Background.

According to Heidegger's statement in "Being and Time", the work was made possible by his study of Husserl's "Logical Investigations" (1900–1901). "Being and Time" was originally intended to consist of two major parts, each part consisting of three divisions. Heidegger was forced to prepare the book for publication when he had completed only the first two divisions of part one. The remaining divisions planned for "Being and Time" (particularly the divisions on time and being, Immanuel Kant, and Aristotle) were never published, although in many respects they were addressed in one form or another in Heidegger's other works. In terms of structure, "Being and Time" remains as it was when it first appeared in print; it consists of the lengthy two-part introduction, followed by Division One, the "Preparatory Fundamental Analysis of Dasein," and Division Two, "Dasein and Temporality."

Summary.

Being.

Heidegger describes his project in the following way: "our aim in the following treatise is to work out the question of the sense of "being" and to do so concretely." Heidegger claims that traditional ontology has prejudicially overlooked this question, dismissing it on the basis that being is the most universal and emptiest concept, that is indefinable or obvious.  Instead Heidegger proposes to understand being itself, as distinguished from any specific entities (beings). "'Being' is not something like a being." Being, Heidegger claims, is "what determines beings as beings, that in terms of which beings are already understood." Heidegger is seeking to identify the criteria or conditions by which any specific entity can show up at all (see world disclosure).  If we grasp Being, we will clarify the meaning of being, or "sense" of being ("Sinn des Seins"), where by "sense" Heidegger means that "in terms of which something becomes intelligible as something." Presented in relation to the quality of knowledge, according to Heidegger, this sense of being precedes any notions of how or in what manner any particular being or beings exist, and is thus pre-scientific. Thus, in Heidegger's view, the question of the meaning of being would be an explanation of the understanding preceding any other way of knowing, such as the use of logic, theory, specific regional ontology. At the same time, there is no access to being other than via beings themselves—hence pursuing the question of being inevitably means questioning a being with regard to its being. Heidegger argues that a true understanding of being ("Seinsverständnis") can only proceed by referring to particular beings, and that the best method of pursuing being must inevitably, he says, involve a kind of hermeneutic circle, that is (as he explains in his critique of prior work in the field of hermeneutics), it must rely upon repetitive yet progressive acts of interpretation. "The methodological sense of phenomenological description is "interpretation"."

"Dasein".

Thus the question Heidegger asks in the introduction to "Being and Time" is: what is the being that will give access to the question of the meaning of Being? Heidegger's answer is that it can only be that being for whom the question of Being is important, the being for whom Being matters. As this answer already indicates, the being for whom Being is a question is not a "what", but a "who". Heidegger calls this being "Dasein" (an ordinary German word literally meaning "being-there," i.e., "existence"), and the method pursued in "Being and Time" consists in the attempt to delimit the characteristics of "Dasein", in order thereby to approach the meaning of Being itself through an interpretation of the temporality of Dasein. "Dasein" is not "man," but is nothing other than "man"—it is this distinction that enables Heidegger to claim that "Being and Time" is something other than philosophical anthropology.  Heidegger's account of Dasein passes through a dissection of the experiences of "Angst" and mortality, and then through an analysis of the structure of "care" as such. From there he raises the problem of "authenticity," that is, the potentiality or otherwise for mortal "Dasein" to exist "fully" enough that it might actually understand being. Heidegger is clear throughout the book that nothing makes certain that "Dasein" is capable of this understanding.

Time.

Finally, this question of the authenticity of individual "Dasein" cannot be separated from the "historicality" of "Dasein". On the one hand, "Dasein", as mortal, is "stretched along" between birth and death, and thrown into its world, that is, thrown into its "possibilities", possibilities which "Dasein" is charged with the task of assuming. On the other hand, "Dasein's" access to this world and these possibilities is always via a history and a tradition—this is the question of "world historicality," and among its consequences is Heidegger's argument that "Dasein's" potential for authenticity lies in the possibility of choosing a "hero."  Thus, more generally, the outcome of the progression of Heidegger's argument is the thought that the being of "Dasein" is time. Nevertheless, Heidegger concludes his work with a set of enigmatic questions foreshadowing the necessity of a destruction (that is, a transformation) of the history of philosophy in relation to temporality—these were the questions to be taken up in the never completed continuation of his project:

Phenomenology in Heidegger and Husserl.

Although Heidegger describes his method in "Being and Time" as phenomenological, the question of its relation to the phenomenology of Husserl is complex. The fact that Heidegger believes that ontology includes an irreducible hermeneutic (interpretative) aspect, for example, might be thought to run counter to Husserl's claim that phenomenological description is capable of a form of scientific positivity. On the other hand, however, several aspects of the approach and method of "Being and Time" seem to relate more directly to Husserl's work.  The central Husserlian concept of the directedness of all thought—intentionality—for example, while scarcely mentioned in "Being and Time", has been identified by some with Heidegger's central notion of "Sorge" ("cura", care or concern). However, for Heidegger, "theoretical" knowledge represents only one kind of intentional behaviour, and he asserts that it is grounded in more fundamental modes of behaviour and forms of practical engagement with the surrounding world. Whereas a theoretical understanding of things grasps them according to "presence," for example, this may conceal that our first experience of a being may be in terms of its being "ready-to-hand." Thus, for instance, when someone reaches for a tool such as a hammer, their understanding of what a hammer "is" is not determined by a theoretical understanding of its presence, but by the fact that it is something we need at the moment we wish to do hammering. Only a "later" understanding might come to contemplate a hammer "as" an object.

Hermeneutics.

The total understanding of being results from an explication of the implicit knowledge of being that inheres in "Dasein". Philosophy thus becomes a form of interpretation, but since there is no external reference point outside being from which to begin this interpretation, the question becomes to know in which way to proceed with this interpretation. This is the problem of the "hermeneutic circle," and the necessity for the interpretation of the meaning of being to proceed in stages: this is why Heidegger's technique in "Being and Time" is sometimes referred to as hermeneutical phenomenology.

Destructuring of metaphysics.

As part of his ontological project, Heidegger undertakes a reinterpretation of previous Western philosophy. He wants to explain why and how theoretical knowledge came to seem like the most fundamental relation to being. This explanation takes the form of a destructuring ("Destruktion") of the philosophical tradition, an interpretative strategy that reveals the fundamental experience of being at the base of previous philosophies that had become entrenched and hidden within the theoretical attitude of the metaphysics of presence. This use of the word "Destruktion" is meant to signify not a negative operation but rather a positive transformation or recovery.  In "Being and Time" Heidegger briefly undertakes a destructuring of the philosophy of René Descartes, but the second volume, which was intended to be a "Destruktion" of Western philosophy in all its stages, was never written. In later works Heidegger uses this approach to interpret the philosophies of Aristotle, Kant, Hegel, Plato, Nietzsche, and Hölderlin, among others.

Related work.

"Being and Time" is the major achievement of Heidegger's early career, but he produced other important works during this period:  Although Heidegger did not complete the project outlined in "Being and Time", later works explicitly addressed the themes and concepts of "Being and Time". Most important among the works which do so are the following:

Influence and reception.

The critic George Steiner argues that "Being and Time" is a product of the crisis of German culture following Germany's defeat in World War I, similar in this respect to works such as Ernst Bloch's "The Spirit of Utopia" (1918), Oswald Spengler's "The Decline of the West" (1918), Franz Rosenzweig's "The Star of Redemption" (1921), Karl Barth's "The Epistle to the Romans" (1922), and Adolf Hitler's "Mein Kampf" (1925). Upon its publication, it was recognized as a groundbreaking philosophical work, with reviewers crediting Heidegger with "brilliance" and "genius". The book, which has been described as the "most influential version of existential philosophy", quickly became "the focus of debates and controversy". Heidegger claimed in the 1930s that commentators had attempted to show similarities between his views and those of Hegel in order to undermine the idea that "Being and Time" was an original work. In response, Heidegger maintained that his thesis that the essence of being is time is the opposite of Hegel's view that being is the essence of time. Karl Jaspers, writing in the first volume of his work "Philosophy" (1932), credited Heidegger with making essential points about "being in the world" and also about "existence and historicity".  Heidegger's work has been suggested as a possible influence on Herbert Marcuse's "Hegel's Ontology and the Theory of Historicity" (1932), though Marcuse later questioned the political implications of Heidegger's work. Jean-Paul Sartre, who wrote "Being and Nothingness" (1943) under the influence of Heidegger's work, has been said to have responded to "Being and Time" with "a sense of shock". Sartre's existentialism has been described as "a version and variant of the idiom and propositions" in "Being and Time". Because of Heidegger's revival of the question of being, "Being and Time" also influenced other philosophers of Sartre's generation, and it altered the course of French philosophy. Maurice Merleau-Ponty argued in "Phenomenology of Perception" (1945) that "Being and Time", "springs from an indication given by Husserl and amounts to no more than an explicit account of the 'natürlicher Weltbegriff' or the 'Lebenswelt' which Husserl, towards the end of his life, identified as the central theme of phenomenology". Heidegger influenced psychoanalysis through Jacques Lacan, who quotes from "Being and Time" in a 1953 text.  The publication of the English translation of the work by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson in 1962, helped to shape the way in which Heidegger's work was discussed in English. Gilles Deleuze's "Difference and Repetition" (1968) was influenced by Heidegger's "Being and Time", though Deleuze replaces Heidegger's key terms of being and time with difference and repetition respectively. Frank Herbert's science fiction novel "The Santaroga Barrier" (1968) was loosely based on the ideas of "Being and Time". The philosopher Lucien Goldmann argued in his posthumously published "" (1973) that the concept of reification as employed in "Being and Time" showed the strong influence of György Lukács' "History and Class Consciousness" (1923), though Goldmann's suggestion has been disputed. "Being and Time" influenced Alain Badiou's work "Being and Event" (1988). Roger Scruton writes that "Being and Time" is "the most complex of the many works inspired, directly or indirectly, by Kant's theory of time as 'the form of inner sense'." He considers Heidegger's language "metaphorical" and almost incomprehensible. Scruton suggests that this necessarily follows from the nature of Heidegger's phenomenological method. He finds Heidegger's "description of the world of phenomena" to be "fascinating, but maddeningly abstract". He suggests that much of "Being and Time" is a "description of a private spiritual journey" rather than genuine philosophy, and notes that Heidegger's assertions are unsupported by argument.  Stephen Houlgate compares Heidegger's achievements in "Being and Time" to those of Kant in the "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781) and Hegel in "The Phenomenology of Spirit" (1807) and "Science of Logic" (1812-1816). Simon Critchley calls the work Heidegger's "magnum opus", and writes that it is impossible to understand developments in continental philosophy after Heidegger without understanding it. Dennis J. Schmidt praises the "range and subtlety" of "Being and Time", and describes its importance by quoting a comment the writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe made in a different context, "from here and today a new epoch of world history sets forth." Heidegger has become common background for the political movement concerned with protection of the environment, and his narrative of the history of Being frequently appears when capitalism, consumerism and technology are thoughtfully opposed. Michael E. Zimmerman writes that, "Because he criticized technological modernity’s domineering attitude toward nature, and because he envisioned a postmodern era in which people would “let things be,” Heidegger has sometimes been read as an intellectual forerunner of today’s “deep ecology” movement.  "Being and Time" also influenced the enactivist approach to cognition.

References.

Informational notes Citations Bibliography

Being and Time () is a 1927 book by the German philosopher Martin Heidegger, in which the author seeks to analyse the concept of Being. Heidegger maintains that this has fundamental importance for philosophy and that, since the time of the Ancient Greeks, philosophy has avoided the question, turning instead to the analysis of particular beings. Heidegger attempts to revive ontology through a reawakening of the question of the meaning of being. He approaches this through a fundamental ontology that is a preliminary analysis of the being of the being to whom the question of being is important, i.e., "Dasein".

《存在与时间》()是德国哲学家马丁·海德格尔于1927年发表的一部著作,虽然写得很匆忙,且没有完成他在导言中所做的计划,但这本书仍然是他最重要的著作。深深影响了20世纪哲学,尤其是存在主义、解释学和解构主义。


Mode of action.

Wall-flow diesel particulate filters usually remove 85% or more of the soot, and under certain conditions can attain soot removal efficiencies approaching 100%. Some filters are single-use, intended for disposal and replacement once full of accumulated ash. Others are designed to burn off the accumulated particulate either passively through the use of a catalyst or by active means such as a fuel burner which heats the filter to soot combustion temperatures. This is accomplished by engine programming to run (when the filter is full) in a manner that elevates exhaust temperature, in conjunction with an extra fuel injector in the exhaust stream that injects fuel to react with a catalyst element to burn off accumulated soot in the DPF filter, or through other methods. This is known as. Cleaning is also required as part of periodic maintenance, and it must be done carefully to avoid damaging the filter. Failure of fuel injectors or turbochargers resulting in contamination of the filter with raw diesel or engine oil can also necessitate cleaning. The regeneration process occurs at road speeds higher than can generally be attained on city streets; vehicles driven exclusively at low speeds in urban traffic can require periodic trips at higher speeds to clean out the DPF. If the driver ignores the warning light and waits too long to operate the vehicle above, the DPF may not regenerate properly, and continued operation past that point may spoil the DPF completely so it must be replaced. Some newer diesel engines, namely those installed in combination vehicles, can also perform what is called a Parked Regeneration, where the engine increases RPM to around 1400 while parked, to increase the temperature of the exhaust.  Diesel engines produce a variety of particles during combustion of the fuel/air mix due to incomplete combustion. The composition of the particles varies widely dependent upon engine type, age, and the emissions specification that the engine was designed to meet. Two-stroke diesel engines produce more particulate per unit of power than do four-stroke diesel engines, as they burn the fuel-air mix less completely.  Diesel particulate matter resulting from the incomplete combustion of diesel fuel produces soot (black carbon) particles. These particles include tiny nanoparticles—smaller than a one micrometre (one micron). Soot and other particles from diesel engines worsen the particulate matter pollution in the air and are harmful to health.  New particulate filters can capture from 30% to greater than 95% of the harmful soot. With an optimal diesel particulate filter (DPF), soot emissions may be decreased to or less.  The quality of the fuel also influences the formation of these particles. For example, a high sulfur content diesel produces more particles. Lower sulfur fuel produces fewer particles, and allows use of particulate filters. The injection pressure of diesel also influences the formation of fine particles.

History.

Diesel particulate filtering was first considered in the 1970s due to concerns regarding the impacts of inhaled particulates. Particulate filters have been in use on non-road machines since 1980, and in automobiles since 1985. Historically medium and heavy duty diesel engine emissions were not regulated until 1987 when the first California Heavy Truck rule was introduced capping particulate emissions at 0.60 g/BHP Hour. Since then, progressively tighter standards have been introduced for light- and heavy-duty roadgoing diesel-powered vehicles and for off-road diesel engines. Similar regulations have also been adopted by the European Union and some individual European countries, most Asian countries, and the rest of North and South America.  While no jurisdiction has explicitly made filters mandatory, the increasingly stringent emissions regulations that engine manufactures must meet mean that eventually all on-road diesel engines will be fitted with them. In the European Union, filters are expected to be necessary to meet the Euro.VI heavy truck engine emissions regulations currently under discussion and planned for the 2012-2013 time frame. In 2000, in anticipation of the future Euro 5 regulations PSA Peugeot Citroën became the first company to make filters standard on passenger cars.  As of December 2008 the California Air Resources Board (CARB) established the 2008 California Statewide Truck and Bus Rule which—with variance according to vehicle type, size and usage—requires that on-road diesel heavy trucks and buses in California be retrofitted, repowered, or replaced to reduce particulate matter (PM) emissions by at least 85%. Retrofitting the engines with CARB-approved diesel particulate filters is one way to fulfill this requirement. In 2009 the "American Recovery and Reinvestment Act" provided funding to assist owners in offsetting the cost of diesel retrofits for their vehicles. Other jurisdictions have also launched retrofit programs, including:  Inadequately maintained particulate filters on vehicles with diesel engines are prone to soot buildup, which can cause engine problems due to high back pressure.  In 2018 the UK made changes to its MOT test requirements, including tougher scrutiny of diesel cars. One requirement was to have a properly fitted and working DPF. Driving without a DPF could incur a £1000 fine.

Variants of DPFs.

Unlike a catalytic converter which is a flow-through device, a DPF retains bigger exhaust gas particles by forcing the gas to flow through the filter; however, the DPF does not retain small particles and maintenance-free DPFs break larger particles into smaller ones. There are a variety of diesel particulate filter technologies on the market. Each is designed around similar requirements:

Cordierite wall flow filters.

The most common filter is made of cordierite (a ceramic material that is also used as catalytic converter supports (cores)). Cordierite filters provide excellent filtration efficiency, are relatively inexpensive, and have thermal properties that make packaging them for installation in the vehicle simple. The major drawback is that cordierite has a relatively low melting point (about 1200 °C) and cordierite substrates have been known to melt during filter regeneration. This is mostly an issue if the filter has become loaded more heavily than usual, and is more of an issue with passive systems than with active systems, unless there is a system break down.  Cordierite filter cores look like catalytic converter cores that have had alternate channels plugged - the plugs force the exhaust gas flow through the wall and the particulate collects on the inlet face.

Silicon carbide wall flow filters.

The second most popular filter material is silicon carbide, or SiC. It has a higher (2700 °C) melting point than cordierite, however, it is not as stable thermally, making packaging an issue. Small SiC cores are made of single pieces, while larger cores are made in segments, which are separated by a special cement so that heat expansion of the core will be taken up by the cement, and not the package. SiC cores are usually more expensive than cordierite cores, however they are manufactured in similar sizes, and one can often be used to replace the other. Silicon carbide filter cores also look like catalytic converter cores that have had alternate channels plugged - again the plugs force the exhaust gas flow through the wall and the particulate collects on the inlet face.  The characteristics of the wall flow diesel Particulate filter substrate are as follows: broad band filtration (the diameters of the filtered particles are 0.2–150 μm); high filtration efficiency (can be up to 95%); high refractory; high mechanical properties. high boiling point.

Ceramic fiber filters.

Fibrous ceramic filters are made from several different types of ceramic fibers that are mixed together to form a porous media. This media can be formed into almost any shape and can be customized to suit various applications. The porosity can be controlled in order to produce high flow, lower efficiency or high efficiency lower volume filtration. Fibrous filters have an advantage over wall flow design of producing lower back pressure. Ceramic wall-flow filters remove carbon particulates almost completely, including fine particulates less than 100 nanometers (nm) diameter with an efficiency of greater than 95% in mass and greater than 99% in number of particles over a wide range of engine operating conditions. Since the continuous flow of soot into the filter would eventually block it, it is necessary to'regenerate' the filtration properties of the filter by burning-off the collected particulate on a regular basis. Soot particulates burn-off forms water and CO in small quantity amounting to less than 0.05% of the CO emitted by the engine.

Metal fiber flow-through filters.

Some cores are made from metal fibers – generally the fibers are "woven" into a monolith. Such cores have the advantage that an electrical current can be passed through the monolith to heat the core for regeneration purposes, allowing the filter to regenerate at low exhaust temperatures and/or low exhaust flow rates. Metal fiber cores tend to be more expensive than cordierite or silicon carbide cores, and generally not interchangeable with them because of the electrical requirement.

Paper.

Disposable paper cores are used in certain specialty applications, without a regeneration strategy. Coal mines are common users – the exhaust gas is usually first passed through a water trap to cool it, and then through the filter. Paper filters are also used when a diesel machine must be used indoors for short periods of time, such as on a forklift being used to install equipment inside a store.

Partial filters.

There are a variety of devices that produce over 50% particulate matter filtration, but less than 85%. Partial filters come in a variety of materials. The only commonality between them is that they produce more back pressure than a catalytic converter, and less than a diesel particulate filter. Partial filter technology is popular for retrofit.

Maintenance.

Filters require more maintenance than catalytic converters. Ash, a byproduct of oil consumption from normal engine operation, builds up in the filter as it cannot be converted into a gas and pass through the walls of the filter. This increases the pressure before the filter. Warnings are given to the driver before filter restriction causes an issue with drive-ability or damage to the engine or filter develop. Regular filter maintenance is a necessity.  DPF filters go through a regeneration process which removes this soot and lowers the filter pressure. There are three types of regeneration: passive, active, and forced. Passive regeneration takes place normally while driving, when engine load and vehicle drive-cycle create temperatures that are high enough to regenerate the soot buildup on the DPF walls. Active regeneration happens while the vehicle is in use, when low engine load and lower exhaust gas temperatures inhibit the naturally occurring passive regeneration. Sensors upstream and downstream of the DPF (or a differential pressure sensor) provide readings that initiate a metered addition of fuel into the exhaust stream. There are two methods to inject fuel, either downstream injection directly into the exhaust stream, downstream of the turbo, or fuel injection into the engine cylinders on the exhaust stroke. This fuel and exhaust gas mixture passes through the Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) creating temperatures high enough to burn off the accumulated soot. Once the pressure drop across the DPF lowers to a calculated value, the process ends, until the soot accumulation builds up again. This works well for vehicles that drive longer distances with few stops compared to those that perform short trips with many starts and stops. If the filter develops too much pressure then the last type of regeneration must be used - a forced regeneration. This can be accomplished in two ways. The Vehicle operator can initiate the regeneration via a dashboard mounted switch. Various signal interlocks, such as park brake applied, transmission in neutral, engine coolant temperature, and an absence of engine related fault codes are required (vary by OEM and application) for this process to initiate. When the soot accumulation reaches a level that is potentially damaging to the engine or the exhaust system, the solution involves a garage using a computer program to run a regeneration of the DPF manually.

Safety.

In 2011, Ford recalled 37,400 F-Series trucks with diesel engines after fuel and oil leaks caused fires in the diesel particulate filters of the trucks. No injuries occurred before the recall, though one grass fire was started. A similar recall was issued for 2005-2007 Jaguar S-Type and XJ diesels, where large amounts of soot became trapped in the DPF. In affected vehicles, smoke and fire emanated from the vehicle underside, accompanied by flames from the rear of the exhaust. The heat from the fire could cause heating through the transmission tunnel to the interior, melting interior components and potentially causing interior fires.

Regeneration.

Regeneration is the process of burning off (oxidizing) the accumulated soot from the filter. This is done either passively (from the engine's exhaust heat in normal operation or by adding a catalyst to the filter) or actively introducing very high heat into the exhaust system. On-board active filter management can use a variety of strategies:  All on-board active systems use extra fuel, whether through burning to heat the DPF, or providing extra power to the DPF's electrical system, although the use of a fuel borne catalyst reduces the energy required very significantly. Typically a computer monitors one or more sensors that measure back pressure and/or temperature, and based on pre-programmed set points the computer makes decisions on when to activate the regeneration cycle. The additional fuel can be supplied by a metering pump. Running the cycle too often while keeping the back pressure in the exhaust system low will result in high fuel consumption. Not running the regeneration cycle soon enough increases the risk of engine damage and/or uncontrolled regeneration (thermal runaway) and possible DPF failure.  Diesel particulate matter burns when temperatures above 600 degrees Celsius are attained. This temperature can be reduced to somewhere in the range of 350 to 450 degrees Celsius by use of a fuel borne catalyst. The actual temperature of soot burn-out will depend on the chemistry employed. The start of combustion causes a further increase in temperature. In some cases, in the absence of a fuel borne catalyst, the combustion of the particulate matter can raise temperatures above the structural integrity threshold of the filter material, which can cause catastrophic failure of the substrate. Various strategies have been developed to limit this possibility. Note that unlike a spark-ignited engine, which typically has less than 0.5% oxygen in the exhaust gas stream before the emission control device(s), diesel engines have a very high ratio of oxygen available. While the amount of available oxygen makes fast regeneration of a filter possible, it also contributes to runaway regeneration problems.  Some applications use off-board regeneration. Off-board regeneration requires operator intervention (i.e. the machine is either plugged into a wall/floor mounted regeneration station, or the filter is removed from the machine and placed in the regeneration station). Off-board regeneration is not suitable for on-road vehicles, except in situations where the vehicles are parked in a central depot when not in use. Off-board regeneration is mainly used in industrial and mining applications. Coal mines (with the attendant explosion risk from coal damp) use off-board regeneration if non-disposable filters are installed, with the regeneration stations sited in an area where non-permissible machinery is allowed.  Many forklifts may also use off-board regeneration – typically mining machinery and other machinery that spend their operational lives in one location, which makes having a stationary regeneration station practical. In situations where the filter is physically removed from the machine for regeneration there is also the advantage of being able to inspect the filter core on a daily basis (DPF cores for non-road applications are typically sized to be usable for one shift - so regeneration is a daily occurrence).

A diesel particulate filter (DPF) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine.

柴油碳微粒滤清器(diesel particulate filter,缩写成DPF)的作用是捕捉收集柴油燃烧废气,并过滤碳微粒。当捕集的碳微粒多到某种程度时,ECU行车电脑会进行「滤清器再生」,将滤清器内的碳微粒燃烧成二氧化碳排出,以净化过滤器维持过滤功能。


Overview.

Most zero net energy buildings get half or more of their energy from the grid, and return the same amount over the course of a year. Buildings that produce a surplus of energy over the year may be called "energy-plus buildings" and buildings that consume slightly more energy than they produce are called "near-zero energy buildings" or "ultra-low energy houses".  Typical code-compliant buildings consume 40% of the total fossil fuel energy in the US and European Union and are significant contributors of greenhouse gases. The zero net energy consumption principle is viewed as a means to reduce carbon emissions and reduce dependence on fossil fuels and although zero-energy buildings remain limited even in developed countries, where they are gaining importance and popularity.  Most zero-energy buildings use the electrical grid for energy storage but some are independent of the grid and some include energy storage onsite. Energy is usually harvested onsite through energy producing technologies like solar and wind, while reducing the overall use of energy with highly efficient lightning and heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) technologies. The zero-energy goal is becoming more practical as the costs of alternative energy technologies decrease and the costs of traditional fossil fuels increase.  The development of modern zero-energy buildings became possible largely through the progress made in new energy and construction technologies and techniques. These include highly insulating spray-foam insulation, high-efficiency solar panels, high-efficiency heat pumps and highly insulating, low emissivity, triple-glazed windows. These innovations have also been significantly improved by academic research, which collects precise energy performance data on traditional and experimental buildings and provides performance parameters for advanced computer models to predict the efficacy of engineering designs.  Zero-energy buildings can be part of a smart grid. Some advantages of these buildings are as follows:  Although the net zero concept is applicable to a wide range of resources such as energy, water and waste. Energy is usually the first resource to be targeted because:

Optimizing zero-energy building for climate impact.

Zero-energy building results in increases in building efficiency, and reductions in operating carbon emissions. As a result, the importance of embodied carbon goes up.  Embodied carbon, the carbon emitted in the making of building products and construction, is responsible for 11% of global GHG emissions and 28% of global building sector emissions.  Optimizing construction for climate impact and

Definitions.

Despite sharing the name "zero net energy", there are several definitions of what the term means in practice, with a particular difference in usage

Design and construction.

The most cost-effective steps toward a reduction in a building's energy consumption usually occur during the design process. To achieve efficient energy use, zero energy design departs significantly from conventional construction practice. Successful zero energy building designers typically combine time tested passive solar, or artificial/fake conditioning, principles that work with the on-site assets. Sunlight and solar heat, prevailing breezes, and the cool of the earth below a building, can provide daylighting and stable indoor temperatures with minimum mechanical means. ZEBs are normally optimized to use passive solar heat gain and shading, combined with thermal mass to stabilize diurnal temperature variations throughout the day, and in most climates are superinsulated. All the technologies needed to create zero energy buildings are available off-the-shelf today.  Sophisticated 3-D building energy simulation tools are available to model how a building will perform with a range of design variables such as building orientation (relative to the daily and seasonal position of the sun), window and door type and placement, overhang depth, insulation type and values of the building elements, air tightness (weatherization), the efficiency of heating, cooling, lighting and other equipment, as well as local climate. These simulations help the designers predict how the building will perform before it is built, and enable them to model the economic and financial implications on building cost benefit

Energy harvest.

ZEBs harvest available energy to meet their electricity and heating or cooling needs. By far the most common way to harvest energy is to use roof-mounted solar photovoltaic panels that turn the sun's light into electricity. Energy can also be harvested with solar thermal collectors (which use the sun's heat to heat water for the building). Heat pumps either ground-source (otherwise known as geothermal) or air-sourced can also harvest heat and cool from the air or ground near the building. Technically heat pumps move heat rather than harvest it, but the overall effect in terms of reduced energy use and reduced carbon footprint is similar. In the case of individual houses, various microgeneration technologies may be used to provide heat and electricity to the building, using solar cells or wind turbines for electricity, and biofuels or solar thermal collectors linked to a seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) for space heating. An STES can also be used for summer cooling by storing the cold of winter underground. To cope with fluctuations in demand, zero energy buildings are frequently connected to the electricity grid, export electricity to the grid when there is a surplus, and drawing electricity when not enough electricity is being produced. Other buildings may be fully autonomous.  Energy harvesting is most often more effective in regards to cost and resource utilization when done on a local but combined scale, for example a group of houses, cohousing, local district or village rather than an individual house basis. An energy benefit of such localized energy harvesting is the virtual elimination of electrical transmission and electricity distribution losses. On-site energy harvesting such as with roof top mounted solar panels eliminates these transmission losses entirely. Energy harvesting in commercial and industrial applications should benefit from the topography of each location. However, a site that is free of shade can generate large amounts of solar powered electricity from the building's roof and almost any site can use geothermal or air-sourced heat pumps. The production of goods under net zero fossil energy consumption requires locations of geothermal, microhydro, solar, and wind resources to sustain the concept.  Zero-energy neighborhoods, such as the BedZED development in the United Kingdom, and those that are spreading rapidly in California and China, may use distributed generation schemes. This may in some cases include district heating, community chilled water, shared wind turbines, etc. There are current plans to use ZEB technologies to build entire off-the-grid or net zero energy use cities.

Utility concerns.

Utility companies are typically legally responsible for maintaining the electrical infrastructure that brings power to our cities, neighborhoods, and individual buildings. Utility companies typically own this infrastructure up to the property line of an individual parcel, and in some cases own electrical infrastructure on private land as well.  In the US utilities have expressed concern that the use of Net Metering for ZNE projects threatens the utilities base revenue, which in turn impacts their ability to maintain and service the portion of the electrical grid that they are responsible for. Utilities have expressed concern that states that maintain Net Metering laws may

Development efforts.

Wide acceptance of zero-energy building technology may require more government incentives or building code regulations, the development of recognized standards, or significant increases in the cost of conventional energy.  The Google photovoltaic campus and the Microsoft 480-kilowatt photovoltaic campus relied on US Federal, and especially California, subsidies and financial incentives. California is now providing US$3.2 billion in subsidies for residential-and-commercial near-zero-energy buildings. The details of other American states' renewable energy subsidies (up to US$5.00 per watt) can be found in the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency. The Florida Solar Energy Center has a slide presentation on recent progress in this area.  The World Business Council for Sustainable Development has launched a major initiative to support the development of ZEB. Led by the CEO of United Technologies and the Chairman of Lafarge, the organization has both the support of large global companies and the expertise to mobilize the corporate world and governmental support to make ZEB a reality. Their first report, a survey of key players in real estate and construction, indicates that the costs of building green are overestimated by 300 percent. Survey respondents estimated that greenhouse gas emissions by buildings are 19 percent of the worldwide total, in contrast to the actual value of roughly 40 percent.

Influential zero-energy and low-energy buildings.

Those who commissioned construction of passive houses and zero-energy homes (over the last three decades) were essential to iterative, incremental, cutting-edge, technology innovations. Much has been learned from many significant successes, and a few expensive

Net zero energy building definition.

The US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) published a report called Net-Zero Energy Buildings: A Classification System Based on Renewable Energy Supply Options. This is the first report to lay out a full spectrum classification system for Net Zero/Renewable Energy buildings that includes the full spectrum of Clean Energy sources, both on site and off site. This classification system identifies the following four main categories of Net Zero Energy Buildings/Sites/Campuses: Applying this US

Net zero carbon conversion example.

Many well known universities have professed to want to completely convert their energy systems off of fossil fuels. Capitalizing on the continuing developments in both photovoltaics and geothermal heat pump technologies, and in the advancing electric battery field, complete conversion

Advantages and disadvantages.

Zero energy building versus green building.

The goal of green building and sustainable architecture is to use resources more efficiently and reduce a building's negative impact on the environment. Zero energy buildings achieve one key green-building goal of completely or very significantly reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions for the life of the building. Zero energy buildings may or may not be considered "green" in all areas, such as reducing waste, using recycled building materials, etc. However, zero energy, or net-zero buildings do tend to have a much lower ecological impact over the life of the building compared with other "green" buildings that require imported energy and/or fossil fuel to be habitable and meet the needs of occupants.  Because of the design challenges and sensitivity to a site that are required to efficiently meet the energy needs of a building and occupants with renewable energy (solar, wind, geothermal, etc.), designers must apply holistic design principles, and take advantage of the free naturally occurring assets available, such as passive solar orientation, natural ventilation, daylighting, thermal mass, and night time cooling.

Certification.

Many green building certification programs do not require a building to have net zero energy use, only to reduce energy use a few percentage points below the minimum required by law. Green Globes involves check lists that are measurement tools, not design tools. Inexperienced designers or architects may cherry-pick points to meet a target certification level, even though those points may not be the best design choices for a specific building or climate. In November, 2011, the International Living Future Institute (ILFI) developed the Net Zero Energy Building Certification. In 2017, the ILFI simplified the certification program and renamed it Zero Energy Building Certification.

Worldwide.

International initiatives.

Between 2008 and 2013, researchers from Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, the Republic of Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the US were working together in the joint research program “Towards Net Zero Energy Solar Buildings” under the umbrella of International Energy Agency (IEA) Solar Heating and Cooling Program (SHC) Task 40

Australia.

In Australia, researchers have recently developed a new approach to the construction of visually-clear solar energy harvesting windows suitable for industrialization and applications in net-zero energy buildings. Industrial production of several prototype batches of solar windows has started in 2016.  Up to the

Belgium.

In Belgium there is a project with

Japan.

After April 2011 Fukushima earthquake follow up with Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, Japan experienced severe power crisis that led to the awareness of importance of energy conservation.  In

Denmark.

Strategic Research Centre on Zero Energy Buildings was in 2009 established at Aalborg University by a grant from the Danish Council for Strategic Research (DSF), the Programme Commission for Sustainable Energy and Environment, and in cooperation with the Technical University of Denmark,

India.

India's first net zero building is Indira Paryavaran Bhawan, located in New Delhi, inaugurated in 2014. Features include passive solar building design and

Iran.

In 2011, "Payesh" Energy House (PEH) or "Khaneh Payesh Niroo" by a collaboration of Fajr-e-Toseah Consultant Engineering Company and Vancouver Green Homes Ltd] under management of Payesh Energy Group (EPG) launched the first Net-Zero passive house in Iran. This concept makes the design and construction of PEH a sample model and standardized process

Ireland.

In 2005, a private company launched the world's first standardised passive house in Ireland, this concept makes the design and construction of passive house a standardised process. Conventional low energy construction techniques have been refined and modelled on the PHPP (Passive House Design Package) to create the standardised passive house. Building offsite allows high precision techniques to be utilised and reduces the possibility of errors in construction.  In 2009 the same company started a project to use

Malaysia.

In October 2007, the Malaysia Energy Centre (PTM) successfully completed the development and construction of the PTM Zero Energy Office (ZEO) Building. The building has been designed to be a super-energy-efficient building using only 286 kWh/day. The renewable energy – photovoltaic combination is expected to result in a net zero energy requirement from the grid. The building is currently undergoing a fine tuning process by the local energy management team. Findings are expected to be published in a year.  In 2016, the Sustainable Energy Development Authority Malaysia (SEDA Malaysia) started a voluntary initiative

Netherlands.

In September 2006, the Dutch headquarters of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) in Zeist was opened. This earth-friendly

Norway.

In February 2009, the Research Council of Norway assigned The Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology to host the Research Centre on Zero Emission Buildings (ZEB), which is one of eight new national Centres for Environment-friendly Energy Research (FME). The main objective

Singapore.

Singapore's first zero-energy building was launched on 26 October 2009

Switzerland.

The Swiss MINERGIE-A-Eco label certifies zero energy buildings. The

United Kingdom.

In December 2006, the government announced that by 2016 all new homes in England will be zero energy buildings. To encourage this, an exemption from Stamp Duty Land Tax is planned. In Wales the plan is for the standard to

United States.

In the US, ZEB research is currently being supported by the US Department of Energy (DOE) Building America Program, including industry-based consortia and researcher organizations at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), the Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC), Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). From fiscal year 2008 to 2012, DOE plans to award $40 million to four Building America teams, the Building Science Corporation; IBACOS; the Consortium of Advanced Residential Buildings; and the Building Industry Research Alliance, as well as a consortium of academic and building industry leaders. The funds will be used to develop net-zero-energy homes that consume 50% to 70% less energy than conventional homes.  DOE is also awarding $4.1 million to two regional building technology application centers that will accelerate the adoption of new and developing energy-efficient technologies. The two centers, located at the University of Central Florida and Washington State University, will serve 17 states, providing information and training on commercially available energy-efficient technologies.  The U.S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 created 2008 through 2012 funding for a new solar air conditioning research and development program, which should soon demonstrate multiple new technology innovations and mass production economies of scale.  The 2008 Solar America Initiative funded research and development into future development of cost-effective Zero Energy Homes in the amount of $148 million in 2008.  The Solar Energy Tax Credits have been extended until the end of 2016. Solar power in the United States  By Executive Order 13514, U.S. President Barack Obama mandated that by 2015, 15% of existing Federal buildings conform to new energy efficiency standards and 100% of all new Federal buildings be Zero-Net-Energy by 2030.

Energy Free Home Challenge.

In 2007, the philanthropic Siebel Foundation created the Energy Free Home Foundation. The goal was to offer $20 million in global incentive prizes to design and build a 2,000 square foot (186 square meter) three-bedroom, two bathroom home with (1) net-zero annual utility bills that also has (2) high market appeal, and (3) costs no more than a conventional home to construct.  The plan included funding to build the top ten entries at $250,000 each,

US Department of Energy Solar Decathlon.

The US Department of Energy Solar Decathlon is an international competition that challenges collegiate teams to design, build, and operate the most attractive, effective, and energy-efficient solar-powered house. Achieving zero net energy balance is a major focus of the competition.

A zero-energy building (ZE), also known as a zero net energy (ZNE) building, net-zero energy building (NZEB), net zero building is a building with zero net energy consumption, meaning the total amount of energy used by the building on an annual basis is equal to the amount of renewable energy created on the site, or in other definitions by renewable energy sources offsite. In some cases these buildings consequently contribute less overall greenhouse gas to the atmosphere during operations than similar non-ZNE buildings. They do at times consume non-renewable energy and produce greenhouse gases, but at other times reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas production elsewhere by the same amount. A similar concept approved and implemented by the European Union and other agreeing countries is nearly Zero Energy Building (nZEB), with the goal of having all buildings in the region under nZEB standards by 2020. Terminology tends to vary between countries and agencies; the IEA and European Union most commonly use "net zero", with "zero net" mainly used in the USA.

零碳建筑是指建筑物本身每年的净能量消耗或碳排放量为零,可以独立运作于电网,能够依靠太阳能或风力发电运作。关于这个主题的先决条件是收集精确的能源数据,利用先进计算机程序计算,在工程设计上更有效力去预测该净能量。


History.

Foundation.

The Servites lead a community life in the tradition of the mendicant orders (such as the Dominicans and Franciscans). The Servite Order was founded in 1233 AD when a group of cloth merchants of Florence, Italy, left their city, families, and professions to retire to Monte Senario, a mountain outside the city, for a life of poverty and penance. These men are known as the Seven Holy Founders; they were canonized by Pope Leo XIII in 1888.  These seven were: Buonfiglio dei Monaldi (Bonfilius), Giovanni di Buonagiunta (Bonajuncta), Amadeus of the Amidei (Bartolomeus), Ricovero dei Lippi-Ugguccioni (Hugh), Benedetto dell' Antella (Manettus), Gherardino di Sostegno (Sostene), and Alessio de' Falconieri (Alexius). They belonged to seven patrician families of that city. As a reflection of the penitential spirit of the times, it had been the custom of these men to meet regularly as members of a religious society established in honor of Mary, the Mother of God. From the beginning, the members of the Order dedicated themselves to Mary under her title of Mother of Sorrows. Dedicating their devotion to the mother of Jesus, they adopted Mary's virtues of hospitality and compassion as the order's hallmarks. The distinctive spirit of the order is the sanctification of its members by meditation on the Passion of Jesus and the Sorrows of Mary, and spreading abroad this devotion.  The Bishop of Florence approved the Friar Servants of Mary as a religious Order sometime between the years 1240 and 1247. The Servants decided to live by the Rule of St. Augustine, and added to the Rule their own expression of Marian devotion and dedication. By 1250 there were a number of Servants who were ordained to the priesthood, thus creating an Order with priests as well as brothers.  Pope Alexander IV, favored a plan for the amalgamation of all institutes following the Rule of St. Augustine. This was accomplished in March 1256, and about the same time a Rescript was issued confirming the Order of the Servites as a separate body with power to elect a general. Four years later a general chapter was convened at which the order was divided into two provinces, Tuscany and Umbria, the former of which St. Manettus directed, while the latter was given into the care of St. Sostene. Within five years two new provinces were added: Romagna and Lombardy.

Suppression and expansion.

St. Philip Benizi was elected general on 5 June 1267, and afterwards became the great propagator of the order. The Second Council of Lyons in 1274 put into execution the ordinance of the Fourth Lateran Council, forbidding the foundation of new religious orders, and suppressed all mendicant institutions not yet approved by the Holy See. In the year 1276 Pope Innocent V in a letter to St. Philip declared the order suppressed. St. Philip proceeded to Rome, but before his arrival there Innocent V had died. His successor lived but five weeks. Finally Pope John XXI, decided that the order should continue as before. It was not definitively approved until Pope Benedict XI issued the Bull "Dum levamus" (11 February 1304). Of the seven founders, St. Alexis alone lived to see their foundation raised to the dignity of an order. He died in 1310.  Pope Boniface IX granted the Servites the power to confer theological degrees on 30 January 1398, and the order established the Marianum in Rome. The new foundation enjoyed considerable growth in the following decades. Even in the thirteenth century there were houses of the order in Germany, France, and Spain. Early in the fourteenth century the order had more than one hundred convents including branch houses in Hungary, Bohemia, Austria, Poland, and Belgium; there were also missions in Crete, the Philippines (St. Peregrine-Philippine Vicariate), and India.  The disturbances during the Protestant Reformation caused the loss of many Servite convents in Germany, but in the south of France the order met with much success. The Convent of Santa Maria in Via (1563) was the second house of the order established in Rome; San Marcello al Corso had been founded in 1369. Early in the eighteenth century the order sustained losses and confiscations from which it has scarcely yet recovered. The flourishing Province of Narbonne was almost totally destroyed by the plague which swept Marseilles in 1720. In 1783 the Servites were expelled from Prague and in 1785 Emperor Joseph II desecrated the shrine of Maria Waldrast. Ten monasteries were suppressed in Spain in 1835. A new foundation was made at Brussels in 1891.  After the Risorgimento in 1870, the government of Italy closed the Marianum along with many other papal institutions. The institute was re-founded as the College of Sant Alessio Falcioneri in 1895.  At this period the order was introduced into England and America, chiefly through the efforts of Fathers Bosio and Morini. The latter, having gone to London in 1864 as director of the affiliated Sisters of Compassion, obtained charge of a parish from Archbishop Manning in 1867. His work prospered; besides St. Mary's Priory at London, convents were opened at Bognor Regis (1882) and Begbroke (1886). In 1870 Fathers Morini, Ventura, Giribaldi, and Brother Joseph Camera, at the request of Bishop Joseph Melcher of Green Bay, Wisconsin, took up a mission in America, at Neenah. Father Morini founded at Chicago (1874) the monastery of Our Lady of Sorrows. A novitiate was opened at Granville, Wisconsin, in 1892. The American province was formally established in 1908.

Twentieth century.

The order continued to expand geographically throughout the twentieth century, taking responsibility for missions in Swaziland in 1913, Acre in Brazil in 1919, Aisén in Chile in 1937, and Zululand in South Africa. It also made foundations in Argentina from 1914 and more solidly since 1921; Transvaal in South Africa since 1935, Uruguay 1939, Bolivia 1946, Mexico 1948, Australia 1951, Venezuela 1952, Colombia 1953, India 1974, Mozambique 1984, Philippines 1985, Uganda, Albania 1993, and also the refoundations in Hungary (Eger) and the Czech Republic.  Pope Pius XII, through the Congregation of Seminaries and Universities, elevated the Marianum to a pontifical theological faculty on 30 November 1950.  After the Second Vatican Council, the order renewed its Constitutions starting with its 1968 general chapter at Majadahonda, Madrid, a process which was concluded in 1987. In the same year, Prior General Michael M. Sincerny oversaw the creation of the International Union of the Servite Family (UNIFAS).  The twentieth century also saw the beatification (1952) and the canonization of Friar Antonio Maria Pucci; the canonization of Clelia Barbieri (d. 1870), foundress of the Minime dell’Addolorata; the beatification of Ferdinando Maria Baccilieri of the Servite Secular Order (1999); the beatification of Sr. Maria Guadalupe Ricart Olmos (2001), a Spanish cloistered nun who was martyred during the Spanish Civil War; and the beatification of Cecelia Eusepi of the Servite Secular Order.  Through the centuries, the Servite Order has spread throughout the world, including all of Europe, parts of Africa, Australia, the Americas, India, and the Philippines. The general headquarters of the Servite Order is in Rome, while many provinces and motherhouses represent the Order throughout the world. In the United States there is one province of friars with headquarters in Chicago. There are four provinces of sisters with motherhouses in Wisconsin, Nebraska, and two in Illinois.

Devotions, manner of life.

In common with all religious orders strictly so called, the Servites make solemn vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. The particular object of the order is to sanctify first its own members, and then all men through devotion to the Mother of God, especially in her desolation during the Passion of her Divine Son.  The Servites give missions, have the care of souls, or teach in higher institutions of learning. The Rosary of the Seven Dolors is one of their devotions, as is also the Via Matris.  The fasts of the order are Advent, Lent, and the vigils of certain feasts.  All offices in the order are elective and continue for three years, except that of general and assistant-generals which are for six years.  Canonized Servite saints are: St. Philip Benizi (feast day on 23 August), St. Peregrine Laziosi (4 May), St. Juliana Falconieri (19 June). The seven founders of the order were canonized in 1888, and have a common feast day on 17 February. The date first assigned to this feast day was 11 February, the anniversary of the canonical approval of the order in 1304. In 1907 this date was assigned to the celebration of Our Lady of Lourdes and the feast day of the Seven Holy Founders was moved to 12 February. In accordance with liturgical tradition, the date was changed in 1969 to the anniversary of the death of one of them, Alexis Falconieri, which occurred on 17 February 1310.

Affiliated associations.

Connected with the first order of men are the cloistered nuns of the second order, which originated with converts of St. Philip Benizi. These sisters have monasteries in Spain, Italy, England, the Tyrol, and Germany.  The Mantellate is a third order of women founded by Juliana Falconieri, to whom St. Philip gave the habit in 1284. From Italy it spread into other countries of Europe. The Venerable Anna Juliana, Archduchess of Austria, founded several houses and became a Mantellate herself. In 1844 it was introduced into France, and from there extended into England in 1850. The sisters were the first to wear the religious habit publicly in that country after the so-called Reformation and were active missionaries under Father Faber and the Oratorians for many years. This branch occupies itself with active works. They devote themselves principally to the education of youth, managing academies and taking charge of parochial schools and workrooms. They also undertake works of mercy, such as the care of orphans, visiting the sick, and instructing converts, etc. They have houses in Italy, France, Spain, England, and Canada. In the United States they are to be found in the dioceses of Sioux City, Omaha, Belville (NC), and Blue Island (IL).  There is also a confraternity of the Seven Dolours, branches of which may be erected in any church.  The Secular Order of the Servants of Mary (Servite Secular Order) is a Catholic organization of lay men and women plus diocesan priests living their Christian faith in the context of the world. They strive toward holiness according to the spirituality of the Servite Order, following the directives of their Rule of Life. Secular Servites are asked to do the following each day: live the Christian virtues of faith, hope, and love; pray and try to read Sacred Scripture each day, and/or the Liturgy of the Hours; and practice acts of reverence for the Mother of God daily, especially by praying the Servite prayer "The Vigil of Our Lady" and/or the Servite Rosary of the Seven Sorrows of Mary.

Mariology and the Marianum.

The Pontifical institute "Marianum" which is now one of the leading centers of Mariology traces its roots to the Servite Order. In 1398 Pope Boniface IX granted the order the right to confer theological degrees; in 1895 the school reopened under the name Sant Alessio Falcioneri.  In 1939 Father Gabriel Roschini OSM founded the journal "Marianum" and directed it for thirty years. In 1950, he founded the Marianum Theological Faculty, which, on 8 December 1955, became a Pontifical faculty by Decree Coelesti Honorandae Reginae of the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Universities under the authority of Pope Pius XII.

Notable Servites.

Ten members have been canonized and several beatified.  A few of the most distinguished members are here grouped under the heading of that particular subject to which they were especially devoted; the dates are those of their death.

The Servite Order is one of the five original Catholic mendicant orders. Its objectives are the sanctification of its members, preaching the Gospel, and the propagation of devotion to the Mother of God, with special reference to her sorrows. The members of the Order use O.S.M. ("Ordo Servorum Beatae Mariae Virginis") as their post-nominal letters. The male members are known as Servite Friars or Servants of Mary.

圣母忠仆会(Servite Order)是罗马天主教最初的5个托钵修会(mendicant order)之一。其宗旨是圣化成员、传播福音,特别恭敬七苦圣母。圣母忠仆会的神父使用“O.S.M.”为名衔缩写。


Nomenclature.

Transform boundaries are also known as conservative plate boundaries because they involve no addition or loss of lithosphere at the Earth's surface.

Background.

Geophysicist and geologist John Tuzo Wilson recognized that the offsets of oceanic ridges by faults do not follow the classical pattern of an offset fence or geological marker in Reid's rebound theory of faulting, from which the sense of slip is derived. The new class of faults, called transform faults, produce slip in the opposite direction from what one would surmise from the standard interpretation of an offset geological feature. Slip along transform faults does not increase the distance between the ridges it separates; the distance remains constant in earthquakes because the ridges are spreading centers. This hypothesis was confirmed in a study of the fault plane solutions that showed the slip on transform faults points in the opposite direction than classical interpretation would suggest.

Difference between transform and transcurrent faults.

Transform faults are closely related to transcurrent faults and are commonly confused. Both types of fault are strike-slip or side-to-side in movement; nevertheless, transform faults always end at a junction with another plate boundary, while transcurrent faults may die out without a junction with another fault. Finally, transform faults form a tectonic plate boundary, while transcurrent faults do not.

Mechanics.

The effect of a fault is to relieve strain, which can be caused by compression, extension, or lateral stress in the rock layers at the surface or deep in the Earth's subsurface. Transform faults specifically relieve the strain by transferring displacement between ridges or subduction zones. They also act as the plane of weakness, which may result in splitting in rift zones.

Examples.

Transform faults are commonly found linking segments of mid-oceanic ridges or spreading centres. These mid-oceanic ridges are where new seafloor is constantly created through the upwelling of new basaltic magma. With new seafloor being pushed and pulled out, the older seafloor slowly slides away from the mid-oceanic ridges toward the continents. Although separated only by tens of kilometers, this separation between segments of the ridges causes portions of the seafloor to push past each other in opposing directions. This lateral movement of seafloors past each other is where transform faults are currently active. Transform faults move differently from a strike-slip fault at the mid-oceanic ridge. Instead of the ridges moving away from each other, as they do in other strike-slip faults, transform-fault ridges remain in the same, fixed locations, and the new ocean seafloor created at the ridges is pushed away from the ridge. Evidence of this motion can be found in paleomagnetic striping on the seafloor.  A paper written by geophysicist Taras Gerya theorizes that the creation of the transform faults between the ridges of the mid-oceanic ridge is attributed to rotated and stretched sections of the mid-oceanic ridge. This occurs over a long period of time with the spreading center or ridge slowly deforming from a straight line to a curved line. Finally, fracturing along these planes forms transform faults. As this takes place, the fault changes from a normal fault with extensional stress to a strike-slip fault with lateral stress. In the study done by Bonatti and Crane, peridotite and gabbro rocks were discovered in the edges of the transform ridges. These rocks are created deep inside the Earth's mantle and then rapidly exhumed to the surface. This evidence helps to prove that new seafloor is being created at the mid-oceanic ridges and further supports the theory of plate tectonics.  Active transform faults are between two tectonic structures or faults. Fracture zones represent the previously active transform-fault lines, which have since passed the active transform zone and are being pushed toward the continents. These elevated ridges on the ocean floor can be traced for hundreds of miles and in some cases even from one continent across an ocean to the other continent.  The most prominent examples of the mid-oceanic ridge transform zones are in the Atlantic Ocean between South America and Africa. Known as the St. Paul, Romanche, Chain, and Ascension fracture zones, these areas have deep, easily identifiable transform faults and ridges. Other locations include: the East Pacific Ridge located in the South Eastern Pacific Ocean, which meets up with San Andreas Fault to the North.  Transform faults are not limited to oceanic crust and spreading centers; many of them are on continental margins. The best example is the San Andreas Fault on the Pacific coast of the United States. The San Andreas Fault links the East Pacific Rise off the West coast of Mexico (Gulf of California) to the Mendocino Triple Junction (Part of the Juan de Fuca plate) off the coast of the Northwestern United States, making it a ridge-to-transform-style fault. The formation of the San Andreas Fault system occurred fairly recently during the Oligocene Period between 34 million and 24 million years ago. During this period, the Farallon plate, followed by the Pacific plate, collided into the North American plate. The collision led to the subduction of the Farallon plate underneath the North American plate. Once the spreading center separating the Pacific and the Farallon plates was subducted beneath the North American plate, the San Andreas Continental Transform-Fault system was created. In New Zealand, the South Island's alpine fault is a transform fault for much of its length. This has resulted in the folded land of the Southland Syncline being split into an eastern and western section several hundred kilometres apart. The majority of the syncline is found in Southland and The Catlins in the island's southeast, but a smaller section is also present in the Tasman District in the island's northwest.  Other examples include:

Types.

In his work on transform-fault systems, geologist Tuzo Wilson said that transform faults must be connected to other faults or tectonic-plate boundaries on both ends; because of that requirement, transform faults can grow in length, keep a constant length, or decrease in length. These length changes are dependent on which type of fault or tectonic structure connect with the transform fault. Wilson described six types of transform faults:  "Growing length:" In situations where a transform fault links a spreading center and the upper block of a subduction zone or where two upper blocks of subduction zones are linked, the transform fault itself will grow in length.  "Constant length:" In other cases, transform faults will remain at a constant length. This steadiness can be attributed to many different causes. In the case of ridge-to-ridge transforms, the constancy is caused by the continuous growth by both ridges outward, canceling any change in length. The opposite occurs when a ridge linked to a subducting plate, where all the lithosphere (new seafloor) being created by the ridge is subducted, or swallowed up, by the subduction zone. Finally, when two upper subduction plates are linked there is no change in length. This is due to the plates moving parallel with each other and no new lithosphere is being created to change that length.  Decreasing length faults: In rare cases, transform faults can shrink in length. These occur when two descending subduction plates are linked by a transform fault. In time as the plates are subducted, the transform fault will decrease in length until the transform fault disappears completely, leaving only two subduction zones facing in opposite directions.

A transform fault or transform boundary is a fault along a plate boundary where the motion is predominantly horizontal. It ends abruptly where it connects to another plate boundary, either another transform, a spreading ridge, or a subduction zone.

-{zh-cn:转换断层;zh-tw:转形断层;zh-hans:转换断层;zh-hant:转形断层}-( ),又称为-{zh-cn:转形断层;zh-tw:转换断层;zh-hans:转形断层;zh-hant:转换断层}-或错动型板块边界,是一系列沿着张裂型板块边界平行排列、把中洋脊走向切割为不同块段的一种大规模水平位移断层。转型断层形成的断裂带通常长达数千公里,宽约100到200公里,在海底表现为线形陡崖,两侧地形高度差可达两千米以上或更多。转型断层造成的板块水平位移量,如果以磁力探勘的结果和两侧的中洋脊轴比较,多者可以达到数百公里。


History.

The sociological theory of postmaterialism was developed in the 1970s by Ronald Inglehart. After extensive survey research, Inglehart postulated that the Western societies under the scope of his survey were undergoing transformation of individual values, switching from materialist values, emphasizing economic and physical security, to a new set of postmaterialist values, which instead emphasized autonomy and self-expression. Inglehart argued that rising prosperity was gradually liberating the publics of advanced industrial societies from the stress of basic acquisitive or materialistic needs.  Observing that the younger people were much more likely to embrace postmaterialist values, Inglehart speculated that this silent revolution was not merely a case of a life-cycle change, with people becoming more materialist as they aged, but a genuine example of generational replacement causing intergenerational value change.  The theory of intergenerational change is based on two key hypotheses:

Scarcity hypothesis.

Inglehart assumed that individuals pursue various goals in something akin to a hierarchical order. While people may universally aspire to freedom and autonomy, the most pressing material needs like hunger, thirst and physical security have to be satisfied first, since they are immediately linked with survival. According to Inglehart's interpretation of Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of human goals, while scarcity prevails, these "materialistic" goals will have priority over postmaterialist goals like belonging, esteem, and aesthetic and intellectual satisfaction. However, once the satisfaction of the survival needs can be taken for granted, the focus will gradually shift to these "non-material" goods.

Socialization hypothesis.

The relationship between material conditions and value priorities is not one of immediate adjustment. A large body of evidence indicates that people's basic values are largely fixed when they reach adulthood, and change relatively little thereafter. Therefore, cohorts which often experienced economic scarcity would "ceteris paribus" (all things being equal) place a high value on meeting economic needs (such as valuing economic growth above protecting the environment) and on safety needs (will support more authoritarian styles of leadership, will exhibit strong feelings of national pride, will be strongly in favour of maintaining a large, strong army and will be more willing to sacrifice civil liberties for the sake of law and order). On the other hand, cohorts who have experienced sustained high material affluence start to give high priority to values such as individual improvement, personal freedom, citizen input in government decisions, the ideal of a society based on humanism, and maintaining a clean and healthy environment.  Together, these two hypotheses carry the implication that, given long periods of material affluence, a growing part of society will embrace postmaterialist value systems, an implication which has been indeed borne out internationally in the past 30 years of survey data. The postmaterial orientations acquired by each cohort during socialization have been observed to remain remarkably steady over the time-frame of multiple decades, being a more stable value-system in contrast to the more volatile political and social attitudes.

Measuring postmaterialism.

There are several ways of empirically measuring the spread of postmaterialism in a society. A common and relatively simple way is by creating an index from survey respondents' patterns of responses to a series of items which were designed to measure personal political priorities.  The theoretical assumptions and the empirical research connected with the concept of postmaterialism have received considerable attention and critical discussion in the human sciences. Amongst others, the validity, the stability, and the causation of postmaterialism has been doubted.  The so-called "Inglehart-index" has been included in several surveys (e.g., General Social Survey, World Values Survey, Eurobarometer, ALLBUS, Turning Points of the Life-Course). The time series in ALLBUS (German General Social Survey) is particularly comprehensive. From 1980 to 1990 the share of "pure post-materialists" increased from 13 to 31 per cent in West Germany. After the economic and social stress caused by German reunification in 1990 it dropped to 23 per cent in 1992 and stayed on that level afterwards. The ALLBUS sample from the less affluent population in East Germany show much lower portions of postmaterialists (1991: 15 per cent, 1992: 10 per cent, 1998: 12 per cent). International data from the 2000 World Values Survey show the highest percentage of postmaterialists in Australia (35 per cent) followed by Austria (30 per cent), Canada (29 per cent), Italy (28 per cent), Argentina (25 per cent), United States (25 per cent), Sweden (22 per cent), Netherlands (22 per cent), Puerto Rico (22 per cent) etc.  As increasing postmaterialism is based on the abundance of material possessions or resources, it should not be mixed indiscriminately with asceticism or general denial of consumption. In some way postmaterialism may be described as super-materialism. German data show that there is a tendency towards this orientation among young people, in the economically rather secure public service, and in the managerial middle class.  Recently, the issue of a "second generation of postmaterialism" appearing on the scene of worldwide civil society, to a large extent conceived as their "positive ideological embodiment", has been brought up by cultural scientist Roland Benedikter in his seven-volume book series "Postmaterialismus" (2001–2005).

In sociology, postmaterialism is the transformation of individual values from materialist, physical, and economic to new individual values of autonomy and self-expression.

后物质主义(英语:Post-materialism)是后现代的新理论:指由个体及社会所带动的持续转变,使他们从基本的物质需要中释放出来的持续革命。 「后物质主义」这个概念及相关连的「」是由政治及社会科学家朗奴·英高赫(英语:Ronald Inglehart)于1970年代在他的著作《宁静革命—后物质主义价值变迁》(英语:"The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics")里所提出。


History.

Old Persian cuneiform is loosely inspired by the Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform; however, only one glyph is directly derived from it - "l(a)" (), from "la" (). ("l" did not occur in native Old Persian words, but was found in Akkadian borrowings.)  Scholars today mostly agree that the Old Persian script was invented by about 525 BC to provide monument inscriptions for the Achaemenid king Darius I, to be used at Behistun. While a few Old Persian texts seem to be inscribed during the reigns of Cyrus the Great (CMa, CMb, and CMc, all found at Pasargadae), the first Achaemenid emperor, or Arsames and Ariaramnes (AsH and AmH, both found at Hamadan), grandfather and great-grandfather of Darius I, all five, specially the later two, are generally agreed to have been later inscriptions.  Around the time period in which Old Persian was used, nearby languages included Elamite and Akkadian. One of the main differences between the writing systems of these languages is that Old Persian is a semi-alphabet while Elamite and Akkadian were syllabic. In addition, while Old Persian is written in a consistent semi-alphabetic system, Elamite and Akkadian used borrowings from other languages, creating mixed systems.

Decipherment.

Much of the progress made in decipherment depended on the names of kings. Attempts at deciphering Old Persian cuneiform started in 1711 when some of Darius's inscriptions were published by Jean Chardin. In 1802, Friedrich Münter realized that recurring groups of characters must be the word for “king” (, now known to be pronounced "xšāyaθiya"). Georg Friedrich Grotefend extended this work by realizing a king's name is often followed by “great king, king of kings” and the name of the king's father. Grotefend made a major breakthrough when he noticed that one of the kings' father was not a king. In Persian history around the time period the inscriptions were expected to be made, there were only two instances where a ruler came to power without being a previous king's son. They were Darius the Great and Cyrus the Great, both of whom became emperor by revolt. The deciding factors between these two choices were the names of their fathers and sons. Darius's father was Hystaspes and his son was Xerxes, while Cyrus' father was Cambyses I and his son was Cambyses II. Within the text, the father and son of the king had different groups of symbols for names so Grotefend assumed that the king must have been Darius. These connections allowed Grotefend to figure out the cuneiform characters that are part of Darius, Darius's father Hystaspes, and Darius's son Xerxes. Grotefend's contribution to Old Persian is unique in that he did not have comparisons between Old Persian and known languages, as opposed to the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics and the Rosetta Stone. All his decipherments were done by comparing the texts with known history.  Grotefend published his deductions in 1802, but they were dismissed by the Academic community. It was only in 1823 that Grotefend's discovery was confirmed, when the French philologist Champollion, who had just deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs, was able to read the Egytian dedication of a quadrilingual hieroglyph-cuneiform inscription on an alabaster vase in the Cabinet des Médailles, the "Caylus vase". The Egyptian inscription on the vase was in the name of King Xerxes I, and Champollion, together with the orientalist Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin, was able to confirm that the corresponding words in the cuneiform script ( <unk> <unk>, " Xšayāršā : XŠ : vazraka", "Xerxes : The Great King") were indeed using the words which Grotefend had identified as meaning "king" and "Xerxes" through guesswork.  More advances were made on Grotefend's work and by 1847, most of the symbols were correctly identified. The decipherment of the Old Persian Cuneiform script was at the beginning of the decipherment of all the other cuneiform scripts, as various multi-lingual inscriptions between the various cuneiform scripts were obtained form archaeological discoveries. The decipherment of Old Persian was notably useful to the decipherment of Elamite, Babylonian and ultimately Akkadian (predecessor of Babylonian), through the multi-lingual Behistun Inscription.

Signs.

Most scholars consider the writing system to be an independent invention because it has no obvious connections with other writing systems at the time, such as Elamite, Akkadian, Hurrian, and Hittite cuneiforms. While Old Persian's basic strokes are similar to those found in cuneiform scripts, Old Persian texts were engraved on hard materials, so the engravers had to make cuts that imitated the forms easily made on clay tablets. The signs are composed of horizontal, vertical, and angled wedges. There are four basic components and new signs are created by adding wedges to these basic components. These four basic components are two parallel wedges without angle, three parallel wedges without angle, one wedge without angle and an angled wedge, and two angled wedges. The script is written from left to right. The script encodes three vowels, "a", "i", "u", and twenty-two consonants, "k", "x", "g", "c", "ç", "j", "t", "θ", "d", "p", "f", "b", "n", "m", "y", "v", "r", "l", "s", "z", "š", and "h". Old Persian contains two sets of consonants: those whose shape depends on the following vowel and those whose shape is independent of the following vowel. The consonant symbols that depend on the following vowel act like the consonants in Devanagari. Vowel diacritics are added to these consonant symbols to change the inherent vowel or add length to the inherent vowel. However, the vowel symbols are usually still included so [di] would be written as [di] [i] even though [di] already implies the vowel. For the consonants whose shape does not depend on the following vowels, the vowel signs must be used after the consonant symbol.  Compared to the Avestan alphabet Old Persian notably lacks voiced fricatives, but includes the sign "ç" (of uncertain pronunciation) and a sign for the non-native "l". Notably, in common with the Brahmic scripts, there appears to be no distinction between a consonant followed by an "a" and a consonant followed by nothing.

Alphabetic properties.

Although based on a logo-syllabic prototype, all vowels but short /a/ are written and so the system is essentially an alphabet. There are three vowels, long and short. Initially, no distinction is made for length: "a" or "ā," "i" or "ī," "u" or "ū." However, as in the Brahmic scripts, short "a" is not written after a consonant: "h" or "ha," "hā," "hi" or "hī," "hu" or "hū." (Old Persian is not considered an abugida because vowels are represented as full letters.)  Thirteen out of twenty-two consonants, such as "h(a)," are invariant, regardless of the following vowel (that is, they are alphabetic), while only six have a distinct form for each consonant-vowel combination (that is, they are syllabic), and among these, only "d" and "m" occur in three forms for all three vowels: "d" or "da," "dā," "di" or "dī," "du" or "dū." ("k, g" do not occur before "i," and "j, v" do not occur before "u," so these consonants only have two forms each.)  Sometimes medial long vowels are written with a "y" or "v," as in Semitic: "dī," "dū." Diphthongs are written by mismatching consonant and vowel: "dai", or sometimes, in cases where the consonant does not differentiate between vowels, by writing the consonant and both vowel components: "cišpaiš" (gen. of name Cišpi- 'Teispes').  In addition, three consonants, "t", "n", and "r", are partially syllabic, having the same form before "a" and "i", and a distinct form only before "u": "n" or "na," "nā," "ni" or "nī," "nu" or "nū."  The effect is not unlike the English sound, which is typically written "g" before "i" or "e", but "j" before other vowels ("gem", "jam"), or the Castilian Spanish sound, which is written "c" before "i" or "e" and "z" before other vowels ("cinco, zapato"): it is more accurate to say that some of the Old Persian consonants are written by different letters depending on the following vowel, rather than classifying the script as syllabic. This situation had its origin in Assyrian cuneiform, where several syllabic distinctions had been lost and were often clarified with explicit vowels. However, in the case of Assyrian, the vowel was not always used, and was never used where not needed, so the system remained (logo-)syllabic.  For a while it was speculated that the alphabet could have had its origin in such a system, with a leveling of consonant signs a millennium earlier producing something like the Ugaritic alphabet, but today it is generally accepted that the Semitic alphabet arose from Egyptian hieroglyphs, where vowel notation was not important. (See Proto-Sinaitic script.)

Unicode.

Old Persian cuneiform was added to the Unicode Standard in March 2005 with the release of version 4.1.  The Unicode block for Old Persian cuneiform is U+103A0–U+103DF and is in the Supplementary Multilingual Plane:

Old Persian cuneiform is a semi-alphabetic cuneiform script that was the primary script for Old Persian. Texts written in this cuneiform have been found in Iran (Persepolis, Susa, Hamadan, Kharg Island), Armenia, Romania (Gherla), Turkey (Van Fortress), and along the Suez Canal. They were mostly inscriptions from the time period of Darius I, such as the DNa inscription, as well as his son, Xerxes I. Later kings down to Artaxerxes III used more recent forms of the language classified as "pre-Middle Persian".

古波斯楔形文字是准字母楔形文字,它是古波斯语使用的主要文字。使用这种楔形文字的文本在波斯波利斯、苏萨、哈马丹、亚美尼亚和苏伊士运河沿岸找到。它们主要是来自大流士一世和他的儿子薛西斯一世的题刻。后来直到阿尔塔薛西斯三世的国王使用被分类为“前中古波斯语”的一种破败形式的语言。


History.

ISO/IEC 646 and its predecessor ASCII (ASA X3.4) largely endorsed existing practice regarding character encodings in the telecommunications industry. As ASCII did not provide a number of characters needed for languages other than English, a number of national variants were made that substituted some less-used characters with needed ones. Due to the incompatibility of the various national variants, an International Reference Version (IRV) of ISO/IEC 646 was introduced, in an attempt to at least restrict the replaced set to the same characters in all variants. The original version (ISO 646 IRV) differed from ASCII only in that code point 0x24, ASCII's dollar sign ($) was replaced by the international currency symbol (¤). The final 1991 version of the code ISO 646:1991 is also known as ITU T.50, International Reference Alphabet or IRA, formerly International Alphabet No. 5 (IA5). This standard allows users to exercise the 12 variable characters (i.e., two alternative graphic characters and 10 national defined characters). Among these exercises, ISO 646:1991 IRV (International Reference Version) is explicitly defined and identical to ASCII.  The ISO 8859 series of standards governing 8-bit character encodings supersede the ISO 646 international standard and its national variants, by providing 96 additional characters with the additional bit and thus avoiding any substitution of ASCII codes. The ISO 10646 standard, directly related to Unicode, supersedes all of the ISO 646 and ISO 8859 sets with one unified set of character encodings using a larger 21-bit value. A legacy of ISO/IEC 646 is visible on Windows, where in many East Asian locales the backslash character used in filenames is rendered as ¥ or other characters such as ₩. Despite the fact that a different code for ¥ was available even on the original IBM PC's code page 437, and a separate double-byte code for ¥ is available in Shift JIS (although this often uses alternative mapping), so much text was created with the backslash code used for ¥ (due to Shift_JIS being officially based on ISO 646:JP, although Microsoft maps it as ASCII) that even modern Windows fonts have found it necessary to render the code that way. A similar situation exists with ₩ and EUC-KR. Another legacy is the existence of trigraphs in the C programming language.

Code page layout.

The following table shows the ISO/IEC 646 Invariant character set. Each character is shown with the hex code of its Unicode equivalent. National code points are gray with the ASCII character that is replaced. A heavy box indicates a character that, in some regions, could be combined with a previous character as a diacritic using the backspace character, which may affect glyph choice.  In addition to the invariant set restrictions, 0x23 is restricted to be either # or £ and 0x24 is restricted to be either $ or ¤ in ECMA-6:1991, equivalent to ISO 646:1991. However, these restrictions are not followed by all national variants.

Related encoding families.

National Replacement Character Set.

The National Replacement Character Set (NRCS) is a family of 7-bit encodings introduced in 1983 by DEC with the VT200 series of computer terminals. It is closely related to ISO 646, being based on a similar invariant subset of ASCII, differing in retaining codice_1 as invariant but not codice_2 (although most NRCS variants retain the codice_2, and hence comply with the ISO 646 invariant set). Most NRCS variants are closely related to corresponding national ISO 646 variants where they exist, with the exception of the Dutch variant.

World System Teletext.

The European telecommunications standard ETS 300 706, "Enhanced Teletext specification", defines Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, Arabic and Hebrew code sets with several national variants for both Latin and Cyrillic. Like NRCS and ISO 646, within the Latin variants, the family of encodings known as the G0 set are based on a similar invariant subset of ASCII, but do not retain either codice_1 nor codice_2 as invariant. Unlike NRCS, variants often differ considerably from corresponding national ISO 646 variants.

Variant codes and descriptions.

ISO 646 national variants.

Some national variants of ISO 646 are as follows:

National derivatives.

Some national character sets also exist which are based on ISO 646 but do not strictly follow its invariant set (see also § Derivatives for other alphabets):

Control characters.

All the variants listed above are solely graphical character sets, and are to be used with a C0 control character set such as listed in the following table:

Associated supplementary character sets.

The following table lists supplementary graphical character sets defined by the same standard as specific ISO 646 variants. These would be selected by using a mechanism such as shift out or the NATS super shift (single shift), or by setting the eighth bit in environments where one was available:

Variant comparison chart.

The specifics of the changes for some of these variants are given in the following table. Character assignments unchanged across all listed variants (i.e. which remain the same as ASCII) are not shown.  For ease of comparison, variants detailed include national variants of ISO 646, DEC's closely related National Replacement Character Set (NRCS) series used on VT200 terminals, the related European World System Teletext encoding series defined in ETS 300 706, and a few other closely related encodings based on ISO 646. Individual code charts are linked from the second column. The cells with non-white background emphasize the differences from US-ASCII (also the Basic Latin subset of ISO/IEC 10646 and Unicode).  Several characters could be used as combining characters, when preceded or followed with a backspace C0 control. This is attested in the code charts for IRV, GB, FR1, CA and CA2, which note that codice_6 would behave as the diaeresis, acute accent, cedilla and circumflex (rather than quotation marks, a comma and an upward arrowhead) when preceded or followed by a backspace. The tilde character (~) was similarly introduced as a diacritic ( ̃). This encoding method originated in the typewriter/teletype era when use of backspace would overstamp a glyph, and may be considered deprecated.  Later, when wider character sets gained more acceptance, ISO 8859, vendor-specific character sets and eventually Unicode became the preferred methods of coding most of these variants. ! colspan="20" | Older International Reference Versions! IRV (1973)! ISO-IR-002! IRV (1983)! CP01009 ! colspan="20" | Invariant and other IRV subsets! INV! ISO-IR-170! INV (NRCS)! INV (Teletext)! ETS WST! INIS Subset! ISO-IR-049! T.61! ISO-IR-102! colspan="20" | East Asian! JP! ISO-IR-014! JP-OCR-B! ISO-IR-092! KR! (KS X 1003)! CN! ISO-IR-057! TW! (CNS 5205)! colspan="20" | British and Irish! GB! ISO-IR-004! GB (NRCS)! CP01101! Viewdata! ISO-IR-047! IE! ISO-IR-207! colspan="20" | Francophone! FR (1983)! ISO-IR-069! FR (1973)! ISO-IR-025! FR Teletext! ETS WST! CA! ISO-IR-121! CA2! ISO-IR-122! colspan="20" | Francophone-Germanophone! swi (NRCS)! CP01021! colspan="20" | Germanophone! DE! ISO-IR-021! colspan="20" | Nordic (Eastern) and Baltic! FI / SE! ISO-IR-010! SE2! ISO-IR-011! SE (NRCS)! CP01106! FI (NRCS)! CP01103! SEFI (NATS)! ISO-IR-008-1! EE (Teletext)! ETS WST! LV / LT (Teletext)! ETS WST! colspan="20" | Nordic (Western)! DK! CP01017! DK/NO (NRCS)! CP01105! DK/NO-alt (NRCS)! CP01107! NO! ISO-IR-060! NO2! ISO-IR-061! DANO (NATS)! ISO-IR-009-1! IS! colspan="20" | Hispanophone! ES! ISO-IR-017! ES2! ISO-IR-085! CU! ISO-IR-151! colspan="20" | Hispanophone-Lusophone! ES/PT Teletext! ETS WST! colspan="20" | Lusophone! PT! ISO-IR-016! PT2! ISO-IR-084! PT (NRCS)! colspan="20" | Greek! Latin-GR mixed! ISO-IR-027! colspan="20" | Slavic (Latin script)! YU! ISO-IR-141! YU Teletext! ETS WST! YU-alt Teletext! ETS WST! CS/CZ/SK (Teletext)! ETS WST! pl! (BN-74/3101-01)! PL Teletext! ETS WST! colspan="20" | Other! NL! CP01019! NL NRCS! CP01102! IT! ISO-IR-015! IT (Teletext)! ETS WST! HU! ISO-IR-086! MT! RO (Teletext)! ETS WST! TR (Teletext)! ETS WST

Derivatives for other alphabets.

Some 7-bit character sets for non-Latin alphabets are derived from the ISO 646 standard: these do not themselves constitute ISO 646 due to not following its invariant code points (often replacing the letters of at least one case), due to supporting differing alphabets which the set of national code points provide insufficient encoding space for. Examples include:  A comparison of some of these encodings is below. Only one case is shown, except in instances where the cases are mapped to different letters. In such instances, the mapping with the smallest code is shown first. Possible transcriptions are given for some letters; where this is omitted, the letter can be considered to correspond to the Roman one which it is mapped over.

ISO/IEC 646 is the name of a set of ISO standards, described as "Information technology — ISO 7-bit coded character set for information interchange" and developed in cooperation with ASCII at least since 1964. Since its first edition in 1967 it has specified a 7-bit character code from which several national standards are derived.

ISO/IEC 646是国际标准化组织(ISO)和国际电工委员会(IEC)于1972年制订的标准。它是一个 7-位元字符的字集,来自数个国家标准,最主要来自美国的 ASCII(美国信息互换标准代码)。ISO 646 除了英语字母和数字部分,为所有国家相同外,有些使用字母的国家,可按照实际需要,把 ISO 646 修改,以定出该国的字符标准。亦因为当年 8-位元字符集并未得到普遍接纳,各国把不同的字母或符号放进它们的字符集,以致部分出现在 ASCII 的字母或符号,并没有出现在某些国家的 ISO 646 变体之中。