Hudson's Bay Company's claim of ownership.

When granted the English Royal Charter in 1670 by King Charles II of England, the Hudson’s Bay Company, under the governorship of the king's cousin Prince Rupert of the Rhine, was granted "the sole Trade and Commerce of all those Seas,, Bays, Rivers, Lakes, Creeks, and Sounds, in whatsoever Latitude they shall be, that lie within the entrance of the commonly called Hudson's, together with all the Lands, Countries and Territories, upon the Coasts and Confines of the Seas,, Bays, Lakes, Rivers, Creeks and Sounds, aforesaid, which are not now actually possessed by any of our Subjects, or by the Subjects of any other Christian Prince or State", "and that the said Land be from henceforth reckoned and reputed as one of our Plantations or Colonies in America, called "Rupert's Land"". The Royal Charter made the “Governor and Company..., and their Successors, the true and absolute Lords and Proprietors, of the same Territory, Limits and Places aforesaid, and of all other the Premisses ["sic"]", and granted them the authority “to erect and build such Castles, Fortifications, Forts, Garrisons, Colonies or Plantations, Towns or Villages, in any Parts or Places within the Limits and Bounds granted before in these Presents, unto the said Governor and Company, as they in their Discretion shall think fit and requisite". Following merger with the North West Company in 1821, the Hudson’s Bay Company's monopoly privileges and licence were extended to trade over the North-Western Territory.  The Rupert's Land Act 1868 of the United Kingdom Parliament authorized the sale of Rupert's Land to Canada with the understanding that Rupert's Land' shall include the whole of the Lands and Territories held or claimed to be held by the" Hudson's Bay Company. The prevailing attitude of the time was that Rupert’s Land was owned by the Hudson’s Bay Company because "From the beginning to the end, the [Hudson’s Bay Company] had always claimed up to the parallel 49", and argued that the Royal Charter and various Acts of Parliament granted them "all the regions under British dominion watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay". Rupert's Land had been essentially a private continental estate covering 3.9 million km in the heart of North America that stretched from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains, and from the prairies to the Arctic Circle. Even Sir John A. Macdonald saw the land as being sold to Canada: "No explanation has been made of the arrangement by which the country (Rupert's Land) is handed over to the Queen, and that it is her Majesty who transfers the country to Canada with the same rights to settlers as existed before. All these poor people know is that Canada has bought the Country from the Hudson's Bay Company, and that they are handed over like a flock of sheep to us."  However, this did not settle the issue of Aboriginal title over the land. At the time the Royal Charter was granted in 1670, the Crown did not have the authority to give jurisdiction of sovereignty over the territory already settled and inhabited by the indigenous people of North America. The Royal Charter ignored the First Nations who were already living on the land and exercising sovereignty over it, and the Hudson's Bay Company had not acquired title to the land from the Aboriginal communities prior to their negotiations with Canada that began in 1856. Due to the Royal Charter and the later Rupert's Land Act 1868, the Crown held the attitude that they already possessed the land, and that the treaties were a peaceful way to allow for settlement of the Northwest Territories in lands the Crown already owned. While the First Nations understood the treaties to be between nations to share the land (ownership of land was not a concept in First Nation's cultures), the Crown saw them as a way to ensure sovereignty over the land from a people who only had sovereignty as a "personal and usufructuary right, dependent upon the good will of the Sovereign" in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. "At the time of the discovery of America, and long after, it was an accepted rule that heathen and infidel nations were perpetual enemies, and that the Christian prince or people first discovering and taking possession of the country became its absolute proprietor, and could deal with the lands as such". The "Calder v British Columbia (AG)" case in 1973 was the first case in Canadian law that acknowledged "a declaration that the aboriginal title, otherwise known as the Indian title, of the plaintiffs to their ancient tribal territory hereinbefore described, has never been lawfully extinguished". This ruling has led to more Aboriginal land claim negotiations, and overhauled much of the process of addressing Aboriginal title to land that existed prior to colonization and confederation, and whether that title had been extinguished.

Fur trade.

In 1670, the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) was granted a charter by King Charles II, giving it a trading monopoly over the watershed of all rivers and streams flowing into Hudson Bay, an area known as "Rupert's Land" (named in honour of Prince Rupert of the Rhine, the king's cousin and the company's first governor). This covered an area of 3.9 million km (1.5 million sq mi), over one-third the area of Canada today.  The Hudson's Bay Company dominated trade in Rupert's Land during the 18th–19th centuries and drew on the local population for many of its employees. This necessarily meant the hiring of many First Nations and Métis workers. Fuchs (2002) discusses the activities of these workers and the changing attitudes that the company had toward them. George Simpson, one of the most noted company administrators, held a particularly dim view of mixed-blood workers and kept them from attaining positions in the company higher than postmaster. Later administrators, such as James Anderson and Donald Ross, sought avenues for the advancement of indigenous employees.  Morton (1962) reviews the pressures at work on that part of Rupert's Land where Winnipeg now stands, a decade before its incorporation into Canada. It was a region completely given over to the fur trade, divided between the Hudson's Bay Company and private traders, with some incursions by the rival North West Company based in Montreal. There was strong business and political agitation in Upper Canada for annexing the territory; in London the Company's trading license was due for review; in St. Paul there was a growing interest in the area as a field for U.S. expansion. The great commercial depression of 1857 dampened most of the outside interests in the territory, which itself remained comparatively prosperous.

Law.

Before 1835, the Hudson's Bay Company had no formal legal system in Rupert's Land, creating "courts" on an "ad hoc" basis. The Hudson's Bay Company's "laws" in the 17th century and 18th centuries had been the regulations settling out the rules governing the relationships between various employees in the company's posts in Rupert's Land and to interact with the native peoples. The 1670 charter granting the company control of Rupert's Land had said trials were to be conducted by the governor of Rupert's Land together with three of his councilors. There were only three cases before the 19th century with the one with the most detailed notes being the trial of one Thomas Butler in 1715 at the York Factory who was convicted of theft, slander and fornication with a native woman. In the early 19th century, the HBC had waged a violent struggle with the rival North West Company based in Montreal for the control of the fur trade culminating in the Seven Oaks Massacre of 1816, which led to an investigation by the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, and which in turn led to the Second Canada Jurisdiction Act of 1821, ordering the Hudson's Bay Company to establish justice of the peace courts in Rupert's Land. Instead of establishing courts, the company directed the governor and the council of Assiniboia to mediate disputes as they arose.  In 1839 the Hudson's Bay Company were convinced of the need to dispense formal justice throughout Rupert's Land and established a court at the Red River Colony, in the "District of Assiniboia", south of Lake Winnipeg. A Recorder and President of the Court would act as legal organizer, adviser, magistrate, and councillor and be responsible for the rationalization and formalization of Rupert's Land's judicial system. The first Recorder was Adam Thom, who held the post until 1854, although relieved of most of his duties by his deputy some years before. He was succeeded as President of the Court from 1862 to 1870 by John Black.  Baker (1999) uses the Red River Colony, the only non-native settlement on the northwest prairies for most of the 19th century, as a site for critical exploration of the meaning of "law and order" on the Canadian frontier and for an investigation of the sources from which legal history might be rewritten as the history of legal culture. Previous historians have assumed that the Hudson's Bay Company's representatives designed and implemented a local legal system dedicated instrumentally to the protection of the company's fur trade monopoly and, more generally, to strict control of settlement life in the company's interests. But this view is not borne out by archival research. Examination of Assiniboia's juridical institutions in action reveals a history formed less through the imposition of authority from above than by obtaining support from below. Baker shows that the legal history of the Red River Colony – and, by extension, of the Canadian West in general – is based on English common law.  Following the forced merger of the North West Company with the HBC in 1821, British Parliament applied the laws of Upper Canada to Rupert's Land and the Columbia District and gave enforcement power to the HBC. The Hudson's Bay Company maintained peace in Rupert's Land for the benefit of the fur trade; the Plains Indians had achieved a rough balance of power among themselves; the organization of the Métis provided internal security and a degree of external protection. This stable order broke down in the 1860s with the decline of the Hudson's Bay Company, smallpox epidemics and the arrival of American whiskey traders on the Great Plains, and the disappearance of the bison. The rule of law was, after the purchase of Rupert's Land by Canada, enforced by the North-West Mounted Police.

Missions.

Peake (1989) describes people, places, and activities that were involved in 19th-century Anglican missionary activities in the prairie areas of Rupert's Land, that huge portion of Canada controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company and inhabited by few Europeans. Early in the century, fur trade competition forced the company to expand into this interior region, and some officials saw advantages in allowing missionaries to accompany them. Officially they did not discriminate among denominations, but preference was often granted to the Anglicans of the Britain-based Church Missionary Society. The prairie missions extended from the area of 20th-century Winnipeg to the Mackenzie River delta in the north. Notable missionaries included Revd. John West, the first Protestant missionary to come to the area in 1820, David Anderson the first Bishop of Rupert's Land, the inept William Bompas and the Native American Anglican priests: Henry Budd, James Settee and Robert McDonald.  There were also Roman Catholic missions in Rupert's Land. One notable missionary was Alexandre-Antonin Taché, who both before and after his consecration as bishop worked as a missionary in Saint-Boniface, Île-à-la-Crosse, Fort Chipewyan and Fort Smith.

Hudson's Bay Company's surrender of its charter to the Crown.

In 1869–1870, the Hudson's Bay Company surrendered its charter to the British Crown, receiving £300,000 in compensation. While it is often said that Hudson's Bay "sold" Rupert's Land as well as the North-Western Territory, the company had no land to sell: its Charter was essentially for a trading monopoly enforceable on British subjects. Control was originally planned to be transferred on 1 December 1869, but due to the premature action of the new lieutenant governor, William McDougall, the people of Red River formed a provisional government that took control until arrangements could be negotiated by leaders of what is known as the Red River Resistance and the newly formed Government of Canada. As a result of the negotiations, Canada asserted control on 15 July 1870.  The transaction was three-cornered. On 19 November 1869, the company surrendered its charter under its letters patent to the British Crown, which was authorized to accept the surrender by the Rupert's Land Act. By order-in-council dated 23 June 1870, the British government admitted the territory to Canada, under s. 146 of the Constitution Act, 1867, effective 15 July 1870, subject to the making of treaties with the sovereign indigenous nations to provide their consent to the Imperial Crown to exercise its sovereignty pursuant to the limitations and conditions of the Rupert's Land documents and the treaties. Lastly, the Government of Canada compensated the Hudson's Bay Company £300,000 ($1.5 million) for the surrender of its charter on the terms set out in the order-in-council.  The company retained its most successful trading posts and one-twentieth of the lands surveyed for immigration and settlement.

Rupert's Land, or Prince Rupert's Land, was a territory in British North America comprising the Hudson Bay drainage basin, a territory in which a commercial monopoly was operated by the Hudson's Bay Company for 200 years from 1670 to 1870. The area once known as Rupert's Land is now mainly a part of Canada, but a small portion is now in the United States. It was named after Prince Rupert of the Rhine, a nephew of Charles I and the first Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC). In December 1821, the HBC monopoly was extended from Rupert's Land to the Pacific coast.

鲁珀特地,或鲁珀特王子地(Rupert's Land),是英属北美的一个地区,包括哈德森湾流域的大部分,在1670年至1870年的200年时间内名义上归哈德逊湾公司所有,实际上由大英帝国所统治。虽然同时在此地也居住着许多的原住民部落。过去的鲁珀特地如今主要位于加拿大,有一小部分位于美国。其名称来自于查理一世的侄子,第一任哈德逊湾公司总督莱茵的鲁珀特王子。1821年,哈德逊湾公司的垄断权从鲁珀特地扩展到了太平洋沿岸。


德累斯顿号小巡洋舰 (1907年)

Design.

"Dresden" was long overall with a beam of and a draft of forward. She displaced as designed and up to at full load. She had a crew of 18 officers and 343 enlisted men.  Her propulsion system consisted of two Parsons steam turbines, designed to give for a top speed of. The engines were powered by twelve coal-fired water-tube boilers. "Dresden" carried up to of coal, which gave her a range of at.  The ship was armed with ten 10.5 cm SK L/40 guns in single mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, six were located amidships, three on either side, and two were placed side by side aft. The guns could engage targets out to. They were supplied with 1,500 rounds of ammunition, for 150 shells per gun. The secondary battery comprised eight SK L/55 guns, with 4,000 rounds of ammunition. She was also equipped with two torpedo tubes with four torpedoes, mounted on the deck.  The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to thick. The conning tower had thick sides, and the guns were protected by thick shields.

Service history.

"Dresden" was ordered under the contract name "Ersatz". She was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in 1906 and launched on 5 October 1907. The Oberbürgermeister of her namesake city, Otto Beutler, christened the ship. Fitting-out work then commenced, and "Dresden" was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 14 November 1908. Following her commissioning, "Dresden" began her sea trials. On 28 November she accidentally collided with and sank the Swedish galeas "Cäcilie" outside Kiel. "Dresden"s starboard propeller shaft was shoved in, and she required six months of repair work. She resumed sea trials in 1909, but a turbine accident necessitated further repairs, which lasted until September.  Although "Dresden" had not completed the required testing, her trials were declared over on 7 September, as she had been ordered to visit the United States. The purpose of the voyage was to represent Germany at the Hudson–Fulton Celebration in New York; "Dresden" was joined by the protected cruisers and and the light cruiser. "Dresden" left Wilhelmshaven on 11 September and stopped in Newport, where she met the rest of the ships of the squadron. The ships arrived in New York on 24 September, remained there until 9 October, and arrived back in Germany on 22 October. "Dresden" then joined the reconnaissance force for the High Seas Fleet; the following two years consisted of the peacetime routine of squadron exercises, training cruises, and annual fleet exercises. On 16 February 1910, she collided with the light cruiser. The collision caused significant damage to "Dresden", though no one on either vessel was injured. She made it back to Kiel for repairs, which lasted eight days. "Dresden" visited Hamburg on 13–17 May that year. From 14 to 20 April 1912, she was temporarily transferred to the Training Squadron, along with the armored cruiser and the light cruiser. For the year 1911–12, "Dresden" won the Kaiser's Schießpreis (Shooting Prize) for excellent gunnery amongst the light cruisers of the High Seas Fleet. From September 1912 through September 1913, she was commanded by "Fregattenkapitän" (Frigate Captain) Fritz Lüdecke, who would command the ship again during World War I.  On 6 April 1913, she and the cruiser were sent from Kiel to the Adriatic Sea, where she joined the "Mittelmeer-Division" (Mediterranean Division), centered on the battlecruiser and commanded by "Konteradmiral" (Rear Admiral) Konrad Trummler. The ships cruised the eastern Mediterranean for several months, and in late August, "Dresden" was ordered to return to Germany. After arriving in Kiel on 23 September, she was taken into the "Kaiserliche Werft" (Imperial Shipyard) for an overhaul that lasted until the end of December. She was scheduled to return to the Mediterranean Division, but the "Admiralstab" (Admiralty Staff) reassigned "Dresden" to the North American station to protect German interests in the Mexican Revolution. The cruiser "Bremen", then in North American waters, was also due to return to Germany, but her intended replacement,, had not yet entered service. On 27 December 1913, "Dresden" departed Germany and arrived off Vera Cruz on 21 January 1914, under the command of "Fregattenkapitän" Erich Köhler. The United States had already sent a squadron of warships to the city, as had several other countries. The "Admiralstab" ordered "Hertha", which had been on a training cruise for naval cadets, to join "Dresden" off Mexico. "Bremen" was also recalled to reinforce the German naval contingent; after arriving, she was tasked with transferring European nationals to German HAPAG liners. "Dresden" and the British cruiser rescued 900 American citizens trapped in a hotel in Vera Cruz and transferred them to American warships. The German consul in Mexico City requested additional forces, and so "Dresden" provided a landing party of a "maat" (Junior Petty Officer) and ten sailors, armed with two MG 08 machine guns. On 15 April 1914, "Dresden" steamed to Tampico on Mexico's Caribbean coast. That month, the German-flagged merchant ship arrived in Mexico, carrying a load of small arms for the regime of Mexican dictator Victoriano Huerta. The United States had put an arms embargo into effect in an attempt to reduce the violence of the civil war. The US Navy intercepted "Ypiranga" on 21 April. "Dresden" arrived, confiscated the merchantman, and pressed her into naval service to transport German refugees out of Mexico. Despite the American embargo, the Germans delivered the weapons and ammunition to the Mexican government on 28 May.  On 20 July, after the Huerta regime was toppled, "Dresden" carried Huerta, his vice president, Aureliano Blanquet, and their families to Kingston, Jamaica, where Britain had granted them asylum. Upon arriving in Kingston on the 25th, Köhler learned of the rising political tensions in Europe during the July Crisis that followed the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. By this time, the ship was in need of a refit in Germany, and met with her replacement, "Karlsruhe", in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, the following day. Lüdecke, who had arrived in command of "Karlsruhe", traded places with Köhler aboard "Dresden". The "Admiralstab" initially ordered "Dresden" to return to Germany for overhaul, but the heightened threat of war by the 31st led the staff to countermand the order, instead instructing Lüdecke to prepare to conduct "Handelskrieg" (trade war) in the Atlantic.

World War I.

After receiving the order to remain in the Atlantic, Lüdecke turned his ship south while maintaining radio silence to prevent hostile warships from discovering his vessel. On the night of 4–5 August, he received a radio report informing him of Britain's declaration of war on Germany. He chose the South Atlantic as "Dresden"s operational area, and steamed to the Brazilian coast. Off the mouth of the Amazon River, he stopped a British merchant ship on 6 August. The ship,, whose captain professed to know nothing of Britain's entry into the war, was permitted to proceed unmolested in accordance with the rules set forth in the Hague Convention of 1907. "Dresden" rendezvoused with the German collier, a converted HSDG vessel. The cruiser moved to the Rocas Atoll on the 12th, along with the HAPAG steamers,, and. After departing the atoll, en route to Trinidade, "Dresden" caught the British steamer ; Lüdecke took off the ship's crew and then sank the merchantman. "Dresden" captured the British collier on 24 August and sank her after evacuating her crew. After arriving in Trinidade, she rendezvoused with the gunboat and several steamers.  On 26 August, while steaming off the mouth of the Río de la Plata, she caught two more British steamers, but the poor condition of "Dresden"s engines curtailed further operations. On 5 September, "Dresden" put into Hoste Island for engine maintenance until the 16th. While the ship was there, the HAPAG steamer arrived from Punta Arenas with news of the war, and the heavy merchant traffic off the western coast of South America. Lüdecke decided to steam there, and on 18 September "Dresden" passed the Strait of Magellan. While en route, "Dresden" encountered the French steamer ; Lüdecke refrained from attacking the transport ship, since she had fled into neutral waters. After steaming up the Chilean coast, she stopped in the Juan Fernández Islands, where she made radio contact with the light cruiser, which was operating on the Pacific coast of South America. "Dresden" saw no further success against British shipping, and on 12 October, she joined "Vizeadmiral" (Vice Admiral) Maximilian von Spee's East Asia Squadron, which had crossed the Pacific and was coaling at Easter Island. The following day, Lüdecke was promoted to "Kapitän zur See" (Captain at Sea).  On 18 October, "Dresden" and the East Asia Squadron, centered on the armored cruisers and, departed Easter Island for the South American coast. They arrived at Más a Fuera island on 26 October. The following evening, the German cruisers escorted the auxiliary cruiser and the merchant ships and to Chile. The flotilla arrived off Valparaiso on 30 October, and the following evening, Spee received intelligence that a British cruiser was at the Chilean port of Coronel. Spee decided that his squadron should ambush the cruiser——when it was forced to leave port due to Chile's neutral status, which required belligerent warships to leave after twenty-four hours. Spee did not realize that "Glasgow" was in the company of Rear Admiral Christopher Craddock's 4th Cruiser Squadron, which also included the armored cruisers and and the auxiliary cruiser.

Battle of Coronel.

Early on the morning of 1 November, Spee took his squadron out of Valparaiso, steaming at south toward Coronel. At around 16:00, "Leipzig" spotted the smoke column from the leading British cruiser. By 16:25, the other two ships had been spotted. The two squadrons slowly closed the distance, until the Germans opened fire at 18:34, at a range of. The German ships engaged their opposite numbers, with "Dresden" firing on "Otranto". After "Dresden"s third salvo, "Otranto" turned away; the Germans claimed a hit that caused a fire, though "Otranto" reported taking no damage. Following "Otranto"s departure, "Dresden" shifted her fire to "Glasgow", which was also targeted by "Leipzig". The two German cruisers hit their British opponent five times.  At around 19:30, Spee ordered "Dresden" and "Leipzig" to launch a torpedo attack against the damaged British armored cruisers. "Dresden" increased speed to position herself off the British bows, and briefly spotted "Glasgow" as she was withdrawing, but the British cruiser disappeared in the haze and gathering darkness. "Dresden" then encountered "Leipzig"; both ships initially thought the other was hostile. "Dresden"s crew was loading a torpedo when the two ships confirmed each other's identity. By 22:00, "Dresden" and the other two light cruisers were deployed in a line that searched unsuccessfully for the British cruisers. "Dresden" had emerged from the battle completely unscathed.  On 3 November, Spee took "Scharnhorst", "Gneisenau", and "Nürnberg" back to Valparaiso for provisioning and to consult with the "Admiralstab". Neutrality laws permitted only three belligerent warships in a port at a given time. "Dresden" and "Leipzig" remained with the squadron's colliers in Más a Fuera. Spee returned to Más a Fuera on 6 November, and detached "Dresden" and "Leipzig" for a visit to Valparaiso, where they also restocked their supplies. The two cruisers arrived on 12 November, left the following day, and met the rest of the squadron at sea on 18 November. Three days later, the squadron anchored in St. Quentin Bay in the Gulf of Penas, where they coaled. The Royal Navy had deployed Vice Admiral Doveton Sturdee's pair of battlecruisers, and, to hunt down the German squadron. They left Britain on 11 November, and arrived in the Falkland Islands on 7 December. There, they joined the armored cruisers,, and, and the light cruisers "Glasgow" and.  On 26 November, the German East Asia Squadron left St. Quentin Bay, bound for the Atlantic. On 2 December, they caught the Canadian sailing ship "Drummuir", which was carrying of high-grade Cardiff coal. The following morning, the Germans anchored off Picton Island, where they unloaded the coal from "Drummuir" into their own auxiliaries. On the morning of 6 December, Spee held a council aboard "Scharnhorst" to discuss their next moves. With the support of the captains of "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau", he successfully argued for an attack on the Falklands to destroy the British wireless station and coal stocks there. Lüdecke and the captains of "Leipzig" and "Nürnberg" all opposed the plan, and were in favor of bypassing the Falklands and proceeding to the La Plata area to continue to raid British shipping.

Battle of the Falkland Islands.

On the afternoon of 6 December, the German ships departed Picton Island, bound for the Falklands. On 7 December, they rounded Tierra del Fuego and turned north into the Atlantic. They arrived off the Falklands at around 02:00; three hours later, Spee detached "Gneisenau" and "Nürnberg" to land a party ashore. By 08:30, the ships were approaching Port Stanley, when they noticed thick columns of smoke rising from the harbor. After closing to the harbor entrance, they quickly realized they were confronted by a much more powerful squadron, which was just getting up steam. Spee immediately broke off the operation and turned east to flee before the British ships could catch his squadron. By 10:45, "Gneisenau" and "Nürnberg" had rejoined the fleet, and the German auxiliaries were detached to seek shelter in the maze of islands off Cape Horn.  The British ships set off in pursuit, and by 12:50, Sturdee's two battlecruisers had overtaken the Germans. A minute later, he gave the order to open fire at the trailing German ship, "Leipzig". Spee ordered the three small cruisers to try to escape to the south, while he turned back with "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" in an attempt to hold off the British squadron. Sturdee had foreseen this possibility, and so had ordered his armored and light cruisers to pursue the German light cruisers. The battlecruisers quickly overwhelmed Spee's armored cruisers, and destroyed them with heavy loss of life. "Dresden", with her turbine engines, was able to outpace her pursuers, and was the only German warship to escape destruction. Lüdecke decided to take his ship into the islands off South America to keep a steady supply of coal available.  On 9 December, she passed back around Cape Horn to return to the Pacific. That day, she anchored in Sholl Bay, with only 160 t (160 long tons; 180 short tons) of coal aboard. "Oberleutnant zur See" (lieutenant at sea) Wilhelm Canaris convinced the Chilean naval representative for the region to permit "Dresden" to remain in the area for an extra twenty-four hours so enough coal could be taken aboard to reach Punta Arenas. She arrived there on 12 December, and received of coal from a German steamer. The "Admiralstab" hoped that "Dresden" would be able to break through to the Atlantic and return to Germany, but the poor condition of her engines precluded this. Lüdecke instead decided to attempt to cross the Pacific via Easter Island, the Solomon Islands, and the Dutch East Indies and raid commerce in the Indian Ocean. "Dresden" took on another of coal on 19 January. On 14 February, "Dresden" left the islands off the South American coast for the South Pacific. On 27 February, the cruiser captured the British barque "Conway Castle" south of Más a Tierra. From December to February, the German liner had supplied "Dresden" and had accompanied her northward to a final coaling at Juan Fernández Islands just before the cruiser was sunk.  On 8 March, "Dresden" was drifting in dense fog when lookouts spotted "Kent", which also had her engines off, about away. Both ships immediately raised steam, and "Dresden" escaped after a five-hour chase. The strenuous effort depleted her coal stocks and overtaxed her engines. Lüdecke decided that his ship was no longer operational, and determined to have his ship interned to preserve it. The following morning, she put into Más a Fuera, dropping anchor in Cumberland Bay at 8:30. The following day, Lüdecke received by wireless the Kaiser's permission to let "Dresden" be interned, and so Lüdecke informed the local Chilean official of his intention to do so.

Battle of Más a Tierra.

On the morning of 14 March, "Kent" and "Glasgow" approached Cumberland Bay; their appearance was relayed back to "Dresden" by one of her pinnaces, which had been sent to patrol the entrance to the bay. "Dresden" was unable to maneuver, owing to her fuel shortage, and Lüdecke signaled that his ship was no longer a combatant. The British disregarded this message, as well as a Chilean vessel that approached them as they entered the bay. "Glasgow" opened fire, in violation of Chile's neutrality; Britain had already informed Chile that British warships would disregard international law if they located "Dresden" in Chilean territorial waters. Shortly thereafter, "Kent" joined in the bombardment as well. The German gunners fired off three shots in response, but the guns were quickly knocked out by British gunfire.  Lüdecke sent the signal "Am sending negotiator" to the British warships, and dispatched Canaris in a pinnace; "Glasgow" continued to bombard the defenseless cruiser. In another attempt to stop the attack, Lüdecke raised the white flag, which prompted "Glasgow" to cease fire. Canaris came aboard to speak with Captain John Luce; the former strongly protested the latter's violation of Chile's neutrality. Luce simply replied that he had his orders, and demanded an unconditional surrender. Canaris explained that "Dresden" had already been interned by Chile, and thereafter returned to his ship, which had in the meantime been prepared for scuttling.  At 10:45, the scuttling charge detonated in the bow and exploded the forward ammunition magazines. The bow was badly mangled; in about half an hour, the ship had taken on enough water to sink. As it struck the sea floor, the bow was torn from the rest of the ship, which rolled over to starboard. As the rest of the hull settled below the waves, a second scuttling charge exploded in the ship's engine rooms.

Aftermath.

Most of the ship's crew managed to escape; only eight men were killed in the attack, with another twenty-nine wounded. The British auxiliary cruiser took fifteen severely wounded men to Valparaiso; four of them died. The destruction of his ship had left Lüdecke in shock, and so Canaris took responsibility for the fate of the ship's crew. They remained on the island for five days until two Chilean warships brought a German passenger ship to take the men to Quiriquina Island, where they were interned for the duration of the war. Canaris escaped from the internment camp on 5 August 1915 and reached Germany exactly two months later. On 31 March 1917, a small group of men escaped on the Chilean barque "Tinto"; the voyage back to Germany lasted 120 days. The rest of the crew did not return to Germany until 1920.  The wreck lies at a depth of. In 2002, the first survey of the wreck was done by a team led by James P. Delgado for the "Sea Hunters" documentary produced by the National Underwater and Marine Agency. The team included the archaeologist Dr. Willi Kramer, the first German to visit the wreck since she sank 88 years before. "Dresden" lies on her starboard side pointed north, toward the beach. The wreck is heavily damaged; much of the upper works, including the bridge, the masts, the funnels, and many of the guns have been torn from the ship. The bow has been cut off by the scuttling charges detonated by the ship's crew, and sits upright on the sea floor. The stern is also badly damaged, with the main deck blasted away and many shell holes in the ship's side. Some of the damage to the aft of the ship appears to have been done by an undocumented salvage operation before Delgado's survey. According to German records, "Dresden" was carrying gold coins from their colony at Tsingtau; Delgado speculated that this salvage work was an attempt to retrieve these.  In 1965, the ship's compass and several flags were recovered and returned to Germany, where they are held at the German Naval Academy Mürwik in Flensburg-Mürwik. In 2006, Chilean and German divers found and recovered "Dresden"s bell, which is now in Germany. CS Forester's novel "Brown on Resolution", and two subsequent movies, were inspired by the "Dresden"s escape and subsequent destruction.

SMS "Dresden" ("His Majesty's Ship "Dresden"") was a German light cruiser built for the "Kaiserliche Marine" (Imperial Navy), the lead ship of her class. She was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in 1906, launched in October 1907, and completed in November 1908. Her entrance into service was delayed by accidents during sea trials, including a collision with another vessel that necessitated major repairs. Like the preceding cruisers upon which her design was based, "Dresden" was armed with ten SK L/40 guns and two torpedo tubes.

陛下之舰德累斯顿号()是德意志帝国所建造的两艘德累斯顿级小巡洋舰的首舰,以萨克森首府德累斯顿命名。它由汉堡的布洛姆-大众船厂承建,于1906年开始、1907年10月、至1908年11月完工。舰只投入使用的时间因在海上试航期间接连发生的意外而被迫推迟,其中包括它与另一艘需要进行大修的船舶发生了碰撞。与此前的柯尼斯堡级一样,德累斯顿号的主舰炮包括有十门105毫米40倍径速射炮和两具450毫米鱼雷发射管。


Early life and background.

Nargis was born as Fatima Rashid in Calcutta, Bengal Presidency, British Indian Empire (now Kolkata, West Bengal, India) in a Punjabi Muslim family. Her father Abdul Rashid, formerly Mohanchand Uttamchand ("Mohan Babu"), was originally a wealthy Punjabi Hindu heir from Rawalpindi, Punjab Province who had converted to Islam. Her mother was Jaddanbai, a Hindustani classical music singer and one of the early pioneers of Indian cinema. Nargis' family then moved from Punjab to Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. She introduced Nargis into the movie culture unfolding in India at the time. Nargis' maternal half-brother, Anwar Hussain (1928–1988), also became a film actor.

Career.

Fatima made her first film appearance in the 1935 film "Talashe Haq" when she was six years old, credited as "Baby Nargis". Nargis ( ) is a Persian word meaning Narcissus, the daffodil flower. She was subsequently credited as "Nargis" in all of her films.  Nargis appeared in numerous films after her debut. In 1943 at the age of 14, she appeared in Mehboob Khan's "Taqdeer," opposite Motilal. She starred in many Hindi films of the late 1940s and 1950s such as "Barsaat" (1949), Andaz (1949), "Jogan" (1950), "Awaara" (1951), "Deedar" (1951), "Anhonee" (1952), "Shree 420" (1955), and "Chori Chori" (1956). She appeared in Mehboob Khan's Oscar-nominated epic drama "Mother India" in 1957, for which she won the Filmfare Best Actress Award for her performance. Baburao Patel of the film magazine, "Filmindia" (December 1957), described "Mother India" as "the greatest picture produced in India" and wrote that no other actress would have been able to perform the role as well as Nargis.  After her marriage to Sunil Dutt in 1958, Nargis gave up her film career to settle down with her family, after her last few films were released. She made her last film appearance in the 1967 film "Raat Aur Din". The film was well received and Nargis' performance as a woman who has dissociative identity disorder was critically acclaimed. For this role she won a National Film Award for Best Actress and became the first actress to win in this category. She also received a Filmfare Best Actress Award nomination for this film.  In 2011, Rediff.com listed her as the greatest actress of all time, stating, "An actress with range, style, grace and an incredibly warm screen presence, Nargis is truly a leading lady to celebrate." M.L. Dhawan from "The Tribune" said, "In almost all her films Nargis created a woman who could be desired and deified. The charisma of Nargis's screen image lay in that it oscillated between the simple and the chic with equal ease."  She was also nominated to the Rajya Sabha (Upper house of Indian Parliament) from 1980–81 but due to cancer she fell ill and died during her tenure.

Personal life.

Nargis had a long-time relationship with actor Raj Kapoor, who was her co-star in the films "Awara" and "Shree 420". Raj Kapoor was married and had children. After he refused to divorce his wife, Nargis ended their nine-year-long relationship.  Nargis married actor Sunil Dutt (a Punjabi Hindu from Jhelum district, British India) on 11 March 1958. Reportedly, Dutt had saved her life from a fire on the sets of "Mother India". They married on 11 March 1958. She converted to Hinduism on her marriage. Three children were born from their union: Sanjay, Namrata, and Priya.  Sanjay went on to become a successful film actor. Namrata married actor Kumar Gaurav, son of veteran actor Rajendra Kumar who had appeared alongside Nargis and Sunil Dutt in "Mother India". Priya became a politician and a Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha).  With her husband, Nargis formed the Ajanta Arts Cultural Troupe, which involved several leading actors and singers of the time, and performed at remote frontiers to entertain the Indian soldiers at border. It was the first troupe to perform in Dhaka, after the liberation war of Bangladesh in 1971. Later, Nargis worked for the cause of spastic children. She became the first patron of The Spastics Society of India. Her charitable work for the organisation got her recognition as a social worker.

Death.

Nargis was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in 1980 and underwent treatment for the disease at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York. Upon her return to India, her condition deteriorated and she was admitted at Breach Candy Hospital in Bombay. Nargis went into coma on 2 May 1981 after she became seriously ill and died the next day. On 7 May 1981, at the premiere of her son's debut film "Rocky", one seat was kept vacant for her.  Nargis was buried at Badakabarastan in Marine Lines, Mumbai. A street in Bandra, Mumbai, was renamed Nargis Dutt Road in her memory.  One year after her death, The Nargis Dutt Memorial Cancer Foundation (Barshi Maharashtra) was established by Sunil Dutt in her memory. Though Nargis' death was widely attributed to cancer, her daughter Namrata shared that she had successfully fought the pancreatic cancer but died from a urinary tract infection. Her son Sanjay added that her lowered immunity levels made her susceptible to the infection.

Legacy.

Nargis was played by actress Manisha Koirala in the film "Sanju", the biopic of her son, Sanjay Dutt. The film is ranked as one of the highest grossing Indian film of 2018. Feryna Wazheir played her character in the film "Manto".

Awards and recognitions.

A postal stamp of face value 100 paise was issued by India Post was issued in Nargis' honour on 30 December 1993. Google celebrated Nargis Dutt on her 86th birthday on 1 June 2015.  The National Film Awards honoured Dutt by instituting the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration upon her achievement in Hindi Cinema.

Nargis Dutt (born Fatima Rashid; 1 June 1929 – 3 May 1981), also known by her stage name Nargis, was an Indian film actress, who starred in classic films of Bollywood. Regarded as one of the greatest actress in the history of Hindi cinema, she made her screen debut in a minor role at the age of 5 with "Talash-E-Haq" (1935), but her acting career actually began with the film "Tamanna" (1942).

纳吉丝(印地语: नर्गिस, 乌尔都语: نرگس)是活跃于二十世纪中期的印度演员,她最成功的表演作品是在由梅赫布·罕导演的电影《印度母亲》中的拉达。中国观众所最熟悉的角色是由拉吉·卡浦尔导演的电影《流浪者》中的丽达,至今为年长者所津津乐道。


Systematics.

"C. insculpta" is the only living member of the genus "Carettochelys", the subfamily Carettochelyinae, and the family Carettochelyidae, though several extinct carettochelyid species have been described from around the world. Some literature claims two subspecies, but a recent paper rejects this.

Description.

The pig-nosed turtle is unlike any other species of freshwater turtle. The feet are flippers, resembling those of marine turtles. The nose looks like that of a pig, having the nostrils at the end of a fleshy snout, hence the common name. The carapace is typically grey or olive, with a leathery texture, while the plastron is cream-coloured. Males can be distinguished from females by their longer and narrower tails. Pig-nosed turtles can grow to about carapace length, with a weight of over. Unlike the soft-shelled turtles of the family Trionychidae, pig-nosed turtles retain a domed bony carapace beneath their leathery skin, rather than a flat plate. They also retain a solid plastron, connected to the carapace by a strong bony bridge, rather than the soft margin of the trionychids.

Behavior.

Pig-nosed turtles are not completely aquatic. Little is known about their general behaviour, as there have been few studies in the wild. Their known extreme aggression in captivity suggests the species is markedly more territorial than most other turtles and tortoises. They seem to display a degree of social structure during the cooler dry season around the hydrothermal vents that line some river systems they inhabit.

Feeding.

"C. insculpta" is omnivorous, eating a wide variety of plant and animal matter, including the fruit and leaves of figs, as well as crustaceans, molluscs and insects.

Breeding.

Females of "C. insculpta" reach maturity at 18 or more years, and males around 16 years. They lay their eggs late in the dry season on sandy river banks. When the offspring are fully developed, they will stay inside the eggs in hibernation until conditions are suitable for emergence. Hatching may be triggered when the eggs have been flooded with water or by a sudden drop in air pressure signaling an approaching storm.  Using environmental triggers, along with vibrations created by other hatching turtles in the same clutch, gives a better chance for survival. Using a universal trigger rather than simply waiting for incubation to finish means they all hatch at the same time. This provides safety in numbers; also, the more turtles that hatch, the more help they have to dig through the sand to the surface.

Geographic range and habitat.

"C. insculpta" is native to freshwater streams, lagoons and rivers of the Northern Territory of Australia, as well as to the island of New Guinea, where it is believed to occur in all the larger, and some smaller, southward-flowing rivers.

Status and conservation.

"C. insculpta" experienced a population decline of more than 50% in the thirty years between 1981 and 2011. Although the turtles are protected in Indonesia under Law No. 5/1990 on Natural Resources and Ecosystems Conservation, smuggling occurs. Some 11,000 turtles captured from smugglers were released into their habitats in the Wania River, Papua Province, Indonesia, on 30 December 2010. In March 2009, more than 10,000 turtles retrieved from smugglers were also released into the Otakwa River in Lorentz National Park. 687 pig-nosed turtles were seized at an Indonesian airport in March 2013. They were reportedly destined for Hong Kong.

Captive care.

Pig-nosed turtles have become available through the exotic pet trade, with a few instances of captive breeding. While juveniles are small and grow slowly, their high cost and large potential size makes them suitable only for experienced aquatic turtle keepers. They tend to be shy and prone to stress. They get sick easily, which can cause problems with their feeding, but they are known to eat commercially available processed turtle pellets or trout chow, as well as various fruits and vegetables. Breeding is rarely an option to the hobbyist, as adults are highly aggressive and will attack each other in all but the largest enclosures.  Wild populations of this turtle are declining rapidly because of illegal capture for the pet trade. It is estimated that between 2003 and 2013, more than 80,000 individuals were confiscated in 30 seizures in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia.

The pig-nosed turtle ("Carettochelys insculpta"), also known as the pitted-shelled turtle or Fly River turtle, is a species of turtle native to northern Australia and southern New Guinea.

猪鼻龟(学名:"Carettochelys insculpta"),亦称飞河龟及大洋洲猪鼻龟,是两爪鳖科两爪鳖属的唯一一种。


Traditional sources for Hwarang.

Information on the Hwarang are mainly found in the historiographical works "Samguk Sagi" (1145) and "Samgungnyusa" (c. 1285), and the partially extant "Haedong Goseungjeon" (1215), a compilation of biographies of famous monks of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.  All three of these works cite primary sources no longer existent, including: 1) a memorial stele to Nallang (presumably a Hwarang based upon the suffix "nang") by the 9th–10th century Silla scholar Choe Chiwon; 2) an early Tang account of Silla titled the "Xinluo guoji" by the Tang official Ling Hucheng; and 3) "Hwarang Segi" (, "Chronicle of the Hwarang") by Kim Dae-mun, compiled in the early eighth century. In the late 1980s, an alleged "Hwarang Segi" manuscript was discovered in Gimhae, South Korea, of which scholar Richard McBride regards as a forgery.

History.

Wonhwa.

According to the "Samguk Sagi" and "Samgungnyusa", two bands of females called Wonhwa (,, "original flowers") preceded the Hwarang. The precise nature and activities of the Wonhwa are also unclear, with some scholars positing they may have actually been court beauties or courtesans. However, considering that they were trained in ethics, this may be a later patriarchal reading into the Wonhwa. Women played a much more prominent social role in pre-Joseon Korea, especially in Silla, which had three reigning queens in its history.  Both sources record that during the reign of Jinheung of Silla, groups of beautiful girls were chosen and taught filial and fraternal piety, loyalty, and sincerity (no firm date is given for this, and some scholars express doubt this even occurred during Jinheung‘s reign). However, the leaders of the two bands of Wonhwa, Nammo (南毛) and Junjeong (俊貞), grew jealous of one another. When Junjeong murdered her rival, the Wonhwa were disbanded. This origin story is most likely based on myth and legend, as the term "wonhwa" is composed of won 源, "source", and undoubtedly refers to the founders of the sect, while hwa 花, "flower", is a euphemism for someone who has spent a great deal of time or money in the pursuit of something, i.e. a devotee. In the case of the Wonhwa, devotion to philosophy and the arts. Furthermore, while the names "nammo" and "junjeong" could have been appellations adopted by these two ladies for use in court, one cannot overlook the obvious descriptions they portray. "Nammo" hints at one who is careless yet lucky, or perhaps someone who is innately insightful and therefore lackadaisical about further erudition. "Junjeung" clearly indicates a person who is talented and virtuous, despite the fact that she was the one who succumbed to homicidal tendencies. It would be logical to assume that if someone had to work hard, maybe even struggle with attaining certain goals, that envy might consume them if their counterpart, especially if viewed more as a rival, seemed to reach the same objectives with substantially less effort.

Origins of the Hwarang.

Although some historians believe that the Hwarang played a big part in the unification of the Three Kingdoms, some historians are unclear about the role that the Hwarang played in the unification; An excerpt about Sadaham in the Samguk Sagi. According to the "Samguk Yusa", the Silla king, "concerned about the strengthening of the country... again issued a decree and chose boys from good families who were of good morals and renamed them "hwarang"." The actual word used in this chronicle is "hwanang" (花娘), meaning "flower girls". This suggests that the Hwarang were not originally military in character, as the Wonhwa were not soldiers.  The youths who were chosen by the Silla Kingdom became the knights and warriors for the Silla Dynasty within the age of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. A close relationship did exist between the Hwarang and Buddhism because Buddhism was accepted as a state religion by the royalty and aristocrats within the Silla Kingdom. The Buddhist monks were often mentors for the Hwarang in both physical and spiritual ways. The Hwarang would seek the teachings of these Buddhist monks because they knew that the martial arts practiced by these Buddhist monks were a source through which they could strengthen themselves for greater success in the future and for the benefit of the Silla Kingdom. The monks would train themselves in physical fitness exercises through self-defense techniques, countering the weakening effects of long-term meditation and enabling them to protect themselves from bandits and robbers who tried to steal the donations and charities that were collected by the monks on their pilgrimages. Both the Buddhist monks and the Hwarang would go on journeys to famous mountains to heighten their training and would seek encounters with supernatural beings for protection and the success of the Silla Kingdom. Won Gwang Beop Sa (圓光法士) was a Buddhist monk who was asked by the Hwarang to teach them ways to develop ambition, bravery, and honor, in order to protect the Silla Kingdom from the other kingdoms inhabiting the peninsula. Won Gwang trained these youths in three areas:  Won Gwang taught the youths of the Hwarang to become warriors who could defend their beliefs with martial arts, to be confident in their actions, and to control themselves and their surroundings. Won Gwang gave to these Hwarang teachings in gwonbeop (martial methods or skills) that combined the secret Buddhist monk's physical and mental exercises. Won Gwang also proposed 5 principles or guidelines that were later called the "Five Precepts for Secular Life" (Se Sok O Gye; 세속오계; 世俗五戒) which became a list of ethics that the Hwarang could embrace (this is why he is commonly known as "Beop Sa" or "lawgiver"):  These commandments and teachings of Won Gwang were followed by the Hwarang to protect the Silla Kingdom from rivaling kingdoms and helped unify the nation of Ancient Korea until the fall of the Silla Kingdom.  In 520, King Beopheung had instituted Sino-Korean style reforms and formalized the golpum (bone rank) system. In 527, Silla formally adopted Buddhism as a state religion. The establishment of Hwarang took place in the context of tightening central state control, a complement to the "golpum" system and a symbol of harmony and compromise between the king and the aristocracy.

Evolution.

With the consolidation and expansion of Silla and intensification of military rivalries among the Three Kingdoms in the 6th century, the Silla court took a more active interest in the Hwarang. Hwarang groups were usually led by a youth of aristocratic standing, and the state appointed a high-ranking official to oversee the organization.  The Hwarang in the later 6th and 7th centuries trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship, archery, javelin and stone throwing, polo, and ladder-climbing. By the seventh century the organization had grown greatly in prestige and numbered several hundred bands.  The "Samguk Sagi", compiled by the general and official Gim Busik, emphasizes the military exploits of certain Hwarang, while the "Samgungnyusa" emphasizes the group's Buddhist activities. The biographies section of the "Samguk Sagi" describes young Hwarang who distinguished themselves in the struggles against the Gaya confederacy and later Baekje and Goguryeo. According to the "Hwarang Segi", as cited in the "Samguk Sagi" and "Haedong Goseungjeon", “...able ministers and loyal subjects are chosen from them, and good generals and brave soldiers are born therefrom.”  The Hwarang were greatly influenced by Buddhist, Confucian, and Daoist ideals. A Chinese official recorded, "They [Silla] choose fair sons from noble families and deck them out with cosmetics and fine clothes and call them Hwarang. The people all revere and serve them."

Five commandments.

Two youths, Gwisan (귀산,貴山) and Chwihang (취항, 取項), approached the Silla monk Won Gwang (원광, 圓光) seeking spiritual guidance and teaching, saying, “We are ignorant and without knowledge. Please give us a maxim which will serve to instruct us for the rest of our lives.”  Won Gwang, who had gained fame for his period of study in Sui China, replied by composing the "Sesok-ogye" ("Five Commandments for Secular Life"; 세속 오계; 世俗五戒). These have since been attributed as a guiding ethos for the Hwarang:  The "Samguk Yusa" also records that Hwarang members learned the Five Cardinal Confucian Virtues, the Six Arts, the Three Scholarly Occupations, and the Six Ways of Government Service (五常六藝 三師六正).

Other uses.

Following the fall of Silla, the term "hwarang" survived and changed in meaning again. In Choe Sejin (최세진)'s 1527 book "Hunmong jahoe" (훈몽자회), the term "hwarang" is even referred to as a male prostitute. Today, Hwarang is often used in the names of various schools, organizations and companies.

Hwarang, also known as Flowering Knights, were an elite warrior group of male youth in Silla, an ancient kingdom of the Korean Peninsula that lasted until the 10th century. There were educational institutions as well as social clubs where members gathered for all aspects of study, originally for arts and culture as well as religious teachings stemming mainly from Korean Buddhism. Chinese sources referred only to the physical beauty of the "Flower Youths". The history of the hwarang was not widely known until after the National Liberation Day of Korea in 1945, after which the hwarang became elevated to a symbolic importance.

花郎徒(),又称花郎()、郎家()、风流徒()、国仙徒()、风月徒(),是朝鲜半岛新罗时代一种训练青少年的制度。此制度源于部族社会,让青少年一起过团体生活,学习各种当地传统道德、礼仪规范,之后又混合了中国传入的佛教、儒教等思想。在新罗真兴王时成为国家正式的教育机构,其徒众被称为「花郎徒」。


History.

The temple's records state that a small temple was built on this site under King Beopheung in 528. The Samguk Yusa records that the current temple was constructed under King Gyeongdeok in 751, begun by Prime Minister Kim Daeseong to pacify the spirits of his parents. The building was completed in 774 by the Silla royal court, after Kim's death, and given its current name Bulguksa ("Temple of the Buddha Land").  The temple was renovated during the Goryeo Dynasty and the early Joseon Dynasty. During the Imjin wars, the wooden buildings were burned to the ground. After 1604, reconstruction and expansion of Bulguksa started, followed by about 40 renovations until 1805.  After World War II and the Korean War, a partial restoration was conducted in 1966. Upon an extensive archeological investigation, major restoration was conducted between 1969 and 1973 by the order of President Park Chung Hee, bringing Bulguksa to its current form. The famous stone structures are preserved from the original Silla construction.

Structure.

The temple is located on the slopes of Tohamsan, in Jinheon-dong, Gyeongju.  The entrance to the temple, "Sokgyemun", has a double-sectioned staircase and bridge (National Treasure No. 23) that leads to the inside of the temple compound. The stairway is 33 steps high, corresponding to the 33 steps to enlightenment. The lower portion, "Cheongungyo" (Blue Cloud Bridge) is 6.3 meters long and has 17 steps. The upper portion, "Baegungyo" (White Cloud Bridge) is 5.4 meters and has 16 steps. The stairway leads to "Jahamun" (Mauve Mist Gate).  There are two pagodas on the temple site, which is unusual. The three-story Seokgatap (Sakyamuni Pagoda) which stands at 8.2 meters is a traditional Korean-style stone pagoda with simple lines and minimal detailing. Seokgatap is over 13 centuries old. Dabotap (Many Treasure Pagoda) is 10.4 meters tall and dedicated to the Many Treasures Buddha mentioned in the Lotus Sutra. In contrast to Seokgatap, Dabotap is known for its highly ornate structure. Its image is reproduced on the South Korean 10 won coin. "Dabotap" and "Seokgatap" are Korean National Treasures nos. 20 and 21, respectively.  The terrestrial and the two celestial abodes are manifested in Bulguksa: the terrestrial with a Shakyamuni Buddha "Lotus Sutra", the celestial with Amitabha Buddha "Avatamska Sutra". The large temple site is centred on two courts. One of the courts is centred on "Daeungjeon", the hall which houses the Shakyamuni Buddha. The other is centred on "Geungnakjeon", the hall of paradise where the Seven Treasure Bridge "Chilbogyo" is housed.  "Daeungjeon" (대웅전,大雄殿), the Hall of Great Enlightenment, is the main hall. "Dabotap" and "Seokgatap" stand before this hall. The hall enshrines the Sakyamuni Buddha and was first built in 681. Behind the main hall stands "Museoljeon" (무설전,無說殿), the Hall of No Words. This hall gets its name from the belief that Buddha's teachings could not be taught by mere words alone. It is one of the oldest buildings in the complex and was probably first built in 670. The "Gwaneumjeon" (Avalokitesvara's Shrine, 관음전,觀音殿) houses an image of the Avalokitesvara, the Bodhisattva of Perfect Compassion, and stands at the highest point of the complex. The "Birojeon" (Vairocana Buddha Hall, 비로전,毘盧殿), which sits below the "Gwaneumjeon", houses national treasure No.26 while the "Geuknakjeon" (Hall of Supreme Bliss, 극락전), standing near the main compound, houses the gilt-bronze buddha that is the national treasure No.27.

Official treasures at Bulguksa.

National Treasures No.20 and 21.

The two famous stone pagodas, Dabotap and Seokgatap reside in the main courtyard of the Bulguksa Temple complex. They are, respectively, the twentieth and twenty-first national treasures of Korea and were designated on December 20, 1962.

National Treasure No.22.

The "Yeonhwagyo" (Lotus Flower Bridge, 연화교,蓮華橋) and "Chilbogyo" (Seven Treasures Bridge, 칠보교,七寶橋) are a pair of bridges at Bulguksa. This bridge was designated as the 22nd national treasure on December 20, 1962. The bridge lead to "Anyangmun" (Peace Enhancing Gate, 안양문,安養門) leading to "Geuknakjeon" (the Hall of the Pure Land). This pair were built at the same time as their brother bridges, National Treasure No.23.  These pair of bridges share the 45 degree incline, arch underneath, and the combination bridge/staircase design of their brother bridges. However, one noticeable difference is that this bridge is smaller. The lower Lotus Flower Bridge has 10 steps while the upper Seven Treasures Bridge contains 8 steps. This bridge is on the west in relation to the Blue Cloud and White Cloud Bridges. The Lotus Flower Bridge is known for its delicate carvings of Lotus Flowers on each step but these have faded with the weight of many pilgrims. Today, visitors are restricted from walking on the bridge.

National Treasure No.23.

The "Cheongungyo" (Blue Cloud Bridge, 청운교,靑雲橋) and "Baegungyo" (White Cloud Bridge, 백운교,白雲橋) Bridges of Bulguksa Temple are two bridges that are a part of a stairway that leads to the temple. The bridges were probably built in 750 during the reign of King Gyeongdeok. Although built separately, they are designated together as one single national treasure. They were designated as the 23rd national treasure on December 20, 1962.  The Blue Cloud Bridge makes up the lower span of the stair while the White Cloud Bridge is the upper part. The bridges lead to the "Jahamun" (Golden Purple Gate, 자하문,紫霞門) which leads to Sakyamuni Hall. There are 33 steps on the stairway, which slopes at a 45 degree angle, and each step corresponds to one of the 33 heavens of Buddhism. The lower Blue Cloud Bridge has seventeen steps while the upper White Cloud Bridge has sixteen. The large arch underneath the stairwell testifies to the use of arches in Silla-style bridges and the remains of a pond that once flowed underneath the bridge.

National Treasure No.26.

National Treasure No.26 (경주 불국사 금동비로자나불좌상, 慶州 佛國寺 金銅毘盧遮那佛坐像, Gyeongju Bulguksa geumdong birojana buljwasang), designated on December 20, 1962, is a seated gilt-bronze Vairocana Buddha statue at Bulguksa Temple.  The Buddha of Enlightenment is enshrined in the "Birojeon". It is 1.77 meters in height and made from gilt-bronze. The head of the Buddha has an usnisa, a symbol of supreme wisdom. The head of the Buddha was made by fusing two shells to each other and the face is elongated and soft. The robes of the Buddha are highly detailed and the simulation of folded cloth rippling down from the shoulder to the lap is done with high skill. The hands of the Buddha are in a position, the right index finger covered by the left hand, which often is used to symbolize the Buddha of Enlightenment. The figure is estimated to be from the 9th century due to stylistic evidence, including the overly wide lap and the lack of tension in the depiction of the robes and face of the Buddha.

National Treasure No.27.

The seated gilt-bronze Amitabha Buddha statue of Bulguksa Temple is National Treasure No.27. (경주 불국사 금동아미타여래좌상, 慶州 佛國寺 金銅阿彌陀如來坐像, Gyeongju Bulguksa geumdong amita yeoraejwasang) and was designated on December 20, 1962.  The Amitabha Buddha statue is 1.66 meters in height and enshrined in "Geuknakjeon". This gilt-bronze statue was probably cast in the late 8th or early part of the 9th century and it shares the style of National Treasure No.26. The head of the statue is made by fixing two shell-like pieces together. The face has a distinctively aquiline nose. The Buddha has broad shoulders and strong chest while the large lap gives the figure a sense of proportional harmony and stability. The style of the robe seems to be more stylized and haphazard. The position of the left hand raised at shoulder-level palm forward and the right hand is placed at the lap. The style of the Buddha seems to follow an abstract and stylized tradition rather than a representation of realism.

Treasure No.61.

This sarira pagoda (사리탑), or stupa, looks like a stone lantern. It stands 2.1 meters tall and is located at the left side of the front garden of "Birojeon". The artifact was at one point taken to Japan in 1906 but was returned in 1933. It is from the Goryeo Dynasty, but shows the influence of Silla Dynasty art.  A sarira is a container for the relics or remains of famous priests or royalty. It is said that this sarira contained the remains of eight priests or a queen. The three main features of the piece are the foundation stone, the main body, and the ornamental top. The foundation is an octagonal stone decorated with carvings. Atop this foundation is a circular stone incised with lotus motifs. The pillar supports of the main body are carved with a cloud motif while the main body is cylindrical and has four bas-reliefs of Buddha and bodhisattvas and are accompanied by flower motifs. The top of the pagoda has twelve sides which meet into a hexagonal shape.

Bulguksa is located on the slopes of Mount Toham (Jinheon-dong, Gyeongju city, North Gyeongsang province, South Korea). It is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism and encompasses seven National treasures of South Korea, including the Dabotap and Seokgatap stone pagodas, Cheongun-gyo (Blue Cloud Bridge), and two gilt-bronze statues of Buddha. The temple is classified as "Historic and Scenic Site No. 1" by the South Korean government. In 1995, Bulguksa was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List together with the Seokguram Grotto, which lies four kilometers to the east.

佛国寺是位于韩国庆尚北道的一座佛教寺院,寺内的多宝塔、释迦塔、蓝云桥和两座金铜大佛等七个文物被列为韩国国宝。1995年,佛国寺和位于其东部的石窟庵一同被列为世界文化遗产。佛国寺被认为是新罗佛教艺术的经典。


Film SLR bodies.

First generation.

7000.

The Minolta 7000 was the first successful auto focus SLR using a motor integrated in the camera body. It was released in 1985 together with 11 lenses, 2 flashguns and a complete lineup of accessories. The 7000 featured one AF-sensor, shutter speeds of 1/2000 to 30 seconds, flash sync speed of 1/100s, exposure compensation of +/-4EV in 0.5 exposure steps, center-weighted lightmetering and two frames per second film advance. The Maxxum 7000, when first released had the crossed x's in the name Maxxum. Exxon had a registered trademark for the crossed x's and sued Minolta, forcing Minolta to change the way the name was shown.

9000.

The Minolta 9000, a camera aimed at professionals, was released later the same year, and featured shutter speeds of 1/4000 to 30 seconds, center-weighted and spot lightmetering, exposure compensation of +-4EV in 0.5 exposure steps and a flash sync speed of 1/250s. Unlike the 7000, the 9000 had no internal motordrive and thus holds the position as the world's only autofocusing SLR with manual winding, but with the addition of the motor drive MD-90 a photographer could get up to 5 frames per second. The 9000 had a very extensive range of accessories, including several different backs, winding options and screens. The 9000 had a unique function in that, if combined with the Minolta Data Receiver DR-1000 and the Minolta Flash Meter IV, readings could be made on the flash meter and transferred wirelessly to the camera, and the camera then triggered from the flash meter.

5000.

The Minolta 5000, Minolta's entry level camera and essentially a downscaled 7000, was released in 1986. It featured shutter speeds of 1/2000 to 4 seconds and BULB, center-weighted lightmetering, exposure compensation of +1EV, flashsync speed of 1/100s and fully automatic programs.

Second generation.

7000i.

This camera had the usual Program automatic exposure, Shutter priority automatic exposure, Aperture-priority automatic exposure and metered manual exposure modes (standard on the 7000), TTL autoflash (like the 7000) and added a newer faster and more sensitive AF system, faster film advance, new flash hot-shoe that was incompatible with the older flash system (although an adapter was available and the 7/8000i supported the x000-era CG-1000 "flash handle" for backwards compatibility). The 7000i supported the Maxxum lens system, and other previously introduced accessories such as the remote cords. Perhaps more innovative and unusual than any other improvement was the expansion card system. While also used in other models in the i-series, some models in the xi-series, and the 700si, the Minolta Creative Expansion Card System debuted on this model. The expansion card system provided a way to add features to the camera, such as multi-spot metering, or re-program the built-in AE modes to favor faster shutter speeds or smaller apertures, such as the sports action card. While most of the cards' functions and effects could be duplicated by a technically knowledgeable photographer using the camera without the expansion cards, the card system was handy for less technically skilled users who just wanted to photograph their child's soccer/football team for example, without needing to learn about exposure settings and the effect they might have on how a picture "looked". These cards were the forerunners of today's "picture/creativity modes". This camera was aimed at the same market as the 7000.

5000i.

Built-in flash with a zoom head, programmed AE and metered manual exposure out of the box, adding the A/S expansion card provided two additional AE modes, Shutter-priority and Aperture-priority. A fairly direct replacement for the earlier 5000.

8000i.

Essentially added a PC flash-sync terminal, ME capability, spot metering and faster shutter to the 7000i feature-set. This camera was not a direct replacement for the earlier 9000, and lacked some features such as depth-of-field preview, but offered some additional features that were not on the 7000i. This camera was available in white as well, together with matched white 35-105 lens and 5200i flash.

3000i.

An entry level camera, exposure mode was program AE only, with a high-speed program option, no Creative Expansion Card support. An even more basic Maxxum, this camera was basically for the point-and-shoot user that wanted a system SLR camera with interchangeable lenses and more powerful flashes, but didn't want the features on, or didn't want to pay for the 5000i, 7000i, 8000i cameras.

Third generation.

2xi.

An entry-level model, the plastic-bodied 2xi features a program mode (P-mode), Shutter priority mode (S-mode), aperture priority mode (A-mode), and fully manual mode (M-mode). There is also a self-timer feature, a manual / auto focus switch for use with the series of auto focus lenses, hot shoe mount compatible with "i" and "xi" flashes, and a tripod mount.

9xi.

The Minolta 9xi was the flagship of the "xi series" cameras. At its time, the fastest camera in the world; shortest shutter time 1/12000, 4,5 fps without an add on winder. Add on battery pack was available.

Fourth generation.

300si.

This camera is known by several names and variations, it features full automatic program, and 5 preset programs. Manual control is not an option. It has a prominent visible built in flash and was released in 1995, the ISO settings range, the focal plane shutter speeds: 30 seconds - 1/2000. It is considered an entry level camera because of the lack of manual, shutter, or aperture, priority capability.

350si.

A version of the 300si offering an additional panoramic mode with part of the viewfinder and film opening masked off top and bottom. This can be selected by a switch while there is film in the camera, so that a film may contain a mixture of normal and panoramic pictures. Sold as the Alpha 101si in Japan.

500si/550si panorama date.

The Minolta Dynax 500si (European name) was introduced in 1994. Budget version of Minolta Dynax 700si with built-in programs instead of program cards

600si.

The Minolta 600si "Classic" (a.k.a. Maxxum 600si and α-507si), introduced in 1995, featured "classic" controls for most functions. This meant that the 600si had many dials and knobs rather than a menu system. The top plate of the camera included separate dials for exposure compensation, flash compensation, exposure mode and drive mode, and other functions were controlled by further knobs elsewhere. The advantage to the photographer was that almost all settings were readily identified even when the camera was not switched on - just like a classic camera.  The 600si did not have a P (panic) mode to reset all functions, nor was it possible to store favourite combinations of settings or use cards from the 700si card system. The 600si could be used with the VC-600 vertical control grip for a second set of controls and additional battery options.

650si.

The 650si was effectively a 600si with the addition of date/time imprinting and a built-in panorama mask, restricting the film image to 12mm x 36mm.

800si.

The Minolta 800si, released in 1997, was the flagship of the "si series" cameras before the 5th generation "single digit series". It can be seen as a stop-gap measure to fill the "semi-pro" niche between the 1993 700si and the 2000 Dynax 7. This camera has a very high powered pop-up flash, one of the most powerful built-in flashes ever made. The 800si added a lot more features over its predecessor the 700si, at the expense of the 700si's card system, which most consumers at this time considered of little use due to the widespread integration of features into camera bodies. The 700si's vertical control grip, the VC-700, can also fit the 800si.

Fifth generation.

9.

The Dynax/Maxxum/α-9, Minolta's last professional film body, was released in 1998 and started the 5th and final generation of their 35mm autofocus camera line. The camera is constructed with a zinc and aluminium cast frame covered by SUS304 stainless steel panels, uncommon for cameras, and can tolerate large amounts of abuse at the expense of some added weight. A vertical control grip (VC-9) mirroring the cameras basic controls was available. The camera had a maximum shutter speed capability of 1/12000 second due to carbon-fiber reinforced shutter blades, and a maximum frame rate of 5.5 frames/second. The camera just preceded the release of the SSM (SuperSonic Motor) lenses and "D" distance encoded lens/flash system, and as a result an upgrade was available in order to support the SSM lenses and "D" function. This upgrade was in the form of a complete systems board, unlike digital cameras which are usually upgradeable by software. Like all autofocusing Minolta SLR cameras it used the Minolta 'A-series' bayonet lens mounting system.  The 9 was the first Minolta to use a radically different user layout, with lots of buttons, instead of the "computerized" interfaces tried earlier especially in the i and xi series. The more classic interface was first "tested" in a si series camera, the 600si Classic (which in essence was a 700si with a different interface) and garnered positive response. This interface was then refined and proved to be a major hit with consumers and reviewers alike, was largely copied over to the Konica Minolta Maxxum 7D, and also kept in later advanced amateur/professional Sony digital cameras. The vertical control grip was also the first to feature a slightly lowered handgrip and shutter button, for better ergonomy in vertical shooting. This style of grip has also been featured in later Minolta and Sony models.  Also a titanium version of this camera was available as the "9Ti". The 9Ti had the same features as its regular counterpart with the exception of the silver finish and lighter weight of the titanium shell, a "wet type" rubber grip, knobs with relief labels in orange color instead of the standard model's knobs with phosphorescent paint, and a brown leather shoulder strap. It also received four additional custom functions for a total of 25. A lighter magnesium vertical grip VC-9M was available as well. The camera came out in 1999 in limited quantities only and with 4-digit serial numbers. It was sold out in 2001 already. A small batch of Dynax 9Ti bodies with 8-digit serial numbers in the codice_1 range and lacking the accessories surfaced in Germany between 2002 and 2006 (presumably assembled by Minolta's European Service Center in Bremen from 9Ti spare parts), dubbed the "Dynax 9Ti II" to distinguish it from the original 4-digit limited series of the 9Ti.  In the second and third hardware revision of the 9, including all SSM/ADI upgraded units, a special procedure (requiring no tools) can be utilized to reconfigure the camera to behave like the 9Ti and subsequently invoke the limited model's extra functions also in the black model.

7.

The 7 is generally considered even more advanced in many respects than the Dynax/Maxxum/α-9, making it the most advanced Dynax/Maxxum/α. Amongst its many unusual features, it had an STF function which could emulate the Smooth Trans Focus effect by doing multiple exposures while varying the aperture — something done neither before nor since. The 7 was the first camera to support SSM lenses. Perhaps most noteworthy and radical was a huge LCD navigation display on the rear of the camera's film door. This offered a full operational view without the need of constant referral to the operating manual. It also eased operation of the 35 custom functions to change camera settings. Also, the 7 featured a plethora of dials and buttons as opposed to the ""hold button while turning wheel"" interface many of its other contemporaries offered. This interface was a direct evolution from the 9 and 600si Classic and later continued in other pro- and semi-pro models.  This Maxxum offered the maximum shutter speed of 1/8000, a maximum frame rate of 4 frames/second, autofocus control with a 16-bit CPU coupled with a 14-segment honeycomb-pattern metering and the support of Minolta's ADI (Advanced Distance Integration) with its "D" series lenses. Also for the professional–enthusiast was the vertical control grip (VC-7) that replicated some basic controls for vertical shooting and extending shooting time with extra batteries. There was also a film chamber lock to avoid accidental exposure of film that is still loaded. The Dynax/Maxxum/α-7 was noted to be a good camera among many photographers and rave reviews on the Internet and magazines alike.  In some markets a limited edition of the camera became available in 2001 as "Dynax 7 Limited" and "α-7 Limited" (there was no Maxxum variant of this model). It featured a larger internal film data memory, a slightly more refined finish of the exterior and golden-colored labels. Like the 9Ti it had 4-digit serial numbers, except for the Chinese "α-7 Limited II" model, which had 8-digit serial numbers. Also featuring a larger internal memory, there was a variant of the normal α-7 named "α-7 CNM" (Chinese navigation model) specifically for the Chinese market.

5.

The 5 was an easy-to-use, compact, and feature-packed film camera using core technologies from the Minolta Dynax/Maxxum/α-7. The Dynax/Maxxum/α-5 incorporated advanced autofocus (AF) technology, powerful film drive, relatively fast shutter speeds, and several creative features including 14 custom functions, into a small and light silver-colored SLR camera body. Like all other autofocus Minolta cameras, it used the same lenses initially offered in the mid-1980s. Also available was a battery grip (BP-200) for extended 35 mm film shooting.  The Maxxum 3 and Maxxum 4 are based on this Minolta, being less feature-rich entry-level cameras. This fifth generation (Dynax/Maxxum/α-3/4/5, 7 & 9) were the last full generation of film cameras that Minolta made with only two more film cameras (Dynax 60, Maxxum/α-70 and Dynax 30/40, Maxxum/α-50) produced before merging with Konica and leaving the 35 mm camera business all together.

Sixth generation.

40.

First of two sixth generation Minolta film cameras. Entry level camera which took the crown as lightest and smallest AF 35mm SLR.

Lenses.

List of Minolta A-mount lenses:

The Minolta A-mount camera system was a line of photographic equipment from Minolta introduced in 1985 with the world's first integrated autofocus system in the camera body with interchangeable lenses. The system used a lens mount called A-mount, with a flange focal distance 44.50 mm, one millimeter longer, 43.5 mm, than the previous SR mount from 1958. The new mount was wider, 49.7 mm vs 44.97 mm, than the older SR-mount and had a longer flange focal distance making old manual lenses incompatible with the new system. The mount is now used by Sony, who bought the SLR camera division from Konica Minolta, Konica and Minolta having merged a few years before.

美能达AF系统(英文作Minolta AF,亦称作α系统)是照相机制造商美能达所生产的一系列围绕自动对焦照相机器材的一个集合,该系统的诞生以1985年美能达Alpha 7000及相关镜头,闪光灯等附件发布为代表。该系统使用了同样的Minolta AF来命名其镜头卡口。


Background.

After U2's 1987 album "The Joshua Tree" and the supporting Joshua Tree Tour brought them critical acclaim and commercial success, their 1988 album and film "Rattle and Hum" precipitated a critical backlash. Although the record sold 14 million copies and performed well on music charts, critics were dismissive of it and the film, labelling the band's exploration of early American music as "pretentious" and "misguided and bombastic". U2's high exposure and their reputation for being overly serious led to accusations of grandiosity and self-righteousness.  Despite their commercial popularity, the group were dissatisfied creatively; lead vocalist Bono believed they were musically unprepared for their success, while drummer Larry Mullen, Jr. said, "We were the biggest, but we weren't the best." By the band's 1989 Lovetown Tour, they had become bored with playing their greatest hits. U2 believe that audiences misunderstood the group's collaboration with blues musician B.B. King on "Rattle and Hum" and the Lovetown Tour, and they described it as "an excursion down a dead-end street". Bono said that, in retrospect, listening to black music enabled the group to create a work such as "Achtung Baby", while their experiences with folk music helped him to develop as a lyricist. Towards the end of the Lovetown Tour, Bono announced on-stage that it was "the end of something for

Recording and production.

U2 hired Daniel Lanois and Brian Eno to produce the album, based on the duo's prior work with the band on "The Unforgettable Fire" and "The Joshua Tree". Lanois was principal producer, with Mark "Flood" Ellis as engineer. Eno took on an assisting role, working with the group in the studio for a week at a time to review their songs before leaving for a month or two. Eno said his role was "to come in and erase anything that sounded too much like U2". By distancing himself from the work, he believed he provided the band with a fresh perspective on their material each time he rejoined them. As he explained, "I would deliberately not listen to the stuff in between visits, so I could go in cold". Since U2 wanted the record to be harder-hitting and live-sounding, Lanois "push[ed] the performance aspect very hard, often to the point of recklessness". The Lanois–Eno team used lateral thinking and a philosophical approach—popularised by Eno's Oblique Strategies—that contrasted with the direct and retro style of "Rattle and Hum" producer Jimmy Iovine.

Berlin sessions.

The band believed that "domesticity [w]as the enemy of rock 'n' roll" and that to work on the album, they needed to remove themselves from their normal family-oriented routines. With a "New Europe" emerging at the end of the Cold War, they chose Berlin, in the centre of the reuniting continent, as a source of inspiration for a more European musical aesthetic. They chose to record at Hansa Studios in West Berlin, near the recently opened Berlin Wall. Several acclaimed records were made at Hansa, including two from David Bowie's "Berlin Trilogy" with Eno, and Iggy Pop's "The Idiot". U2 arrived on 3 October 1990 on the last flight into East Berlin on the eve of German reunification. While looking for public celebrations, they mistakenly ended up joining an anti-unification

Dublin sessions.

In February 1991, U2 moved the album's recording sessions to the seaside manor Elsinore in the Dublin suburb of Dalkey, renting the house for £10,000 per month. The band nicknamed the house "Dog Town" for the "tackiness" of its exterior dog kennels, and the location was credited as such in the album notes. Lanois' strategy to record in houses, mansions, or castles was something he believed brought atmosphere to the recordings. Dublin audio services company Big Bear Sound installed a recording studio in the house, with the recording room in a converted garage diagonally beneath the control room. Video cameras and TV monitors were used to monitor and communicate between the spaces. With Elsinore located within walking distance of

Composition.

Music.

U2 is credited with composing the music for all of "Achtung Baby"s tracks, despite periods of separated songwriting. They wrote the music primarily through jam sessions, a common practice for them. The album represents a deviation from the sound of their past work; the songs are less anthemic in nature, and their musical style demonstrates a more European aesthetic, introducing influences from alternative rock, industrial music, and electronic dance music. The band referred to the album's musical departure as "the

Lyrics.

As is often the case on U2 albums, Bono is credited as the sole lyricist. In contrast to U2's previous records, whose lyrics were politically and socially charged, "Achtung Baby" is more personal and introspective, examining love, sexuality, spirituality, faith, and betrayal. The lyrics are darker in tone, describing troubled personal relationships and exuding feelings of confusion, loneliness, and inadequacy. Central to these themes was the Edge's separation from his wife (the mother of his three children), which occurred halfway through the album's recording. The pain not only focused him on the record and led him to advocate more personal themes, but it also affected Bono's lyrical contributions. Bono found inspiration

Packaging and title.

The sleeve artwork for "Achtung Baby" was designed by Steve Averill, who had created the majority of U2's album covers, along with Shaughn McGrath. To parallel the band's change in musical direction, Averill and McGrath devised sleeve concepts that used multiple colour images to contrast with the seriousness of the individual, mostly monochromatic images from previous U2 album sleeves. Rough sketches and designs were created early during the recording sessions, and some experimental designs were conceived to closely resemble, as Averill put it, "dance-music oriented sleeves. We just did them to show how extreme we could go and then everyone came back to levels that they were happy with. But if we hadn't gone to these extremes it may not have been the cover it is now."  An initial photo shoot with the band's long-time photographer Anton Corbijn was done near U2's Berlin hotel in late 1990. Most of the photos were black-and-white, and the group felt they were not indicative of the spirit of the new album. They recommissioned Corbijn for an additional two-week photo shoot in Tenerife in February 1991, for which they dressed up and mingled with the crowds of the annual Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, presenting a more playful side of themselves. It was during the group's time in Tenerife and during a four-day shoot in Morocco in July that they were photographed in drag. Additional photos were taken in Dublin in June, including a shot of a naked Clayton. The images were intended to confound expectations of U2, and their full colour contrasted with the monochromatic imagery on past sleeves. Several photographs were considered as candidates for a single cover image, including shots of: a cow on an Irish farm in County Kildare; the nude Clayton; and the band driving a Trabant, an East German automobile they became fond of as a symbol for a changing Europe. Ultimately, a multiple image scheme was used, as U2, Corbijn, Averill, and the producers thought that "the sense of flux expressed by both the music and the band's playing with alter

Release and promotion.

As early as December 1990, the music press reported that U2 would be recording a dance-oriented album and that it would be released in mid-1991. In August 1991, sound collage artists Negativland released an EP entitled "U2" that parodied U2's song "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For". Island Records objected to the release, believing consumers would confuse the EP for a new U2 record. Island successfully sued for copyright infringement but were criticised in the music press, as were U2, although they were not involved in the litigation. "Uncut"s Stephen Dalton believes that the negative headlines were tempered by the success of "Achtung Baby"s first single, "The Fly", released on 21 October 1991 a month before the album. Sounding nothing like U2's typical style, it was selected as the lead single to announce the group's new musical direction. It became their second song to top the UK Singles Chart, while reaching number one on the singles charts in Ireland and Australia. The single was less successful in the US, peaking at number 61 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.  Island Records and U2 refused to make advance copies of the album available to the press until just a few days before the release date, preferring that fans listen to the record before reading reviews. The decision came amid rumours of tensions within the band, and journalist David Browne compared it to the Hollywood practice of withholding pre-release copies of films from reviewers whenever they receive poor word-of-mouth press. "Achtung Baby" was released on 18 November 1991 in the UK and 19 November in the US on compact disc, tape cassette, and vinyl record, with an initial shipment of more than 1.4 million copies in the US. The album was the first release by a major act to use two so-called "eco-friendly" packages—the cardboard Digipak, and the shrinkwrapped jewel case without the longbox cardboard attachment. Island encouraged record stores to order the jewel case packaging by offering a four-percent discount.  "Achtung Baby" was U2's first album in three years and their first comprising entirely new material in over four years. The group maintained a low profile after the record's release, avoiding interviews and allowing critics and the public to make their own assessments. Instead of participating in an article with "Rolling Stone" magazine, U2 asked Eno to write one for them. The marketing plan for the album focused on retail and press promotions. In addition to

Reception.

"Achtung Baby" received acclaim from critics. Elysa Gardner of "Rolling Stone" said U2 had "proven that the same penchant for epic musical and verbal gestures that leads many artists to self-parody can, in more inspired hands, fuel the unforgettable fire that defines great rock & roll." The review said that the album, like its predecessor "Rattle and Hum", was an attempt by the band to "broaden its musical palette, but this time its ambitions are realized". Bill Wyman from "Entertainment Weekly" called it a "pristinely produced and surprisingly unpretentious return by one of the most impressive bands in the world". Steve Morse of "The Boston Globe" echoed these sentiments, stating that the album "not only reinvigorates their sound, but drops any self-righteousness. The songs focus on personal relationships, not on saving the world." Morse commended the album's "clanging, knob-twisting sound effects" and the Edge's "metallic, head-snapping guitar". In the "Los Angeles Times", Robert Hilburn stated, "the arty, guitar-driven textures are among the band's most confident and vigorous ever". He said the album is a difficult one for listeners because of the dark, introspective nature of the songs, which contrasts with the group's uplifting songs of the past. Parry Gettelmen of the "Orlando Sentinel" said that "Achtung Baby" "shows U2 still has the power to surprise", highlighting the warmth of Bono's vocals, the imagery of his lyrics, and the producers for helping the Edge "achieve a spacious sound without getting anthemic". He commended the band's musical transformation, saying, "U2 proves much more adept at the dance-trance thing than the Happy Roses or Stone Carpets or other indistinguishable haircut bands". Jon Pareles of "The New York Times" lauded the record not only for featuring "noisy, vertiginous arrangements", but also for the group's ability to "maintain its pop skills". The review concluded, "Stripped-down and defying its old formulas, U2 has given itself a fighting chance for the 1990s."  "Q"s Mat Snow called

Zoo TV Tour.

Following the release of "Achtung Baby", U2 staged a worldwide concert tour, titled the Zoo TV Tour. Like "Achtung Baby", the tour was intended to deviate from the band's past. In contrast to the austere stage setups of previous U2 tours, Zoo TV was an elaborately staged multimedia event. It satirised television and the viewing public's over-stimulation by attempting to instill "sensory overload" in its audience. The stage featured large video screens that showed visual effects, random video clips from pop culture, and flashing text phrases. Live satellite link-ups, channel surfing, crank calls, and video confessionals were incorporated into the shows.  Whereas the group were known for their earnest live act in

Legacy.

"Achtung Baby" is certified 8× platinum in the US by the RIAA, and according to Nielsen Soundscan, the album had sold 5.5 million copies in the country by March 2009. The record has been certified 5× platinum in Australia, 4× platinum in the UK, and diamond in Canada, the highest certification award. Overall, 18 million copies have been sold worldwide. It is U2's second-highest-selling record after "The Joshua Tree", which has sold 25 million copies. For the band, "Achtung Baby" was a watershed that secured their creative future, and its success led to the group's continued musical experimentation during the 1990s. "Zooropa", released in 1993, was a further departure for the band, incorporating additional dance music influences and electronic effects into their sound. In 1995, U2 and Brian Eno collaborated on the experimental/ambient album "Original Soundtracks 1" under the pseudonym "Passengers". For "Pop" in 1997, the group's experiences with dance club culture and their usage of tape loops, programming, rhythm sequencing, and sampling resulted in their most dance-oriented album.  The record is highly regarded among the members of U2. Mullen said: "I thought it was a great record. I was very proud of it. Its success was by no means preordained. It was a real break from what we had done before and we didn't know if our fans would like it or not." Bono called the album a "pivot point" in the band's career, saying, "Making "Achtung Baby" is the reason we're still here now." Clayton concurred, saying: "If we hadn't done something we were excited about, that made us apprehensive and challenged everything we stood for, then there would really have been no reason to carry on... If it hadn't been a great record by our standards, the existence of the band would have been threatened." The group's reinvention occurred at the peak of the alternative rock movement, when the genre was achieving widespread mainstream popularity. Bill Flanagan pointed out that many of U2's 1980s contemporaries struggled commercially with albums released after the turn of the decade. He argued that U2, however, were able to take advantage of the alternative rock movement and ensure a successful future

Reissues.

20th anniversary releases.

The 20th anniversary of "Achtung Baby" was marked by several releases in 2011. At the band's request, a documentary film about the album entitled "From the Sky Down" was produced. It was directed by Davis Guggenheim, who previously collaborated with the Edge for the documentary "It Might Get Loud" in 2008. "From the Sky Down" documents the album's difficult recording period, the band members' relationships, and U2's creative process. Archival footage and stills from the recording sessions appear in the film, along with unreleased scenes from "Rattle and Hum". For the documentary, the band were filmed during a return visit to Hansa Studios and during rehearsals for the Glastonbury Festival 2011. The film premiered at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival, becoming the first documentary to open the festival, and in October, it was broadcast on multiple television networks worldwide.  On 31 October 2011, "Achtung Baby" was reissued in five formats. In addition to a single-disc release of the album, a deluxe edition included a bonus disc of remixes

2018 vinyl reissue.

Continuing a campaign by U2 to reissue all of their records on vinyl, "Achtung Baby" was re-released on two 180-gram vinyl records on 27

Personnel.

U2  Additional performers

Achtung Baby () is the seventh studio album by Irish rock band U2. It was produced by Daniel Lanois and Brian Eno, and was released on 18 November 1991 on Island Records. Stung by criticism of their 1988 release "Rattle and Hum", U2 shifted their musical direction to incorporate influences from alternative rock, industrial music, and electronic dance music into their sound. Thematically, "Achtung Baby" is darker, more introspective, and at times more flippant than their previous work. The album and the subsequent multimedia-intensive Zoo TV Tour were central to the group's 1990s reinvention, by which they abandoned their earnest public image for a more lighthearted and self-deprecating one.

《注意点儿!宝贝》(英语:Achtung Baby)是爱尔兰摇滚团体U2的第七张专辑,1991年11月19日发行。在经历了1980年代结束后,U2受到了前一张专辑《神采飞扬》批评的影响,从原先的爱尔兰移师到德国Hansa录音室埋首进行为时10个月的创作,其中最大的转变是U2开始将音乐风格转向另类摇滚、电子音乐和跳舞音乐,而以传统摇滚风格为辅。《注意点儿!宝贝》被视为U2生涯的转捩点之一。