Motivation.

A 'naïve' attempt to define the derivative of a tensor field with respect to a vector field would be to take the components of the tensor field and take the directional derivative with respect to the vector field of each component. However, this definition is undesirable because it is not invariant under changes of coordinate system, e.g. the naive derivative expressed in polar or spherical coordinates differs from the naive derivative of the components in Cartesian coordinates. On an abstract manifold such a definition is meaningless and ill defined. In differential geometry, there are three main coordinate independent notions of differentiation of tensor fields: Lie derivatives, derivatives with respect to connections, and the exterior derivative of completely anti symmetric (covariant) tensors or differential forms. The main difference between the Lie derivative and a derivative with respect to a connection is that the latter derivative of a tensor field with respect to a tangent vector is well-defined even if it is not specified how to extend that tangent vector to a vector field. However a connection requires the choice of an additional geometric structure (e.g. a Riemannian metric or just an abstract connection) on the manifold. In contrast, when taking a Lie derivative, no additional structure on the manifold is needed, but it is impossible to talk about the Lie derivative of a tensor field with respect to a single tangent vector, since the value of the Lie derivative of a tensor field with respect to a vector field "X" at a point "p" depends on the value of "X" in a neighborhood of "p", not just at "p" itself. Finally, the exterior derivative of differential forms does not require any additional choices, but is only a well defined derivative of differential forms (including functions).

Definition.

The Lie derivative may be defined in several equivalent ways. To keep things simple, we begin by defining the Lie derivative acting on scalar functions and vector fields, before moving on to the definition for general tensors.

The (Lie) derivative of a function.

Defining the derivative of a function formula_5 on a manifold is problematic because the difference quotient formula_6 cannot be determined while the displacement formula_7 is undefined.  The Lie derivative of a function formula_8 with respect to a vector field formula_9 at a point formula_10 is the function where formula_12 is the point to which the flow defined by the vector field formula_9 maps the point formula_14 at time instant formula_15 In the vicinity of formula_16 formula_12 is the unique solution of the system of first-order autonomous (i.e. time-independent) differential equations in the tangent space formula_19, with formula_20  For a coordinate chart formula_21 on the manifold formula_22 and formula_23 let formula_24 be the tangent linear map. The above system of differential equations is more explicitly written as a system in formula_26 with the initial condition being formula_27 It is easily verifiable that the solution formula_12 is independent from the choice of coordinate chart.  Setting formula_29 identifies the Lie derivative of a function with the directional derivative.

The Lie derivative of a vector field.

If "X" and "Y" are both vector fields, then the Lie derivative of "Y" with respect to "X" is also known as the Lie bracket of "X" and "Y", and is sometimes denoted formula_30. There are several approaches to defining the Lie bracket, all of which are equivalent. We list two definitions here, corresponding to the two definitions of a vector field given above:  formula_31  where formula_32 and formula_33 denote the operations of taking the directional derivatives with respect to "X" and "Y", respectively. Here we are treating a vector in "n"-dimensional space as an "n"-tuple, so that its directional derivative is simply the tuple consisting of the directional derivatives of its coordinates. Although the final expression formula_34 appearing in this definition does not depend on the choice of local coordinates, the individual terms formula_35 and formula_36 do depend on the choice of coordinates.  is a derivation of order zero of the algebra of smooth functions of "M", i.e. this operator is a vector field according to the second definition.

The Lie derivative of a tensor field.

More generally, if we have a differentiable tensor field "T" of rank formula_40 and a differentiable vector field "Y" (i.e. a differentiable section of the tangent bundle "TM"), then we can define the Lie derivative of "T" along "Y". Let, for some open interval "I" around 0, be the one-parameter semigroup of local diffeomorphisms of "M" induced by the vector flow of "Y" and denote. For each sufficiently small "t", "φ" is a diffeomorphism from a neighborhood in "M" to another neighborhood in "M", and "φ" is the identity diffeomorphism. The Lie derivative of "T" is defined at a point "p" by  where formula_42 is the pushforward along the diffeomorphism and formula_43 is the pullback along the diffeomorphism. Intuitively, if you have a tensor field formula_44 and a vector field "Y", then formula_45 is the infinitesimal change you would see when you flow formula_44 using the vector field −"Y", which is the same thing as the infinitesimal change you would see in formula_44 if you yourself flowed along the vector field "Y".  We now give an algebraic definition. The algebraic definition for the Lie derivative of a tensor field follows from the following four axioms:  If these axioms hold, then applying the Lie derivative formula_52 to the relation formula_53 shows that which is one of the standard definitions for the Lie bracket.  The Lie derivative acting on a differential form is the anticommutator of the interior product with the exterior derivative. So if α is a differential form, This follows easily by checking that the expression commutes with exterior derivative, is a derivation (being an anticommutator of graded derivations) and does the right thing on functions.  Explicitly, let "T" be a tensor field of type. Consider "T" to be a differentiable multilinear map of smooth sections "α", "α",..., "α" of the cotangent bundle "T""M" and of sections "X", "X",..., "X" of the tangent bundle "TM", written "T"("α", "α",..., "X", "X",...) into R. Define the Lie derivative of "T" along "Y" by the formula  The analytic and algebraic definitions can be proven to be equivalent using the properties of the pushforward and the Leibniz rule for differentiation. The Lie derivative commutes with the contraction.

The Lie derivative of a differential form.

A particularly important class of tensor fields is the class of differential forms. The restriction of the Lie derivative to the space of differential forms is closely related to the exterior derivative. Both the Lie derivative and the exterior derivative attempt to capture the idea of a derivative in different ways. These differences can be bridged by introducing the idea of an interior product, after which the relationships falls out as an identity known as Cartan's formula. Cartan's formula can also be used as a definition of the Lie derivative on the space of differential forms.  Let "M" be a manifold and "X" a vector field on "M". Let formula_59 be a -form, i.e. for each formula_10, formula_61 is an alternating multilinear map from formula_62 to the real numbers. The interior product of "X" and "ω" is the "k"-form formula_63 defined as  The differential form formula_63 is also called the contraction of "ω" with "X", and  and formula_67 is a formula_68-antiderivation. That is, formula_67 is R-linear, and  for formula_71 and η another differential form. Also, for a function formula_72, that is, a real- or complex-valued function on "M", one has  where formula_74 denotes the product of "f" and "X". The relationship between exterior derivatives and Lie derivatives can then be summarized as follows. First, since the Lie derivative of a function "f" with respect to a vector field "X" is the same as the directional derivative "X"("f"), it is also the same as the contraction of the exterior derivative of "f" with "X":  For a general differential form, the Lie derivative is likewise a contraction, taking into account the variation in "X":  This identity is known variously as Cartan formula, Cartan homotopy formula or Cartan's magic formula. See interior product for details. The Cartan formula can be used as a definition of the Lie derivative of a differential form. Cartan's formula shows in particular that  The Lie derivative also satisfies the relation

Coordinate expressions.

In local coordinate notation, for a type tensor field formula_44, the Lie derivative along formula_9 is here, the notation formula_82 means taking the partial derivative with respect to the coordinate formula_83. Alternatively, if we are using a torsion-free connection (e.g., the Levi Civita connection), then the partial derivative formula_84 can be replaced with the covariant derivative which means replacing formula_85 with (by abuse of notation) formula_86 where the formula_87 are the Christoffel coefficients.  The Lie derivative of a tensor is another tensor of the same type, i.e., even though the individual terms in the expression depend on the choice of coordinate system, the expression as a whole results in a tensor formula_88 which is independent of any coordinate system and of the same type as formula_44.  The definition can be extended further to tensor densities. If "T" is a tensor density of some real number valued weight "w" (e.g. the volume density of weight 1), then its Lie derivative is a tensor density of the same type and weight. Notice the new term at the end of the expression.  For a linear connection formula_92, the Lie derivative along formula_9 is

Examples.

For clarity we now show the following examples in local coordinate notation.  For a scalar field formula_95 we have: Hence for the scalar field formula_97 and the vector field formula_98 the corresponding Lie derivative becomes formula_99  For an example of higher rank differential form, consider the 2-form formula_100 and the vector field formula_9 from the previous example. Then, formula_102  Some more abstract examples.  Hence for a covector field, i.e., a differential form, formula_104 we have: The coefficient of the last expression is the local coordinate expression of the Lie derivative.  For a covariant rank 2 tensor field formula_106 we have: formula_107 If formula_108 is the symmetric metric tensor, it is parallel with respect to the Levi Civita connection (aka covariant derivative), and it becomes fruitful to use the connection. This has the effect of replacing all derivatives with covariant derivatives, giving

Properties.

The Lie derivative has a number of properties. Let formula_110 be the algebra of functions defined on the manifold "M". Then  is a derivation on the algebra formula_110. That is, formula_52 is R-linear and  Similarly, it is a derivation on formula_115 where formula_116 is the set of vector fields on "M" (cf. Theorem 6 from the article: Nichita, F.F. Unification Theories: New Results and Examples. Axioms 2019, 8, 60):  which may also be written in the equivalent notation  where the tensor product symbol formula_119 is used to emphasize the fact that the product of a function times a vector field is being taken over the entire manifold.  Additional properties are consistent with that of the Lie bracket. Thus, for example, considered as a derivation on a vector field,  one finds the above to be just the Jacobi identity. Thus, one has the important result that the space of vector fields over "M", equipped with the Lie bracket, forms a Lie algebra.  The Lie derivative also has important properties when acting on differential forms. Let α and β be two differential forms on "M", and let "X" and "Y" be two vector fields. Then

Generalizations.

Various generalizations of the Lie derivative play an important role in differential geometry.

The Lie derivative of a spinor field.

A definition for Lie derivatives of spinors along generic spacetime vector fields, not necessarily Killing ones, on a general (pseudo) Riemannian manifold was already proposed in 1972 by Yvette Kosmann. Later, it was provided a geometric framework which justifies her "ad hoc" prescription within the general framework of Lie derivatives on fiber bundles in the explicit context of gauge natural bundles which turn out to be the most appropriate arena for (gauge-covariant) field theories.  In a given spin manifold, that is in a Riemannian manifold formula_124 admitting a spin structure, the Lie derivative of a spinor field formula_125 can be defined by first defining it with respect to infinitesimal isometries (Killing vector fields) via the André Lichnerowicz's local expression given in 1963:  where formula_127, as formula_128 is assumed to be a Killing vector field, and formula_129 are Dirac matrices.  It is then possible to extend Lichnerowicz's definition to all vector fields (generic infinitesimal transformations) by retaining Lichnerowicz's local expression for a "generic" vector field formula_9, but explicitly taking the antisymmetric part of formula_131 only. More explicitly, Kosmann's local expression given in 1972 is:  where formula_133 is the commutator, formula_134 is exterior derivative, formula_135 is the dual 1 form corresponding to formula_9 under the metric (i.e. with lowered indices) and formula_137 is Clifford multiplication. It is worth noting that the spinor Lie derivative is independent of the metric, and hence also of the connection. This is not obvious from the right-hand side of Kosmann's local expression, as the right-hand side seems to depend on the metric through the spin connection (covariant derivative), the dualisation of vector fields (lowering of the indices) and the Clifford multiplication on the spinor bundle. Such is not the case: the quantities on the right-hand side of Kosmann's local expression combine so as to make all metric and connection dependent terms cancel.  To gain a better understanding of the long-debated concept of Lie derivative of spinor fields one may refer to the original article, where the definition of a Lie derivative of spinor fields is placed in the more general framework of the theory of Lie derivatives of sections of fiber bundles and the direct approach by Y. Kosmann to the spinor case is generalized to gauge natural bundles in the form of a new geometric concept called the Kosmann lift.

Covariant Lie derivative.

If we have a principal bundle over the manifold M with G as the structure group, and we pick X to be a covariant vector field as section of the tangent space of the principal bundle (i.e. it has horizontal and vertical components), then the covariant Lie derivative is just the Lie derivative with respect to X over the principal bundle.  Now, if we're given a vector field "Y" over "M" (but not the principal bundle) but we also have a connection over the principal bundle, we can define a vector field X over the principal bundle such that its horizontal component matches "Y" and its vertical component agrees with the connection. This is the covariant Lie derivative.  See connection form for more details.

Nijenhuis–Lie derivative.

Another generalization, due to Albert Nijenhuis, allows one to define the Lie derivative of a differential form along any section of the bundle Ω("M", T"M") of differential forms with values in the tangent bundle. If "K" ∈ Ω("M", T"M") and α is a differential "p"-form, then it is possible to define the interior product "i"α of "K" and α. The Nijenhuis–Lie derivative is then the anticommutator of the interior product and the exterior derivative:

History.

In 1931, Władysław Ślebodziński introduced a new differential operator, later called by David van Dantzig that of Lie derivation, which can be applied to scalars, vectors, tensors and affine connections and which proved to be a powerful instrument in the study of groups of automorphisms.  The Lie derivatives of general geometric objects (i.e., sections of natural fiber bundles) were studied by A. Nijenhuis, Y. Tashiro and K. Yano.  For a quite long time, physicists had been using Lie derivatives, without reference to the work of mathematicians. In 1940, Léon Rosenfeld—and before him (in 1921) Wolfgang Pauli—introduced what he called a ‘local variation’ formula_139 of a geometric object formula_140 induced by an infinitesimal transformation of coordinates generated by a vector field formula_141. One can easily prove that his formula_139 is formula_143.

In differential geometry, the Lie derivative, named after Sophus Lie by Władysław Ślebodziński, evaluates the change of a tensor field (including scalar functions, vector fields and one-forms), along the flow defined by another vector field. This change is coordinate invariant and therefore the Lie derivative is defined on any differentiable manifold.

在微分几何中,李导数(Lie derivative)是一个以索甫斯·李命名的算子,作用在流形上的张量场,向量场或函数,将该张量沿着某个向量场的流做方向导数。因为该作用在座标变换下保持不变,因此,该李导数在一般的流形上都是定义良好的。


History.

Freud argued that “an ego thus educated has become ‘reasonable’; it no longer lets itself be governed by the pleasure principle, but obeys the reality principle, which also, at bottom, seeks to obtain pleasure, but pleasure which is assured through taking account of reality, even though it is pleasure postponed and diminished”.  In his introductory lectures of 1915, at the University of Vienna, Freud popularized the concept of the unconscious as the largest and most influential part of the mind, including those drives, instincts and motives humans are often forced to deny except in disguised form. In the 23rd lecture, Freud discussed the conflict between the realm of "Phantasy" and the reality principle, comparing the former to a nature reserve. He argued however that “there is a path that leads back from phantasy to reality - the path, that is, of art”.  Jonathan Lear has argued that there was in fact an ethical dimension to Freud's concept of the reality principle, in that it was opposed to a neurotically distorted world-view.

Development.

In infancy and early childhood, the Id governs behavior predominantly by obeying the pleasure principle. Maturity is the slow process of learning to endure the pain of deferred gratification as and when reality requires it – a process Freud saw as fostered by education and educators. The result is the mature mind's ability to avoid instant gratification in favor of long-term satisfaction.  In order to do so, the reality principle does not ignore the id, but strives instead to satisfy its desires in balanced and socially appropriate ways, through awareness of and adjustment to environmental demands. The manner in which it moderates the pleasure principle and assures satisfaction of instinctual needs is by weighing the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or ignore an impulse. The reality principle forces the mind to consider the risks, requirements and outcomes of various decisions. The ego does not strive to eradicate urges, but instead it temporarily halts the discharge of the id's energy until a more suitable, safe and realistic time and place can be found. This necessary process of delay is accomplished through the so-called secondary process.  An example of the reality principle at work is a person who is dieting, but chooses not to give into hunger cravings. He or she knows that satisfying their unhealthy cravings, and thus satisfying the pleasure principle, provides only short-term empty satisfaction that thwarts the objective of the diet.  While some of Freud's ideas may be faulty and others not easily testable, he was a peerless observer of the human condition, and enough of what he proposed, particularly concerning the reality principle, manifests itself in daily life.

Neurotic rebellion and phantasy.

Rebellion against the constraints of the reality principle, in favour of a belief in infantile omnipotence, appears as a feature of all neurotic behavior - something perhaps seen most overtly in the actions of gamblers.  Psychosis can be seen as the result of the suspension of the reality principle, while sleep and dreaming offer a 'normal' everyday example of its decommissioning.  Susan Isaacs argued however that reality thinking in fact depended on the support of unconscious phantasy, rather than being opposed to it. Jacques Lacan similarly maintained that the field of reality required the support of the imaginary world of phantasy for its maintenance. Even the ego psychologists have come to see the perception of reality as taking place through the medium of a greater or lesser veil of infantile fantasy.

Consolidation of the reality principle.

The reality principle increases its scope in the wake of puberty, expanding the range and maturity of the choices the individual makes. Adolescents are no longer children who must succumb to every need, but potential young adults with the ability to defer gratification in favor of more suitable circumstances. What is dominant in the mind is no longer only what is pleasurable, but what is real, even if it happens to be disagreeable.  A further change in the reality principle from adolescence to adulthood can be a critical transition in its consolidation; but the impact of certain traumatic experiences may prove to be detrimental from within the unconscious. In the new reality principle, the individual must find themselves to be represented as a strong presence within their own mind and making reasoned decisions, instead of being merely perceived. It is the culmination of the way in which an adolescent learns to experience oneself in the context of their external reality.

Vs. pleasure principle.

Both the reality principle and pleasure principle pursue personal gratification, but the crucial difference between the two is that the reality principle is more focused on the long-term and is more goal-oriented while the pleasure principle disregards everything except for the immediate fulfillment of its desires.

The pleasure principle.

The reality principle and pleasure principle are two competing concepts established by Freud. The pleasure principle is the psychoanalytic concept based on the pleasure drive of the id in which people seek pleasure and avoid suffering in order to satisfy their biological and psychological needs. As people mature, the id's pleasure-seeking is modified by the reality principle. As it succeeds in establishing its dominance as a regulatory principle over the id, the search for satisfaction does not take the most direct routes, but instead postpones attainment of its goal in accordance with conditions imposed by the outside world, or in other words, deferred gratification. These two concepts can be viewed in psychological terms or processes, with the pleasure principle being considered the primary process that is moderated by the secondary process, or the reality principle. From an economic standpoint, the reality principle corresponds to a transformation of free energy into bound energy.

Impulse control.

Freud defines impulses as products of two competing forces: the pleasure principle and the reality principle. These two forces clash because impulses encourage action without any premeditated thought or deliberation and little regard to consequences, compromising the role of the reality principle. Impulses are often difficult for the mind to overcome because they hold anticipated pleasurable experiences. Freud emphasizes the importance of the development of impulse control because it is socially necessary and human civilization would fail without it. If an individual lacks sufficient impulse control, it represents a defect of repression that may lead to severe psychosocial problems (Kipnis 1971; Reich 1925; Winshie 1977).

Development of the reality principle.

The ability to control impulses and delay gratification is one of the hallmarks of a mature personality and the result of a thriving reality principle. Throughout childhood, children learn how to control their urges and behave in ways that are socially appropriate. Researchers have found that children who are better at delaying gratification may have better defined egos, because they tend to be more concerned with things such as social appropriateness and responsibility. Most adults have developed the capacity for the reality principle in their ego. They have learned to override the constant and immediate gratification demands of the id.  In human development, the transition in dominance from the pleasure principle to the reality principle is one of the most important advances in the development of the ego. The transition is rarely smooth and can lead to interpersonal conflict and ambivalence. If the reality principle fails to develop, a different dynamic takes its place. The super-ego asserts its authority, inflicting guilt on the individual because they do not have the ability to placate both reason and pleasure. The ego becomes trapped in between the “should” of the id and the “should not” of the superego. A person who lives as a slave to their immediate desires and consistently feels regret and guilt afterwards will lead an unhappy and persistently unfulfilled existence. It is not hard to find examples of adults who live this way, such as the alcoholic who drinks then feels guilty for doing so and they go on to perpetuate the vicious cycle.

Split ego.

At the failure of the ego to embrace its developing role within the reality principle, it remains under the control of the pleasure principle. This results in a split ego, a condition in which the two principles clash much more severely than when under the temptation of an impulse. The control of the pleasure principle persists as strongly as it does because as the child's self-representation begins to differentiate from the object representation of the mother, they begin to experience depression at the loss of what the mother provides. Yet, at the same time the mother continues to encourage such behavior in the child instead of allowing them to mature. This behavior enforces clinging and denial which promotes the persistence of the pleasure principle in an attempt to avoid the pain of separation or subsequent depression. The pleasure principle denies the reality of separation of mother and child while the reality principle still attempts to pursue it. This path of development creates a break between the growing child's feelings and the reality of his or her behavior as they enter the real world.

Strengthening the reality principle.

From a Freudian standpoint, one means of strengthening the reality principle within the ego would be to attain control over the id. Through maturity and a better sense of self, individuals can find the strength to gradually develop the reality principle and learn to defer pleasure by making more rational and controlled choices. In a traditional psychoanalytic model, this could take several years of restraint, and even so, many people will make the choice to achieve instant gratification over delayed gratification.  In order to instil lessons of maturity and self-control early on, it is critical to teach children how to strengthen their reality principle. Tales such as "Faithful John" by the Brothers Grimm teaches moral lessons in Freud's reality principle and pleasure principle. The story demonstrates how Johannes, the servant in "Faithful John," adheres to the former principle while his master, the young prince, is in the grips of the latter. Johannes's former master, the old king, instructs the servant not to allow the young prince into one particular locked room in the palace. In this room hangs the portrait of a beautiful princess. The prince notices that Johannes always passes by one room in the castle, and he insists on seeing what is in the room—despite the fact that Johannes said no. After seeing the portrait of the princess, the prince falls unconscious to the floor. The princess lives in a distant kingdom and is known to be inaccessible. Knowing that she loves objects of gold, Johannes develops a plan: he has the goldsmiths of the prince's kingdom make all kinds of golden trinkets, then he and the prince sail to the faraway kingdom. Johannes takes many golden objects to the castle, where the princess sees them and wishes to see more. Loyal Johannes lies to the princess, telling her he is a merchant and his master has many finer objects on his ship, and she must come and see them. Once on the ship, the princess does not even notice that the boat is sailing away. Johannes has helped the prince abduct the princess.  The contrast between the rational servant and the irrational young man in love is one established by Freud;  "Faithful John follows Freud's reality principle; he is concerned with cause and effect and the consequences of his actions, and thus he is pragmatic in his orientation. Appropriately, the faithful servant does indeed know how to woo the princess. In contrast, the young man follows the pleasure principle; he wishes only to satisfy his burning desire to possess the beautiful maiden but does not know how to accomplish this goal." (56)

In Freudian psychology and psychoanalysis, the reality principle () is the ability of the mind to assess the reality of the external world, and to act upon it accordingly, as opposed to acting on the pleasure principle.

现实原则为佛洛依德的精神分析论,认定现实原则为人格结构中个人所遵从的原则,从精神的临床实验上,佛洛依德认为有两种不一样的精神反应程序:


Design and construction process.

Origin.

According to the National Park Service, the idea of a monument presented by the French people to the United States was first proposed by Édouard René de Laboulaye, president of the French Anti-Slavery Society and a prominent and important political thinker of his time. The project is traced to a mid-1865 conversation between Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist, and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. In after-dinner conversation at his home near Versailles, Laboulaye, an ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War, is supposed to have said: "If a monument should rise in the United States, as a memorial to their independence, I should think it only natural if it were built by united effort—a common work of both our nations." The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced

Design, style, and symbolism.

Bartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express the idea of American liberty. In early American history, two female figures were frequently used as cultural symbols of the nation. One of these symbols, the personified Columbia, was seen as an embodiment of the United States in the manner that Britannia was identified with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to represent France. Columbia had supplanted the traditional European personification of the Americas as an "Indian princess", which had come to be regarded as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans. The other significant female icon in American culture was a representation of Liberty, derived from Libertas, the goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome, especially among emancipated slaves. A Liberty figure adorned most American coins of the time, and representations of Liberty appeared in

Announcement and early work.

By 1875, France was enjoying improved political stability and a recovering postwar economy. Growing interest in the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support. In September 1875, he announced the project and the formation of the Franco-American Union as its fundraising arm. With the announcement, the statue was given a name, "Liberty Enlightening the World". The French would finance the statue; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal. The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France, though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with

Construction in France.

On his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 Paris World's Fair. Fundraising continued, with models of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered. The French government authorized a lottery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a terracotta model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about 250,000 francs had been raised.  The head and arm had been built with assistance from Viollet-le-Duc, who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier. The following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel and his structural engineer, Maurice Koechlin, decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure, which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days, he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars which culminated in a mesh of metal straps, known as "saddles", that were riveted to the skin, providing firm support. In a labor-intensive process, each saddle had to be crafted individually. To prevent galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac.  Eiffel's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of curtain wall construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing, but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior spiral staircases, to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown. Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder,

Dedication.

A ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of October 28, 1886. President Grover Cleveland, the former New York governor, presided over the event. On the morning of the dedication, a parade was held in New York City; estimates of the number of people who watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a million. President Cleveland headed the procession, then stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers from across America. General Stone was the grand marshal of the parade. The route began at Madison Square, once the venue for the arm, and proceeded to the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth Avenue and Broadway, with a slight detour so the parade could pass in front of the "World" building on Park Row. As the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange, traders threw ticker tape from the windows, beginning the New York tradition of the ticker-tape parade.  A nautical parade began at 12:45 p.m., and President Cleveland embarked on a yacht

After dedication.

Lighthouse Board and War Department (1886–1933).

When the torch was illuminated on the evening of the statue's dedication, it produced only a faint gleam, barely visible from Manhattan. The "World" characterized it as "more like a glowworm than a beacon." Bartholdi suggested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect light, but this proved too expensive. The United States Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch's effect; in spite of its efforts, the statue remained virtually invisible at night. When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893, he made additional suggestions, all of which proved ineffective. He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue, allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel's design. In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, once a member

Early National Park Service years (1933–1982).

In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue to be transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). In 1937, the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe's Island. With the Army's departure, the NPS began to transform the island into a park. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) demolished most of the old buildings, regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island, and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the statue from its rear. The WPA also carried out restoration work within the statue, temporarily removing the rays

Renovation and rededication (1982–2000).

The statue was examined in great detail by French and American engineers as part of the planning for its centennial in 1986. In 1982, it was announced that the statue was in need of considerable restoration. Careful study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly attached to the main structure. It was swaying more and more when strong winds blew and there was a significant risk of structural failure. In addition, the head had been installed off center, and one of the rays was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved in the wind. The armature structure was badly corroded, and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be replaced.

Closures and reopenings (2001–present).

Immediately following the September 11 attacks, the statue and Liberty Island were closed to the public. The island reopened at the end of 2001, while the pedestal and statue remained off-limits. The pedestal reopened in August 2004, but the National Park Service announced that visitors could not safely be given access to the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emergency. The Park Service adhered to that position through the remainder of the Bush administration. New York Congressman Anthony Weiner

Access and attributes.

Location and access.

The statue is situated in Upper New York Bay on Liberty Island south of Ellis Island, which together comprise the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Both islands were ceded by New York to the federal government in 1800. As agreed in an 1834 compact between New York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay's midpoint, the original islands remain New York territory though located on the New Jersey side of the state line. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. Land created by reclamation added to the original island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory.  No charge is made for entrance to the national

Inscriptions, plaques, and dedications.

There are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or near the Statue of Liberty.  A group of statues stands at the

Historical designations.

President Calvin Coolidge officially designated the Statue of Liberty as part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument in 1924. The monument was expanded to also include Ellis Island in 1965. The following year, the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island were jointly added to the National Register of Historic Places, and the statue individually in 2017.

Depictions.

Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are displayed worldwide. A smaller version of the statue, one-fourth the height of the original, was given by the American community in Paris to that city. It now stands on the Île aux Cygnes, facing west toward her larger sister. A replica tall stood atop the Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan for many years; it now resides at the Brooklyn Museum. In a patriotic tribute, the Boy Scouts of America, as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty campaign in 1949–1952, donated about two hundred replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper and in height, to states and municipalities across the United States. Though not a true replica, the statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions—the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the Statue of Liberty. Among other recreations of New York City structures, a replica of the statue is part of the exterior of the New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.  As an American icon, the Statue of Liberty has been depicted on the country's coinage and stamps. It appeared on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 centennial, and on New York's 2001 entry in the state quarters series. An image of the statue was chosen for the American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997, and it was placed on the reverse, or tails, side of the Presidential Dollar series of circulating coins. Two images of the statue's torch appear on the current ten-dollar bill. The statue's intended photographic depiction on a 2010 forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino.  Depictions of the statue have been used by many regional institutions. Between 1986 and 2000, New York State issued license plates with an outline of the statue. The Women's National Basketball Association's New York Liberty use both the statue's name and its image in their logo, in which the torch's flame doubles as a basketball. The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League depicted the statue's head on their third jersey, beginning in 1997. The National Collegiate Athletic Association's 1996 Men's Basketball Final Four, played at New Jersey's Meadowlands Sports Complex, featured the statue in its logo. The Libertarian Party of the United States uses the statue in its emblem.  The statue is a frequent subject in popular culture. In music, it has been evoked to indicate support for American policies, as in Toby Keith's song "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American)", and in opposition, appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys' album "Bedtime for Democracy", which protested the Reagan administration. In film, the torch is the setting for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock's 1942 movie "Saboteur". The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture "Planet of the Apes", in which it is seen half-buried in sand. It is knocked over in the science-fiction film "Independence Day" and in "Cloverfield" the head is ripped off. In Jack Finney's time-travel novel "Time and Again", the right arm of the statue, on display in the early 1880s in Madison Square Park, plays a crucial role. Robert Holdstock, consulting editor of "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction", wondered in 1979:

The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; ) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and its metal framework was built by Gustave Eiffel. The statue was dedicated on October 28, 1886.

自由女神像(英语:Statue of Liberty)又名自由照耀世界(英语:Liberty Enlightening the World,),是位于美国纽约港自由岛的巨型古典主义塑像,由弗里德利·奥古斯特·巴特勒迪设计,居斯塔夫·埃菲尔建造,1886年10月28日落成,是法国人民送给美国人民的礼物。塑像人物是身穿长袍的女子,代表罗马神话中的自主神,她右手高举火炬,左手的册子上用罗马数字写有美国独立宣言签署日期:“英语:JULY IV MDCCLXXVI”(1776年7月4日),脚下还有断裂的锁链。这座塑像是自由和美国的象征,也是对外来移民的欢迎信号。


Location.

Ganden is northeast of Lhasa. The monastery lies in a hilly natural amphitheater. from the "kora" route around the monastery there are dramatic views over the valleys that surround it. Ganden Monastery is at the top of Wangbur Mountain, Dagzê County at an altitude of 4,300m. Its full name is Ganden Namgyal Ling ("dga' ldan rmam rgyal gling"). "Ganden" means "joyful" and is the Tibetan name for Tuṣita, the heaven where the bodhisattva Maitreya is said to reside. "Namgyal Ling" means "victorious temple".

History.

Ganden Monastery was founded by Je Tsongkhapa Lozang-dragpa (1357–1419) in 1409. Tsongkhapa built Ganden's main temple, with large statues and three-dimensional mandalas. He often stayed at Ganden, and died there in 1419. Tsongkhapa's preserved body was entombed at Ganden by his disciples in a silver and gold encrusted tomb.  The name "Gelug" is an abbreviation of "Ganden Lug", meaning "Ganden Tradition". The Ganden Tripa or "throne-holder of Ganden" is the head of the Gelug school. Before dying Tsongkhapa gave his robe and staff to the first Ganden Tripa, Gyeltsabjey (1364-1432), who was succeeded by Kaydrubjey. The term of office is seven years, and by 2003 there had been 99 Ganden Tripas. The monastery was divided into four colleges at the time of the 2nd Ganden Tripa. Later these were consolidated in two, Jangtsey and Shartsey, located respectively to the north and east of the main temple. Both combine the study of sutra and tantra. Study methods include memorization, logic and debate. The colleges grant degrees for different levels of achievement, evaluated by examination and formal public debate.  In the 1860s a meeting called "the great Ganden Monastery, Drepung Monastery, and the government officials" was organized by Shatra, a lay aristocrat. The existing regent was deposed by this assembly and replaced by Shatra. From then on the assembly, or "Tsondu", chose the regents and played a significant political role as a consultative body. The monasteries of Ganden, Sera and Drepung was so great that they could in effect veto government decisions with which they disagreed. These three monasteries had 20,000 monks in total, supported by large estates of fertile land worked by serfs. At one time the Ganden monastery could support over 5,000 monks. Laurence Waddell reports an estimate of about 3,300 in the 1890s. There were apparently only 2,000 monks in 1959.  Ganden Monastery was completely destroyed by the People's Liberation Army during the 1959 Tibetan uprising. In 1966 it was severely shelled by Red Guard artillery, and monks had to dismantle the remains. The buildings were reduced to rubble using dynamite during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76). Most of Tsongkhapa's mummified body was burned, but his skull and some ashes were saved from the fire by Bomi Rinpoche, the monk who had been forced to carry the body to the fire.  Re-building has continued since the 1980s. Early in 1996, after a ban had been imposed on pictures of the Dalai Lama, 400 monks at Ganden rioted. They were fired upon by PLA troops, apparently causing two deaths and several injuries, followed by the arrest of one hundred monks. As of 2012 there were about 400 monks, and rapid progress was being made on rebuilding the monastery. The red-painted lhakang in the centre is the reconstruction of Ganden's "sanctum sanctorum" containing Tsongkapa's reliquary chorten called the Tongwa Donden, "Meaningful to Behold."

Structures.

Ganden contained more than two dozen major chapels with large Buddha statues. The largest chapel was capable of seating 3,500 monks. Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama (born 1935), took his final degree examination in Ganden in 1958 and he claims to feel a particularly close connection with Tsongkhapa. The monastery runs a guesthouse for visitors. Ganden's main assembly hall is a white building with gold-capped roofs, near a huge square. The main chapel contains many gilded images of Tsongkhapa. A maroon and ochre chapel beside the main assembly hall has a statue of Sakyamuni Buddha, and has a section used for hand-printing scriptural texts using wood blocks.  The three main sights in the Ganden Monastery are the Serdung, which contains the tomb of Tsongkhapa, the Tsokchen Assembly Hall and the Ngam Cho Khang the chapel where Tsongkhapa traditionally taught. The monastery houses artifacts that belonged to Tsongkhapa.

Establishment in India.

The Ganden Monastery has been re-established in Karnataka, India by the Tibetan population in exile. The Ganden Monastery is in the Tibetan settlement at Mundgod. This settlement of Tibetan refugees is the largest of its kind in India and was first established in 1966, from land donated by the Indian government. In the Tibetan settlement near Mundgod are the Ganden and the Drepung Monastery. In 1999 there were about 13,000 residents. The Tibetan settlement consists of nine camps with two monasteries and one nunnery. They established a credit bank for farms, an agricultural institute and a craft center. Modern technology and communication technology are being introduced. The curriculum of the Ganden Monastery remains similar to the teachings of the pre-1959 Ganden Monastery. The Ganden Monastery Colleges Jangtse and Shartse have also been reestablished in India. They are named The Ganden Jangtse College and The Gaden Shartse Monastery. They are located in Karnataka.  In 2008, over 500 monks, who refused to adhere to the ban against the protective deity Dorje Shugden, enforced by the Dalai Lama's government in exile, were expelled from the Ganden Monastery in Mundgod, Karnataka, and founded in its immediate neighborhood the Shar Gaden Monastery, officially opened in October 2009. As a result, the Dokhang Khangtsen, the biggest division of Gaden Shartse Monastery, where most of the departing monks came from, ceased to exist.

Ganden Monastery (also Gaden or Gandain) or Ganden Namgyeling is one of the "great three" Gelug university monasteries of Tibet. It is in Dagzê County, Lhasa. The other two are Sera Monastery and Drepung Monastery. Ganden Monastery was founded in 1409 by Je Tsongkhapa Lozang-dragpa, founder of the Gelug order. The monastery was destroyed after 1959, but has since been partially rebuilt. Another monastery with the same name and tradition was established in Southern India in 1966 by Tibetan exiles.

甘丹寺(),一译噶丹寺,旧译<unk>灯寺、噶登寺、噶尔丹寺、噶勒丹寺等,位于中国西藏自治区拉萨市达孜区境内拉萨河南岸卓日吾齐山的海拔3800米的旺波日山顶上,距拉萨57公里。清朝雍正年间清世宗曾为该寺赐名“永泰寺”。


Club career.

Born in Lomé, Obilalé began his career with Chamois Niortais, before signing a contract with FC Lorient in 2003. After one year in Lorient. he returned to Togo and signed a contract with Étoile Filante de Lomé, where he played for three years. In July 2006, he returned to France and moved to CS Quéven, where he played 39 games in one and a half year, before leaving the club in the summer of 2008 to sign a contract with GSI Pontivy.

International career.

Obilalé is a former member of the national team, and was called up to the 2006 FIFA World Cup. He was the only member of the World Cup squad to play for a club in Togo. He was capped five times by Togo in 2009.

2010 African Cup of Nations shooting.

On 8 January, a bus carrying the Togo national football team to the African Cup of Nations was fired at by a group of rebel terrorists from Cabinda Province, Angola, just after they had crossed the Congo border. Obilalé was one of the two players who were reported to have bullet wounds. Defender Serge Akakpo, was the other player confirmed to have been shot. The driver of the bus was killed during the attack, and the assistant coach and a spokesperson later died from their wounds. Later, Obilalé was reported dead by some sources including MSNBC.com; such reports were later dismissed by his club GSI Pontivy in a press announcement, stating the player was undergoing surgery in South Africa instead. Later reports indicated that Obilalé's condition had improved following the shootout, and that he was "recovering well."  In March 2010, Obilalé returned to France to continue his rehabilitation at the Kerpape centre in Lorient; later in July, he confirmed that, as a result of the shooting, he was still suffering serious walking problems, and that he did not think about playing football anymore. Obilalé's rehabilitation was funded by FIFA, the Togo government and the French Football Federation, and the goalkeeper complained that "the only institution that did not help me, it is the Confederation of African Football".  On 30 July 2010, his contract with French football club Pontivy expired, and he stated that he had serious financial issues. He also announced his intention of denouncing the Togo Football Federation, on the grounds that it had neglected his situation. These concerns were also raised by a number of other former fellow players, including international teammate Emmanuel Adebayor, who, according to Obilalé, regularly calls him and helps him financially on his own.  On 26 July 2010, Obilalé was given the honour of taking the kick-off during a friendly game between FC Lorient and Stade Rennais F.C., which was organized to raise funds for the rehabilitation facility where he had recovered. The game was attended by more than 3,000 people.  Obilalé has since earned a diploma in special education, and works in the field of youth rehabilitation for Lorient association Remise en Jeu. In 2015, he published an autobiography, "Un destin foudroyé" ("A Destiny Struck").

Kodjovi Dodji Akanava Obilalé (born 8 October 1984) is a Togolese former footballer who played as a goalkeeper. His last club was the French amateur club GSI Pontivy. His career was cut short after he was severely injured in a bus attack against the Togolese team that took place in the Cabinda Province, Angola, just days before the start of the 2010 African Cup of Nations.

科乔维·奥比拉雷(Kodjovi Dodji Obilalé,1984年-10月8日)是多哥藉足球运动员,司职门将。


Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

苏联共产党中央委员会书记处

Overview.

The members of the Secretariat were elected by the Communist Party's Central Committee, although in all but the first years of its existence the elections were a formality since decisions were made by the senior leadership before the voting. The General Secretary of the CPSU, who was also a Politburo member, was the leader of the Secretariat and of the Party. Dual membership in the Secretariat and the Politburo was in practice reserved for two or three very senior members of the Soviet leadership, and in the post-Stalin era (after March 1953) was a stepping-stone to ultimate power. The last five Soviet leaders (Nikita Khrushchev, Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, Konstantin Chernenko and Mikhail Gorbachev) were all senior Secretaries before becoming First or General Secretaries. Additionally, Georgy Malenkov was briefly reckoned as the leader of the Party for a week after Stalin's death by virtue of being the top member of the Secretariat.  The Central Committee established the Secretariat on 6 August 1917; it initially comprised Felix Dzerzhinsky, Matvei Muranov and Yakov Sverdlov as full members and Adolph Joffe and Elena Stasova as candidate members (or alternates). Following the October Revolution of November 1917, Sverdlov and Stasova in effect handled the work of the Secretariat as the other members of the body assumed other duties. At the time, the Secretariat was responsible for technical issues such as coordination of the activities of regional Party organizations and handling routine administrative affairs of the Party. Its staff increased from just 30 in 1919 to 600 in 1921 and to 767 by 1925.  By 1922 the body had transformed from a technical committee to become one of the most important components of the Party, and from that point on it was responsible for day-to-day operations of the Communist Party. Also in 1922, the position of General Secretary was created, the General Secretary became the head of the Secretariat and, in the years following Lenin's death in 1924, became the most important figure in the Party and in the Soviet Union.

The Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), often referred to as the Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee, had responsibility for the central administration of the party as opposed to drafting government policy (which was usually handled by the Politburo).

苏联共产党中央委员会书记处(),简称苏共中央书记处,是苏联共产党的一个重要机构。相对于负责制定政策的中央政治局,中央书记处负责党中央的行政。该机构设立于1919年3月召开的俄国共产党(布尔什维克)第八次代表大会上。


Tourist attractions.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites and Intangible Cultural Heritage List.

There are ten UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Bulgaria. The first four properties were inscribed in the World Heritage List in 1979, and the last in 2017. Bulgaria currently has sixteen additional properties on the Tentative List. Nestinarstvo, a ritual fire-dance of Thracian origin, is included in the list of UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.

Ethnic, cultural and historical tourism.

The Bulgarian cultural heritage has many faces and manifestations - archaeological reserves and monuments, museums, galleries, rich cultural calendar, preserved folklore and magnificent architectural monuments.

Thracian treasures.

Thracians made beautifully ornate golden and silver objects such as various kinds of vessels, rhytons, facial masks, pectorals, jewelry, weapons, etc. They used to bury rich hoards of precious objects both to hide them in times of enemy invasions and unrest as well as for ritual purposes. To date, more than 80 Thracian treasures have been excavated in Bulgaria which was the cradle of the Thracian civilization.

Rural tourism.

The Bulgarian town house is an embodiment of the owner's social status, craft and traditions. Many old buildings that demonstrate this type of architecture—e.g. in the villages of Arbanasi, Leshten, Kovachevitsa, Melnik—have been preserved to the present day.

Monasteries.

During the 13th and especially during the 14th centuries the construction of monasteries thrived. Due to the troubled times many monasteries resembled fortresses. They usually had rectangular shape, the buildings surrounded a yard in which the main church was located. From the outside they had high stone walls reinforced with counterforts, and from the inside there were galleries with several stores which led towards the dwellings of the monks.

Resorts and nature tourism.

Seaside resorts.

The Bulgarian Black Sea Coast is picturesque and diverse. White and golden sandy beaches occupy approximately 130 km of the 378 km long coast. The temperatures during the summer months are very suitable for marine tourism and the water temperature allows sea bathing from May to October. Prior to 1989 the Bulgarian Black Sea coast was internationally known as the Red Riviera. Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, however, its nickname has been changed to the Bulgarian Riviera.

Hiking and skiing.

The country has several ski areas which offer excellent conditions for skiing, snowboarding, ski running and other winter sports.

National Parks.

Bulgaria has 3 national parks, 11 nature parks and 55 nature reserves. The first nature park in Bulgaria and the Balkan Peninsula is Vitosha Nature Park, established in 1934.

Caves and waterfalls.

As of 2002, there are around 4,500 discovered underground formations in Bulgaria. The earliest written records about the caves in Bulgaria are found in the manuscripts of the 17th century Bulgarian National Revival figure and historian Petar Bogdan. The first Bulgarian speleological society was established in 1929. The caves in the country are inhabited by more than 700 invertebrate species and 32 of the 37 species of bats found in Europe.

Statistics.

Arrivals by country.

Most visitors arriving in Bulgaria on short-term basis came from the following countries of nationality:

Tourism in Bulgaria is a significant contributor to the country's economy. Situated at the crossroads of the East and West, Bulgaria has been home to many civilizations - Thracians, Greeks, Romans, Eastern Romans or Byzantines, Slavs, Bulgars, and Ottomans. The country is rich in tourist sights and historical artifacts, scattered through a relatively small and easily accessible territory. Bulgaria is internationally known for its seaside and winter resorts.

旅游业是保加利亚重要的产业之一。保加利亚地处东方和西方的十字路口,是许多文明交汇的地点,拥有丰富的旅游景点和历史文物。保加利亚也是世界著名的海滨和冬季度假胜地。2014年,有940万人外国游客进入保加利亚观光,其中希腊、罗马尼亚、土耳其和俄罗斯四国的游客占近50%,贡献了希腊15%的GDP,15万个工作岗位。保加利亚现在有九处世界遗产。


History.

Founding.

UNWE was founded in 1920 as the Free University of Political and Economic Sciences (FUPES) by Stefan Bobchev and the Russian emigre Peter Bogaevsky with ordinance of the Minister of Public Education. In 1940 FUPES was transformed into the State Higher Education School of Finance and Administrative Sciences (SHESFA) and in 1947 SHESFA was transformed into a "Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences" at Sofia University.

Communist period.

During the communist period in Bulgaria, the university was called the Karl Marx Higher Institute of Economics, but was renamed on April 27, 1990, soon after end of the communist era, due to the perceived failure of communism and, particularly, Marxist economics.

Modern period.

After the democratic changes in Bulgaria, the Academic Board (AB) passed a resolution renaming the Karl Marx Higher Institute of Economics into the University of National and World Economy (On 27 April 1990 ). Officially this was done with an act of the National Assembly of the Republic of Bulgaria on the establishment and transformation of higher educational institutions (26 July 1995).  Prof. Dimitar Panayotov Dimitrov is the current rector of the university, elected in December 2019.

International Activity.

UNWE is a leading and coordinating university for Bulgaria in the Central European Initiative for university networking. Development of programmes providing mobility for students and academic staff (in the form of seminars, summer school or a master's degree programme) is in its initial stage. Application for funded joint education is done on the basis of already established contacts with universities from CEI member states whenever students and academic staff are in another foreign university.

Rating.

"University of National and World Economy" is one of the eldest, most prestigious, and largest Universities of Economics in Southeast Europe, a leader in Bulgarian higher education. In 2006 UNWE was given the highest institutional evaluation among all Bulgarian universities by the "National Agency for Assessment and Accreditation", in 2007 the professional field of Economics and in 2008 the professional fields of Administration and Management also received the highest estimate that has been given so far in Bulgaria.  The University is not listed in any of the international rankings of universities (QS, Times, Financial Times, Shanghai CWUR ranking). University of National and World Economy is the absolute leader among students in the professional fields of Economics, Administration and Management in Bulgaria. By this criteria, according to the ranking system of the Ministry of Education and Science and the Open Society Institute, UNWE is No 1.  Ranked by its social insurance income and by the number of registered unemployed UNWE again occupies the top positions: the professional field of Informatics and Computer Science is at the 8th place followed by the professional field of Economics 0.00% graduates of the professional field of Tourism have registered as unemployed. "Administration and Management", "Law" and "Political Science" at UNWE are the other professional fields at the forefront. It means that all of the six professional fields of education at UNWE are at the first positions in the rankings. It is the rating of 112 professional fields of higher education institutes in our country which give the students the opportunity to achieve the highest level of material well-being.  Traditionally, the highest number of applicants as well as a record number of A-students study at UNWE in comparison to other universities in the country. Since 2007, a unified exam (test) similar to the SAT test is used for admission to the university. Since 2008 it is also used for the professional fields.  The University ranks second in Bulgaria by the realization of its graduates and the majority of them hold extremely favourable positions in the labour market. State and private employers adopt UNWE as synonymous with the excellent training and professionalism of its graduates. Only in the recent few years among its graduates there are four prime ministers, vice prime ministers, ministers, a president of the National Assembly, many deputies, a President of the National Audit Office, a chief prosecutor, a lot of bankers, businessmen and many others.

Academic profile.

Under regular and distance form of education are trained more than 20,000 students at UNWE. There are 39 majors for bachelor's degree (in four of them – Economics, International Economic Relationships, Finance and Accounting, Business Informatics – the education is only in English) as well as over 40 graduate programmes.  The University has been awarded the Certificate of quality in education according to ISO 9001:2000.  UNWE is the coordinating university for Bulgaria in the Central European initiative for inter-university relationships and it is in collaboration with over 100 universities in Europe, the US and Asia.  The implemented credit system allows foreign students at UNWE to earn credits at the University, as well as current students at UNWE to graduate from foreign universities with a diploma.  The university issues an almanac, a yearbook and "Scientific Works", the scientific magazine "Economic Alternatives" and the "UNWE newspaper". The material facilities have been completely renovated in the recent years.

Campus.

The building of UNWE is a 41 thousand square metres built up area and there are 120 auditoriums, a lot of computer rooms, offices, laboratories, 367 study rooms, a modern library with 100 computer workstations and free Internet access, a ceremonial hall, some modern conference rooms, an electronic system of information services for students, a publishing house, a printing house, a bookshop, a website, a sports centre, dormitories for nearly 5000 students, health – educational facility in Ravda and many others.

Structure.

UNWE has 8 faculties and 32 departments.

Notable alumni.

Throughout its history, a sizeable number of UNWE alumni, have become notable in many varied fields, both academic and otherwise. Six Bulgarian Prime Ministers are graduates of the University of National and World Economy after the changes in 1989, including Prof. Lyuben Berov, Reneta Indzhova – the only female prime minister in Bulgarian history, Plamen Oresharski etc. Only in the last few governments of Bulgaria more than half of the cabinet ministers graduated from the University of National and World Economy. Since 1938, out of 23 Bulgarian Finance Ministers, only 5 of them have been persons who have not graduated or taught at UNWE.

The University of National and World Economy () is a university in Sofia, Bulgaria.

国家与世界经济大学(保加利亚语:Университет за национално и световно стопанство) 位于保加利亚的首都索菲亚。学校建立于1920年,至今已有95多年的历史,是保加利亚最大、最古老的经济类高等院校。


Background.

The "Chikuma"-class light cruisers were ordered as part of the 1907 Naval Expansion Program, based on lessons learned during the Russo-Japanese War. Along with the s, the "Chikuma" class was the first phase of a project to build a high speed navy based on the latest naval technologies.

Design.

The basic design of the "Chikuma"-class cruisers was modeled after the Royal Navy with some modifications and was also largely influenced by the design of the cruiser. The silhouette of the "Chikuma" class was readily distinguishable due to its four smokestacks. Contrary to many popular publications, the protection of the "Chikuma" class was similar to the "Tone" class, and they remained protected cruisers, without an armoured belt.  The "Chikuma"-class cruisers were the first high-speed turbine-driven cruisers in the Imperial Japanese Navy, which gave them much greater speed than previous cruiser designs. "Chikuma" and "Hirado" used the newly developed Curtiss turbines, which gave them a rated top speed of. During speed trials, they achieved 26.83 and 26.87 knots respectively. "Yahagi" was built with a Parsons-type turbine engine, and achieved 27.14 knots during speed trials. Although the class achieved its target of high speed, the new technology of the engines, especially issues with material strength and fatigue, led to maintenance issues.  In terms of armaments, the "Chikuma" class was unique in its use of a single caliber main battery. The class was armed with eight Type 41 6 inch 45 caliber naval gun, one each fore and aft, and three mounted in sponsons on each side of the hull. These guns were supplemented by four QF 12-pounder 12 cwt naval guns and two Lewis guns. In addition, each vessel was equipped with three torpedo launchers with torpedoes.  After 1919, two 8 cm/40 3rd Year Type naval gun were added for anti-aircraft defense abeam of the fourth funnel, replacing two of the 12-pounders in "Hirado" and three of the 12-pounders in "Yahagi" and "Chikuma".

Ships in class.

Three ships were budgeted for and completed under the 1907 Naval Expansion Program, one each from the Sasebo Naval Arsenal, Mitsubishi, Nagasaki and Kawasaki Shipbuilding, Kobe. All ships of the class served in World War I. "Yahagi" and "Hirado" served in the Second Sino-Japanese War and the first months of World War II, and were scrapped before the outbreak of the Pacific War. Launched on 1 April 1911 and completed on 17 May 1912 by the Sasebo Naval Arsenal, "Chikuma" participated in various operations in World War I in the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The ship was stricken on 1 April 1931, and expended as a target in 1935. Launched on 3 October 1911 and completed on 27 July 1912 by the Mitsubishi Nagasaki shipyards, "Yahagi" participated in various operations in World War I in the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean. The cruiser was later used during the Siberian Intervention and the opening stages of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The ship was stricken on 1 April 1940, its hulk serving as a barracks until 1943. Launched on 29 June 1911 and completed on 17 June 1912 by the Kawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation, Kobe Shipyards, "Hirado" participated in various operations in World War I in the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The cruiser was later used during the Siberian Intervention and the opening stages of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The ship was stricken on 1 April 1940, its hulk serving as a barracks until 1943.

The three were protected cruisers operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy. They participated in numerous actions during World War I.

筑摩级防护巡洋舰(日本海军官方名称“”)是旧日本海军自行设计、建造的最后一级防护巡洋舰。本级主要的防护手段依然是装甲甲板,属于防护巡洋舰;不过相比起之前的防护巡洋舰,防护水平得到了提升,属于从防护巡洋舰到更先进的轻巡洋舰的过渡型号,因此也有出版物分类为轻巡。本级采用了大量实验性的设计,其中最重要的是日本海军首次在巡洋舰上试验搭载了汽轮机。同时本级的2、3号舰也是日本海军第一次委托民间造船厂进行生产建造的大型军舰。


History.

In July 1924, during the international Eucharistic Congress in Amsterdam, 60 delegates from 22 countries formed a conference, with headquarters at Caritas Switzerland in Luzern. In 1928, the conference became known as Caritas Catholica. The delegates met every two years until the outbreak of the Second World War when all activities came to a standstill. Work resumed in 1947, with the approval of the Secretariat of State, and two conferences were convened in Luzern to help coordinate efforts and collaboration.  Caritas was given a further endorsement when the Secretariat of State entrusted it with the official representation of all welfare organizations at the international level, especially at the United Nations. The Holy Year in 1950 saw the beginning of a union of Caritas organizations. Following a suggestion by Monsignor Montini, then Substitute Secretary of State, and later Pope Paul VI, a study week, with participants from 22 countries, was held in Rome to examine the problems of Christian Caritas work. As a result, the decision was made to set up an international conference of Roman Catholic charities.  In December 1951, upon approval of the statutes by the Holy See, the first constitutive General Assembly of Caritas Internationalis took place. Founding members came from Caritas organizations in 13 countries: Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States. The Church describes Caritas as its official voice “in relation to its teachings in the area of charity work”.  In 1954, the Confederation changed its name to Caritas Internationalis to reflect the international presence of Caritas members on every continent. As of 2015, the Confederation has 164 members working in over 200 countries and territories. Its General Secretariat is located in the Palazzo San Callisto, Vatican City. The current president is Luis Antonio Cardinal Tagle and the Secretary General is Michel Roy.  After World War Two, Caritas was implicated in assisting Franz Stangl, a supervisor at the Hartheim Euthanasia Centre which was the early Nazi euthanasia programme responsible for the deaths of over 70,000 mentally ill or physically deformed people in Germany, in his escape to Syria. After Franz made his way to Rome from Linz, the Caritas relief agency provided him with a Red Cross passport and a boat ticket to Syria.

Caritas national and regional agencies.

The full membership list of Caritas organizations include:

Africa.

45 national agencies in Sub-Saharan Africa

Asia.

24 national agencies including:

Europe.

Caritas Europa with 48 national agencies including:

Oceania.

6 regional agencies, including:

Caritas Internationalis is a confederation of 165 Catholic relief, development and social service organizations operating in over 200 countries and territories worldwide.

国际明爱(),是由165个天主教公益团体组成的国际慈善、发展和社会服务组织,第一个成员团体在1897年11月9日于德国弗莱堡成立,随后开始在各国获得响应,最后终于在1950年由十三个国家的明爱团体组成了国际明爱会。