Plot.

Corie (Jane Fonda), a free spirited young woman, and Paul Bratter (Robert Redford), a conservative, less free-spirited man, are a recently married couple, who move into a fifth floor apartment in Greenwich Village (one of the ongoing jokes is the fact that everyone has to climb so many stairs to get to the apartment). Corie decorates the small, leaky apartment, turning it into a picturesque little home for the two. One of the many odd people living in the apartment building, the quirky Victor Velasco (Charles Boyer), befriends Corie, even flirting with her. He lives in the attic of the building, and climbs through the Bratters' apartment window to get to his. Victor helps Corie with the apartment, teaching her how to work the seemingly broken heating and plumbing.  Corie sets up a dinner date with Paul, Victor, and Corie's mother, Ethel Banks (Mildred Natwick) in a scheme to get Corie's mother to fall for Victor. Corie feels that her mother is lonely now that she lives alone and needs love. Victor takes them all to an Albanian restaurant on Staten Island where he knows the owner. There, the group drinks, and Corie and Victor dance with the belly dancer, while Paul and Ethel watch in embarrassment. Afterwards, Corie and Victor return to the apartment in high spirits as Paul and Ethel drag themselves along with fatigue. As Victor escorts Ethel outside, Corie and Paul begin an argument over their differences. Corie feels her adventurous spirit is impeded by Paul's cautious demeanor. One of the examples she gives is that he would not go barefoot in the park with her one evening. His excuse was that it was freezing. Corie says she will kick Paul out and get a big dog to protect her from him. Paul says maybe it will finally allow her to have someone who will go barefoot in the park with her. They eventually go to sleep, Corie in their tiny bedroom and Paul sleeping on the couch under a hole in the skylight on a snowy February night.  The next day, Paul comes home with a fever, but Corie still insists she wants a divorce. The two spend an awkward time together in their apartment before Corie kicks Paul out. She then gets a call from her aunt, saying that Ethel did not come home. Corie panics, and eventually finds out that her mother was at Victor's apartment. While Victor was escorting her to her home in New Jersey the previous night, Ethel slipped on icy stairs and fell. Victor and some neighbors took her back to Victor's apartment, where they spent the night. Strangely, Ethel was wearing nothing but her undergarments and Victor's Japanese kimono. It turned out that Victor had Ethel's dress drycleaned.  Meanwhile, a drunken Paul skips work and sits in Washington Square Park. Heeding her mother's advice, Corie goes out searching for Paul and finds him drunk and running shoeless and barefoot through the park. The once cautious Paul is now a fun loving drunk while Corie cautiously chases after him in order to get him to sober up. Eventually, Paul says it's his apartment and he's going back home. Corie follows. Back at the apartment, Paul, still drunk, climbs onto the roof of the apartment. Scared he might fall, Corie begs him to come down while speaking to him through the hole in the glass ceiling. He says he will only come down if she repeats after him. He wants her to admit that her husband is a crazy drunk, when a few nights before she scolded him for being so cautious and practical even when he is drunk. Meanwhile, realizing where he is, Paul becomes scared, and almost falls off the building. Corie asks Paul to sing an Albanian folk song they had heard at the restaurant that Victor had taken them to calm himself down. While he sings, Corie climbs up to the roof to help him down. A crowd of onlookers starts to gather in the street, including Ethel and Victor. When Corie reaches Paul, they kiss and climb back down as the crowd cheers.

Reception.

, "Barefoot in the Park" holds a rating of 84% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 25 reviews, with the consensus: ""Barefoot in the Park" may strike some modern viewers as dated, but what it lacks in timeliness, it more than makes up with the effervescent chemistry between its stars."  Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" wrote, "If it's romantic farce you delight in — old-fashioned romantic farce loaded with incongruities and snappy verbal gags — then you should find the movie version of 'Barefoot in the Park' to your taste... But if you are in for a certain measure of intelligence and plausibility in what is presumed to be take-out of what might happen to reckless newlyweds today; if you expect a wisp of logic in the make-up of comic characters, which is, after all, what makes them funny, instead of sheer gagging it up, then beware." Arthur D. Murphy of "Variety" called the film "a thoroughly entertaining comedy delight about young marriage." Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" stated, "High-gloss, low-density comedy requires a special touch and Robert Redford and Jane Fonda handle themselves with a fine, deft charm... As after a souffle, you may shortly be hungry for something more substantial but while it lasts it's very tasty." Brendan Gill of "The New Yorker" called the film "a funny adaptation by Neil Simon of his funny play." Leo Sullivan of "The Washington Post" wrote, "An excellent cast plays the light-as-air plot as coolly as possible. What's most important, it is as funny as ever it was and makes an ideal summer attraction."

Barefoot in the Park is a 1967 American romantic comedy film starring Jane Fonda and Robert Redford. Based on Neil Simon's 1963 play of the same name, it focuses on newlyweds Corie and Paul Bratter and their adventures living in a minuscule fifth floor walk-up apartment in a Greenwich Village brownstone. Stuffed-shirt Paul is a hard-working young attorney just starting his practice, while spontaneous bride Corie is determined to create a romantic environment in two rooms without heat, a hole in the skylight, and oddball neighbors.

《斗气夫妻》(英语:"Barefoot in the Park")是一套1967年的美国喜剧片,由金·赛克执导,罗拔·烈福及珍·芳达等主演。电影内容改编自尼尔·赛门的同名舞台剧,剧本则由尼尔·赛门亲自执笔,描述一对新婚夫妇在纽约市格林尼治村的婚姻生活。


Usage.

As of 2011, around a third of older adults in the U.S. reportedly used OTC drugs. By 2018, the prevalence of use by adults in the U.S. as first-line treatment for minor illnesses had reached 81%.

Regulation by country.

Canada.

In Canada, there are four drug schedules:  All medications other than Schedule 1 may be considered an OTC drug, as they do not require prescriptions for sale. While the National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities provides recommendations on the scheduling of drugs for sale in Canada, each province may determine its own scheduling. The drugs found in each schedule may vary from province to province.

India.

In November 2016, India's Drug Consultative Committee announced it was embarking on establishing a definition of drugs which could be dispensed without a prescription. Prior to this, the general assumption was that any drug which did not fall into a prescription schedule could be purchased without a prescription. However, the needed definition had not been enacted by early 2018. The lack of a legal definition for OTC drugs has led to this market segment being effectively unregulated.

Netherlands.

In the Netherlands, there are four categories:  A drug that is UA may be sold OTC but only by pharmacists. The drug can be on the shelves like any other product. Examples are domperidone, 400 mg ibuprofen up to 50 tablets and dextromethorphan. A drug that is UAD can also be sold at drugstores, stores where no prescription can be filed and there is only a relatively small selection of popular drugs like painkillers and cough medicine. The drugs are usually on the shelves, and the store also sells items like toys, gadgets, perfumes and homeopathic products. The drugs in this category have limited risk and addiction potential. Examples are naproxen and diclofenac in small amounts, cinnarizine, 400 mg ibuprofen up to 20 tablets and also 500 mg paracetamol up to 50 tablets. Drugs in the AV category can be sold at supermarkets, gas stations, etc. and include only drugs with minimal risk to the public, like paracetamol up to 20 tablets, 200 mg ibuprofen up to 10 tablets, cetirizine and loperamide.

United States.

In the United States, the manufacture and sale of OTC substances are regulated by the Food and Drug Administration. The FDA requires that all "new drugs" obtain a New Drug Application (NDA) before entering interstate commerce, but the act exempts any drugs generally recognized as safe and effective (GRAS/E). To deal with the vast number of OTC drugs that were already on the market before the requirement that all drugs obtain an NDA, the FDA created the OTC monograph system to review classes of drugs and to categorize them as GRAS/E after review by expert panels. Certain classes of OTC drugs would not be required to obtain an NDA and could remain on the market if they conformed to the monograph guidelines for doses, labeling, and warnings finalized in the Code of Federal Regulations  Thus, an OTC drug product is allowed to be marketed either (1) pursuant to an FDA monograph or (2) pursuant to an NDA for products that do not fit within a specific monograph. There is also the possibility that certain OTC drug products are marketed under the grandfathering provisions of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, but the FDA has never formally acknowledged that any legitimate grandfathered OTC drug exists.  Examples of OTC substances approved in the United States are sunscreens, anti-microbial and anti-fungal products, external and internal analgesics such as lidocaine and aspirin, psoriasis and eczema topical treatments, anti-dandruff shampoos containing coal tar, and other topical products with a therapeutic effect.  The Federal Trade Commission regulates advertising of OTC products, in contrast to prescription drug advertising, which is regulated by the FDA.  The FDA requires OTC products to be labeled with an approved "Drug Facts" label to educate consumers about their medications. The labels comply to a standard format and are intended to be easy for typical consumers to understand. Drug Facts labels include information on the product's active ingredient(s), indications and purpose, safety warnings, directions for use, and inactive ingredients.

Restricted over-the-counter substances.

An ill-defined third category of substances is products having over-the-counter status from the FDA while being simultaneously subject to other restrictions on sale. While they are legally classified as OTC drugs, they are typically stored behind the counter and are sold only in stores that are registered with their state. They may be unavailable in convenience and grocery stores that stock other non-restricted OTC medications.  For example, many drugstores have moved products containing pseudoephedrine, an OTC product, into locations where customers must ask a pharmacist for them. A prescription is not required; the change has been made in an effort to reduce methamphetamine production. Since the passage of the Illinois Methamphetamine Precursor Control Act and the subsequent federal Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005, the purchase of pseudoephedrine is restricted. Sellers of pseudoephedrine must obtain and record the identity of the purchaser and enforce quantity restrictions. Some states may have more stringent requirements (such as Oregon, where a medical prescription is required to purchase any quantity of pseudoephedrine). After initial attempts to control methamphetamine use (by requiring documentation of sale with government issued ID as well as limits on the quantity an individual could purchase) failed to realize meaningful reductions in methamphetamine use and production, Mississippi passed House Bill 512 in the State Senate on February 2, 2010 "to require a prescription from a licensed medical professional to purchase over-the-counter medicines with pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, or any other precursor chemical that can readily and illicitly be converted into methamphetamine, Methcathinone or any active/scheduled analogs of Phenylethylamines/ amphetamine." However, products containing the substance are still OTC in most states, since no prescription is required.  A similar regulation once applied to some forms of emergency contraception. However, on February 25, 2014, the FDA approved generic one-pill emergency contraception products for unrestricted sale on the shelf. There is no age limit or need for ID to purchase.  Furthermore, some Schedule V controlled substances may be classified as OTC products in certain states. Such drugs are sold without a prescription but are subject to record-keeping rules and quantity and/or age restrictions, and they must be dispensed by a pharmacy.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, medication is governed by the Medicines Regulations 2012. Medication falls into one of three categories:  If it is not appropriate to sell a 'P' medication – i.e. the condition is not suitable for self-management and requires referral to a medical prescriber – then a sale should not occur and the pharmacist has a legal and professional obligation to refer this on to an appropriate service.  Examples of these include some sleep aid tablets such as Nytol, human deworming tablets such as Mebendazole, painkillers with small amounts of codeine (up to 12.8 mg per tablet), and pseudoephedrine. Medication available only with a prescription is marked somewhere on the box/container with [POM]. Pharmacy-only products are marked with [P]. A prescription is not required for [P] medicines, and pharmacy sales assistants are required by Royal Pharmaceutical Society codes to ask certain questions, which varies for what the customer says. If they ask for a specific product, the pharmacy assistant must ask "Who is it for," "How long have you had the symptoms," "Are you allergic to any medication," "Are you taking any medication" ('WHAM' questions). If a customer asks for a remedy, e.g., hay fever, then the two WHAM questions must be followed "Who is it for," "What are the symptoms," "How long have you had the symptoms," "Have you taken any action towards your symptoms," and "Are you taking any other medication." It is with this information that the pharmacist can halt the sale, if need be. No [POM], [P] or [GSL] products that are stocked in a pharmacy can be sold, dispensed, or pre-made until a responsible pharmacist is signed in and on the premises. Some medication available in supermarkets and petrol stations is sold only in smaller packet sizes. Often, larger packs will be marked as [P] and available only from a pharmacy. Frequently, customers buying larger-than-usual doses of [P] medicines (such as DXM, promethazine, codeine or Gee's linctus) will be queried, due to the possibility of abuse.

Transitions between prescription and OTC.

As a general rule, over-the-counter drugs have to be used primarily to treat a condition that does not require the direct supervision of a doctor and must be proven to be reasonably safe and well tolerated. OTC drugs are usually also required to have little or no abuse potential, although in some areas drugs such as codeine are available OTC (usually in strictly limited formulations or requiring paperwork or identification to be submitted during purchase).  Over time, often 3–6 years, drugs that prove themselves safe and appropriate as prescription medicines may be switched from prescription to OTC. An example of this is diphenhydramine (Benadryl), an anti-histamine which once required a prescription but now is available OTC nearly everywhere. More recent examples are cimetidine and loratadine in the United States, and ibuprofen in Australia.  It is somewhat unusual for an OTC drug to be withdrawn from the market as a result of safety concerns, rather than market forces, though it does happen occasionally. For example, phenylpropanolamine was removed from sale in the United States over concern regarding strokes in young women. A study has been done examining consumer's perceptions about the risk of and access to nonprescription medication. The study concluded that a small percentage of consumers prefer having access to medication over potential risks of taking non-prescribed medication. In the United Kingdom, it was announced in February 2007 that Boots the Chemist would try over-the-counter sales of Viagra in stores in Manchester, England (previous available as prescription only). Men aged between 30 and 65 could buy four tablets after a consultation with a pharmacist.

Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are medicines sold directly to a consumer without a requirement for a prescription from a healthcare professional, as opposed to prescription drugs, which may be supplied only to consumers possessing a valid prescription. In many countries, OTC drugs are selected by a regulatory agency to ensure that they contain ingredients that are safe and effective when used without a physician's care. OTC drugs are usually regulated according to their active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) rather than final products. By regulating APIs instead of specific drug formulations, governments allow manufacturers the freedom to formulate ingredients, or combinations of ingredients, into proprietary mixtures.

非处方药(英语:over-the-counter (OTC) drug),又称为成药,指的是未经处方而可以从药店购买得到的药品,与处方药相对。这些药品临床应用时间较长、药效确定、药物不良反应较少,患者不须过多的专业知识,仅凭药品说明书和标签就可以安全使用。


Evolutionary history.

Slow lorises (genus "Nycticebus") are strepsirrhine primates and are related to other living lorisoids, such as slender lorises ("Loris"), pottos ("Perodicticus"), false pottos ("Pseudopotto"), angwantibos ("Arctocebus"), and galagos (family Galagidae), and to the lemurs of Madagascar. They are most closely related to the slender lorises of South Asia, followed by the angwantibos, pottos and false pottos of Central and West Africa. Lorisoids are thought to have evolved in Africa, where most living species occur; later, one group may have migrated to Asia and evolved into the slender and slow lorises of today.  Lorises first appear in the Asian fossil record in the Miocene, with records in Thailand around 18 million years ago (mya) and in Pakistan 16 mya. The Thai record is based on a single tooth that most closely resembles living slow lorises and that is tentatively classified as a species of "Nycticebus". The species is named? "Nycticebus linglom", using open nomenclature (the preceding "?" indicates the tentative nature of the assignment).  Several lorises are found in the Siwalik deposits of Pakistan, dating to 16 to 8 mya, including "Nycticeboides" and "Microloris". Most are small, but an unnamed form dating to 15–16 mya is comparable in size to the largest living slow lorises. Molecular clock analysis suggests that slow lorises may have started evolving into distinct species about 10 mya. They are thought to have reached the islands of Sundaland when the Sunda Shelf was exposed at times of low sea level, creating a land bridge between the mainland and islands off the coast of Southeast Asia.

Discovery and taxonomy.

The earliest known mention of a slow loris in scientific literature is from 1770, when Dutchman Arnout Vosmaer (1720–1799) described a specimen of what we know today as "N. bengalensis" that he had received two years earlier. The French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, later questioned Vosmaer's decision to affiliate the animal with sloths, arguing that it was more closely aligned with the lorises of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Bengal. The word "loris" was first used in 1765 by Buffon as a close equivalent to a Dutch name, "loeris". This etymology was later supported by the physician William Baird in the 1820s, who noted that the Dutch word "loeris" signified "a clown".  In 1785, the Dutch physician and naturalist Pieter Boddaert

Anatomy and physiology.

Slow lorises have a round head because their skull is shorter than in other living strepsirrhine. Like other lorisids, their snout does not taper towards the front of the face as it does in lemurs, making the face appear less long and pointed. Compared with the slender lorises, the snout of the slow loris is even less pointed. As with other members of Lorisidae, its interorbital distance is shorter than in lemurs. The skull has prominent crests (ridges of bone). A distinguishing feature of the slow loris skull is that the occipital bone is flattened and faces backward. The foramen magnum (hole through which the spinal cord enters) faces directly backward. The brains of slow lorises have more folds (convolutions) than the brains of galagos. The ears are small, sparsely covered in hair, and hidden in the fur. Similar to the slender lorises, the fur around and directly above the eyes is dark. Unlike the slender lorises, however, the white stripe that separates the eye rings broadens both on the tip of the nose and on the forehead while also fading out on the forehead. Like other strepsirrhine primates, the nose and lip are covered by a moist skin called the rhinarium ("wet nose"), which is a sense organ.  The eyes of slow lorises are forward-facing, which gives stereo vision. Their eyes are large and possess a reflective layer, called the tapetum lucidum, that improves low-light vision. It is possible that this layer blurs the images they see, as the reflected light may interfere with the incoming light. Slow lorises have monochromatic vision, meaning they see in shades of only one color. They lack the opsin gene that would allow them to detect short wavelength light, which includes the colors blue and green.  The dental formula of slow lorises is, meaning that on each side of the mouth there are two upper (maxillary) and lower (mandibular) incisors, one upper and lower canine tooth, three upper and lower premolars, and three upper and lower molars, giving a total of 36 permanent teeth. As in all other crown strepsirrhines, their lower incisors and canine are procumbent (lie down and face outwards), forming a toothcomb, which is used for personal and social grooming and feeding. The toothcomb

Distribution and diversity.

Slow lorises are found in South and Southeast Asia. Their collective range stretches from Northeast India through Indochina, east to the Sulu Archipelago (the small, southern islands of the Philippines), and south to the island of Java (including Borneo, Sumatra, and many small nearby islands). They are found in India (Northeastern states), China (Yunnan province), Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Brunei, and Singapore.  There are currently eight recognized species. The pygmy slow loris ("N. pygmaeus") occurs east of the Mekong River in Yunnan, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia. The Bornean slow loris ("N. menagensis"), found on Borneo and nearby islands, including the Sulu Archipelago, and in 2012 was split into four distinct species (adding "N. bancanus", "N. borneanus", and "N. kayan"). The Javan

Behavior and ecology.

Little is known about the social structure of slow lorises, but they generally spend most of the night foraging alone. Individuals sleep during the day, usually alone but occasionally with other slow lorises. Home ranges of adults may significantly overlap, and those of males are generally larger than those of females. In the absence of direct studies of the genus, primatologist Simon Bearder speculated that slow loris social behavior is similar to that of the potto, another nocturnal primate.  Such a social system is distinguished by a lack of matriarchy and by factors that allow the slow loris to remain inconspicuous and minimize energy expenditure. Vocal exchanges and alarm calls are limited; scent marking with urine is the dominant form of communication. Adult males are highly territorial and are aggressive towards other males. Vocalizations include an affiliative (friendly) call "krik", and a louder call resembling a crow's caw. When disturbed, slow lorises can also produce a low buzzing hiss or growl. To make contact with other individuals, they emit a single high-pitched rising tone, and females use a high whistle when in estrus. Slow lorises are slow and deliberate climbers, and often hold on to branches with three of their four limbs. To move between trees, they carefully grip the terminal branches of the neighboring tree and pull themselves across the small gap. They will also grip branches with only their hind feet, lift themselves upright, and quickly launch forward with their hands to catch prey.  Due to their slow movement, all lorises, including the slow lorises, have a specially adapted mechanism for defense against predation. Their slow, deliberate movement hardly disturbs the vegetation and is almost completely silent. Once disturbed, they immediately stop moving and remain motionless. In Indonesia, slow lorises are called "malu malu" or "shy one" because they freeze and cover their face when spotted.  If cornered, they may adopt a defensive posture by curling up and lunging at the predator. The Acehnese name, "buah angin" ("wind monkey"), refers to their ability to "fleetingly but silently escape". Little is known about the predation of slow lorises. Documented predators include snakes, the changeable hawk-eagle ("Nisaetus cirrhatus"), and Sumatran orangutans ("Pongo abelii"). Other potential predators include cats, sun bears ("Helarctos malayanus"), binturongs ("Arctictis binturong"), and Asian palm civets.  Slow lorises produce a secretion from their brachial gland (a scent gland on the upper arm near the axilla) that is licked and mixed with their saliva. In tests, three predators—binturongs, clouded leopards ("Neofelis nebulosa"), and sun bears—retreated or showed other signs of displeasure when presented with cotton swabs anointed with a mixture of the toxic secretion and the saliva, whereas the toxic secretion alone generated mild interest. Before stashing their offspring in a secure location, female slow lorises will lick their brachial glands, and then groom their young with their toothcomb, depositing the toxin on their fur. When threatened, slow lorises may also lick their brachial glands and bite their aggressors, delivering the toxin into the wounds. Slow lorises can be reluctant to release their bite, which is likely to maximize the transfer of toxins. This toxic bite is a rare trait among mammals and unique to lorisid primates. It may also be used for defense against other slow lorises and parasites. According to Nekaris, this adaptation—along with vocalizations, movement, and coloration patterns similar to those of true cobras—may have evolved through Müllerian mimicry to protect slow lorises when they need to move across the ground due to breaks in the canopy. Studies suggest that slow lorises are polygynandrous. Infants are either parked on branches while their parents find food or else are carried by one of the parents. Due to their long gestations (about six months), small litter sizes, low birth weights, long weaning times (three to six months), and long gaps between births, slow loris populations have one of the slowest growth rates among mammals of similar size. Pygmy slow lorises are likely to give birth to twins—from 50% to 100% of births, depending on the study; in contrast, this phenomenon is rare (3% occurrence) in Bengal slow lorises. A seven-year study of captive-bred pygmy slow lorises showed a skewed sex distribution, with 1.68 males born for every 1 female.  Breeding may be continuous throughout the year. Copulation often occurs while suspended with the hands and feet clinging to horizontal branches for support. In captive Sunda slow lorises, mating primarily occurs between June and mid-September, with the estrus cycle lasting 29 to 45 days and estrus lasting one to five days. Likewise, gestation lasts 185 to 197 days, and the young weigh between at birth. Females reach sexual maturity at 18 to 24 months, while males are capable of reproducing at 17 months. However, the fathers become hostile towards their male offspring after 12 to 14 months and will chase them away. In captivity, they can live 20 or more years.

In culture.

Beliefs about slow lorises and their use in traditional practices are deep-rooted and go back at least 300 years, if not earlier based on oral traditions. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was reported that the people from the interior of Borneo believed that slow lorises were the gatekeepers for the heavens and that each person had a personal slow loris waiting for them in the afterlife. More often, however, slow lorises are used in traditional medicine or to ward off evil. The following passage from an early textbook about primates is indicative of the superstitions associated with slow lorises: Many strange powers are attributed to this animal by the natives of the countries it inhabits; there is hardly an event in life to man, woman or child, or even domestic animals, that may not be influenced for better or worse by the Slow Loris, alive or dead, or by any separate part of it, and apparently one cannot usually tell at the time, that one is under supernatural power. Thus a

Conservation.

The two greatest threats to slow lorises are deforestation and the wildlife trade. Slow lorises have lost a significant amount of habitat, with habitat fragmentation isolating small populations and obstructing biological dispersal. However, despite the lost habitat, their decline is most closely associated with unsustainable trade, either as exotic pets or for traditional medicine.  Each of the slow loris species that had been identified prior to 2012 are currently listed as either "Vulnerable" or "Endangered" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on their Red List. When they were all considered a single species, imprecise population data together with their regular occurrence in Southeast Asian animal markets combined to erroneously suggest that slow lorises were common. This manifested as incorrect Red List assessments of "Least Concern" as recently as 2000. The three newest species are yet to be evaluated by the IUCN, although each were once thought to be subpopulations of the Bornean slow loris—which was evaluated as "Vulnerable" in 2008. With this division of its range and population, the Bornean slow loris and the three new species face a higher risk of extinction than before.  Since 2007, all slow loris species have been protected from commercial international trade under Appendix I of CITES. Furthermore, local trade is illegal because every nation in which they occur naturally has laws protecting them. Despite their CITES Appendix I status and local legal protection, slow lorises are still threatened by both local and international trade due to problems with enforcement. Surveys are needed to determine existing population densities and habitat viability for all species of slow loris. Connectivity between protected areas is important for slow lorises because they are not adapted to dispersing across the ground over large distances.  Populations of Bengal and Sunda slow lorises are not faring well in zoos. Of the 29 captive specimens in North American zoos in 2008, several are hybrids that cannot breed, while most are past their reproductive years. The last captive birth for these species in North America was in 2001 in San Diego. Pygmy slow lorises are doing better in North American zoos; from the late 1980s (when they were imported) to 2008, the population grew to 74 animals, with most of them born at the San Diego Zoo.

Wildlife trade.

Until the 1960s, the hunting of slow lorises was sustainable, but due to growing demand, decreased supply, and the subsequent increased value of the marketed wildlife, slow lorises have been overexploited and are in decline. With the use of modern technology, such as battery-powered search lights, slow lorises have become easier to hunt because of their eye shine. Traditional medicine made from loris parts is thought to cure many diseases, and the

Common misconceptions.

Because of their "cuteness", videos of pet slow lorises are some of the most frequently watched animal-related viral videos on YouTube. In March 2011, a newly posted video of a slow loris holding a cocktail umbrella had been viewed more than two million times, while an older video of a slow loris being tickled had been viewed more than six million times. According to Nekaris, these videos are misunderstood by most people who watch them, since most do not realize that it is illegal in most countries to own them as pets and that the slow lorises in the videos are only docile because that is their passive defensive reaction to threatening situations.  Despite frequent advertisements by pet shops in Japan, the World Conservation Monitoring Centre reported that only a few dozen slow lorises were legally imported in 2006, suggesting frequent smuggling. Slow lorises are also smuggled to China, Taiwan, Europe, Russia, the United States, and Saudi Arabia for use as pets. Within their countries of origin, slow lorises are very popular pets, particularly in Indonesia. They are seen as a "living toy" for children by local people or are bought out of pity by Western tourists or expatriates. Neither local nor foreign buyers usually know anything about these primates, their endangered status, or that the trade is illegal. According to "National Geographic", slow lorises are protected by both local laws in southern Asia and by the

Slow lorises are a group of several species of nocturnal strepsirrhine primates that make up the genus Nycticebus. Found in Southeast Asia and bordering areas, they range from Bangladesh and Northeast India in the west to the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines in the east, and from Yunnan province in China in the north to the island of Java in the south. Although many previous classifications recognized as few as a single all-inclusive species, there are now at least eight that are considered valid: the Sunda slow loris ("N. coucang"), Bengal slow loris ("N. bengalensis"), pygmy slow loris ("N. pygmaeus"), Javan slow loris ("N. javanicus"), Philippine slow loris ("N. menagensis"), Bangka slow loris ("N. bancanus"), Bornean slow loris ("N. borneanus"), and Kayan River slow loris ("N. kayan"). The group's closest relatives are the slender lorises of southern India and Sri Lanka. Their next closest relatives are the African lorisids, the pottos, false pottos, and angwantibos. They are less closely related to the remaining lorisoids (the various types of galago), and more distantly to the lemurs of Madagascar. Their evolutionary history is uncertain since their fossil record is patchy and molecular clock studies have given inconsistent results.

懒猴属(学名:"")是懒猴科下的一种动物。牠们分布在婆罗洲及菲律宾南部,至孟加拉、越南、印尼、印度、中国南部及泰国。牠们被列为易危或濒危,因其大眼睛可以作为药材而被猎杀。


Taxonomy.

"Lutra cinerea" was the scientific name proposed by Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger in 1815 for an otter collected in Batavia. In the 19th and 20th centuries, several zoological specimens were described:  Results of a mitochondrial cytochrome B analysis published in 1998 indicated that it should be subordinated to the genus "Aonyx". Results of a molecular study published in 2008 showed that the Asian small-clawed otter is a sister taxon of "Lutrogale", lending support to retaining the genus "Amblonyx". They genetically diverged about 1.5 million years ago.  The Asian small-clawed otter groups with the African clawless otter and the smooth-coated otter into a sister clade to the genus "Lutra". Hybridisation of Asian small-clawed otter females with smooth-coated otter males occurred in Singapore. The resulting offspring and their descendants bred back into the smooth-coated otter population, but maintained the genes of their small-clawed otter ancestors. Today, a population of at least 60 hybrid otters exist in Singapore.

Characteristics.

The Asian small-clawed otter has deep brown fur with some rufous tinge on the back, but paler below. Its underfur is lighter near the base. The sides of the neck and head are brown, but its cheeks, upperlip, chin, throat and sides of the neck are whitish. Its skull is short, and the naked rhinarium rounded above. The muzzle has long coarse vibrissae on either side. Its eyes are located toward the front of the head. The small ears are oval-shaped with an inconspicuous tragus and antitragus. Its paws are narrow with short digits that are webbed to the last joint. There are short hairs on the lower sides of the interdigital webs. The four-lobed plantar pads are longer than wide. The claws are short, almost erect, and in some individuals even absent. Females have four mammary glands.  The Asian small-clawed otter is the smallest otter species in Asia. In head-to-body length, it ranges from with a long tail. The tapering tail is thick and muscular, especially at the base, and more than half the length of the body. Hind feet are long. Length of skull ranges from. It does not have upper premolars and only four postcanine teeth above. Adult captive otters range in weight from.

Distribution and habitat.

The Asian small-clawed otter is distributed from India to Southeast Asia including the islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Palawan. In southern India, it occurs along shallow mountain creeks in hill ranges up to an elevation of in Karnataka, Nilgiri and Palni hills in Tamil Nadu. Farther north, it occurs in coastal regions of Odisha, and in wetlands in West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. It inhabits freshwater wetlands such as swamps, meandering rivers, irrigated rice fields as well as estuaries, coastal lagoons and tidal pools. In western Java, it inhabits areas along slow-flowing irrigation channels, pond areas and rice fields surrounded by vegetation that offers shelter. It also occurs in mangroves.

Behaviour and ecology.

The Asian small-clawed otter is mostly active after dark. It lives in groups of up to 15 individuals. Group members communicate using 12 or more distinct calls, and utter a variety of yelps and whimpers. When disturbed, they scream to rally the help of others.  When swimming on the surface, otters row with the forelimbs and paddle with the hind limbs. When diving under water, they undulate their bodies and tails. Captive otters swim at speeds of.  Observations of wild Asian small-clawed otters revealed that they smear their spraint at latrine sites, using their hind feet and tails. Large groups smeared more than groups of three or fewer animals. The frequency of latrines with smeared scats varied in different locations, indicating a preference for certain sites. Spraint smearing most likely facilitates social ties among group members and is associated with territorial marking displays. They use grassy or sandy banks for resting, sun bathing and grooming. In marshes, they use mostly islands.

Diet.

The Asian small-clawed otter feeds mainly on crabs, mudskippers and "Trichogaster" fish. Its diet varies seasonally. When and where available, it also catches snakes, frogs, insects, rats and rice field fish like catfish, "Anabas testudineus" and "Channa striata". The size of crabs found in spraints in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary ranged in carapace width from. Captive Asian small-clawed otters were observed to leave shellfish in the sun so that the heat causes them to open. That way, they consume the meat without having to crush the shells.  The hindmost upper teeth (pm4 and m3) are broad and robust and are specialized for crushing the exoskeletons of crabs and other hard shelled prey. They hunt food by using their vibrissae to detect movements of prey in the water. They use their forepaws to locate and capture items rather than their mouths. Their incomplete webbing gives them a great deal of manual dexterity.

Reproduction.

Information about the Asian small-clawed otter's mating and breeding behaviour has been studied in captive environments. Captive pairs are monogamous. The estrous cycle of females lasts 28 to 30 days with estrus lasting between one and 13 days. Usually, mating takes place in the water. Gestation lasts 62 to 86 days. Interval between births is at least eight months. About two weeks before parturition, both female and male engage in building a nest. They collect grass, hay or straw and carry this material into the breeding chamber. Between one and seven pups are born in a litter. Pups are born with closed eyes, which open in the fifth week. Newborn pups weigh between and reach a weight of after 60 days. They start exploring the environs of the breeding den at the age of ten weeks. At about three months, they enter and paddle in shallow water under the guidance of the mother. They become independent at the age of four to five months.

Threats.

The Asian small-clawed otter is threatened by poaching for its fur, loss and destruction of habitats such as hill streams, peat swamp forests and mangroves for aquaculture projects. Threats in India include deforestation, conversion of natural habitat for tea and coffee plantations, overfishing of rivers and water pollution through pesticides.  It is the most sought after otter species for the illegal pet trade in Asia. At least 711 Asian small-clawed otters were offered for sale through online websites by 280 traders in Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Vietnam between 2016 and 2017. Between December 2015 and October 2018, 49 Asian small-clawed otters were confiscated from wildlife traffickers in Thailand, Vietnam and Japan; 35 of them were bound for sale in Japan.

Conservation.

The Asian small-clawed otter was listed on CITES Appendix II and is protected in almost all range countries prohibiting its killing. Since August 2019, it is included in CITES Appendix I, thus strengthening its protection in regards to international trade.

In captivity.

The Association of Zoos and Aquariums established a Species Survival Plan for the Asian small-clawed otter in 1983 to encourage research on captive breeding.  In Europe, Zoo Basel keeps Asian small-clawed otters together with Indian rhinoceros.

The Asian small-clawed otter ("Amblonyx cinereus"), also known as the oriental small-clawed otter or simply small-clawed otter, is a semiaquatic mammal native to South and Southeast Asia. It is a member of the otter subfamily (Lutrinae) of the weasel family (Mustelidae), and is the smallest otter species in the world. Its paws are a distinctive feature; its claws do not extend beyond the fleshy end pads of its partially webbed fingers and toes. This gives it a high degree of manual dexterity so that it can use its paws to feed on molluscs, crabs and other small aquatic animals.

亚洲小爪水獭(学名'、、 ),又名小爪水獭,是一种小型水獭。主要分布于孟加拉国、印度、中国、中南半岛全省、马来半岛、印度尼西亚和菲律宾等地区的湿地附近。


Etymology.

The term Minangkabau (Minangkabau: "Minang" Jawi script: مينڠ) came from a popular legend that was derived from a territorial dispute between a people and a prince from a neighbouring region. To avoid a battle, the local people proposed a fight to the death between two water buffalo ("kabau") to settle the dispute. The prince agreed and produced the largest, meanest, most aggressive buffalo. The villagers on other hand produced a hungry baby calf with its small horns ground to be as sharp as knives. Seeing the adult buffalo across the field, the calf ran forward, hoping for milk.

History.

The Minangkabau language is a member of the Austronesian language family, and is closest to the Malay language, though when the two languages split from a common ancestor and the precise historical relationship between Malay and Minangkabau culture is not known. Until the 20th century the majority of the Sumatran population lived in the highlands. The highlands are well suited for human habitation, with plentiful fresh water, fertile soil, a cool climate, and valuable commodities. It is probable that wet rice cultivation evolved in the Minangkabau Highlands long before it appeared in other parts of Sumatra, and predates significant foreign contact.  Adityawarman, a follower of Tantric Buddhism with ties to the Singhasari and Majapahit kingdoms of Java, is believed to have founded a kingdom in the Minangkabau highlands at Pagaruyung and ruled between 1347 and 1375. The establishment of a royal system seems to have involved conflict and violence, eventually leading to a division of villages into one of two systems of tradition, "Bodi Caniago" and "Koto Piliang", the latter having overt allegiances to royalty. By the 16th century, the time of the next report after the reign of Adityawarman, royal power had been split into three recognised reigning kings. They were the King of the World ("Raja Alam"), the King of Adat ("Raja Adat"), and the King of Religion ("Raja Ibadat"), and collectively they were known as the Kings of the Three Seats ("Rajo Tigo Selo"). The Minangkabau kings were charismatic or magical figures, but did not have much authority over the conduct of village affairs. It was around the 16th century that Islam started to be adopted by the Minangkabau. The first contact between the Minangkabau and western nations occurred with the 1529 voyage of Jean Parmentier to Sumatra. The Dutch East India Company first acquired gold at Pariaman in 1651, but later moved south to Padang to avoid interference from the Acehnese occupiers. In 1663 the Dutch agreed to protect and liberate local villages from the Acehnese in return for a trading monopoly, and as a result setup trading posts at Painan and Padang. Until early in the 19th century the Dutch remained

Historiography.

The traditional historiography or "tambo" of the Minangkabau tells of the development of the Minangkabau World ("alam Minangkabau") and its "adat". These stories are derived from an oral history which was transmitted between generations before the Minangkabau had a written language. The first Minangkabau are said to have arrived by ship and landed on Mount Marapi when it was no bigger than the size of an egg, which protruded from a surrounding body of water. After the waters receded the Minangkabau proliferated and dispersed to the slopes and valleys surrounding the volcano, a region called the "darek". The "darek" is composed of three "luhak" – Tanah Datar, Agam and Limapuluh

Culture.

Minangkabau have large corporate descent groups, but they traditionally reckon descent matrilineally. A young boy, for instance, has his primary responsibility to his mother's and sisters' clans. It is considered "customary" and ideal for married sisters to remain in their parental home, with their husbands having a sort of visiting status. Not everyone lives up to this ideal, however. In the 1990s, anthropologist Evelyn Blackwood studied a relatively conservative village in Sumatra Barat where only about 22 percent of the households were "matrihouses", consisting of a mother and a married daughter or daughters. Nonetheless, there is a shared ideal among Minangkabau in which sisters and unmarried lineage members try to live close to one another or even in the same house.  Landholding is one of the crucial functions of the "suku" (female lineage unit). Because Minangkabau men, like Acehnese men, often migrate to seek experience, wealth, and commercial success, the women's kin group is responsible for maintaining the continuity of the family and the distribution and cultivation of the land. These family groups, however, are typically led by a "penghulu" (headman), elected by groups of lineage leaders. With the agrarian base of the Minangkabau economy in decline, the suku—as a landholding unit—has also been declining somewhat in importance, especially in urban areas. Indeed, the position of penghulu is not always filled after the death of the incumbent, particularly if lineage members are not willing to bear the expense of the ceremony required to install a new penghulu.  The Minangkabau (in short Minang) are also known for their devotion to Islam. A dominant majority of both males and females pray five times a day, fast during the month of Ramadan, and express the desire to make the holy pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. Each Minangkabau neighbourhood has a "Musalla", which means “a temporary place of prayer” in Arabic but in Indonesia simply means a mosque. In the neighbourhood "Musalla", men and women pray together, although separated into their respective gender-designated sections. A high percentage of women and girls wear the headscarf. As early as the age of 7, boys traditionally leave their homes and live in a "surau" (a prayer house and community centre) to learn religious and cultural (adat) teachings. At the surau during night time (after the Isyak prayers), these youngsters are taught the traditional Minankabau art of self-defence, which is Silek, or Silat in Malay. When they are teenagers, they are encouraged to leave their hometown to learn from schools or from experiences out of their hometown so that when they are adults they can return home wise and 'useful' for the society and can contribute their thinking and experience to run the family or "nagari" (hometown) when they sit as the member of 'council of uncles'. This tradition has created Minang communities in many Indonesian cities and towns, which nevertheless are still tied closely to their homeland; a state in Malaysia named Negeri Sembilan especially is heavily influenced by Minang culture because Negeri Sembilan was originally Minangkabau's colony. By acquiring property and education through merantau experience, a young man can attempt to influence his own destiny in positive ways. Increasingly, married couples go off on merantau; in such situations, the woman's role tends to change. When married couples reside in urban areas or outside the Minangkabau region, women lose some of their social and economic rights in property. One apparent consequence is an increased likelihood of divorce. The Minangkabau were prominent among the intellectual figures in the Indonesian independence movement. Not only were they strongly embedded themselves surrounding Islamic traditions – which counteracted the influence of the Protestant Dutch – they also had a sense of cultural pride just as like every other Sumatran especially with their traditional belief of egalitarianism of "Standing as tall, sitting as low" (that no body stand or sit on an increased stage). They also speak a language closely related to the Malay variant spoken in newly formed Indonesia, which was considerably freer of hierarchical connotations than Javanese. The tradition of merantau also meant that the Minangkabau developed a cosmopolitan bourgeoisie that readily adopted and promoted the ideas of an emerging nation-state. Due to their culture that stresses the importance of learning, Minang people are over-represented in the educated professions in Indonesia, with many ministers from Minang.  Minangkabau, who make up about 3 percent of Indonesia's roughly 245 million people, are conservative. In daily life women and men occupy roles that to Western eyes smack of inequality—women rule the domestic roost while men hold all positions of political and religious leadership. Yet both genders say that they value those roles, and each other, equally.  "Adat" derives in part from the ancient animist and buddhist belief system of the Minangkabau, which existed before the arrival of Islam to Sumatra. When precisely the religion spread across the island and was adopted by the Minangkabau is unclear, though it probably arrived in West Sumatra around the 16th century. It is "adat" that guides matrilineal inheritance, and though it seems that such a tradition might conflict with the precepts of Islam, the Minangnese insist that it does not. To accommodate both, the Minangkabau make a distinction between high and low inheritance. “High inheritance” is the property, including the home and land, which passes among women. “Low inheritance” is what a father passes to his children out of his professional earnings. This latter inheritance follows Islamic law, a complex system which dictates, in part, that sons get twice as much as daughters.

Language.

The Minangkabau language ("Baso Minangkabau") is an Austronesian language belonging to the Malayic linguistic subgroup, which in turn belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian branch. The Negri Sembilan dialect of Malay used by people in the aforementioned state is closely related to it due to the fact many of the population are descendants of Minangkabau immigrants.  The language has a number of dialects and sub-dialects, but native Minangkabau speakers generally have no difficulty understanding the variety of dialects. The differences between dialects are mainly at the phonological level, though some lexical differences also exist. Minangkabau dialects are regional, consisting of one or more villages ("nagari"),

Customs and religion.

Animism had been an important component of Minangkabau culture. Even after the penetration of Islam into Minangkabau society in the 16th century, animistic beliefs were not extinguished. In this belief system, people were said to have two souls, a real soul and a soul which can disappear called the "semangat". "Semangat" represents the vitality of life and it is said to be possessed by all living creatures including animals and plants. An illness may be explained as the capture of the "semangat" by an evil spirit, and a shaman ("pawang") may be consulted to conjure invisible forces and bring comfort to the family. Sacrificial offerings can be made to placate the spirits, and certain objects such as amulets are used as protection.  Until the rise of the Padri movement late in the 18th century, Islamic practices such

Demographics.

Minangkabau Population Breakdown.

This table contains

Overseas Minangkabau.

Over half of the Minangkabau people can be considered overseas Minangkabaus. They make up the majority of the population of Negeri Sembilan, Saribas (Sarawak) (in Malaysia) and Pekanbaru (in Indonesia). They also form a significant minority in the populations of Jakarta, Bandung, Medan, Batam, Surabaya and Palembang in Indonesia as well as Kuala Lumpur, Malacca, Penang, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam in the rest of the Malay world. Minangkabaus have also

Notable Minangkabau.

The Minangkabau are famous for their dedication to knowledge, as well as the widespread diaspora of their men throughout southeast Asia, the result being that Minangs have been disproportionately successful in gaining positions of economic and political power throughout the region. The co-founder of the Republic of Indonesia, Mohammad Hatta, was a Minang, as were the first President of Singapore, Yusof bin Ishak, and the first Supreme Head of State or Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, Tuanku Abdul Rahman.  The Minangkabau are known as a society that places top priority in high education and thus they are widespread across Indonesia and foreign countries in a variety of professions and expertise such as politicians, writers, scholars, teachers, journalists, and businesspeople. Based on a relatively small population, Minangkabau is one of the most successful. According to "Tempo" magazine (2000 New Year special edition), six of the top ten most influential Indonesians of the 20th century were Minang. Three out of the four Indonesian founding fathers are Minangkabau people.  Many of Minangkabau people held prominent positions in the Indonesian and Malay nationalist movement. In 1920–1960, the political leadership in Indonesian was replete with Minangkabau people, such as Mohammad Hatta a former Indonesian government prime minister and vice-president, Agus Salim a former Indonesian government minister, Tan Malaka international communist leader and founder of PARI and Murba, Sutan Sjahrir a former Indonesian government prime minister and founder of Socialist Party of Indonesia, Muhammad Natsir a former Indonesian government prime minister and founder of Masyumi, Assaat a former Indonesian president, and Abdul Halim a former Indonesian government prime minister. During the liberal democracy era, Minangkabau politician dominated Indonesian parliament and cabinets. They were diversely affiliated to all of the existing factions, such as Islamist, nationalist, socialist and communist.  Minangkabau writers and journalists have made significant contributions to modern Indonesian literature. These include authors Marah Roesli, Abdul Muis, Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana, Idrus, Hamka, and Ali Akbar Navis; poets Muhammad Yamin, Chairil Anwar, and Taufik Ismail; and journalists Djamaluddin Adinegoro, Rosihan Anwar, and Ani Idrus. Many prominent Indonesian novels were written by Minangkabau writers and later influenced the development of modern Indonesian language.  Moreover, there are also significant number of Minangkabau people in the popular entertainment industry, such as movie directors Usmar Ismail and Nasri Cheppy; movie producer Djamaluddin Malik and Mira Lesmana, screenwriter Arizal and Asrul Sani; actor and actress Soekarno M. Noer, Christine Hakim, Camelia Malik, Eva Arnaz, Nirina Zubir, Titi Rajo Bintang, and Dude Herlino, as well as singers Fariz RM, Bunga Citra Lestari, Nazril Irham, Dorce Gamalama, Afgansyah Reza and Sherina Munaf  Nowadays, besides Chinese Indonesian, Minangkabau people have made significant contributions to Indonesia's economic activities. Minangkabau businessmen are also notable in hospitality sector, media industry, healthcare, publisher, automotive, and textile trading. Minangkabau businessmen also prominent in traditional Minangkabau cuisine restaurant chains in many cities of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Australia. Notable successes include Abdul Latief and Basrizal Koto.  Historically, Minangs had also settled outside West Sumatra, migrating as far as the south Philippines by the 14th century. Raja Bagindo was the leader of the forming polity in Sulu, Philippines, which later turned into the Sultanate of Sulu. The Minangkabaus migrated to the Malay peninsula in the 14th century and began to take control of the local politics. In 1773 Raja Melewar was appointed the first head of state of Negeri Sembilan.  Minangkabaus have been filled many political positions in Malaysia and Singapore, namely the first President of Singapore, Yusof Ishak; the first Supreme Head of State ("Yang di-Pertuan Agong") of the Federation of Malaya, Tuanku Abdul Rahman; and many of Malaysian government minister, such as Aishah Ghani, Amirsham Abdul Aziz, Aziz Ishak, Ghazali Shafie and Rais Yatim. They are also great contributing on Malaysian and Singaporean socio-cultural, such as Zubir Said, who composed "Majulah Singapura" (the national anthem of Singapore); Wandly Yazid, the Singaporean musician; the Malaysian film director, U-Wei Haji Saari; the language expert, Zainal Abidin Ahmad; as well as business and economic activities, such as Mohamed Taib bin Haji Abdul Samad, Mokhzani Mahathir, Kamarudin Meranun and Tunku Tan Sri Abdullah.  Notable people of Minangkabau descent outside of Malay world include member of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands, Rustam Effendi; Ahmad Khatib, the imam (head) of the Shafi'i school of law at "Masjid al-Haram"; and Khatib's grandson Fouad Abdulhameed Alkhateeb as Saudi Arabian ambassador.

Minangkabau people (; ; Jawi: ميناڠكاباو), also known as Minang, are an ethnic group native to the Minangkabau Highlands of West Sumatra, Indonesia. The Minangkabau's West Sumatran homelands was the seat of the Pagaruyung Kingdom, believed by early orientalists to have been the cradle of the Malay race, and the location of the Padri War (1821 to 1837).

米南佳保人()也称「米南人」()或「巴东人」(),是印度尼西亚西苏门答腊省高地的原住民。他们的文化是母系继嗣的,财产与土地是由母亲传给女儿,然而宗教与政治事务由男性掌理(即使某些女性也在这些领域扮演重要角色)。如今有四百万人居住在西苏门答腊省,有其他三百万人散居在印度尼西亚与马来半岛的许多都市与城镇之中。


History.

Treaties and establishment.

In 1887, after signing successive treaties with the then ruling Somali Sultans from the Isaaq, Issa, Gadabursi, and Warsangali clans the British established a protectorate in the region referred to as British Somaliland. The British garrisoned the protectorate from Aden and administered it from their British India colony until 1898. British Somaliland was then administered by the Foreign Office until 1905 and afterwards by the Colonial Office.  Generally, the British did not have much interest in the resource-barren region. The stated purposes of the establishment of the protectorate were to "secure a supply market, check the traffic in slaves, and to exclude the interference of foreign powers." The British principally viewed the protectorate as a source for supplies of meat for their British Indian outpost in Aden through the maintenance of order in the coastal areas and protection of the caravan routes from the interior. Hence, the region's nickname of "Aden's butcher's shop". Colonial administration during this period did not extend administrative infrastructure beyond the coast, and contrasted with the more interventionist colonial experience of Italian Somalia.

Dervish Uprising.

Beginning in 1899, the British were forced to expend considerable human and military capital to contain a decades-long resistance movement mounted by the Dervish resistance movement. The movement was led by Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, a Somali religious leader referred to colloquially by the British as the "Mad Mullah". Repeated military expeditions were unsuccessfully launched against Hassan and his Dervishes before World War I. On 9 August 1913, the Somaliland Camel Constabulary suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of Dul Madoba at the hands of the Dervishes. Hassan had already evaded several attempts to capture him. At Dul Madoba, his forces killed or wounded 57 members of the 110-man Constabulary unit, including the British commander, Colonel Richard Corfield.  In 1914, the British created the Somaliland Camel Corps to assist in maintaining order in British Somaliland.  In 1920, the British launched their fifth and final expedition against Hassan and his followers. Employing the then-new technology of military aircraft, the British finally managed to quell Hassan's twenty-year-long struggle. The aerial attack on the Dervish capital, Taleh, killed many members of Hassan's family who had been lured there by the British for an official visit. Hassan and his Dervish supporters fled into the Ogaden, where Hassan died in 1921.

Somaliland Camel Corps.

The Somaliland Camel Corps, also referred to as the Somali Camel Corps, was a unit of the British Army based in British Somaliland. It lasted from the early 20th century until 1944. The troopers of the Somaliland Camel Corps had a distinctive dress. It was based on the standard British Army khaki drill but included a knitted woollen pullover and drill patches on the shoulders. Shorts were worn with woollen socks on puttees and "chaplis", boots or bare feet. Equipment consisted of leather ammunition bandolier and a leather waist belt. The officers wore pith helmets and khaki drill uniforms. Other ranks wore a "kullah" with "puggree" which ended in a long tail which hung down the back. A "chaplis" is typically a colourful sandal. A "kullah" is a type of cap. A "puggree" is typically a strip of cloth wound around the upper portion of a hat or helmet, particularly a pith helmet, and falling down behind to act as a shade for the back of the neck.

British Somaliland 1920–1930.

Following the defeat of the Dervish resistance, the two fundamental goals of British policy in British Somaliland were the preservation of stability and the economic self-sufficiency of the protectorate. The second goal remained particularly elusive because of local resistance to taxation that might have been used to support the protectorate's administration. By the 1930s, the British presence had extended to other parts of British Somaliland. Growth in commercial trade motivated some livestock herders to subsequently leave the pastoral economy and settle in urban areas. Customs taxes also helped pay for British India's patrol of Somalia's Red Sea Coast.

Italian invasion.

In August 1940, during the East African Campaign in World War II, British Somaliland was invaded by Italy. The few British forces that were present attempted to defend the main road to Berbera, but were dislodged from their positions and retreated after losing the Battle of Tug Argan. During this period, the British rounded up soldiers and governmental officials to evacuate them from the territory through Berbera. In total, 7,000 people, including civilians, were evacuated. The Somalis serving in the Somaliland Camel Corps were given the choice of evacuation or disbandment; the majority chose to remain and were allowed to retain their arms.  In March 1941, after a six-month Italian occupation, the British Imperial forces recaptured the protectorate during Operation Appearance. The final remnants of the Italian guerrilla movement discontinued all resistance in British Somaliland by the autumn of 1943.

Independence and union with the Trust Territory of Somaliland.

In 1947, the entire budget for the administration of the British Somaliland protectorate was only £213,139.  In May 1960, the British Government stated that it would be prepared to grant independence to the then Somaliland protectorate. The Legislative Council of British Somaliland passed a resolution in April 1960 requesting independence. The legislative councils of the territory agreed to this proposal.  In April 1960, leaders of the two territories met in Mogadishu and agreed to form a unitary state. An elected president was to be head of state. Full executive powers would be held by a prime minister answerable to an elected National Assembly of 123 members representing the two territories.  On 26 June 1960, the British Somaliland protectorate gained independence as the State of Somaliland before uniting five days later with the Trust Territory of Somalia to form the Somali Republic (Somalia) on 1 July 1960.  The legislature appointed the speaker Hagi Bashir Ismail Yousuf as first President of the Somali National Assembly and, the same day, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar become President of the Somali Republic.

Somaliland.

In 1991, after a bloody civil war for independence in the northern part of Somali Democratic Republic, the area which formerly encompassed British Somaliland declared independence. In May 1991, the formation of the "Republic of Somaliland" was proclaimed, with the local government regarding it as the successor to the former British Somaliland as well as to the State of Somaliland. However, the Somaliland region's self-declared independence remains unrecognised by any country. It is however recognised as one of the federal states of Somalia.

British Somaliland, officially the British Somaliland Protectorate (), was a British protectorate in present-day Somaliland. For much of its existence, the territory was bordered by Italian Somaliland, French Somaliland and Ethiopia.

英属索马里兰(英语:British Somaliland),正式名称是英属索马里兰保护国,是英国在非洲之角东北部的一个殖民地。首府哈尔格萨。二战时期1940年8月,意大利自义属东非占领英属索马里兰,后在1941年解放。1960年6月26日,独立为索马里兰国。1960年7月1日,与意属索马里兰合并为索马里。不过在1991年5月18日,由于索马里内战,原英属索马里兰的地区又再度独立,建立索马里兰共和国。


Description.

Members of the Aplysiidae have an atrophied inner shell (in contrast with the nudibranchs, which have no shell at all). In "Aplysia" and "Syphonota", this shell is a soft flattened plate over the visceral rear end, where it is fully or partially enclosed in the mantle skin. In "Dolabella auricularia", the shell is ear-shaped. The shell is only present in the larval stage of the two genera "Bursatella" and "Stylocheilus", and on this basis they have been grouped into the subfamily Dolabriferinae.  They are rather large animals. Their length can reach up to 75 cm ("Aplysia vaccaria"), and they can weigh well over 2 kg. They are cosmopolitan and found in temperate and tropical seas, inhabiting shallow coastal areas and sheltered bays, thick with vegetation.  The Aplysiidae are herbivorous, eating a variety of red, green or brown algae and eelgrass. Their color is diet-derived from the pigments of the algae. They concentrate the toxins found on algae.

Defenses.

Some species spout ink when disturbed or attacked, and they may also swim (rather than crawl) away, using their broad wing-like flaps or parapodia. The ink is extracted from their algal food, rather than being synthesized.  Sea hares have two main secretory glands in their mantle cavity.  The genus "Aplysia" has proved useful as a model in neurobiology for the study of electrical synapses, which mediate the release of the clouds of ink.

Mating habits.

Sea hares are hermaphrodites, with fully functional male and female reproductive organs. The penis is on the right side of the head while the vagina is situated in the mantle cavity, beneath the shell, deep down between the parapodia. It is therefore physically impossible for mating partners to act as both male and female at the same time.  They have unusual mating habits: they can mate in pairs with one acting as a male, the other as a female, but they commonly occur in quite crowded numbers during the mating season, and this often leads to chains of three or more sea hares mating together. The one at the front acts as a female and the one at the back as a male. The animal(s) in between are acting as both males and females, in other words, the animal receiving sperm passes its own sperm to a third sea hare.

Predators.

Predators include pycnogonid sea spiders, wrasses and sea turtles.

Taxonomy.

A 2004 study has shown that Aplysiidae is a monophyletic taxon with two distinct clades: Aplysiinae and Dolabellinae + Dolabriferinae + Notarchinae.  The authority of this family is still somewhat in dispute. The family was incorrectly originally spelled as Laplysiana. This was a Latinized form of the original common name "les Laplysiens" as described in "Philosophie zoologique", 1:320 by Lamarck in 1809. Rafinesque introduced the new name Laplysinia in 1815. In 2001 Bouchet & Rocroi advocated the attribution of the name Aplysiidae to Lamarck.

Subfamilies.

Classification after N. B. Eales (1984):

Aplysiidae is the only family in the superfamily Aplysioidea, within the clade Anaspidea. These animals are commonly called sea hares because, unlike most sea slugs, they are often quite large, and when they are underwater, their rounded body shape and the long rhinophores on their heads mean that their overall shape resembles that of a sitting rabbit or hare.

海鹿科(学名:)是海鹿总科(学名:,又名海兔超科)之下唯一的一个科。与其牠海蛞蝓相比,海鹿的体型相比较大。牠们的头小,有着又长又圆的身体,还有长长的一对检嗅器。这些物种都是一些没有螺壳的「海螺」,一般「海鹿」会用来叫体型相对大很多的物种,而体型较小的会叫作「海兔」,但也有文献不论大小都称呼为「海兔」。在这些物种当中,以加州黑海兔("Aplysia vaccaria")的体型最大,也是所有腹足纲物种中体型最大的一种,经常在内容农场的「海怪」文章提及。


Early years.

Nana Mouskouri's family lived in Chania, Crete, where her father, Constantine, worked as a film projectionist in a local cinema; her mother, Alice, worked in the same cinema as an usherette. When Mouskouri was three, her family moved to Athens.  Mouskouri's family sent her and her older sister Eugenía (Jenny) to the Athens Conservatoire. Although Mouskouri had displayed exceptional musical talent from age six, Jenny initially appeared to be the more gifted sibling. Financially unable to support both girls' studies, the parents asked their tutor which one should continue. The sister conceded that Jenny had the better voice, but Nana was the one with the true inner need to sing. Mouskouri has said that a medical examination revealed she only has one functioning vocal cord and this could well account for her remarkable singing voice (in her younger years ranging from a husky, dark alto, which she later dropped, to a ringing coloratura mezzo), as opposed to her breathy, raspy speaking voice.  Mouskouri's early childhood was marked by the German Nazi occupation of Greece. Her father became part of the anti-Nazi resistance movement in Athens. Mouskouri began singing lessons at age 12. As a child, she listened to radio broadcasts of singers including Frank Sinatra, Ella Fitzgerald, Billie Holiday, and Édith Piaf.  In 1950, she was accepted at the Conservatoire. She studied classical music with an emphasis on singing opera. After eight years at the Conservatoire, Mouskouri was encouraged by her friends to experiment with jazz music. She began singing with her friends' jazz group at night. However, when Mouskouri's Conservatory professor found out about Mouskouri's involvement with a genre of music that was not in keeping with her classical studies, he prevented her from sitting for her end-of-year exams. During an episode of "Joanna Lumley's Greek Odyssey", shown on the UK ITV channel in the autumn of 2011, Mouskouri told the actress Joanna Lumley how she had been scheduled to sing at the amphitheatre at Epidauros with other students of the Conservatoire, when upon arrival at the amphitheatre word came through from the Conservatoire in Athens that she had just been barred from participating in the performance there due to her involvement in light music. Mouskouri subsequently left the Conservatoire and began performing at the Zaki club in Athens.  She began singing jazz in nightclubs with a bias towards Ella Fitzgerald repertoire. In 1957, she recorded her first song, "Fascination", in both Greek and English for Odeon/EMI Greece. By 1958 while still performing at the Zaki, she met Greek composer Manos Hadjidakis. Hadjidakis was impressed by Nana's voice and offered to write songs for her. In 1959 Mouskouri performed Hadjidakis' "Κάπου υπάρχει η αγάπη μου" ("Kápou ipárchi i agápi mou", "Somewhere my love exists"; co-written with poet Nikos Gatsos) at the inaugural Greek Song Festival. The song won first prize, and Mouskouri began to be noticed.  At the 1960 Greek Song Festival, she performed two more Hadjidakis compositions, "Τιμωρία" ("Timōría", "Punishment") and "Κυπαρισσάκι" ("Kyparissáki", "Little cypress"). Both these songs tied for first prize. Mouskouri performed Kostas Yannidis' composition, "Ξύπνα αγάπη μου" ("Xýpna agápi mou", "Wake up, my love"), at the Mediterranean Song Festival, held in Barcelona that year. The song won first prize, and she went on to sign a recording contract with Paris-based Philips-Fontana.  In 1961, Mouskouri performed the soundtrack of a German documentary about Greece. This resulted in the German-language single "Weiße Rosen aus Athen" ("White Roses from Athens"). The song was originally adapted by Hadjidakis from a folk melody. It became a success, selling over a million copies in Germany. The song was later translated into several languages and it went on to become one of Mouskouri's signature tunes.

Family life.

Mouskouri has been married twice: firstly at 25, to Yorgos (George) Petsilas, a guitarist in her backing band (the trio "The Athenians") and the first man she had kissed. They had two children (Nicolas Petsilas in 1968 and Hélène (Lénou) Petsilas (singer) in 1970) but divorced when Mouskouri was 39. Not long after that, she started a relationship with her record producer André Chapelle, but they did not marry then because she "didn't want to bring another father into the family" and divorce was against her conservative upbringing. They eventually married on January 13, 2003, and live primarily in Switzerland.

Life outside Greece.

In 1960, Mouskouri moved to Paris. She performed Luxembourg's entry in the Eurovision Song Contest 1963 that year, "À force de prier". Although the song achieved only eighth place in the contest, it achieved commercial success, and helped win her the prestigious Grand Prix du Disque in France. Mouskouri soon attracted the attention of French composer Michel Legrand, who composed two songs which became major French hits for her: "Les Parapluies de Cherbourg" (1964) and an arrangement of Katherine K. Davis's "Carol of the Drum", "L'Enfant au Tambour" (1965).  In 1962, she met Quincy Jones, who persuaded her to travel to New York City to record an album of American jazz titled "The Girl from Greece Sings". Following that she scored another hit in the United Kingdom with the song "My Colouring Book" (later included in her 1973 album "Songs from her TV series"). In 1965, she recorded her second English-language album to be released in the United States, entitled "Nana Sings". American singer Harry Belafonte heard and liked the album. Belafonte brought Mouskouri on tour with him through 1966. They teamed for a duo album entitled "An Evening With Belafonte/Mouskouri". During this tour, Belafonte suggested that Mouskouri remove her signature black-rimmed glasses when on stage. She was so unhappy with the request that she wanted to quit the show after only two days. Finally, Belafonte relented and respected her wish to perform while wearing glasses.  On September 15, 1965, Mouskouri appeared for the first time on American television with Harry Belafonte on the "Danny Kaye Show". While on the show Mouskouri performed "Telalima" followed by "Όπα νινα ναϊ" ("Opa nina nai") accompanied by Harry Belafonte and Danny Kaye. Mouskouri's 1967 French album "Le Jour où la colombe" raised her to super-stardom in France. This album featured many of her French songs, "Au cœur de septembre", "Adieu Angélina", "Robe bleue, robe blanche" and the French pop classic "Le Temps des cerises". Mouskouri made her first appearance at Paris' legendary Olympia concert theatre the same year, singing French pop, Greek folk, and Hadjidakis numbers.  These successes across Europe and elsewhere impressed Yvonne Littlewood, the BBC producer who had first met Mouskouri at the 1963 Eurovision Song Contest in London. Following several successful guest appearances on British TV after her Eurovision performance, the BBC then invited Mouskouri and her backing group, the Athenians, to start hosting a TV series called "Presenting... Nana Mouskouri" from 1968 onwards. Each episode of the series typically contained songs from her developing repertoire of Greek folk music, French chansons, classical pieces and contemporary pop, and the shows often featured world music stars of the time as guests, making it one of the first BBC TV series to do so regularly. Despite the fact that stars from mainland Europe singing in languages other than English have tended to find it difficult to break into the British market, the series proved very popular with viewers of the new BBC-2 channel, and it ran until the mid-1970s. As well as performing British and American pop and folk songs in her shows, Mouskouri also welcomed the television audience, chatted to her guest stars and gave spoken introductions to her French and Greek songs in fluent English. These introductions, along with a modest stage presence and her bespectacled appearance, made her a very distinctive star, as Yvonne Littlewood later explained:  In 1969, Mouskouri released a full-length British LP, "Over and over", which reached number 10 and spent almost two years in the UK album charts. This was the first of a series of English-language albums which, boosted by her TV appearances, sold extremely well in the UK and Ireland, as well as in other European countries, during the early 1970s, including "The exquisite Nana Mouskouri" (1969), "Turn on the sun" (1970), "A place in my heart" (1971) and "Presenting... Nana Mouskouri" (1973), while concerts from two of her British tours were also recorded and released as LPs: "British Concert" (1972) and "Live at the Albert Hall" (1974).  Mouskouri's international appeal encouraged the BBC to sell her programmes to television stations across the world, a fact which she acknowledged in a BBC interview in 2014:  Mouskouri also hosted her own shows for French and West German broadcasters during this period. At a time when TV programmes could attract huge audiences, her popularity as a multilingual television personality turned her into a truly international star. Although music series such as hers were becoming less common on British TV as the 1970s wore on, the BBC continued to engage her regularly for one-off television specials and guest appearances on other programmes until the mid-1980s, by which time she had been a regular contributor to British TV for more than 20 years. Meanwhile, during the 1970s and 1980s, she expanded her concert tour to include her new fans, not only in the United Kingdom, but also in Ireland, New Zealand, Japan and Australia, where she met and befriended Frank Hardy, who followed her to the south of France in 1976.  Always a prolific recording artist, the 1970s saw Mouskouri record several LPs in German, including the hit albums, "Sieben schwarze Rosen" (1975) and "Lieder, die die Liebe schreibt" (1978). In France, she continued a series of top-selling records, such as "Comme un soleil" (1971), "Une voix qui vient du cœur" (1972), "Vieilles chansons de France" (1973), and "Quand tu chantes" (1976). Meanwhile, "Passport," a compilation including her most popular songs in English, reached number 3 in the UK album charts in 1976 and won for her a gold disc.  As her fame began spreading outside her fanbase in Europe, the USA and the Commonwealth, Mouskouri was asked to record songs for the Japanese market. Meanwhile, in 1976, a renowned Taiwanese author, Echo, heard her music and introduced it to one of her female radio DJ friends. Mouskouri's records then became popular in Taiwan, especially among high school and college students, with one of her British albums, "Nana's book of songs" (1974) becoming particularly popular.

Middle years.

In 1979, Mouskouri released another English-language album named "Roses and Sunshine". This album consisted largely of folk and country material, and included work from sources including Neil Young, Dolly Parton, Bob Dylan and John Denver. It was well received in Canada, and one of the album's tracks, "Even Now" (not the same song as the 1978 Barry Manilow hit), became a staple on beautiful music radio stations in the United States. She scored a worldwide hit in 1981 with "Je chante avec toi Liberté", which was translated into several languages after its success in France. The momentum from this album also helped boost her following German album, "Meine Lieder sind mein Leben". In 1984, Mouskouri returned to Greece and performed to a large audience at the Odeon of Herodes Atticus; her first performance in her homeland since 1962.  In 1985, Mouskouri recorded "Only Love", the theme song to the British TV series "Mistral's Daughter" – based upon the novel by Judith Krantz – which reached number 2 in the UK charts. The song was also a hit in its other versions: "L'Amour en Héritage" (French), "Come un'eredità" (Italian), "La dicha del amor" (Spanish), and "Aber die Liebe bleibt" (German). The German version was also recorded with an alternate set of lyrics under the title "Der wilde Wein" but was withdrawn in favour of "Aber die Liebe bleibt".  That same year, Mouskouri made a play for the Spanish-language market with the hit single "Con Toda el Alma". The song was a major success in Spain, Argentina and Chile.  She released five albums in different languages in 1987, and the following year returned to her classical conservatory roots with the double LP "The Classical Nana" (a.k.a. "Nana Classique"), which featured adaptations of classical songs and excerpts from opera. By the end of 1987, she had performed a series of concerts in Asia, including South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia and Thailand.

Later years.

Mouskouri's 1991 English album, "Only Love: The Best of Nana Mouskouri", became her best-selling release in the United States. She spent much of the 1990s touring the globe. Among her early 1990s albums were spiritual music, "Gospel" (1990), the Spanish-language "Nuestras Canciones", the multilingual, Mediterranean-themed "Côté Sud, Côté Coeur" (1992), "Dix Mille Ans Encore", "Falling in Love Again: Great Songs From the Movies". "Falling in Love" featured two duets with Harry Belafonte.  In 1993, Mouskouri recorded the album "Hollywood". Produced by Michel Legrand it was a collection of famous songs from films, and served not only as a tribute to the world of cinema, but also as a personal reference to childhood memories of sitting with her father in his projection room in Crete.  She recorded several more albums over 1996 and 1997, including the Spanish "Nana Latina" (which featured duets with Julio Iglesias and Mercedes Sosa), the English-language "Return to Love", and the French pop classics, "Hommages". In 1997, she staged a high-profile "Concert for Peace" at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York. This concert was later released as an album, and aired as a TV special on PBS in the United States.  On 30 May 2013, Mouskouri was awarded an honorary degree by McGill University, Canada.

UNICEF and politics.

Mouskouri was appointed a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in October 1993. She took over from the previous ambassador, the recently deceased actress Audrey Hepburn. Mouskouri's first U.N. mission took her to Bosnia to draw attention to the plight of children affected by the Bosnian war. She went on to give a series of fund-raising concerts in Sweden and Belgium.  She was a Member of the European Parliament through the New Democracy party from 1994 until 1999, when she resigned from her position as an MEP. Several reasons have been given for the resignation, one being her pacifism, and another being that she felt ill-equipped for the day-to-day work of a politician.

21st century.

Mouskouri lives in Switzerland with Chapelle, and, until her final performance in 2008, performed hundreds of concerts every year throughout her career. In 2004, her French record company released a 34-CD box set of more than 600 of Mouskouri's mostly French songs. In 2006 she made a guest appearance at that year's Eurovision Song Contest which was held, for the first time ever, in her native Greece.  In the same year, she announced her plans to retire. From 2005 until 2008, she conducted a farewell concert tour of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Asia, South America, the United States, and Canada. On July 23 and 24, 2008, Mouskouri gave her two final 'Farewell Concert' performances at the ancient Herodes Atticus Theatre, in Athens, Greece, before a packed stadium, including Greece's Prime Minister and Athens mayor, plus the mayors of Berlin, Paris and Luxembourg, along with fans from around the world and thousands of her Athenian admirers.  In 2010, in response to the financial crisis in Greece, Mouskouri announced that she would forgo her pension to contribute to the country's recovery. She commented: "Everywhere I see stories about my country going bankrupt. And people are aggressive about it. It's frightening. And it's painful for me. Nobody wants their country to be treated badly. It's frustrating and very sad."  In late 2011, Mouskouri released two newly recorded CDs, the first featuring songs of the Greek Islands, recorded with other Greek singers, and the second featuring duets with French contemporaries. In late November 2011 Mouskouri sang again at a single concert, with guests, in Berlin, commemorating the 50th anniversary of her hit single "The White Rose of Athens". She then did a concert tour in Germany in 2012. At age 80, she embarked on a three-year Happy Birthday Tour and in 2018 had booked a five-month Forever Young Tour through parts of Europe and North America.  In 2015 she was awarded with the Echo Music Prize for Outstanding achievements by the German music association Deutsche Phono-Akademie.

In popular culture.

The British comedian Benny Hill impersonated Mouskouri on "The Benny Hill Show". Wearing a long dress, large glasses and long black hair, he talked and sang with a slow and quiet voice. He introduced a song with a long translation into English of all the events supposedly mentioned in the song... and then sang just a single line of "Greek".  Andrea Martin played Mouskouri in a sketch, 'The Nana Mouskouri Story', during the 1981–1982 season of "SCTV" (later included in a DVD compilation.)  In 1976, Ronnie Barker performed a song in drag as a parody of Mouskouri in "The Two Ronnies" as Nana Moussaka. Mouskouri was also parodied in the first episode of the 1970s New Zealand political satire "A Week Of It".  In 1991, British comedienne Victoria Wood mentioned Mouskouri in her original song, "The Reincarnation Song." The song was included in Wood's television special of that year, "Victoria Wood: Sold Out".  Karl Pilkington included Mouskouri as a clue in his contest 'Rockbusters', part of the radio show "The Ricky Gervais Show" on XFM. Broadcasting on December 31, 2005, the clue was "Me granny's taking a penalty. She better get the ball in the back of the net," initials (NM) = Nana Mouskouri (nanna must score 'ere). Gervais described this clue as "one of his best clues ever."  In 2015, Liina Vahtrik parodied her song "Only Love" on the Estonian version of "Your Face Sounds Familiar".

Ioanna "Nana" Mouskouri ( ; born October 13, 1934) is a Greek singer. Over the span of her career, she has released over 200 albums in at least twelve different languages, including Greek, French, English, German, Dutch, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Hebrew, Welsh, Mandarin Chinese and Corsican.

娜娜·穆斯库莉(,1934年-10月13日),希腊歌手,国际流行音乐歌星,60年代成名,80年代走红全球。据称唱过1000多首畅销歌曲,用多种语言灌制过唱片,创下300个百万唱片发行记录。被誉为 "希腊国宝"“雅典的白玫瑰”(这也是她曾演唱的一首畅销歌曲的歌名。)


Structure.

The fibres of the spinal accessory nerve originate solely in neurons situated in the upper spinal cord, from where the spinal cord begins at the junction with the medulla oblongata, to the level of about C6. These fibres join together to form rootlets, roots, and finally the spinal accessory nerve itself. The formed nerve enters the skull through the foramen magnum, the large opening at the skull's base. The nerve travels along the inner wall of the skull towards the jugular foramen. Leaving the skull, the nerve travels through the jugular foramen with the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves. The spinal accessory nerve is notable for being the only cranial nerve to both enter and exit the skull. This is due to it being unique among the cranial nerves in having neurons in the spinal cord.  After leaving the skull, the cranial component detaches from the spinal component. The spinal accessory nerve continues alone and heads backwards and downwards. In the neck, the accessory nerve crosses the internal jugular vein around the level of the posterior belly of digastric muscle. As it courses downwards, the nerve pierces through the sternocleidomastoid muscle while sending it motor branches, then continues down until it reaches the trapezius muscle to provide motor innervation to its upper part.

Nucleus.

The fibres that form the spinal accessory nerve are formed by lower motor neurons located in the upper segments of the spinal cord. This cluster of neurons, called the spinal accessory nucleus, is located in the lateral aspect of the anterior horn of the spinal cord, and stretches from where the spinal cord begins (at the junction with the medulla) through to the level of about C6. The lateral horn of high cervical segments appears to be continuous with the nucleus ambiguus of the medulla oblongata, from which the cranial component of the accessory nerve is derived.

Variation.

In the neck, the accessory nerve crosses the internal jugular vein around the level of the posterior belly of digastric muscle, in front of the vein in about 80% of people, and behind it in about 20%, and in one reported case, piercing the vein.  Traditionally, the accessory nerve is described as having a small cranial component that descends from the medulla and briefly connects with the spinal accessory component before branching off of the nerve to join the vagus nerve. A study, published in 2007, of twelve subjects suggests that in the majority of individuals, this cranial component does not make any distinct connection to the spinal component; the roots of these distinct components were separated by a fibrous sheath in all but one subject.

Development.

The accessory nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic spinal segments C1–C6.

Function.

The spinal component of the accessory nerve provides motor control of the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. The trapezius muscle controls the action of shrugging the shoulders, and the sternocleidomastoid the action of turning the head. Like most muscles, control of the trapezius muscle arises from the opposite side of the brain. Contraction of the upper part of the trapezius muscle elevates the scapula. The nerve fibres sternocleidomastoid however are thought to change sides () twice. This means that the sternocleidomastoid is controlled by the brain on the same side of the body. Contraction of the stenocleidomastoid fibres turns the head to the opposite side, the net effect meaning that the head is turned to the side of the brain receiving visual information from that area. The cranial component of the accessory nerve, on the other hand, provides motor control to the muscles of the soft palate, larynx and pharynx.

Classification.

Among investigators there is disagreement regarding the terminology used to describe the type of information carried by the accessory nerve. As the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles are derived from the pharyngeal arches, some investigators believe the spinal accessory nerve that innervates them must carry specific special visceral efferent (SVE) information. This is in line with the observation that the spinal accessory nucleus appears to be continuous with the nucleus ambiguus of the medulla. Others consider the spinal accessory nerve to carry general somatic efferent (GSE) information. Still others believe it is reasonable to conclude that the spinal accessory nerve contains both SVE and GSE components.

Clinical significance.

Examination.

The accessory nerve is tested by evaluating the function of the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles. The trapezius muscle is tested by asking the patient to shrug their shoulders with and without resistance. The sternocleidomastoid muscle is tested by asking the patient to turn their head to the left or right against resistance.  One-sided weakness of the trapezius may indicate injury to the nerve on the same side of an injury to the spinal accessory nerve on the same side () of the body being assessed. Weakness in head-turning suggests injury to the contralateral spinal accessory nerve: a weak leftward turn is indicative of a weak right sternocleidomastoid muscle (and thus right spinal accessory nerve injury), while a weak rightward turn is indicative of a weak left sternocleidomastoid muscle (and thus left spinal accessory nerve).  Hence, weakness of shrug on one side and head-turning on the other side may indicate damage to the accessory nerve on the side of the shrug weakness, or damage along the nerve pathway at the other side of the brain. Causes of damage may include trauma, surgery, tumours, and compression at the jugular foramen. Weakness in both muscles may point to a more general disease process such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Guillain–Barré syndrome or poliomyelitis.

Injury.

Injury to the spinal accessory nerve commonly occurs during neck surgery, including neck dissection and lymph node excision. It can also occur as a result of blunt or penetrating trauma, and in some causes spontaneously. Damage at any point along the nerve's course will affect the function of the nerve. The nerve is intentionally removed in "radical" neck dissections, which are attempts at exploring the neck surgically for the presence and extent of cancer. Attempts are made to spare it in other forms of less aggressive dissection.  Injury to the accessory nerve can result in neck pain and weakness of the trapezius muscle. Symptoms will depend on at what point along its length the nerve was severed. Injury to the nerve can result in shoulder girdle depression, atrophy, abnormal movement, a protruding scapula, and weakened abduction. Weakness of the shoulder girdle can lead to traction injury of the brachial plexus. Because diagnosis is difficult, electromyogram or nerve conduction studies may be needed to confirm a suspected injury. Outcomes with surgical treatment appear to be better than conservative management, which entails physiotherapy and pain relief. Surgical management includes neurolysis, nerve end-to-end suturing, and surgical replacement of affected trapezius muscle segments with other muscle groups.  Damage to the nerve can cause torticollis.

History.

English anatomist Thomas Willis in 1664 first described the accessory nerve, choosing to use "accessory" (described in Latin as "nervus accessorius") meaning in association with the vagus nerve.  In 1848, Jones Quain described the nerve as the "spinal nerve accessory to the vagus", recognizing that while a minor component of the nerve joins with the larger vagus nerve, the majority of accessory nerve fibres originate in the spinal cord. In 1893 it was recognised that the heretofore named nerve fibres "accessory" to the vagus originated from the same nucleus in the medulla oblongata, and it came to pass that these fibres were increasingly viewed as part of the vagus nerve itself. Consequently, the term "accessory nerve" was and is increasingly used to denote only fibres from the spinal cord; the fact that only the spinal portion could be tested clinically lent weight to this opinion.

The accessory nerve is a cranial nerve that supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. It is considered as the eleventh of twelve pairs of cranial nerves, or simply cranial nerve XI, as part of it was formerly believed to originate in the brain. The sternocleidomastoid muscle tilts and rotates the head, while the trapezius muscle, connecting to the scapula, acts to shrug the shoulder.

副神经(accessory nerve)是第11对脑神经,编号XI。它又可分成颅根(Cranial root)和脊髓根(Spinal root)两条分支。其中颅根和迷走神经的分支伴行,走向咽喉。脊髓根则和数条颈神经分支合流,支配胸锁乳突肌以及斜方肌的运动。 颅根的纤维为特殊内脏运动纤维,起自疑核,自迷走神经根下方出脑后与脊髓根同行,经颈静脉孔出颅,加入迷走神经,支配咽喉肌。脊髓根的纤维为特殊内脏运动纤维,起自脊髓颈部的副神经脊髓核,由脊神经前后根之间出脊髓,在椎管内上行,经枕骨大孔入颅腔,与颅根汇合一 起出颅腔。出颅腔后,又与颅根分开,绕颈内静脉行向外下,经胸锁乳突肌深面继续向外下斜行进入斜方肌深面,分支支配此二肌。