伊万·谢尔盖耶维奇·屠格涅夫

Life.

Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev was born in Oryol (modern-day Oryol Oblast, Russia) to noble Russian parents Sergei Nikolaevich Turgenev (1793–1834), a colonel in the Russian cavalry who took part in the Patriotic War of 1812, and Varvara Petrovna Turgeneva (née Lutovinova; 1787–1850). His father belonged to an old, but impoverished Turgenev family of Tula aristocracy that traces its history to the 15th century when a Tatar Mirza Lev Turgen (Ivan Turgenev after baptizing) left the Golden Horde to serve Vasily II of Moscow. Ivan's mother came from a wealthy noble Lutovinov house of the Oryol Governorate. She spent an unhappy childhood under the tyrannical stepfather and left his house after her mother's death to live with her uncle. At the age of 26 she inherited a huge fortune from him. In 1816, she married Turgenev.  Ivan, his brothers Nikolai and Sergei were raised by their mother, a very educated, but authoritarian woman, in the Spasskoe-Lutovinovo family estate that was granted to their ancestor Ivan Ivanovich Lutovinov by Ivan the Terrible. Varvara Turgeneva later served as an inspiration for the landlady from Turgenev's "Mumu". She surrounded her sons with foreign governesses; thus Ivan became fluent in French, German, and English. Their father spent little time with the family, and although he was not hostile toward them, his absence hurt Ivan's feelings (their relations are described in the autobiographical novel "First Love"). When he was four, the family made a trip through Germany and France. In 1827 the Turgenevs moved to Moscow to give their children a proper education.  After the standard schooling for a son of a gentleman, Turgenev studied for one year at the University of Moscow and then moved to the University of Saint Petersburg from 1834 to 1837, focusing on Classics, Russian literature, and philology. During that time his father died from kidney stone disease, followed by his younger brother Sergei who died from epilepsy. From 1838 until 1841 he studied philosophy, particularly Hegel, and history at the University of Berlin. He returned to Saint Petersburg to complete his master's examination.  Turgenev was impressed with German society and returned home believing that Russia could best improve itself by incorporating ideas from the Age of Enlightenment. Like many of his educated contemporaries, he was particularly opposed to serfdom. In 1841, Turgenev started his career in the Russian civil service and spent two years working for the Ministry of Interior (1843–1845).  When Turgenev was a child, a family serf had read to him verses from the "Rossiad" of Mikhail Kheraskov, a celebrated poet of the 18th century. Turgenev's early attempts in literature, poems, and sketches gave indications of genius and were favorably spoken of by Vissarion Belinsky, then the leading Russian literary critic. During the latter part of his life, Turgenev did not reside much in Russia: he lived either at Baden-Baden or Paris, often in proximity to the family of the celebrated opera singer Pauline Viardot, with whom he had a lifelong affair.  Turgenev never married, but he had some affairs with his family's serfs, one of which resulted in the birth of his illegitimate daughter, Paulinette. He was tall and broad-shouldered, but was timid, restrained, and soft-spoken. When Turgenev was 19, while traveling on a steamboat in Germany, the boat caught fire. According to rumours by Turgenev's enemies, he reacted in a cowardly manner. He denied such accounts, but these rumours circulated in Russia and followed him for his entire career, providing the basis for his story "A Fire at Sea". His closest literary friend was Gustave Flaubert, with whom he shared similar social and aesthetic ideas. Both rejected extremist right and left political views, and carried a nonjudgmental, although rather pessimistic, view of the world. His relations with Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky were often strained, as the two were, for various reasons, dismayed by Turgenev's seeming preference for Western Europe.  Turgenev, unlike Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky, lacked religious motives in his writings, representing the more social aspect to the reform movement. He was considered to be an agnostic. Tolstoy, more than Dostoyevsky, at first anyway, rather despised Turgenev. While traveling together in Paris, Tolstoy wrote in his diary, "Turgenev is a bore." His rocky friendship with Tolstoy in 1861 wrought such animosity that Tolstoy challenged Turgenev to a duel, afterwards apologizing. The two did not speak for 17 years, but never broke family ties. Dostoyevsky parodies Turgenev in his novel "The Devils" (1872) through the character of the vain novelist Karmazinov, who is anxious to ingratiate himself with the radical youth. However, in 1880, Dostoyevsky's speech at the unveiling of the Pushkin monument brought about a reconciliation of sorts with Turgenev, who, like many in the audience, was moved to tears by his rival's eloquent tribute to the Russian spirit.  Turgenev's health declined during his later years. In January 1883, an aggressive malignant tumor (liposarcoma) was removed from his suprapubic region, but by then the tumor had metastasized in his upper spinal cord, causing him intense pain during the final months of his life. On 3 September 1883, Turgenev died of a spinal abscess, a complication of the metastatic liposarcoma, in his house at Bougival near Paris. His remains were taken to Russia and buried in Volkovo Cemetery in St. Petersburg. On his death bed he pleaded with Tolstoy: "My friend, return to literature!" After this Tolstoy wrote such works as "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" and "The Kreutzer Sonata". Turgenev's brain was found to be one of the largest on record for neurologically typical individuals, weighing 2012 grams.

Work.

Turgenev first made his name with "A Sportsman's Sketches" ("Записки охотника"), also known as "Sketches from a Hunter's Album" or "Notes of a Hunter", a collection of short stories, based on his observations of peasant life and nature, while hunting in the forests around his mother's estate of Spasskoye. Most of the stories were published in a single volume in 1852, with others being added in later editions. The book is credited with having influenced public opinion in favour of the abolition of serfdom in 1861. Turgenev himself considered the book to be his most important contribution to Russian literature; it is reported that "Pravda", and Tolstoy, among others, agreed wholeheartedly, adding that Turgenev's evocations of nature in these stories were unsurpassed. One of the stories in "A Sportsman's Sketches", known as "Bezhin Lea" or "Byezhin Prairie", was later to become the basis for the controversial film "Bezhin Meadow" (1937), directed by Sergei Eisenstein.  In 1852, when his first major novels of Russian society were still to come, Turgenev wrote an obituary for Nikolai Gogol, intended for publication in the "Saint Petersburg Gazette". The key passage reads: "Gogol is dead!... What Russian heart is not shaken by those three words?... He is gone, that man whom we now have the right (the bitter right, given to us by death) to call great." The censor of Saint Petersburg did not approve of this and banned publication, but the Moscow censor allowed it to be published in a newspaper in that city. The censor was dismissed; but Turgenev was held responsible for the incident, imprisoned for a month, and then exiled to his country estate for nearly two years. It was during this time that Turgenev wrote his short story "Mumu" ("Муму") in 1854. The story tells a tale of a deaf and mute peasant who is forced to drown the only thing in the world which brings him happiness, his dog Mumu. Like his "A Sportsman's Sketches" ("Записки охотника"), this work takes aim at the cruelties of a serf society. This work was later applauded by John Galsworthy who claimed, "no more stirring protest against tyrannical cruelty was ever penned in terms of art."  While he was still in Russia in the early 1850s, Turgenev wrote several novellas ("povesti" in Russian): "The Diary of a Superfluous Man" ("Дневник лишнего человека"), "Faust" ("Фауст"), "The Lull" ("Затишье"), expressing the anxieties and hopes of Russians of his generation.  In the 1840s and early 1850s, during the rule of Tsar Nicholas I, the political climate in Russia was stifling for many writers. This is evident in the despair and subsequent death of Gogol, and the oppression, persecution, and arrests of artists, scientists, and writers. During this time, thousands of Russian intellectuals, members of the "intelligentsia", emigrated to Europe. Among them were Alexander Herzen and Turgenev himself, who moved to Western Europe in 1854, although this decision probably had more to do with his fateful love for Pauline Viardot than anything else.  The following years produced the novel "Rudin" ("Рудин"), the story of a man in his thirties who is unable to put his talents and idealism to any use in the Russia of Nicholas I. "Rudin" is also full of nostalgia for the idealistic student circles of the 1840s.  Following the thoughts of the influential critic Vissarion Belinsky, Turgenev abandoned Romantic idealism for a more realistic style. Belinsky defended sociological realism in literature; Turgenev portrayed him in "Yakov Pasinkov" (1855). During the period of 1853–62 Turgenev wrote some of his finest stories as well as the first four of his novels: "Rudin" ("Рудин") (1856), "A Nest of the Gentry" ("Дворянское гнездо") (1859), "On the Eve" ("Накануне") (1860) and "Fathers and Sons" ("Отцы и дети") (1862). Some themes involved in these works include the beauty of early love, failure to reach one's dreams, and frustrated love. Great influences on these works are derived from his love of Pauline and his experiences with his mother, who controlled over 500 serfs with the same strict demeanor in which she raised him.  In 1858 Turgenev wrote the novel "A Nest of the Gentry" ("Дворянское гнездо") also full of nostalgia for the irretrievable past and of love for the Russian countryside. It contains one of his most memorable female characters, Liza, whom Dostoyevsky paid tribute to in his Pushkin speech of 1880, alongside Tatiana and Tolstoy's Natasha Rostova.  Alexander II ascended the Russian throne in 1855, and the political climate became more relaxed. In 1859, inspired by reports of positive social changes, Turgenev wrote the novel "On the Eve" ("Накануне") (published 1860), portraying the Bulgarian revolutionary Insarov.  The following year saw the publication of one of his finest novellas, "First Love" ("Первая любовь"), which was based on bitter-sweet childhood memories, and the delivery of his speech ("Hamlet and Don Quixote", at a public reading in Saint Petersburg) in aid of writers and scholars suffering hardship. The vision presented therein of man torn between the self-centered skepticism of Hamlet and the idealistic generosity of Don Quixote is one that can be said to pervade Turgenev's own works. It is worth noting that Dostoyevsky, who had just returned from exile in Siberia, was present at this speech, for eight years later he was to write "The Idiot", a novel whose tragic hero, Prince Myshkin, resembles Don Quixote in many respects. Turgenev, whose knowledge of Spanish, thanks to his contact with Pauline Viardot and her family, was good enough for him to have considered translating Cervantes's novel into Russian, played an important role in introducing this immortal figure of world literature into the Russian context.  "Fathers and Sons" ("Отцы и дети"), Turgenev's most famous and enduring novel, appeared in 1862. Its leading character, Eugene Bazarov, considered the 'first Bolshevik' in Russian literature, was in turn heralded and reviled as either a glorification or a parody of the 'new men' of the 1860s. The novel examined the conflict between the older generation, reluctant to accept reforms, and the nihilistic youth. In the central character, Bazarov, Turgenev drew a classical portrait of the mid-nineteenth-century nihilist. Fathers and Sons was set during the six-year period of social ferment, from Russia's defeat in the Crimean War to the Emancipation of the Serfs. Hostile reaction to "Fathers and Sons" ("Отцы и дети") prompted Turgenev's decision to leave Russia. As a consequence he also lost the majority of his readers. Many radical critics at the time (with the notable exception of Dimitri Pisarev) did not take "Fathers and Sons" seriously; and, after the relative critical failure of his masterpiece, Turgenev was disillusioned and started to write less.  Turgenev's next novel, "Smoke" ("Дым"), was published in 1867 and was again received less than enthusiastically in his native country, as well as triggering a quarrel with Dostoyevsky in Baden-Baden.  His last substantial work attempting to do justice to the problems of contemporary Russian society, "Virgin Soil" ("Новь"), was published in 1877.  Stories of a more personal nature, such as "Torrents of Spring" ("Вешние воды"), "King Lear of the Steppes" ("Степной король Лир"), and "The Song of Triumphant Love" ("Песнь торжествующей любви"), were also written in these autumnal years of his life. Other last works included the "Poems in Prose" and "Clara Milich" ("After Death"), which appeared in the journal "European Messenger".  Turgenev wrote on themes similar to those found in the works of Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky, but he did not approve of the religious and moral preoccupations that his two great contemporaries brought to their artistic creation. Turgenev was closer in temperament to his friends Gustave Flaubert and Theodor Storm, the North German poet and master of the novella form, who also often dwelt on memories of the past and evoked the beauty of nature.

Legacy.

Turgenev's artistic purity made him a favorite of like-minded novelists of the next generation, such as Henry James and Joseph Conrad, both of whom greatly preferred Turgenev to Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky. James, who wrote no fewer than five critical essays on Turgenev's work, claimed that "his merit of form is of the first order" (1873) and praised his "exquisite delicacy", which "makes too many of his rivals appear to hold us, in comparison, by violent means, and introduce us, in comparison, to vulgar things" (1896). Vladimir Nabokov, notorious for his casual dismissal of many great writers, praised Turgenev's "plastic musical flowing prose", but criticized his "labored epilogues" and "banal handling of plots". Nabokov stated that Turgenev "is not a great writer, though a pleasant one", and ranked him fourth among nineteenth-century Russian prose writers, behind Tolstoy, Gogol, and Anton Chekhov, but ahead of Dostoyevsky. His idealistic ideas about love, specifically the devotion a wife should show her husband, were cynically referred to by characters in Chekhov's "An Anonymous Story". Isaiah Berlin acclaimed Turgenev's commitment to humanism, pluralism, and gradual reform over violent revolution as representing the best aspects of Russian liberalism.

Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev (; ; September 3, 1883) was a Russian novelist, short story writer, poet, playwright, translator and popularizer of Russian literature in the West.

伊万·谢尔盖耶维奇·屠格涅夫(,公历1818年-11月9日-1883年-9月3日,合儒略历1818年10月28日-1883年8月22日)俄国现实主义小说家、诗人和剧作家。


History.

Tonal spelling, Gwoyeu Romatzyh's most distinctive feature, was first suggested to Y.R. Chao by Lin Yutang. By 1922 Chao had already established the main principles of GR. The details of the system were developed in 1925–1926 by a group of five linguists, led by Chao and including Lin, under the auspices of the Preparatory Commission for the Unification of the National Language. In 1928 GR was officially adopted by the government. GR was intended to be used alongside the existing "Juhin" ("Zhùyīn") phonetic symbols: hence the alternative name for GR, "Second Pattern of the National Alphabet." Both systems were used to indicate the revised standard of pronunciation in the new official "Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use" of 1932. The designers of GR had greater ambitions: their aim was complete reform of the script, using GR as a practical system of writing. In the 1930s two short-lived attempts were made to teach GR to railway workers and peasants in Hénán and Shāndōng provinces. Support for GR, being confined to a small number of trained linguists and Sinologists, "was distinguished more for its quality than its quantity." During this period GR faced increasing hostility because of the complexity of its tonal spelling. Conversely, Sinologist Bernhard Karlgren criticised GR for its lack of phonetic rigour. Ultimately, like the rival (toneless) system Latinxua Sinwenz, GR failed to gain widespread support, principally because the "National" language was too narrowly based on Beijing speech: "a sufficiently precise and strong language norm had not yet become a reality in China".  A vestigial use of GR can be seen in the official spelling of the first syllable of "Shaanxi" for Shǎnxī (陝西) province, to distinguish it from Shānxī (山西) province, particularly in foreign-language text where the tone marks are often omitted. Some prominent Chinese have used GR to transliterate their names: for example the mathematician Shiing-Shen Chern. The romanization system was changed by the government of the People's Republic of China in 1958 to the current system used now in the country, and other foreign and international institutions, like the United Nations, the Library of Congress, the International Organization for Standardization, and is widely used to teach Mandarin Chinese to foreign students: Hanyu Pinyin. Meanwhile, in the Republic of China (Taiwan), GR survived until the 1970s as a pronunciation aid in monolingual dictionaries such as "Gwoyeu Tsyrdean [Guóyǔ Cídiǎn]" and "Tsyrhuey [Cíhuì]", but was officially replaced in 1986 by a modified form known as Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II. The Warring States period State of Wey () is often spelled as such to distinguish it from the more prominent state, which are both pronounced Wèi in Mandarin, but in Old Chinese it was probably /*ɢwat-s/ and /*N-qhuj-s/, respectively.

Description.

Basic forms (Tone 1).

An important feature of GR, adopted from other precursors and later also adopted by Pinyin, is the use of contrasting unvoiced/voiced pairs of consonants from Latin to represent aspirated and unaspirated sounds in Chinese. For example, "b" and "p" represent and ("p" and "p‘" in Wade). Another distinctive feature of GR is the use of "j, ch," and "sh" to represent two different series of sounds. When followed by "i" these letters correspond to the alveolo-palatal sounds (Pinyin "j, q," and "x"); otherwise they correspond to the retroflex sounds (Pinyin "zh, ch," and "sh"). Readers used to Pinyin need to pay particular attention to these spellings: for example, GR "ju, jiu," and "jiou" correspond to Pinyin "zhu, ju," and "jiu" respectively.  GR orthography has these additional notable features:

Tonal modifications.

By default, the basic GR spelling described above is used for Tone1 syllables. The basic form is then modified to indicate tones 2, 3 and 4. This is accomplished in one of three ways:  Wherever possible the concise first method is used. The following rules of thumb cover most cases.  Tone 1 (basic form)  Tone 2: i/u → y/w; or add -r  Tone 3: i/u → e/o; or double vowel  Tone 4: change/double final letter; or add -h  Neutral tone: precede with a dot (full stop)  Exception Syllables with an initial sonorant ("l-/m-/n-/r-") use the basic form for T2 rather than T1. In these syllables the (rarer) T1 is marked with "-h-" as the second letter. For example, "mha" is T1 (mā), whereas "ma" is T2 (má). T3 and T4 are regular: "maa" ("mǎ") and "mah" ("mà").

Compounds as words.

An important principle of GR is that syllables which form words should be written together. This strikes speakers of European languages as obvious; but in Chinese the concept of "word" is not easy to pin down. The basic unit of speech is popularly thought to be the monosyllable represented by a character ( "tzyh", "zì"), which in most cases represents a meaningful syllable or morpheme, a smaller unit than the "linguistic word". Characters are written and printed with no spaces between words; yet in practice most Chinese words consist of two-syllable compounds, and it was Chao's bold innovation in 1922 to reflect this in GR orthography by grouping the appropriate syllables together into words. This represented a radical departure from hyphenated Wade–Giles forms such as "Kuo-yü Lo-ma-tzu" (the Wade spelling of GR).

Use in published texts.

Chao used GR in four influential works:  "Readings in Sayable Chinese" was written "to supply the advanced student of spoken Chinese with reading matter which he can actually use in his speech." It consists of three volumes of Chinese text with facing GR romanization. They contain some lively recorded dialogues, "Fragments of an autobiography," two plays and a translation of Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking-Glass (Tzoou daw Jinqtz lii)". Two extracts from "Tzoou daw Jinqtz lii" with facing translations can be read online.  In 1942 Walter Simon introduced GR to English-speaking sinologists in a special pamphlet, "The New Official Chinese Latin Script". Over the remainder of the 1940s he published a series of textbooks and readers, as well as a Chinese-English Dictionary, all using GR. His son Harry Simon later went on to use GR in scholarly papers on Chinese linguistics.  In 1960 Y.C. Liu, a colleague of Walter Simon's at SOAS, published "Fifty Chinese Stories". These selections from classical texts were presented in both classical and modern Chinese, together with GR romanizations and romanized Japanese versions prepared by Simon (by that time Professor Emeritus of Chinese in the University of London).  Lin Yutang's "Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage" (1972) incorporated a number of innovative features, one of which was a simplified version of GR. Lin eliminated most of the spelling rules requiring substitution of vowels, as can be seen from his spelling "Guoryuu Romatzyh", in which the regular "-r" is used for T2 and a doubled vowel for T3.  The first 3 issues of the "Shin Tarng" magazine (which would be "Xīn Táng" in Pinyin; published in 1982-1989) used a Simplified Romanisation ( ) based on Gwoyeu Romatzyh; the fourth edition, entitled Xin Talng, used Pinyin with Gwoyeu Romatzyh-like tone marking.

Language learning.

Chao believed that the benefit of GR was to make tonal differences more salient to learners:  For example, it may be easier to memorize the difference between GR "Beeijing" (the city) and "beyjiing" ("background") than the Pinyin versions "Běijīng" and "bèijǐng", where the tones seem to be almost an afterthought. One study conducted at the University of Oregon in 1991–1993, compared the results of using Pinyin and GR in teaching elementary level Chinese to two matched groups of students, and concluded that "GR did not lead to significantly greater accuracy in tonal production."  GR continues to be used by some teachers of Chinese. In 2000, the Princeton "Chinese Primer" series was published in both GR and Pinyin versions.

Example.

Here is an extract from Y.R. Chao's "Sayable Chinese". The topic is scholarly ("What is Sinology?"), but the style colloquial. The tonal spelling markers or "clues" are again highlighted using the same color-coding scheme as above. Versions in Chinese characters, Pinyin and English are given below the GR text.

Gwoyeu Romatzyh (, literally "National Language Romanization"), abbreviated GR, is a system for writing Mandarin Chinese in the Latin alphabet. The system was conceived by Yuen Ren Chao and developed by a group of linguists including Chao and Lin Yutang from 1925 to 1926. Chao himself later published influential works in linguistics using GR. In addition a small number of other textbooks and dictionaries in GR were published in Hong Kong and overseas from 1942 to 2000. GR is the better known of the two romanization systems which indicate the four tones of Mandarin by varying the spelling of syllables ("tonal spelling"). These tones are as fundamental to the Chinese language as vowels are to English; their presence lets speakers discriminate between otherwise identical syllables and words. Other systems indicate the tones with either diacritics (for example Pinyin: "āi, ái, ǎi" and "ài") or numbers (Wade–Giles: "ai, ai", etc.). GR spells the four tones of the same vowel, "ai", "air, "ae and "ay". These spellings, which follow specific rules, indicate the tones while retaining the pronunciation of the syllable "ai".

国语罗马字是一套官语汉字拉丁化方案,曾是中华民国国家标准。它和通字方案一样使用复杂的拼写规则来标示声调,不像其他方案要用到调号或数字。


Nomenclature.

"ξ Aquarii" (Latinised to "Xi Aquarii") is the binary's Bayer designation. The designations of the two components as "Xi Aquarii A" and "B" derive from the convention used by the Washington Multiplicity Catalog (WMC) for multiple star systems, and adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).  Along with Beta Aquarii (Sadalsuud) it constituted the Persian lunar mansion "Bunda". In 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN decided to attribute proper names to individual stars rather than entire multiple systems. It approved the name "Bunda" for the component Xi Aquarii A on 1 June 2018 and it is now so included in the List of IAU-approved Star Names.  In the catalogue of stars in the "Calendarium" of Al Achsasi al Mouakket, this star was designated "Thanih Saad al Saaoud" ( – ), which was translated into Latin as, meaning "the second of luck of lucks". This star, along with Beta Aquarii and 46 Capricorni, were (), "the Luck of Lucks".  In Chinese, (), meaning "Celestial Ramparts", refers to an asterism consisting of Xi Aquarii, 46 Capricorni, 47 Capricorni, Lambda Capricorni, 50 Capricorni, 18 Aquarii, 29 Capricorni, 9 Aquarii, 8 Aquarii, Nu Aquarii, 14 Aquarii, 17 Aquarii and 19 Aquarii. Consequently, the Chinese name for Xi Aquarii itself is (, ).

Properties.

Xi Aquarii is a single-lined spectroscopic binary system, which means that the presence of an unseen orbiting companion can be inferred from Doppler shifts in the spectral absorption lines. The two bodies orbit each other with a period of 8,016 days (22 y) and an eccentricity of 0.54. The primary component, Xi Aquarii A, is an A-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of A7 V. It has about 1.9 times the mass of the Sun and is rotating rapidly with a projected rotational velocity of 170 km/s. The orbital data is consistent with the secondary component, Xi Aquarii B, being either a red dwarf or a white dwarf star.

Xi Aquarii (ξ Aquarii, abbreviated Xi Aqr, ξ Aqr) is a binary star system in the equatorial constellation of Aquarius. It is visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of 4.7. Based upon parallax measurements made during the Hipparcos mission, this system lies at a distance of around from the Sun.

天垒城一(英语:ξ Aqr / ξ Aquarii)是宝瓶座的一颗恒星,距离地球约179光年,英文名为Bunda。


Cause.

Chloracne normally results from direct skin contact with chloracnegens, although ingestion and inhalation are also possible causative routes.  Chloracnegens are fat-soluble, meaning they persist in the body fat for a very long period following exposure. Chloracne is a chronic inflammatory condition that results from this persistence, in combination with the toxin's chemical properties. It is believed, at least from rodent models, that the toxin activates a series of receptors promoting macrophage proliferation, inducing neutrophilia and leading to a generalised inflammatory response in the skin. This process may also be augmented by induction of excess tumor necrosis factor in the blood serum.  The inflammatory processes lead to the formation of keratinous plugs in skin pores, forming yellowish cysts and dark pustules. The associated pus is usually a color of green approximating that of a tennis ball. The skin lesions occur mainly in the face, but in more severe cases they involve the shoulders and chest, the back, and the abdomen. In advanced cases, the lesions appear also on the arms, neck, thighs, legs, hands and feet.  In some instances, chloracne may not appear for three to four weeks after toxic exposure; however, in other cases—particularly in events of massive exposure—the symptoms may appear within days.

Treatment.

Once chloracne has been identified, the primary action is to remove the patient and all other individuals from the source of contamination. Further treatment is symptomatic.  Secondary infections on severe or persistent lesions may need to be treated with oral antibiotics or isotretinoin. However, chloracne itself can be highly resistant to any treatment.  The course of the disease is highly variable. In some cases the lesions may disappear within two years or so; however, in other cases the lesions may be effectively permanent (mean duration of lesions in one 1984 study was 26 years, with some workers remaining disfigured over three decades after exposure).

Related conditions.

Chloracne is very often seen in combination with hyperhidrosis (clammy, sweaty skin) and porphyria cutanea tarda (a skin condition of increased pigmentation, hair coarsening and blistering).

Chloracne is an acne-like eruption of blackheads, cysts, and pustules associated with exposure to certain halogenated aromatic compounds, such as chlorinated dioxins and dibenzofurans. The lesions are most frequently found on the cheeks, behind the ears, in the armpits and groin region.

氯痤疮(英语:Chloracne),由氯、氯酚和多氯联苯等导致的痤疮。也有因-{zh-hans:二<unk>英; zh-hant:戴奥辛;}-引发的病例。


林荫大道花园 (佛罗里达州)

Geography.

Boulevard Gardens is located at (26.124114, -80.182217).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 0.7 km2 (0.3 mi2), all land.

Demographics.

At the 2000 census there were 1,415 people, 451 households, and 312 families living in the CDP. The population density was 2,101.3/km2 (5,376.5/mi2). There were 489 housing units at an average density of 726.2/km2 (1,858.0/mi2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 2.47% White (2% were Non-Hispanic White,) 94.13% African American, 0.21% Native American, 0.35% Asian, 0.78% from other races, and 2.05% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.40%.  Of the 451 households 26.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.8% were married couples living together, 30.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 20.8% of households were one person and 7.3% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 3.14 and the average family size was 3.72.  The age distribution was 29.9% under the age of 18, 10.3% from 18 to 24, 25.7% from 25 to 44, 21.6% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% 65 or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.1 males.  The median household income was $22,167 and the median family income was $26,719. Males had a median income of $19,934 versus $20,288 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $14,843. About 25.6% of families and 37.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 42.3% of those under age 18 and 22.4% of those age 65 or over.  As of 2000, English was the first language for 100% of the population.

Boulevard Gardens is a census-designated place (CDP) in Broward County, Florida, United States. The population was 1,274 at the 2010 census.

林荫大道花园(英语:Boulevard Gardens)是位于美国佛罗里达州布劳沃德县的一个人口普查指定地区。


Terminology.

While the genre was developing in the early 1990s, it was not initially called "screamo." Chris Taylor, lead vocalist for the band Pg. 99, said "we never liked that whole screamo thing. Even during our existence, we tried to venture away from the fashion and tell people, 'Hey, this is punk.'" Jonathan Dee of "The New York Times" wrote that the term "tends to bring a scornful laugh from the bands themselves." Lars Gotrich of NPR Music made the following comment on the matter in 2011:  In the 2000s the term "screamo" began being used loosely to describe any use of human vocal instrument growled-word vocals (commonly termed screamed vocals) in music. It has been applied to a wide variety of genres unrelated to the original screamo scene. Juan Gabe, vocalist for the band Comadre, alleged that the term "has been kind of tainted in a way, especially in the States." Derek Miller, guitarist for the band Poison the Well noted the term's constant differing usages and jokingly stated that it "describes a thousand different genres." Bert McCracken, lead singer of The Used, stated that screamo is merely a term "for record companies to sell records and for record stores to categorize them."

History.

Origins (1990s).

Screamo arose as a distinct music genre in 1991, in San Diego, at the Ché Café, including bands such as Heroin and Antioch Arrow. Gravity Records and Ebullition Records released this more chaotic and expressive descendant of emo. The scene is noted for its distinctive fashion sense, inspired by mod culture. As with "emo", the term "screamo" carries some controversy among participants.  Many groups from the East Coast were influential in the continual development and reinvention of the style, including Orchid, Pg. 99, Saetia, City of Caterpillar, Jeromes Dream, Circle Takes the Square, Hot Cross, and Ampere.

Mainstream crossover (2000s).

By 1995, the term "screamo" drifted into the music press, especially in the journalism of Jim DeRogatis and Andy Greenwald, and by the mid-2000s, the term was being applied to many newer bands. Screamo bands such as The Used, Thrice, Finch, Thursday, Alexisonfire, and Silverstein developed a newer period of screamo in the 21st century. Thursday cited the post-punk band Joy Division, and the post-hardcore band Fugazi as important influences, but also took cues from the alternative rock styles of Radiohead, U2, and The Cure. Many of these bands took influence from bands like Refused and At the Drive-In. In contrast to the do-it-yourself screamo bands of the 1990s, screamo bands such as Thursday and The Used have signed multi-album contracts with labels such as Island Def Jam and Reprise Records. However, this style's connection to the genre has been disputed, with some referring to it as ""MTV screamo"" or ""pop-screamo"", and many bands more commonly being categorized as post-hardcore or metalcore. "Alternative Press" describes pop screamo as "metal-influenced riffs and aggressive, high-end screams filled song’s verses, while soaring melodies carried choruses to new, previously unattained heights." The term "post-screamo" has been used loosely to describe a wide variety of music in the 2000s and later that was influenced by traditional screamo. In a review of City of Caterpillar's influence on the genre, reporter Jason Heller of "Vice" writes "Call it post-screamo, if you must. Okay, maybe don’t do that. But... the early 00s weren’t the end of an era or anything so corny. It was just a transition."  In the mid-2000s the style of early screamo regained vitality, with American bands like Comadre, Off Minor, and Hot Cross releasing records on independent labels. The contemporary screamo scene has remained particularly active in Europe, with bands such as Amanda Woodward, Louise Cyphre, Le Pré Où Je Suis Mort, La Quiete, Daïtro, and Raein all being prime examples of their scene. Fluff Fest, held in Czechia since 2000, was in 2017 described by Bandcamp Daily as a "summer ritual" for many fans of screamo in Europe.

Revival (2010s).

In the early 2010s the term "screamo" began to be largely reclaimed by a new crop of do-it-yourself bands, with many screamo acts, like Loma Prieta, Pianos Become the Teeth, La Dispute, and Touché Amoré releasing records on fairly large independent labels such as Deathwish Inc. In 2011 "Alternative Press" noted that La Dispute is "at the forefront of a traditional-screamo revival" for their critically acclaimed release "Wildlife". They are a part of a group of stylistically similar screamo-revival bands self-defined as "The Wave," made up of Touché Amoré, La Dispute, Defeater, Pianos Become the Teeth, and Make Do and Mend. As well as, California's Deafheaven, who formed in 2010, having been described as screamo, in a style similar to that of Envy. "Alternative Press" has cited a "pop screamo revival" along with this, with bands like Before Their Eyes, The Ongoing Concept, Too Close to Touch and I Am Terrified.  In August 2018, "Noisey" writer Dan Ozzi declared that it was the "Summer of Screamo" in a month-long series documenting screamo acts pushing the genre forward following the decline in popularity of "The Wave," as well as the reunions of seminal bands such as Pg. 99, Majority Rule, City of Caterpillar, and Jeromes Dream. Groups highlighted in this coverage, including Respire, Ostraca, Portrayal of Guilt, Soul Glo, I Hate Sex, and Infant Island, had generally received positive press from large publications, but were not as widely successful as their predecessors. "Noisey" also documented that, despite its loss of mainstream popularity and continued hold in North American scenes, particularly Richmond, Virginia, screamo had become a more international movement; notably spreading to Japan, France, and Sweden with groups including Heaven in Her Arms, Birds in Row, and Suffocate for Fuck Sake, respectively. Also in 2018, Vein released their debut album "Errorzone" to critical acclaim and commercial success, bringing together elements of screamo, hardcore, and nu metal. This underground cohort of acts was primarily released by independent labels like Middle-Man Records in the United States, Zegema Beach Records in Canada, and Miss The Stars Records in Berlin.

Characteristics.

Screamo is a style of hardcore punk-influenced emo with screaming. Alex Henderson of AllMusic considers screamo a bridge between hardcore punk and emo. The term screamo is a portmanteau of the words "scream" and "emo." Screamo uses typical rock instrumentation, but is notable for its brief compositions, chaotic sounds, harmonized guitars, and screaming vocals. Screamo is characterized "by frequent shifts in tempo and dynamics and by tension-and-release catharses." Many screamo bands also incorporate ballads. According to AllMusic, screamo is "generally based in the aggressive side of the overarching punk-revival scene." Screamed vocals are used "not consistently, but as a kind of crescendo element, a sonic weapon to be trotted out when the music and lyrics reach a particular emotional pitch." Emotional singing and harsh screaming are common vocals in screamo.  Screamo lyrics often feature topics such as emotional pain, breakups, romantic interest, politics, and human rights. These lyrics are usually introspective, similar to that of softer emo bands. "The New York Times" noted that "part of the music's appeal is its un-self-conscious acceptance of differences, respect for otherness." Some screamo bands openly demonstrate acceptance of religious, nonreligious, and straight edge lifestyles  Many screamo bands in the 1990s saw themselves as implicitly political, and as a reaction against the turn to the right embodied by California politicians, such as Roger Hedgecock. Some groups were also unusually theoretical in inspiration: Angel Hair cited surrealist writers Antonin Artaud and Georges Bataille, and Orchid lyrically name-checked French new wave icon Anna Karina, German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, French philosopher Michel Foucault, and critical theory originators the Frankfurt School.

Subgenres.

Emoviolence.

Many screamo bands borrow the extreme dissonance, speed, and chaos of powerviolence. As a result, the term emoviolence was half-jokingly coined by the band In/Humanity to describe the fusion of the two styles which applied to themselves, as well as other bands including Pg. 99, Orchid, Reversal of Man, Usurp Synapse, and RentAmerica.<ref name="I/HVRPM"></ref> Additionally, bands such as Orchid, Reversal of Man, and Circle Takes the Square tend to be much closer in style to grindcore than their forebears.

Post-screamo.

Bands including City of Caterpillar, Circle Takes the Square, Envy, Funeral Diner, Pianos Become the Teeth, Respire, and Le Pré Où Je Suis Mort have incorporated post-rock elements into their music. This fusion is characterized by abrupt changes in pace, atmospheric and harmonic instrumentation, and distorted vocals. Similarly, bands such as Heaven in Her Arms and the aforementioned group Envy, use elements of shoegazing.

Sass.

Sass (also known as sassy screamo, sasscore, sassgrind or dancey screamo) is a style of hardcore punk that emerged in the later-1990s and early-2000s that was associated with and happened roughly contemporarily with the DIY screamo scene of that era. It originated as an opposing style of hardcore punk to the machismo in heavy hardcore scenes. It takes influence from genres such as post-punk, new wave, disco, electronic, dance-punk emoviolence, grindcore, metalcore and heavy hardcore. The genre is characterized by often incorporating overtly flamboyant mannerisms, erotic lyrics featuring sexual tension, and a lisping vocal style. The genre is also noted for its "spastic edge", blast beats, chaotic guitars, danceable beats and the use of synthesizers. Sass bands include the Blood Brothers, Q and Not U, Black Eyes, The Plot to Blow Up the Eiffel Tower, These Arms Are Snakes, An Albatross, XBXRX, Death from Above, The Number Twelve Looks Like You, Gatefold-era Orchid, Milemarker and SeeYouSpaceCowboy.

Pop screamo.

"Pop screamo" and "MTV screamo" are terms used to describe bands taking influence from screamo as well as use of heavy metal riffs, pop song structure, and elements from pioneering metalcore and mathcore acts. The style developed and gained mainstream success in the early-2000s. The scene was led by bands such as Thursday, Hawthorne Heights, Taking Back Sunday, The Used, Senses Fail, Silverstein, Chiodos, From First to Last, Saosin, Thrice and Finch and now-defunct less-known bands such as Before Their Eyes, Here I Come Falling, Agraceful, Yesterdays Rising, Chasing Victory, Beloved, Dead Poetic, Burden of a Day and Sever Your Ties. The genre had a revival in the 2010s, including such outfits as Before Their Eyes, The Ongoing Concept, Too Close to Touch, I Am Terrified. "Alternative Press" describes pop screamo as "metal-influenced riffs and aggressive, high-end screams filled song’s verses, while soaring melodies carried choruses to new, previously unattained heights." as well as "Poppy emo music with screaming in it that captured mainstream attention in the mid-2000s". Furthermore, many of these groups bands are more commonly categorized as post-hardcore or metalcore.

Screamo (also referred to as skramz)<ref name="metalsucks - The History of Metalcore/Screamo"> is an aggressive subgenre of emo that emerged in the early 1990s, emphasizing "willfully experimental dissonance and dynamics." It was pioneered by San Diego bands Heroin and Antioch Arrow and developed in the late 1990s mainly by bands from the East Coast of the United States such as Orchid, Saetia, and Pg. 99. Screamo is strongly influenced by hardcore punk and characterized by the use of screamed vocals. Lyrical themes usually include emotional pain, death, romance, and human rights. In the 21st century, the term "screamo" has often mistakenly been used as an umbrella term for any music that features screamed vocals.

Screamo(为了与Emo区分而有译作嚎叫情绪)是一种硬蕊庞克(英语:Hardcore punk)的子类型,大多承袭于Emo这种音乐类型,与其他在1990年代的音乐。「Screamo」这个词源先是用在1991年发展于美国圣地亚哥一些比较激进的Emo乐团,他们利用曲长较短的创作,结合抽搐般的强度来刻意实验出不和谐与力度变化。


Taxonomy.

"Seaweed" lacks a formal definition. Generally it is one of several groups of multicellular algae: red, green and brown. They lack a common multicellular ancestor, forming a polyphyletic group. Some bluegreen algae (Cyanobacteria) are sometimes considered to be seaweed.

Anatomy.

Seaweed's appearance resembles non-arboreal terrestrial plants. Its anatomy includes:  The stipe and blade are collectively known as the frond.

Ecology.

Two environmental requirements dominate seaweed ecology. These are seawater (or at least brackish water) and light sufficient to support photosynthesis. Another common requirement is an attachment point, although genera such as "Sargassum" and "Gracilaria" have species that float freely. Seaweed most commonly inhabits the littoral zone (nearshore waters) and, within that zone, on rocky shores more than on sand or shingle.  Seaweed occupies various ecological niches. At the surface, they are only wetted by the tops of sea spray, while some species may attach to a substrate several meters deep. In some areas, littoral seaweed colonies can extend miles out to sea. The deepest living seaweed are some species of red algae.  Others have adapted to live in tidal rock pools. In this habitat, seaweed must withstand rapidly changing temperature and salinity and occasional drying.

Production.

As of 2018, the top 10 countries produced 96% of the global total of 2,165,675 metric tons.

Uses.

Seaweed has a variety of uses, for which it is farmed or foraged.

Food.

Seaweed is consumed across the world, particularly in East Asia, e.g. Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan and Southeast Asia, e.g. Brunei, Singapore, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, and Malaysia, and also in South Africa, Belize, Peru, Chile, the Canadian Maritimes, Scandinavia, South West England, Ireland, Wales, Hawaii and California, and Scotland.  Gim (김, Korea), nori (海苔, Japan) and zicai (紫菜, China) are sheets of dried "Porphyra" used in soups, sushi or "onigiri" (rice balls). "Chondrus crispus" ('Irish moss' or carrageenan moss) is used in food additives, along with "Kappaphycus" and G"igartinoid" seaweed. "Porphyra" is used in Wales to make laverbread (sometimes with oat flour). In northern Belize, seaweed is mixed with milk, nutmeg, cinnamon and vanilla to make "" ("sweet").  Alginate, agar and carrageenan are gelatinous seaweed products collectively known as hydrocolloids or phycocolloids. Hydrocolloids are food additives. The food industry exploits their gelling, water-retention, emulsifying and other physical properties. Agar is used in foods such as confectionery, meat and poultry products, desserts and beverages and moulded foods. Carrageenan is used in salad dressings and sauces, dietetic foods, and as a preservative in meat and fish, dairy items and baked goods.

Medicine and herbs.

Alginates are used in wound dressings (see alginate dressing), and dental moulds. In microbiology, agar is used as a culture medium. Carrageenans, alginates and agaroses, with other macroalgal polysaccharides, have biomedicine applications. "Delisea pulchra" may interfere with bacterial colonization. Sulfated saccharides from red and green algae inhibit some DNA and RNA-enveloped viruses.  Seaweed extract is used in some diet pills. Other seaweed pills exploit the same effect as gastric banding, expanding in the stomach to make the stomach feel more full.

Bioremediation.

Algae's strong photosynthesis creates a large affinity for nutrients; this allows the seaweed to be used to remove undesired nutrients from water (as for instance in dead zones). Seaweed also generates oxygen, which benefits hypoxic (=oxygen-poor) dead zones. Nutrients such as ammonia, ammonium nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, iron, copper, as well as CO are rapidly consumed by growing seaweed. Reefs and lakes are naturally filtered this way (seaweed is consumed by fish and invertebrates), and this filtering process is duplicated in artificial seaweed filters such as algae scrubbers. China could remove its entire phosphorus effluent by increasing seaweed production by 150%.  Seaweed (macroalgae), as opposed to phytoplankton (microalgae), is used almost universally for filtration purposes because of the need to be able to easily remove (harvest) the algae from the water, which then removes the nutrients. Microalgae require more processing to separate from the water than macroalgae do; macroalgae is simply pulled out.  Marine species of "Cladophora", "Ulva" (sea lettuce) and "Chaetomorpha" are preferred for filtration. Freshwater filtration applications commonly involve species such as "Spirogyra".

Climate change.

"Ocean afforestation” is a proposal for farming seaweed for carbon removal. After harvesting the seaweed decomposes into biogas, (60% methane and 40% carbon dioxide) in an anaerobic digester. The methane can be used as a biofuel, while the carbon dioxide can be stored to keep it from the atmosphere. Seaweed grows quickly and takes no space on land. Afforesting 9% of the ocean could sequester 53 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually (annual emissions are about 40 billion tons).  The approach requires efficient techniques for growing and harvesting, efficient gas separation, and carbon capture and storage. The Advanced Research Projects Agency for Energy has a $22 million program called Macroalgae Research Inspiring Novel Energy Resources (MARINER) supporting innovations that could aid a seaweed industry.<, ref name=":1" />

Other uses.

Other seaweed may be used as fertilizer, compost for landscaping, or to combat beach erosion through burial in beach dunes.  Seaweed is under consideration as a potential source of bioethanol.  Alginates are used in industrial products such as paper coatings, adhesives, dyes, gels, explosives and in processes such as paper sizing, textile printing, hydro-mulching and drilling. Seaweed is an ingredient in toothpaste, cosmetics and paints. Seaweed is used for the production of bio yarn (a textile).  Several of these resources can be obtained from seaweed through biorefining.  Seaweed collecting is the process of collecting, drying and pressing seaweed. It was a popular pastime in the Victorian era and remains a hobby today. In some emerging countries, Seaweed is harvested daily to support communities.  Seaweed is sometimes used to build roofs on houses on Læsø in Denmark  Seaweeds are used as animal feeds. They have long been grazed by sheep, horses and cattle in Northern Europe. They are valued for fish production. Adding seaweed to livestock feed can substantially reduce methane emissions from cattle.

Health risks.

Rotting seaweed is a potent source of hydrogen sulfide, a highly toxic gas, and has been implicated in some incidents of apparent hydrogen-sulphide poisoning. It can cause vomiting and diarrhea.  The so-called "stinging seaweed" "Microcoleus lyngbyaceus" is a filamentous cyanobacteria which contains toxins including lyngbyatoxin-a and debromoaplysiatoxin. Direct skin contact can cause seaweed dermatitis characterized by painful, burning lesions that last for days.

Threats.

Bacterial disease ice-ice infects "Kappaphycus" (red seaweed), turning its branches white. The disease caused heavy crop losses in the Philippines, Tanzania and Mozambique.  Sea urchin barrens have replaced kelp forests in multiple areas. They are “almost immune to starvation”. Lifespans can exceed 50 years. When stressed by hunger, their jaws and teeth enlarge, and they form "fronts" and hunt for food collectively.

Genera.

The following table lists a very few example genera of seaweed.

Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to several species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of "Rhodophyta" (red), "Phaeophyta" (brown) and "Chlorophyta" (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as kelps provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; other species, such as planktonic algae, play a vital role in capturing carbon, producing up to 90% of Earth's oxygen. Understanding these roles offers principles for conservation and sustainable use. Mechanical dredging of kelp, for instance, destroys the resource and dependent fisheries.

海藻泛指所有在海里生长的肉眼可见大小多细胞藻类生物。有时,亦包括一些其他近似,但不同种属的生物。


History and design.

The original plans.

The original plans for a business district on Canary Wharf came from G Ware Travelstead. He proposed three 260 m (850 ft) towers. Travelstead was unable to fund the project, so the plans were sold to Olympia & York in 1987. Olympia & York grouped all three towers into an area known as Docklands Square, and the main tower was designated DS7 during planning. Docklands Square was later renamed Winston Square before finally being renamed as Canada Square.

Architects/design.

The architects chosen to design One Canada Square were Cesar Pelli & Associates, Adamson Associates, and Frederick Gibberd Coombes & Partners. They designed the tower with a similar shape to 200 Vesey Street (formerly Three World Financial Center), New York City, which was also developed by Olympia & York and designed by Argentine architect Cesar Pelli. The shape was also made reminiscent of "Big Ben". Olympia & York wanted to clad One Canada Square in stone, just like the Brookfield Place (New York City) buildings, but the architects first wanted to use aluminium for its low density, before insisting on steel to reflect Britain's heritage as an industrial nation. The final steel clad chosen was Patten Hyclad Cambric-finish stainless-steel.  Commenting on the reason for choosing steel for the clad: ""We studied the cladding material carefully and chose stainless steel with a linen finish because it seemed to fit the atmosphere of London.""  One Canada Square was originally designed to be high at 55 storeys, but that penetrated the permitted projection height of the flight obstruction area of the airport approach district to London City Airport, but this was extended to a height of above kerb level in consideration of the fact that One Canada Square was on the external zone of the airport approach. To comply with air traffic safety regulations, the architects took five floors off the tower. The final height of was permitted, otherwise, the developers would have had to dismantle what was necessary to fit the height restriction. After losing five floors, Olympia & York insisted the other floors had to make up the lost floor space by increasing mass to the remaining floor space which created a tower that was not as slim as Pelli desired. Pelli and the other architects proposed alternatives, such as building more floors below ground and creating an extension of the tower into Docklands Square, which were similar ideas based upon previous Olympia & York buildings, though the ideas were rejected as it did not fit the basis of prime office space.  The design of the tower received a fair share of criticism. According to Cesar Pelli, the most damaging criticism came from Prince Charles, who said on national television, "I personally would go mad if I had to work in a place like that". Other criticisms came from former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who said that the building was "not quite stunning".

Construction.

Construction on the tower began in 1988. Construction was given to Sir Robert McAlpine & Sons in association with Ellis Don of Toronto, but they were slow at building the tower, partly due to building workers going on strike in the summer of 1989, so Lehrer McGovern took over. Lehrer McGovern contracted out most of the work to Balfour Beatty because the Canary Wharf Tower was a difficult building to build. In total, about 27,500 metric tonnes of British steel and 500,000 bolts were used during construction. Construction also involved building a huge cofferdam to seal construction from water. It also involved driving 222 piles into the ground at 23 metres deep. Also, a 4-metre thick concrete raft was sunk into the dock to act as anchor.  By June 1990, the tower had overtaken Tower 42 (previously known as the Nat West Tower), becoming the tallest building in the United Kingdom.  On 8 November 1990, the tower was topped out when the top piece of the pyramid roof was put in place by crane. The celebration was attended by many famous architects, recognised engineers and political leaders. Amongst them were César Pelli, Brian Mulroney, Peter Rice, Man-Chung Tang, and Margaret Thatcher. Paul Reichmann, the owner of Olympia & York gave credit to Pelli for his building design as "this inauguration symbolises the spirit with which buildings can be achieved". Margaret Thatcher told the distinguished audience that the tower can become a "national recognised landmark".

Opening.

In August 1991, One Canada Square was completed and open for business. His Royal Highness The Duke of Edinburgh officially opened One Canada Square on the morning of 26 August 1991, and unveiled a commemorative plaque at the entrance to the building. Hundreds of construction workers attended the opening ceremony. The Duke of Edinburgh addressed some 800 invited guests, many of whom had been involved in the project. He spoke of the "large, airy space and clean, efficient office layout", as he declared the building ready for business. The attendees heard a specially-commissioned piece of music performed by a 30-strong choir. Paul Reichmann, Chairman of Olympia & York said: ""The Canary Wharf Tower marks the start of a new beginning for Canary Wharf, for London, and for the United Kingdom. It is by any standard a triumph of ambition, commitment and collaboration. It will breathe life into Canary Wharf, allowing us to continue our transformation of the rest of the wharf, and will put Canary Wharf at the leading edge of real estate.""  And Cesar Pelli, main architect, gave his speech that included: ""According to Lao Tse, the reality of a hollow object is in the void and not in the walls that define it. He was speaking, of course, of spiritual realities. These are the realities also of the Canary Wharf Tower. The power of the void is increased and... with its supporting structure creates a portal to the sky... a door to the infinite.""

Post-completion.

The majority of the tower was empty after opening because most tenants had not moved in yet and there was a global recession. To brighten up the tower, lights and lasers were installed during the Christmas celebrations of 1991.

Park Pavilion.

In 2009, the building was extended with Park Pavilion, a two-story glass structure built on the east side of the building, designed by Cesar Pelli and Koetter Kim. The extension replaced the stainless steel columns, car parking spaces and road leading to Canada Square. The extension was made to create more retail space at street level, where five tenants were chosen to occupy the space: four restaurants and Lloyds Bank. The extension's roof terrace is open to diners and contains a green roof having sedum moss.

Building technical details.

Building name.

The name given to the building by the developers is 'One Canada Square', but it is often incorrectly called 'Canary Wharf Tower' or simply 'Canary Wharf'.

Building height.

The Civil Aviation Authority shows the building at above ground level, or above sea level.

Pyramid roof.

The pyramid roof is an important feature of the building, enclosing a maintenance plant and housing facilities for water supply and window washing, and an aircraft warning beacon. The pyramid itself is 40 metres high and 30 metres square at the base. It is made from stainless steel and is held together by 100,000 nuts and bolts, with a weight of over 100 tons. A louvre access door opens to allow a shining beacon to identify the building to passing aircraft.  The pyramid is metal louvres that are self-cleaning with rainwater.  Architect Cesar Pelli commented on his pyramid design: ""The pyramidal form makes a three-dimensional building of what would otherwise be just folded planes. It also strengthens the Axis Mundi, the vertical line that goes through skyscrapers and connects Heaven with Earth. This connection has been recognised in many cultures for several centuries now.""

Water.

Water is pumped up to the pyramid roof, and is continuously replenished. A common sound that is heard inside the pyramid roof is water being moved around. The water is used for general water requirements, such as toilets, etc. The tower consumes an average of of water per day.

Window washing machines.

The machines for washing the building windows are stored on the roof of the building. There are two types: one is automatic and the other is manual. The automatic window washing machines run on rails on the sides of the building. This machine can clean a window in 2.6 seconds. It consumes 426,000 gallons of water per run to clean the entire tower. The other machine is a manual window washing cradle. Both of these machines for cleaning the windows are supported by rails that run around the outside of the pyramid roof and that are bolted down into the maintenance floor itself.

Aircraft warning lights.

The aircraft warning light is at the very top of the pyramid. Access is via a ladder with a warning sign stating that unauthorised entry will lead to dismissal. The tower uses an omni-directional light usual for marking hazards. It has a very long life and requires little maintenance. Light intensity achieved is well in excess of the required 2,000 candelas. It uses low power consumption and the unit can be flashing or steady.

Electrical equipment.

There is electrical equipment that regulates the power to the rest of the building on the mezzanine floor. Some of the electrical generators on the mezzanine floor are powered by micro-hydro water turbines, sourced by water pumped up to the roof.

Roof material.

The steel comprises a galvanised steel core, with a multi-layered protective coating and granular finish for better performance characteristics. The tile is in three satin finishes and a high-gloss silver and can be transported in situ in a building's roof.

Cleaning the roof.

The pyramid itself is cleaned by special maintenance personnel who abseil from the light beacon opening at the very top of the roof. Not only do they have to deal with the height, as well as the winds that interfere with their ropes, but they also need to inspect the steel roof.

Pyramid roof lights.

The pyramid roof lights up in the evenings and can be seen away. It is a permanent lighting of the One Canada Square pyramid using a thousand electronically controlled fluorescent tubes capable of sequence programming for special occasions and festive seasons. The 4000 lights are highly energy efficient, and have an annual running cost of £23,360, rather than £116,800 if traditional incandescent bulbs had been used.

Lightning conductors.

One Canada Square uses a traditional roof circuit for its lightning protection system. The roof holds 5 lightning conductor rods. This rooftop network of conductors contain multiple conductive copper paths from the roof to the ground. The steel cladding does not form part of the lightning protection system, as it was considered too dangerous.

HVAC.

At the peak cooling times, the HVAC (climate control) system requires cooling equivalent to that provided by 2,000 t of melting ice in one day. The building has a condensate collection system, which uses the hot and humid outside air, combined with the cooling requirements of the building and results in a significant amount of condensation of moisture from the air. The condensed water is collected and drained into a holding tank located in the basement car park.

Windows.

One Canada Square has 3,960 windows and was one of the first buildings to incorporate metallicised windows and other advanced window technologies, to assist with the building's energy efficiency plans. The tower uses super-insulated windows at triple-pane glazing (with a high solar heat-gain coefficient), low-emissivity (low-e) coatings to prevent heat loss in winter months, UV coatings, scratch resistant outer layers, sealed argon / krypton gas filled inter-pane voids, 'warm edge' insulating glass spacers, air-seals and specially developed thermally designed window frames. The windows were manufactured with ehigh R-values [low U-values, 0.90 W/(m2.K)] for the time, thereby the thermal resistance is one of the highest rated in the world for the entire window including the frame.

External lighting.

The tower uses low energy consumption external lighting through intelligent lighting controls systems. This computer controlled system generates the visually interesting lighting displays on the exterior of the building. The uplighters that are usually seen on the exterior of the building are inductive fluorescent lamps that can be colour rendered and dimmed. The floodlights use compact fluorescent lamps used to provide controlled lighting at the base of the tower. The lighting control system has photocells that will automatically switch on the display when it is dark.  The tower also has a synchronised building exterior decorative light and laser multimedia display. The technology was developed by Australian firm Laservision and cost approximately £2 million.

Fire system.

In the event of a fire, One Canada Square is not fully evacuated. The floor that has the fire and all other floors above are evacuated. The air conditioning is set to work in reverse to extract smoke and fresh air is blown into the fire escape staircases to increase air pressure and therefore slow the entry of smoke into these areas. The sprinkler system will not operate unless there is sufficient heat acting on any sprinkler head (which are independent of each other and do not operate in unison).  The only time when One Canada Square was fully evacuated was on 30 October 2001, during a test drill in response to the 11 September 2001 attacks. The test drill was unsuccessful as tenants were notified beforehand, hence evacuation was much quicker than expected by Canary Wharf Security.

Procedure for fire alarm.

When the fire alarm activates on a floor, audio instructions tailored to each floor of the building sound. All floors will receive an evacuation message, with a controlled evacuation message replayed to each floor in order of priority. On floors below the source of the alarm a stand-by notification is given. Digital signage throughout the building displays alert messages followed by instructions tailored to each floor of the building. On certain floors, the instructions ask employees to leave the floor. Exit signs flash. The access control system unlocks doors as necessary. Fire dampers open. Throughout the building, cameras turn on and look for problems that intelligent video software applications have been programmed to detect. Within 2 minutes, the access control system sends a memo to the Security Director itemising how many people have left the affected floor and how many remain.

Tuned mass damper.

One Canada Square has a steel pendulum that serves as a tuned mass damper. The pendulum sways to offset movements in the building caused by strong gusts of wind. The building can sway in the strongest winds.

Lobby.

The lobby is high, clad in Italian Rosso Levanto and Verde Imperial Guatemalan marbles imported from Italy, Guatemala and Turkey.  The marble clad under steel ceilings gives the impression of: ""Rather than entering a corporate reception, you feel as if you’re entering a hushed antespace of timeless power.""

Security screens.

In February 2017, security in the lobby was extended to include security screens to prevent unauthorised entry to the lifts. This was a follow up to YouTuber Night Scape gaining unauthorised entry from the lobby to the roof.

Lifts.

The tower has thirty two lifts for tenants to use, where 8 lifts serve roughly ten floors of the building. All tenant passenger lifts serve the ground floor and the following groups of floors – floors 5–17, floors 18–28, floors 28–39 and floors 39–50 (note that level 5 is the first office floor and there is no level 13). In addition there are 2 firemen's lifts which serve all floors in the building. These have colour designations with blue being in the northeast core of the building and green being in the southwest. From the building's initial construction until late 2009 there were 2 large freight lifts at which point another was added. This lift was built inside a vacant lift shaft and has the designation GL37 (GL for goods lift and 37 as it is the 37th lift in the building). The tower uses 'Gearless Traction Elevators' by Otis. These lifts were installed in 1990 (aside from GL37 – 2009) using a gearless traction machine. They have woven steel cables called hoisting ropes that are attached to the top of the lift cabin and wrapped around the drive sheave in special grooves. The other ends of the cables are attached to a counterweight that moves up and down in the hoistway on its own guiderails. It takes 40 seconds by lift from lobby to top floor (The Canary Wharf website has not been updated to include the new goods lift GL37).

Observation floor.

There is currently no public observation floor. However, there was an exception from 12 October 1992 to 15 December 1992, when bankruptcy administrators for Olympia & York Canary Wharf Limited opened the 50th floor to the public, to maintain interest in Canary Wharf. The scheme was stopped on 15 December 1992 when the IRA attempted to bomb the tower (see Terrorism section).

Environmental rating.

The international BREEAM standard has awarded One Canada Square for best practice in sustainable design and environmental performance for buildings. To achieve the rating, the building had to meet or exceed a challenging score of 85% against strict criteria, and included environmental innovations such as the use of 80% recycled aggregate within the concrete used, and the recycling of waste heat to cool and warm the building. Aggregates used in the office build were from predominantly recycled sources, part of a strategy to integrate sustainable products and materials throughout the site, delivering both affordable and sustainable environmentally friendly features to the building.  One Canada Square energy performance has improved by decreasing 30% from 2007 to 2016 by initiatives such as installing LEDs and upgrading HVAC and water services.

Building internal relations.

Public access.

The ground floor, foyer area and basement levels of One Canada Square are open to the general public, having an underground retail area and a transport interchange from Canary Wharf tube and Docklands Light Railway stations. Access from the basement also links to Canada Square shopping mall. The floors above the lobby are not open to the public, as they contain offices.

Art works.

Permanent art works.

There are many art works on display in the lobby. This includes the stained glass and the roundel in the foyer were designed by Charles Rennie, and are an original design. The design represents Canary Wharf, Water and Boats, illustrating the signs of London Docklands. The slate used here and in various places around the foyer on site is made from the Welsh slate shelving used in the repositories of the original Banana Warehouse at Canary Wharf.  The staircases in the four corners of the lobby leading down to the basement floor were originally embellished with a four-piece commissioned sculpture, "The 20th Century–Thames" by Keith Milow. Around 2014, one of the tondi was removed to make room for a restaurant. The other three remain in situ.  Other art works on display included Sergio Germariello's Guerrieri (Warriors) 2013, which is displayed in the lobby. The work is an aluminium laser cut out that has been painted.  Blade of Venus 1985, by William Turnbull, is on display, part of a series of bronzes that originated in the shape of Japanese swords and Chinese chopping knives.  Lawson Oyekan's Trail With Light (LIP) Series 1998, are terracotta vessels on permanent display. The concept is that it is supposed to reflect emotional experience and look if they have been exploded and put back together again.

Temporary art works.

The lobby is also used for temporary art displays. In 2017, the artist Richard Rome showed several of his bronze and steel sculptures here. This was followed by an exhibition of bronze sculptures by Auguste Rodin.  Canary Wharf Winter Lights usually are on display during January.  During 16 April - 1 June 2018, the lobby hosted a photography exhibition known as AOP50 (Association of Photographers 50 years celebration). Large photographs were on display by famous photographers. Notable works included:

One Canada Square restaurant.

There is a restaurant in the lobby called One Canada Square Restaurant and Bar. It serves high-end food and drinks. The bar seats 30, and the restaurant has 100 covers. It is the only retailer in the main lobby, whereas the other retailers at One Canada Square are below ground.  The restaurant was designed by David Collins Studio whom designed the restaurant with consideration to the marble surfaces in the lobby. The design was based on post-industrial designs of the early Nineties and complemented by classic brasserie details. The furnishings were inspired by vintage cars. The restaurant opened in November 2013.

Tenants.

Current office tenants.

The current office tenants according to Canary Wharf Group plc as at 14 February 2018:

Ownership.

The ownership of One Canada Square has changed since it was constructed. The table below shows who have previously owned One Canada Square, and also who are the current owners.  Any use of a holding company has been excluded from this list, as it is easier to trace the true owner.

Maintenance.

Canary Wharf Management Ltd are responsible for the maintenance of the building. There are about 130 in-house and contract staff who maintain, manage, secure and clean the building. There are normally ten maintenance personnel on-site during working hours and three at night to attend to routine repairs and adjustments to the internal environment. Critical spare parts for the electricity, gas and water systems are kept within the building.

Light usage.

One Canada Square has been 'named and shamed' for being the top building to leave the lights on unnecessarily. The research carried out by the BBC's "Inside Out" programme found that on midnight Sunday, One Canada Square left more lights on than any other building in London.  However, Canary Wharf Group said that some tenants have staff working around the clock, and 100% of the energy comes from renewable resources.

Charity abseil events.

One Canada Square regularly holds charity abseiling events during weekends. Various charities are given permission to use the building for their abseil challenges to raise money. Participants abseil down from the pyramid roof to street level. Abseilers normally use only 2 ropes and have to put up with windy conditions at 800 feet, whilst enjoying the views of London as they abseil down the steel clad.  The first abseil was on 21 July 2001, when a team of Royal Marines, and members of various companies including a team led by David Levy from HSBC, and this team, raised in excess of £45,000 for 5 different children's charities. The event earned a World Record and was covered by BBC Record Breakers.

External relations.

Titles.

One Canada Square achieved the title of tallest skyscraper in the UK in August 1991 upon building completion (as of CTBUH guidelines), or June 1990 (during construction when it overtook Nat West Tower). It held the record until 2012 when The Shard was completed. It is expected to become the third tallest building in the United Kingdom in 2019 upon completion of 22 Bishopsgate.  One Canada Square never achieved the title as tallest skyscraper in the European Union because in accordance to the CTBUH method, a building has to be "completed" before its receives its title, with Messeturm in Frankfurt being completed in 1990.

Terrorism.

On 15 November 1992, the Provisional Irish Republican Army attempted to place a large improvised explosive device near the tower. The IRA had already worked out that to cause maximum damage, the bomb had to be placed under the Docklands Light Railway bridge to disrupt infrastructure near the Canary Wharf Tower for a devastating effect. The bomb was in a van which was driven to the designated place. As the bombers were about to make their escape, security guards approached the van because it was parked illegally on double yellow lines. Two men got out of the vehicle and one pointed a revolver at one of the security guards. The gun failed to fire. The terrorists were then pursued as far as the boundary of the wharf, but they escaped. Armed police were on the scene within minutes and the army bomb squad discovered that the vehicle contained a bomb. The detonator failed to ignite the main charge, and the bomb did not go off, so there was no bomb damage to Canary Wharf. The wharf was sealed off for a couple of days whilst an intensive search took place for further devices. A few days later, the IRA described it as'sheer ill luck' as the bomb failed to detonate. There was criticism that the intelligence services did not know about this massive bomb travelling through London. As a result of this attempted bombing, the observation floor was closed (see Public access section) and security was dramatically increased at Canary Wharf.  On 9 February 1996, the Provisional IRA did detonate a large bomb at South Quay, south of Canary Wharf (outside Canary Wharf), which killed two people and devastated several buildings. This explosion is commonly, but erroneously, referred to as the "Canary Wharf bomb".  The towers at Canary Wharf were evacuated as a precaution on September 11, 2001 following the attacks on the World Trade Center and The Pentagon in the United States.  There have been many news articles in recent years stating that the towers at Canary Wharf have been a target for terrorism. However, some of these plots have been denied by the government. One plot was confirmed on 4 April 2008, when a terror cell appeared at Woolwich Crown Court accused of targeting Canary Wharf. The men denied the charges, but were found guilty for planning attacks on the Canary Wharf skyscrapers.

Community relations.

Television interference.

As the Canary Wharf Tower is the first skyscraper to be clad in stainless steel with metallised windows, this may have caused analog television reception interference for local people living in the area. In the case "Patricia Hunter and others v. Canary Wharf Ltd.[1997]", the House of Lords concluded there is no legal right to receive good television reception. Patricia Hunter and others lost the case because of a variety of reasons that included:  In Spring 2001, the BBC received some television interference complaints from residents in the Poplar area (north of Canary Wharf). A possible cause for the interference are the other Canary Wharf towers being built. Their advice was to get digital television, satellite or cable.

In popular culture.

Cinema.

One Canada Square has been featured in several films.  Other films featuring the Canary Wharf Tower can be read from a publication called "Canary Wharf And Isle of Dogs Movie Map".

Television.

One Canada Square has appeared many times on British television.  During the 1990s, One Canada Square was home to the television station "L!VE TV", which broadcast live from the tower.

One Canada Square is a skyscraper in Canary Wharf, London. It is the third tallest building in the United Kingdom at above ground level containing 50 storeys.

加拿大广场一号(英文:One Canada Square)是位于英国陶尔哈姆莱茨区伦敦自治市金丝雀码头的一座摩天大厦。从1991年到2010年,以50层楼、235米的高度,成为当时英国第一高建筑物。直到2010年被位于伦敦桥附近,楼高304.1米的碎片大厦超越,碎片大厦于2012年完工。


History.

Beginnings.

The history of the Friedrichstadt-Palast goes back to an earlier market hall, which is about 200 meters southwest of present-day location between the Bertolt-Brecht-Platz and the road was at the circus, official address was in 1867 at the 1st Circus.  The building was built from 1865 to 1867 on behalf of the Berlin real estate stock company under the plans of the Privy building advice of Friedrich Hitzig. This was under the direction of the architect who built Lent and on 29 September 1867, Berlin's first market hall was opened. The building was 84 meters long and 64 meters wide. Just seven months after its opening, 18 April 1868, for economic reasons, which arose from the bad traffic situation at that time, it closed. The building was empty at first and was later used as a food depot. During the German-Prussian War of 1870–71 the Prussian Army command sent in the construction of a replenishment arsenal. After the war the hall was again unused.

First building.

In 1873, the building was converted into a 5,000 seat circus arena. On December 25, 1873 it was opened as a covered market by Circus Director Albert Salomonsky. The ideas offered above all included training horses, for Salmonsky was supportive of riders. On April 20, 1879, the building was acquired by Ernst Renz and let Circus Renz continue its operation. Renz had the building rebuilt in 1888. Over the subsequent admission capacity, figures from various sources differ, yet it possibly hold up to 8000 seats. Renz made use of its closeness to water to its advantage by the fact that the building sat on 863 piles over the course of a swamp by the suburb of Oranienburg. The nearby river, already used in the days of the market hall to keep fish, flowers and vegetables fresh, was now openly led through the building. According to Renz's obituary in 1892, the enterprise was continued by his son Franz Renz, but it closed in July 1897 under the great pressure of competition.  The building was auctioned and came into the possession of Bolossy Kiralfy and Hermann Haller. They directed the rebuilding again of the nightclub New Olympic giant theater or giant Olympia Theatre. The proscenium arch was widened to 44 meters and four of the eight major pillars in the auditorium were removed. However, after two years, the duo Kiralfy/Haller gave up again, their ostentatious shows with too little content finding little favour with audiences.  On October 1899, the circus reopened. Schumann decided on classic circus programs featuring numerous dressage horses. Another renovation in 1901 led to the enlargement of the stage area to 800 square meters and a modernization of the installed technology. From 1910, Berlin audiences preferred programs with trained predator animals, and interest in Schumann's performances waned. The first World War finally brought him to ruin. At the beginning of the war, his horses were requisitioned for the Imperial Cavalry, and earnings went to paying taxes. On March 31, 1918 the Circus Schumann held its last performance.

New ownership.

Ringmasters Salomonsky, Renz, Schumann and the artistes Kiralfy/Haller followed Max Reinhardt, and wanted to use his monumental circus for the staging of classic plays. April 1918 had the takeover of the National-Theater AG's house on behalf of Reinhardt. Reinhardt decided to rebuild the building for the new use for it was rebuilt again by the renowned architect Hans Poelzig. After this, the cast-iron columns and struts through a stucco ceiling with dangling teardrop pin architecture, the market hall had been transformed., The building had a revolving stage of 18 meters in diameter and had movable proscenium. Added to this was modern lighting and effects technology.  In November 1919, the now large theater building called The Oresteia by Aeschylus in the processing and translation of Karl Gustav Vollmoeller directed by Max Reinhardt solemnly opened.  1924 had the staged Erik Charell with his "Charellrevue" with lyrics by Robert Gilbert, and the music show "The White Horse Inn.” July 1925 brought Erwin Piscator's Political Review "Still," on stage.

World War and new beginnings.

During the Nazi era, the theater was renamed Theater des Volkes. The dome hanging pins were cut off as they were seen as degenerate art. Now late-bourgeois operettas were performed. The theatre was at this time also under the name Palace of 5000 and under the private management Spadonis Marion and Nicola Lupo.  The building suffered most in March 1945 due to repeated air attacks. Damage caused the plays to be removed from March until August 1945. Now, led the artists Spadoni and Lupo the house as a palace of the 3000/Theater of 3000 or Palace at the Friedrichstrasse station and Palace Variety.  In 1949 the owners abandoned the theater and the city of Berlin took over the facility, the original name Friedrichstadtpalast got back. The first director was following the expropriation of Gottfried Hermann, he was succeeded in 1961, Wolfgang E. Struck.

Closure.

On February 29, 1980, the building was immediately closed after the inspection by construction experts. The reason was a strong subsidence of the foundation as well as the moulding of the supporting piles. In an ADN -message the same day it said: "No performances will be offered in March. The City Council of Berlin has, in the interest of public safety,been forced to close down the facilities. The constant monitoring of the palace by the state supervision as well as several special investigations have revealed a deterioration of the foundation construction." Thus passed that evening the last performance. Although closed as a venue, the main house of the ensemble was subsequently used as a rehearsal stage. Even the magazine, the workshops and administrative buildings continued to be utilised. After the ensemble moved to the new building in 1985, demolition of the almost 120-year-old building began almost immediately.  In the old and new Friedrichstadt-Palast, television shows were regularly filmed of the Deutscher Fernsehfunk television production, featuring a number of international stars. Some parts of the Saturday evening show "Ein Kessel Buntes" were filmed here.

Present day.

Building.

Today, the Friedrichstadt-Palast is the largest and most modern show palace in Europe. On April 27, 1984, the new Friedrichstadt-Palast opened. It measures wide, long and covers a floor area of. Its concrete architecture retains basic ideas of the old interior vestibule, but has a new contemporary façade. The three reliefs on the south side and one on the north side of the building are works by sculptor Emilia N. Bayer. They relate back to the history of the Palace as a circus, theater and vaudeville theater.  The Friedrichstadt-Palast’s large hall is regularly used as a performing space, and has a seating capacity 1,895. Its stage floor of is the largest in the world. The wide proscenium arch is the widest in Europe.

Performances.

Friedrichstadt-Palast has diverse programing, ranging from children’s shows, guest performances, and festival galas. The venue specializes in complex shows that use advanced lighting and stage technology, over a hundred performers, and stylized acrobatic numbers. “Now we are modern – trying to compete with Las Vegas, but not in a western or American way,” said Berndt Schmidt. In residence, the Friedrichstadt-Palast has a Ballet Company, a show-band, and a Youth Ensemble. The shows are suitable for an international audience.  The Ballet Company, directed by Alexandra Georgieva, includes 60 dancers from 26 countries worldwide. The ensemble blends different styles of dance, including jazz, modern, hip-hop and street-dance.  The show band of the Friedrichstadt-Palast, directed by Daniel Behrens, includes 16 musicians.  The Children and Youth Ensemble, “Children play for children,” has 250 Berlin children ranging from ages 6–16. The beginnings of the ensemble dates back to 1947 when 250 Berlin children trained there. Currently it receives 1,000 applicants, and 20-30 children can be accepted. Former members of the ensemble have been Paula Beer (won Best Young Actress Award from the Bavarian Film Award), Alina Levshin (won Best Actress for “Warrior” from the German Cinema Film Award), and Julia Richter (winner of the Hersfeld-Preis in 1996).  Since 2009, the venue has been used for the Berlin International Film Festival.  The Quatsch Comedy Club is located in the basement of Friedrichstadt-Palast. The club’s founder Thomas Hermanns launched the popularity of stand-up comedy in Berlin in the early nineties. From Thursday to Sunday, German stand-up comedians perform at the “Club Mix.” Guests have been Bernhard Hoëcker, Olaf Schubert, Dave Davis and Cloozy Haber.

The Friedrichstadt-Palast, also shortened to Palast Berlin, is a revue in the Berlin district of Mitte (district center). The term Friedrichstadt-Palast designates both the building itself, and the revue theater as a body with his ensemble. The present building is distinct from its predecessor, the Old Friedrichstadt-Palast (former Grosses Schauspielhaus located near Schiffbauerdamm), and therefore now also called the New Friedrichstadt-Palast.

腓特烈皇宫剧院()位于柏林中部,它建成于1984年,是一所拥有现代舞台技术的歌舞剧院。它是欧洲最领先的,上演这种艺术形式剧目的剧院之一,它最具代表性的特色就是传统的排舞。


Description.

In a naturally aspirated engine, air for combustion (Diesel cycle in a Diesel engine or specific types of Otto cycle in petrol engines, namely petrol direct injection) or an air/fuel mixture (traditional Otto cycle petrol engines), is drawn into the engine's cylinders by atmospheric pressure acting against a partial vacuum that occurs as the piston travels downwards toward bottom dead centre during the intake stroke. Owing to innate restriction in the engine's inlet tract, which includes the intake manifold, a small pressure drop occurs as air is drawn in, resulting in a volumetric efficiency of less than 100 percent—and a less than complete air charge in the cylinder. The density of the air charge, and therefore the engine's maximum theoretical power output, in addition to being influenced by induction system restriction, is also affected by engine speed and atmospheric pressure, the latter of which decreases as the operating altitude increases.  This is in contrast to a forced-induction engine, in which a mechanically driven supercharger or an exhaust-driven turbocharger is employed to facilitate increasing the mass of intake air beyond what could be produced by atmospheric pressure alone. Nitrous oxide can also be used to artificially increase the mass of oxygen present in the intake air. This is accomplished by injecting liquid nitrous oxide into the intake, which supplies significantly more oxygen in a given volume than is possible with atmospheric air. Nitrous oxide is 36.3% available oxygen by mass after it decomposes as compared with atmospheric air at 20.95%. Nitrous oxide also boils at at atmospheric pressures and offers significant cooling from the latent heat of vaporization, which also aids in increasing the overall air charge density significantly compared to natural aspiration.  As a two-stroke Diesel engine is incapable of this natural aspiration, some method of charging the cylinders with scavenging air must be integrated into the engine design. This is usually achieved with a positive displacement blower driven by the crankshaft. The blower does not act as a supercharger in this application, as it is sized to produce a volume of air flow that is in direct proportion to engine's requirement for combustion, at a given power and speed. By the Society of Automotive Engineer's definition, a mechanically scavenged two-stroke diesel engine is considered to be naturally aspirated.

Applications.

Most automobile petrol engines, as well as many small engines used for non-automotive purposes, are naturally aspirated. Most modern diesel engines powering highway vehicles are turbocharged to produce a more favourable power-to-weight ratio, a higher torque curve, as well as better fuel efficiency and lower exhaust emissions. Turbocharging is nearly universal on diesel engines that are used in railroad, marine engines, and commercial stationary applications (electrical power generation, for example). Forced induction is also used with reciprocating aircraft engines to negate some of the power loss that occurs as the aircraft climbs to higher altitudes.

Advantages and disadvantages.

The advantages and disadvantages of a naturally aspirated engine in relation to a same-sized engine relying on forced induction include:

A naturally aspirated engine, also known as a normally aspirated engine, is an internal combustion engine in which oxygen intake depends solely on atmospheric pressure and does not have forced induction through a turbocharger or a supercharger. Many sports cars specifically use naturally aspirated engines to avoid turbo lag.

自然进气引擎(英语:naturally aspirated engine)为最基本的动力形式,在进入引擎汽缸前,以外界空气(1大气压)直接与喷油针喷岀之汽油混合而成汽油雾,最后进入燃烧室点燃。有别于装备增压器的引擎,没有如涡轮增压器与机械增压器等过给装置,有增压器的引擎以强制加压空气的方法,输进燃烧室,可使产生较大马力,但也较容易产生爆震,加入的汽油辛烷值必须较高,种类也较挑剔,同时汽缸的压缩比也不宜过高,而采用涡轮增压的引擎更会有涡轮延迟的缺点,但自然进气引擎皆不会有这些问题,整体成本都偏低,适合给平价无高性能需求的载具,不过自然进气引擎也可采用高转速化达到高性能化。现今市售的汽油车款多采用自然进气引擎。