Name.

The use of the word "secret" in the former title, "Vatican Secret Archive", does not denote the modern meaning of confidentiality. A fuller and perhaps better translation of the Latin may be the "private Vatican Apostolic archive", indicating that its holdings are the Pope's personal property, not those of any particular department of the Roman Curia or the Holy See. The word "secret" continues to be used in this older, original sense in English in phrases such as "secret servants", "secret cupbearer", "secret carver", or "secretary", much like an esteemed position of honour and regard comparable to a VIP. One study in 1969 said the name "secret" was merited because the cataloguing system was so inadequate that it remained "an extensive buried city, a Herculaneum inundated by the lava of time... secret as an archeological dig is secret".  Parts of the archive do, however, remain truly secret (or "classified" in a modern context). Most of the materials which are actively denied to outsiders relate to contemporary personalities and activities, including everything dated after 1939, as well as the private records of church figures after 1922.  On 28 October 2019, Pope Francis issued an Apostolic Letter motu proprio dated 22 October changing the name Vatican Secret Archive to Vatican Apostolic Archive.

Building an archive.

The early church.

In the first century of Christianity, the Church was already assembling a sizable collection of records. Known alternately as the Holy Scrinium or the Chartarium, it normally travelled with the current pope. The vast majority of these documents are now lost, but we know of them through references in contemporary and later works.  In later centuries, as the Church amassed power, popes would visit heads of state to negotiate treaties or make political appearances around Europe. Popes would also have multiple places of residency. When they travelled for diplomatic or other purposes, they would take their archives with them, since they needed it for administrative work. This resulted in some loss of items.  Initially, the archival materials of the Church were stored at the Lateran Palace, then the official papal residence.

Uprisings, revolts, and the Western Schism (10851415).

By the 11th century, the archives of the church were devolved to at least three separate sites: the Lateran, St. Peter's Basilica, and the Palatine palace. Between the 11th and the 13th centuries, a large part of these archives disappeared.  When the Popes moved to Avignon, the process of transporting their archives took twenty years, all told. The various places where the archives were kept along the way were sacked by the Ghibellines three separate times, in 1314, 1319, and 1320.  Antipopes also had their own archives. The Western Schism resulted in two sets of papal archives being developed at once; this rose to three during the era of Pisan antipope John XXIII. The disparate archives of the rival papal claimants were not fully reunited in the Vatican's archives until 1784.  During the 1404 sack of the Vatican, papal registers and historical documents were thrown into the streets, and Pope Innocent VII fled the city. His successor, Pope Gregory XII, supposedly sold off a large number of archival materials in 1406, including some of the papal registers.

Founding the archive.

In 1612, Pope Paul V ordered all Church records assembled in one place.

French seizure and restoration.

As Napoleon conquered the states on the Italian peninsula in the 1790s, he demanded works of art and manuscripts as tribute. His armistice with Holy See on 23 June 1796 stipulated that "the Pope shall deliver to the French Republic one hundred pictures, busts, vases or statues... and five hundred manuscripts" all chosen by French agents. The 1798 Treaty of Tolentino made even greater demands and the works sent to Paris included the Codex Vaticanus, the oldest extant manuscript of the Bible in Greek. By the time Napoleon became emperor in 1804, he envisaged a central archive in Paris of the records and treasures of Europe. In 1809 he ordered the entire Vatican Archive transferred to Paris and by 1813 more than 3,000 crates had been shipped with only modest losses.  In April 1814, following Napoleon's defeat, the new French government ordered the archive returned, but provided inadequate financing. Vatican officials raised funds by selling some volumes as well as bundling documents for sale by weight. Inadequate funding led to losses en route and one scholar of the period estimates that "about one-fourth to one-third of the archival materials that went to Paris never returned to the Vatican."

Access to scholars.

Nineteenth century developments.

In 1855, Augustin Theiner, prefect of the Archive, began to publish multi-volume collections of documents from the archive. His predecessor Marino Marini had produced an account of Galileo's trials that failed to satisfy scholars who saw it as an apology for the Inquisition. Beginning in 1867, Theiner and his successor granted individual scholars access to the manuscripts relating to the trial of Galileo, leading to an extended dispute about their authenticity. Scholarly access was briefly interrupted following the dissolution of the Papal States in 1870, when archive officials restricted access to assert their control against competing claims by the victorious Italian state.  In 1879, Pope Leo XIII appointed as archivist Cardinal Josef Hergenröther, who immediately wrote a memo recommending that historians be allowed to access to the archive. Access had remained limited out of concern that Protestant researchers might use their access to slander or embarrass the Church. Hergenröther's approach led to Pope Leo ordering a reading room constructed for researchers; it opened on 1 January 1881. When the German Protestant historian Theodor von Sickel, in April 1883, published the results of his research in the archive that defended the Church against charges of forgery, Pope Leo was further persuaded. In August 1883 he wrote to the three cardinals who shared responsibility for the archives and praised the potential of historical research to clarify the role of the papacy in European culture and Italian politics. He announced that the archives would be open to research that was impartial and critical. In an address to the Görres Society in February 1884, Pope Leo said: "Go to the sources. That is why I have opened the archives to you. We are not afraid of people publishing documents out of them."

Access in the modern era.

In 1979, historian Carlo Ginzburg sent a letter to the newly-elected Pope John Paul II, asking that the archives of the Holy Office (the Roman Inquisition) be opened. Pope Benedict XVI said that letter was instrumental in the Vatican's decision to open those archives.  Though the archive has developed policies that restrict access to material by pontificate, with access granted 75 years after the close of a pope's reign, popes have granted exceptions. Pope Paul VI made the records of the Second Vatican Council available not long after it ended. In 2002, for example, Pope John Paul II allowed scholars access to documents from the historical archives of the Secretariat of State ("Second Section") pertaining to the Holy See's relations with Germany during the pontificate of Pope Pius XI (1922–39) in order "to put an end to unjust and thoughtless speculation" about the Church's relationship with the Nazi Party.  Following the success of the 2008 film "Angels & Demons" adapted from the Dan Brown novel of the same name, which depicts a visit to the Archive, the Vatican opened the Archives to a select group of journalists in 2010 to dispute the film's treatment.  In 2018, Pope Francis ordered the Vatican Archive to open documents which would assist in a "thorough study" concerning former Cardinal Theodore McCarrick, who was accused of sexually molesting seminarians and having affairs with young priests.  Pope Francis announced on 4 March 2019 that materials relating to Pope Pius XII will be opened on 2 March 2020. Francis said that Pius's legacy had been "debated and even criticized (one might say with some prejudice or exaggeration)", that "The Church is not afraid of history", and that he anticipated "appropriate criticism". In addition to assessing Pius's response to the Holocaust, the archives of the papacy of Pope Pius XII should point to much broader shift in global Christianity from Europe to the global South. Since 2006, members of the archives department have been organising the estimated 16 million pages of documents, to get them ready for viewing by researchers.

Holdings.

The Vatican Apostolic Archive has been estimated to contain of shelving, with 35,000 volumes in the selective "catalogue" alone.  Complete archives of letters written by the popes, known as the papal registers, are available beginning with the papacy of Innocent III (r. 1198-1216). A few registers of earlier popes also survive, including John VIII (r. 872-882) and Gregory VII (r. 1073-1085). There is little other documentation of the papacy before the 13th century.  Notable documents include Henry VIII of England's request for a marriage annulment, a handwritten transcript of the trial of Galileo for heresy, and letters from Michelangelo complaining he had not been paid for work on the Sistine Chapel.  To mark the 400th anniversary of the Vatican Archives, 100 documents dating from the 8th to the 20th century were put on display from February to September 2012 in the "Lux in arcana – The Vatican Secret Archives reveals itself" exhibition held at the Capitoline Museums in Rome. They included the 1521 bull of excommunication of Martin Luther and a letter from Mary, Queen of Scots, written while awaiting her execution.  The archive also supports its own photographic and conservation studios.

Access policy.

The entrance to the Archive, adjacent to the Vatican Library, is through the Porta di S. Anna in via di Porta Angelica (rione of Borgo). New underground storage space was added in 1980.  Qualified scholars from institutions of higher education pursuing scientific research with an adequate knowledge of archival research may apply for an entry card. Scholars need an introductory letter from either a recognized institute of research or a suitably qualified person in their field of historical research. Applicants need to provide their personal data (name, address, etc.), as well as the purpose of their research. Only sixty researchers per day are allowed inside.  With limited exceptions, materials dated after 1939 are unavailable to researchers until 2 March 2020, when material from Pius XII's tenure (1939-1958) is opened. An entire section of the archives relating to the personal affairs of cardinals from 1922 onwards cannot be accessed.

Digitization project.

Early in the 21st century, the Vatican Apostolic Archives began an in-house digitization project, to attempt to both make the documents more available to researchers and to help to preserve aging physical documents.  The archives by 2018 had 180 terabytes of digital storage capacity, and had digitized over seven million images. Given how vast the archives are, however, this means that only a small fraction of the total content of the Archives is available online; an even smaller percentage has been transcribed into "searchable" computer text.

"In Codice Ratio".

In 2017, a project based in Roma Tre University called "In Codice Ratio" began using artificial intelligence and optical character recognition to attempt to transcribe more documents from the archives. While character-recognition software is adept at reading typed text, the cramped and many-serifed style of medieval handwriting makes distinguishing individual characters difficult for the software. Many individual letters of the alphabet are often confused by human readers of medieval handwriting, let alone a computer program. The team behind "In Codice Ratio" tried to solve this problem by developing a machine-learning software that could parse this handwriting. Their program eventually achieved 96% accuracy in parsing this type of text.

Other Holy See archives.

There are other Holy See archives in Rome, since each department of the Roman Curia has its own archives. The word "secret" in its modern sense can be applied to some of the material kept by the Apostolic Penitentiary, when it concerns matters of the internal forum; but registers of the rescripts that it issued up to 1564 have been deposited in the Vatican Apostolic Archives and are open for consultation by qualified scholars. Half of these have already been put in digital form for easier consultation. The confidentiality of the material means that, in spite of the centuries that have passed since 1564, special rules apply to its publication.

The Vatican Apostolic Archive (; ), known until October 2019 as the Vatican Secret Archive, is the central repository in the Vatican City of all acts promulgated by the Holy See. The pope, as Sovereign of Vatican City, owns the material held in the archive until his death or resignation, with ownership passing to his successor. The archive also contains state papers, correspondence, account books, and many other documents that the church has accumulated over the centuries. In the 17th century, under the orders of Pope Paul V, the Secret Archive was separated from the Vatican Library, where scholars had some very limited access, and remained closed to outsiders until the late 19th century, when Pope Leo XIII opened the archive to researchers, more than a thousand of whom now examine some of its documents each year.

梵蒂冈宗座档案馆(;,前称梵蒂冈秘密档案馆)是指梵蒂冈城内保存圣座、教宗过世之前公布的所有文献的档案馆,包括信件、教宗的账簿及几个世纪以来罗马教廷累积的一些文件,及众多尚未被公开的文献。教宗将持有该些档案,直到下一任教宗继任为止。且直到1881年,教宗良十三世才允许研究人员检阅档案馆的部分文件,在此之前的档案馆属于完全封闭的状态。因此,梵蒂冈宗座档案馆也被称为最神秘的档案馆。


Biography.

McIlroy earned his Bachelor's degree in engineering physics from Cornell University, and a Ph.D. in applied mathematics from MIT in 1959 for his thesis "On the Solution of the Differential Equations of Conical Shells" (advisor Eric Reissner). He taught at MIT from 1954 to 1958.  McIlroy joined Bell Laboratories in 1958; from 1965 to 1986 was head of its Computing Techniques Research Department (the birthplace of the Unix operating system), and thereafter was Distinguished Member of Technical Staff.  From 1967 to 1968, McIlroy also served as a visiting lecturer at Oxford University.  In 1997, McIlroy retired from Bell Labs, and took a position as an Adjunct Professor in the Dartmouth College Computer Science Department.  He has previously served the Association for Computing Machinery as national lecturer, Turing Award chairman, member of the publications planning committee, and associate editor for the "Communications of the ACM", the "Journal of the ACM", and "ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems". He also served on the executive committee of CSNET.

Research and contributions.

Macro processors.

McIlroy is considered to be a pioneer of macro processors. In 1959, together with Douglas E. Eastwood of Bell Labs, he introduced conditional and recursive macros into popular SAP assembler, creating what is known as Macro SAP. His 1960 paper was also seminal in the area of extending any (including high-level) programming languages through macro processors. These contributions started the macro-language tradition at Bell Labs ("everything from L6 and AMBIT to C"). McIlroy's macro processing ideas were also the main inspiration for TRAC macro processor.  He also coauthored M6 macro processor in FORTRAN IV, which was used in ALTRAN and later was ported to and included into early versions of Unix.

Contributions to Unix.

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s McIlroy contributed programs for Multics (such as "runoff") and Unix operating systems (such as "diff", "echo", "tr", "join" and "look"), versions of which are widespread to this day through adoption of the POSIX standard and Unix-like operating systems. He introduced the idea of Unix pipelines. He also implemented TMG compiler-compiler in PDP-7 and PDP-11 assembly, which became the first high-level programming language running on Unix, prompting development and influencing Ken Thompson's B programming language and Stephen Johnson's Yacc parser-generator.  McIlroy also took over from Dennis Ritchie compilation of the Unix manual "as a labor of love". According to Sandy Fraser: "The fact that there was a manual, that he [McIlroy] insisted on a high standard for the manual, meant that he insisted on a high standard for every one of the programs that was documented".

Computer language design.

McIlroy influenced the design and implementation of SNOBOL programming language. His string manipulation macros were used extensively in the initial SNOBOL implementation of 1962, and figured prominently in subsequent work, eventually leading to its machine-independent implementation language SIL. The table type (associative array) was added to SNOBOL4 on McIlroy's insistence in 1969.  In 1960s, he participated in the design of PL/I programming language. He was a member of the IBM–SHARE committee that designed the language and, together with Robert Morris, wrote the Early PL/I (EPL) compiler in TMG for the Multics project.  Around 1965, McIlroy, together with W. Stanley Brown, implemented the original version of ALTRAN programming language for IBM 7094 computers.  McIlroy has also made a significant influence on design of the programming language C++ (e.g., he proposed the stream output operator codice_1).

Algorithms.

In the 1990s, McIlroy worked on improving sorting techniques, particularly he co-authored an optimized Quicksort algorithm with Jon Bentley.  In 1969, he contributed an efficient algorithm to generate all spanning trees in a graph (first discovered by George J. Minty in 1965).

Awards and recognition.

In 1995, he was elected as a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In 2004, he won both the USENIX Lifetime Achievement Award ("The Flame") and its Software Tools User Group (STUG) award. In 2006, he was elected as a member of the National Academy of Engineering.

Views on computing.

McIlroy is attributed the quote "The real hero of programming is the one who writes negative code," where the meaning of "negative code" is taken to be similar to the famous Apple developer team anecdote (i.e., when a change in a program source makes the number of lines of code decrease ('negative' code), while its overall quality, readability or speed improves).

Malcolm Douglas McIlroy (born 1932) is a mathematician, engineer, and programmer. As of 2019 he is an Adjunct Professor of Computer Science at Dartmouth College. McIlroy is best known for having originally proposed Unix pipelines and developed several Unix tools, such as spell, diff, sort, join, graph, speak, and tr. He was also one of the pioneering researchers of macro processors and programming language extensibility. He participated in the design of multiple influential programming languages, particularly PL/I, SNOBOL, ALTRAN, TMG and C++.

马尔科姆·道格拉斯·麦克罗伊(英语:Malcolm Douglas McIlroy,1932年),著名数学家、工程师以及程序员,曾服务于贝尔实验室,参与包括Unix与Plan 9的开发。截至2007年,他是达特茅斯学院的兼职教授,教授计算机科学。他曾提出基于组件的软件工程,并开发了多个Unix工具程序,如管道(Unix pipelines)、diff。


History.

Shadow play probably developed from "par" shows with narrative scenes painted on a large cloth and the story further related through song. As the shows were mostly performed at night the par was illuminated with an oil lamp or candles. Shadow puppet theatre likely originated in Central Asia-China or in India in the 1st millennium BCE. By at least around 200 BCE the figures on cloth seem to have been replaced with puppetry in Indian "tholu bommalata" shows. These are performed behind a thin screen with flat, jointed puppets made of colorfully painted transparent leather. The puppets are held close to the screen and lit from behind, while hands and arms are manipulated with attached canes and lower legs swinging freely from the knee. The evidence of shadow puppet theatre is found in both ancient Chinese and Indian texts. The most significant historical centers of shadow play theatre have been China, Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent.  According to Martin Banham, there is little mention of indigenous theatrical activity in the Middle East between the 3rd century CE and the 13th century, including the centuries that followed the Islamic conquest of the region. The shadow puppet play, states Banham, probably came into vogue in the Middle East after the Mongol invasions and thereafter it incorporated local innovations by the 16th century. Little mention of shadow play is found in Islamic literature of Iran, but much is found in Turkish and 19th-century Ottoman Empire-influenced territories.  While shadow play theatre is an Asian invention, hand puppets have a long history in Europe. As European merchant ships sailed in the search of sea routes to India and China, they helped diffuse popular entertainment arts and cultural practices into Europe. Shadow theatre became popular in France, Italy, Britain and Germany by the 17th century. In France, shadow play was advertised as "ombres chinoises", while elsewhere they were called "magic lantern". Goethe helped build a shadow play theatre in Tiefurt in 1781.

Prelude to cinematography.

According to Stephen Herbert, the popular shadow theatre evolved nonlinearly into projected slides and ultimately into cinematography. The common principle in these innovations were the creative use of light, images and a projection screen. According to Olive Cook, there are many parallels in the development of shadow play and modern cinema, such as their use of music, voice, attempts to introduce colors and mass popularity.

India.

Shadow puppets are an ancient part of India's culture, particularly regionally as the "keelu bomme" and "tholu bommalata" of Andhra Pradesh, the "togalu gombeyaata" in Karnataka, the "charma bahuli natya" in Maharashtra, the "ravanachhaya" in Odisha, the "tholpava koothu" in Kerala and the "thol bommalatta" in Tamil Nadu. Shadow puppet play is also found in pictorial traditions in India, such as temple mural painting, loose-leaf folio paintings, and the narrative paintings. Dance forms such as the Chhau of Odisha literally mean "shadow". The shadow theatre dance drama theatre are usually performed on platform stages attached to Hindu temples, and in some regions these are called "Koothu Madams" or "Koothambalams". In many regions, the puppet drama play is performed by itinerant artist families on temporary stages during major temple festivals. Legends from the Hindu epics "Ramayana" and the "Mahabharata" dominate their repertoire. However, the details and the stories vary regionally.  During the 19th century and early parts of the 20th century of the colonial era, Indologists believed that shadow puppet plays had become extinct in India, though mentioned in its ancient Sanskrit texts. In the 1930s and thereafter, states Stuart Blackburn, these fears of its extinction were found to be false as evidence emerged that shadow puppetry had remained a vigorous rural tradition in central Kerala mountains, most of Karnataka, northern Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil Nadu, Odisha and southern Maharashtra. The Marathi people, particularly of low caste, had preserved and vigorously performed the legends of Hindu epics as a folk tradition. The importance of Marathi artists is evidenced, states Blackburn, from the puppeteers speaking Marathi as their mother tongue in many non-Marathi speaking states of India. According to Beth Osnes, the "tholu bommalata" shadow puppet theatre dates back to the 3rd century BCE, and has attracted patronage ever since. The puppets used in a "tholu bommalata" performance, states Phyllis Dircks, are "translucent, lusciously multicolored leather figures four to five feet tall, and feature one or two articulated arms". The process of making the puppets is an elaborate ritual, where the artist families in India pray, go into seclusion, produce the required art work, then celebrate the "metaphorical birth of a puppet" with flowers and incense.  The "tholu pava koothu" of Kerala uses leather puppets whose images are projected on a backlit screen. The shadows are used to creatively express characters and stories in the "Ramayana". A complete performance of the epic can take forty-one nights, while an abridged performance lasts as few as seven days. One feature of the "tholu pava koothu" show is that it is a team performance of puppeteers, while other shadow plays such as the "wayang" of Indonesia are performed by a single puppeteer for the same "Ramayana" story. There are regional differences within India in the puppet arts. For example, women play a major role in shadow play theatre in most parts of India, except in Kerala and Maharashtra. Almost everywhere, except Odisha, the puppets are made from tanned deer skin, painted and articulated. Translucent leather puppets are typical in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, while opaque puppets are typical in Kerala and Odisha. The artist troupes typically carry over a hundred puppets for their performance in rural India.

Indonesia.

Shadow puppet theatre is called "wayang" in Indonesia, wherein a dramatic story is told through shadows thrown by puppets and sometimes combined with human characters. The art form celebrates Indonesian culture and artistic talent; its origins are traced to the medieval-era spread of Hinduism and the arrival of "tholu bommalata" (leather-based puppet arts) from southern India. Around 860 CE an Old Javanese charter issued by Maharaja Sri Lokapala mentions three sorts of performers: atapukan, aringgit, and abanol. Ringgit is described in an 11th-century Javanese poem as a leather shadow figure.  "Wayang kulit", a style of "wayang" shadow play, is particularly popular in Java and Bali. The term derived from the word "wayang" literally means "shadow" or "imagination" in Javanese; it also connotes "spirit". The word "kulit" means "skin", as the material from which the puppet is made is thin perforated leather sheets made from buffalo skin.  Performances of shadow puppet theater in Bali are typically at night, lasting until dawn. The complete "wayang kulit" troupes include "dalang" (puppet master), "nayaga" (gamelan players), and "sinden" (female choral singer). Some of the "nayaga" also perform as male choral singers. The "dalang" (puppet master) performs the "wayang" behind the cotton screen illuminated by oil lamp or modern halogen lamp, creating visual effects similar to animation. The flat puppet has moveable joints that are animated by hand, using rods connected to the puppet. The handle of the rod is made of carved buffalo horn. On November 7, 2003, UNESCO designated "wayang kulit" from Indonesia as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

Cambodia.

In Cambodia, the shadow play is called "Nang Sbek Thom", or simply as "Sbek Thom" (literally "large leather hide"), "Sbek Touch" ("small leather hide") and "Sbek Por" ("colored leather hide").  It is performed during sacred temple ceremonies, at private functions, and for the public in Cambodia's villages. The popular plays include the "Ramayana" and "Mahabharata" epics, as well as other Hindu myth and legends. The performance is accompanied by a pinpeat orchestra.  The "Sbek Thom" is based on the Cambodian version of the Indian epic "Ramayana", an epic story about good and evil involving Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Hanuman and Ravana. It is a sacred performance, embodying Khmer beliefs built on the foundations and mythologies of Brahmanism and Buddhism.  Cambodian shadow puppets are made of cow hide, and their size are usually quite large, depicting a whole scene, including its background. Unlike their Javanese counterparts, Cambodian shadow puppets are usually not articulated, rendering the figure's hands unmovable, and are left uncolored, retaining the original color of the leather. The main shadow puppet production center is Roluos near Siem Reap. Cambodian shadow puppetry is one of the cultural performances staged for tourists alongside Cambodian traditional dances.  The "Sbek Thom" figures are unlike puppets because they are large and heavy, with no moveable parts. The "Sbek Touch", in contrast, are much smaller puppets with movable parts; their shows have been more popular. The "Sbek Thom" shadow play involves many puppeteers dancing on the screen, each puppeteer playing one character of the "Ramayana", while separate narrators recite the story accompanied by an orchestra.

Thailand.

Shadow theatre in Thailand is called "nang yai"; in the south there is a tradition called "nang talung". "Nang yai" puppets are normally made of cowhide and rattan. Performances are normally accompanied by a combination of songs and chants. Performances in Thailand were temporarily suspended in 1960 due to a fire at the national theatre. "Nang" drama has influenced modern Thai cinema, including filmmakers like Cherd Songsri and Payut Ngaokrachang.

Malaysia.

In Malaysia, shadow puppet plays are also known as "wayang kulit". In Malay, "wayang" means "theater", while "kulit" means "skin/leather" and refers to the screen onto which the shadows are projected. Stories presented are usually mythical and morality tales. There is an educational moral to the plays, which usually portray a battle. Malay shadow plays are sometimes considered one of the earliest examples of animation. The "wayang kulit" in the northern states of Malaysia such as Kelantan is influenced by and similar to Thai shadow puppets, while the "wayang kulit" in the southern Malay peninsula, especially in Johor, is borrowed from Javanese Indonesian "wayang kulit" with slightly differences in the story and performance.  The puppets are made primarily of leather and manipulated with sticks or buffalo horn handles. Shadows are cast using an oil lamp or, in modern times, a halogen light, onto a cotton cloth background. They are often associated with gamelan music.

China.

Chinese mainland.

There are several myths and legends about the origins of shadow puppetry in China. The most famous one has it that Chinese shadow puppetry originated when the favorite concubine of Emperor Wu of Han (156 BCE – 87 BCE) died and magician Shao-weng promised to raise her spirit. The emperor could see a shadow that looked like her move behind the curtains that the magician had placed around some lit torches. It is often told that the magician used a shadow puppet, but the original text in "Book of Han" gives no reason to believe in a relation to shadow puppetry. Although there are many earlier records of all kinds of puppetry in China, clear mention of Chinese shadow play does not occur until the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127). A 1235 book mentions that the puppets were initially cut out of paper, but later made of colored leather or parchment. The stories were mostly based on history and half fact half fiction, but comedies were also performed.  Shadow theatre became quite popular as early as the Song dynasty, when holidays were marked by the presentation of many shadow plays. During the Ming dynasty there were 40 to 50 shadow show troupes in the city of Beijing alone. The earliest shadow theatre screens were made of mulberry paper. The storytellers generally used the art to tell events between various war kingdoms or stories of Buddhist sources. Today, puppets made of leather and moved on sticks are used to tell dramatic versions of traditional fairy tales and myths. In Gansu province, it is accompanied by Daoqing music, while in Jilin, accompanying Huanglong music forms some of the basis of modern opera.  Chinese shadow puppetry is shown in the 1994 Zhang Yimou film "To Live".

Taiwan Ping.

The origins of Taiwan's shadow puppetry can be traced to the Chaochow school of shadow puppet theatre. Commonly known as leather monkey shows or leather shows, the shadow plays were popular in Tainan, Kaohsiung, and Pingtung as early as the Qing dynasty (1644-1911 A.D.). Older puppeteers estimate that there were at least a hundred shadow puppet troupes in southern Taiwan in the closing years of the Qing. Traditionally, the eight to twelve-inch puppet figures, and the stage scenery and props such as furniture, natural scenery, pagodas, halls, and plants, are all cut from leather. As shadow puppetry is based on light penetrating through a translucent sheet of cloth, the "shadows" are actually silhouettes seen by the audience in profile or face on. Taiwan's shadow plays are accompanied by Chaochow melodies which are often called "priest's melodies" owing to their similarity with the music used by Taoist priests at funerals. A large repertoire of some 300 scripts of the southern school of drama used in shadow puppetry and dating back to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries has been preserved in Taiwan and is considered to be a priceless cultural asset.

Terminology.

A number of terms are used to describe the different forms.

Turkey.

A more bawdy comedy tradition of shadow play was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire, possibly since the late 14th century. It was centered around the contrasting interaction between the figures Karagöz and Hacivat: an unprincipled peasant and his fussy, educated companion. Together with other characters they represented all the major social groups in Ottoman culture. It was usually performed by a single puppet master, who voiced up to dozens of characters, and could be assisted by an apprentice handing him the puppets. The show could be introduced by a singer, accompanied by a tambourine player. Its origins are obscure, though probably deriving from an Asian source.  Karagöz theatre puppets have jointed limbs and are made from camel or buffalo hide. The hide is made transparent and colored, resulting in colorful projections. Puppets are typically 35–40 centimeters in height.  During the 19th century these characters were adapted to the Greek language and culture, "Karagöz and Hacivat" becoming Karagiozis and Hadjiavatis, with each of the characters assuming stereotypically Greek personalities. This tradition thrived throughout Greece after independence as popular entertainment for a largely adult audience, particularly before competition arose from television. The stories did, however, retain the period setting in the late years of the Ottoman Empire. Karagiozis theatre has undergone some revival in recent years, with the intended audience tending to be largely juvenile.  Karagöz theatre was also adapted in Egypt and North Africa.

Europe.

Shadow plays spread throughout Europe via Italy at the end of the 17th century. It is known that several Italian showmen performed in Germany, France and England during this period. In 1675 German polymath and philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz imagined a kind of world exhibition that would show all kinds of new inventions and spectacles. In a handwritten document he supposed it should include shadow theatre.  French missionaries brought the shadow show from China to France in 1767 and put on performances in Paris and Marseilles, causing quite a stir. In time, the "ombres chinoises" (French for "Chinese shadows") with local modification and embellishment, became the "ombres françaises" and struck root in the country. The popularity of "ombres chinoises" reflected the chinoiserie fashion of the days.  French showman François Dominique Séraphin first presented his shadow spectacle in a hôtel particulier in Versailles in 1771. He would go on to perform at the Palace of Versailles in front of royalty. In 1784 Séraphin moved to Paris, performing his shows at his permanent theatre in the newly opened Palais-Royal from 8 September 1784. The performances would adapt to the political changes and survived the French Revolution. Séraphin developed the use of clockwork mechanisms to automate the show. His nephew took over the show after Séraphin's death in 1800 and it was continued by his heirs until the theatre closed in 1870.  In 1775, Ambrogio (also known as Ambroise and Ambrose) staged ambitious shows in Paris and London. The art was a popular entertainment in Paris during the 19th century, especially in the famous Paris nightclub district of Montmartre. The cabaret Le Chat noir ("The Black Cat") produced 45 "Théatre d'ombres" shows between 1885 and 1896 under the management of Rodolphe Salis. Behind a screen on the second floor of the establishment, the artist Henri Rivière worked with up to 20 assistants in a large, oxy-hydrogen back-lit performance area and used a double optical lantern to project backgrounds. Figures were originally cardboard cut-outs, but were replaced with zinc figures since 1887. Various artists took part in the creation, including Steinlen, Adolphe Willette and Albert Robida. Caran d'Ache designed circa 50 cut-outs for the very popular 1888 show "L'Epopée". Musée d'Orsay has circa 40 original zinc figures in its collection. Other cabarets would produce their own versions; the "ombres" evolved into numerous theatrical productions and had a major influence on phantasmagoria. In Italy, the Museum of Precinema collezione Minici Zotti in Padua houses a collection of 70 French shadow puppets, similar to those used in the cabaret Le Chat Noir, together with an original theatre and painted backdrops, as well as two magic lanterns for projecting scenes. So far, the shadow plays identified are "La Marche a l'étoile" (introduced by Henri Rivière), "Le Sphinx" (introduced by Amédée Vignola), "L'Âge d'or" and "Le Carneval de Venise", and it is supposed that the shadow puppets were created for a tour in France or abroad at the end of the 19th century.  Nowadays, several theatre companies in France are developing the practice of shadow puppets: Le Théâtre des Ombres, Le Théâtre du Petit Miroir, Le Théâtre Les Chaises, and La Loupiote.

Australia.

Richard Bradshaw is an Australian shadow puppeteer known for his characters like "Super Kangaroo". Bradshaw's puppetry has been featured in television programs made by Jim Henson.  The Shadow Theatre of Anaphoria (relocated to Australia from California) combines a mixture of reconstructed and original puppets with multiple sources of lights. The company is under the direction of Kraig Grady.  Australian company Shadowplay Studios' debut game "Projection: First Light" was inspired by shadow puppetry and its art style replicates the traditional shadow play canvas using black props and sepia backgrounds. They visited Richard Bradshaw to gain more insight into shadow puppetry, to make their game more authentic and to get references for the game's shadow puppet characters.

Shadow puppetry today.

In the 1910s the German animator Lotte Reiniger pioneered silhouette animation as a format, whereby shadow-play-like puppets are filmed frame-by-frame. This technique has been kept alive by subsequent animators and is still practised today, though cel animation and computer animation has also been used to imitate the look of shadow play and silhouette animation. Traditional Chinese shadow puppetry was brought to audiences in the United States in the 1920s and 1930s through the efforts of Pauline Benton. Contemporary artists such as Annie Katsura Rollins have perpetuated the medium, sometimes combining the form with Western theatre.  Shadow theatre is still popular in many parts of Asia. Prahlad Acharya is one famous Indian magician who incorporates it into his performances.  In the 2010s, performer Tom McDonagh introduced 3-D shadow puppets and the use of laser-cut objects.  It also appears occasionally in western popular culture, for example in:

Shadow play, also known as shadow puppetry, is an ancient form of storytelling and entertainment which uses flat articulated cut-out figures (shadow puppets) which are held between a source of light and a translucent screen or scrim. The cut-out shapes of the puppets sometimes include translucent color or other types of detailing. Various effects can be achieved by moving both the puppets and the light source. A talented puppeteer can make the figures appear to walk, dance, fight, nod and laugh.

皮影戏,又称影子戏或灯影戏,是一种使用平面的、关节可动的、镂空的人形,并将其置于光源与半透明屏幕或布帘间,用以叙说故事及娱乐的传统表演艺术。


The academies in history.

The first academy of art was founded in Florence in Italy by Cosimo I de' Medici, on 13 January 1563, under the influence of the architect Giorgio Vasari who called it the "Accademia e Compagnia delle Arti del Disegno" (Academy and Company for the Arts of Drawing) as it was divided in two different operative branches. While the Company was a kind of corporation which every working artist in Tuscany could join, the Academy comprised only the most eminent artistic personalities of Cosimo's court, and had the task of supervising the whole artistic production of the Medicean state. In this Medicean institution students learned the "arti del disegno" (a term coined by Vasari) and heard lectures on anatomy and geometry. Another academy, the Accademia di San Luca (named after the patron saint of painters, St. Luke), was founded about a decade later in Rome. The Accademia di San Luca served an educational function and was more concerned with art theory than the Florentine one. In 1582 Annibale Carracci opened his very influential "Academy of Desiderosi" in Bologna without official support; in some ways this was more like a traditional artist's workshop, but that he felt the need to label it as an "academy" demonstrates the attraction of the idea at the time.  Accademia di San Luca later served as the model for the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture founded in France in 1648, and which later became the Académie des beaux-arts. The Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture was founded in an effort to distinguish artists "who were gentlemen practicing a liberal art" from craftsmen, who were engaged in manual labor. This emphasis on the intellectual component of artmaking had a considerable impact on the subjects and styles of academic art.  After the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture was reorganized in 1661 by Louis XIV whose aim was to control all the artistic activity in France, a controversy occurred among the members that dominated artistic attitudes for the rest of the century. This "battle of styles" was a conflict over whether Peter Paul Rubens or Nicolas Poussin was a suitable model to follow. Followers of Poussin, called "poussinistes", argued that line (disegno) should dominate art, because of its appeal to the intellect, while followers of Rubens, called "rubenistes", argued that color (colore) should dominate art, because of its appeal to emotion.  The debate was revived in the early 19th century, under the movements of Neoclassicism typified by the artwork of Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, and Romanticism typified by the artwork of Eugène Delacroix. Debates also occurred over whether it was better to learn art by looking at nature, or to learn by looking at the artistic masters of the past.  Academies using the French model formed throughout Europe, and imitated the teachings and styles of the French Académie. In England, this was the Royal Academy. The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts founded in 1754, may be taken as a successful example in a smaller country, which achieved its aim of producing a national school and reducing the reliance on imported artists. The painters of the Danish Golden Age of roughly 1800-1850 were nearly all trained there, and many returned to teach and the history of the art of Denmark is much less marked by tension between academic art and other styles than is the case in other countries.  One effect of the move to academies was to make training more difficult for women artists, who were excluded from most academies until the last half of the 19th century (1861 for the Royal Academy). This was partly because of concerns over the impropriety presented by nudity. Special arrangements were often made for female students until the 20th century.

Development of the academic style.

Since the onset of the Poussiniste-Rubeniste debate, many artists worked between the two styles. In the 19th century, in the revived form of the debate, the attention and the aims of the art world became to synthesize the line of Neoclassicism with the color of Romanticism. One artist after another was claimed by critics to have achieved the synthesis, among them Théodore Chassériau, Ary Scheffer, Francesco Hayez, Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps, and Thomas Couture. William-Adolphe Bouguereau, a later academic artist, commented that the trick to being a good painter is seeing "color and line as the same thing". Thomas Couture promoted the same idea in a book he authored on art method—arguing that whenever one said a painting had better color or better line it was nonsense, because whenever color appeared brilliant it depended on line to convey it, and vice versa; and that color was really a way to talk about the "value" of form.  Another development during this period included adopting historical styles in order to show the era in history that the painting depicted, called historicism. This is best seen in the work of Baron Jan August Hendrik Leys, a later influence on James Tissot. It's also seen in the development of the Neo-Grec style. Historicism is also meant to refer to the belief and practice associated with academic art that one should incorporate and conciliate the innovations of different traditions of art from the past.  The art world also grew to give increasing focus on allegory in art. Theories of the importance of both line and color asserted that through these elements an artist exerts control over the medium to create psychological effects, in which themes, emotions, and ideas can be represented. As artists attempted to synthesize these theories in practice, the attention on the artwork as an allegorical or figurative vehicle was emphasized. It was held that the representations in painting and sculpture should evoke Platonic forms, or ideals, where behind ordinary depictions one would glimpse something abstract, some eternal truth. Hence, Keats' famous musing "Beauty is truth, truth beauty". The paintings were desired to be an "idée", a full and complete idea. Bouguereau is known to have said that he wouldn't paint "a war", but would paint "War". Many paintings by academic artists are simple nature allegories with titles like "Dawn", "Dusk", "Seeing", and "Tasting", where these ideas are personified by a single nude figure, composed in such a way as to bring out the essence of the idea.  The trend in art was also towards greater idealism, which is contrary to realism, in that the figures depicted were made simpler and more abstract—idealized—in order to be able to represent the ideals they stood in for. This would involve both generalizing forms seen in nature, and subordinating them to the unity and theme of the artwork.  Because history and mythology were considered as plays or dialectics of ideas, a fertile ground for important allegory, using themes from these subjects was considered the most serious form of painting. A hierarchy of genres, originally created in the 17th century, was valued, where history painting—classical, religious, mythological, literary, and allegorical subjects—was placed at the top, next genre painting, then portraiture, still-life, and landscape. History painting was also known as the "grande genre". Paintings of Hans Makart are often larger than life historical dramas, and he combined this with a historicism in decoration to dominate the style of 19th century Vienna culture. Paul Delaroche is a typifying example of French history painting.  All of these trends were influenced by the theories of the philosopher Hegel, who held that history was a dialectic of competing ideas, which eventually resolved in synthesis.  Towards the end of the 19th century, academic art had saturated European society. Exhibitions were held often, and the most popular exhibition was the Paris Salon and beginning in 1903, the Salon d'Automne. These salons were sensational events that attracted crowds of visitors, both native and foreign. As much a social affair as an artistic one, 50,000 people might visit on a single Sunday, and as many as 500,000 could see the exhibition during its two-month run. Thousands of pictures were displayed, hung from just below eye level all the way up to the ceiling in a manner now known as "Salon style". A successful showing at the salon was a seal of approval for an artist, making his work saleable to the growing ranks of private collectors. Bouguereau, Alexandre Cabanel and Jean-Léon Gérôme were leading figures of this art world.  During the reign of academic art, the paintings of the Rococo era, previously held in low favor, were revived to popularity, and themes often used in Rococo art such as Eros and Psyche were popular again. The academic art world also idolized Raphael, for the ideality of his work, in fact preferring him over Michelangelo.  Academic Art in Poland flourished under Jan Matejko, who established the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts. Many of these works can be seen in the Gallery of 19th-Century Polish Art at Sukiennice in Kraków.  Academic art not only held influence in Europe and the United States, but also extended its influence to other Western countries. This was especially true for Latin American nations, which, because their revolutions were modeled on the French Revolution, sought to emulate French culture. An example of a Latin American academic artist is Ángel Zárraga of Mexico.

Academic training.

Young artists spent four years in rigorous training. In France, only students who passed an exam and carried a letter of reference from a noted professor of art were accepted at the academy's school, the École des Beaux-Arts. Drawings and paintings of the nude, called "académies", were the basic building blocks of academic art and the procedure for learning to make them was clearly defined. First, students copied prints after classical sculptures, becoming familiar with the principles of contour, light, and shade. The copy was believed crucial to the academic education; from copying works of past artists one would assimilate their methods of art making. To advance to the next step, and every successive one, students presented drawings for evaluation.  If approved, they would then draw from plaster casts of famous classical sculptures. Only after acquiring these skills were artists permitted entrance to classes in which a live model posed. Painting was not taught at the École des Beaux-Arts until after 1863. To learn to paint with a brush, the student first had to demonstrate proficiency in drawing, which was considered the foundation of academic painting. Only then could the pupil join the studio of an academician and learn how to paint. Throughout the entire process, competitions with a predetermined subject and a specific allotted period of time measured each students' progress.  The most famous art competition for students was the Prix de Rome. The winner of the Prix de Rome was awarded a fellowship to study at the Académie française's school at the Villa Medici in Rome for up to five years. To compete, an artist had to be of French nationality, male, under 30 years of age, and single. He had to have met the entrance requirements of the École and have the support of a well-known art teacher. The competition was grueling, involving several stages before the final one, in which 10 competitors were sequestered in studios for 72 days to paint their final history paintings. The winner was essentially assured a successful professional career.  As noted, a successful showing at the Salon was a seal of approval for an artist. Artists petitioned the hanging committee for optimal placement "on the line," or at eye level. After the exhibition opened, artists complained if their works were "skyed," or hung too high. The ultimate achievement for the professional artist was election to membership in the Académie française and the right to be known as an academician.

Criticism and legacy.

Academic art was first criticized for its use of idealism, by Realist artists such as Gustave Courbet, as being based on idealistic clichés and representing mythical and legendary motives while contemporary social concerns were being ignored. Another criticism by Realists was the "false surface" of paintings—the objects depicted looked smooth, slick, and idealized—showing no real texture. The Realist Théodule Ribot worked against this by experimenting with rough, unfinished textures in his painting.  Stylistically, the Impressionists, who advocated quickly painting outdoors exactly what the eye sees and the hand puts down, criticized the finished and idealized painting style. Although academic painters began a painting by first making drawings and then painting oil sketches of their subject, the high polish they gave to their drawings seemed to the Impressionists tantamount to a lie. After the oil sketch, the artist would produce the final painting with the academic "fini," changing the painting to meet stylistic standards and attempting to idealize the images and add perfect detail. Similarly, perspective is constructed geometrically on a flat surface and is not really the product of sight, Impressionists disavowed the devotion to mechanical techniques.  Realists and Impressionists also defied the placement of still-life and landscape at the bottom of the hierarchy of genres. It is important to note that most Realists and Impressionists and others among the early avant-garde who rebelled against academism were originally students in academic ateliers. Claude Monet, Gustave Courbet, Édouard Manet, and even Henri Matisse were students under academic artists.  As modern art and its avant-garde gained more power, academic art was further denigrated, and seen as sentimental, clichéd, conservative, non-innovative, bourgeois, and "styleless". The French referred derisively to the style of academic art as "L'art Pompier" ("pompier" means "fireman") alluding to the paintings of Jacques-Louis David (who was held in esteem by the academy) which often depicted soldiers wearing fireman-like helmets. The paintings were called "grandes machines" which were said to have manufactured false emotion through contrivances and tricks.  This denigration of academic art reached its peak through the writings of art critic Clement Greenberg who stated that all academic art is "kitsch". Other artists, such as the Symbolist painters and some of the Surrealists, were kinder to the tradition. As painters who sought to bring imaginary vistas to life, these artists were more willing to learn from a strongly representational tradition. Once the tradition had come to be looked on as old-fashioned, the allegorical nudes and theatrically posed figures struck some viewers as bizarre and dreamlike.  With the goals of Postmodernism in giving a fuller, more sociological and pluralistic account of history, academic art has been brought back into history books and discussion. Since the early 1990s, academic art has even experienced a limited resurgence through the Classical Realist atelier movement. Additionally, the art is gaining a broader appreciation by the public at large, and whereas academic paintings once would only fetch a few hundreds of dollars in auctions, some now fetch millions.

Academic art, or academicism or academism, is a style of painting, sculpture, and architecture produced under the influence of European academies of art. Specifically, academic art is the art and artists influenced by the standards of the French Académie des Beaux-Arts, which was practiced under the movements of Neoclassicism and Romanticism, and the art that followed these two movements in the attempt to synthesize both of their styles, and which is best reflected by the paintings of William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Thomas Couture, and Hans Makart. In this context it is often called "academism", "academicism", "art pompier" (pejoratively), and "eclecticism", and sometimes linked with "historicism" and "syncretism".

学院艺术()是一种在欧洲艺术学院和大学的影响下所产生的绘画和雕塑的流派。


Clinical significance.

Meconium in amniotic fluid.

Meconium is normally retained in the infant's bowel until after birth, but sometimes it is expelled into the amniotic fluid (also called "amniotic liquor") prior to birth or during labor and delivery. The stained amniotic fluid (called "meconium liquor" or "meconium-stained liquor") is recognized by medical staff as a possible sign of fetal distress. Some post-dates pregnancies (where the woman is more than 40 weeks pregnant) may also have meconium-stained liquor without fetal distress. Medical staff may aspirate the meconium from the nose and mouth of a newborn immediately after delivery in the event the baby shows signs of respiratory distress to decrease the risk of meconium aspiration syndrome, which can occur in meconium-stained amniotic fluid.  Most of the time that the amniotic fluid is stained with meconium, it will be homogeneously distributed throughout the fluid, making it brown. This indicates that the fetus passed the meconium some time ago such that sufficient mixing occurred as to establish the homogeneous mixture. Terminal meconium occurs when the fetus passes the meconium a short enough time before birth/cesarean section that the amniotic fluid remains clear, but individual clumps of meconium are in the fluid.

Failure to pass meconium.

The failure to pass meconium is a symptom of several diseases including Hirschsprung's disease and cystic fibrosis.  The meconium sometimes becomes thickened and congested in the intestines, a condition known as meconium ileus. Meconium ileus is often the first sign of cystic fibrosis. In cystic fibrosis, the meconium can form a bituminous black-green mechanical obstruction in a segment of the ileum. Beyond this, there may be a few separate grey-white globular pellets. Below this level, the bowel is a narrow and empty micro-colon. Above the level of the obstruction, there are several loops of hypertrophied bowel distended with fluid. No meconium is passed, and abdominal distension and vomiting appear soon after birth. About 20% of cases of cystic fibrosis present with meconium ileus, while approximately 20% of one series of cases of meconium ileus did not have cystic fibrosis. The presence of meconium ileus is not related to the severity of the cystic fibrosis. The obstruction can be relieved in a number of different ways.  Meconium ileus should be distinguished from meconium plug syndrome, in which a tenacious mass of mucus prevents the meconium from passing and there is no risk of intestinal perforation. Meconium ileus has a significant risk of intestinal perforation. In a barium enema, meconium plug syndrome shows a normal or dilated colon as compared to micro-colon in meconium ileus.

Testing meconium for drugs.

Meconium can be tested for various drugs, to check for "in utero" exposure. Using meconium, a Canadian research group showed that by measuring a by-product of alcohol, fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) they could objectively detect excessive maternal drinking of alcohol during pregnancy. In the US, the results of meconium testing may be used by child protective services and other law enforcement agencies to determine the eligibility of the parents to keep the newborn. Meconium can also be analyzed to detect the tobacco use of mothers during their pregnancy, which is commonly under-reported.

Sterility.

The issue of whether meconium is sterile remains debated and is an area of ongoing research. Although some researchers have reported evidence of bacteria in meconium, this has not been consistently confirmed. Other researchers have raised questions about whether these findings may be due to contamination after sample collection and that meconium is, in fact, sterile until after birth. Further researchers have hypothesized that there may be bacteria in the womb, but these are a normal part of pregnancy and could have an important role in shaping the developing immune system and are not harmful to the baby.

Etymology.

The Latin term "meconium" derives from the Greek, "mēkōnion", a diminutive of, "mēkōn", i.e. poppy, in reference either to its tar-like appearance that may resemble some raw opium preparations or to Aristotle's belief that it induces sleep in the fetus.

Meconium is the earliest stool of a mammalian infant. Unlike later feces, meconium is composed of materials ingested during the time the infant spends in the uterus: intestinal epithelial cells, lanugo, mucus, amniotic fluid, bile and water. Meconium, unlike later feces, is viscous and sticky like tar, its color usually being a very dark olive green; it is almost odorless. When diluted in amniotic fluid, it may appear in various shades of green, brown, or yellow. It should be completely passed by the end of the first few days after birth, with the stools progressing toward yellow (digested milk).

胎粪是初生婴儿第一次排出体外的粪便。与他们往后排出的粪便不同的是:胎粪是胎儿在母体时所消化的物质构成,包括有肠黏膜的上皮组织、胎毛、黏液、羊水、胆汁及水分。由于胎儿在母体内的环境基本上无菌,所以胎粪差不多可以说是无菌的。与其后婴儿排出的粪便不同的是:胎粪的黏度很高,就好像沥青一般,而且无嗅。正常来说,胎粪应该在出生后数天内排出体外,而随着婴儿饮奶后,粪便的颜色开始因为与消化后的奶混合而变得偏黄色,直至体内所有胎粪都被排出为止。胎粪的颜色与鸦片相似,古希腊的亚里士多德因此认为胎粪的作用是帮助胎儿在母体内安睡。


Shells.

The shells of most species of sea snails are spirally coiled. Some, though, have conical shells, and these are often referred to by the common name of limpets. In one unusual family (Juliidae), the shell of the snail has become two hinged plates closely resembling those of a bivalve; this family is sometimes called the "bivalved gastropods".  Their shells are found in a variety of shapes and sizes, but are normally very small. Those of living species of sea snails range in size from "Syrinx aruanus", the largest living shelled gastropod species at 91 cm, to minute species whose shells are less than 1 mm at adult size. Because the shells of sea snails are strong and durable in many cases, as a group they are well represented in the fossil record.

Anatomy.

Sea snails are a very large group of animals and a very diverse one. Most snails that live in salt water respire using a gill or gills; a few species, though, have a lung, are intertidal, and are active only at low tide when they can move around in the air. These air-breathing species include false limpets in the family Siphonariidae and another group of false limpets in the family Trimusculidae.  Many, but not all sea snails have an operculum.  The shells of snails are complex and grow at different speeds. The speed of growth is affected by a few variables such as the temperature of the water, depth of the water, food present for the snail, as well as isotopic oxygen levels. By looking at the composition of aragonite in the growth layers of mollusks you can predict the size the mollusk shell can reach.

Human uses.

A number of species of sea snails are used by humans for food, including abalone, conch, limpets, whelks (such as the North American "Busycon" species and the North Atlantic "Buccinum undatum") and periwinkles including "Littorina littorea".  The shells of sea snails are often found washed up on beaches. Because many are attractive and durable, they have been used to make necklaces and other jewelry since prehistoric times.  The shells of a few species of large sea snails within the Vetigastropoda have a thick layer of nacre and have been used as a source of mother of pearl. Historically, the button industry relied on these species for a number of years.

Use by other animals.

The shells of sea snails are used for protection by many kinds of hermit crabs. A hermit crab carries the shell by grasping the central columella of the shell using claspers on the tip of its abdomen.

Definition.

Determining whether some gastropods should be called sea snails is not always easy. Some species that live in brackish water (such as certain neritids) can be listed as either freshwater snails or marine snails, and some species that live at or just above the high tide level (for example species in the genus "Truncatella") are sometimes considered to be sea snails and sometimes listed as land snails.

Taxonomy.

2005 taxonomy.

The following cladogram is an overview of the main clades of living gastropods based on the taxonomy of Bouchet & Rocroi (2005), with taxa that contain saltwater or brackish water species marked in boldface (some of the highlighted taxa consist entirely of marine species, but some of them also contain freshwater or land species.)

Sea snail is a common name for slow moving marine gastropod molluscs usually with visible external shells, such as whelk or abalone. They share the taxonomic class Gastropoda with slugs, which are distinguished from snails primarily by the absence of a visible shell.

海螺是一种贝类软体动物,专指生活在海上的螺。海螺跟螺和蜗牛共同组成了腹足纲。产于沿海浅海海底,以山东、辽宁、河北居多,产期在5～8月。海螺贝壳边缘轮廓略呈四方形,大而坚厚,壳高达10厘米左右,螺层6级,壳口内为杏红色,有珍珠光泽。螺肉丰腴细腻,味道鲜美,素有“盘中明珠”的美誉。它富含蛋白蛋、维生素和人体必需的氨基酸和微量元素,是典型的高蛋白、低脂肪、高钙质的天然动物性保健食品。


Discoveries and species.

The first specimens were collected by Charles Hazelius Sternberg in the San Juan Basin in New Mexico. Sternberg worked in commission for the Swedish Uppsala University. In 1921 he recovered a skull and a rump, specimens PMU R.200 and PMU R.286, at the Meyers Creek near the Kimbetoh Wash in a layer of the Kirtland Formation. He sent these fossils to paleontologist Carl Wiman. In 1922 Sternberg decided to work independently and began a dig north of Tsaya Trading Post, in the Fossil Forest of San Juan County. Here he discovered a complete skeleton, which he sold to the American Museum of Natural History. The museum then sent out a team headed by Charles Mook and Peter Kaisen to assist Sternberg in securing this specimen; subsequent digging by Sternberg in 1923 brought the total of AMNH specimens to four. The rump of the main specimen was discarded by the museum because it had insufficient value as a display.  The species was named and described by Henry Fairfield Osborn in 1923, as "Pentaceratops sternbergii". The generic name means "five-horned face", derived from the Greek "penta" (πέντα, meaning five), "keras" (κέρας, horn) and "-ops" (ὤψ, face), in reference to its two long epijugal bones, spikes which protrude out sidewards from under its eyes, in addition to the three more obvious horns as with "Triceratops". Osborn obligingly gave it the specific name "sternbergii" to honor its discoverer. The name had been suggested to Osborn by William Diller Matthew; the specific epithet served as a consolation to the almost bankrupt Sternberg whose 1923 fossils were initially not acquired by the museum that had to use its 1923/1924 budget to process the finds of the great Asian expeditions by Roy Chapman Andrews.  The holotype was the skull discovered by Sternberg in 1922, specimen AMNH 6325. It was found in a layer of the Fruitland Formation, dating from the Campanian, about seventy-five million years old. The other three AMNH specimens were AMNH 1624, a smaller skull; AMNH 1622, a pair of brow horns; and AMNH 1625, a piece of skull frill.  In 1930, Wiman named a second species of "Pentaceratops": "P. fenestratus". It was based on Sternberg's 1921 specimens and the specific name referred to a hole in the left squamosal. This was later considered to be the same species as "Pentaceratops sternbergii" and thus a junior synonym, the hole being the likely effect of an injury.  In 1929 Steinberg's son, George Fryer Sternberg, discovered specimen USNM V12002, a right squamosal. "Pentaceratops" proved to be a quite common fossil in the Fruitland and Kirtland formations. It has even been used as a guide fossil: the appearance of "Pentaceratops sternbergii" in the fossil record marks the end of the Judithian land vertebrate age and the start of the Kirtlandian. Subsequent finds include specimens MNA Pl. 1668, MNA Pl. 1747, NMMNH P-27468 and USNM 2416, partial skeletons with skull; YPM 1229, a skeleton lacking the skull; UALP 13342 and UKVP 16100, skulls; UNM B-1701, USNM 12741, USNM 12743, USNM 8604, SMP VP-1596, SMP VP-1488, SMP VP-1500 and SMP VP-1712, fragmentary skulls. Apart from the San Juan Basin finds, a juvenile specimen of "Pentaceratops", SDMNH 43470, was found in the Williams Fork Formation of Colorado in 2006. Sometimes the identification of a specimen as "Pentaceratops" has proven to be highly contentious. In 1998 Thomas Lehman described OMNH 10165, a very large skull and its associated skeleton found in New Mexico in 1941. The skull is presently on display at the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, and is the largest "Pentaceratops" exemplar known, with the distinction of having produced the largest known skull of any land vertebrate. However, in 2011, the skeleton was renamed as a separate genus, "Titanoceratops", due to its more derived morphology, similarities to "Triceratops," and lack of unique characteristics shared with "Pentaceratops".  In 2014 Nicholas Longrich named a new species: "Pentaceratops aquilonius", "the northern one," based on fragmentary fossils discovered during the 1930s near Manyberries in Canada. The species has been described as having a first epiparietal pointing upwards instead of forwards. In 2016, Mallon "et al." found "P. aquilonius" to be morphologically similar to "Spiclypeus shipporum", with it possibly being the same species, and considered "P. aquilonius" a "nomen dubium".

Description.

"Pentaceratops" was a large ceratopsid; Dodson estimated the body length at 6 meters. The skull length of AMNH 1624 is 2.3 meters while PMU R.200 has a length of 2.16 meters. In 2016 Paul estimated its length at 5.5 meters (18 ft) and its weight at 2.5 tonnes (2.75 short tons). The nose horn of "Pentaceratops" is small and pointing upwards and backwards. The brow horns are very long and curving strongly forwards. The somewhat upward tilted frill of "Pentaceratops" is considerably longer than that of "Triceratops", with two large holes (parietal fenestrae) in it. It is rectangular, adorned by large triangular osteoderms: up to twelve episquamosals at the squamosal and three epiparietals at the parietal bone. These are largest at the rear corners of the frill, and are separated by a large U-shaped notch at the midline, a feature not recognized until 1981 when specimen UKVP 16100 was described. Within the notch the first epiparietals point forwards. The very thick jugal and the squamosal do not touch each other, a possible autapomorphy.  The torso of "Pentaceratops" is tall and wide. The rear dorsal vertebrae bear long spines from which ligaments possibly ran to the front, to balance the high frill. The prepubis is long. The ischium is long and strongly curves forward. In smaller specimens the thigh bone bows outwards.

Classification.

Osborn originally assigned "Pentaceratops" to Ceratopsia. Within this group "Pentaceratops" belonged to the Ceratopsinae or Chasmosaurinae. It appears to be most closely related to "Utahceratops". Their clade was perhaps more derived than the earlier genus "Chasmosaurus" but more basal than "Anchiceratops", the latter representing a line of which "Triceratops" was a member, which lived a few million years later, right at the end of the Cretaceous period, when all ceratopsians died out.  The cladogram of the phylogeny of "Pentaceratops" according to a study by Scott Sampson et al. in 2010 found that the genus was most closely related to "Utahceratops", from a similar age and region. The below cladogram follows Longrich (2014), who named a new species of "Pentaceratops", and included nearly all species of chasmosaurine.  Longrich stated that the holotype and referred specimen of "P. aquilonius" fall within the diagnosis of "Pentaceratops", and were recovered very close to the type species in the phylogeny. He noted that the placement of "Utahceratops" does not make the genus paraphyletic, as there is no requirement that genera are monophyletic. The Williams Fork chasmosaur differs from the "Pentaceratops" and "Utahceratops" species, and might require a new specific or generic name.

Palaeobiology.

"Pentaceratops", like all ceratopsians, was an herbivore. During the Cretaceous, flowering plants were "geographically limited on the landscape" and so it is likely that this dinosaur fed on the predominant plants of the era: ferns, cycads and conifers. It would have used its sharp ceratopsian beak to bite off the branches which were then shredded - leaves, needles and all - by the tooth batteries, providing a self-sharpening continuous cutting edge in both upper and lower jaws. Ultimately the plant material was digested by the large gut.

Palaeoecology.

"Pentaceratops" lived around 76–73 million years ago, its remains having been mostly found in the Kirtland Formation in the San Juan Basin in New Mexico. Other dinosaurs that shared its habitat include "Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus", the pachycephalosaur "Sphaerotholus", the armored dinosaur "Nodocephalosaurus" and the tyrannosauroid "Bistahieversor".

Pentaceratops ("five-horned face") is a genus of herbivorous ceratopsid dinosaur from the late Cretaceous Period of what is now North America.

五角龙属(属名:)是角龙科恐龙的一属,化石大部分发现于美国新墨西哥州圣胡安盆地的Kirtland地层,地质年代为晚白垩纪,约7500万年前到7300万年前。五角龙的身长约8米,体重估计约为5500公斤。与五角龙生存于同一地区的恐龙包含:短冠副栉龙、厚头龙下目的倾头龙、甲龙类的结节头龙、可能还有暴龙科的惧龙。五角龙的化石纪录,明确分隔了茱蒂斯河动物群的结束、Kirtland动物群的开始


History.

Versions.

In the course of its development, the language has gone through several versions:

Language evolution.

F# uses an open development and engineering process. The language evolution process is managed by Don Syme from Microsoft Research as the benevolent dictator for life (BDFL) for the language design, together with the F# Software Foundation. Earlier versions of the F# language were designed by Microsoft and Microsoft Research using a closed development process.  F# originates from Microsoft Research, Cambridge, UK. The language was originally designed and implemented by Don Syme, according to whom in the fsharp team, they say the F is for "Fun". Andrew Kennedy contributed to the design of units of measure. The Visual F# Tools for Visual Studio are developed by Microsoft. The F# Software Foundation developed the F# open-source compiler and tools, incorporating the open-source compiler implementation provided by the Microsoft Visual F# Tools team.

Language overview.

Functional programming.

F# is a strongly typed functional-first language that uses type inference. The programmer does not need to declare types—the compiler deduces types during compilation (type inference). F# also allows explicit type annotations, and requires them in some situations.  F# is an expression-based language using eager evaluation. Every statement in F#, including codice_1 expressions, codice_2 expressions and loops, is a composable expression with a static type. Functions and expressions that do not return any value have a return type of codice_3. F# uses the codice_4 keyword for binding values to a name. For example:  let x = 3 + 4  binds the value codice_5 to the name codice_6.  New types are defined using the codice_7 keyword. For functional programming, F# provides "tuple", "record", "discriminated union", "list", "option", and "result" types. A "tuple" represents a set of "n" values, where "n" ≥ 0. The value "n" is called the arity of the tuple. A 3-tuple would be represented as codice_8, where A, B, and C are values of possibly different types. A tuple can be used to store values only when the number of values is known at design-time and stays constant during execution.  A "record" is a type where the data members are named. Here is an example of record definition:  Records can be created as. The codice_9 keyword is used to create a copy of a record, as in, which creates a new record by copying codice_10 and changing the value of the codice_11 field (assuming the record created in the last example was named codice_10).  A discriminated union type is a type-safe version of C unions. For example,  Values of the union type can correspond to either union case. The types of the values carried by each union case is included in the definition of each case.  The "list" type is an immutable linked list represented either using a notation (codice_13 is the cons operator) or a shorthand as. An empty list is written codice_14. The "option" type is a discriminated union type with choices codice_15 or codice_16. F# types may be generic, implemented as generic.NET types.  F# supports lambda functions and closures. All functions in F# are first class values and are immutable. Functions can be curried. Being first-class values, functions can be passed as arguments to other functions. Like other functional programming languages, F# allows function composition using the codice_17 and codice_18 operators.  F# provides "" that define a sequence codice_19, list codice_20 or array codice_21 through code that generates values. For example,  forms a sequence of squares of numbers from 0 to 14 by filtering out numbers from the range of numbers from 0 to 25. Sequences are generators – values are generated on-demand (i.e., are lazily evaluated) – while lists and arrays are evaluated eagerly.  F# uses pattern matching to bind values to names. Pattern matching is also used when accessing discriminated unions – the union is value matched against pattern rules and a rule is selected when a match succeeds. F# also supports "Active Patterns" as a form of extensible pattern matching. It is used, for example, when multiple ways of matching on a type exist.  F# supports a general syntax for defining compositional computations called "". Sequence expressions, asynchronous computations and queries are particular kinds of computation expressions. Computation expressions are an implementation of the monad pattern.

Imperative programming.

F# support for imperative programming includes Values and record fields can also be labelled as codice_27. For example:  // Define 'x' with initial value '1' let mutable x = 1 // Change the value of 'x' to '3' x <- 3  Also, F# supports access to all CLI types and objects such as those defined in the codice_28 namespace defining imperative data structures.

Object-oriented programming.

Like other Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) languages, F# can use CLI types through object-oriented programming. F# support for object-oriented programming in expressions includes:  Support for object-oriented programming in patterns includes  F# object type definitions can be class, struct, interface, enum, or delegate type definitions, corresponding to the definition forms found in C#. For example, here is a class with a constructor taking a name and age, and declaring two properties.  /// A simple object type definition type Person(name : string, age : int) =

Asynchronous programming.

F# supports asynchronous programming through "asynchronous workflows". An asynchronous workflow is defined as a sequence of commands inside an codice_29, as in  let asynctask =  The codice_30 indicates that the expression on the right (getting the response) should be done asynchronously but the flow should only continue when the result is available. In other words, from the point of view of the code block, it's as if getting the response is a blocking call, whereas from the point of view of the system, the thread won't be blocked and may be used to process other flows while the result needed for this one doesn't become available.  The async block may be invoked using the codice_31 function. Multiple async blocks can be executed in parallel using the codice_32 function that takes a list of codice_33 objects (in the example, codice_34 is an async object) and creates another async object to run the tasks in the lists in parallel. The resultant object is invoked using codice_31. Inversion of control in F# follows this pattern.

Parallel programming.

Parallel programming is supported partly through the codice_32, codice_37 and other operations that run asynchronous blocks in parallel.  Parallel programming is also supported through the codice_38 functional programming operators in the F# standard library, direct use of the codice_39 task programming model, the direct use of.NET thread pool and.NET threads and through dynamic translation of F# code to alternative parallel execution engines such as GPU code.

Units of measure.

The F# type system supports units of measure checking for numbers. The units of measure feature integrates with F# type inference to require minimal type annotations in user code.

Metaprogramming.

F# allows some forms of syntax customizing via metaprogramming to support embedding custom domain-specific languages within the F# language, particularly through computation expressions.  F# includes a feature for run-time meta-programming called quotations. A quotation expression evaluates to an abstract syntax tree representation of the F# expressions. Similarly, definitions labelled with the codice_40 attribute can also be accessed in their quotation form. F# quotations are used for various purposes including to compile F# code into JavaScript and GPU code. (Quotations represent their F# code expressions as data for use by other parts of the program while requiring it to be syntactically correct F# code).

Information-rich programming.

F# 3.0 introduced a form of compile-time meta-programming through statically extensible type generation called F# type providers. F# type providers allow the F# compiler and tools to be extended with components that provide type information to the compiler on-demand at compile time. F# type providers have been used to give strongly typed access to connected information sources in a scalable way, including to the Freebase knowledge graph.  In F# 3.0 the F# quotation and computation expression features are combined to implement LINQ queries. For example:  // Use the OData type provider to create types that can be used to access the Northwind database. open Microsoft.FSharp.Data.TypeProviders  type Northwind = ODataService<"http://services.odata.org/Northwind/Northwind.svc"> let db = Northwind.GetDataContext()  // A query expression. let query1 = query { for customer in db.Customers do The combination of type providers, queries and strongly typed functional programming is known as "information rich programming".

Agent programming.

F# supports a variation of the Actor programming model through the in-memory implementation of lightweight asynchronous agents. For example, the following code defines an agent and posts 2 messages:  let counter =

Application areas.

F# is a general-purpose programming language.

Web programming.

F# is a central part of the WebSharper framework where F# code is executed as.NET code on a server and as JavaScript code on a client.

Analytical programming.

Among others, F# is used for quantitative finance programming, energy trading and portfolio optimization, machine learning, business intelligence and social gaming on Facebook.  In the 2010s, F# has been positioned as an optimized alternative to C#. F#'s scripting ability and inter-language compatibility with all Microsoft products have made it popular among developers. Many developers are creating systems based on F# and use C# WCF Services.

Scripting.

F# can be used as a scripting language, mainly for desktop read–eval–print loop (REPL) scripting.

Open-source community.

The F# open-source community includes the F# Software Foundation and the F# Open Source Group at GitHub.

Compatibility.

F# features a legacy "ML compatibility mode" that can directly compile programs written in a large subset of OCaml roughly, with no functors, objects, polymorphic variants, or other additions.

Examples.

A few small samples follow:  // This is a comment for a sample hello world program. open System Console.WriteLine("Hello World!") A Person class with a constructor taking a name and age and two immutable properties.  /// This is a documentation comment for a type definition. type Person(name : string, age : int) = /// class instantiation let mrSmith = Person("Smith", 42)  A simple example that is often used to demonstrate the syntax of functional languages is the factorial function for non-negative 32-bit integers, here shown in F#:  /// Using pattern matching expression let rec factorial n =  /// For a single-argument functions there is syntactic sugar (pattern matching function): let rec factorial = function /// Using fold and range operator let factorial n = [1..n] |> Seq.fold (*) 1 Iteration examples:  /// Iteration using a 'for' loop let printList lst =  /// Iteration using a higher-order function let printList2 lst =  /// Iteration using a recursive function and pattern matching let rec printList3 lst =  Fibonacci examples:  /// Fibonacci Number formula let fib n =  /// Another approach - a lazy infinite sequence of Fibonacci numbers let fibSeq = Seq.unfold (fun (a,b) -> Some(a+b, (b, a+b))) (0,1)  // Print even fibs [1.. 10]  // Same thing, using a list expression [ for i in 1..10 do  A sample Windows Forms program:  // Open the Windows Forms library open System.Windows.Forms  // Create a window and set a few properties let form = new Form(Visible=true, TopMost=true, Text="Welcome to F#")  // Create a label to show some text in the form let label =  // Add the label to the form form.Controls.Add(label)  // Finally, run the form [<System.STAThread>] Application.Run(form)  Asynchronous parallel programming sample (parallel CPU and I/O tasks):  /// A simple prime number detector let isPrime (n:int) =  // We are using async workflows let primeAsync n =  /// Return primes between m and n using multiple threads let primes m n =  // Run a test primes 1000000 1002000

F# (pronounced F sharp) is a general purpose, strongly typed, multi-paradigm programming language that encompasses functional, imperative, and object-oriented programming methods. F# is most often used as a cross-platform Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) language, but it can also generate JavaScript and graphics processing unit (GPU) code.

F#是由微软发展的为.NET语言提供运行环境的程序设计语言,是函数程序语言(FP,Functional Programming),函数程序语言最重要的基础是Lambda Calculus。它是基于OCaml的,而OCaml是基于ML函数程序语言。有时F#和OCaml的程序是可以交互编译的。


Dee Goong An.

The Judge Dee character is based on the historical figure Di Renjie (c. 630–c. 700), magistrate and statesman of the Tang court. During the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) in China, a "folk novel" was written set in former times, but filled with anachronisms. Van Gulik found in the 18th century "Di Gong An" (Chinese:狄公案 Pinyin: dí gōng àn, lit. "Cases of Judge Dee") an original tale dealing with three cases simultaneously, and, which was unusual among Chinese mystery tales, a plot that for the most part lacked an overbearing supernatural element which could alienate Western readers. He translated it into English and had it published in 1949 under the title "Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee".

Van Gulik's stories.

This gave van Gulik the idea of writing his own novels, set with the similar Ming anachronisms, but using the historical character. Van Gulik was careful in writing the main novels to deal with cases wherein Dee was newly appointed to a city, thereby isolating him from the existing lifestyle and enabling him to maintain an objective role in the books. Van Gulik's novels and stories made no direct reference to the original Chinese work, and so "Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee" is not considered to be part of the Judge Dee series.  Initially Dee is assisted only by his faithful clerk, Sergeant Hoong, an old family retainer. However, in "The Chinese Gold Murders", which describes Dee's initial appointment and first criminal cases, the judge encounters two highwaymen, euphemistically called "men of the greenwood", Ma Joong and Chiao Tai, who attempt to rob him but are so impressed with his character that they give up their criminal careers and join his retinue on the spot. (This encounter is recounted in a short flashback passage in the original "Di Gong An", taking place when the two are already long-serving loyal members of his retinue). A little later, in "The Chinese Lake Murders", a third criminal, Tao Gan, an itinerant confidence trickster and swindler, similarly joins. Judge Dee ends his career being promoted to the position of senior Metropolitan Judge in the capital, and his assistants obtain official ranks in the Army and civil service.  Van Gulik also wrote a series of newspaper comics about Judge Dee in 1964-1967, which totalled 19 adventures. The first four were regular balloon strips, but the later 15 had the more typically Dutch textblock under the pictures.  Judge Dee, naturally, is responsible for deciding sentences as well as assessing guilt or innocence, although van Gulik notes in the stories that all capital punishments must be referred to and decided by officials in the capital. One of the sentences he frequently has to deal with is slow slicing; if he is inclined to mercy, he orders the final, fatal, cut to be made first, thus rendering the ceremony anticlimactic.

Other authors.

Several other authors have created stories based on Van Gulik's Judge Dee character.

Bibliography.

By van Gulik.

The following novels and short stories were published in English by van Gulik. The short story collection "Judge Dee at Work" (published in 1967) contains a "Judge Dee Chronology" detailing Dee's various posts in specific years and stories set in these times. Van Gulik's last two books, "Poets and Murder" and "Necklace and Calabash", were not listed in the chronology, as they were written after "Judge Dee at Work", but they are both set in the time when Judge Dee was the magistrate in Poo-yang.

By other authors.

By the author (not yet translated into English)  By the author Zhu Xiao Di  By the author Sven Roussel  By authors Eleanor Cooney & Daniel Alteri  By Lin Qianyu (林千羽)  By the author Hock G. Tjoa

Adaptations.

Comics.

The stories have been adapted into comic strips by Dutch artists Fritz Kloezeman between 1964 and 1969 and Dick Matena in 2000.

TV.

Judge Dee has been adapted for television twice in English.  Some of Robert van Gulik's Judge Dee stories have been adapted for Chinese TV by CCTV. As of 2012, four different DVD series are available with one series so far with English subtitles. CCTV produced series in 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010. The series from 2010, entitled "Detective Di Renjie" has been produced on DVD by Tai Seng entertainment with English subtitles.

Judge Dee (also, Judge Di) is a semi-fictional character based on the historical figure Di Renjie, county magistrate and statesman of the Tang court. The character appeared in the 18th-century Chinese detective and "gong'an" crime novel "Di Gong An". After Robert van Gulik came across it in an antiquarian book store in Tokyo, he translated the novel into English and then used the style and characters to write his own original Judge Dee historical mystery stories.

《大唐狄公案》()是荷兰外交家高罗佩创作的系列,以“狄公”为主人公的英文侦探推理小说的中文翻译统称。狄公的原型是唐朝政治家狄仁杰。