普希金的后继者。


Premise.

The show focuses on the Huxtable family, an upper middle-class African-American family, living in a brownstone in Brooklyn Heights, New York, at 10 Stigwood Avenue. The patriarch is Cliff Huxtable, an obstetrician and son of a prominent jazz trombonist. The matriarch is his wife, attorney Clair Huxtable.  They have four daughters and one son: Sondra, Denise, Theo, Vanessa, and Rudy. Despite its comedic tone, the show sometimes involves serious subjects, like Theo's experiences dealing with dyslexia, inspired by Cosby's dyslexic son, Ennis. The show also deals with teen pregnancy when Denise's friend, Veronica (Lela Rochon), becomes pregnant.

Episodes.

Pilot.

"The Cosby Show" pilot episode uses the same title sequence as the rest of the first season, and is widely regarded as the first episode. However, it contains a number of differences from the remainder of the series.  In the pilot, the Huxtables have only four children. Following the pilot, the Huxtables have five children, with the addition of their eldest daughter, Sondra (Sabrina Le Beauf), who is mentioned in episode four and appears first in episode 11. The character was created when Bill Cosby wanted the show to express the accomplishment of successfully raising a child (i.e., a college graduate).  Bill Cosby originally wanted Vanessa L. Williams to play the part of "Sondra" due to her college education and background in theater arts. However, Williams was recently crowned the first black Miss America and pageant officials would not permit her to play the role while she was representing the Miss America pageant. Whitney Houston was also considered for the role of Sondra Huxtable, but was unable to commit to the full-time television production schedule in the NBC contract, as she was intending to be a full-time music recording artist.  Most of the story in the pilot presentation is taken from Bill Cosby's classic comedy film "". Cosby's character is called "Clifford" in the early episodes of the first season (as evidenced by his name plate on the exterior of the Huxtable home). His name was later switched to "Heathcliff". Although, in one episode, Clair calls him "Heathclifford".  Additionally, Vanessa refers to Theo as "Teddy" twice in the dining room scene. The interior of the Huxtables' home features an entirely different living room from subsequent episodes, and different color schemes in the dining room and the master bedroom. Throughout the remainder of the series, the dining room is reserved for more formal occasions.

Background and production.

Conception and development.

In the early 1980s, Marcy Carsey and Tom Werner, two former executives at ABC, left the network to start their own production company. At ABC, they had overseen sitcoms such as "Mork & Mindy", "Three's Company", and "Welcome Back, Kotter". The two partners decided that to get a sitcom to sell for their fledgling company, they needed a big name behind it. The career of Bill Cosby, who starred in two failed sitcoms during the 1970s, produced award-winning stand-up comedy albums, and had roles in several different films, was relatively static during the early 1980s. According to a "Chicago Tribune" article from July 1985, despite Carsey and Werner's connection to the network, Lewis Erlicht, president of ABC Entertainment, passed on the show, prompting a pitch to rival network, NBC.  Outside of his work on his cartoon series "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids", Cosby was doing little in film or television, but Carsey and Werner were fans of Cosby's stand-up comedy and thought it would be the perfect material for a family sitcom.  Cosby originally proposed that the couple should both have blue-collar jobs, with the father a limousine driver, who owned his own car, and the mother an electrician. With advice from his wife Camille Cosby, though, the concept was changed so that the family was well-off financially, with the mother a lawyer and the father a physician.  Cosby wanted the program to be educational, reflecting his own background in education. He also insisted that the program be taped in New York City instead of Los Angeles, where most television programs were taped. The Huxtable home exterior was filmed at 10 St. Luke's Place near 7th Avenue in Manhattan's Greenwich Village (although in the show, the residence was the fictional "10 Stigwood Avenue").

Production notes.

The earliest episodes of the series were videotaped at NBC's Brooklyn studios (subsequently JC Studios). The network later sold that building, and production moved to the Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens. Even though the show was set to take place in Brooklyn, the exterior façade was actually of a brownstone townhouse located in Manhattan's Greenwich Village at 10 Leroy Street/ 10 St. Luke's Place. The pilot was filmed in May 1984, with season one's production commencing in July 1984, and the first taping on August 1, 1984 ("Goodbye Mr. Goldfish").  During its original run on NBC, it was one of five successful sitcoms on the network that featured predominantly African-American casts. The other sitcoms were "227" (1985–90), "Amen" (1986–91), "Cosby Show" spin-off "A Different World" (1987–93), and "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air" (1990–96). Five other NBC sitcoms of that time also featured black actors and actresses in lead starring or supporting roles — Nell Carter and Telma Hopkins on "Gimme a Break" (1981−87); Leonard Lightfoot, and later Franklyn Seales and Alfonso Ribeiro on "Silver Spoons" (1982−86), Cherie Johnson on "Punky Brewster" (1984–88), Kim Fields on "The Facts of Life" (1979−88), and Gary Coleman and Todd Bridges on "Diff'rent Strokes" (1978–85).  Although the cast and characters were predominantly African American, the program was unusual in that issues of race were rarely mentioned when compared to other situation comedies of the time, such as "The Jeffersons". However, "The Cosby Show" had African-American themes, such as the Civil Rights Movement, and it frequently promoted African-American and African culture represented by artists and musicians such as Jacob Lawrence, Miles Davis, James Brown, B.B. King, Stevie Wonder, Sammy Davis, Jr., Lena Horne, Duke Ellington, Dizzy Gillespie, and Miriam Makeba.  The show's spin off, "A Different World", dealt with issues of race more often. The series finale (taped on March 6, 1992) aired during the 1992 Los Angeles riots, with Cosby quoted in media at the time pleading for peace.  During the third season of the show, actress Phylicia Rashad was pregnant with her daughter Condola Rashād. Rather than write this pregnancy into the character of Claire Huxtable, the producers simply greatly reduced Rashad's scenes or filmed in such a way that her pregnancy was not noticeable.  Another pregnancy of one of the main stars, that of Lisa Bonet, almost caused the actress to be fired, especially coming in the wake of appearing in the film "Angel Heart", which contained graphic sexual scenes with actor Mickey Rourke. Bill Cosby strongly disapproved of Bonet appearing in the film, but she was allowed to retain her role on "A Different World" until returning to "The Cosby Show" after her pregnancy. Tensions remained, however, and Bonet was eventually fired from the show in April 1991.

Theme song and opening sequence.

The show's theme music, "Kiss Me", was composed by Stu Gardner and Bill Cosby. Seven versions of this theme were used during the run of the series, making it one of the few television series to use multiple versions of the same theme song over the course of a series. For season four, the theme song music was performed by musician Bobby McFerrin.  Due to legal complications regarding the background mural, the opening for season seven (filmed in August 1990) was replaced with the one from the previous season. The original season-seven opening, with slight modifications, returned to use in the beginning of season eight.

Cast and characters.

Phylicia Rashad was credited as "Phylicia Ayers-Allen" during season one and the first fourteen episodes of season two.  Prior to joining the cast as a regular, Joseph C. Phillips appears as Daryl, a potential boyfriend for Sondra in season two (episode: "Cliff in Love").

Reception and legacy.

The show's portrayal of a successful, stable black family was praised by some for breaking racial stereotypes and showing another part of the African-American experience. However, it was criticized by others, including Henry Louis Gates, for allowing white audiences to think that racism and poverty were problems of the past. As a result of the sexual assault allegations against Cosby, Malcolm-Jamal Warner has stated that the show's legacy is "tarnished".  "The Cosby Show" had generated in television revenue, including from TV advertising, and from syndication.

Broadcast history and ratings.

"The Cosby Show" aired on Thursdays at 8:00 pm for all eight seasons. In its first season, the show was the beginning of a Thursday NBC schedule that was followed by "Family Ties", "Cheers", "Night Court", and "Hill Street Blues".  "The Cosby Show" is one of three television programs ("All in the Family" and "American Idol" being the others) that were number one in the Nielsen ratings for five consecutive seasons.

Syndication.

Carsey-Werner handles domestic distribution, while CBS Television Distribution handles international distribution of the series, and has done so since 1997. In the United States, "The Cosby Show" began its television syndication run in September 1988 in broadcast syndication, shortly before the show's fifth-season premiere, and was at the time distributed by Viacom; many stations that carried the series were Big Three network affiliates. As time went on, this moved to lower-profile timeslots, independent stations and minor network affiliates.  Fort Worth, Texas-based independent station, KTVT, carried the series until 1995, when it ceased operating as a regional cable superstation and became an affiliate of CBS. TBS, then a national cable superstation, carried the series for nearly a decade beginning in 1999. Fellow superstation WGN America began carrying the series shortly thereafter, and continued to until September 2010. Viacom's Nick at Nite began airing reruns of the series in March 2002, and its sister network TV Land began airing reruns in 2004, making "The Cosby Show" one of the few series that were shown on both Nick at Nite and TV Land at the same time.

Late 2010s removal from syndication.

Reruns of "The Cosby Show" have been pulled from several networks and venues as a result of Cosby's eventual conviction for sexual assault. In November 2014, TV Land pulled the series from its lineup. In December 2014, the Magic Johnson-owned network Aspire removed the show from its lineup.  BET's Centric (another Viacom unit) ceased airing reruns of "The Cosby Show". At the same time, barter syndicator The Program Exchange ceased distributing the latter show. Bounce TV resumed airing the series in December 2016 but pulled the show on April 26, 2018 — the day Cosby was convicted of sexual assault. TV One began airing reruns of the show in May 2017. It is currently the only American network to offer the series. The series is also available on Amazon Prime Video and Sling TV.

Spin-off.

"The Cosby Show"s producers created a spin-off series called "A Different World" that was built around the "Denise" character (portrayed by actress Lisa Bonet), the second of the Huxtables' four daughters. Initially, the new program dealt with Denise's life at Hillman College, the fictional historically black college from which her father, mother, and paternal grandfather had graduated.  Denise was written out of "A Different World" after its inaugural season, due to Bonet's pregnancy, and the following season was revamped, with the addition of director Debbie Allen (Phylicia Rashad's sister) and new characters. Denise later became a recurring character on "The Cosby Show" for seasons four and five, and a regular again in seasons six and seven.

Awards and honors.

Awards won.

Emmy Awards  Golden Globe Awards  NAACP Image Awards  Peabody Award (1986)  People's Choice Awards

Nominations.

Emmy Awards  Golden Globe Awards

Albums.

Two albums were produced that included various theme and background music from the show. The albums were presented by longtime Cosby collaborator Stu Gardner. They were:

In popular culture.

They were dubbed "Cosby sweaters", a term that is used to describe sweaters that are generally deemed garish and unappealing. In May 2008, Cosby's daughter Evin auctioned a batch of the sweaters that her father had kept on eBay. The proceeds of the sales went to the Hello Friend/Ennis William Cosby Foundation, a non-profit charity named for Ennis Cosby. Ennis, Cosby's only son, was murdered in January 1997.

Home media.

All eight seasons of "The Cosby Show" have been released on DVD in Region 1. Seasons one and two were released by UrbanWorks which was subsequently acquired by First Look Studios, who then released the remaining six seasons. Seasons One and Two contain special features, including the ninety minute retrospective documentary entitled "The Cosby Show: A Look Back", which aired on NBC in May 2002.  It contains interviews with cast members, bloopers, deleted scenes and audition footage. In December 2010, First Look Studios filed bankruptcy, and all its assets were subsequently acquired by Millennium Entertainment, who also took over distribution of "The Cosby Show" DVD releases. As of 2013, these releases have been discontinued, and are now out of print.  On November 5, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to the series. They have subsequently re released all eight seasons on DVD. On September 1, 2015, Mill Creek released a sixteen disc complete series set entitled "The Cosby Show – The Complete Series".  In Region 4, Magna Pacific has released all eight seasons on DVD in Australia and New Zealand. The first two seasons have similar artwork to the North American copies, although season two is red rather than blue. Each Australian cover also features the tagline "In a house full of love, there is always room for more".  Universal Studios Home Entertainment has released Seasons 1 to 4 in Region 2 (United Kingdom).  Note: The Millennium Entertainment release of season one contains the edited versions of the episodes aired in syndication. However, all subsequent DVD releases (including the complete series set) contain the original, uncut broadcast versions. In 2011, Millennium quietly released season one uncut in Region 1, which featured the special features from "The Complete Series" set.

The Cosby Show is an American sitcom television series co-created by and starring Bill Cosby, which aired for eight seasons on NBC from September 20, 1984, until April 30, 1992. The show focuses on an upper middle-class African-American family living in Brooklyn, New York.

《考斯比一家》(The Cosby Show)是一部美国的电视情景喜剧,由比尔·考斯比主演。1984年9月20日,《考斯比一家》首度在NBC电视网中播出,其后共制播了8季。节目的中心聚焦于Huxtable一家:一个住在纽约市布鲁克林区的一座棕色石砖屋的上中产阶级黑人家庭。


History.

The date is inspired by the date of the Federal Charter of 1291, Pacte du Grütli, placed in "early August", when "three Alpine cantons swore the oath of confederation" (Schwyz, Uri and Unterwald), an action which later came to be regarded as the founding of Switzerland." The document is one of several dozen pacts attested for the territory of Switzerland in the period of the mid-13th to mid-14th century. The foundation of the Old Swiss Confederacy had been mostly associated with the Bund of Brunnen of 1315, or with the Rütlischwur, dated to 1307 by Aegidius Tschudi.  The Federal Charter of 1291 first assumed great importance in a report by the Federal Department of Home Affairs of 21 November 1889, suggesting a celebration in Bern in 1891 that would combine the city's 700th anniversary with the Confederacy's 600th anniversary.  The date of the Federal Charter came to replace the formerly more prominent, traditional date of 8 November Rütlischwur, 1307 in popular consciousness in the 20th century, specifically after the 650th anniversary celebrations of 1941.  It has been an official holiday since 1994, following the acceptance of a federal popular initiative in its favour in 1993.  1 August is celebrated each year with paper lantern parades, bonfires, hanging strings of Swiss flags, and fireworks.

Town-specific celebrations.

The day of independence is typically celebrated at a local municipality level, though certain events draw nationwide attention. Since the mid-19th century, Schaffhausen has illuminated the nearby 25-meter-high Rhine Falls for special events. Beginning in 1920, the waterfall has been regularly lit for the national holiday and since 1966 is now lit only for this holiday. At the historic location of Rütli Meadow above Lake Lucerne, a representational celebration is staged in the location where the legendary pledge of alliance, the Rütlischwur is said to have taken place. In Basel there are fireworks at the Rhine on the evening of 31 July.

Celebrations around the world.

Until 2013, the largest Swiss National Day event in the USA was organized and held annually by the Swiss Benevolent Society of New York. Usually held in Manhattan, the event draws thousands of Swiss, Swiss-Americans and Friends of Switzerland from around New York, New Jersey, Connecticut and Pennsylvania. The event was held at the group's former hospice in Mount Kisco, New York during the 1970s.  Since, 2014 the event format has changed with the motto "Back to the roots". It is a great family event again where one can enjoy everything ranging from Swiss sausages to Raclette, Swiss wine, bands, a DJ and kids' corner. Since 2014, the event has been organized by the Swiss Society of New York, the Swiss Benevolent Society of New York and the Consulate General of Switzerland in New York.  Celebrations are also held in Washington, District of Columbia by the Swiss Club of Washington D.C. on the Swiss Embassy grounds, in Monterey County, California at the Swiss Rifle Club and in the Los Angeles suburb of Whittier in Swiss Park. The Swiss Park celebration features Swiss cultural events and games, including a crossbow competition.  In Britain it is also Yorkshire Day, celebrating the county of Yorkshire. Bettys and Taylors of Harrogate, founded in 1919 by a Swiss baker, celebrate both of these days in its 6 cafe-tearooms across Yorkshire. For the National celebration, a festival is usually held every year, two Saturdays before the actual 1 August date to allow an opportunity for Swiss families based in the UK to attend prior to the long August summer break. Typically Swiss National Day is held at University College London, organised by the Swiss National Day London Committee, an independent group of volunteers, with the support of the Swiss Embassy London and other Swiss clubs such as City Swiss Club, New Helvetic Society and Unione Ticinese.  Mont Sutton Quebec hosts one of the largest Swiss National Day celebrations outside Switzerland. Each year, it features one canton, with food and products from that canton.

The Swiss National Day (; ; ; Romansh: Festa naziunala svizra) is the national holiday of Switzerland, set on 1 August. Although the founding of the Swiss Confederacy was first celebrated on this date in 1891 and annually since 1899, it has only been an official holiday since 1994.

瑞士国庆日(德语:;法语:;意大利语:;罗曼什语:Fiasta naziunala Svizra),是在每年的8月1日。源自于1291年联邦宪章中所提及的「八月初」(primo incipiente mense Augusto)。1891年在瑞士伯恩首度庆祝其600周年纪念。它取代了先前较为著名、发生在1307年11月8日的Rütlischwur。


History.

In 1841, the island was the site of the Bombardment of Upolu, an incident during the United States Exploring Expedition.  In the late-19th century, the Scottish writer Robert Louis Stevenson owned a estate at Vailima village and died there in 1894. He is buried at the top of Mount Vaea above his former home. The Vailima estate was purchased in 1900 as the official residence for the German governor and, after British/Dominion confiscation, served successively as residence for the New Zealand administrator and for the Samoan head of state after independence.

2009 Samoa tsunami.

The island of Upolu was affected by a tsunami at 06:48:11 local time on 29 September 2009 (17:48:11 UTC). Twenty villages on Upolu's south side were reportedly destroyed, including Lepa, the home of Samoa's Prime Minister Tuilaepa Lupesoliai Sailele Malielegaoi. In Lepa, only the church and the village's welcome sign remained standing following the disaster.

Wildlife.

An extremely small species of spider lives on Upolu. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the spider is the size of a period on a printed page.

Depictions in popular culture.

Upolu was the filming location for the 1953 South Seas film "Return to Paradise", starring Gary Cooper.  The island was also the filming location for several seasons of the CBS competitive "Survivor" reality television series: "", the nineteenth; "", the twentieth; "", the twenty-third; and the twenty-fourth season, "".  "Australian Survivor" was also set on the island in the 2016 third season and 2017 fourth season.

Upolu is an island in Samoa, formed by a massive basaltic shield volcano which rises from the seafloor of the western Pacific Ocean. The island is long and in area, making it the second largest of the Samoan Islands geographically. With approximately 145,000 people, it is by far the most populated of the Samoan Islands. Upolu is situated to the southeast of Savai'i, the "big island". Apia, the capital, is in the middle of the north coast, with Faleolo International Airport at the western end of the island. The island has not had any historically recorded eruptions, although three lava flows date back only a few hundred to a few thousand years.

乌波卢岛(Upolu Island),是萨摩亚独立国两主岛中面积较小的一个,也是人口较多、经济较发达的一个,首都阿皮亚即位于该岛北部。该岛西隔阿波利马海峡与萨瓦伊岛相望。


History.

Some of the earliest origins of minestrone soup pre-date the expansion of the Latin tribes of Rome into what became the Roman Kingdom (later Roman Republic and Empire), when the local diet was "vegetarian by necessity" and consisted mostly of vegetables, such as onions, lentils, cabbage, garlic, broad beans, mushrooms, carrots, asparagus, and turnips.  During this time, the main dish of a meal would have been "pulte", a simple but filling porridge of spelt flour cooked in salt water, to which whatever vegetables that were available would have been added.  It was not until the 2nd century B.C., when Rome had conquered Italy and monopolized the commercial and road networks, that a huge diversity of products flooded the capital and began to change their diet, and by association, the diet of Italy most notably with the more frequent inclusion of meats, including as a stock for soups.  Spelt flour was also removed from soups, as bread had been introduced into the Roman diet by the Greeks, and "pulte" became a meal largely for the poor.  The ancient Romans recognized the health benefits of a simple or "frugal" diet (from the Latin "fruges", the common name given to cereals, vegetables and legumes) and thick vegetable soups and vegetables remained a staple.  Marcus Apicius's ancient cookbook "De Re Coquinaria" described "polus", a Roman soup dating back to 30 AD made up of farro, chickpeas, and fava beans, with onions, garlic, lard, and greens thrown in.  As eating habits and ingredients changed in Italy, so did minestrone. Apicius updates the "pultes" and "pulticulae" with fancy trimmings such as cooked brains and wine.  The introduction of tomatoes and potatoes from the Americas in the mid-16th century changed the soup by making available two ingredients which have since become staples.  The tradition of not losing rural roots continues today, and minestrone is now known in Italy as belonging to the style of cooking called "cucina povera" (literally "poor kitchen") meaning dishes that have rustic, rural roots, as opposed to "cucina nobile" or the cooking style of the aristocracy and nobles.

Etymology.

The word "minestrone", meaning a thick vegetable soup, is attested in English from 1871. It is from Italian "minestrone", the augmentative form of "minestra", "soup", or more literally, "that which is served", from "minestrare", "to serve" and cognate with "administer" as in "to administer a remedy".  Because of its unique origins and the absence of a fixed recipe, minestrone varies widely across Italy depending on traditional cooking times, ingredients, and season. Minestrone ranges from a thick and dense texture with very boiled-down vegetables, to a more brothy soup with large quantities of diced and lightly cooked vegetables; it may also include meats.  In modern Italian there are three words corresponding to the English word "soup": "zuppa", which is used in the sense of tomato soup, or fish soup; "minestra", which is used in the sense of a more substantial soup such as a vegetable soup, and also for "dry" soups, namely pasta dishes; and "minestrone", which means a very substantial or large soup or stew, though the meaning has now come to be associated with this particular dish.

Regional variations.

"Minestrone alla Genovese" is a variant typical of Liguria, which contains greater use of herbs, including pesto.  "Minestra" is a variant from Malta, which prominently features "kunserva" (a thick tomato paste), potatoes, kohlrabi, cauliflower and sometimes spaghetti.

Minestrone (; ) is a thick soup of Italian origin made with vegetables, often with the addition of pasta or rice, sometimes both. Common ingredients include beans, onions, celery, carrots, stock, and tomatoes.

意大利杂菜汤(minestrone或minestrone soup)是意大利的杂菜汤,汤较浓。杂菜可以选用不同的菜,可以是豆、洋葱、西芹、红萝卜、番茄、洋芋等等。有时汤中会加意大利面或饭。


Conservation.

Strangeness was introduced by Murray Gell-Mann, Abraham Pais and Kazuhiko Nishijima to explain the fact that certain particles, such as the kaons or the hyperons and, were created easily in particle collisions, yet decayed much more slowly than expected for their large masses and large production cross sections. Noting that collisions seemed to always produce pairs of these particles, it was postulated that a new conserved quantity, dubbed "strangeness", was preserved during their creation, but "not" conserved in their decay.  In our modern understanding, strangeness is conserved during the strong and the electromagnetic interactions, but not during the weak interactions. Consequently, the lightest particles containing a strange quark cannot decay by the strong interaction, and must instead decay via the much slower weak interaction. In most cases these decays change the value of the strangeness by one unit. However, this doesn't necessarily hold in second-order weak reactions, where there are mixes of and mesons. All in all, the amount of strangeness can change in a weak interaction reaction by +1, 0 or -1 (depending on the reaction).  For example, the interaction of a K meson with a proton is represented as:  formula_2  formula_3  Here strangeness is conserved and the interaction proceeds via the strong nuclear force.  However, in reactions like the decay of the positive kaon:  formula_4  formula_5  Since both pions have a strangeness of 0, this violates conservation of strangeness, meaning the reaction must go via the weak force.

Strangeness (S) is introduced to refine the understanding of the quark structure of matter. It has unraveled a new property of particles, a quantum number describing a large group of strongly interacting strange particles. Strangeness is an excited state of matter and its decay is governed by CKM mixing. The strangeness of a particle is defined as:

奇异数(英语:strangeness)是描述粒子内部性质的一个相加性量子数,通常用S表示,只能取整数。为解释奇异粒子的性质,1953年,美国物理学家盖尔曼、日本物理学家中野董夫、西岛和彦(K.Nishijima)各自独立提出了新的量子数——奇异数。第一个奇异粒子是1947年由罗彻斯特(G.Rochester)和巴特勒(C.Butler,1922-)发现的。随后在加速器中又陆续发现了更多的奇异粒子。与普通粒子不同,奇异粒子协同产生,独立衰变,并且快产生,慢衰变。粒子物理学规定普通粒子的奇异数是0,奇异粒子的奇异数由以下反应规定:


Passover Seder according to the Haggadah.

Kadeish (blessings and the first cup of wine).

"Kadeish" is the Hebrew imperative form of "Kiddush". This "Kiddush" is a blessing similar to that which is recited on all of the pilgrimage festivals, but also refers to matzot and the exodus from Egypt. Acting in a way that shows freedom and majesty, many Jews have the custom of filling each other's cups at the Seder table. The Kiddush is traditionally said by the father of the house, but all Seder participants participate by reciting the Kiddush and drinking at least a majority of a cup of wine.

Ur'chatz (wash hands).

Partakers wash their hands in preparation for eating wet fruit and vegetables, which happens in the next stage. Technically, according to Jewish law, whenever one partakes of fruit or vegetables dipped in liquid, one must wash one's hands, if the fruit or vegetable remains wet. However, this situation does not often arise at other times of the year because either one will dry fruits and vegetables before eating them, or one has already washed one's hands, because one must also wash one's hands before eating bread.  According to most traditions, no blessing is recited at this point in the Seder, unlike the blessing recited over the washing of the hands before eating bread. However, followers of Rambam or the Gaon of Vilna do recite a blessing.

Karpas.

Each participant dips a sprig of parsley or similar leafy green into either "salt water" (Ashkenazi custom said to serve as a reminder of the tears shed by their enslaved ancestors), "vinegar" (Sephardi custom) or "charoset" (older Sephardi custom; still common among Yemenite Jews).

Yachatz (breaking of the middle matzah).

Three matzot are stacked on the seder table; at this stage, the middle matzah of the three is broken in half. The larger piece is hidden, to be used later as the "afikoman", the "dessert" after the meal. The smaller piece is returned to its place between the other two matzot.

Magid (relating the Exodus).

The story of Passover, and the change from slavery to freedom is told. At this point in the Seder, Moroccan Jews have a custom of raising the Seder plate over the heads of all those present while chanting "Bivhilu yatzanu mimitzrayim, halahma anya b'nei horin" (In haste we went out of Egypt [with our] bread of affliction, [now we are] free people).

"Ha Lachma Anya" (invitation to the Seder).

The matzot are uncovered, and referred to as the "bread of affliction". Participants declare in Aramaic an invitation to all who are hungry or needy to join in the Seder. Halakha requires that this invitation be repeated in the native language of the country.

"Ma Nishtanah" (The Four Questions).

The Mishnah details questions one is obligated to ask on the night of the Seder. It is customary for the youngest child present to recite the four questions. Some customs hold that the other participants recite them quietly to themselves as well. In some families, this means that the requirement remains on an adult "child" until a grandchild of the family receives sufficient Jewish education to take on the responsibility. If a person has no children capable of asking, the responsibility falls to the spouse, or another participant. The need to ask is so great that even if a person is alone at the seder he is obligated to ask himself and to answer his own questions.  Why is this night different from all other nights?

"The Four Sons".

The traditional Haggadah speaks of "four sons—one who is wise, one who is wicked, one who is simple, and one who does not know to ask". The number four derives from the four passages in the Torah where one is commanded to explain the Exodus to one's son. Each of these sons phrases his question about the seder in a different way. The Haggadah recommends answering each son according to his question, using one of the three verses in the Torah that refer to this exchange.  The wise son asks ""What are the statutes, the testimonies, and the laws that God has commanded you to do?"" One explanation for why this very detailed-oriented question is categorized as wise, is that the wise son is trying to learn how to carry out the seder, rather than asking for someone else's understanding of its meaning. He is answered fully: "You should reply to him with [all] the laws of pesach: one may not eat any dessert after the paschal sacrifice."  The wicked son, who asks, ""What is this service to you?"", is characterized by the Haggadah as isolating himself from the Jewish people, standing by objectively and watching their behavior rather than participating. Therefore, he is rebuked by the explanation that ""It is because God acted for my sake when I left Egypt."" (This implies that the Seder is not for the wicked son because the wicked son would not have deserved to be freed from Egyptian slavery.) Where the four sons are illustrated in the Haggadah, this son has frequently been depicted as carrying weapons or wearing stylish contemporary fashions.  The simple son, who asks, ""What is this?"" is answered with ""With a strong hand the Almighty led us out from Egypt, from the house of bondage.""  And the one who does not know to ask is told, ""It is because of what the Almighty did for me when I left Egypt.""  Some modern Haggadahs mention "children" instead of "sons", and some have added a fifth child. The fifth child can represent the children of the Shoah who did not survive to ask a question or represent Jews who have drifted so far from Jewish life that they do not participate in a Seder.  For the former, tradition is to say that for that child we ask "Why?" and, like the simple child, we have no answer.

""Go and learn"".

Four verses in Deuteronomy (26:5–8) are then expounded, with an elaborate, traditional commentary. ("5. And thou shalt speak and say before the thy God: 'A wandering Aramean was my parent, and they went down into Egypt, and sojourned there, few in number; and became there a nation, great, mighty, and populous. 6. And the Egyptians dealt ill with us, and afflicted us, and laid upon us hard bondage. 7. And we cried unto the, the God of our parents, and the heard our voice, and saw our affliction, and our toil, and our oppression. 8 And the brought us forth out of Egypt with a strong hand and an outstretched arm, and with great terribleness, and with signs, and with wonders.")  The Haggadah explores the meaning of those verses, and embellishes the story. This telling describes the slavery of the Jewish people and their miraculous salvation by God. This culminates in an enumeration of the Ten Plagues:  With the recital of the Ten Plagues, each participant removes a drop of wine from his or her cup using a fingertip. Although this night is one of salvation, the sages explain that one cannot be completely joyous when some of God's creatures had to suffer. A mnemonic acronym for the plagues is also introduced: "D'tzach Adash B'achav", while similarly spilling a drop of wine for each word.  At this part in the Seder, songs of praise are sung, including the song "Dayenu", which proclaims that had God performed any single one of the many deeds performed for the Jewish people, it would have been enough to obligate us to give thanks. After this is a declaration (mandated by Rabban Gamliel) of the reasons of the commandments concerning the Paschal lamb, Matzah, and Maror, with scriptural sources. Then follows a short prayer, and the recital of the first two psalms of Hallel (which will be concluded after the meal). A long blessing is recited, and the second cup of wine is drunk.

Rohtzah (ritual washing of hands).

The ritual hand-washing is repeated, this time with all customs including a blessing.

Motzi Matzah (blessings over the Matzah).

Two blessings are recited. First one recites the standard blessing before eating bread, which includes the words "who brings forth" (motzi in Hebrew). Then one recites the blessing regarding the commandment to eat Matzah. An olive-size piece (some say two) is then eaten while reclining.

Maror (bitter herbs).

The blessing for the eating of the maror (bitter herbs) is recited and then it is dipped into the charoset and eaten.

Koreich (sandwich).

The maror (bitter herb) is placed between two small pieces of matzo, similarly to how the contents of a sandwich are placed between two slices of bread, and eaten. This follows the tradition of Hillel, who did the same at his Seder table 2,000 years ago (except that in Hillel's day the Paschal sacrifice, matzo, and maror were eaten together.)

Shulchan Orech (the meal).

The festive meal is eaten. Traditionally it begins with the charred egg on the Seder plate.

Tzafun (eating of the "afikoman").

The "afikoman", which was hidden earlier in the Seder, is traditionally the last morsel of food eaten by participants in the Seder.  Each participant receives an at least olive-sized portion of matzo to be eaten as "afikoman". After the consumption of the "afikoman", traditionally, no other food may be eaten for the rest of the night. Additionally, no intoxicating beverages may be consumed, with the exception of the remaining two cups of wine.

Bareich (Grace after Meals).

The recital of Birkat Hamazon.

"Kos Shlishi" (the Third Cup of Wine).

The drinking of the Third Cup of Wine.  Note: The Third Cup is customarily poured before the Grace after Meals is recited because the Third Cup also serves as a Cup of Blessing associated with the Grace after Meals on special occasions.

"Kos shel Eliyahu ha-Navi" (cup of Elijah the Prophet).

In many traditions, the front door of the house is opened at this point. Psalms 79:6–7 is recited in both Ashkenazi and Sephardi traditions, plus Lamentations 3:66 among Ashkenazim.  Most Ashkenazim have the custom to fill a fifth cup at this point. This relates to a Talmudic discussion that concerns the number of cups that are supposed to be drunk. Given that the four cups are in reference to the four expressions of redemption in Exodus 6:6–7, some rabbis felt that it was important to include a fifth cup for the fifth expression of redemption in Exodus 6:8. All agreed that five cups should be poured but the question as to whether or not the fifth should be drunk, given that the fifth expression of redemption concerned being brought into the Land of Israel, which—by this stage—was no longer possessed of an autonomous Jewish community, remained insoluble. The rabbis determined that the matter should be left until Elijah comes (in reference to the notion that Elijah's arrival would precipitate the coming of the Messiah, at which time all halakhic questions will be resolved) and the fifth cup came to be known as the "Kos shel Eliyahu" ("Cup of Elijah"). Over time, people came to relate this cup to the notion that Elijah will visit each home on Seder night as a foreshadowing of his future arrival at the end of the days, when he will come to announce the coming of the Jewish Messiah.  In the late 1980s, Jewish feminists introduced the idea of placing a "Cup of Miriam" filled with water (to represent the well that existed as long as Miriam, Moses' sister, was alive in the desert) beside the Cup of Elijah. Many liberal Jews now include this ritual at their seders as a symbol of inclusion.

Hallel (songs of praise).

The entire order of Hallel which is usually recited in the synagogue on Jewish holidays is also recited at the Seder table, albeit sitting down. The first two psalms, 113 and 114, are recited before the meal. The remaining psalms 115–118, are recited at this point (in the "Hallel" section, after "Bareich"). Psalm 136 (the Great Hallel) is then recited, followed by "Nishmat", a portion of the morning service for Shabbat and festivals.  There are a number of opinions concerning the paragraph "Yehalelukha" which normally follows Hallel, and "Yishtabakh", which normally follows "Nishmat". Most Ashkenazim recite "Yehalelukha" immediately following the Hallel proper, i.e. at the end of Psalm 118, except for the concluding words. After Nishmat, they recite "Yishtabakh" in its entirety. Sephardim recite "Yehalelukha" alone after Nishmat.  Afterwards the Fourth Cup of Wine is drunk and a brief Grace for the "fruit of the vine" is said.

Nirtzah.

The Seder concludes with a prayer that the night's service be accepted. A hope for the Messiah is expressed: ""L'Shana Haba'ah b'Yerushalayim!" – Next year in Jerusalem!" Jews in Israel, and especially those in Jerusalem, recite instead ""L'shanah haba'ah b'Yerushalayim hab'nuyah!" – Next year in the rebuilt Jerusalem!"  Although the 15 orders of the Seder have been completed, the Haggadah concludes with additional songs which further recount the miracles that occurred on this night in Ancient Egypt as well as throughout history. Some songs express a prayer that the Beit Hamikdash will soon be rebuilt. The last song to be sung is "Chad Gadya" ("One Kid [young goat]"). This seemingly childish song about different animals and people who attempted to punish others for their crimes and were in turn punished themselves, was interpreted by the Vilna Gaon as an allegory of the retribution God will levy over the enemies of the Jewish people at the end of days.  Following the Seder, those who are still awake may recite the Song of Songs, engage in Torah learning, or continue talking about the events of the Exodus until sleep overtakes them.

History.

Authorship.

According to Jewish tradition, the Haggadah was compiled during the Mishnaic and Talmudic periods, although the exact date is unknown. It could not have been written earlier than the time of Judah bar Ilai (circa 170 CE), who is the latest tanna to be quoted therein. Rav and Shmuel (circa 230 CE) argued on the compilation of the Haggadah, and hence it had not been completed as of then. Based on a Talmudic statement, it was completed by the time of "Rav Nachman". There is a dispute, however, to which Rav Nachman the Talmud was referring: According to some commentators, this was Rav Nachman bar Yaakov (circa 280 CE), while others maintain this was Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak (360 CE).  However, the Malbim, along with a minority of commentators, believe that Rav and Shmuel were not arguing on its compilation, but rather on its interpretation, and hence it was completed before then. According to this explanation, the Haggadah was written during the lifetime of Judah ha-Nasi (who was a student of Judah bar Ilia and the teacher of Rav and Shmuel) the compiler of the Mishnah. The Malbim theorized that the Haggadah was written by Judah ha-Nasi himself.  One of the most ancient parts is the recital of the "Hallel," which, according to the Mishnah (Pesachim 5:7), was sung at the sacrifice in the Temple in Jerusalem, and of which, according to the school of Shammai, only the first chapter shall be recited. After the Psalms a blessing for the Redemption is to be said. This blessing, according to R. Tarfon, runs as follows: "Praised art Thou, O Lord, King of the Universe, who hast redeemed us, and hast redeemed our fathers from Egypt."  Another part of the oldest ritual, as is recorded in the Mishnah, is the conclusion of the "Hallel" (up to Psalms 118), and the closing benediction of the hymn "Birkat ha-Shir," which latter the Amoraim explain differently, but which evidently was similar to the benediction thanking God, "who loves the songs of praise," used in the present ritual.  These blessings, and the narrations of Israel's history in Egypt, based on Deuteronomy 26:5–9 and on Joshua 24:2–4, with some introductory remarks, were added in the time of the early Amoraim, in the third century CE.  In post-Talmudic times, during the era of the Geonim, selections from midrashim were added; most likely Rabbi Amram Gaon (c. 850) was the originator of the present collection, as he was the redactor of the daily liturgy in the siddur. Of these midrashim one of the most important is that of the four children, representing four different attitudes towards why Jews should observe Passover. This division is taken from the Jerusalem Talmud and from a parallel passage in the Mekhilta; it is slightly altered in the present ritual. Other rabbinic quotes from the aggadah literature are added, as the story of R. Eliezer, who discussed the Exodus all night with four other rabbis, which tale is found in an altogether different form in the Tosefta.  While the main portions of the text of the Haggadah have remained mostly the same since their original compilation, there have been some additions after the last part of the text. Some of these additions, such as the cumulative songs "One little goat" ("חד גדיא") and "Who Knows One?" ("אחד מי יודע"), which were added sometime in the fifteenth century, gained such acceptance that they became a standard to print at the back of the Haggadah.  The text of the Haggadah was never fixed in one, final form, as no rabbinic body existed which had authority over such matters. Instead, each local community developed its own text. A variety of traditional texts took on a standardized form by the end of the medieval era on the Ashkenazi (Eastern European), Sephardic (Spanish-Portuguese) and Mizrahi (Jews of North Africa and the Middle east) community.  The Karaites and also the Samaritans developed their own Haggadot which they use to the present day.  During the era of the Enlightenment the European Jewish community developed into groups which reacted in different ways to modifications of the Haggadah.

Manuscript history.

The oldest surviving complete manuscript of the Haggadah dates to the 10th century. It is part of a prayer book compiled by Saadia Gaon. It is now believed that the Haggadah first became produced as an independent book in codex form around 1000 CE. Maimonides (1135–1204) included the Haggadah in his code of Jewish law, the Mishneh Torah. Existing manuscripts do not go back beyond the thirteenth century. When such a volume was compiled, it became customary to add poetical pieces. The earliest surviving Haggadot produced as works in their own right are manuscripts from the 13th and 14th centuries, such as the "Golden Haggadah" (probably Barcelona c. 1320, now British Library) and the Sarajevo Haggadah (late fourteenth century). It is believed that the first printed Haggadot were produced in 1482, in Guadalajara, Spain; however, this is mostly conjecture, as there is no printer's colophon. The oldest confirmed printed Haggadah was printed in Soncino, Lombardy in 1486 by the Soncino family.  Although the Jewish printing community was quick to adopt the printing press as a means of producing texts, the general adoption rate of printed Haggadot was slow. By the end of the sixteenth century, only twenty-five editions had been printed. This number increased to thirty-seven during the seventeenth century, and 234 during the eighteenth century. It is not until the nineteenth century, when 1,269 separate editions were produced, that a significant shift is seen toward printed Haggadot as opposed to manuscripts. From 1900–1960 alone, over 1,100 Haggadot were printed. It is not uncommon, particularly in America, for haggadot to be produced by corporate entities, such as coffee maker Maxwell House – see Maxwell House Haggadah – serving as texts for the celebration of Passover, but also as marketing tools and ways of showing that certain foods are kosher.

Illuminated manuscripts.

The earliest Ashkenazi illuminated Haggada is known as the Birds' Head Haggadah, made in Germany around the 1320s and now in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. The Rylands Haggadah (Rylands Hebrew MS. 6) is one of the finest Haggadot in the world. It was written and illuminated in Spain in the 14th century and is an example of the cross-fertilisation between Jewish and non-Jewish artists within the medium of manuscript illumination. In spring and summer 2012 it was exhibited at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, in the exhibition 'The Rylands Haggadah: Medieval Jewish Art in Context'.  The British Library's 14th century Barcelona Haggadah (BL Add. MS 14761) is one of the most richly pictorial of all Jewish texts. Meant to accompany the Passover eve service and festive meal, it was also a status symbol for its owner in 14th-century Spain. Nearly all its folios are filled with miniatures depicting Passover rituals, Biblical and Midrashic episodes, and symbolic foods. A facsimile edition was published by Facsimile Editions of London in 1992.  Published in 1526, the Prague Haggadah is known for its attention to detail in lettering and introducing many of the themes still found in modern texts. Although illustrations had often been a part of the Haggadah, it was not until the Prague Haggadah that they were used extensively in a printed text. The Haggadah features over sixty woodcut illustrations picturing "scenes and symbols of the Passover ritual; [...] biblical and rabbinic elements that actually appear in the Haggadah text; and scenes and figures from biblical or other sources that play no role in the Haggadah itself, but have either past or future redemptive associations".  Other illuminated Haggadot include the Sarajevo Haggadah, Washington Haggadah, and the 20th-century Szyk Haggadah.

The Haggadah (, "telling"; plural: Haggadot) is a Jewish text that sets forth the order of the Passover Seder. Reading the Haggadah at the Seder table is a fulfillment of the mitzvah to each Jew to "tell your son" of the Jewish liberation from slavery in Egypt as described in the Book of Exodus in the Torah ("And thou shalt tell thy son in that day, saying: It is because of that which the did for me when I came forth out of Egypt." ).

哈加达(, Haggadah),是一种用来传述逾越节规定的犹太文本。“哈加达”一词源于“传说”这个希伯来字,原因是《哈加达》引用了大量希伯来圣经的经文,以及“拉比时期”针对出埃及往事所流传下来的传说、解释和典故。


Early life.

Robert Hammond Patrick Jr. was born in Marietta, Georgia, on November 5, 1958, the oldest of five children born to Nadine and Robert Patrick Sr. He is of Irish and Scottish descent. He has two sisters named Cheri and Karen, and two brothers named Lewis and Richard, the latter of whom is best known as the lead singer for the rock band Filter. Patrick spent his early life in Bay Village, Ohio.  He did not start to pursue an acting career until his mid-twenties. During his childhood, he did not like to act; in third grade, he refused to wear a pair of green tights required for "Peter Pan". He graduated from Farmington High School in Farmington, Michigan in 1977. He was a track and field and football athlete at Bowling Green State University. He dropped out before graduating when he found an interest in drama and acting. After leaving college, Patrick worked as a house painter and continued as such until a boating accident in 1984 in Lake Erie. He swam for three hours in order to save others still stranded on the accident site, and nearly drowned in doing so. After the accident, he moved to Los Angeles at age 26. His main income during his first years was as a bartender, and he often lived in his car. He was then picked up for various small roles in low-budget films. Looking back, he credited his early appearances in films to his "tough-looking exterior".

Career.

Patrick made a short appearance in "Die Hard 2" as a bit part henchman for Colonel Stuart before landing a role in "" (1991) as the main villain, the T-1000; it was his first starring role. James Cameron, the film's director, said he chose Patrick for the role because of his physical appearance, which he felt fit the role. During the filming of "Terminator 2: Judgment Day", Patrick was "broke", living in a cheap apartment with his girlfriend, Barbara, whom he married during filming. He has credited the film with starting his career.  After "Terminator 2", Patrick landed roles in various feature films such as "Last Action Hero", "Fire in the Sky" (both 1993) and "Striptease" (1996). Because of his fondness for martial arts, Patrick starred in two martial arts films titled "Double Dragon" and "Hong Kong 97", both released in 1994. His performance in "Fire in the Sky" led "The X-Files" creator Chris Carter to cast him in that series for the role of John Doggett. Patrick's brother, Richard, had previously worked for the series by adding music for the soundtrack album "". Patrick was cast as Doggett in 2000. "The X-Files" was canceled two seasons later, after Duchovny left the show following season 7, which resulted in low ratings for the show. Patrick made several appearances on many genre magazines, with "TV Guide" going so far as to label him one of the Ten Sexiest Men of Sci-Fi.  In 2000, Patrick appeared in three episodes of "The Sopranos" ("The Happy Wanderer", "Bust Out" and "Funhouse") as David "Davey" Scatino, a store owner struggling with gambling debts owed to Richie Aprile and Tony Soprano. Four years later, he made a guest appearance in the pilot episodes for Sci-Fi Channel's original series "Stargate Atlantis", "Rising", as the military component commander of the Atlantis expedition, Marshall Sumner. He accepted the role, since he had worked with the same crew on "The Outer Limits", a series which he appeared in during the early 1990s.  Patrick played Johnny Cash's father, Ray Cash, in the film "Walk the Line" and Elvis's father, Vernon Presley in the miniseries "Elvis." In 2003, he appeared in, which reunited him with his "Striptease" co-star, Demi Moore. He had a regular role on "The Unit", and played Elvis Presley in "Lonely Street" (2009). In October 2006, he starred in the WWE Films production "The Marine" as Rome. He also appeared in "We Are Marshall" as Marshall University head coach Rick Tolley, who lost his life when Southern Airways Flight 932 crashed in 1970. His credits also include a guest starring role in the "Lost" episode "Outlaws", as well as a recurring role as the voice of Master Piandao in of the Nickelodeon animated series "". Patrick played a supporting role in "Firewall", a 2006 action movie starring Harrison Ford. He has also appeared in Meat Loaf's music video "Objects in the Rear View Mirror May Appear Closer than They Are" with Will Estes.  Director McG, who directed "Terminator Salvation", said that he wanted to reintroduce characters from the previous "Terminator" films: "I like the idea and the perspective for the next picture that you meet Robert Patrick the way he looks today, and he's a scientist that's working on, you know, improving cell replication so we can stay healthier and we can cure diabetes and do all these things that sound like good ideas, and to once again live as idealized expressions as ourselves." Patrick also starred in the psychological thriller "The Black Water of Echo's Pond", which was directed by Italian filmmaker Gabriel Bologna. In recent years, he has appeared in such television series as "Burn Notice", "NCIS" and "True Blood", among others. From 2012 to 2013, he also starred in "Last Resort" as Chief of the Boat Joseph Prosser. He played a supporting character in "Identity Thief" (2013). From 2014 to 2016, he starred in Robert Rodriguez's "" as Jacob Fuller. He also played Agent Cabe Gallo on the CBS drama series "Scorpion" from 2014 to 2018.  On March 28, 2017, Patrick was cast in Amazon Video horror anthology series "Lore", which is based on the award-winning and critically acclaimed podcast of the same name. "Lore" recounts true stories of frightening and paranormal occurrences. "Lore" premiered on October 13, 2017, and has been renewed for a second season.

Personal life.

Patrick married actress Barbara Hooper in 1990. They have appeared together in various films and TV shows such as "Zero Tolerance" and "The X-Files". They have two children: a son named Samuel and a daughter named Austin (named after the police officer the T-1000 assumes the identity of in "").  Patrick is a devout Episcopalian. He is also a member of the Boozefighters motorcycle club. He often joins the Love Ride, a charity motorcycle ride held annually in Southern California.  On October 22, 2010, in Dallas, Texas, Patrick joined his brother Richard's band Filter onstage to provide guest vocals on a performance of their song "So I Quit".

Robert Hammond Patrick Jr. (born November 5, 1958) is an American actor and voice actor. Known for his portrayals of villainous characters, Patrick is a Saturn Award winner with four nominations.

小罗伯特·哈蒙德·帕特里克(英语:Robert Hammond Patrick, Jr.,1959年-11月5日)是一位美国演员,因他在科幻作品中得表现而闻名。曾赢得土星奖。


Function.

IFPI's mission is to promote the value of recorded music, campaign for record producer rights, and expand the commercial uses of recorded music. Its services to members include a legal policy programme, litigation, content protection, sales reporting for the recorded music market, insight and analysis and work in the areas of performance rights, technology and trade.

Structure.

IFPI is governed by its Main Board, a group including representatives from across the organisation's members (including major and independent record labels), representatives from certain IFPI National Groups and the organisation's CEO. There are also two regional boards (the IFPI Asia/Pacific Regional Board and IFPI Latin America Regional Board) which oversee regional matters.  Frances Moore is the current CEO. She was appointed the chief executive with a term effective from 1 July 2010. She replaced John Kennedy OBE, who had headed the organisation since 2005 and was also one of the co-producers of Live Aid and Live8.

Scope of influence.

IFPI represents the recording industry worldwide with some 1,300 members in almost 60 countries and national groups or affiliated industry associations in 56 countries. According to its criteria, IFPI membership is open to "a legal entity or person which is either a producer of phonograms or music videos, copies of which are made available to the public in reasonable quantities", though the organisation does not define "reasonable quantities".  National groups and affiliate bodies include SNEP in France; BVMI in Germany; RIAJ in Japan; BPI in the UK; RIAA in the US; ARIA in Australia; Music Canada; AMPROFON in Mexico; Recorded Music New Zealand; Promusicae in Spain; FIMI in Italy and others. Record labels can be members of both their local industry body and IFPI.

History.

Members of the international phonographic industry formed IFPI at the industry's first international congress in Rome, Italy, held from 10–14 November 1933. IFPI described its mission as representing "the interests of the recording industry worldwide in all fora" by promoting legislation and copyrights and "to protect the largely British-based recording industry" by promoting a global performance right in gramophone sound recordings.

Phonogram copyrights established.

The IFPI lobbied at the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations of 1961, which established an international standard for the protection of sound recordings, live performances and broadcasts. This Convention was opposed by trade groups representing authors and composers, who were concerned that establishing such "neighbouring rights" would undermine their own control over how their works were used and would result in prohibitively expensive licensing. Pressure from United States-based broadcasters who didn't want to license the records they broadcast, among other factors, kept the United States from signing the Convention; the United States would not recognise a separate sound recording copyright until 1971.

Phonogram copy protection efforts.

In an effort to combat copyright violation, in 1971, the IFPI advocated for the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms (the Geneva Phonograms Convention), which 72 countries signed.  In 1986, the ISO established the International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) standard, ISO 3901. In 1989, the IFPI was designated the registration authority for ISRC codes. ISRC codes "enable the use of copyright protected recordings and works to be controlled; facilitate the distribution and collection of royalties (performances, private copying); and assist in the fight against piracy".  To further combat infringement of recorded works, the IFPI and the compact disc manufacturing industry introduced Source Identification (SID) codes in 1994. The SID codes are markings on optical discs such as compact discs (CD) and digital versatile discs (DVD) that identify the manufacturer, equipment, and master discs used to create each disc. There are two codes: the SID mastering code and the SID mould code. The SID mastering code identifies the manufacturing facility used to produce a master from which moulds are produced. The SID mould code identifies the plant where the disc was moulded (replicated). Since not all optical disc manufacturing facilities have the ability to both produce master discs and replicate discs, the SID mastering code and SID mould code on a given optical disc may or may not represent the same manufacturing facility.  SID codes follow a standard format consisting of the letters "IFPI" followed by four or five hexadecimal digits. A number prefaced with "L" is a "mastering code", a serial number taken from a pool assigned by Philips to the manufacturer. The mastering code identifies the Laser Beam Recorder (LBR) signal processor or mould that produced a particular stamper or a glass master disc from which moulds are produced. Non-"L" numbers are "mould codes", which identify the manufacturer that replicated the disc. Phillips assigns the first 2 or 3 digits of the mould code and the remaining digits are a serial number assigned by that plant to its moulds.

The Pirate Bay incidents.

In mid-October 2007, after IFPI let the ifpi.com domain registration lapse, ownership of the ifpi.com domain was transferred to The Pirate Bay, a group which claimed it received the domain from an anonymous donor. The group set up a Website under the domain titled "International Federation of Pirates Interests", a replacement backronym for IFPI. Ownership of the domain was returned to IFPI in late November, when a WIPO arbitration panel concluded that "the Disputed Domain Name is identical or confusingly similar to a trademark in which the [IFPI] has rights" and that the Pirate Bay's representative "registered and [was] using the Disputed Domain Name in bad faith" and failed to adequately rebut IFPI's contention that he "has no rights or a legitimate interest in the Disputed Domain Name". The organisation's website www.ifpi.org was unaffected during the dispute.  In a separate incident, on 18 February 2009, the domain (ifpi.se) for the Swedish National Group, IFPI Sweden, was hacked by The Pirate Bay supporter(s). This occurred on the third day of the trial of the Pirate Bay founders in Sweden. The site was replaced with a short message directed at the Prosecutor Håkan Roswall and plaintiffs ("Warner Brothers etc"). It was signed "The New Generation". Peter Sunde of Pirate Bay made an appeal on Twitter requesting that the hackers stop this defacement.  On 19 April 2009, after the announcement of an unfavorable Swedish court decision against The Pirate Bay, the ifpi.org and ifpi.se domains were reportedly subjected to a DDoS attack. The British technology news and opinion website "The Register" and the copyright, file sharing and digital rights focused news site "TorrentFreak" speculated that the attacks were perpetrated by Pirate Bay supporters.

Certifications and Awards.

IFPI publishes three annual top 10 charts: Global Artist of the Year Award, Global Top Digital Single, and Global Top Album.  Launched in January 2014, the IFPI Global Artist of the Year award and chart was the first global chart to accurately capture the popularity of artists across streaming channels, alongside digital and physical album and singles sales. The independently verified chart includes sales of albums – across digital, CD and vinyl formats; singles, both downloaded and physical; and streams across the calendar year. The chart includes all the music of each artist featured, not just one track or album. It uses album equivalent units to combine measurements of downloads, physical sales and streams.  The Global Top 10 Recording Artist Chart is published each year, with the number-one artist being presented with a physical award. The winners have been: One Direction in 2013, Taylor Swift in 2014, Adele in 2015, Drake in 2016, Ed Sheeran in 2017, Drake in 2018and Taylor Swift in 2019.  The organisation also publishes the top performing global singles and albums each year. The most recent winners, for 2019, were Billie Eilish's "bad guy" and ARASHI's "5x20 All the Best!! 1999–2019" respectively.  Formerly, IFPI ran certifications called the IFPI Platinum Europe Awards and the IFPI Middle East Awards. The IFPI Platinum Europe Awards were founded in 1996. They are awarded for actual retail sales (as opposed to shipments) of one million albums, in one of the following countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and United Kingdom. The IFPI Middle East Awards were established in October 2009. They were awarded for sales in either Lebanon or the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, namely Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. in the GCC, Gold certificate was awarded for sales of 3,000 units and Platinum for sales of 6,000 units. In Lebanon, Gold certificate was awarded for sales of 1,000 units and Platinum for sales of 2,000 units.

The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) is the organisation that represents the interests of the recording industry worldwide. It is a non-profit members' organisation registered in Switzerland and founded in Italy in 1933. It operates a Secretariat based in London, with regional offices in Brussels, Hong Kong, and Miami.

国际唱片业协会(英语:International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, 缩写为IFPI),是一个由唱片业者所组成的国际组织,总部位于瑞士苏黎世,秘书处位于英国伦敦,主要任务包括保护歌曲的版权。国际唱片业协会1933年于意大利成立,1974年使用现在的名称。目前代表着75个国家共1450个成员。亚洲总会位于香港。