First generation (Y1; 1985–1987).

The first Sonata was introduced to compete with the Daewoo Royale series and was a more luxurious version of the Stellar. It included cruise control, power seats, head lamp washers, power brakes, electric operated adjustable side mirrors and chrome bumper trims. The Sonata was available with two trim options in Korea: Luxury and Super (the latter only available with a 2.0-liter engine). In the domestic market Hyundai attempted to sell the Sonata as an executive car using catchphrases like "Luxury car for VIP"; however, as the Sonata was based on the Stellar without any redesigning it was seen by the public as no different than a luxury version of the Stellar. In 1987 Hyundai added two tone color schemes and a trip computer option but sales soon went down and the car was discontinued in December of that year. The Sonata was sold only in the South Korean domestic markets. The vehicle was unveiled in South Korea on 4 November 1985.  Engine choices included 1.6-liter Mitsubishi "Saturn" (only available outside the domestic market), 1.8- and 2.0-liter Mitsubishi "Sirius" inline-fours. The latter unit also found its way into the 1987 and later Stellar, and in MPI form the 1986 Hyundai Grandeur. The body was a largely unchanged Hyundai Stellar.  It was sold in New Zealand (right hand drive) with the 1.6-liter Mitsubishi engine with the five-speed manual gearbox; an automatic transmission was an optional extra. The original importer was a unit of the Auckland-based Giltrap Motor Group.  The final version of the Stellar was known as the Stellar 88 and was launched to celebrate the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. Afterwards, Hyundai discontinued the Stellar and replaced it with the all-new Sonata.

Second generation (Y2; 1988–1993).

The Y2 Sonata was part of Hyundai's expansion in North America after the success of the Excel. It was introduced in South Korea on 1 June 1988. It was then introduced in Canada in September 1988 as a 1989 model, on 14 November 1988 in the United States as a 1989 model, and in March 1989 in Australia. The exterior was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro of ItalDesign. The vehicle received a mid-term facelift in 1991. It replaced the Stellar as Hyundai's large family car. Sonatas were built in Ulsan, Korea, and in Bromont, Quebec.  The Sonata was launched in Europe in June 1989, as the third model to be sold there following the Hyundai brand's European launch in 1982. It was aimed at buyers of cars including the Ford Granada Scorpio, but was priced to compete with smaller cars like the Ford Sierra.  The Sonata was designed by Hyundai and featured Mitsubishi's engineering, including the platform from the Galant Σ and its 2.4-liter, the mitsubishi designed engines were made under license in Korea, and had Hyundai codes stamped on them, but otherwise were almost identical to motors used by Mitsubishi "Sirius" inline-four engine as used in American-market models. A 3.0-liter V6 engine based on the Mitsubishi "6G72" arrived in 1990. Other markets received 1.8- and 2.0-liter engines carried over from the first generation, but equipped with Hyundai's own MPI, replacing their carbureted counterparts used in the Y1 Sonata. The U.S. model received the DOHC 2.0-liter G4CP engine for the 1992 model year, replacing the original 2.4-liter SOHC G4CS engine.  Trim levels in the US were offered with:

Third generation (Y3; 1993–1998).

The Y3 Sonata debuted in 1993. The base engine in most markets was a 2.0-liter Sirius I4, but there was a 3.0-liter, Mitsubishi V6 option in some markets. This generation continued after the demise of the Bromont, Quebec plant in September 1993. After that, all Sonatas would be built in Korea, until the opening of the Beijing Hyundai plant in December 2002.  The third generation Y3 model was also produced as the Hyundai Marcia between 1995 and 1998, selling alongside the Sonata in South Korea only. The Marcia differed from the Sonata with its restyled front and rear fascias.

Facelift (1996–1998).

A facelift for the Y3 in 1996 saw modifications to the front and rear. The four-cylinder engine output was also increased to for that year as well. The Y3 facelift was the last Sonata produced in Ulsan.

Fourth generation (EF; 1998–2004).

The new EF series Sonata arrived in 1998, debuting the new Hyundai-Kia Y4 platform. Compared to the Y3 predecessor, the EF grew ever so slightly in size, but shared the same wheelbase. It also introduced double wishbone front suspension and independent, multi-link rear suspension. Initial engines from launch were the 2.0-litre with, and a 2.5-litre with —the "G6BW" model of Hyundai Delta V6.  The EF Sonata shares its underpinnings with the Hyundai Trajet and first-generation Hyundai Santa Fe, which became the company's first compact crossover SUV. The first generation Kia Optima (called the Magentis outside of the United States) was also based on the EF Sonata, and while both shared the same doors and roof panels, the Optima took a squarer approach in design.

Facelift (2001–2004).

Hyundai issued a significant facelift for the EF series in 2001 for the 2002 model year, known as the EF-B series.  With the facelift brought a redesigned front end featuring a new bonnet, grille and quad ovoid headlights, while the rear featured rounded tail-lights and a repositioned rear vehicle registration plate alcove from the bottom bumper to the trunk lid. Inside, a redesigned dashboard and newly shaped seats take place.  Amid a below-par safety rating, Hyundai strengthened the body shell and firewall, widened the rear track, included anti-submarining front seat pans and added thicker front brake discs for the update.  Engine wise, the EF-B model featured an all-aluminum, "G6BAY" series 2.7-litre "Delta" V6 with. It also featured the same "Sirius II" 2.4-litre inline-four rated at and of torque.  This generation of Sonata is still being built (since 2002) and sold in China from December 2002, by Beijing Hyundai. A facelifted Sonata was produced by that company in August 2009 called the Moinca. This model is only available in the Chinese market and comes with a 1.8 or 2.0 litre engine with transmission choices consisting of a five-speed manual or a four-speed automatic.  The Sonata was produced by TagAZ in Russia until 2012.

Fifth generation (NF; 2004–2009).

The NF Sonata was launched in August 2004 in Korea, based on a new platform created from the project "NF". The company's first all-aluminum I4 engine, dubbed Theta, debuted in the new Sonata. Engine choices at launch were a 2.4-liter I4 rated at 5800 rpm and a 3.3-liter V6 rated V6. In Korea, the 2.4-liter option was sold as the F24S (24 = 2.4L, S = Special). The 2.0-liter gasoline version was only sold in Korea and proved more popular there due to added gas, tax and insurance savings. Diesel versions are available in Europe, New Zealand and Singapore, where they are a popular replacement for the Toyota Comfort taxi cab.  The U.S. May 2005 launch of the new Sonata coincided with the production commencement at the company's first U.S. assembly plant, in Montgomery, Alabama.  Classified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as a mid-size car, the fourth generation was longer and taller and wider than the previous generation. Standard features in U.S. models included anti-lock braking system/electronic stability control/traction control system as well as six airbags (driver/front passenger front and side, and side curtain).

Safety.

Europe: 2006 year models received the following European New Car Assessment Program (Euro NCAP) ratings:  In Insurance Institute for Highway Safety tests the Sonata received a "Good" overall in the frontal impact crash test, an "Acceptable" overall score in the side impact crash test, and a "Good" rating for rear crash protection. In the roof strength evaluation 09 and 10 models were rated "Marginal".  2006 Hyundai Sonata tested by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA):

Facelift (2008–2010).

The redesigned vehicle was unveiled at the 2008 Chicago Auto Show as a 2009 model year vehicle. The production version was sold as the "Hyundai Sonata Transform" in Korea, and the model debuted elsewhere as an 'early' 2009 model.  The styling was done primarily at Hyundai-Kia America Technical Center, Inc. (HATCI) in Superior Township, Michigan in 2006.  The redesign features revised engines, front fascia and chrome 3 bar grille, taillights (turn signals became red in North America only), jewel-projector headlights, new 10-spoke alloy wheel design for the Limited models (as opposed to sharing the 5-spoke design from the SE model), and an extensively revised IP (Instrument Panel). Hyundai adopted "slush molding", a production technique that enables a much higher grade of texturing and shaping of the IP surface.  Redesigned gauges feature a blue backlight, and a touch-screen navigation system, optional on the Limited trim level only, includes satellite radio capability. Bluetooth capability is available as an optional unit, separate from the audio or navigation system, and all models include both a USB port along with an auxiliary input jack. An optional USB adaptor cord allows integration of an iPod, and chrome interior door handles are standard on the Limited trim.  The 2.4-liter "G4KC" Theta engine was rated at 6000 rpm and ( for PZEV model), 2.0-liter "G4KA" Theta engine was rated at 6000 rpm and at 4250 rpm and the 3.3-liter Lambda V6 was rated at 6000 rpm and at 4500 rpm.  The Diesel engine (D4EA) variant is available for the UK market with the option of 4-speed automatic or 6 speed manual, and was introduced into the Australian market for the first time, replacing the V6 option.  The base model GLS is available with a manual five-speed transmission. GLS, SE and Limited models feature a newly available, manually shiftable five-speed automatic transmission marketed as "Shiftronic."  There are minimal changes for the 2010 model, which includes the optional navigation system on the SE as opposed to being a Limited-exclusive option, and the V6 engine is no longer offered on the GLS model.  Pre-facelift styling Post-facelift styling

Sonata Ling Xiang.

Beijing Hyundai launched a redesigned Sonata called the Ling Xiang, also known as NFC Sonata, for the Chinese market. Production commenced in December 2008 for the 2009 model year. This variant has an updated exterior and revised rear seating. Following Hyundai's success with their Hyundai Elantra Yue Dong, Ling Xiang was created specifically to target the Chinese market. Hyundai first introduced this car to the market at The 6th China Guangzhou International Automobile Exhibition in 2008.  Engine and transmission choices include the 2.0 litre and 2.4 litre "Theta" engine paired to 3 gear separate gearboxes, a 5 speed manual, 5 speed automatic and 4 speed automatic. Trim levels consisted of the 2.0GL Manual and Automatic, 2.0 GLS Manual and Automatic, 2.0 DLX AT, 2.0 Top, 2.4 GLS, 2.4DLX AT and 2.4 Top.

Sixth generation (YF; 2009–2014).

Hyundai commenced development of the "YF" Sonata in 2005, with a development cost of ₩450 billion (US$372 million). In the Australian, New Zealand, Singapore, and Colombian markets, the "YF" is retailed under the name Hyundai i45, following the alphanumeric "i"-series nomenclature established by Hyundai in these markets. The vehicle was badged as a "Sonata" in Eastern Europe, just as in North America and South Korea.  Sales of the "YF" Sonata in South Korea began on 2 September 2009, before the production vehicle's South Korean launch. The US version of the sixth generation Sonata was unveiled at the 2009 Los Angeles Auto Show, with sales beginning in 2010 for the 2011 model year. The Sonata was the second vehicle, after the Tucson, to carry Hyundai's then-radical "Fluidic Sculpture" design language.  For the US market, the sixth generation Sonata boasted a direct-injection 2.4-liter four-cylinder engine. This new engine improves fuel economy and produces a maximum of at 6300 rpm and at 4250 rpm. It is part of the Theta II engine lineup. Furthermore, a timing chain was introduced along with a new six-speed automatic transmission. This Sonata is built with hot-stamped ultra high-strength steel. In South Korea, the "YF" Sonata is delivered with a 2.0-liter "Theta II" MPi gasoline engine (Max output, Max torque of 20.2kg·m). Its fuel economy has improved 11%. A direct-injection 2.4-liter four cylinder engine and a 2.0 turbocharged engine was available.  Exclusive options for the Korean model includes a three-piece panoramic moonroof, electroluminescent instrumentation, fender-mounted turn signals, and a special Premier Beige model. Upgraded audio uses a JBL system, and certain navigation packages come with a telecommunications system with Hyundai's Mozen system.  For the North American model, GLS, SE, and Limited trims were offered. A six-speed manual transmission came standard on the GLS, and a six-speed automatic is available. Differences with the Korean model include differences with the GLS model, which features a body-colored grille and door handles, and different steel wheel covers. Limited models and optional stereos on the GLS and SE now have "Dimension" audio systems, and the Limited trim has an optional Infinity stereo. Limited models have standard front and rear heated seats, the first such offering in this segment. Additional differences include different cupholders, a redesigned straight leather shifter as rather than the gated one on Korean models, and an additional exterior color choice, Indigo Blue Pearl. The 6th Hyundai Sonata was awarded Top Safety Pick from Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) in the United States. The Sonata 2.0T was released in December 2010.  For the 2012 model year, Hyundai's new Blue Link system was offered as standard equipment, and the Limited model included a new standard three-piece panoramic sunroof. SE models had an optional backup camera included with navigation packages, and navigation systems included a new 7-inch display from the previous 6.5-inch.  For 2013, the list of standard features was changed slightly, including heated front seats on SE models, and heated rear seats on Limited models. An automatic transmission also came standard on GLS models, the manual was no longer offered. The GLS Popular Equipment Package now included fog lights and heated front seats. The Limited trims now no longer included the panoramic sunroof, but instead included a standard size sunroof. A panoramic sunroof offered on the Limited Premium Package.  In January 2013 the i45 was discontinued in Australia following slow sales and limited supplies. In turn, the expanded i40 range filled the gap left by the i45. The i45 has also been discontinued in Colombia, and replaced with the smaller i40 sedan, leaving Singapore and New Zealand as the only two markets still selling the vehicle under the i45 name at that time.

Facelift (2012–2014).

In 2012, the Korean-produced Sonata received a mild mid-life facelift. Exterior changes include a new grille, slimmer LED mirror indicators, new front fog lights incorporating LED daytime running lamps (DRLs), new alloy wheel designs, as well as redesigned LED taillights. Interior changes include a new color touchscreen display for audio systems (on certain models), as well as redesigned dual-zone automatic climate controls, which now incorporate a small LCD display. A Driver Selectable Steering Mode was standard on all trims. Front parking sensors are now available on certain models, as well as an electronic parking brake. The facelifted model was first released in Korea in 2012, followed by international markets in early 2013. North American produced Sonatas received a facelift in late 2013, for the 2014 model year.

Gallery.

Safety.

Top Safety Pick Award in Insurance Institute for Highway Safety tests Later release (manufactured on or after 2 July 2010) version of Model Year 2011: by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) under 2010 new test rules The 2011 Sonata is one of six vehicles rated Five Star under new rules as of November 2010.  Early release (manufactured before 2 July 2010) version of model year 2011:  Australasian NCAP – The Hyundai Sonata scored the highest possible rating of 5 stars  Korean NCAP – The Hyundai Sonata scored the highest possible ratings across the frontal, offset and side crash tests  China NCAP – The Hyundai Sonata scored the highest possible rating of 6 stars

Sonata Hybrid.

At the 2008 Los Angeles Auto Show, Hyundai unveiled the Hyundai Blue Drive powertrain for the then next generation Sonata, which uses lithium polymer battery technology. It was reported to be based on Hyundai BLUE-DRIVE concept.  The 2011 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid sales in the U.S. began near the end of February 2011. The Sonata Hybrid drivetrain combines a 2.4-liter engine with six-speed automatic transmission, and a 30 kW electric motor and lightweight lithium polymer batteries to produce a full gasoline-electric hybrid with in the city and on the highway. This powertrain is shared with the 2011 Kia Optima Hybrid.; 2013 Sonata Hybrid

Overview.

The 2013 Sonata Hybrid has noticeable improvements and has ranked 3rd out of 20 Affordable Midsize Cars (based on U.S. News' analysis of 19 published reviews and test drives as well as their analysis of reliability and safety data). The 2013 hybrid has a long warranty and a spacious, high-quality interior. Its base price ranges from $26,445–$31,324 and weights 3450–3550 pounds. As a hybrid, it emits 0.51 pounds of CO2 per mile and has an EPA fuel economy ratings of 36/40 mpg city/highway.  Cumulative sales of the Sonata Hybrid in the U.S. reached 7,906 units through July 2011, representing 20 percent of Sonata sales at the time, according to Hyundai. The Sonata Hybrid was the number two selling hybrid since June, outsold only by the Prius. Considering cumulative sales in the U.S. market through December 2011, with 19,672 units sold, the Sonata Hybrid and the Kia Optima Hybrid together ranked second in hybrid sales for calendar year 2011, after the Toyota Prius, and surpassed the Honda Insight in September.

Specifications.

It comes with a 35 kW electric motor (up from 30) and a lithium-polymer battery that is 38 percent larger and more energy dense. The newer electric motor can run up to, meaning that it can run on electricity at higher speeds, saving more fuel. It also retains the 2.4-liter, multi-port fuel injected, four-cylinder engine, which uses a modified Atkinson cycle achieved via VVT and a compression ratio of 13:1. Upgraded computer programming smooths the transitions between gas and electric power modes. The hybrid's time decreased from 9.5 to 8.1 seconds (note: the non-hybrid Sonata's time is 7.9).  Standard features include Bluetooth, Satellite radio, dual-zone climate control, auxiliary and USB jacks, a CD Player, six-speaker surround system, 16-inch alloy wheels, automatic headlights, LED running lights, fog lights, heated mirrors, keyless ignition/entry, push-button start, cruise control, an eight-way power driver seat, tilt-and-telescoping steering wheel, heated front seats, and Hyundai's BlueLink emergency communications system. Additional options include touchscreen navigation, a rearview camera, panoramic sunroof, HD radio, Infinity audio system (nine speakers), 17-inch alloy wheels, leather seating surfaces, leather-wrapped steering wheel and shift knob, power driver seat with lumbar support, heated rear seat, auto-dimming rearview mirror.

Safety.

The hybrid Sonata received top five-star ratings for overall crash protection and overall side protection as well as four-ratings for overall frontal protection.Safety features include antilock brakes, stability control, traction control, front side-impact airbags, full-length curtain airbags, and active front head restraints.

Sonata Turbo.

To replace the V6 power option for the Hyundai Sonata in certain markets, Hyundai has developed a turbo-powered 2.0-liter engine that has direct injection and is intercooled. The Theta-II engine produces and of torque while achieving an efficiency rating of highway, beating the specs provided by the 3.3-liter Lambda V6 offered in the previous model. The new model is badged as the 2.0T and is available on the SE or Limited trim lines. All turbo models get standard dual zone climate control, steering wheel paddle shifters, chrome-tipped dual exhaust, and 18-inch wheels that are shared with the non-turbo SE models. Limited 2.0T models receive all of these options as well as a heated leather interior, sunroof and other features.

Seventh generation (LF; 2014–2019).

Originally internally coded as LFA, the 2015 Sonata was unveiled in South Korea on March 24, 2014. It made its North American debut at the 2014 New York International Auto Show. While the previous model incorporated significant aesthetic changes and sold successfully within the U.S, sales in Korea failed to meet expectations. A more conservative approach was thus taken, to appease the Korean market, resulting in Fluidic Sculpture 2.0. The car inherits many styling features from Hyundai's Hyundai HCD-14 Concept unveiled at the 2013 New York International Auto Show. The car also takes interior and exterior styling based on the 2014 Hyundai Aslan. In Australia and New Zealand, Hyundai have reverted to the use of the Sonata badge, replacing the i45 badge that was used only on the sixth generation Sonata in that market.  In the United States, the all-new 2015 Sonata was available in base SE, economy-minded Eco, midlevel Sport, and range-topping Limited trim levels. All 2015 Sonatas (except for the Eco) were powered by a 2.4L Gasoline Direct Injection (GDi) Inline Four-Cylinder (I4) gasoline engine mated to a six-speed automatic transmission. The Eco trim was powered by a 1.6L Turbocharged Inline Four-Cylinder (I4) gasoline engine paired with a seven-speed Dual Clutch (DCT) automatic transmission. Available on Sport and Limited trims was a 2.0L Turbocharged Inline Four-Cylinder (I4) gasoline engine paired with a six-speed automatic transmission. All 2015 Sonatas were exclusively available with Front Wheel Drive (FWD). The Sonata Hybrid did not debut until the 2016 model year, as the 2015 Sonata Hybrid was a carryover model from the 2014 model year.  All models of the all-new 2015 Sonata were well-equipped with features such as an A/M-F/M radio with SiriusXM Satellite Radio, Bluetooth for hands-free calling and wireless stereo audio streaming via A2DP and USB and auxiliary audio inputs, a six-speaker audio system, steering wheel-mounted audio system and Bluetooth phone controls, a digital clock, power windows and door locks, aluminum-alloy wheels, a remote trunk release, a color LCD driver information center in the instrument cluster, a tilt-adjustable steering wheel, air conditioning, and a split-folding rear bench seat. Most trim levels also featured a color LCD touchscreen audio system, a rearview backup camera system, a keyless access system with push-button start, carpeted floor mats, the Hyundai Blue Link in-vehicle telematics system, a leather-wrapped steering wheel, heated front seats, a power-adjustable front driver's seat, and wood or aluminum interior trim.  Some cars had to be recalled because of manufacturing defects that affected safety.

Facelift (2017–2019).

A facelifted seventh-generation Sonata was unveiled on March 8, 2017. Korean name is 'Sonata New Rise'. The exterior received a radical redesign more in line with the sixth-generation, including new headlights, tail lights, cascading grille, and optional vertical LED lighting. The front of the 2018 Sonata shares some characteristics of the sixth generation Grandeur/Azera. The dashboard was reshaped, with new air vents on the driver's side and a larger touch screen that is compatible with Apple CarPlay and Android Auto. The interior also received a new steering wheel, gearshift, and instrument cluster. Other standard features added in the refresh include standard wireless phone charger and USB port for rear passengers. The Hyundai Blue Link telematics system was also upgraded to be compatible with Amazon Echo and Google Home devices.  A mid-trim SEL trim level was also added for 2018, with standard features such as Hyundai Blue Link in-vehicle telematics system, SiriusXM Satellite Radio, A/M-F/M HD Radio, and a power-adjustable front driver's bucket seat also became available for 2018, and both the base SE and Eco trims lost those features as standard equipment.  Pre-facelift styling Post-facelift styling

Sonata Plug-in Hybrid.

As part of the seventh-generation Sonata, Hyundai announced the release of a plug-in hybrid variant scheduled for market launch in the second half of 2015. Technical details of the Sonata PHEV were announced at the 2015 North American International Auto Show. The Sonata PHEV was released in selected markets in the United States in November 2015. It is available only in California and nine other states that share the same zero-emissions vehicle requirements as California.  The Sonata plug-in all-electric range in blended mode is up to as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and a total range of. Since the Sonata PHEV uses some gasoline during the all-electric mode, the EPA considers the actual all-electric range is between. The EPA fuel economy rating is 99 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e) (2.4 L/100 km; 119 mpg-imp) in charge-depleting (all-electric) mode and a combined city/highway rating of in hybrid mode. In contrast, the conventional 2016 model year Sonata gasoline-electric hybrid has an EPA rated combined fuel economy of, in the city and on the highway.

Eighth generation (DN8; 2020–present).

The 2020 Sonata was previewed in early March 2019 and officially launched on March 21 in South Korea. It was also debuted during the 2019 Shanghai Auto Show for the Chinese market and made its North American debut at the 2019 New York International Auto Show on April 17 for the North American market.  The eighth generation Sonata uses a new third-generation architecture and showcases Hyundai's latest "Sensuous Sportiness" design language which was first previewed by the Le Fil Rouge concept. The styling is less conservative and more pronounced compared to the previous generation. It now sports a fastback-like shape, and features driving lights which run all the way up the hood and full-width, C-shaped taillamps. The interior has been redesigned significantly as well, with an optional 12.3 inch digital cluster and 10.3 inch center screen.  It would be available with two engines at launch, both of which are inline-fours: a turbocharged 1.6-litre unit with 180 horsepower and a naturally aspirated dual port injection 2.5-litre unit with 198 horsepower. The latter engine replaces the previous 185-hp 2.4-litre unit. A performance-oriented "N-Line" model will also be available in the near future.  Standard features on every 2020 Sonata include Advanced Smart Cruise Control (ASCC), Forward Collision-Avoidance Assist, Automatic High Beam Assist, Lane Keep Assist System (LKAS), Lane Follow Assist, Driver Attention Warning, LED headlamps, LED daytime running lamps (DRL's), LED tail lamps, and Apple CarPlay and Android Auto smartphone integration. New features available for the first time on the Sonata include an NFC Digital Key, Remote Smart Parking Assist (RSPA), Around View Monitor (AVM), a 10.25-inch (10.25") navigation infotainment system, a 12.3-inch (12.3") LCD instrument cluster display, a Bose premium audio system, next-generation Hyundai Blue Link technology and a color heads-up display. Trim levels for the Sonata are SE, SEL, SEL Plus and Limited.  The safety system, which comprises three radar systems, five cameras and thirteen ultrasonic sensors, allows for driver-assist features such as standard adaptive cruise control, forward-collision braking and lane-following assist.  After launch, it was the best-selling car in South Korea.

The Hyundai Sonata () is a mid-size car produced by the South Korean manufacturer Hyundai since 1985. The first generation Sonata, which was introduced in 1985, was a facelifted Hyundai Stellar with an engine upgrade, and was withdrawn from the market in two years due to poor customer reactions. While the nameplate was originally only sold in South Korea, the second generation of 1988 was widely exported. The Sonata is now built in the United States for the North American market, China and South Korea for the Asian market, and Russia for other markets.

现代索纳塔()是一款由现代汽车设计的中级轿车。产品始于1985年,此后分别在1988年、1993年、1996年、1998年、2001年和2004年重新设计。


Transfrontier parks.

The park is part of a transfrontier marine park, the Ponta do Ouro-Kosi Bay Transfrontier Conservation Area, straddling South Africa, Mozambique, and Eswatini. The marine conservation area is included in the Greater Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area.

History.

Until 1895, the bay had been a home of the Tsonga people and their Tsonga fish kraal. This is the original and the natural home of the Tsonga people and they have lived here for more than 1000 years. Records from early Portuguese sailors rightfully point out this area to be occupied by the Tsonga people and further down south. The area was also known as Tembeland or Thongaland but the name fell into disuse around the early 1900s. The area was ruled by a Tsonga branch of the Vahlanganu (Tembe). The Swiss missionary, Reverend Henri-Alexandre Junod (known as HA Junod), conducted a scientific and ethnographic study of the Tsonga people during the early 1890s and produced a detailed map, showing the occupation of the bay by the Tsonga Tembe people. The Swiss Missionary, Rev Junod, illustrated in his detailed map that the area was known as Tembeland and that the Tembe capital city was located in the St Lucia bay. Rev Junod's map showed that by 1906, the Tsonga people occupied the land from St Lucia up until Valdezia in the Spelenkon district of the Transvaal province, known today as Limpopo Province. St Lucia bay and Maputo bay are one land and they belong to the Tsonga people, Tsonga villages were built from St Lucia bay until Maputo and they were not separated by any natural division. Around St Lucia, the ruling chief was the Tembe Royal Family, while around Maputo, the ruling class was the Maputo royal family, who are all of the Vahlanganu branch of the Tsonga people. In and around Maputo and St Lucia bay (Tembeland), the language spoken is Ronga, which according to the Swiss Missionary, Rev HA Junod, is not an independent language but a dialect of Xitsonga. According to Rev Junod, Ronga language is so similar to Xitsonga that it cannot be regarded an independent language but is a dialect of a major language known today as Xitsonga.  St. Lucia was first named in 1554 "Rio dos Medos do Ouro" (alternatively "Rio dos Médãos do Ouro" — "River of the Gold Dunes") by the survivors of the Portuguese ship "Saint Benedict". At this stage, only the Tugela River mouth was known as St. Lucia. Later, in 1575, the Tugela River was named Tugela. On 13 December 1575, the day of the feast of Saint Lucy, Manuel Peresterello renamed the mouth area to Santa Lucia.

Biodiversity.

The park was proclaimed a world heritage site because of the rich biodiversity, unique ecosystems and natural beauty occurring in a relatively small area. The reason for the huge diversity in fauna and flora is the great variety of different ecosystems on the park, ranging from coral reefs and sandy beaches to subtropical dune forests, savannas, and wetlands. Animals occurring on the park include elephant, leopard, black and southern white rhino, Cape buffalo, and in the ocean, whales, dolphins, and marine turtles including the leatherback and loggerhead turtle.  The park is also home to 1,200 crocodiles and 800 hippopotami.  In December 2013, after 44 years of absence, African lions were reintroduced to iSimangaliso.  There are large outcroppings of underwater reefs which are home to brightly coloured fish and corals. Some of the most spectacular coral diversity in the world is located in Sodwana Bay. The reefs are inhabited by colour-changing octopuses and squid ready to ambush unsuspecting prey. Occasionally gigantic whale sharks can be seen gliding through the water, mouth agape to scoop up tiny plankton.  Twenty-four species of bivalve molluscs are recorded in St. Lucia Lake, which constitutes a considerable portion of the park.

iSimangaliso Wetland Park (previously known as the Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park) is situated on the east coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, about 235 kilometres north of Durban by road. It is South Africa's third-largest protected area, spanning 280 km of coastline, from the Mozambican border in the north to Mapelane south of the Lake St. Lucia estuary, and made up of around 3,280 km of natural ecosystems, managed by the iSimangaliso Authority. The park includes:

伊西曼格利索湿地公园(iSimangaliso Wetland Park),又译作艾赛门加利索湿地公园,旧称大圣卢西亚湿地公园(Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park),位于南非夸祖鲁纳塔尔东部海岸,距德班约275公里。公园是南非第三大保护区,跨越海岸线约280公里。


Personal life.

Jacobsson was born in Gothenburg Len Vestra Goeteland, Sweden on May 23, 1929. She was one of 48 candidates chosen to attend Gothenburg Acting City Theatre School. She began acting in this theatre in 1952. Jacobsson's first husband was a Viennese engineer named Josef Kornfeld. This marriage brought her Austrian citizenship. They also had a daughter named Ditte. During the 1950s, Jacobsson married her second husband, Dutch painter Frank Lodeizen (1931–2013), with whom she had a son named Martin. In 1960 she married her third husband, Austrian doctor Hans Winfried Rohsmann (1918–2002), and moved to Vienna, Austria.  In 2015, a town square in Mölndal was named after Jacobsson.

Professional life.

Jacobsson began her career in her native Gothenburg and appeared in classical and modern theater roles before turning to film. Jacobsson's first acting role was of the Bride Nissa in the drama "The Sea in Fire" (1951); although, she may be best known for her role in "Zulu" (1964) where she played the only female speaking role.  Beginning in the late 1950s, Jacobsson stopped acting in Swedish films, and appeared in films from the US, France, Spain, Germany, and England. Jacobsson made her first U.S.-made film appearance in "The Grand Duke and Mr. Pimm". According to "Metropolitan Life," Jacobsson believed she could be successful in acting and marriage. She only took two acting jobs a year to travel with her husband. She stated: "When a very good part comes, there is temptation to take it, but I refuse. I love success. I love to make myself something. But I love more my husband and children." Jacobsson became internationally famous for her nude scenes in "One Summer of Happiness" (1951). This, along with her role in the American film "Love Is a Ball" (1963), was an attempt to make her a sex symbol. This was common among female actresses in the 1960s. "One Summer of Happiness" won the top prize at the Cannes Film Festival in 1951. Bosley Crowther, New York Times writer, stated: "Ulla Jacobsson as the farm girl is a sensitive and expressive young thing who stunningly portrays the caprices and the terrors of an innocent maid in love," in regards to her performance in "One Summer of Happiness". Jacobsson became famous for her role in the film "She Danced One Summer" (1952). Her popularity among mass audiences gained her the role of Margaretta Witt in the adventure film "Zulu" (1964). Other notable roles include Ingmar Bergman's "Smiles of a Summer Night" (1955), "The Heroes of Telemark" (1965) and "La Servante" (1970). A notable award was the German Film Award for Supporting Actress in "Alle Jahre wieder" (1967). She made appearances in film and television shows until 1979.

Death.

Jacobsson died in Vienna, Austria from bone cancer on August 20, 1982, she was 53 years old. She was buried at the Wiener Zentralfriedhof.

Ulla Jacobsson (23 May 1929 – 20 August 1982) was a Swedish actress who is best known for playing the only female speaking role in the film "Zulu" (1964).

厄拉·亚科布松(;1929年-5月23日-1982年-8月20日),又译乌娜·积阁逊或乌拉·雅各布森,是一位瑞典女演员,因为是著名战争电影《战血染征袍》的少数女性角色而闻名。她曾在名导演英格玛·伯格曼的多部电影里担岗演出。


Design and development.

Formal development of an anti-submarine warfare (ASW) version of the Mil Mi-8 transport helicopter was authorised by the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee and Council of Ministers in April 1965, with the objective of replacing the Mil Mi-4 in the short-range, shore based anti-submarine role. The new helicopter was required to have an endurance of 2 hours on station at a radius of from base.  The new design (with the internal designation V-14) differed from the Mi-8 in having a boat-like hull similar to the Sea King, allowing it to operate off the water, and a retractable four-point undercarriage, with the mainwheels retracting into large sponsons on the rear of the fuselage. The helicopter was to be powered by two Klimov TV3-117MT turboshaft engines. A watertight weapons bay is fitted to the centreline of the fuselage allowing internal carriage of a single torpedo or eight depth charges, while a radome housing a search radar is fitted beneath the nose.  The first prototype V-14, converted from a Mi-8 and powered by the older and less powerful Klimov TV2-117 engines, flew on 1 August 1967. Development was slowed by problems with the helicopter's avionics and due to reliability problems with the TV3-117 engines, with production at Kazan not starting until 1973, and the helicopter (now designated Mi-14) entering service on 11 May 1976.  Allegedly due to the strong pressure from the United States, all Russian antisubmarine Mi-14 helicopters were decommissioned in 1996. In May 2015, RT has reported that Mi-14 is being highly sought after by the Russian Black Sea and the Northern Fleets, and that Kazan Helicopter Works (KVZ) is preparing to return 10 previously decommissioned helicopters to active Russian Navy service with the production of new units beginning within five years. The initial demand was estimated at 100 helicopters.  In January 2016, Russian Helicopters confirmed to Russian News Agency TASS that no final decision to revive production had been taken, but market demand, feasibility studies – including with Moscow's defence ministry – and funding sources were under review. The programme remains a “priority” for Russian Helicopters. The company suggested the Mi-14 would appeal to civil operators in Russia's far north and those supplying the oil and gas industry, alongside the nation's armed forces. Out of the almost 300 Mi-14s produced at Kazan Helicopters between 1973 and 1986, it is estimated that just 44 examples remain in active service.

Operators.

By 1991, about 230 had been delivered, with exports to many Soviet allies including Bulgaria, Cuba, East Germany, Libya, Poland, and Syria.

The Mil Mi-14 (, NATO reporting name: Haze) is a Soviet shore-based nuclear-capable amphibious anti-submarine helicopter derived from the earlier Mi-8.

Mi-14是Mi-8的海军机型,Mi-14的北约代号为「薄雾」(Haze),Mi-14祇作为陆基直升机而不作为舰载机。


Description.

Depending on the forest, the development of primary characteristics may take anywhere from a century to several millennia. Hardwood forests of the eastern United States, for example, can develop primary characteristics in one or two generations of trees, or 150–500 years. Often the disruption is the result of human activity, such as logging, but natural phenomena that produce the same effect are often included in the definition. Secondary forests tend to have trees closer spaced than primary forests and contain less undergrowth than primary forests. Secondary forests typically were thought to lack biodiversity compared to primary forests, however this has been challenged in recent years. Usually, secondary forests have only one canopy layer, whereas primary forests have several.  Secondary forestation is common in areas where forests have been lost by the slash-and-burn method, a component of some shifting cultivation systems of agriculture. Secondary forests may also arise from forest that has been harvested heavily or over a long period of time, forest that is naturally regenerating from fire and from abandoned pastures or areas of agriculture. It takes a secondary forest typically forty to 100 years to begin to resemble the original old-growth forest; however, in some cases a secondary forest will not succeed, due to erosion or soil nutrient loss in certain tropical forests.  Secondary forests re-establish by the process of succession. Openings created in the forest canopy allow sunlight to reach the forest floor. An area that has been cleared will first be colonized by pioneer species. Even though some species loss may occur with primary forest removal, a secondary forest can protect the watershed from further erosion and provides habitat. Secondary forests may also buffer edge effects around mature forest fragments and increase connectivity between them. They may also be a source of wood and other forest products.  Today most of the forest of the United States, the eastern part of North America and Europe consist of secondary forest.

Rainforests.

In the case of tropical rainforests, where soil nutrient levels are characteristically low, the soil quality may be significantly diminished following the removal of primary forest. In Panama, growth of new forests from abandoned farmland exceeded loss of primary rainforest in 1990. However, due to the diminished quality of soil, among other factors, the presence of a significant majority of primary forest species fail to recover in these second-growth forests.

A secondary forest (or second-growth forest) is a forest or woodland area which has re-grown after a timber harvest, until a long enough period has passed so that the effects of the disturbance are no longer evident. It is distinguished from an old-growth forest (primary or primeval forest), which has not recently undergone such disruption, and complex early seral forest, as well as third-growth forests that result from harvest in second growth forests. Secondary forest regrowing after timber harvest differs from forest regrowing after natural disturbances such as fire, insect infestation, or windthrow because the dead trees remain to provide nutrients, structure, and water retention after natural disturbances. However, often after natural disturbance the timber is harvested and removed from the system, in which case the system more closely resembles secondary forest rather than complex early seral forest.

次生林,又名天然次生林、再生林、再生森林、二次林。是指原始稳定的森林植被遭到山火、虫灾、或者人为破坏或砍伐(刀耕火种、林木砍伐)之后,经过若干年后再度自然复育而成的新的森林植被和生态系统,且具备植被未被破坏前的森林规模。次生态系统多见于刀耕火种的农业系统中的休耕地、人工或者天然林场。次生林是天然林的一种,另一种天然林是原始林。


Description.

"Pikaia" was a primitive chordate that lacked a well-defined head and averaged about in length. Once thought to be closely related to the ancestor of all vertebrates, it has for that reason received particular attention among the multitude of animal fossils found in the famous Burgess Shale in the mountains of British Columbia, Canada. "Pikaia" had a pair of large, antenna-like tentacles on its head, and a series of short appendages, which may be linked to gill slits, on either side of its head. In these ways, it differs from the modern lancelet. The "tentacles" on its head may be comparable to those in the present-day hagfish, a jawless chordate.  Although primitive, "Pikaia" shows the essential prerequisites for vertebrates. When alive, "Pikaia" was a compressed, leaf-shaped animal with an expanded tail fin; the flattened body is divided into pairs of segmented muscle blocks, seen as faint vertical lines. The muscles lie on either side of a flexible structure resembling a rod that runs from the tip of the head to the tip of the tail. It likely swam by throwing its body into a series of S-shaped, zigzag curves, similar to the movement of eels; fish inherited the same swimming movement, but they generally have stiffer backbones. These adaptations may have allowed "Pikaia" to filter particles from the water as it swam along. "Pikaia" was probably a slow swimmer, since it lacked the fast-twitch fibers that are associated with rapid swimming in modern chordates.  Conway Morris and Caron (2012) published an exhaustive description based on all 114 of the known fossil specimens; they discovered new and unexpected characteristics that they recognized as primitive features of the first chordate animals. On the basis of these findings, they constructed a new scenario for chordate evolution. Subsequently, Mallatt and Holland reconsidered Conway Morris and Caron's description, and concluded that many of the newly recognized characters are unique, already-divergent specializations that would not be helpful for establishing "Pikaia" as a basal chordate.

Discovery.

"P. gracilens" was discovered by Charles Walcott and first described by him in 1911. It was named after Pika Peak, a mountain in Alberta, Canada. Based on the obvious and regular segmentation of the body, Walcott classified it as a polychaete worm.  During his re-examination of the Burgess Shale fauna in 1979, paleontologist Simon Conway Morris placed "P. gracilens" among the chordates, making it perhaps the oldest known ancestor of modern vertebrates. He did this because it seemed to have a very primitive, proto-notochord, however, the status of "Pikaia" as a chordate is not universally accepted; its preservational mode suggests that it had cuticle, which is uncharacteristic of the vertebrates (although characteristic of other cephalochordates); further, its tentacles are unknown from other vertebrate lineages. The presence of earlier chordates among the Chengjiang, including "Haikouichthys" and "Myllokunmingia", appears to show that cuticle is not necessary for preservation, overruling the taphonomic argument, but the presence of tentacles remains intriguing, and the organism cannot be assigned conclusively, even to the vertebrate stem group. Its anatomy closely resembles the modern creature "Branchiostoma".

Evolution.

Much debate on whether "Pikaia" is a vertebrate ancestor, its worm-like appearance notwithstanding, exists in scientific circles. It looks like a worm that has been flattened sideways. The fossils compressed within the Burgess Shale show chordate features such as traces of an elongate notochord, dorsal nerve cord, and blocks of muscles (myotomes) down either side of the body – all critical features for the evolution of the vertebrates.  The notochord, a flexible rod-like structure that runs along the back of the animal, lengthens and stiffens the body so that it can be flexed from side to side by the muscle blocks for swimming. In the fish and all subsequent vertebrates, the notochord forms the backbone (or vertebral column). The backbone strengthens the body, supports strut-like limbs, and protects the vital dorsal nerve cord, while at the same time allowing the body to bend.  A "Pikaia" lookalike, the lancelet "Branchiostoma", still exists today. With a notochord and paired muscle blocks, the lancelet and "Pikaia" belong to the chordate group of animals from which the vertebrates descended. Molecular studies have refuted earlier hypotheses that lancelets might be the closest living relative to the vertebrates, instead favoring tunicates in this position; other extant and fossil groups, such as acorn worms and graptolites, are more primitive.  The presence of a creature as complex as "Pikaia" some 530 million years ago reinforces the controversial view that the diversification of life must have extended back well before Cambrian times – perhaps deep into the Precambrian. The discovery of Metaspriggia, a primitive fish of similar age which seems to have already started to develop a jaw and the presence of conodonts, the teeth of an extinct type of fish belonging to the Agnatha some 20 MA before Pikaia, does provide support for that view.

Development of the head.

The first sign of head development, cephalization, is seen in chordates such as "Pikaia" and "Branchiostoma". It is thought that development of a head structure resulted from a long body shape, a swimming habit, and a mouth at the end that came into contact with the environment first, as the animal swam forward. The search for food required ways of continually testing what lay ahead so it is thought that anatomical structures for seeing, feeling, and smelling developed around the mouth. The information these structures gathered was processed by a swelling of the nerve cord ("efflorescence") – the precursor of the brain. Altogether, these front-end structures formed the distinct part of the vertebrate body known as the head.

Pikaia gracilens is an extinct, primitive chordate animal known from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Sixteen specimens are known from the Greater Phyllopod bed, where they comprised 0.03% of the community. It resembled the lancelet and perhaps swam much like an eel.

皮卡虫(属名:,得名自发现地一带常出没的鼠兔 Pika),又名皮凯亚虫或皮克鱼,是寒武纪的一类已灭绝动物,其化石在加拿大不列颠哥伦比亚的伯吉斯页岩发现。它是由查尔斯·沃尔科特(Charles Walcott)发现及于1911年描述。由于皮卡虫化石上有明显及规则的节,沃尔科特将牠分类在多毛纲中。牠的样子很像头索纲,游泳时可能更像鳗鱼。


Constitutional role.

In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the monarch (otherwise referred to as the sovereign or "His/Her Majesty", abbreviated H.M.) is the head of state. The Queen's image is used to signify British sovereignty and government authority—her profile, for instance, appearing on currency, and her portrait in government buildings. The sovereign is further both mentioned in and the subject of songs, loyal toasts, and salutes. "God Save the Queen" (or, alternatively, "God Save the King") is the British national anthem. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors.  The monarch takes little direct part in government. The decisions to exercise sovereign powers are delegated from the monarch, either by statute or by convention, to ministers or officers of the Crown, or other public bodies, exclusive of the monarch personally. Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown, such as Crown Appointments, even if personally performed by the monarch, such as the Queen's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament, depend upon decisions made elsewhere:  The sovereign's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century. The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the "dignified part" rather than the "efficient part" of government.

Appointment of the prime minister.

Whenever necessary, the monarch is responsible for appointing a new prime minister (who by convention appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown, and thereby constitutes and controls the government). In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the sovereign must appoint an individual who commands the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of the party or coalition that has a majority in that House. The prime minister takes office by attending the monarch in private audience, and after "kissing hands" that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument.  In a hung

Dissolution of Parliament.

In 1950 the King's Private Secretary Sir Alan "Tommy" Lascelles, writing pseudonymously to "The Times" newspaper, asserted a constitutional convention: according to the Lascelles Principles, if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse, and would do so under three conditions. When Harold Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974, the Queen granted

Royal prerogative.

Some of the government's executive authority is theoretically and nominally vested in the sovereign and is known as the royal prerogative. The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, exercising prerogative only on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through the prime minister or Privy Council. In practice, prerogative powers are exercised only on the prime minister's advice – the prime minister, and not the sovereign, has control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the prime minister; no records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of prime minister and the Cabinet (providing they command the support of the House). In Bagehot's words: "the

History.

English monarchy.

Following Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western Mercia, and assumed the title "King of the English". His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation. The conquest of England in 1066 by William, Duke of Normandy, was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo-Saxon period, while the Feudal System continued to develop.  William was succeeded by two of his sons: William II, then Henry I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry's death in 1135, one of William I's grandsons, Stephen, laid claim to the throne and took power with the support of most of

Scottish monarchy.

In Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman empire from Britain in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts in the north east, the Britons in the south, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde, and the Gaels or Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland), of the Irish petty kingdom of Dál Riata in the west. Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland (known as Scotia to writers in Latin, or Alba to the Scots). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed.  Early Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead the custom of tanistry was followed, where the monarchy alternated between different branches of the House of Alpin. As a result, however, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. From 942 to 1005,

Personal union and republican phase.

Elizabeth I's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. Since she had no children, she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI, who was the great-grandson of Henry VIII's older sister and hence Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the "Union of the Crowns". Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch – James I became the first monarch to style himself "King of Great Britain" in 1604 – they remained two separate kingdoms. James I's successor, Charles I, experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. He provoked opposition by

After the 1707 Acts of Union.

After Anne's accession, the problem of the succession re-emerged. The Scottish Parliament, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia's family as the next heirs, passed the Act of Security 1704, threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705, threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade. The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the Acts of Union 1707, under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with succession under the rules prescribed by

Shared monarchy.

During the twentieth century, the Commonwealth of Nations evolved from the British Empire. Prior to 1926, the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively; the Dominions and Crown Colonies were subordinate to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self-government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931, which has been likened to "a treaty among the Commonwealth countries".  The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it is often still referred to as "British" for legal and historical reasons and for convenience. The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom, monarch of Canada, monarch of Australia, and so forth. The independent states within the Commonwealth would share the same monarch in a relationship likened to a personal union.  George V's death in 1936 was followed by the

Monarchy in Ireland.

In 1155 the only English pope, Adrian IV, authorised King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship. The pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into line with Rome, despite this process already underway in Ireland by 1155. An all-island kingship of Ireland had been created in 854 by Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid. His last successor was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who had become King of Ireland in early 1166, and exiled Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster. Diarmait asked Henry II for help, gaining a group of Anglo-Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, to help him regain his throne. Diarmait and his Anglo-Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. De Clare married Diarmait's daughter, and when Diarmait died in 1171, de Clare became King of Leinster. Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival

Modern status.

In the 1990s, republicanism in the United Kingdom grew, partly on account of negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance, immediately following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales).

Religious role.

The sovereign is the supreme governor of the established Church of England. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the monarch, on the advice of the prime minister, who chooses the appointee from a list of nominees prepared by a Church Commission. The Crown's role in the Church of England is titular; the

Succession.

The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707. The rules of succession may only be changed by an Act of Parliament; it is not possible for an individual to renounce his or her right of succession. The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover (1630–1714), a granddaughter of James I.  Upon the death of a sovereign, their heir immediately and automatically succeeds (hence the phrase "The king is dead, long live the king!"), and the accession of the new sovereign is publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St James's Palace. Upon their accession, a new sovereign is required by law to make and subscribe several oaths: the Accession Declaration as first required by the Bill of Rights, and an oath that they will "maintain and preserve" the Church of Scotland settlement as required by the Act of Union. The monarch is usually crowned in Westminster Abbey, normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign; indeed, the ceremony usually takes place many months after accession to allow sufficient time for its preparation and for a period of mourning.  When an individual ascends to the throne, it is expected they will reign until death. The only voluntary abdication, that of Edward VIII, had to be authorised by a special Act of Parliament, His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James VII and II, who fled into exile in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution.

Restrictions by gender and religion.

Succession was largely governed by male-preference cognatic primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and elder children inherit before younger ones of the same gender. The British prime minister, David Cameron, announced at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 that all 16 Commonwealth realms, including the United Kingdom, had agreed to abolish the gender-preference rule for anyone born after the date of the meeting, 28 October 2011. They also agreed that future

Regency.

The Regency Acts allow for regencies in the event of a monarch who is a minor or who is physically or mentally incapacitated. When a regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession automatically becomes regent, unless they themselves are a minor or incapacitated. Special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the Regency Act 1953, which stated that the

Finances.

Until 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List, and this arrangement persisted until 2012. An annual Property Services grant-in-aid paid for the upkeep of the royal residences, and an annual Royal Travel Grant-in-Aid paid for travel. The Civil List covered most expenses, including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. Its size was fixed by Parliament every 10 years; any money saved was carried forward to the next 10-year period. From 2012 until 2020, the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid are to be replaced with a single Sovereign Grant, which will be set at 15% of the revenues generated by the Crown Estate.  The Crown Estate is one of the largest property portfolios in the United Kingdom, with holdings of £7.3 billion in 2011. It is held in trust, and cannot be sold or owned by the sovereign in a private capacity. In modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate to the Treasury have exceeded the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid. For example,

Residences.

The sovereign's official residence in London is Buckingham Palace. It is the site of most state banquets, investitures, royal christenings and other ceremonies. Another official residence is Windsor Castle, the largest occupied castle in the world, which is used principally at weekends, Easter and during Royal Ascot, an annual race meeting that is part of the social calendar. The sovereign's official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. The monarch stays at Holyrood for at least one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions.  Historically, the Palace of Westminster

Style.

The present sovereign's full style and title is "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith". The title "Head of the Commonwealth" is held by the Queen personally, and is not vested in the British Crown. Pope Leo X first granted the title "Defender of the Faith" to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation, particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments. After Henry broke from the Roman Church, Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use.  The sovereign is known as "His Majesty" or "Her Majesty". The form "Britannic Majesty" appears in

Arms.

The Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are "Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or [for England]; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules [for Scotland]; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent [for Ireland]". The supporters are the Lion and the Unicorn; the motto is "Dieu et mon droit" (French: "God and my Right"). Surrounding the shield is a representation of a Garter bearing the motto of the Chivalric order of the same name; "Honi soit qui mal y pense". (Old French: "Shame be to him who thinks evil of it"). In Scotland, the monarch uses an alternative form of the arms in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and III Ireland. The mottoes are "In Defens" (an abbreviated form of the Scots "In My Defens God Me Defend") and the motto of the Order of the Thistle; "Nemo me impune lacessit". (Latin: "No-one provokes me with impunity"); the supporters are the unicorn and lion, who support both the escutcheon and lances, from which fly the flags of Scotland and England.  The monarch's official flag in the United Kingdom is the Royal Standard, which depicts the Royal Arms in banner form. It is flown only from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the sovereign is present. The Royal Standard is never flown at half-mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly.  When the monarch is not in residence, the Union Flag is flown at Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and Sandringham House, whereas in Scotland the Royal Standard of Scotland is flown at Holyrood Palace and Balmoral Castle.

The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, its dependencies (the Bailiwick of Guernsey, the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Isle of Man) and its overseas territories. The current monarch and head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who ascended the throne in 1952.

英国君主政体(英:Monarchy of the United Kingdom)是指英国、英国皇家属地和英国海外属地的君主立宪政体,属于君主制的一种。其君主是英国国王(男性在位时)或英国女王(女性在位时)。现任英国君主是伊丽莎白二世,继位于1952年。英国君主政体的历史开始于10世纪。英国女王也是英联邦内其他15个国家的国家元首。


History.

British rule.

By the late 19th century, the British, through conquest or purchase, occupied most of the forts along the coast. Two major factors laid the foundations of British rule and the eventual establishment of a colony on the Gold Coast: British reaction to the Asante wars and the resulting instability and disruption of trade, and Britain's increasing preoccupation with the suppression and elimination of the slave trade.  During most of the 19th century, Asante, the most powerful state of the Akan interior, sought to expand its rule and to promote and protect its trade. The first Asante invasion of the coastal regions took place in 1807; the Asante moved south again in the Ga-Fante War of 1811 and in the Ashanti–Akim–Akwapim War of 1814–16. These invasions, though not decisive, disrupted trade in such products as feathers, ivory, rubber and palm oil, and threatened the security of the European forts. Local British, Dutch, and Danish authorities were all forced to come to terms with the Asante. In 1817 the African Company of Merchants signed a treaty of friendship that recognised Asante claims to sovereignty over large areas of the coast and its peoples. The assets of the African Company of Merchants

Colonialism.

Military confrontations between Asante and the Fante contributed to the growth of British influence on the Gold Coast. It was concern about Asante activities on the coast that had compelled the Fante states to sign the Bond of 1844. In theory, the bond allowed the British quite limited judicial powers—the trying of murder and robbery cases only. Also, the British could not acquire further judicial rights without the consent of the kings, chiefs, and people of the protectorate. In practice, however, British efforts to usurp more and more judicial authority were so successful that in the 1850s they considered establishing European courts in place of traditional African ones.  As a result of the exercise of ever-expanding judicial powers on the coast and also to ensure that the coastal peoples remained firmly under control, the British, following their defeat of Asante in 1874, proclaimed the former coastal protectorate a crown colony. The Gold Coast Colony, established on 24 July 1874, comprised the coastal areas and extended inland as far as the ill-defined borders of Asante.  The coastal peoples did not greet this move with enthusiasm. They were not consulted about this annexation, which arbitrarily set aside the Bond of 1844 and treated its signatories like conquered territories. The British, however, made no claim to any rights to the land, a circumstance that probably explains the absence of

Nationalism.

As the country developed economically, the focus of government power gradually shifted from the hands of the governor and his officials into those of Ghanaians. The changes resulted from the gradual development of a strong spirit of nationalism and were to result eventually in independence. The development of national consciousness accelerated quickly after World War II, when, in addition to ex-servicemen, a substantial group of urban African workers and traders emerged to lend mass support to the aspirations of a small educated minority. Once the movement had begun, events moved rapidly—not always fast enough to satisfy the nationalist leaders, but still at a pace that surprised not only the colonial government but many of the more conservative African elements as well.

Early manifestations.

As early as the latter part of the 19th century, a growing number of educated Africans increasingly found unacceptable an arbitrary political system that placed almost all power in the hands of the governor through his appointment of council members. In the 1890s, some members of the educated coastal elite organised themselves into the Aborigines' Rights Protection Society to protest a land bill that threatened traditional land tenure. This protest helped lay the foundation for political action that would ultimately lead to independence. In 1920 one of the African members of the Legislative Council, Joseph E. Casely-Hayford, convened the National Congress of British West Africa, which sent a delegation to London to urge the Colonial Office to consider the principle of

Politics of the independence movements.

Although political organisations had existed in the British colony, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) was the first nationalist movement with the aim of self-government "in the shortest possible time". Founded in August 1947 by educated Africans who included J. B. Danquah, G. A. Grant (known as Paa Grant), R. A. Awoonor-Williams, Eric Ato Nkrumah (all lawyers except for Grant, who was a wealthy businessman), and others, the leadership of the organisation called for the replacement of chiefs on the Legislative Council with educated persons. For these political leaders, traditional governance, exercised largely via indirect rule, was identified with colonial interests and the past. They believed that it was their responsibility to lead their country into a new age. They also demanded that, given their education, the colonial administration should respect them and accord them positions of responsibility. As one writer on the period reported, "The symbols of progress, science, freedom, youth, all became cues which the new leadership evoked and reinforced." In particular, the UGCC leadership criticised the government for its failure to solve the problems of unemployment, inflation, and the disturbances that had come to characterise the society at the end of the war.  Their opposition to the colonial administration notwithstanding, UGCC members were conservative in the sense that their leadership did not seek drastic or revolutionary change. This was probably a result of their training in the British way of doing things. The manner in which politics were then conducted was to change after Kwame Nkrumah created his Convention People's Party (CPP) in June 1949.  Nkrumah was born at Nkroful in the Nzema area and educated in Catholic schools at Half Assini and at Achimota School. He received further training in the United States at Lincoln University and at the University of Pennsylvania. Later, in London, Nkrumah became active in the West African Students' Union and the Pan-African Congress. He was one of the few Africans who participated in the Fifth Pan-African Congress held at Manchester in 1945. During his time in Britain, Nkrumah came to know such outspoken anti-colonialists and intellectuals as the West Indian George Padmore, and the African-American W. E. B. Du Bois. In 1947 when the UGCC was created in the Gold Coast to oppose colonial rule, Nkrumah was invited from London to become the movement's general secretary.  Nkrumah's tenure with the UGCC was a stormy one. In March 1948, he was arrested and detained with other leaders of the UGCC for political activism.They were known as the Big Six of Ghana Politics. Later, after the other members of the UGCC were invited to make recommendations to the Coussey Committee, which was advising the governor on the path to independence, Nkrumah broke with the UGCC and founded the CPP. Unlike the UGCC call for self-government "in the shortest possible time", Nkrumah and the CPP asked for "self-government now". The party leadership, made up of Nkrumah, Kojo Botsio, Komla A. Gbedemah, and a group of mostly young political professionals known as the "Verandah Boys", identified itself more with ordinary working people than with the UGCC and its intelligentsia.  Nkrumah's style and the promises he made appealed directly to the majority of workers, farmers, and youths who heard him; he seemed to be the national leader on whom they could focus their hopes. He also won the support of, among others, influential market women who, through their domination of small-scale trade, served as effective channels of communication at the local level.  The majority of the politicised population, stirred in the postwar years by outspoken newspapers, was separated from both the tribal

Independence.

On 6 March 1957, the Colony of Gold Coast gained independence as the country of Ghana.

The Gold Coast was a British Crown Colony on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa from 1821 to its independence as part of the nation of Ghana in 1957. The term Gold Coast is also often used to describe all of the four separate jurisdictions that were under the administration of the Governor of the Gold Coast. These were the Gold Coast itself, Ashanti, the Northern Territories protectorate and the British Togoland trust territory.

黄金海岸(Gold Coast)是英国在西部非洲几内亚湾的殖民地,1957年独立为加纳。


扎波罗热哥萨克致土耳其苏丹的回信

Context.

"Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks" depicts a supposedly historical tableau, set in 1676, and based on the legend of Cossacks sending a reply to an ultimatum of the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Mehmed IV. The original reply, if it ever existed, has not survived; however, in the 1870s an amateur ethnographer from Yekaterinoslav (today Dnipro), Ya. Novitsky, found a copy made in the 18th century. He gave it to historian Dmytro Yavornytsky (1855–1940), who by chance read it to his guests, among whom was the painter Ilya Repin. Repin became curious about the story and in 1880 started the first of his studies.  According to the story, the Zaporozhian Cossacks (from "beyond the rapids", Ukrainian: "za porohamy"), inhabiting the lands around the lower Dnieper River in Ukraine, had defeated Ottoman Empire forces in battle. However, Mehmed demanded that the Cossacks submit to Ottoman rule. The Cossacks, led by Ivan Sirko, replied in an uncharacteristic manner: they wrote a letter, replete with insults and profanities. The painting exhibits the Cossacks' pleasure at striving to come up with ever more base vulgarities. During Repin's time, the Cossacks enjoyed great popular sympathy. Repin also admired them: "All that Gogol wrote about them is true! A holy people! No one in the world held so deeply freedom, equality, and fraternity."  The Cossacks' reply came as a stream of invective and vulgar rhymes:  While working on the original version, Repin in 1889 began work on a second version. This work remained unfinished. The artist tried to make the second version of "The Cossacks" more "historically authentic". In 1932 it was transferred by the Tretyakov Gallery to the M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum. In 1935, it was moved to the, where it is now stored. This canvas is slightly smaller than the original version.  Vladimir Gilyarovsky, a popular journalist of partial Cossack descent, was one of the models who posed for Repin.

Reproductions.

Several full-size copies of the Repin painting exist, including a famous reproduction by Pavel Porfirov (Repin's student), currently held by the Cincinnati Art Museum.

Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks to Sultan Mehmed IV of the Ottoman Empire, also known as Cossacks of Saporog Are Drafting a Manifesto (Russian: Запорожцы пишут письмо турецкому султану), is a painting by Russian artist Ilya Repin. The 2.03 m (6 foot 7 inch) by 3.58 m (11 foot 9 inch) canvas was started in 1880 and finished in 1891. Repin recorded the years of work along the lower edge of the canvas. Alexander III bought the painting for 35,000 rubles, at the time the greatest sum ever paid for a Russian painting. Since then, the canvas has been exhibited in the State Russian Museum in Saint Petersburg.

《扎波罗热哥萨克给奥斯曼帝国苏丹穆罕默德四世的回信》,也被称作《扎波罗热人写信给土耳其苏丹》(乌克兰语:Запорожці пишуть листа турецькому султану),是俄国艺术家伊利亚·叶菲莫维奇·列宾的油画。画作长2.03米,宽3.58米。在画布的边缘,创作时间被画家标注:1880-1891年。俄罗斯帝国皇帝亚历山大三世花费35,000卢比购得这幅在那时最高价的俄国画作。此后,这副油画一直被陈列在圣彼得堡的俄罗斯博物馆里。


Biography.

Early life.

Sempé was expelled from school as a young man, and then failed to pass exams for the post office, a bank and the railroad. He then found work selling tooth powder as a door-to-door salesman and also worked delivering wine by bicycle in the Gironde. After lying about his age, he joined the army in 1950, since it was "the only place that would give me a job and a bed," he subsequently explained, and would occasionally get into trouble for drawing while he was supposed to be keeping watch during guard duty.  After being discharged from the army, he moved to Paris and began working with René Goscinny. Sempé has spent most of his life in Paris' Saint-Germain-des-Prés district.

Artistic career.

His career started in France within the context of the Franco-Belgian comics industry. His "mute" watercolors or single image sketches, where the characters speak in pictures or not at all (but somehow manage to convey a rich story) slowly gained international attention. He won his first award in 1952 which is given to encourage young amateur artists to turn professional.  His work has appeared as the cover of "The New Yorker" magazine many times. Sempé’s full page cartoons appeared in "Paris Match" for many years. In the 1950s, Sempé became renowned for his creation of a character named Nicolas in his cartoons for "Le Moustique", a comic book proposed by René Goscinny to Sempé. "Le Petit Nicolas" appeared from 1954 in Le Moustique and Sempé drew upon childhood influences and memories to illustrate the comic. In 1960, the comic "Le Petit Nicolas" was published in "Pilote" magazine. It was at the time unusual modern children's literature given that it is centered around the experience of the child, rather than an adult interpretation of the world.  In general though, Sempé rarely draws from life, and draws something every day, putting sketches aside when he gets bored with them.

Jean-Jacques Sempé, usually known as Sempé (; born 17 August 1932), is a French cartoonist. He is known for the series of children's books he created with René Goscinny, "Le petit Nicolas", and also for his poster-like illustrations, usually drawn from a distant or high viewpoint depicting detailed countrysides or cities.

让-雅克·桑贝(,1932年-8月17日),常被简称为桑贝(),生于法国波尔多,插画家,曾为《小淘气尼古拉》配画。


Background.

Nevanlinna was born Rolf Herman Neovius, becoming Nevanlinna in 1906 when his father changed the family name.  The Neovius-Nevanlinna family contained many mathematicians: Edvard Engelbert Neovius (Rolf's grandfather) taught mathematics and topography at a military academy; Edvard Rudolf Neovius (Rolf's uncle) was a professor of mathematics at the University of Helsinki from 1883–1900; Lars Theodor Neovius-Nevanlinna (Rolf's uncle) was an author of mathematical textbooks; and Otto Wilhelm Neovius-Nevanlinna (Rolf's father) was a physicist, astronomer and mathematician.  After Otto obtained his Ph.D. in physics from the University of Helsinki, he studied at the Pulkovo Observatory with the German astronomer Herman Romberg, whose daughter, Margarete Henriette Louise Romberg, he married in 1892. Otto and Margarete then settled in Joensuu, where Otto taught physics, and there their four children were born: Frithiof (born 1894; also a mathematician), Rolf (born 1895), Anna (born 1896) and Erik (born 1901).

Education.

Nevanlinna began his formal education at the age of 7. Having already been taught to read and write by his parents, he went straight into the second grade but still found the work boring and soon refused to attend the school. He was then homeschooled before being sent to a grammar school in 1903 when the family moved to Helsinki, where his father took up a new post as a teacher at Helsinki High School. At the new school, Nevanlinna studied French and German in addition to the languages he already spoke: Finnish and Swedish. He also attended an orchestra school and had a love of music, which was encouraged by his mother:  Nevanlinna then progressed onto the Helsinki High School, where his main interests were classics and mathematics. He was taught by a number of teachers during this time but the best of them all was his own father, who taught him physics and mathematics. He graduated in 1913 having performed very well, although he was not the top student of his year. He then went beyond the school syllabus in the summer of 1913 when he read Ernst Leonard Lindelöf's "Introduction to Higher Analysis"; from that time on, Nevanlinna had an enthusiastic interest in mathematical analysis. (Lindelöf was also a cousin of Nevanlinna's father, and so a part of the Neovius-Nevanlinna mathematical family.)  Nevanlinna began his studies at the University of Helsinki in 1913, and received his Master of Philosophy in mathematics in 1917. Lindelöf taught at the university and Nevanlinna was further influenced by him. During his time at the University of Helsinki, World War I was underway and Nevanlinna wanted to join the 27th Jäger Battalion, but his parents convinced him to continue with his studies. He did however join the White Guard in the Finnish Civil War, but did not see active military action. In 1919, Nevanlinna presented his thesis, entitled "Über beschränkte Funktionen die in gegebenen Punkten vorgeschriebene Werte annehmen" ("On limited functions prescribed values at given points"), to Lindelöf, his doctoral advisor. The thesis, which was on complex analysis, was of high quality and Nevanlinna was awarded his Doctor of Philosophy on 2 June 1919.

Career.

When Nevanlinna earned his doctorate in 1919, there were no university posts available so he became a school teacher. His brother, Frithiof, had received his doctorate in 1918 but likewise was unable to take up a post at a university, and instead began working as a mathematician for an insurance company. Frithiof recruited Rolf to the company, and Nevanlinna worked for the company and as a school teacher until he was appointed a Docent of Mathematics at the University of Helsinki in 1922. During this time, he had been contacted by Edmund Landau and requested to move to Germany to work at the University of Göttingen, but did not accept.  After his appointment as Docent of Mathematics, he gave up his insurance job but did not resign his position as school teacher until he received a newly created full professorship at the university in 1926. Despite this heavy workload, it was between the years of 1922–25 that he developed what would become to be known as Nevanlinna theory.  From 1947 Nevanlinna had a chair in the University of Zurich, which he held on a half-time basis after receiving in 1948 a permanent position as one of the 12 salaried Academicians in the newly created Academy of Finland.  Rolf Nevanlinna's most important mathematical achievement is the "value distribution theory" of meromorphic functions. The roots of the theory go back to the result of Émile Picard in 1879, showing that a non-constant complex-valued function which is analytic in the entire complex plane assumes all complex values save at most one. In the early 1920s Rolf Nevanlinna, partly in collaboration with his brother Frithiof, extended the theory to cover meromorphic functions, i.e. functions analytic in the plane except for isolated points in which the Laurent series of the function has a finite number of terms with a negative power of the variable. Nevanlinna's value distribution theory or Nevanlinna theory is crystallised in its two "Main Theorems". Qualitatively, the first one states that if a value is assumed less frequently than average, then the function comes close to that value more often than average. The Second Main Theorem, more difficult than the first one, states roughly that there are relatively few values which the function assumes less often than average.  Rolf Nevanlinna's article "Zur Theorie der meromorphen Funktionen" which contains the Main Theorems was published in 1925 in the journal Acta Mathematica. Hermann Weyl has called it "one of the few great mathematical events of the [twentieth] century." Nevanlinna gave a fuller account of the theory in the monographs "Le théoreme de Picard – Borel et la théorie des fonctions méromorphes" (1929) and "Eindeutige analytische Funktionen" (1936).  Nevanlinna theory touches also on a class of functions called the Nevanlinna class, or functions of "bounded type". When the Winter War broke out (1939), Nevanlinna was invited to join the Finnish Army's Ballistics Office to assist in improving artillery firing tables. These tables had been based on a calculation technique developed by General Vilho Petter Nenonen, but Nevanlinna now came up with a new method which made them considerably faster to compile. In recognition of his work he was awarded the Order of the Cross of Liberty, Second Class, and throughout his life he held this honour in especial esteem.  Among Rolf Nevanlinna's later interests in mathematics were the theory of Riemann surfaces (the monograph "Uniformisierung" in 1953) and functional analysis ("Absolute analysis" in 1959, written in collaboration with his brother Frithiof). Nevanlinna also published in Finnish a book on the foundations of geometry and a semipopular account of the Theory of Relativity. His Finnish textbook on the elements of complex analysis, "Funktioteoria" (1963), written together with Veikko Paatero, has appeared in German, English and Russian translations.  Rolf Nevanlinna supervised at least 28 doctoral theses. His first and most famous doctoral student was Lars Ahlfors, one of the first two Fields Medal recipients. The research for which Ahlfors was awarded the prize (proving the Denjoy Conjecture, now known as the Denjoy–Carleman–Ahlfors theorem) was strongly based on Nevanlinna's work.  Nevanlinna's work was recognised in the form of honorary degrees which he held from the universities of Heidelberg, the University of Bucharest, the University of Giessen, the Free University of Berlin, the University of Glasgow, the University of Uppsala, the University of Istanbul and the University of Jyväskylä. He was an honorary member of several learned societies, among them the London Mathematical Society and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. — The 1679 Nevanlinna main belt asteroid is named after him.

Administrative activities.

From 1954, Rolf Nevanlinna chaired the committee which set about the first computer project in Finland.  Rolf Nevanlinna served as President of the International Mathematical Union (IMU) from 1959 to 1963 and as President of the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM) in 1962.  In 1964, Nevanlinna's connections with President Urho Kekkonen were instrumental in bringing about a total reorganization of the Academy of Finland.  From 1965 to 1970 Nevanlinna was Chancellor of the University of Turku.

Political activities.

Although Nevanlinna did not participate actively in politics, he was known to sympathise with the right-wing Patriotic People's Movement and, partly because of his half-German parentage, was also sympathetic towards Nazi Germany; with many mathematics professors fired in the 1930s due to the Nuremberg Laws, mathematicians sympathetic to the Nazi policies were sought as replacements, and Nevanlinna accepted a position as professor at the University of Göttingen in 1936 and 1937. His sympathy towards the Nazis led to his removal from his position as Rector of the University of Helsinki after Finland made peace with the Soviet Union in 1944.  In the spring of 1941, Finland contributed a Volunteer Battalion to the Waffen-SS. At the time, the battalion was a symbolic bond between Germany and Finland as both fought against the Soviet Union but without a formal alliance between the two nations. In 1942, a committee was established for the Volunteer Battalion to take care of the battalion's somewhat strained relations with its German commanders, and Nevanlinna was chosen to be the chairman of the committee, as he was a person respected in Germany but loyal to Finland. He stated in his autobiography that he accepted this role due to a "sense of duty".  Nevanlinna's political activities did not colour his relationships with his mathematical contacts; after World War II, the Soviet mathematical community was isolated from the Western mathematical community and the International Colloquium on Function Theory in Helsinki in 1957, directed by Nevanlinna, was the first post-war occasion when Soviet mathematicians could contact their Western colleagues in person. In 1965, Nevanlinna was an honorary guest at a function theory congress in Soviet Armenia.

Nevanlinna Prize.

When the IMU in 1981 decided to create a prize, similar to the Fields Medal, in theoretical computer science and the funding for the prize was secured from Finland, the Union decided to give Nevanlinna's name to the prize; the Rolf Nevanlinna Prize is awarded every four years at the ICM. In 2018, the General Assembly of the IMU approved a resolution to remove Nevanlinna's name from the prize.

Rolf Herman Nevanlinna (né Neovius; 22 October 1895 – 28 May 1980) was a Finnish mathematician who made significant contributions to complex analysis.

罗尔夫·内万林纳(英语:Rolf Herman Nevanlinna,本名:Neovius,1895年-10月22日-1980年-5月28日)是一名芬兰数学学者,专精于复变函数论,以单复变量亚纯函数内万林纳理论的相关研究闻名。计算机与信息学研究领域的内万林纳奖以他命名。单复变函数领域的权威拉斯·阿尔大众也是他的学生。