Name.

The etymology of the name "Zagreb" is unclear. It was used for the united city only from 1852, but it had been in use as the name of the Zagreb Diocese since the 12th century, and was increasingly used for the city in the 17th century. The name is first recorded in a charter by Ostrogon archbishop Felician, dated 1134, mentioned as "Zagrabiensem episcopatum". The older form of the name is "Zagrab". The modern Croatian form "Zagreb" is first recorded in a 1689 map by Nicolas Sanson. An even older form is reflected in Hungarian "Zabrag" (recorded from c. 1200 and in use until the 18th century). For this, Hungarian linguist Gyula Décsy proposes the etymology of "Chabrag", a well-attested hypocorism of the name "Cyprian". The same form is reflected in a number of Hungarian toponyms, such as Csepreg.  The name might be derived from Proto-Slavic word

History.

The oldest settlement located near today's Zagreb was a Roman town of Andautonia, now Šćitarjevo, which existed between the 1st and the 5th century AD. The first recorded appearance of the name Zagreb is dated to 1094, at which time the city existed as two different city centres: the smaller, eastern Kaptol, inhabited mainly by clergy and housing Zagreb Cathedral, and the larger, western Gradec, inhabited mainly by craftsmen and merchants. Gradec and Kaptol were united in 1851 by ban Josip Jelačić, who was credited for this, with the naming the main city square, Ban Jelačić Square in his honour. During the period of former Yugoslavia, Zagreb remained an important economic centre of the country, and was the second largest city. After Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia, Zagreb was proclaimed its capital.

Early Zagreb.

The history of Zagreb dates as far back as 1094 A.D. when the Hungarian King Ladislaus, returning from his campaign against Croatia, founded a diocese. Alongside the bishop's see, the canonical settlement Kaptol developed north of Zagreb Cathedral, as did the fortified settlement Gradec on the neighbouring hill; the border between the

16th to 18th centuries.

There were numerous connections between the Kaptol diocese and the free sovereign town of Gradec for both economic and political reasons, but they weren't known as an integrated city, even as Zagreb became the political centre and, representing both Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia, first convened at Gradec. Zagreb was chosen as the seat of the Ban of Croatia in 1621 under ban

19th to mid-20th century.

In the 19th century, Zagreb was the centre of the Croatian National Revival and saw the erection of important cultural and historic institutions. In 1850, the town was united under its first mayor – Janko Kamauf.  The first railway line to connect Zagreb with Zidani Most and Sisak was opened in 1862 and in 1863 Zagreb received a gasworks. The Zagreb waterworks was opened in 1878.  After the 1880 Zagreb earthquake, up to the 1914 outbreak of World War I, development flourished and the town received the characteristic layout which it has today. The first horse-drawn tram was used in 1891. The construction of the railway lines enabled the old suburbs to merge gradually into Donji Grad, characterised by a regular block pattern that prevails in Central European cities. This bustling core hosts many imposing buildings, monuments, and parks as well as a multitude of museums, theatres and cinemas. An electric power plant was built in

Modern Zagreb.

The area between the railway and the Sava river witnessed a new construction boom after World War II. After the mid-1950s, construction of new residential areas south of the Sava river began, resulting in Novi Zagreb (Croatian for "New Zagreb"), originally called "Južni Zagreb" (Southern Zagreb). Today Novi Zagreb is divided in two city districts: Novi Zagreb-zapad (West Novi Zagreb) and Novi Zagreb-istok (East Novi Zagreb)  The city also expanded westward and eastward, incorporating Dubrava, Podsused, Jarun, Blato and other settlements. The cargo railway hub and the international airport Pleso were built south of the Sava river. The largest industrial zone (Žitnjak) in the south-eastern part of the city represents an extension of

Geography.

Climate.

The climate of Zagreb is classified as an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfb"), but with significant continental influences and very closely bordering on a humid continental climate ("Dfb") as well as a humid subtropical climate (Cfa). Zagreb has four separate seasons. Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. In late May it gets significantly warmer, temperatures start rising and it is often pleasant with frequent afternoon and evening thunderstorms. Heatwaves can occur but are short-lived. Temperatures rise above on an average 14.6 days each summer. Rainfall is abundant in the summertime and it continues to be in autumn as well. With 840 mm of precipitation per year, Zagreb is Europe's 9th wettest capital, receiving less precipitation than Luxembourg but more than Brussels, Paris and London. Autumn in its early stages is often

Cityscape.

The most important historical high-rise constructions are Neboder on Ban Jelačić Square, Cibona Tower (1987) and Zagrepčanka (1976) on Savska Street, Mamutica in Travno (Novi Zagreb – istok district, built in 1974) and Zagreb TV Tower on Sljeme (built in 1973).  In the 2000s, the City Assembly approved a new plan that allowed for the many recent high-rise buildings in Zagreb, such as the Almeria

Surroundings.

The wider Zagreb area has been continuously inhabited since the prehistoric period, as witnessed by archaeological findings in the Veternica cave from the Paleolithic and excavation of the remains of the Roman Andautonia near the present village of Šćitarjevo.  Picturesque former villages on the slopes of Medvednica, Šestine, Gračani and Remete, maintain their rich traditions, including folk costumes, Šestine umbrellas, and gingerbread products.  To the north is the Medvednica Mountain (), with its highest peak Sljeme (1,035 m), where one of the tallest structures in Croatia, Zagreb TV Tower is located. The Sava and the Kupa valleys are to the south of Zagreb, and the region of Hrvatsko Zagorje is located on the other (northern) side of the Medvednica hill. In mid-January 2005, Sljeme held its first World Ski Championship tournament.  From the summit, weather permitting, the vista reaches as far as Velebit Range along Croatia's rocky northern coast,

Demographics.

Zagreb is by far the largest city in Croatia in terms of area and population. The official 2011 census counted 792,325 residents, although due to a substantial immigrant influx the number of people residing in the city is much higher.  Zagreb metropolitan area population is slightly above 1.1 million inhabitants, as it includes the Zagreb County. Zagreb metropolitan area makes approximately a quarter of a total population of Croatia. In 1997, the City of Zagreb itself was given special County status, separating it from Zagreb County, although it remains the administrative centre of both.  The majority of

Government and politics.

The current mayor of Zagreb is Milan Bandić (BM 365 –Labour and Solidarity Party). He was confirmed as mayor on 4 June 2017 (Zagreb local elections 2017, second round). Two deputy mayors (vice mayoresses) are Jelena Pavičić-Vukičević and Olivera Jurković-Majić.  The Zagreb Assembly is composed of 51 representatives. Last elections were held on 21 May 2017 (Zagreb local elections). The current structure of the city assembly by party lines is as follows (2 December 2017):

Administration.

According to the Constitution, the city of Zagreb, as the capital of Croatia, has a special status. As such, Zagreb performs self-governing public affairs of both city and county. It is also the seat of the Zagreb County which encircles Zagreb.  The city administration bodies are the Zagreb City Assembly ("Gradska skupština Grada Zagreba") as the representative body and the mayor of Zagreb ("Gradonačelnik Grada Zagreba") who is the executive head of the city.  The City Assembly is the representative body of the citizens of the City of Zagreb elected for a four-year term on the basis of universal suffrage in direct elections by secret ballot using proportional system with d'Hondt method in a manner specified by law. There are 51 representatives in the City Assembly, among them president and vice-presidents of the assembly are elected by the representatives.  Prior to 2009, the mayor was elected by the City Assembly. It was changed to direct elections by majoritarian vote (two-round system) in 2009. The mayor is the head of the city administration and has two deputies (directly elected together

International relations.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Zagreb is twinned with

Partner cities.

The city has partnership arrangements with:

Culture.

Tourism.

Zagreb is an important tourist center, not only in terms of passengers traveling from the rest of Europe to the Adriatic Sea, but also as a travel destination itself. Since the end of the war, it has attracted close to a million visitors annually, mainly from Austria, Germany and Italy, and in recent years many tourists from far east (South Korea, Japan, China, and last two years, from India). It has become an important tourist destination, not only in Croatia, but considering the whole region of southeastern Europe. There are many interesting sights and happenings for tourists to attend in Zagreb, for example, the two statues of Saint George, one at the Republic of Croatia Square, the other at Kamenita vrata, where the image of Virgin Mary is said to be only thing that hasn't burned in the 17th-century fire. Also, there is an art installation starting in Bogovićeva street, called Nine Views. Most people don't know what

Souvenirs and gastronomy.

Numerous shops, boutiques, store houses and shopping centers offer a variety of quality clothing. There are about fourteen big shopping centers in Zagreb. Zagreb's offerings include crystal, china and ceramics, wicker or straw baskets, and top-quality Croatian wines and gastronomic products.  Notable Zagreb souvenirs are the tie or "cravat", an accessory named after Croats who wore characteristic scarves around their necks in the Thirty Years' War in the 17th century and the ball-point pen, a tool developed from the inventions by Slavoljub Eduard Penkala, an inventor and a citizen of Zagreb.  Many Zagreb restaurants offer various specialties of national and international cuisine. Domestic products which deserve to be tasted include turkey, duck or goose with "mlinci" (a kind of pasta), "štrukli" (cottage cheese strudel), "sir i vrhnje" (cottage cheese with cream), "kremšnite" (custard slices in flaky pastry), and "orehnjača" (traditional walnut roll).

Museums.

Zagreb's numerous museums reflect the history, art and culture not only of Zagreb and Croatia, but also of Europe and the world. Around thirty collections in museums and galleries comprise more than 3.6 million various exhibits, excluding church and private collections.  The Archaeological Museum (19 Nikola Šubić Zrinski Square) collections, today consisting of nearly 450,000 varied archaeological artefacts and monuments, have been gathered over the years from many different sources. These holdings include evidence of Croatian presence in the area. The most famous are the Egyptian collection, the Zagreb mummy and bandages with the oldest Etruscan inscription in the world ("Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis"), as well as the numismatic collection.  Modern Gallery () holds the most important and comprehensive collection of paintings, sculptures and drawings by 19th- and 20th-century Croatian artists. The collection numbers more than 10,000 works of art, housed since 1934 in the historic Vranyczany Palace in the centre of Zageb,

Events.

Zagreb developed its Advent several years, and it has been awarded Best Christmas Market 3 years in a row. Hosting numerous events for 6 weeks, from 1 December till 6 January.  Zagreb has been, and is, hosting some of the most popular mainstream artists, in the past few years their concerts held the Rolling Stones, U2, Eric Clapton, Deep Purple, Bob Dylan, David Bowie, Roger Waters, Depeche Mode, Prodigy, Beyoncé, Nick Cave, Jamiroquai, Manu Chao, Massive Attack, Metallica, Snoop Dogg, Lady Gaga, Duran Duran as well as some of world most recognised underground artists such as Dimmu Borgir, Sepultura, Melvins, Mastodon and many more. Zagreb is also a home of the

Performing arts.

There are about 20 permanent or seasonal theatres and stages. The Croatian National Theater in Zagreb was built in 1895 and opened by emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. The most renowned concert hall named "Vatroslav Lisinski", after the composer of the first Croatian opera, was built in 1973.  "Animafest", the World Festival of Animated Films, takes place every even-numbered year, and the "Music Biennale", the international festival of avant-garde music, every odd-numbered year. It

Recreation and sports.

Zagreb is home to numerous sports and recreational centres. Recreational Sports Center Jarun, situated on Jarun Lake in the southwest of the city, has fine shingle beaches, a world-class regatta course, a jogging lane around the lake, several restaurants, many night clubs and a discothèque. Its sports and recreation opportunities include swimming, sunbathing, waterskiing, angling and other water sports, but also beach volleyball, football, basketball, handball, table tennis, and mini-golf.  Dom Sportova, a sport centre in northern Trešnjevka features six halls. The largest two have seating capacity of 5,000 and 3,100 people, respectively. This

Religion.

The Archdiocese of Zagreb is a metropolitan see of the Catholic Church in Croatia, serving as its religious centre. The current Archbishop is Josip Cardinal Bozanić. The Catholic Church is the largest religious organisation in Zagreb, Catholicism being the predominant religion of Croatia, with over 1.1 million adherents. Zagreb is also the Episcopal see of the Metropolitanate of Zagreb and Ljubljana of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Islamic religious organisation of Croatia has the see in Zagreb. Current president is Mufti Aziz Hasanović.

Economy and infrastructure.

Important branches of industry are: production of electrical machines and devices, chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, food and drink processing. Zagreb is an international trade and business centre, as well as an essential transport hub placed at the crossroads of Central Europe, the Mediterranean and the Southeast Europe. Almost all of the largest Croatian as well as Central European companies and conglomerates such as Agrokor, INA, Hrvatski Telekom have their headquarters in the city.  The only Croatian stock exchange is the Zagreb Stock Exchange (), which is located in Eurotower, one of the tallest Croatian skyscrapers.  According to 2008 data, the city of Zagreb has the highest PPP and nominal gross domestic product per capita in Croatia at $32,185 and $27,271 respectively, compared to the Croatian averages of $18,686 and $15,758.  As of May 2015, the average monthly net salary in Zagreb was 6,669 kuna, about €870 (Croatian average is 5,679 kuna, about €740). At the end of 2012, the average unemployment rate in Zagreb was around 9.5%. 34% of companies in Croatia have headquarters in Zagreb, and 38.4% of the Croatian workforce works in Zagreb, including almost all banks, utility and public transport companies.  Companies in Zagreb create 52% of total turnover and 60% of total profit of Croatia in 2006 as well as 35% of Croatian export and 57% of Croatian import.

Transport.

Highways.

Zagreb is the hub of five major Croatian highways.  The highway A6 was upgraded in October 2008 and leads from Zagreb to Rijeka, and forming a part of the Pan-European Corridor Vb. The upgrade coincided with the opening of the bridge over the Mura river on the A4 and the completion of the Hungarian M7, which marked the opening of the first freeway corridor between Rijeka and Budapest. The A1 starts at the Lučko interchange and concurs with the A6 up to the Bosiljevo 2 interchange, connecting Zagreb and Split ( Vrgorac). A further extension of the A1 up to Dubrovnik is under construction. Both highways are tolled by the Croatian highway authorities Hrvatske autoceste and Autocesta Rijeka - Zagreb.  Highway A3 (formerly named Bratstvo i jedinstvo) was the showpiece of Croatia in the SFRY. It is the oldest Croatian highway. A3 forms a part of the Pan-European Corridor X. The highway starts at the Bregana

Roads.

The city has an extensive avenue network with numerous main arteries up to ten lanes wide and Zagreb bypass, a congested four-lane highway encircling most of the city. Finding a parking space is supposed to be made somewhat easier by the construction of new underground multi-story parking lots (Importanne Center, Importanne Gallery, Lang Square, Tuškanac, Kvaternik Square, Klaić Street, etc.). The busiest roads are the main east–west arteries, former Highway "Brotherhood and Unity", consisting of Ljubljanska Avenue, Zagrebačka Avenue and Slavonska Avenue; and the Vukovarska Avenue, the closest bypass of the city centre. The avenues were supposed to alleviate traffic problem, but most of them are today gridlocked at rush hour and others, like Branimirova Avenue and Dubrovnik Avenue which are gridlocked for the whole day. European routes E59, E65 and E70 serve Zagreb.

Public transportation.

Public transportation in the city is organised in several layers: the inner parts of the city are mostly covered by trams, the outer city areas and closer suburbs are linked with buses and rapid transit commuter rail.  The public transportation company ZET ("Zagrebački električni tramvaj", Zagreb Electric Tram) operates trams, all inner bus lines, and the most of the suburban bus lines, and it is subsidised by the city council.  The national rail operator Croatian Railways ("Hrvatske željeznice", HŽ) runs a network of urban and suburban train lines in the metropolitan Zagreb area, and is a government-owned corporation.  The funicular ("uspinjača") in the historic part of the city is a tourist attraction.  Taxi market has been liberalized in early 2018 and numerous transport companies have been allowed to enter the market; consequently, the prices significantly dropped whereas the service was immensely improved so the popularity of taxis in Zagreb has been increasing from then onwards.

Air traffic.

Zagreb Airport is the main Croatian international airport, a drive southeast of Zagreb in the city of Velika Gorica. The airport is also the main Croatian airbase featuring a fighter squadron, helicopters, as well as military and freight transport aircraft. The airport had 2,77 millions of passengers in 2016 with a new passenger terminal being opened in late March 2017 that can accommodate up to 5,5 million passengers.  Zagreb also has a second, smaller airport, Lučko. It is home to sports aeroplanes and a Croatian special police unit, as well as being a military helicopter airbase. Lučko used to be the main airport of Zagreb from 1947 to 1959.  A third, small grass airfield, Buševec, is located just outside Velika Gorica. It is primarily used for sports purposes.

Education.

Zagreb has 136 primary schools and 100 secondary schools including 30 gymnasia. There are 5 public higher education institution and 9 private professional higher education schools.

University.

Founded in 1669, the University of Zagreb is the oldest continuously operating university in Croatia and one of the largest and oldest universities in the Southeastern Europe. Ever since its foundation, the university has been continually growing and developing and now consists of 29 faculties, three art academies and the Croatian Studies

Zagreb (; ) is the capital and the largest city of Croatia. It is located in the northwest of the country, along the Sava river, at the southern slopes of the Medvednica mountain. Zagreb lies at an elevation of approximately above sea level. The estimated population of the city in 2018 was 820,678. The population of the Zagreb urban agglomeration is 1,086,528, approximately a quarter of the total population of Croatia.

萨格勒布(;德语旧称:,阿格拉姆;)是克罗地亚的首都和札格雷布县的首府同时也是全国最大城市、一个直辖市。萨格勒布克罗地亚国内足球强队萨格勒布迪纳摩主场位于这里。萨格勒布位于海平面122m(400英尺),它位于克罗地亚的西北部的南坡,境内有萨瓦河流过。在2011年的正式人口普查中,萨格勒布市人口是792,875人。连同萨格勒布县总人口达到了1,110,517。是克罗地亚唯一一个超过百万人口的大都市区。


History.

Freiburg was founded by Konrad and Duke Berthold III of Zähringen in 1120 as a free market town; hence its name, which translates to "free (or independent) town". "Frei" means "free", and "Burg," like the modern English word "borough", was used in those days for an incorporated city or town, usually one with some degree of autonomy. The German word "Burg" also means "a fortified town", as in Hamburg. Thus, it is likely that the name of this place means a "fortified town of free citizens".  This town was strategically located at a junction of trade routes between the Mediterranean Sea and the North Sea regions, and the Rhine and Danube rivers. In 1200, Freiburg's population numbered approximately 6,000 people. At about that time, under the rule of Bertold V, the last duke of Zähringen, the city began construction of its Freiburg Münster cathedral on the site of an older parish church. Begun in the Romanesque style, it was continued and completed 1513 for the most part as a Gothic edifice. In 1218, when Bertold V died, then Egino V von Urach, the count of Urach assumed the title of Freiburg's count as Egino I von Freiburg. The city council did not trust the new nobles and wrote down its established rights in a document. At the end of the thirteenth century there was a feud between the citizens of Freiburg and their lord, Count Egino II of Freiburg. Egino II raised taxes and sought to limit the citizens' freedom, after which the Freiburgers used catapults to destroy the count's castle atop the Schloßberg, a hill that overlooks the city center. The furious count called on his brother-in-law the Bishop of Strasbourg, Konradius von Lichtenberg, for help. The bishop responded by marching with his army to Freiburg.  According to an old Freiburg legend, a butcher named Hauri stabbed the Bishop of Strasbourg to death on 29 July 1299. It was a Pyrrhic victory, since henceforth the citizens of Freiburg had to pay an annual expiation of 300 marks in silver to the count of Freiburg until 1368. In 1366 the counts of Freiburg made another failed attempt to occupy the city during a night raid. Eventually the citizens were fed up with their lords, and in 1368 Freiburg purchased its independence from them. The city turned itself over to the protection of the Habsburgs, who allowed the city to retain a large measure of freedom. Most of the nobles of the city died in the battle of Sempach (1386). The patrician family Schnewlin took control of the city until the guildsmen revolted. The guilds became more powerful than the patricians by 1389.  The silver mines in Mount Schauinsland provided an important source of capital for Freiburg. This silver made Freiburg one of the richest cities in Europe, and in 1327 Freiburg minted its own coin, the "Rappenpfennig". In 1377 the cities of Freiburg, Basel, Colmar, and Breisach entered into a monetary alliance known as the "Genossenschaft des Rappenpfennigs" (Rappenpfennig Collective). This alliance facilitated commerce among the cities and lasted until the end of the sixteenth century. There were 8,000–9,000 people living in Freiburg between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and 30 churches and monasteries. At the end of the fourteenth century the veins of silver were dwindling, and by 1460 only approximately 6,000 people still lived within Freiburg's city walls.  A university city, Freiburg evolved from its focus on mining to become a cultural centre for the arts and sciences. It was also a commercial center. The end of the Middle Ages and the dawn of the Renaissance was a time of both advances and tragedy for Freiburg.  In 1457, Albrecht VI, Regent of Further Austria, established Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, one of Germany's oldest universities. In 1498, Emperor Maximilian I held a Reichstag in Freiburg. In 1520, the city ratified a set of legal reforms, widely considered the most progressive of the time. The aim was to find a balance between city traditions and old Roman Law. The reforms were well received, especially the sections dealing with civil process law, punishment, and the city's constitution. In 1520, Freiburg decided not to take part in the Reformation and became an important centre for Catholicism on the Upper Rhine. Erasmus moved here after Basel accepted the Reformation.  In 1536, a strong and persistent belief in witchcraft led to the city's first witch-hunt. The need to find a scapegoat for calamities such as the Black Plague, which claimed 2,000 area residents (25% of the city population) in 1564, led to an escalation in witch-hunting that reached its peak in 1599. A plaque on the old city wall marks the spot where burnings were carried out.  The seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries were turbulent times for Freiburg. At the beginning of the Thirty Years' War there were 10,000–14,000 citizens in Freiburg; by its end only 2,000 remained. During this war and other conflicts, the city belonged at various times to the Austrians, the French, the Swedes, the Spaniards, and various members of the German Confederation. Between 1648 and 1805, when the city was not under French occupation it was the administrative headquarters of Further Austria, the Habsburg territories in the southwest of Germany. In 1805, the city, together with the Breisgau and Ortenau areas, became part of Baden.  In 1827, when the Archdiocese of Freiburg was founded, Freiburg became the seat of a Catholic archbishop. On 22 October 1940, the Nazi Gauleiter of Baden, Robert Heinrich Wagner, ordered the deportation of all of Baden's and 350 of Freiburg's Jewish population. They were deported to Camp Gurs in the south of France, where many died. On 18 July 1942, the remaining Baden and Freiburg Jews were transferred to Auschwitz in Nazi-occupied Poland, where almost all were murdered. A living memorial has been created in the form of the 'footprint' in marble on the site of the city's original synagogue, which was burned down by the Nazi Germans on 9 November 1938, during the pogrom known as "Kristallnacht". The memorial is a children's paddling pool and contains a bronze plaque commemorating the original building and the Jewish community which perished. The pavements of Freiburg carry memorials to individual victims, in the form of brass plates outside their former residences.  Freiburg was heavily bombed during World War II. In May 1940, aircraft of the Luftwaffe mistakenly dropped approximately 60 bombs on Freiburg near the railway station, killing 57 people. On 27 November 1944, a raid by more than 300 bombers of RAF Bomber Command (Operation Tigerfish) destroyed a large portion of the city centre, with the notable exception of the "Münster", which was only lightly damaged. After the war, the city was rebuilt on its medieval plan.  It was occupied by the French Army on 21 April 1945, and Freiburg was soon allotted to the French Zone of Occupation. In December 1945 Freiburg became the seat of government for the German state Badenia, which was merged into Baden-Württemberg in 1952. The French Army maintained a presence in Freiburg until 1991, when the last French Army division left the city, and left Germany.  On the site of the former French Army base, a new neighborhood for 5,000 people, Vauban, was begun in the late 1990s as a "sustainable model district". Solar power provides electricity to many of the households in this small community.

Points of interest.

Because of its scenic beauty, relatively warm and sunny climate, and easy access to the Black Forest, Freiburg is a hub for regional tourism. In 2010, Freiburg was voted as the Academy of Urbanism's European City of the Year in recognition of the exemplary sustainable urbanism it has implemented over the past several decades.  The longest cable car run in Germany, which is long, runs from Günterstal up to a nearby mountain called "Schauinsland".  The city has an unusual system of gutters (called "Freiburg Bächle") that run throughout its centre. These "Bächle", once used to provide water to fight fires and feed livestock, are constantly flowing with water diverted from the Dreisam. They were never intended to be used for sewage, and even in the Middle Ages such use could lead to harsh penalties. During the summer, the running water provides natural cooling of the air, and offers a pleasant gurgling sound. It is said that if one accidentally falls or steps into a "Bächle", they will marry a Freiburger, or 'Bobbele'. The "Augustinerplatz" is one of the central squares in the old city. Formerly the location of an Augustinian monastery that became the Augustiner Museum in 1921, it is now a popular social space for Freiburg's younger residents. It has a number of restaurants and bars, including the local brewery 'Feierling', which has a Biergarten. On warm summer nights, hundreds of students gather here.  At the centre of the old city is the Münsterplatz or Cathedral Square, Freiburg's largest square. A farmers market is held here every day except Sundays. This is the site of Freiburg's Münster, a gothic minster cathedral constructed of red sandstone, built between 1200 and 1530 and noted for its towering spire. The Historical Merchants' Hall ("Historisches Kaufhaus"), is a Late Gothic building on the south side of Freiburg's "Münsterplatz". Built between 1520 and 1530, it was once the center of the financial life of the region. Its façade is decorated with statues and the coat of arms of four Habsburg emperors.  The "Altes Rathaus", or old city hall, was completed in 1559 and has a painted façade. The "Platz der alten Synagoge" "Old Synagogue Square" is one of the more important squares on the outskirts of the historic old city. The square was the location of a synagogue until it was destroyed on in 1938. Zum Roten Bären, the oldest hotel in Germany, is located along "Oberlinden" near the Swabian Gate.  The "Siegesdenkmal", or victory monument, is a monument to the German victory in the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. It is situated at the northern edge of the historic city center of Freiburg, and was built by Karl Friedrich Moest. In everyday language of people living in Freiburg, it serves as an orientation marker or as a meeting place.  To the east of the city centre, the Schlossberg hill provides extensive views over the city and surrounding region. The castle (Schloss) from which the hill takes its name was demolished in the 1740s, and only ruins remain. Schlossberg retained its importance to the city, however, and 150 years ago the city leaders opened up walks and views to make the mountain available to the public. Today, the Schlossbergbahn funicular railway connects the city centre to the hill.  Other museums in the city include the Archaeology Colombischlössle Museum.

Geography.

Freiburg is bordered by the Black Forest mountains Rosskopf and Bromberg to the east, Schönberg and Tuniberg to the south, with the Kaiserstuhl hill region to the west.

Climate.

Köppen climate classification classifies its climate as oceanic (Cfb). However, it is close to being humid subtropical (Cfa) due to the mean temperatures in July and August just under. Marine features are limited however, as a result of its vast distance from oceans and seas. As a result, summers have a significant subtropical influence as the inland air heats up. Thus July and August are, along with Karlsruhe, the warmest within Germany. Winters are moderate but usually with frequent frosts. However, more year-round rain occurs than in the Rhine plateau because of the closeness to the Black Forest. The city is close to the Kaiserstuhl, a range of hills of volcanic origin located a few miles away which is one of the warmest places in Germany and therefore considered as a viticultural area.

Government.

Freiburg is known as an "eco-city". It has attracted the Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz, solar industries, and research; the Greens have a stronghold there (the strongest in any major German city; up to 35% of the overall city vote, in some neighbourhoods reaching 40% or more in the 2012 national elections). The newly built neighbourhoods of Vauban and Rieselfeld were developed and built according to the idea of sustainability. The citizens of Freiburg are known in Germany for their love of cycling and recycling.  The former mayor (Oberbürgermeister), Dieter Salomon (in office 2002–2018), was the first member of Bündnis 90/Die Grünen to hold such an office in a city with more than 100,000 inhabitants.  In May 2018, Martin Horn, an independent candidate formerly associated with the SPD and supported by the SPD and FDP, became mayor of Freiburg, having received 34.7% in the first round of voting and 44.2% in the second. During his post-election party, he was punched in the face by a local man with known psychiatric problems.  In June 1995, the Freiburg city council adopted a resolution that it would permit construction only of "low-energy buildings" on municipal land, and all new buildings must comply with certain "low energy" specifications. Low-energy housing uses solar power passively as well as actively. In addition to solar panels and collectors on the roof, providing electricity and hot water, many passive features use the sun's energy to regulate the temperature of the rooms. Freiburg is host to a number of international organisations, in particular, ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability, ISES – International Solar Energy Society, and the City Mayors Foundation.  The composition of Freiburg city council is as follows:

Education.

Freiburg is a center of academia and research with numerous intellectual figures and Nobel Laureates having lived, worked, and taught there.  The city houses one of the oldest and most renowned of German universities, the Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg, as well as its medical center. Home to some of the greatest minds of the West, including such eminent figures as Johann Eck, Max Weber, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Friedrich Hayek, it is one of Europe's top research and teaching institutions.  Freiburg also plays host to various other educational and research institutes, such as the Freiburg University of Education, the Protestant University for Applied Sciences Freiburg, Freiburg Music Academy, the Catholic University of Applied Sciences Freiburg, the International University of Cooperative Education IUCE, three Max Planck institutes, and five Fraunhofer institutes.  The city is home to the IES Abroad European Union program, which allows students to study the development and activities of the EU.  The DFG / LFA Freiburg, a French-German high school established by the 1963 Élysée Treaty, is in the city.

Religion.

Christianity  Freiburg belonged to Austria until 1805 and because of this stayed Catholic, even though surrounding villages like Haslach, Opfingen, Tiengen, and the surrounding land ruled by the Margrave of Baden turned Protestant as a result of the Reformation. The city was part of the Diocese of Konstanz until 1821. That same year, Freiburg became an episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Freiburg. Due to a dispute between the government of Baden and the Holy See, the archbishop officially took office in 1827. The borders of the archdiocese correspond with the borders of the former province of Baden and the former Margraviate of Hohenzollern. The cathedral, in which the Bishop resides, is Freiburg Minster. Also part of the ecclesiastical province of Freiburg are the suffragan dioceses of Mainz and Rottenburg-Stuttgart. Until 1929 the dioceses of Limburg and Fulda also belonged to this ecclesiastical province. The Archbishop of Freiburg holds the title of metropolitan and the German headquarters of the Caritas International is in Freiburg.  Saint George (the flag of Freiburg has the cross of George), Lambert of Maastricht and the catacomb saint, Alexander, are the patron saints of Freiburg. Many works of art depicting these saints are in the Freiburg Minster, on the Minster square, just as in the museums and archives of the city, including some by Hans Baldung Grien, Hans Holbein the Younger and Gregorius Sickinger.  In 1805, with the attack of Breisgau on the Grand Duchy of Baden by a Catholic ruler, many Protestants moved into the city. Since 2007, any Protestants who are not part of a ‘free church’ belong to the newly founded deanery of Freiburg as part of the parish of Südbaden which in itself is a part of the Landeskirche Baden.  The seat of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Baden, a free Lutheran church, is situated in Freiburg. There are multiple other free Protestant churches: e.g. the Calvary Chapel or Chrischona International. An old congregation has existed in Freiburg since the late 1900s, which utilizes the old monastery church of the Ursulines in the black monastery at the border of the old city center. The Catholic Church of St. Maria Schutz has been made available for Masses by Greek, Serbian, Russian and Rumanian Orthodox congregations.  Judaism  Jews are said to have lived in the city before 1230, but it was only after 1230 that they supposedly founded an official community in the Webergasse (a small street within the city center). The counts of Freiburg bought the lucrative Schutzjude, which means that all personal information on Jews living in Freiburg was directly sent to Konrad II and his co-reigning son Friedrich. The two issued a comprising letter promising safety and liberty to all local Jews on 12 October 1338. It lost all value shortly after, however, on 1 January 1349. Even though the plague had not yet broken out in the city, Jews were accused of having spread it and taken into custody. All Jewish people with the exception of pregnant women were burned alive on 31 January 1349. The remaining children were forced to be baptized. This pogrom left Jews very hesitant to settle in the city again. In 1401 the city council decreed a regulation to ban all Jews from Freiburg (orig. Middle High German dialect: “daz dekein Jude ze Friburg niemmerme sin sol”[27]. This was also officially reaffirmed by King Sigismund with a ban for life (orig. German: “Ewige Vertreibung”) in 1424. It was only in 1809 that Jews were once again allowed permanent residence within the city. They subsequently founded a Jewish community in 1836.  At the Kristallnacht in 1938, the synagogue, built in 1870, was set afire. Numerous shops and apartments of Jewish citizens of Freiburg were devastated and plundered by National Socialists without the intervention of police or fire department. Male, wealthy, Jewish citizens were kidnapped and taken to concentration camps (in Buchenwald and Dachau) where they were subjected to forced labor or executed and their money and property stolen. On October 22, 1940 the remaining Jews of Baden and Pfalz were deported to Camp de Gurs in southern France. One among many collecting points was Annaplatz. So-called 'Stolpersteine', tiles with names and dates on them, commemorate the victims of the prosecution of Jews during the Nazi-Era in the city's cobble. Journalist Käthe Vordtriede of the Volkswacht even received two Stolpersteine to commemorate her life. The first one was inserted into the ground in front of the Vordtriede-Haus Freiburg in 2006 and the second one in front of the Basler Hof, the regional authorities, in spring 2013. This was also the seat of the Gestapo until 1941, where unrelenting people were cruelly interrogated, held prisoner or at worst deported. The only solutions were flight or emigration. The Vordtriede family, however, was lucky and escaped in time.

Transport.

Freiburg has an extensive pedestrian zone in the city centre where no motor cars are allowed. Freiburg also has an excellent public transport system, operated by the city-owned VAG Freiburg. The backbone of the system is the Freiburg tramway network, supplemented by feeder buses. The tram network is so popular as the low fares allow for unlimited transport in the city and surrounding area. Furthermore, any ticket for a concert sports or other event is also valid for use on public transport. The tram network is so vast that 70% of the population live within 500m of a tram stop with a tram every 8 mins.  Freiburg is on the main Frankfurt am Main – Basel railway line, with frequent and fast long-distance passenger services from the Freiburg Hauptbahnhof to major German and other European cities. Other railway lines run east into the Black Forest and west to Breisach and are served by the Breisgau S-Bahn. The line to Breisach is the remaining stub of the Freiburg–Colmar international railway, severed in 1945 when the railway bridge over the Rhine at Breisach was destroyed, and was never replaced.  The city also is served by the A5 Frankfurt am Main – Basel motorway.  Freiburg is served by EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg in France, close to the borders of both Germany and Switzerland, south of Freiburg. Karlsruhe/Baden-Baden airport (Baden Airpark) is approximately north of Freiburg and is also served by several airlines. The nearest larger international airports include Stuttgart (), Frankfurt/Main (), and Munich (). The nearby Flugplatz Freiburg, a small airfield in the Messe, Freiburg district, lacks commercial service but is used for private aviation.  Car share websites such as BlaBlaCar are commonly used among Freiburg residents, since they are considered relatively safe.  The investment in transport has resulted in a large increase in both cycle, pedestrian and public transport usage with projections of car journeys accounting for 29% of journey times.

Sports.

Freiburg is home to football teams SC Freiburg, which plays at the Schwarzwald-Stadion and is represented in the 1. or 2. Bundesliga since 1978, and Freiburger FC, German championship winner of 1907. In 2016, SC Freiburg got promoted to the highest league for the fifth time in its club history. The club became generally known in Germany for its steady staffing policy. Achim Stocker was president of the club from 1972 until his death in 2009. Longtime coach was Volker Finke (1991-2007), to whose initiative the football school of the club goes back. In 2004, SC Freiburg celebrated its 100th anniversary. Since December 2011, the coach is Christian Streich. The women's team of SC Freiburg plays in the first Women's Bundesliga.  Freiburg also has the EHC Freiburg ice hockey team, which plays at the Franz-Siegel Halle. In the season 2003/2004 the EHC Freiburg (the wolves) played in the DEL, the highest German ice hockey league. Currently, season 2018/19, they play in the second league (DEL2).  Additionally, there is the RC Freiburg Rugby union team, which competes in the second Bundesliga South (Baden Wurttemberg). The home ground of the club, the only rugby sports field in the wider area, is located in March-Hugstetten.  Then, there is the volleyball men's team of the FT 1844 Freiburg, which plays in the second Bundesliga since 2001 and the handball women's team of the HSG Freiburg, which plays in the 3rd Women's Handball League.  Freiburg is represented in the first women's basketball league by the Eisvögel (Kingfisher) USC Freiburg. In the season 2005/2006, the Kingfishers took second place after the end of the second round, in the season 2006/2007 it was the fourth place. The men's team of the USC played in the 2009/10 season in the ProA (2nd Bundesliga). The Freiburg men's team played their last first-division season in 1998/1999. Currently, season 2018/19, the men's team plays in the Oberliga and the women's team in the regional league.  From 1925 to 1984, the Schauinsland Races took place on an old logging track. The course is still used periodically for European Hill Climb Championships.

Press.

Badische Zeitung is the main local daily paper, covering the Black Forest region.

International relations.

Twin towns, sister cities.

Freiburg is twinned with: Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's controversial comments, which included questioning the dimension of the Holocaust, have sparked discussions concerning Freiburg's relationship with Isfahan. Immediately following the comments, Freiburg mayor Salomon postponed a trip to Isfahan, but most people involved, especially those in the Alliance '90/The Greens party, were opposed to cancelling the relationship.

Symbols.

The city's coat of arms is Argent a cross Gules, the St George's Cross. Saint George is the city's patron saint. The cross also appears on the city's flag, which dates from about 1368, and is identical to that of England, which has the same patron.  The city also has a seal that can be seen in a few places in the inner city. It is a stylized depiction of the façade of the "Wasserschlössle," a castle-like waterworks facility built into a hill that overlooks the residential district of Wiehre. The seal depicts a three-towered red castle on a white background, with green-clad trumpeters atop the two outer towers. Beneath the castle is a gold fleur-de-lis.

Freiburg im Breisgau (; ; abbreviated as Freiburg i. Br. or Freiburg i. B.) is an independent city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. With a population of about 230,000 (as of December 31, 2018), Freiburg is the fourth largest city in Baden-Württemberg after Stuttgart, Karlsruhe, and Mannheim. In the south-west of the country, it straddles the Dreisam river, at the foot of the Schlossberg. Historically, the city has acted as the hub of the Breisgau region on the western edge of the Black Forest in the Upper Rhine Plain. A famous old German university town, and archiepiscopal seat, Freiburg was incorporated in the early twelfth century and developed into a major commercial, intellectual, and ecclesiastical center of the upper Rhine region. The city is known for its medieval minster and Renaissance university, as well as for its high standard of living and advanced environmental practices. The city is situated in the heart of the major Baden wine-growing region and serves as the primary tourist entry point to the scenic beauty of the Black Forest. According to meteorological statistics, the city is the sunniest and warmest in Germany, and held the all-time German temperature record of from 2003 to 2015.

布赖斯高地区弗赖堡(),通称弗赖堡,是德国巴登-符腾堡州无属县城市,弗赖堡行政区首府。城市位于黑森林南部的最西端,人口约20万。


Biography.

Early life and education.

Hume was born on 26 April 1711 (Old Style), as David Home, in a tenement on the northside of Edinburgh's Lawnmarket. He was the second of two sons to Joseph Home, an advocate of Ninewells, and Katherine Home (née Falconer), daughter of Sir David Falconer. Joseph died just after David's second birthday, so Katherine, who never remarried, raised Hume and his brother on her own.  Hume changed the spelling of his family name in 1734, as the surname 'Home' (pronounced like 'Hume') was not known in England. Hume never married and lived partly at his Chirnside family home in Berwickshire, which had

"Disease of the learned".

Aged 18 or so, Hume made a philosophical discovery that opened him up to "a new Scene of Thought", inspiring him "to throw up every other Pleasure or Business to apply entirely to it". As he did not recount what this scene exactly was, commentators have offered a variety of speculations. One prominent interpretation among contemporary Humean scholarship is that this new "scene of thought" was Hume's realization that Francis Hutcheson's theory of "moral sense" could be applied to the understanding of morality as well.  From this inspiration, Hume set out to spend a minimum of 10

Career.

At 25 years of age, although having noble ancestry, Hume had no source of income and no learned profession. As was common at his time, he became a merchant's assistant, despite having to leave his native Scotland. He travelled via Bristol to La Flèche in Anjou, France. There he had frequent discourse with the Jesuits of the College of La Flèche.  Hume was derailed in his attempts to start a university career by protests over his alleged "atheism", also lamenting that his literary debut, "A Treatise of Human Nature", "fell dead-born from the press." However, he found literary success in his lifetime as an essayist, and a career as a librarian at the University of Edinburgh. His tenure there, and the

1730s.

Hume worked for four years on his first major work, "A Treatise of Human Nature", subtitled "Being an Attempt to Introduce the Experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects", completing it in 1738 at the age of 28. Although many scholars today consider the "Treatise" to be Hume's most important work and one of the most important books in Western philosophy, critics in Great Britain at the time described it as "abstract and unintelligible". As Hume had spent most of his savings during those

1740s.

After the publication of "Essays Moral and Political" in 1741included in the later edition as "Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary"Hume applied for the Chair of Pneumatics and Moral Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh. However, the position was given to William Cleghorn after Edinburgh ministers petitioned the town council not to appoint Hume because he was seen as an atheist.  In 1745, during the Jacobite risings, Hume tutored the Marquess of Annandale (1720–92), an engagement that ended in disarray after about a year. Hume then started his great historical work, "The History of England", taking fifteen years and running to over a million words. During this time he was also involved with the Canongate Theatre through his friend John Home, a preacher.  In this context,

1750s-mid 1760s.

Hume's religious views were often suspect and, in the 1750s, it was necessary for his friends to avert a trial against him on the charge of heresy. However, he "would not have come and could not be forced to attend if he said he was not a member of the Established Church". Hume failed to gain the chair of philosophy at the University of Glasgow due to his religious views. By this time, he had published the "Philosophical Essays", which were decidedly anti-religious. Even Adam Smith, his personal friend who had vacated the Glasgow philosophy chair, was against his appointment out of concern that public opinion would be against it.  Hume returned to Edinburgh in 1751. In the following year, the

Later years.

From 1763 to 1765, Hume was invited to attend Lord Hertford in Paris, where he became secretary to the British embassy. Hume was well received in Paris, and while there he met with Isaac de Pinto.  In 1766, Hume left Paris to accompany Jean-Jacques Rousseau to England. Once there, he and Rousseau fell out, leaving Hume sufficiently worried about the damage to his reputation from the quarrel with Rousseau (who is generally believed to have suffered from paranoia). So much so, that Hume would author an account of the dispute, titling it ""A concise and genuine account of the dispute between Mr. Hume and Mr. Rousseau"".  In 1765, Hume served as

Autobiography.

In the last year of his life, Hume wrote an extremely brief autobiographical essay titled "My Own Life", summing up his entire life in "fewer than 5 pages", and notably contains many interesting judgments that have been of enduring interest to subsequent readers of Hume. Donald Seibert (1984), a scholar of 18th-century literature, judged it a "remarkable autobiography, even though it may lack the usual attractions of that genre. Anyone hankering for startling revelations or amusing anecdotes had better look elsewhere."  Despite condemning vanity as a dangerous passion, in his autobiography Hume confesses his belief that the "love of literary fame" had served as his "ruling passion" in life, and claims that this desire "never soured my temper, notwithstanding my frequent disappointments". One such disappointment Hume discusses in this account is in the initial literary reception of the "Treatise", which he claims to have overcome by means of the success of the "Essays": "the

Death.

Diarist and biographer James Boswell saw Hume a few weeks before his death from a form of abdominal cancer. Hume told him that he sincerely believed it a "most unreasonable fancy" that there might be life after death. asked that his body be interred in a "simple Roman tomb", requesting in his will that it be inscribed only with his name and the year of his birth and death, "leaving it to Posterity to add the Rest".  David Hume died at the southwest corner of St. Andrew's Square in Edinburgh's New Town, at what is now 21 Saint David Street. A popular story, consistent with some historical evidence, suggests that the street may have been named after Hume.  His tomb stands, as he wished it, on the southwestern slope of Calton Hill, in the Old Calton Cemetery. Adam Smith later recounted Hume's amusing speculation that he might ask Charon, Hades' ferryman, to allow him a few more years of life in order to see "the downfall of some of the prevailing systems of superstition". The ferryman replied, "You loitering rogue, that will not happen these many hundred years.... Get into the boat this instant."

Writings.

"A Treatise of Human Nature" begins with the introduction: "'Tis evident, that all the sciences have a relation, more or less, to human nature.... Even Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, and Natural Religion, are in some measure dependent on the science of Man." The science of man, as Hume explains, is the "only solid foundation for the other sciences" and that the method for this science requires both experience and observation as the foundations of a logical argument. In regards to this, philosophical historian Frederick Copleston (1999) suggests that it was Hume's aim to apply to the science of man the method of experimental philosophy (the term that was current at the time to imply Natural philosophy), and that "Hume's plan is to extend to philosophy in general the methodological limitations of Newtonian physics."  Until recently, Hume was seen as a forerunner of logical positivism, a form of anti-metaphysical empiricism. According to the logical positivists (in summary of their verification principle), unless a statement could be verified by experience, or else was true or false by definition (i.e. either tautological or contradictory), then it was meaningless. Hume, on this view, was a proto-positivist, who, in his philosophical writings, attempted to demonstrate the ways in which ordinary propositions about objects, causal relations, the self, and so on, are semantically equivalent to propositions about one's experiences.  Many commentators have since rejected this understanding of Humean empiricism, stressing an epistemological (rather than a semantic) reading of his project. According to this opposing view, Hume's empiricism consisted in the idea that it is our knowledge, and not our ability to conceive, that is restricted to what can be experienced. Hume thought that we can form beliefs about that which extends beyond any possible experience, through the operation of faculties such as custom and the imagination, but he was sceptical about claims to knowledge on this basis.

Impressions and ideas.

A central doctrine of Hume's philosophy, stated in the very first lines of the "Treatise of Human Nature", is that the mind consists of perceptions, or the mental objects which are present to it, and which divide into two categories: "All the perceptions of the human mind resolve themselves into two distinct kinds, which I shall call and." Hume believed that it would "not be very necessary to employ many words in explaining this distinction", which commentators have generally taken to mean the

Simple and complex.

After establishing the forcefulness of impressions and ideas, these two categories are further broken down into "simple" and "complex": “simple perceptions or impressions and ideas are such as admit of no distinction nor separation”, whereas “the complex are the contrary to these, and may be distinguished into parts”. When looking at an apple, a person experiences a variety of colour-sensationswhat Hume notes

Principles of association.

A person's imagination, regardless of how boundless it may seem, is confined to the mind's ability to recombine the information it has already acquired from the body's sensory experience (the ideas that have been derived from impressions). In addition, "as our imagination takes our most basic ideas and leads us to form new ones, it is directed by three principles of association, namely, resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect":  Hume elaborates more on the last principle, explaining that, when somebody observes that one object or event consistently produces the same object or event, that results in "an expectation that a particular event (a 'cause') will be followed by another event (an 'effect') previously and constantly associated with it".

Induction and causation.

The cornerstone of Hume's epistemology is the problem of induction. This may be the area of Hume's thought where his scepticism about human powers of reason is most pronounced. The problem revolves around the plausibility of inductive reasoning, that is, reasoning from the observed behaviour of objects to their behaviour when unobserved. As Hume wrote, induction concerns how things behave when they go "beyond the present testimony of the senses, or the records of our memory". Hume argues that we tend to believe that things behave in a regular manner, meaning that patterns in the behaviour of objects seem to persist into the future, and throughout the unobserved present. Hume's argument is that we cannot rationally justify the claim that nature will continue to be uniform, as justification comes in only two varieties—demonstrative reasoning and probable reasoning—and both of these are inadequate. With regard to demonstrative reasoning, Hume argues that the uniformity principle cannot be demonstrated, as it is "consistent and conceivable" that nature might stop being regular. Turning to probable reasoning, Hume argues that we

The'self'.

Empiricist philosophers, such as Hume and Berkeley, favoured the bundle theory of personal identity. In this theory, "the mind itself, far from being an independent power, is simply 'a bundle of perceptions' without unity or cohesive quality". The self is nothing but a bundle of experiences linked by the relations of causation and resemblance; or, more accurately, the empirically warranted idea of the self is just the idea of such a bundle. According to Hume:  This view is supported by, for example, positivist interpreters, who have seen Hume as suggesting that terms such as "self", "person", or "mind" refer to collections of "sense-contents". A modern-day version of the bundle theory of the mind has been advanced by Derek Parfit in his "Reasons and Persons".  However, some philosophers have criticised Hume's bundle-theory interpretation of personal identity. They argue that distinct selves can have perceptions that stand in relations of similarity and causality with one another. Thus, perceptions must already come parcelled into distinct

Practical reason.

"Practical reason" relates to whether standards or principles exist that are also authoritative for all rational beings, dictating people's intentions and actions. Hume is mainly considered an anti-rationalist, denying the possibility for practical reason, although other philosophers such as Christine Korsgaard, Jean Hampton, and Elijah Millgram claim that Hume is not so much of an anti-rationalist as he is just a sceptic of practical reason.  Hume denied the existence of practical reason as a principle because he claimed reason does not have any effect on morality, since morality is capable of producing effects in people that reason alone cannot create. As Hume explains in "A Treatise

Ethics.

Hume's writings on ethics began in the 1740 "Treatise" and were refined in his "An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals" (1751). He understood "feeling", rather than "knowing", as that which governs ethical actions, stating that "moral decisions are grounded in moral sentiment." Arguing that reason cannot be behind morality, he wrote: Morals excite passions, and produce or prevent actions. Reason itself is utterly impotent in this particular. The rules of morality, therefore, are not conclusions of our reason. Hume's "moral sentimentalism" was shared by his close friend Adam Smith, and the two were mutually influenced by the moral reflections of their older contemporary, Francis Hutcheson. Peter Singer claims

Aesthetics.

Hume's ideas about aesthetics and the theory of art are spread throughout his works, but are particularly connected with his ethical writings, and also the essays "Of the Standard of Taste" and "Of Tragedy" (1757). His views are rooted in the work of Joseph Addison and Francis Hutcheson. In the "Treatise" (1740), he touches on the connection between beauty & deformity and vice & virtue. His later writings on the subject continue to draw parallels of beauty and deformity in art with conduct and character.

Free will, determinism, and responsibility.

Hume, along with Thomas Hobbes, is cited as a classical compatibilist about the notions of freedom and determinism. "Compatibilism" seeks to reconcile human freedom with the mechanist view that human beings are part of a deterministic universe, which is completely governed by physical laws. Hume, on this point, was influenced greatly by the scientific revolution, particularly by Sir Isaac Newton. Hume argued that the dispute between freedom and determinism continued over 2000 years due to ambiguous terminology. He wrote: "From this circumstance alone, that a controversy has been long kept on foot...we may presume that there is some ambiguity in the expression," and that different disputants use different meanings for the same

Religion.

The Russell (2005) contends that Hume wrote "on almost every central question in the philosophy of religion," and that these writings "are among the most important and influential contributions on this topic." Touching on the philosophy, psychology, history, and anthropology of religious thought, Hume's 1757 dissertation, "The Natural History of Religion", argues that the monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all derive from earlier polytheistic religions. He went on to suggest that all religious belief "traces, in the end, to dread of the unknown." Hume had also written on religious subjects in the first "Enquiry", as well as later in the "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion".

Religious views.

Although he wrote a great deal about religion, Hume's personal views have been the subject of much debate. Some modern critics have described Hume's religious views as agnostic or have described him as a "Pyrrhonian skeptic." Contemporaries considered him to be an atheist, or at least un-Christian, enough so that the Church of Scotland seriously considered bringing charges of infidelity against him. Evidence of his un-Christian beliefs can especially be found in his writings on miracles, in which he attempts to separate historical method from the narrative accounts of miracles. The fact that contemporaries thought that he may have been an atheist is exemplified by a story Hume liked to tell:  The best theologian he ever met, he used to say, was the old Edinburgh fishwife who, having recognized him as Hume the atheist, refused to pull him out of the bog into which he had fallen until he declared he was a Christian and repeated the Lord's prayer.  However, in works such as "Of Superstition and Enthusiasm", Hume specifically seems

Design argument.

One of the traditional topics of natural theology is that of the existence of God, and one of the "a posteriori" arguments for this is the "argument from design" or the teleological argument. The argument is that the existence of God can be proved by the design that is obvious in the complexity of the world, which "Encyclopædia Britannica" states is "the most popular," because it is:...the most accessible of the theistic arguments...which identifies evidences of design in nature, inferring from them a divine designer.... The fact that the universe as a whole is a coherent and efficiently functioning system likewise, in this view, indicates a divine intelligence behind it.In "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding", Hume wrote that the design argument seems to depend upon our experience, and its proponents "always suppose the universe, an effect quite singular and unparalleled, to be the proof of a Deity, a cause no less singular and unparalleled." Philosopher Louise E. Loeb (2010) notes that Hume is saying that only experience and observation can be our guide to making inferences about the conjunction between events. However, according to Hume: We observe neither God nor other universes, and hence

Problem of miracles.

In his discussion of miracles, Hume argues that we should not believe miracles have occurred and that they do not therefore provide us with any reason to think God exists. In "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding" (Section 10), Hume defines a miracle as "a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the Deity, or by the interposition of some invisible agent". Hume says we believe an event that has frequently occurred is likely to occur again, but we also take into account those instances where the event did not occur:  A wise man...considers which side is supported by the greater number of experiments.... A hundred instances or experiments on one side, and fifty on another, afford a doubtful expectation of any event; though a hundred uniform experiments, with only one that is contradictory, reasonably beget a pretty strong degree of assurance. In all cases, we must balance the opposite experiments...and deduct the smaller number from the greater, in order to know the exact force of the superior evidence.  Hume discusses the testimony of those who report miracles. He wrote that testimony might be doubted even from some great authority in case the facts themselves are not credible: "[T]he evidence, resulting from the testimony, admits of a diminution, greater or less, in proportion as the fact is more or less unusual."  Although Hume leaves open the possibility for miracles to occur and be reported, he offers various arguments against this ever having happened in history. He points out that people often lie, and they have good reasons to lie about miracles occurring either because they believe they are doing so for the benefit of their religion or because of the fame that results. Furthermore, people by nature enjoy relating miracles they have heard without caring for their veracity and thus miracles are easily transmitted even when false. Also, Hume notes that miracles seem to occur mostly in "ignorant and barbarous nations" and times, and the reason they do not occur in the civilised societies is such societies are not awed by what they know to be natural events. Finally, the miracles of each religion argue against all other religions and their miracles, and so even if a proportion of all reported miracles across the world fit Hume's requirement for belief, the miracles of each religion make the other less likely.  Hume was extremely pleased with his argument against miracles in his "Enquiry". He states "I flatter myself, that I have discovered an argument of a like nature, which, if just, will, with the wise and learned, be an everlasting check to all kinds of superstitious delusion, and consequently, will be useful as long as the world endures." Thus, Hume's argument against miracles had a more abstract basis founded upon the scrutiny, not

As a historian of England.

From 1754 to 1762 Hume published "The History of England", a six-volume work, that extends (according to its subtitle) "From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688." Inspired by Voltaire's sense of the breadth of history, Hume widened the focus of the field away from merely kings, parliaments, and armies, to literature and science as well. He argued that the quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past, and concluded that after considerable fluctuation, England at the time of his writing had achieved "the most entire system of liberty that was ever known amongst mankind". It "must be regarded as an event of cultural importance. In its own day, moreover, it

Political theory.

It is difficult to categorise Hume's political affiliations using modern terminology without being anachronistic. His writings might be described both as conservative and liberal. Thomas Jefferson banned the "History" from University of Virginia, feeling that it had "spread universal toryism over the land." By comparison, Samuel Johnson thought Hume to be "a Tory by chance...for he has no principle. If he is anything, he is a Hobbist." A major concern of Hume's political philosophy is the importance of the rule of law. He also stresses throughout his political essays the importance of moderation in politics: public spirit and regard to the community.  Throughout the period of the American Revolution, Hume had varying views. For instance, in 1768 he

Contributions to economic thought.

Hume expressed his economic views in his "Political Discourses", which were incorporated in "Essays and Treatises" as Part II of "Essays, Moral and Political". To what extent he was influenced by Adam Smith is difficult to stress, however both of them had similar principles supported from historical events. At the same time Hume did not demonstrate concrete system of economic theory which could be observed in Smith's "Wealth of Nations". However, he introduced several new ideas around which the "classical economics" of the 18th century was built. Through his discussions on politics, Hume developed many ideas that are prevalent in the field of economics. This includes ideas on private property, inflation, and foreign trade. Referring to his essay "Of the Balance of Trade", economist Paul Krugman (2012) has remarked that "David Hume created what I consider the first true economic model."  In contrast to Locke, Hume believes that private property is not a natural right. Hume argues it is justified,

Influence.

Due to Hume's vast influence on contemporary philosophy, a large number of approaches in contemporary philosophy and cognitive science are today called "Humean."  The writings of Thomas Reid, a Scottish philosopher and contemporary of Hume, were often critical of Hume's scepticism. Reid formulated his "common sense" philosophy, in part, as a reaction against Hume's views.  Hume influenced, and was influenced by, the Christian philosopher Joseph Butler. Hume was impressed by Butler's way of thinking about religion, and Butler may well have been influenced by Hume's writings.  Attention to Hume's philosophical works grew after the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, in his "Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics" (1783), credited Hume with awakening him from his "dogmatic slumber."  According to Arthur Schopenhauer, "there is more to be learned from each page of David Hume than from the collected philosophical works of Hegel, Herbart and Schleiermacher taken together."  A. J. Ayer, while introducing his classic exposition of logical positivism in 1936, claimed:The views which are put forward in this treatise derive from...doctrines...which are themselves the logical outcome of the empiricism of Berkeley and David Hume.Albert Einstein, in 1915, wrote that he was inspired by Hume's positivism when formulating his theory of special relativity.  Hume's problem of induction was also of fundamental importance to the philosophy of Karl Popper. In his autobiography, "Unended Quest", he wrote: "Knowledge... is "objective"; and it is hypothetical or conjectural. This way of looking at the problem made it possible for me to reformulate Hume's "problem of induction"." This insight resulted in Popper's major work "The Logic of Scientific Discovery". In his "Conjectures and Refutations", he wrote:  I approached the problem of induction through Hume. Hume, I felt, was perfectly right in pointing out that induction cannot be logically justified. Hume's rationalism in religious subjects influenced, via German-Scottish theologian Johann Joachim Spalding, the German neology school and rational theology, and contributed to the transformation of German theology in the age of enlightenment. Hume pioneered a comparative history of religion, tried to explain various rites and traditions as being based on deception and challenged various aspects of rational and natural theology, such as the argument from design.  Danish theologian and philosopher Søren Kierkegaard adopted "Hume's suggestion that the role of reason is not to make us wise but to reveal our ignorance," though taking it as a reason for the necessity of religious faith, or "fideism". The "fact that Christianity is contrary to reason...is the necessary precondition for true faith." Political theorist Isaiah Berlin, who has also pointed out the similarities between the arguments of Hume and Kierkegaard against rational theology, has written about Hume's influence on what Berlin calls the "counter-Enlightenment" and on German anti-rationalism. Berlin has also once said of Hume that "no man has influenced the history of philosophy to a deeper or more disturbing degree."  According to philosopher Jerry Fodor, Hume's "Treatise" is "the founding document of cognitive science."  Hume engaged with contemporary intellectual luminaries such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, James Boswell, and Adam Smith (who acknowledged Hume's influence on his economics and political philosophy).  Morris and Brown (2019) write that Hume is "generally regarded as one of the most important philosophers to write in English."

David Hume (; born David Home; 7 May 1711 NS – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, who is best known today for his highly influential system of philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism. Beginning with "A Treatise of Human Nature" (1739–40), Hume strove to create a naturalistic science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature. Hume argued against the existence of innate ideas, positing that all human knowledge derives solely from experience. This places him with Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and George Berkeley, as a British Empiricist.

大卫·休谟(英语:David Hume,1711年-5月7日-1776年-8月25日)是苏格兰的哲学家、经济学家和历史学家,他是苏格兰启蒙运动以及西方哲学历史中最重要的人物之一。虽然现代对于休谟的著作研究聚焦于其哲学思想上,他最先是以历史学家的身份成名。他所著的《英格兰史》一书在当时成为英格兰历史学界的基础著作长达60至70年。


Competencies.

The Swiss president is not – as are, for example, the presidents in Austria or Germany – the head of state of the country: under the Swiss Federal Constitution, the Federal Council doubles as a collective head of state and head of government. When a tied vote occurs in the council (which may happen, since on the one hand abstention is permitted, and on the other hand a meeting of the council can take place without all members present), his or her vote is worth double.  In addition to the control of his or her own department, the president carries out some of the representative duties that are normally carried out by a single head of state in other democracies. For example, since joining the United Nations, Swiss presidents have on occasion spoken at inaugural sessions of the General Assembly along with other visiting heads of state and government. However, because the Swiss have no single head of state, the country carries out no state visits. When traveling abroad, the president does so only in their capacity as head of their department. Visiting heads of state are received by the seven members of the Federal Council together, rather than by the president of the Confederation. Treaties are signed on behalf of the full council, with all Federal Council members signing letters of credence and other documents of the kind.

Election.

The president is elected by the Federal Assembly from the Federal Council for a term of one year.  In the nineteenth century, the election as federal president was an award for especially esteemed Federal Council members. However, a few less influential members of the government were regularly passed over. One such example was Wilhelm Matthias Naeff, who – although a member of the Federal Council for 27 years – was federal president only once, in 1853.  Since the twentieth century, the election has usually not been disputed. There is an unwritten rule that the member of the Federal Council who has not been federal president the longest becomes President. Therefore, every Federal Council member gets a turn at least once every seven years. The only question in the elections that provides some tension is the question of how many votes the person who is to be elected president receives. This is seen as a popularity test. In the 1970s and 1980s, 200 votes (of 246 possible) was seen as an excellent result, but in the current era of growing party-political conflicts, 180 votes are a respectable outcome.  Until 1920, it was customary for the serving federal president to also lead the Department of Foreign Affairs. Therefore, every year there was a moving around of posts, as the retiring president returned to his former department and the new president took up the foreign affairs portfolio. Likewise, it was traditional for the federal president not to leave Switzerland during their year in office.

The president of the Swiss Confederation, also known as the president of the Confederation or colloquially as the president of Switzerland, is the head of Switzerland's seven-member Federal Council, the country's executive branch. Elected by the Federal Assembly for one year, the officeholder chairs the meetings of the Federal Council and undertakes special representational duties.

-{zh-hans:瑞士联邦主席;zh-hant:瑞士联邦总统}-,又称-{zh-hans:瑞士联邦总统;zh-hant:瑞士联邦主席}-,(;;;),是瑞士联邦委员会的七位成员之一,由瑞士联邦议会选出,任期一年,不得连任。在传统上,此职位是由联邦委员会成员轮流担任。


The Gram–Schmidt process.

We define the projection operator by  where formula_2 denotes the inner product of the vectors u and v. This operator projects the vector v orthogonally onto the line spanned by vector u. If u = 0, we define formula_3. i.e., the projection map formula_4 is the zero map, sending every vector to the zero vector.  The Gram–Schmidt process then works as follows:  The sequence u,..., u is the required system of orthogonal vectors, and the normalized vectors e,..., e form an ortho"normal" set. The calculation of the sequence u,..., u is known as "Gram–Schmidt orthogonalization", while the calculation of the sequence e,..., e is known as "Gram–Schmidt orthonormalization" as the vectors are normalized.  To check that these formulas yield an orthogonal sequence, first compute formula_6 by substituting the above formula for u: we get zero. Then use this to compute formula_7 again by substituting the formula for u: we get zero. The general proof proceeds by mathematical induction.  Geometrically, this method proceeds as follows: to compute u, it projects v orthogonally onto the subspace "U" generated by u,..., u, which is the same as the subspace generated by v,..., v. The vector u is then defined to be the difference between v and this projection, guaranteed to be orthogonal to all of the vectors in the subspace "U".  The Gram–Schmidt process also applies to a linearly independent countably infinite sequence {v}. The result is an orthogonal (or orthonormal) sequence {u} such that for natural number "n": the algebraic span of v,..., v is the same as that of u,..., u.  If the Gram–Schmidt process is applied to a linearly dependent sequence, it outputs the 0 vector on the "i"th step, assuming that v is a linear combination of. If an orthonormal basis is to be produced, then the algorithm should test for zero vectors in the output and discard them because no multiple of a zero vector can have a length of 1. The number of vectors output by the algorithm will then be the dimension of the space spanned by the original inputs.  A variant of the Gram–Schmidt process using transfinite recursion applied to a (possibly uncountably) infinite sequence of vectors formula_8 yields a set of orthonormal vectors formula_9 with formula_10 such that for any formula_11, the completion of the span of formula_12 is the same as that of formula_13. In particular, when applied to a (algebraic) basis of a Hilbert space (or, more generally, a basis of any dense subspace), it yields a (functional-analytic) orthonormal basis. Note that in the general case often the strict inequality formula_14 holds, even if the starting set was linearly independent, and the span of formula_9 need not be a subspace of the span of formula_8 (rather, it's a subspace of its completion).

Example.

Euclidean space.

Consider the following set of vectors in R (with the conventional inner product)  Now, perform Gram–Schmidt, to obtain an orthogonal set of vectors:  We check that the vectors u and u are indeed orthogonal: noting that if the dot product of two vectors is "0" then they are orthogonal.  For non-zero vectors, we can then normalize the vectors by dividing out their sizes as shown above:

Properties.

Denote by formula_23 the result of applying the Gram–Schmidt process to a collection of vectors formula_24. This yields a map formula_25.  It has the following properties:  Let formula_27 be orthogonal (with respect to the given inner product). Then we have  Further a parametrized version of the Gram–Schmidt process yields a (strong) deformation retraction of the general linear group formula_29 onto the orthogonal group formula_30.

Numerical stability.

When this process is implemented on a computer, the vectors formula_31 are often not quite orthogonal, due to rounding errors. For the Gram–Schmidt process as described above (sometimes referred to as "classical Gram–Schmidt") this loss of orthogonality is particularly bad; therefore, it is said that the (classical) Gram–Schmidt process is numerically unstable.  The Gram–Schmidt process can be stabilized by a small modification; this version is sometimes referred to as modified Gram-Schmidt or MGS. This approach gives the same result as the original formula in exact arithmetic and introduces smaller errors in finite-precision arithmetic. Instead of computing the vector u as  it is computed as  This method is used in the previous animation, when the intermediate v' vector is used when orthogonalizing the blue vector v.

Algorithm.

The following MATLAB algorithm implements the modified Gram–Schmidt orthonormalization for Euclidean Vectors. The vectors v,..., v (columns of matrix V, so that V(:,j) is the jth vector) are replaced by orthonormal vectors (columns of U) which span the same subspace. The cost of this algorithm is asymptotically O("nk") floating point operations, where "n" is the dimensionality of the vectors.

Via Gaussian elimination.

If the rows {"v",..., "v"} are written as a matrix formula_34, then applying Gaussian elimination to the augmented matrix formula_35 will produce the orthogonalized vectors in place of formula_34. For example, taking formula_37 as above, we have  And reducing this to row echelon form produces  The normalized vectors are then  as in the example above.

Determinant formula.

The result of the Gram–Schmidt process may be expressed in a non-recursive formula using determinants.  where "D" =1 and, for "j" ≥ 1, "D " is the Gram determinant  Note that the expression for u is a "formal" determinant, i.e. the matrix contains both scalars and vectors; the meaning of this expression is defined to be the result of a cofactor expansion along the row of vectors.  The determinant formula for the Gram-Schmidt is computationally slower (exponentially slower) than the recursive algorithms described above; it is mainly of theoretical interest.

Alternatives.

Other orthogonalization algorithms use Householder transformations or Givens rotations. The algorithms using Householder transformations are more stable than the stabilized Gram–Schmidt process. On the other hand, the Gram–Schmidt process produces the formula_45th orthogonalized vector after the formula_45th iteration, while orthogonalization using Householder reflections produces all the vectors only at the end. This makes only the Gram–Schmidt process applicable for iterative methods like the Arnoldi iteration.  Yet another alternative is motivated by the use of Cholesky decomposition for inverting the matrix of the normal equations in linear least squares. Let formula_47 be a full column rank matrix, whose columns need to be orthogonalized. The matrix formula_48 is Hermitian and positive definite, so it can be written as formula_49 using the Cholesky decomposition. The lower triangular matrix formula_50 with strictly positive diagonal entries is invertible. Then columns of the matrix formula_51 are orthonormal and span the same subspace as the columns of the original matrix formula_47. The explicit use of the product formula_48 makes the algorithm unstable, especially if the product's condition number is large. Nevertheless, this algorithm is used in practice and implemented in some software packages because of its high efficiency and simplicity.  In quantum mechanics there are several orthogonalization schemes with characteristics better suited for certain applications than original Gram–Schmidt. Nevertheless, it remains a popular and effective algorithm for even the largest electronic structure calculations.

In mathematics, particularly linear algebra and numerical analysis, the Gram–Schmidt process is a method for orthonormalizing a set of vectors in an inner product space, most commonly the Euclidean space R equipped with the standard inner product. The Gram–Schmidt process takes a finite, linearly independent set "S" = {"v",..., "v"} for and generates an orthogonal set that spans the same "k"-dimensional subspace of R as "S".

在线性代数中,如果内积空间上的一组向量能够组成一个子空间,那么这一组向量就称为这个子空间的一个基。Gram-Schmidt正交化提供了一种方法,能够通过这一子空间上的一个基得-{出}-子空间的一个正交基,并可进一步求出对应的标准正交基。