Definition.

"Oppidum" is a Latin word meaning the main settlement in any administrative area of ancient Rome, and applied more generally in Latin to smaller urban settlements than cities, equating to "town" in English (bearing in mind that ancient "cities" could be very small by modern standards). The word is derived from the earlier Latin "ob-pedum", "enclosed space", possibly from the Proto-Indo-European "*pedóm-", "occupied space" or "footprint".  In his "Commentarii de Bello Gallico", Julius Caesar described the larger Celtic Iron Age settlements he encountered in Gaul during the Gallic Wars in 58 to 52 BC as "oppida". Although he did not explicitly define what features qualified a settlement to be called an "oppidum", the main requirements emerge.  They were important economic sites, places where goods were produced, stored and traded, and sometimes Roman merchants had settled and the Roman legions could obtain supplies. They were also political centres, the seat of authorities who made decisions that affected large numbers of people, such as the appointment of Vercingetorix as head of the Gallic revolt in 52 BC.  Caesar named 28 oppida. By 2011, only 21 of these had been positively identified by historians and archaeologists: either there was a traceable similarity between the Latin and the modern name of the locality (e.g. Civitas Aurelianorum-Orléans), or excavations had provided the necessary evidence (e.g. Alesia). Most of the places that Caesar called oppida were city-sized fortified settlements. However, Geneva, for example, was referred to as an oppidum, but no fortifications dating to this period have yet been discovered there. Caesar also refers to 20 oppida of the Bituriges and 12 of the Helvetii, twice the number of fortified settlements of these groups known today. That implies that Caesar likely counted some unfortified settlements as oppida. A similar ambiguity is in evidence in writing by the Roman historian Livy, who also used the word for both fortified and unfortified settlements.  In his work "Geographia", Ptolemy listed the coordinates of many Celtic settlements. However, research has shown many of the localisations of Ptolemy to be erroneous, making the identification of any modern location with the names he listed highly uncertain and speculative. An exception to that is the oppidum of "Brenodurum" at Bern, which was confirmed by an archaeological discovery. In archaeology and prehistory, the term "oppida" now refers to a category of settlement; it was first used in that sense by Paul Reinecke, and in reference to Bibracte, Manching, and Závist. In particular, Dehn suggested defining an oppidum by four criteria:  In current usage, most definitions of "oppida" emphasise the presence of fortifications so they are different from undefended farms or settlements and from urban characteristics, marking them as separate from hill forts. They could be referred to as "the first cities north of the Alps". The period of 2nd and 1st centuries BC places them in the period known as La Tène. A notional minimum size of has often been suggested, but that is flexible and fortified sites as small as have been described as oppida. However, the term is not always rigorously used, and it has been used to refer to any hill fort or circular rampart dating from the La Tène period. One of the effects of the inconsistency in definitions is that it is uncertain how many oppida were built.  In European archaeology, the term 'oppida' is also used more widely to characterize any fortified prehistoric settlement. For example, significantly older hill-top structures like the one at Glauberg (6th or 5th century BC) have been called oppida.  Such wider use of the term is, for example, common in the Iberian archaeology; in the descriptions of the Castro culture it is commonly used to refer to the settlements going back to the 9th century BC. The Spanish word 'castro', also used in English, means a walled settlement or hill fort, and this word is often used interchangeably with 'oppidum' by archaeologists.

Location and type.

According to prehistorian John Collis oppida extend as far east as the Hungarian plain where other settlement types take over. Central Spain has sites similar to oppida, but while they share features such as size and defensive ramparts the interior was arranged differently. Oppida feature a wide variety of internal structures, from continuous rows of dwellings (Bibracte) to more widely spaced individual estates (Manching). Some oppida had internal layouts resembling the "insulae" of Roman cities (Variscourt). Little is known, however, about the purpose of any public buildings. The main features of the oppida are the walls and gates, the spacious layout, and usually a commanding view of the surrounding area. The major difference with earlier structures was their much larger size. Earlier hill forts were mostly just a few hectares in area, whilst oppida could encompass several dozen or even hundreds of hectares. They also played a role in displaying the power and wealth of the local inhabitants and as a line of demarcation between the town and the countryside. According to Jane McIntosh, the "impressive ramparts with elaborate gateways... were probably as much for show and for controlling the movement of people and goods as for defense".  Size and construction varied considerably. Typically oppida in Bohemia and Bavaria were much larger than those found in the north and west of France. Typically oppida in Britain are small, but there is a group of large oppida in the south east; though oppida are uncommon in northern Britain, Stanwick stands out as an unusual example as it covers. Dry stone walls supported by a bank of earth, called Kelheim ramparts, were characteristic of oppida in central Europe. To the east, timbers were often used to support the earthen ramparts, called "Pfostenschlitzmauer" (post slot wall) or "Preist-type wall". In western Europe, especially Gaul, the "murus gallicus", a timber frame nailed together, was the dominant form of rampart construction. Dump ramparts, that is earth unsupported by timber, were common in Britain and were later adopted in France. They have been found in particular in the north-west and central regions of France and were combined with wide moats ("Type Fécamp"). Oppida can be divided into two broad groups, those around the Mediterranean coast and those further inland. The latter group were larger, more varied, and spaced further apart.  In Britain the oppidum of "Camulodunon" (modern Colchester, built between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD), tribal capital of the Trinovantes and at times the Catuvellauni, made use of natural defences enhanced with earthworks to protect itself. The site was protected by two rivers on three of its sides, with the River Colne bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River forming the southern boundary; the extensive bank and ditch earthworks topped with palisades were constructed to close off the open western gap between these two river valleys. These earthworks are considered the most extensive of their kind in Britain, and together with the two rivers enclosed the high status farmsteads, burial grounds, religious sites, industrial areas, river port and coin mint of the Trinovantes.

History.

Prehistoric Europe saw a growing population. According to Jane McIntosh, in about 5,000 BC during the Neolithic between 2 million and 5 million people lived in Europe; in the late (pre-Roman) Iron Age (2nd and 1st centuries BC) it had an estimated population of around 15 to 30 million. Outside Greece and Italy, which were more densely populated, the vast majority of settlements in the Iron Age were small, with perhaps no more than 50 inhabitants. While hill forts could accommodate up to 1,000 people, oppida in the late Iron Age could reach as large as 10,000 inhabitants.  Oppida originated in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Most were built on fresh sites, usually on an elevated position. Such a location would have allowed the settlement to dominate nearby trade routes and may also have been important as a symbol of control of the area. For instance at the oppidum of Ulaca in Spain the height of the ramparts is not uniform: those overlooking the valley are considerably higher than those facing towards the mountains in the area. The traditional explanation is that the smaller ramparts were unfinished because the region was invaded by the Romans; however, archaeologist John Collis dismisses this explanation because the inhabitants managed to build a second rampart extending the site by to cover an area of. Instead he believes the role of the ramparts as a status symbol may have been more important than their defensive qualities.  While some oppida grew from hill forts, by no means all of them had significant defensive functions. The development of oppida was a milestone in the urbanisation of the continent as they were the first large settlements north of the Alps that could genuinely be described as towns. Caesar pointed out that each tribe of Gaul would have several oppida but that they were not all of equal importance, perhaps implying some form of settlement hierarchy.  Oppida continued in use until the Romans began conquering Iron Age Europe. Even in the lands north of the River Danube that remained unconquered by the Romans, oppida were abandoned by the late 1st century AD. In conquered lands, the Romans used the infrastructure of the oppida to administer the empire, and many became full Roman towns. This often involved a change of location from the hilltop into the plain.

Examples.

By current country.

References.

Notes Bibliography

An oppidum (plural oppida) is a large fortified Iron Age settlement. Oppida are associated with the Celtic late La Tène culture, emerging during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, spread across Europe, stretching from Britain and Iberia in the west to the edge of the Hungarian plain in the east. They continued to be used until the Romans conquered Southern and Western Europe. In regions north of the rivers Danube and Rhine, such as most of Germania, where the populations remained independent from Rome, oppida continued to be used into the 1st century AD.

奥皮杜姆(oppidum;复数oppida)是一种铁器时代的大型设防定居点。奥皮杜姆与凯尔特人后期的拉坦诺文化有关,这种文化在2世纪和1世纪出现公元前,遍布欧洲,从西部的英国和伊比利亚延伸到东部的匈牙利平原边缘。直到罗马人征服了南欧和西欧之前,它们一直被使用。在多瑙河和莱茵河以北的地区,例如日耳曼尼亚的大部分地区,那里的人口仍然独立于罗马,直到1世纪,奥皮杜姆一直被使用。


History.

The exact origins of the tune are disputed but generally date to the early 17th century. It appears in John Playford's 1728 collection of dance tunes as "The New Bath," while Victorian musicologist William Chappell also suggested links to a 1622 work called "Sir Edward Nowell's Delight." The debate is best summarised by the composer Ernest Walker in 1907 who described the melody as "three centuries evolution of an Elizabethan tune."  The melody was introduced into Britain as a military march during the 1689–1702 reign of William III and has similarities with one written for Prince John William of Friesland (1687–1711). Henry Grattan Flood suggested the 1672 Dutch march 'Wilhelmus von Nassau' as another candidate which in turn was a reworking of a French version from 1568.  "The British Grenadiers" refers to Grenadiers in general, not the Grenadier Guards Regiment and all Fusilier units were entitled to use it. It allegedly commemorates an assault in August 1695 by 700 British grenadiers on the French-held fortress of Namur during the Nine Years War. The first printed version of 'The Granadeer's March' appeared in 1706, the first with lyrics sometime between 1735–1750. It was a popular tune in both Britain and North America throughout the 18th and 19th centuries and remains so. It is most commonly heard today in the annual Trooping the Colour ceremony when the Colour Escort marches into position on Horse Guards Parade.

Lyrics.

The following text is the most well-known version of the song. The text arguably dates back to the War of Spanish Succession (1702–1713), since it refers to the grenadiers throwing grenades (a practice that proved to be too dangerous and was ended soon afterward,) and the men wearing "caps and pouches" (i.e. the tall grenadier caps, worn by these elite troops, and the heavy satchel in which grenades were carried) and "loupèd clothes"- coats with broad bands of 'lace' across the chest that distinguished early grenadiers.

Historical terms.

There are a number of words in the song not commonly used or whose meaning is obscure;

"The British Grenadiers" is a traditional marching song of British, Australian and Canadian military units whose badge of identification features a grenade, the tune of which dates from the 17th century. It is the Regimental Quick March of the Royal Artillery (since 1716), Corps of Royal Engineers (since 1787), the Honourable Artillery Company (since 1716), Grenadier Guards 'The First (later 'Grenadier') Regiment of Foot Guards' (since 1763), and the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers (since 1763). It is also an authorised march of the Royal Australian Artillery, The Royal Gibraltar Regiment, The Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery, The Royal Regiment of Canada, The Princess Louise Fusiliers, and The 5th Canadian Mounted Rifles. The standard orchestration for the military band was approved in 1762, when the Royal Artillery Band (initiated in 1557) became recognised officially, and for all other 'grenade' regiments in 1763, when the remaining unofficial bands gained official status.

《不列颠掷弹兵进行曲》(英语:The British Grenadiers)是一首创作于17世纪的英国陆军掷弹兵进行曲。该曲是皇家工兵部队、掷弹兵卫队、荣誉砲兵连以及皇家燧发枪手军团的快步行进曲(quick march)。此外,皇家直布罗陀军团、皇家加拿大砲兵团、加拿大掷弹兵卫队、皇家加拿大军团、露易丝公主火枪队和加拿大第五枪骑兵营也采用不列颠掷弹兵进行曲作为其部队的官方进行曲。美国野战炮兵的兵种进行曲的曲调也借用了此曲。


Plot.

Roddy St. James is an upper class pet rat who makes his home in a posh Kensington flat. While his owners are away on holiday, a common sewer rat named Sid comes spewing out of the sink and decides to stay, especially as England is playing against Germany in the World Cup Final. Roddy schemes to get rid of Sid by luring him into the toilet, but Sid is not fooled, instead throwing Roddy in and flushing him away into the sewer.  Roddy discovers a city resembling London, Ratropolis, made out of various bits of junk, and meets Rita Malone, an enterprising scavenger rat who works the drains in her faithful boat, the "Jammy Dodger". Rita is irritated by Roddy initially, but ends up taking him along. Her archenemy The Toad sends his rat henchmen, Spike and Whitey, after her for stealing back her father's prized ruby. The Toad loathes all rodents, and plans to have Roddy and Rita frozen with liquid nitrogen inside an icemaker. The pair escape, and Rita takes a unique electrical cable that is required to control Ratropolis' floodgates.  Roddy discovers that the ruby is a fake and breaks it in front of Rita. Enraged, Rita tries to attack Roddy, but eventually calms down and explains that she is only angry because her father (quite literally) broke every bone in his body trying to obtain it just for her to find that it was just a worthless fake. Roddy offers Rita a real ruby if she takes him back to Kensington, to which she agrees, and the pair first stop to visit her family before setting off. During Roddy's stay, he overhears a conversation that causes him to think that Rita is selling him to The Toad, so he reneges on the deal and steals the "Jammy Dodger". When Rita catches up to him, she is able to clear up the misunderstanding. The pair evade a pursuit from Spike, Whitey, and their accomplices, and incensed at his minions' repeated failures, The Toad sends for his French cousin, known as Le Frog. It is revealed that The Toad was Prince Charles' favorite childhood pet until he was abruptly replaced by a pet rat and subsequently flushed down a toilet, resulting in his hatred of rodents. Le Frog and his subordinates intercept Roddy and Rita and retrieve the cable, sinking the "Jammy Dodger" in the process, but the duo use a plastic bag to lift themselves out of the sewer and back to Roddy's home.  Roddy pays Rita the promised ruby and an emerald, then shows her around his house. She at first believes he has family in the home, but notices his cage and realizes he is a pet. Rita tries to persuade Roddy to come with her, but he is too proud to admit that he is lonely. She departs, but is soon captured by The Toad. Talking to Sid about half-time, Roddy pieces together The Toad's plan: to open the gates during halftime of the World Cup, when all the humans will most likely be using their toilets. As a result, a great sewage flood will form and drown Ratropolis in sewage, allowing The Toad to use the city as a home for his tadpole offspring. Roddy gives Sid his cushy position and has Sid flush him back to the sewers. He frees Rita, and together they defeat The Toad and his henchmen and freeze the wave of sewage with his liquid nitrogen.  Rita and Roddy build the "Jammy Dodger Mark II" and set off in her while Le Frog and his men hitchhike back to France.  In a mid-credits scene, Roddy's former owner Tabitha returns home with a new pet cat, which scares Sid.

Production.

The idea for a film about rats which fall in love in a sewer was proposed by animator Sam Fell during the production of Aardman Animation's "Chicken Run" (2000). At the time, Aardman encouraged everyone at the company to come up with ideas for features for the DreamWorks partnership. Fell, development executive Mike Cooper, and producer Peter Lord then developed the concept into a story before pitching it to DreamWorks. Lord described the pitch as ""The African Queen" with the gender roles reversed." Comic writing duo, Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais were contracted to write the script for the film, which went under the working title of "Ratropolis".  Traditionally, Aardman have used stop-motion for their animated features, but it is complex to render water with this technique, and using real water can damage plasticine models. It would have been expensive to composite CGI into shots that include water, of which there are many in the movie, so they chose to make "Flushed Away" their first all-CGI production. This is the third and final of three Aardman-produced films released by DreamWorks. Aardman's experience with DreamWorks during the making of the film led to a split between the two studios.

Marketing.

Soundtrack.

On Halloween (31 October) of 2006, the "Flushed Away: Music from the Motion Picture" soundtrack was released by Astralwerks.

Video game.

Coinciding with the film's release, a video game adaptation was released on the PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, Game Boy Advance, and on the Nintendo DS. Although having heavily negative reviews from critics, the game received an Annie Award for best animated video game.

Home video.

"Flushed Away" was released on DVD 20 February 2007. It included behind the scenes, deleted info, Jammy Dodger videos and all new slug songs. It was released in the UK on 2 April 2007, where it was also packaged with a plasticine 'Slug Farm' kit. The film was released on Blu-ray by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment on 4 June 2019.

Reception.

Critical response.

"Flushed Away" has a 73% rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 6.71/10 based on 137 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads "Clever and appealing for both children and adults, "Flushed Away" marks a successful entry into digital animated features for Aardman Animations." Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 74, indicating "generally favorable reviews."  Todd McCarthy of "Variety" gave the film a negative review, saying "As directed by David Bowers and Sam Fell, first-time feature helmers with long-term Aardman affiliations, the film boasts undeniably smart and eye-catching qualities that are significantly diluted by the relentlessly frantic and overbearing behavior of most characters; someone is always loudly imposing himself upon another, to diminishing returns of enjoyment." Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film a B+, saying ""Flushed Away" lacks the action-contraption dottiness of a Wallace and Gromit adventure, but it hits its own sweet spot of demented delight." James Berardinelli of "ReelViews" gave the film three out of four stars, saying "It's better than 90% of the animated fare of the last few years. It's refreshing not to have to qualify the movie's appeal by appending the words, 'for the kids'." Jan Stuart of "Newsday" gave the film two out of four stars, saying "Despite the efforts of five writers and Aardman's trademark puppets, with their malleable eyebrows and cheeks bulging like those of a mumps sufferer, none of these characters are particularly endearing." Ann Hornaday of "The Washington Post" gave the film a positive review, saying ""Flushed Away", Aardman's first computer-generated cartoon, does away with the clay but leaves the craft and emotion intact, resulting in a film that earns its place among the Aardman classics." Peter Hartlaub of the "San Francisco Chronicle" gave the film three out of four stars, saying "The short attention spans of directors David Bowers and Sam Fell are mostly forgivable because the movie is filled with so many entertaining characters."  Richard Corliss of "Time" gave the film a negative review, saying "Deficient in the comedy of reticence discouragement that is Aardman's (or maybe just Nick Park's) unique strength. I don't want to say the Englishmen were corrupted, but I think they allowed their strongest, quirkiest instincts to be tethered." Ted Fry of "The Seattle Times" gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying "Fans of Wallace and Gromit may be puzzled by a visual disconnect in "Flushed Away". They will certainly, however, be delighted by the unrelenting whimsy and fast-paced gags of a story that never slows down to think about where it's going next." Ty Burr of "The Boston Globe" gave the film two and a half stars out of five, saying "Kids will probably be in stinky-sewage heaven with the new computer-animated critter comedy "Flushed Away", but even they may realize they're up the proverbial creek in a boat with a faulty motor." Jack Mathews of the "New York Daily News" gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "Though "Flushed Away" duplicates the stop-motion, clay animation look of Aardman's earlier "Chicken Run" and Wallace & Gromit, it was made using computer software and its liberated action sequences are truly dazzling." Kyle Smith of the "New York Post" gave the film three out of four stars, saying "How this thing got made in Hollywood is a mystery, but I laughed at most of it, especially the mean stereotypes about the French and the even meaner stereotype about England's soccer team."

Box office.

"Flushed Away" collected $64,488,856 in the United States, which was below the average of other CGI films from DreamWorks Animation, and $111,814,663 from international markets for a worldwide total of $176,319,242. The film opened to number three in its first weekend, with $18,814,323, behind "Borat" and "". Produced on a budget of $149 million, poor box office reception resulted in a $109-million write-down for DreamWorks Animation, and in a termination of the partnership with Aardman Animations.

Flushed Away is a 2006 computer-animated adventure comedy film directed by David Bowers and Sam Fell, produced by Cecil Kramer, David Sproxton, and Peter Lord, and written by Dick Clement, Ian La Frenais, Chris Lloyd, Joe Keenan and William Davies. It is the third and final film to be co-produced by Aardman Animations and DreamWorks Animation following "Chicken Run" (2000) and "" (2005), and was Aardman's first completely computer-animated feature as opposed to their usual stop motion standard. The film stars the voice talents of Hugh Jackman, Kate Winslet, Andy Serkis, Bill Nighy, Ian McKellen, Shane Richie and Jean Reno. In "Flushed Away", a pet rat named Roddy St. James is flushed down the toilet by a sewer rat, and befriends a scavenger named Rita in order to return home while evading a toad and his rat henchmen.

《鼠国流浪记》(英语:"Flushed Away")是一部2006年电脑动画喜剧电影。本片制片由阿德曼动画及梦工厂完成,派拉蒙影业发行,在美国于2006年11月3日上映,台湾和香港则分别在2006年11月3日与11月30日上映。相对于落跑鸡和酷狗宝贝的黏土动画,本作则为全CG动画。


Background.

Robert William Pickton and his brother David owned a farm in Port Coquitlam, British Columbia, 27 km (17 miles) east of Vancouver. Worker Bill Hiscox called the farm a "creepy-looking place" and described Pickton as a "pretty quiet guy" whose sometimes bizarre behaviour, despite no evidence of substance abuse, would draw attention.  The Pickton brothers began to neglect the site's farming operations. They registered a non-profit charity, the Piggy Palace Good Times Society, with the Canadian government in 1996, claiming to "organize, co-ordinate, manage and operate special events, functions, dances, shows and exhibitions on behalf of service organizations, sports organizations and other worthy groups". Its events included raves and wild parties featuring Vancouver sex workers and gatherings in a converted slaughterhouse on the farm. These events attracted as many as 2,000 people. Members of the Hells Angels were known to frequent the farm.  On March 23, 1997, Pickton was charged with the attempted murder of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter, whom he had stabbed several times during an altercation at the farm. Eistetter had informed police that Pickton had handcuffed her, but that she had escaped after suffering several lacerations. She told them she had disarmed him and stabbed him with his weapon. Pickton sought treatment at Eagle Ridge Hospital, while Eistetter recovered at the nearest emergency room. He was released on C$2,000 bond. The charge was dismissed in January 1998. Months later, the Picktons were sued by Port Coquitlam officials for violating zoning ordinances – neglecting the agriculture for which it had been zoned, and having "altered a large farm building on the land for the purpose of holding dances, concerts and other recreations". The Picktons ignored the legal pressure and held a 1998 New Year's party, after which they were faced with an injunction banning future parties; the police were "authorized to arrest and remove any person" attending future events at the farm. The society's non-profit status was removed the following year, for inability to procure financial statements. It was subsequently disbanded.

Murders.

Over the course of three years, Hiscox noticed that women who visited the farm eventually went missing. On February 6, 2002, police executed a search warrant for illegal firearms at the property. Robert and David Pickton were arrested and police obtained a second warrant using what they had seen on the property to search the farm as part of the BC Missing Women Investigation. Personal items belonging to missing women were found at the farm, which was sealed off by members of the joint RCMP–Vancouver Police Department task force. The following day, Pickton was charged with weapons offences. Both of the Picktons were later released; however Robert Pickton was kept under police surveillance.  On February 22, Robert Pickton was arrested and charged with two counts of first degree murder in the deaths of Sereena Abotsway and Mona Wilson. On April 2, three more charges were added for the murders of Jacqueline McDonell, Diane Rock, and Heather Bottomley. A sixth charge for the murder of Andrea Joesbury was laid on April 9, followed shortly by a seventh for Brenda Wolfe. On September 20, four more charges were added for the slayings of Georgina Papin, Patricia Johnson, Helen Hallmark, and Jennifer Furminger. Four more charges for the murders of Heather Chinnock, Tanya Holyk, Sherry Irving, and Inga Hall were laid on October 3, bringing the total to fifteen. This was the largest investigation of any serial killer in Canadian history. On May 26, 2005, 12 more charges were laid against Pickton for the killings of Cara Ellis, Andrea Borhaven, Debra Lynne Jones, Marnie Frey, Tiffany Drew, Kerry Koski, Sarah de Vries, Cynthia Feliks, Angela Jardine, Wendy Crawford, Diana Melnick, and Jane Doe, bringing the total number of first-degree murder charges to 27.  Excavations continued at the farm through November 2003; the cost of the investigation is estimated to have been $70 million by the end of 2003, according to the provincial government. the property is fenced off, under lien by the Crown in Right of British Columbia. In the meantime, all the buildings on the property, except a small barn, had been demolished.  Forensic analysis proved difficult because the bodies may have been left to decompose, or be eaten by insects and pigs on the farm. During the early days of the excavations, forensic anthropologists brought in heavy equipment, including two 50-foot (15-metre) flat conveyor belts and soil sifters to find traces of human remains. On March 10, 2004, the government revealed that Pickton may have ground up human flesh and mixed it with pork that he sold to the public; the province's health authority later issued a warning. Another claim was made that he fed the bodies directly to his pigs.

Preliminary inquiry.

A preliminary inquiry was held in 2003, the testimony from which was covered by a publication ban until 2010. At the inquiry, the fact was revealed that Pickton had been charged with attempted murder in connection with the stabbing of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter in 1997. Eistetter testified at the inquiry that after Pickton had driven her to the Port Coquitlam farm and had sex with her, he slapped a handcuff on her left hand and stabbed her in the abdomen. She stabbed Pickton in self-defense. Later, both she and Pickton were treated at the same hospital, where staff used a key they found in Pickton's pocket to remove the handcuffs from the woman's wrist.  The attempted-murder charge against Pickton was stayed on January 27, 1998, because the woman had drug addiction issues and prosecutors believed her too unstable for her testimony to help secure a conviction. The clothes and rubber boots Pickton had been wearing that evening were seized by police and left in an RCMP storage locker for more than seven years. Not until 2004 did lab testing show that the DNA of two missing women was on the items seized from Pickton in 1997.  In 1998, according to Vancouver police detective constable Lorimer Shenher, Shenher learned of a call made to a police tip phoneline stating that Pickton should be investigated in the case of the women's disappearances. According to Shenher's account, described at length in his 2015 book about the case, he struggled to attract sufficient police resources and attention to the case until the 2002 search of Pickton's farm by the RCMP.  In 1999, Canadian police had received a tip that Pickton had a freezer filled with human flesh on his farm. Although they interviewed Pickton, who denied killing the missing women, and obtained his consent to search his farm, the police never conducted one.

Trial.

Pickton's trial began on January 30, 2006 in New Westminster. Pickton pleaded not guilty to 27 charges of first-degree murder in the Supreme Court of British Columbia. The voir dire phase of the trial took most of the year to determine what evidence might be admitted before the jury. Reporters were not allowed to disclose any of the material presented in the arguments. On March 2, one of the 27 counts was rejected by Justice James Williams for lack of evidence.  On August 9, Justice Williams severed the charges, splitting them into one group of six counts and another group of 20 counts. The trial proceeded on the group of six counts. The remaining 20 counts could have been heard in a separate trial, but ultimately were stayed on August 4, 2010. Because of the publication ban, full details of the decision are not publicly available; but the judge has explained that trying all 26 charges at once would put an unreasonable burden on the jury, as the trial could last up to two years. It also would have had an increased chance for a mistrial. The judge added that the six counts he chose had "materially different" evidence from the other 20. Office of Inspector General Senior Investigator R.J. McDougald was case agent for the investigation.  The date for the jury trial of the first six counts was initially set to start January 8, 2007, but was later postponed to January 22. On that date, Pickton faced first-degree murder charges in the deaths of Frey, Abotsway, Papin, Joesbury, Wolfe and Wilson. The media ban was lifted, and for the first time Canadians heard the details of what was found during the long investigation: skulls cut in half with hands and feet stuffed inside; the remains of one victim found stuffed in a garbage bag, and her blood-stained clothing found in Pickton's trailer; part of another victim's jawbone and teeth found beside Pickton's slaughterhouse; and a.22 calibre revolver with an attached dildo containing both his and a victim's DNA. In a videotaped recording played for the jury, Pickton claimed to have attached the dildo to his weapon as a makeshift silencer.  As of February 20, 2007, the following information has been presented to the court:  In October 2007, a juror was accused of having made up her mind already that Pickton was innocent. The trial judge questioned the juror, saying, "It's reported to me you said from what you had seen you were certain Mr. Pickton was innocent, there was no way he could have done this. That the court system had arrested the wrong guy." The juror denied this completely. Justice Williams ruled that she could remain on the jury since it had not been proven she made the statements.  Justice James Williams suspended jury deliberations on December 6, 2007, after he discovered an error in his charge to the jury. Earlier in the day, the jury had submitted a written question to Justice James requesting clarification of his charge, asking "Are we able to say 'yes' [i.e., find Pickton guilty] if we infer the accused acted indirectly?"  On December 9, 2007, the jury returned a verdict that Pickton is not guilty on six counts of first-degree murder, but is guilty on six counts of second-degree murder. A second-degree murder conviction carries a punishment of a life sentence, with no possibility of parole for a period between 10 and 25 years, to be set by the trial judge. On December 11, 2007, after reading 18 victim impact statements, British Columbia Supreme Court Judge Justice James Williams sentenced Pickton to life with no possibility of parole for 25 years – the maximum punishment for second-degree murder – and equal to the sentence which would have been imposed for a first-degree murder conviction. "Mr. Pickton's conduct was murderous and repeatedly so. I cannot know the details but I know this: What happened to them was senseless and despicable," said Justice Williams in passing the sentence.

British Columbia Court of Appeal.

The B.C. Court of Appeal rendered judgment in June 2009 on two appeals, one brought by the Crown (prosecution) and the other brought by the defense.

Crown appeal.

On January 7, 2008, the Attorney General filed an appeal in the British Columbia Court of Appeal, against Pickton's acquittals on the first-degree murder charges. The grounds of appeal relate to a number of evidentiary rulings made by the trial judge, certain aspects of the trial judge's jury instructions, and the ruling to sever the six charges Pickton was tried on from the remaining twenty.  Some relatives of the victims in the case were taken aback by the announcement of a Crown appeal, especially because Attorney-General Wally Oppal had said a few days earlier that the prosecution would likely "not" appeal. Although Pickton had been acquitted on the first-degree murder charges, he was convicted of second-degree murder and received the same sentence as he would have on first-degree murder convictions. The relatives of the victims expressed concern that the convictions would be jeopardized if the Crown argued that the trial judge had made errors. Opposition critic Leonard Krog criticized the Attorney-General for not having briefed the victims' families in advance.  Oppal apologized to the victims' families for not informing them of the appeal before it was announced to the general public. Oppal also said that the appeal was filed largely for "strategic" reasons, in anticipation of an appeal by the defence. The prosecution’s rationale was that "if" Pickton appeals his convictions, and "if" that appeal is allowed, resulting in a new trial, the prosecution will want to hold that new trial on the original 26 charges of first-degree murder. But the Crown would be precluded from doing so unless it had successfully appealed the original acquittals on the first-degree murder charges, and the severance of the 26 counts into one group of six and one group of twenty.  Under the applicable rules of court, the time period for the Crown to appeal expired 30 days after December 9, when the verdicts were rendered, while the time period for the defense to appeal expired 30 days after December 11, when Pickton was sentenced. That is why the Crown announced its appeal first, even though the Crown appeal is intended to be conditional on an appeal by the defence. If the defence had not filed an appeal, then the Crown could have withdrawn its appeal.

Defense appeal.

On January 9, 2008, lawyers for Pickton filed a notice of appeal in the British Columbia Court of Appeal, seeking a new trial on six counts of second-degree murder. The lawyer representing Pickton on the appeal was Gil McKinnon, who had been a Crown prosecutor in the 1970s.  The notice of appeal enumerated various areas in which the defense alleged that the trial judge erred: the main charge to the jury, the response to the jurors’ questions, amending the jury charge, similar fact evidence, and Pickton’s statements to the police.

Decisions of the Court of Appeal.

The British Columbia Court of Appeal issued its decisions on June 25, 2009, but some parts of the decisions were not publicly released because of publication bans still in effect.  The Court of Appeal dismissed the defence appeal by a 2:1 majority. Due to a dissent on a point of law, Pickton was entitled to appeal to the Supreme Court of Canada, without first seeking leave to appeal. His notice of appeal was filed in the Supreme Court of Canada on August 24, 2009.  The Court of Appeal allowed the Crown appeal, finding that the trial judge erred in excluding some evidence and in severing the 26 counts into one group of 20 counts and one group of six. The order resulting from this finding was stayed, so that the conviction on the six counts of second degree murder would not be set aside.

Supreme Court of Canada.

On June 26, 2009, Pickton's lawyers confirmed that they would exercise his right to appeal to the Supreme Court of Canada. The appeal was based on the dissent in the British Columbia Court of Appeal.  While Pickton had an automatic right to appeal to the Supreme Court of Canada based on the legal issues on which Justice Donald had dissented, Pickton's lawyers applied to the Supreme Court of Canada for leave to appeal on other issues as well. On November 26, 2009, the Supreme Court of Canada granted this application for leave to appeal. The effect of this was to broaden the scope of Pickton's appeal, allowing him to raise arguments that had been rejected unanimously in the B.C. Court of Appeal (not just arguments that had been rejected by the 2–1 majority).  On July 30, 2010, the Supreme Court of Canada rendered its decision dismissing Pickton's appeal and affirming his convictions. The argument that Pickton should be granted a new trial was unanimously rejected by the Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada.  Although unanimous in its result, the Supreme Court split six to three in its legal analysis of the case. The issue was whether the trial judge made a legal error in his instructions to the jury, and in particular in his "re-instruction" responding to the jury's question about Pickton's liability if he was not the only person involved. Writing for the majority, Madam Justice Charron found that "the trial judge's response to the question posed by the jury did not adversely impact on the fairness of the trial". She further found that the trial judge's overall instructions with respect to other suspects "compendiously captured the alternative routes to liability that were realistically in issue in this trial. The jury was also correctly instructed that it could convict Mr. Pickton if the Crown proved this level of participation coupled with the requisite intent."  Mr. Justice LeBel, writing for the minority, found that the jury was not properly informed "of the legal principles which would have allowed them as triers of fact to consider evidence of Mr. Pickton's aid and encouragement to an unknown shooter, as an alternative means of imposing liability for the murders". However, LeBel J. would have applied the so-called curative proviso so as not to overturn Pickton's convictions.

Reaction and aftermath to the court proceedings.

Discontinuance of prosecution of other counts against Pickton.

B.C. Crown spokesman Neil MacKenzie announced that the prosecution of Pickton on the 20 other murder charges would likely be discontinued. "In reaching this position," he said, "the branch has taken into account the fact that any additional convictions could not result in any increase to the sentence that Mr. Pickton has already received."  Families of the victims had varied reactions to this announcement. Some were disappointed that Pickton would never be convicted of the 20 other murders, while others were relieved that the gruesome details of the murders would not be aired in court.

Vancouver Police Department management review of investigation.

In 2010, the Vancouver Police Department issued a statement that an "exhaustive management review of the Missing Women Investigation" had been conducted, and the VPD would make the Review available to the public once the criminal matters are concluded and the publication bans are removed. In addition, the VPD disclosed that for several years it has "communicated privately to the Provincial Government that it believed a Public Inquiry would be necessary for an impartial examination of why it took so long for Robert Pickton to be arrested". In August of that year, the VPD released the "Missing Women: Investigation Review".

VPD apology.

At a press conference, Deputy Chief Constable Doug LePard of the VPD apologized to the victims' families, saying "I wish from the bottom of my heart that we would have caught him sooner. I wish that, the several agencies involved, that we could have done better in so many ways. I wish that all the mistakes that were made, we could undo. And I wish that more lives would have been saved. So on my behalf and behalf of the Vancouver Police Department and all the men and women that worked on this investigation, I would say to the families how sorry we all are for your losses and because we did not catch this monster sooner."

Missing Women Commission of Inquiry.

After Robert Pickton lost his final appeal at the Supreme Court of Canada, the Missing Women Commission of Inquiry chaired by Wally Oppal was called to examine the role of the Vancouver police and the RCMP in the disappearances and murders of women in the Downtown Eastside. Families of the missing and murdered women have been calling for public hearings since before Pickton was arrested and eventually convicted of six murders. The Commission's final report submission to the Attorney General was dated November 19, 2012 and was released to the public on December 17. During the inquiry, lawyers for some of the victims' families sought to have an unpublished 289-page manuscript authored by former police investigator Lori Shenher entered as evidence and made entirely public. Several passages were read into the inquiry's record but Commissioner Oppal declined to publicize the entire manuscript.

Transfer to penitentiary.

During a court hearing on August 4, 2010, Judge Williams stated that Pickton should be committed to a federal penitentiary; up to that point he had been held at a provincial pretrial institution. In June 2018 he was allegedly transferred from Kent Institution in British Columbia to the Port-Cartier one in Quebec.

Stay of final 20 murder charges.

Pickton had faced a further 20 first degree murder charges involving other female victims from Vancouver's Downtown Eastside. On February 26, 2008, a family member of one of the 20 women named as alleged victims told the media that the Crown had told her a trial on the further 20 counts might not proceed.  On August 4, 2010, Crown prosecutors stayed the pending murder charges against Pickton, ending the prospect of any further trials.  The 20 charges were formally stayed by crown counsel Melissa Gillespie shortly after 4 p.m. during a British Columbia Supreme Court hearing at New Westminster.  Most (but not all) of the publication bans in the case were lifted by the trial judge, James Williams of the British Columbia Supreme Court, after lawyers spent hours in court going through the various complicated bans.  On August 6, 2010, various media outlets released a transcript of conversations between an RCMP undercover operator and Pickton in his holding cell. While the RCMP censored the undercover officer's name throughout most of the document, his name was left uncensored in several portions of the document that the RCMP released to the public. This uncensored version was available to the public, through Global News, CTV News, and the "Vancouver Sun", for about an hour before being pulled and re-edited. It is not known the extent of the damage this mistake caused the undercover officer.

Victims.

On December 9, 2007, Pickton was convicted of second-degree murder in the deaths of six women:

More victims.

Pickton also stood accused of first-degree murder in the deaths of 20 other women until these charges were stayed on August 4, 2010.  As of March 2, 2006, the murder charge involving the unidentified victim has been lifted. Pickton refused to enter a plea on the charge involving this victim, known in the proceedings as Jane Doe, so the court registered a not-guilty plea on his behalf. "The count as drawn fails to meet the minimal requirement set out in Section 581 of the Criminal Code. Accordingly, it must be quashed", wrote Justice James Williams. The detailed reasons for the judge's ruling cannot be reported in Canada because of the publication ban covering this stage of the trial.  Pickton is implicated in the murders of the following women, but charges have not yet been laid (incomplete list):  After Pickton was arrested many people started coming forward and talking to police about what was going on at the farm. One of these witnesses that came forward was Lynn Ellingsen. Ellingsen claimed to have seen Pickton skinning a woman hanging from a meat hook years earlier; she did not tell anyone about this out of fear for her life. Additionally, Ellingsen admitted that she blackmailed Pickton about the incident on more than one occasion.  The victims' children filed a civil lawsuit in May 2013 against the Vancouver Police Department, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Crown for failing to protect the victims. They reached a settlement in March 2014, where each of the children was to be compensated $50,000, without an admission of liability.

August 2006 "Pickton Letters".

In August 2006, Thomas Loudamy, a 27-year-old Fremont, California resident, claimed that he had received three letters from Robert Pickton in response to letters Loudamy sent under an assumed identity.  In the letters, Pickton allegedly speaks with concern about the expense of the investigation, asserts his innocence, quotes and refers to the Bible, praises the trial judge, and responds in detail to (fictional) information in Loudamy's letters, which were written in the guise of Mya Barnett, a "down on her luck" woman.  The news of the letters' existence was broken by "The Vancouver Sun", in an exclusive published on Saturday, September 2, 2006, and as of that date, neither law enforcement nor any representative of Pickton has verified the authenticity of the letters. The "Sun", however, has undertaken several actions to confirm the documents' authenticity, including:  Loudamy claimed not to have kept copies of his outgoing letters to Pickton, and as of September 4, 2006, no information on their existence has been forthcoming from Pickton or his representatives.  Loudamy had a history of writing to accused and convicted criminals, in some instances under his own identity (as with his correspondence with Clifford Olson), and in others in the guise of a character he believes will be more readily accepted by the targets of the letters. Loudamy, an aspiring journalist, claimed that his motivation in releasing the letters was to help the public gain insights into Pickton.

2016 film.

In 2015, a film with the working title of "Full Flood" began production in Vancouver by CBC-TV. Based on Stevie Cameron's book "On The Farm" it was to use the life experiences of Pickton's victims for a fictional story about women in the Downtown Eastside who became victims of a serial killer. Pickton was portrayed by Ben Cotton in the film. In 2016, the film was released under the title "Unclaimed", or "On the Farm" in certain markets.

2016 autobiography.

In 2016, a book claimed to have been written by Pickton and titled "Pickton: In his Own Words" went up for sale and initiated controversy, critical petitions and actions by government to prevent Pickton from profiting from the work.  Pickton was described as getting his manuscript out of prison by passing it to a former cellmate who then sent it to a retired construction worker from California named Michael Chilldres—who typed it up and is credited as the author of the 144-page book. Provincial Solicitor General Mike Morris and an online petition on Change.org each sought to remove the book from sale on Amazon.com. Premier Christy Clark expressed interest in introducing new legislation similar to laws in Alberta, Saskatchewan, Nova Scotia and Ontario to prevent criminal profits from such books. Colorado publisher Outskirts Press ceased publication of the book and asked Amazon to remove it from their site after finding out that although Chilldres had his name on the book cover, the author was actually an incarcerated criminal.

Robert William "Willy" Pickton (born 24 October 1949) is a Canadian serial killer who was convicted in 2007 of the second-degree murders of six women. Arrested in 2002, he was the subject of a lengthy investigation that yielded evidence of numerous other murders. Pickton was charged with the deaths of an additional twenty women, many of them from Vancouver's Downtown Eastside, but these charges were stayed by the Crown in 2010. Pickton was sentenced to life in prison, with no possibility of parole for 25 years – the longest sentence for murder under Canadian law at the time he was sentenced.

罗伯特·皮克顿 「伟利·皮克顿」,是加拿大不列颠哥伦比亚高贵林港市()的一个猪农 。他在当地被控以一级谋杀罪,指他杀害了当地26名女子,并涉及2004年1月28日超过五名妓女在温哥华市东区被杀死的案件。另外,当更多DNA证据不断地在他的农场被发现,不列颠哥伦比亚皇家检察院会在明年起诉他多最少七宗谋杀案。


Customs as a Public Service.

Customs are a public service provided by the government of the respective country that collects the duties levied on imported goods as well as providing security measures through which people enter and exit the country. A public good/service is defined by being non-rival and non-excludable. One cannot avoid customs when exiting or entering a country thus making it non-excludable. There is some congestion when going through airports, with the average wait time in customs in American Domestic airports being 75.1 minutes, however, the congestion doesn't discriminate based on rival-consumption thus making it a public service.

Privatization of customs.

Customs is part of one of the three basic functions of a government, namely: administration; maintenance of law, order, and justice; and collection of revenue. However, in a bid to mitigate corruption, many countries have partly privatised their customs. This has occurred by way of contracting pre-shipment inspection agencies, which examine the cargo and verify the declared value before importation occurs. The country's customs is obliged to accept the agency's report for the purpose of assessing duties and taxes at the port of entry.  While engaging a pre-shipment inspection agency may appear justified in a country with an inexperienced or inadequate customs establishment, the measure has not been able to plug the loophole and protect revenue. It has been found that evasion of customs duty escalated when pre-shipment agencies took over. It has also been alleged that involvement of such agencies has caused shipping delays. Privatization of customs has been viewed as a fatal remedy. In many countries, import and export data are issued on the basis of national laws (Transparency Laws / Freedom of Information Act).  There has, however, been some speed bumps when transitioning customs over from the public to private sector. Factors such as an incompetent private sector, government's reluctance to change the traditional roles of customs, neglecting priority-setting and lack of transparency in the transition process have slowed the rate at which the public to private transition has taken place.

Customs and Border Protection in the US.

Every person arriving in the US is subject to inspection by Customs and Border Protection officers for compliance with immigration, customs and agriculture regulations. This public service is administered on almost a million visitors who enter the US daily. Travelers are screened for a number of prohibited items including; gold, alcoholic beverages, firearms and soil. A wide range of penalties face those non-compliers.

Customs in Ukraine.

Ukraine has had 5 reforms of its customs authorities. The recent one, in 2019, reorganized State Fiscal Service (Ukraine) into State customs service of Ukraine. The reform attempt seeks to digitize customs procedures, get market-level wages, innovate customs checkpoints, integrate into EU customs community, open reference database of customs inspections.

Red and green channels.

In many countries, customs procedures for arriving passengers at many international airports and some road crossings are separated into red and green channels. Passengers with goods to declare (carrying goods above the permitted customs limits and/or carrying prohibited items) go through the red channel. Passengers with nothing to declare (carrying goods within the permitted customs limits and not carrying prohibited items) go through the green channel. However, entry into a particular channel constitutes a legal declaration, if a passenger going through the green channel is found to be carrying goods above the customs limits or prohibited items, he or she may be prosecuted for making a false declaration to customs, by virtue of having gone through the green channel. Each channel is a point of no return, once a passenger has entered a particular channel, they cannot go back.  Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States do not officially operate a red and green channel system; however, some airports copy this layout.

Blue channel.

Airports in EU countries such as Finland, Ireland or the United Kingdom, also have a blue channel. As the EU is a customs union, travellers between EU countries do not have to pay customs duties. Value-added tax and excise duties may be applicable if the goods are subsequently sold, but these are collected when the goods are sold, not at the border. Passengers arriving from other EU countries go through the blue channel, where they may still be subject to checks for prohibited or restricted goods. Luggage tickets for checked luggage travelling within the EU are green-edged so they may be identified. In most EU member states, travellers coming from other EU countries can simply use the green lane.

Red point phone.

All airports in the United Kingdom operate a channel system, however some don't have a red channel, they instead have a red point phone which serves the same purpose.

Summary of basic custom rules.

European Union.

The basic customs law is harmonized across Europe within the European Union Customs Union. This includes customs duties and restrictions. Customs tax from €22 to €150. In addition, see regulations of each member state.  For customs declarations in the EU and in Switzerland, Norway and Iceland, the "Single Administrative Document" (SAD) is used as a basis.

Germany.

Up to €22, there are no taxes. From €22 up to €150, it is necessary to pay VAT (EUSt in Germany), which is 7% or 19% depending on the goods. From €150 it is necessary to pay VAT and customs.

Romania.

Customs may be very strict, especially for goods shipped from anywhere outside the EU. Up to €10 goods/package.

Italy.

Customs in Italy takes additional 22% VAT (Value-added tax) for goods imported from outside the European Union even if the VAT is already paid to the origin country sender.

Czech Republic and Slovakia.

Up to €22, there are no taxes. From €22 up to €150, it is necessary to pay VAT (DPH in Czech/Slovak), which is 21%. From €150, it is necessary to pay VAT and customs. Customs may range from zero to 10% depending on the type of imported goods.

North America.

United States.

The United States imposes tariffs or "customs duties" on imports of goods: 3% on average. The duty is levied at the time of import and is paid by the importer of record. Individuals arriving in the United States may be exempt from duty on a limited amount of purchases, and on goods temporarily imported (such as laptop computers) under the ATA Carnet system. Customs duties vary by country of origin and product, with duties ranging from zero to 81% of the value of the goods. Goods from many countries are exempt from duty under various trade agreements. Certain types of goods are exempt from duty regardless of source. Customs rules differ from other import restrictions. Failure to comply with customs rules can result in seizure of goods and civil and criminal penalties against involved parties. The U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) enforces customs rules. All goods entering the United States are subject to inspection by CBP prior to legal entry.

Uruguay.

Uruguayan Customs place a cap on the importation of personal packages to up to 3 packages of a nominal value of no more than $200 USD which can be entered into the country without extra charge. For a package to be included in the 3 free slots, the addressee must register the package with the Uruguayan Postal Service linking the tracking code, their address, national ID number phone and email address. Should a package arrive prior to registration the package must pay the 60% tax and no less than $10 USD. Any personal package worth more than $200 USD or after the 3 free packages, must pay a 60% tax. This severely limits the public's ability to buy products online. Due to Uruguay's small population and market, many popular and specialty products are unavailable in the regular marketplace, forcing Uruguayans to strategically pool several purchases together and max each one of their free slots.

Argentina.

Customs may be very strict. Goods valued up to $500 USD brought in by plane and up to $300 USD by sea or land are free of duties and taxes, cellphones and laptop computers are duty free regardless of their value only one per passenger, clothing and other personal use items are free of taxes. Above those values, tax is 50% of the value of all acquired goods sumed up.

International Customs Day.

International Customs Day recognizes the role of agencies and customs officials in maintaining border security around the world. In focuses on the workers and their working conditions as well as the challenges that some customs officers face in their job. Custom agencies hold employee appreciation events where custom officers are recognized for their work. Several agencies also hold events for the public where they explain their jobs and responsibilities in a transparent manner. Each year, at the end of January is celebrated the International Customs Day with a particular theme, as follows:

Magic mail.

Juan Pablo Escobar writes, in "My Father Pablo Escobar", "At the time Pablo Escobar was trafficking cocaine, Colombia's major airports had what was known as "magic mail", a sort of parallel customs system that made it possible to bring anything into the country without leaving a paper trail – in exchange for a fat bribe."

Customs is an authority or agency in a country responsible for collecting tariffs and for controlling the flow of goods, including animals, transports, personal, and hazardous items, into and out of a country. The movement of people into and out of a country is normally monitored by migration authorities, under a variety of names and arrangements. Immigration authorities normally check for appropriate documentation, verify that a person is entitled to enter the country, apprehend people wanted by domestic or international arrest warrants, and impede the entry of people deemed dangerous to the country. Compare illegal emigration.

海关是一个负责征收及保护关税,管制包括动物、植物、财物和危险品出入境物流的国家机关。根据当地的法律规定,某些货物的进出口可能会受到限制或禁止,报关代理执行这些法规。在大多数国家,海关都获得了政府的授权和国际法的许可。


卡洛尔县 (新罕布什尔州)

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (6.2%) is water. It is the third-largest county in New Hampshire by total area. Northern Carroll County is known for being mountainous. Several ski areas, including Cranmore Mountain, Attitash, King Pine, and Black Mountain, are located here.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 43,666 people, 18,351 households, and 12,313 families living in the county. The population density was 18/km2 (47/sq mi). There were 34,750 housing units at an average density of 14/km2 (37/sq mi). The racial makeup of the county was 98.22% White, 0.17% Black or African American, 0.28% Native American, 0.38% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.17% from other races, and 0.77% from two or more races. 0.48% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 22.5% were of English, 15.6% Irish, 10.5% American, 9.7% French, 6.7% German, 5.8% Italian and 5.2% Scottish ancestry. 96.5% spoke English and 1.6% French as their first language.  There were 18,351 households out of which 27.40% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.30% were married couples living together, 7.80% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.90% were non-families. 26.60% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.82.  In the county, the population was spread out with 22.60% under the age of 18, 5.30% from 18 to 24, 26.50% from 25 to 44, 27.70% from 45 to 64, and 17.80% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 96.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.20 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $39,990, and the median income for a family was $46,922. Males had a median income of $31,811 versus $23,922 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,931. About 5.50% of families and 7.90% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.00% of those under age 18 and 6.70% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 47,818 people, 21,052 households, and 13,569 families living in the county. The population density was. There were 39,813 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 97.5% white, 0.6% Asian, 0.3% American Indian, 0.3% black or African American, 0.2% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1.0% of the population. In terms of ancestry,  The largest ancestry group in Carroll County are people of English ancestry, who make up 29.3% of people in the county. The second largest ancestry group in the county are people of Irish ancestry who make up 24.7%. The third largest group is people of French ancestry who make up 13.8% of people in the county.  Of the 21,052 households, 24.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.2% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 35.5% were non-families, and 28.4% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.72. The median age was 48.3 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $49,897 and the median income for a family was $60,086. Males had a median income of $41,634 versus $32,402 for females. The per capita income for the county was $28,411. About 6.1% of families and 9.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.6% of those under age 18 and 5.5% of those age 65 or over.

Politics and government.

The county is historically Republican, but in 2008 Barack Obama received 52.39% of the county's vote. This made him the first Democratic presidential nominee to win the county since 1912 and the first Democratic presidential nominee to win an absolute majority in the county since 1884.  The county is politically divided between the more conservative southern half, home to several seasonal communities along the north shore of Lake Winnipesaukee including Moultonborough, Tuftonboro, and Wolfeboro, and the more liberal northern half, with several ski towns and resort towns such as Bartlett and Conway. In both the 2012 Presidential and gubernatorial elections in New Hampshire, Democratic candidates easily won the northern half of the county, and Republican candidates easily won the southern half of the county.

County Commission.

The executive power of Carroll County's government is held by three county commissioners, each representing one of the three commissioner districts within the county. In addition to the County Commission, there are five directly-elected officials: they include County Attorney, Register of Deeds, County Sheriff, Register of Probate, and County Treasurer.

Legislative branch.

The legislative branch of Carroll County is made up of all of the members of the New Hampshire House of Representatives from the county. In total, as of August 2018 there are 15 members from 8 different districts.

Carroll County is a county in the U.S. state of New Hampshire. As of the 2010 census, the population was 47,818, making it the third-least populous county in New Hampshire. Its county seat is Ossipee. The county was created in 1840 and organized at Ossipee from towns removed from Strafford County. It was named in honor of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, who had died in 1832, the last surviving signer of the United States Declaration of Independence.

卡罗尔县(英语:Carroll County)是美国新罕布什尔州东部的一个县,东邻缅因州。面积2,570平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口43,666。县治奥西匹。


利斯莫尔 (新南威尔士州)

History.

The city of Lismore lies in the Bundjalung people's nation area. However, the actual area of the Bundjalung people from Evans Head is currently under examination, as well as the actual origin of the name Bundjalung. It has been suggested that the Aboriginal people called the area Tuckurimbah meaning "glutton."  The European history of the city begins in : a pastoral run covering an area of was taken up by Captain Dumaresq at this time covering the Lismore area and was stocked with sheep from the New England area. Ward Stephens took up the run in the same year, but the subtropical climate was unsuited for sheep grazing, so it was eventually abandoned. In January 1845, William and Jane Wilson took it over. The Wilsons were Scottish immigrants, who arrived in New South Wales in May 1833. Mrs. Wilson named the property after the small island of Lismore, one of the Inner Hebrides in Loch Linnhe, Argyleshire.  In 1855, the surveyor Frederick Peppercorne was instructed by Sir Thomas Mitchell to determine a site for a township in the area. Peppercorne submitted his map of the proposed village reserve on 16 February 1856. The chosen site was William Wilson's homestead paddock and the area was proclaimed the "Town of Lismore" in the NSW Government Gazette on 1 May 1856. The township was soon settled and its Post Office was opened on 1 October 1859. From the 1840s onwards, timber cutters moved up the Richmond River from its Ballina entrance felling timber from the extensive, previously untouched subtropical rainforest covering the region known as the "Big Scrub"; their primary interest was the Australian red cedar, "Toona ciliata", known locally as "red gold", which was highly prized for its appearance, ease of working, and pest resistance. At that time there was no substantial network of roads so rivers were the primary means of access and bulk transportation; despite its low lying position and propensity for flooding (which was to cause problems in subsequent times), Lismore developed as an inland port owing to its location at the highest navigable point for large cargo carrying vessels on the north arm of the Richmond, later renamed the Wilsons, River. For the second half of the 19th century the primary industries of the Lismore region continued to be cattle grazing and timber, supporting a growing economy and population and the development of secondary industries which included ship building, transportation, saw milling, tallow manufacturing and more. As the Big Scrub was cleared, it was steadily replaced with new pasture which formed the basis of a flourishing dairy industry, and many processing plants ("butter factories") and dairy cooperatives were established throughout the region. Infrastructure development in Lismore continued apace, including the presence of three schools by 1879, a new Government Wharf in 1880, two new bridges over the river in 1884 and 1885, and a new post office building (1898); by the end of that century Lismore had a population of over 4,500, although had suffered from some ravages including numerous floods plus a period of drought in the last half of the 1890s. At the beginning of the 20th century, river navigation was still the mainstay of transportation in Lismore, the principal operator being the North Coast Steam Navigation Company. The dairy industry was performing strongly, employing hundreds of small family-owned operations, the Lismore region becoming the centre for dairy production from the surrounding farms and the richest dairy district in Australia. A railway station had opened in 1894 as a stop on the Murwillumbah railway line which ran from Lismore to the coast at Byron Bay and then on to Murwillumbah, and subsequently in 1903 inland to Casino, but was not connected to any national network. However, as the century progressed, development of a better road network and the advance of motor transportation made inroads into the long-term success of both the river and rail traffic which eventually declined: river traffic was also affected by requisitioning of ships during the second world war and the largest shipping line operating on the two arms of the Richmond River, the North Coast Steam Navigation Company, went into liquidation in 1954; the railway line lasted until 2004 when it was closed on purely economic grounds after advising that it was "unprofitable" to continue providing services to Murwillumbah, putting an end to 110 years of rail transport in the region. Meanwhile, economic development in Lismore continued, including construction of a new School of Arts (1907, destroyed by fire in 1932), building of churches for four denominations, opening of a new Norco (dairy farmers' cooperative) factory in 1931, and other utilities. Lismore was officially gazetted as a city on 9 September 1946, with grant of an official coat of arms in 1947. In the early 1950s civic pride was boosted by a visit from the newly crowned Queen Elizabeth II with her consort who visited the city in February 1954, staying at the city's Gollan Hotel.  Television came to the city in 1956 and a local channel commenced broadcast in 1962 in the suburb of Goonellabah, which had been incorporated into the city of Lismore four years earlier. In 1969 the aerodrome at South Lismore received its licence from the Department of Civil Aviation, becoming the basis of the future Lismore airport. The 1960s were something of a boom time in development for Lismore, although the dairy industry was starting to decline and by the end of that decade and into the 1970s, many farmers turned to raising beef cattle instead, or simply let their land condition lapse. Later, especially following the 1973 "alternative society" Aquarius Festival which was held in the nearby village of Nimbin, the area began to attract so-called "alternative lifestylers" who were able to buy ex-dairying land at reasonable prices and re-invigorate the area with a range of pursuits and values of interest to a new generation, including an interest in owner-building of residences, experiments in communal living, environmental awareness and various artistic and creative activities, leading to badging of the area around Lismore as the "rainbow region". Meanwhile, Lismore has also become a regional centre for higher education: the original Lismore Teachers College (1970 onwards) becoming first the Northern Rivers College of Advanced Education in 1973, then an associate member of the University of New England, and finally (together with UNE-Coffs Harbour Centre), forming the Lismore Campus of the new Southern Cross University (established 1 January 1994). In addition, tourism has become an important contributor to the region's economy as well as the development of new agricultural products such as macadamias, avocado and stone fruit, pecans, and boutique coffee plantations, which are well suited to the rich volcanic soils, subtropical climate and moderately high rainfall of the area.  As traditional agricultural and manufacturing sectors have declined somewhat, so employment in the service sector has expanded. At the 2016 census, within Lismore City and the surrounding region (43,135 persons) the top employment sectors reported were Health Care and Social Assistance (4,534 persons), Retail Trade (2,491 persons), Education and Training (2,448 persons) and Accommodation and Food Services (1,297 persons), followed by Public Administration and Safety (1,204 persons), Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing (1,018 persons), Manufacturing (1,000 persons) and Construction (967 persons).  Surviving buildings of historical interest within Lismore City include the old Council Chambers (1928) in Molesworth Street designed by William Gilroy, now home to the Richmond River Historical Society Museum with a collection of objects, documents and photographs relevant to the historical development of the area, including Aboriginal artifacts; the Art Nouveau Post Office (1897), designed by W.L. Vernon; the original Australian Joint Stock Bank (1891), built in the Italianate style, now the T & G Building; the classical revival courthouse (1883) in Zadoc Street; and various churches including St Andrew's Anglican Church (1904), St Carthage's Roman Catholic Cathedral (1892-1907), the Uniting (formerly Methodist) Church (1908–09), the Church of Christ (1923), and St Paul's Presbyterian Church (1907–08). The commercial city centre retains many shopfronts ranging in date from the late nineteenth to mid twentieth centuries with little modern intrusion; a feature of interest is the presence of numerous arcades, for example the 1920s Star Court Arcade, which includes the 1921 Star Court Theatre, which allow shoppers to continue to shop in comfort in the presence of subtropical downpours as well as extremes of heat or cold.  The city also encompasses a range of parks and gardens, some bordering the river, as well as Rotary Park, a patch of regenerated rainforest close to the centre of the City, and a 27 ha remnant of the "Big Scrub" in the form of the Wilson Nature Reserve (see below).

Heritage listings.

Lismore has three sites listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register, including:  An additional items are listed by the local council on Local Environmental Plans under the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act, 1979, including:  A full listing of heritage sties in Lismore can be generated via a search for suburb/town = "Lismore" via the New South Wales Heritage Database.

Rainforest.

Lismore and surrounding towns were once part of the rainforest referred to as the "Big Scrub", of which less than one percent remains following European settlement. A section of this rainforest is viewable in the grounds of the Southern Cross University and at Wilsons Nature Reserve on Wyrallah Road.

Geography.

Lismore is located on the Bruxner Highway and it lies at the confluence of the Wilsons River (a tributary of the Richmond River) and Leycester Creek, The state capital city of Sydney is located to the south by highway. Brisbane, the state capital of Queensland, is to the north.  Lismore's central business district is located from the eastern coast, and southwest of Byron Bay. The coastal town of Ballina is away. There are a number of rainforest patches in the area, remnants of the Big Scrub. These are preserved today, with a small pocket known as Boatharbour Reserve just east of town on the Bangalow road. The nearest large and publicly accessible national park is Nightcap National Park.

Climate and weather.

General characteristics.

Lismore experiences a humid subtropical climate with mild to warm temperatures all year round and ample rainfall, with a long term yearly average of 1,343 mm. Temperatures in summer range between and. The subtropical climate combined with geographical features means the urban area is unusually humid when compared with surrounding areas, with humidity levels often reaching 100% in summer. Lismore has 109.6 clear days annually.

Floods.

Although no major environmental hazards affect the area, Lismore is renowned for frequent floods. One of the worst of these occurred in 1974, when waters rose to a height of, which was preceded by a major flood of the same height in 1954, and others of somewhat lesser severity in 1966, 1962 and 1989.  In 1999 a government-funded scheme to protect the CBD and South Lismore from a 1-in-10-year flood event was approved. This proposal would mean that most of the smaller floods would not enter the central area of Lismore and substantially improve the time available for the evacuation of residents and the business community in larger floods. Nonetheless, around 3000 residents of Lismore were evacuated after floods affected much of the area on 30 June 2005, many being temporarily housed on the campus of Southern Cross University. However, the new levee that had been completed two weeks prior limited damage and stopped the water reaching the Central Business District.  In the aftermath of Cyclone Debbie in March 2017, Lismore was again badly affected by flooding of up to through all CBD businesses. Wilsons River reached and the levee was overtopped for the first time since its completion. A budget of $8.2 million for additional flood mitigation works was announced in November 2018.  A summary of Lismore flood events from 1870 to 2017 is available here.

Drought and water security.

A high degree of year-to-year variation in rainfall is typical of the Northern Rivers region. Periods of reduced rainfall are often associated with El Niño events and increased rainfall with La Niña events. For example, the region experienced a significant reduction in rainfall between late 2002 and mid-2003 and again in 2007 in association with persistent and recurrent El Niño events. In common with other areas in Australia, the Lismore region can experience drought but in general, the Northern Rivers region is less drought prone than many of its neighbours, especially those west of the Great Dividing Range (see example map for the drought-affected month of September 2019 here). The municipal water supply is provided by Rous County Council via Rocky Creek Dam, which is situated in a high rainfall area within the Whian Whian State Conservation Area approximately 20 km north of the city, and can be supplemented by drawing additional water from the Wilsons River when required. According to data in the Drought Management Plan adopted by the Council in 2016, level 1 water restrictions for the whole supply region (which stretches from Woodburn in the south to Ocean Shores in the north, as well as westwards to Lismore) would be triggered if the level in Rocky Creek Dram falls to 60%, level 2 restrictions at 45% of capacity, and so on. From 2002 up to late 2019, only one period of severe water restrictions was recorded (reaching level 5 in March 2003) with one other period of lesser severity (level 1 restrictions) during the second half of 2007.

Other severe weather events.

Lismore is often hit by severe storms in spring and summer. For example, there was a severe hailstorm on 9 October 2007. A tornado is an extreme rarity, but later that same month one struck nearby Dunoon. It was captured on video as it hit an electrical transformer station there.

Quantifying natural hazard risks.

In a 2016 report prepared for Insurance Australia Group (IAG), the consulting company SGS Economics and Planning rated and mapped different Local Government Areas (LGAs) across Australia against a range of natural hazard risks, namely Tropical Cyclone, Storm, Bushfire, Earthquake and Flood. On a 0-5 scale where 0 = no exposure, 5 = extreme risk, the region which includes Lismore rated 1 for Earthquake, 2 for Storm and Bushfire, 3 for Tropical Cyclone and 4 for Flood risk (SGS report, Figures 1, 3, 5, 6, 8).

Demographics.

According to the 2016 census of Population, there were 28,407 people in Lismore. The population reached a recent peak of 29,320 at June 2012 and since has experienced a gradual decline to 28,720 in 2018.

Media.

"The Northern Star" is a tabloid newspaper based in Lismore. It covers the region from Casino to Ballina and up to Murwillimbah and Byron Bay. The "Northern Rivers Echo" is a free weekly community newspaper for Lismore, Alstonville, Wollongbar, Ballina, Casino, Nimbin and Evans Head.  The commercial radio stations of Lismore are Triple Z (Hit Music) and 2LM 900 AM (also broadcast on 104.3FM). Both are run by Broadcast Operations Group. The community radio station is River FM 92.9 which offers an independent alternative media voice playing a diverse range of music. Other radio stations are JJJ 96.1 FM, Radio National 96.9 FM, Classic FM 95.3 and ABC North Coast 94.5 FM.  All major television Network channels are available in Lismore and in the general Northern Rivers region. The networks and the channels they currently broadcast are listed as follows: Subscription television services are provided by Foxtel.

Business.

The Norco Co-operative has its headquarters in Lismore. The main campus of Southern Cross University is in Lismore.

Education.

Lismore and the surrounding area is home to a number of public and private schools, including:

Sport and recreation.

Lismore is a strong-hold of Association Football, with six clubs affiliated with Football Far North Coast being located in Lismore and near surrounds:  The Lismore Marist Brothers Rams is the local rugby league club that competes in the Northern Rivers Regional Rugby League competition.  The Albert Park complex is home to the Far North Coast Baseball Association and Lismore is considered one of the strongest centres for Baseball in Australia.

Sister cities.

Lismore formed a sister city relationship with the Japanese city of Yamatotakada in Nara Prefecture in 1963. The first such relationship established between Australia and Japan, it was initiated by Lismore-born Marist priest and writer Paul Glynn. Lismore is also a sister city of Eau Claire, Wisconsin, USA and Lismore, County Waterford, Ireland.

Notable people.

Notable people from or who have lived in Lismore include:

In popular culture.

Lismore is featured in the first verse of the original version of Geoff Mack's "I've Been Everywhere" and also mentioned in the Midnight Oil song "Outside World".

References.

Sources

Lismore is a city in northeastern New South Wales, Australia and the main population centre in the City of Lismore local government area; it is also a regional centre in the Northern Rivers region of the State. It is situated on a low flood plain on the banks of the Wilsons River near the latter's junction with Leycester Creek, both tributaries of the Richmond River which enters the Pacific Ocean at Ballina, 30 km to the east. The original settlement initially developed as a grazing property, then became a timber and agricultural based town and inland port based around substantial river traffic, which declined and then ceased around the mid twentieth century. The city is also located on the Bruxner Highway which crosses the Wilsons River at Lismore, and was formerly a stop on the Casino-Murwillumbah railway line. It is the home of one of the three campuses of Southern Cross University.

立斯摩尔(Lismore)是个澳大利亚新南威尔士州有着亚热带气候的小城市,乃澳东沿海的主要城镇之一;人口28,720(2018年)。


History.

The Nowra region, south of Bomaderry Creek was inhabited by the Wodi-Wodi tribe of the Yuin nation while north of Bomaderry Creek was inhabited by the Dharawal Aboriginal people prior to European arrival. Around 1824, ex-convict Mary Reibey applied for a land grant in the Burrier area, on the southern side of the Shoalhaven River. The Nowra township was officially recognised in 1852. Less than ten years later, in 1861, a postal service was established. Also in that year, the racehorse 'Archer', trained in Nowra by Etienne de Mestre, won the first Melbourne Cup. By 1885, Nowra was declared a town.  A major landmark in the area is the house Bundanon, which began as a single-storey weatherboard structure built about 1840. In 1866, a two-storey sandstone house, made of locally quarried stone, was built immediately in front of the weatherboard house. The sandstone house features timber verandahs and is now listed on the Register of the National Estate.

Heritage listings.

Nowra has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:

Geography.

Nowra is on the Shoalhaven River, which formerly hosted the Australian National wakeboarding championships and is a popular fishing location. The river divides Nowra from Bomaderry and North Nowra, and is bridged by the historic Nowra Bridge. The Shoalhaven River is a salt water river, although the river itself does not flow into the sea. The Shoalhaven River meets the sea through the canal that joins the Shoalhaven and Crookhaven Rivers, which was dug by convicts under direction of local entrepreneur and pioneer Alexander Berry.  It is located near Berry, Jervis Bay, Kangaroo Valley, Culburra Beach, Greenwell Point, Huskisson, Shoalhaven Heads and Cambewarra.

Climate.

With the warmest month's mean being just 22 °C (71.6 °F), Nowra has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa") under the Köppen climate classification, making it the southernmost city on the coastal strip to be within this climate zone, albeit an isolated one — nearby coastal cities to the north, such as Wollongong and Kiama, have an oceanic climate ("Cfb") as their warmest month's mean does not reach the 22 °C threshold.

Demographics.

The population of Nowra - Bomaderry was 37,420 at June 2018; having grown gradually since 2005 when the population was 31,716.  According to the 2006 census, 87.9% of the population of Nowra was born in Australia, with North-West Europe being the most common birthplace of immigrants at 7.5% of the population. 6.1% of the total population are Indigenous Australians. There are 11,386 households in Nowra. There are a total of 8,248 families, with 2,838 containing two Adults with children under 15 and/or dependent students, and 1,163 being one parent families with children under 15 and/or dependent students.  The suburb of Nowra had a population of 9,193 at the.

Economy.

In the Nowra-Bomaderry area there are several schools. Nowra Town Hall (built in 1948) is in the CBD which provides many services including banks, health services and library. There is a large retirement population with several village options in the area. Nowra has a growing tourist industry, especially in the summer months, when visitors (mostly from Sydney and Canberra) flock to the beaches, to enjoy swimming, surfing, fishing, relaxing in the restaurants and cafés and hunting for treasures in the shops and boutiques.  Nowra sits in the Shoalhaven region where there are several vineyards producing award-winning wines.

Education.

Nowra has three public high schools, Nowra High School, Shoalhaven High School and Bomaderry High School. There are also several non-government schools, which are all denominational; a K-12 Christian-based school located in South Nowra, Nowra Christian School; a K-12 Anglican college in Bomaderry, Nowra Anglican College; and a Catholic systemic high school, St John the Evangelist Catholic High School on the outskirts of Nowra.  The Catholic high school is linked to St Michael's Catholic Primary School located in Nowra. There are seven public primary schools in the Nowra area as well: East Nowra Public School, Nowra Public School, Bomaderry Public School, Illaroo Road Public School, North Nowra Public School, Nowra Hill Public School and Terara Public School.  The University of Wollongong also has a campus in Nowra, and there is a campus of TAFE NSW Illawarra Institute located in Bomaderry.

Health.

There are two hospitals in Nowra, the Shoalhaven District Memorial Hospital, a hub for oncology services, and Nowra Private Hospital.

Sports.

The four major codes of football in Australia are all popular in the Nowra area. Rugby union is represented by the Shoalhaven Rugby Club, the team plays out of Rugby Park in South Nowra. The club won the 2008 premiership in the Illawarra district competition, and has produced international and provincial players such as Andrew Walker and Alex Kanaar. Australian rules football is played by three clubs from the Shoalhaven area, with the Nowra Albatross Vikings playing at West Street Oval, and the Bomaderry Tigers at Artie Smith Oval. Further south, the Bay and Basin Bombers play at the Leisure Centre at Vincentia. These four clubs are all members of the South Coast AFL, fielding junior and senior teams. Rugby league has traditionally been represented by the Nowra Warriors and Bomaderry Swamprats. However, at the end of 2007 these teams merged to form the Shoalhaven Jets Rugby League Football Club. The Shoalhaven Mariners were established in 2006 and represent the area in the sport of baseball. The team plays home matches out of Fred Finch Park in Berkeley, Wollongong. Baseball has a new venue at the South Nowra Soccer Complex. The Shoalhaven Tigers represent the area in the New South Wales State Basketball League and have won several championships from 1988 until 2007.  Archer was an Australian thoroughbred racehorse who won the first and the second Melbourne Cups in 1861 and 1862. He won both Cups easily, and is one of only five horses to have won the Melbourne Cup on two or more occasions, and one of only four horses to have won two successive Cups. Archer was trained in the Nowra area.

Public transport.

Nowra Coaches operate services from Nowra to Bomaderry, Huskisson, Vincentia and Jervis Bay. Shoal Bus operates services from Gerringong to Ulladulla.  Although Nowra has no direct rail connection, the Illawarra railway line terminates at Bomaderry with NSW TrainLink operating services to Kiama and Sydney.

Nowra is a town in the South Coast region of New South Wales, Australia. It is located south-southwest of the state capital of Sydney (about as the crow flies.) With its twin-town of Bomaderry, as at June 2018, Nowra had an estimated population of 37,420. It is also the seat and commercial centre of the City of Shoalhaven. Geologically, the city is situated in the southern reaches of the Sydney basin.

诺拉(Nowra)位于雪梨以南170公里处;根据澳大利亚统计局,与邻近小镇博马德里的人口合计有27,478,地区总人口约9万余。