History.

Childhood amnesia was first formally reported by psychologist Caroline Miles in her article "A study of individual psychology", in 1895 by the "American Journal of Psychology". Five years later, Henri and Henri published a survey showing that most respondents' earliest recollections occurred from the age of two to four. In 1904 G. Stanley Hall noted the phenomenon in his book, "Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education". In 1910, Sigmund Freud offered one of the most famous and controversial descriptions and explanations of childhood amnesia. Using psychoanalytic theory, he postulated that early life events were repressed due to their inappropriately sexual nature. He asserted that childhood or infantile amnesia was a precursor to the ‘hysterical amnesia,’ or repression, presented by his adult patients. Freud asked his patients to recall their earliest memories and found that they had difficulty remembering events from before the age of six to eight. Freud coined the term "infantile" or "childhood amnesia" and discussed this phenomenon in his "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality". In 1972, Campbell and Spear published a seminal review about childhood amnesia in Psychological Sciences recapping the research conducted to understand this topic from neurological and behavioral perspectives in both human and animal models.

Methods of retrieval.

The method of memory retrieval can influence what can be recalled. Specifically, whether an individual is prompted to remember a specific event, given more general guidelines, or asked to recall any memory possible, the cue method generates different results.

Cued recall.

Many studies use cued recall to retrieve memories. In its basic form, the experimenter gives the participant a word, and the participant responds with the first memory they think of associated with that word. This method has generally estimated the age of offset at about three to five but can vary. However, there are several objections to the cue method. One memory is recorded per cue word, so it can be difficult to know whether this memory is their earliest memory or the first memory that popped to mind. It may be a problem if participants are not asked to record the earliest memory they can recall which relates to the cue. If the experimenter asks the participant to specifically use childhood memories or the earliest memories associated with a cue, the age estimate can be two to eight years. Even with this measure, cued recall is only useful for bringing to mind memories formed several months after the introduction of that word into the participant's vocabulary. One study performed by Bauer and Larkina (2013) used cued recall by asking children and adults to state a personal memory related to the word and then state the earliest time that it occurred. The researchers found that the younger children need more prompts or cues. However, for both children and adults, the earliest memory retrieval was around three years old.

Free recall.

Free recall refers to the specific paradigm in the psychological study of memory where participants study a list of items on a specific trial and are then prompted to recall the items in any order. Free recall, in regard to childhood amnesia, is the process by which experimenters ask individuals for their earliest memories, and allow the participant to respond freely. There is no significant difference when people are instructed to recall their earliest memories with cued recall compared to free recall; however, it is thought that a major benefit of free recall is that every question gets answered which may, in turn, elicit memories from an earlier age.

Exhaustive recall.

In the exhaustive recall method, participants are asked to record all the memories they can access before a specific age. This method, like free recall, relies on participants to come up with memories without cues. Exhaustive recall yields a better understanding than others on the number of memories surviving from early childhood but can be demanding for the subjects who often have to spend many hours trying to remember events from their childhood. No major differences among word cued, interview, focused and exhaustive recall have been found.

Accessible and inaccessible memories.

The amount of early childhood memories a person can recall depends on many factors, including the emotion associated with the event, their age at the time of the remembered event and the age at the time they are asked to recall an early memory. Although people assume that not recalling a childhood memory means they have forgotten the event, there is a difference between availability and accessibility. The availability of memory is the idea that the memory is intact and is in-memory storage. Accessibility of memory is dictated by the moment in time that a person attempts to recall that memory. Therefore, cues may influence which memories are accessible at any given time even though there may be many more available memories that are not accessed. Some other research suggests that people's earliest memories date back to the ages of 3 or 4 years. Usher and Neisser reported that some events, like the birth of a sibling and a planned hospitalization, can be readily remembered if they occurred at age 2. However, the bits and pieces of such memories that were obtained in their research may not be indicative of genuine episodic memory. An alternative hypothesis is that these apparent memories are the result of educated guesses, general knowledge of what must have been, or external information acquired after the age of 2.  According to a study by West and Bauer, their research suggests that earlier memories have less emotional content than later memories, and are less personally meaningful, unique, or intense. Earlier memories also do not seem to differ greatly in perspective. However, certain life events do result in clearer and earlier memories. Adults find it easier to remember personal, rather than public, event memories from early childhood. This means a person would remember getting a dog, but not the appearance of Halley's Comet. Psychologists have debated the age of adults' earliest memories. To date, estimates have ranged from 2 to 6–8 years of age. Some research shows that the offset of childhood amnesia (earliest age of recall) is 2 years of age for hospitalization and sibling birth and 3 years of age for death or change in houses. Thus, some memories are available from earlier in childhood than previous research has suggested.  Some research suggests that until around the age of 4, children cannot form context-rich memories. Although more evidence is needed, the relative lack of episodic memories of early childhood may be linked to maturation of prefrontal cortex. It also suggest adults can access fragment memories (isolated moments without context, often remembered as images, behaviors, or emotions) from around age 3, whereas event memories are usually recalled from slightly later. This is similar to research showing the difference between personal recollections and known events. Known memories change to more personal recollections at approximately 4.7 years old.

Fading memories.

Children can form memories at younger ages than adults can recall. While the efficiency of encoding and storage processes allows older children to remember more, younger children also have great memory capacity. Infants can remember the actions of sequences, the objects used to produce them, and the order in which the actions unfold, suggesting that they possess the precursors necessary for autobiographical memory. Children's recall is 50% accurate for events that happened before the age of two whereas adults remember near to nothing before that age. By age two, children can retrieve memories after several weeks, indicating that these memories could become relatively enduring and could explain why some people have memories from this young. Children also show an ability to nonverbally recall events that occurred before they had the vocabulary to describe them, whereas adults do not. Findings such as these prompted research into when and why people lose these previously accessible memories.  Some suggest that as children age, they lose the ability to recall preverbal memories. One explanation for this maintains that after developing linguistic skills, memories that were not encoded verbally get lost within the mind. This theory also explains why many individuals' early memories are fragmented – the nonverbal components were lost. However, contrary findings indicate that elementary aged children remember a greater amount of accurate details about events than they had reported at a younger age and that 6–9 year old children tend to have verbally accessible memories from very early childhood. However, research on "animal models" seems to indicate that childhood amnesia is not only due to the development of language or any other human proper faculty.  This increased ability for children to remember their early years does not start to fade until children reach double digits. By the age of eleven, children exhibit young adult levels of childhood amnesia. These findings may indicate that there is some aspect of the adolescent brain, or the neurobiological processes of adolescence, that prompts the development of childhood amnesia.

Animal models.

The phenomenon of infantile amnesia is not specific to humans. This initially was researched in rat models and found that younger rats forget a conditioned avoidance response to a shock-paired compartment faster than older rats did. These findings have also been replicated in a number of different species with different learning paradigms. The importance of animal model research should not be understated as these studies have informed neurobiological findings about childhood amnesia and would be impossible to ethically conduct in humans.  Because infantile amnesia has been observed in animals, the occurrence cannot be explained just by cognition specific to humans such as language or an understanding of "self". Of course, a main criticism of animal models is that development and cognition in animals and humans are starkly different. Researchers have attempted to address this by creating timelines for animal development based on changes in learning and memory abilities, brain development, and hormones.

Individual differences.

Many factors affect memory in humans, including gender and culture. Differences in early memory between these groups can tell us about potential causes and implications of childhood amnesia. Importantly, the individual differences described below tell us that elaborative parenting styles and emphasis of cultural history when teaching children may result in recollection of earlier childhood memories. This suggests that childhood amnesia offset is modifiable by parenting and teaching styles and is therefore not only predetermined or completely biological.

Sex.

Generally, when a sex discrepancy is found in the age at first memories, females have earlier memories than males. Women's earlier first memories may be accounted for by the fact that mothers generally have more elaborative, evaluative, and emotional reminiscent style with daughters than with sons, which has been shown to result in more richly detailed childhood memories. Women across cultures tend to have more information-dense memories than men, and women tend to refer to others more than themselves in their earliest memories. Men, on the other hand, exhibit more early memory focus on their individual selves. Men have been found more likely than women to mention negative memories. Contrarily, studies have shown that girls are more likely to remember traumatic and transitional events, whereas boys more often remember play events. Early recollections have also been found more accurate in their reflections of friendliness for men and dominance for women.

Ethnicity, culture, and society.

MacDonald et al. found that Chinese participants had later first memories than New Zealand European (Pakeha) or Maori participants. This effect was due to Chinese females, whose average age at first memory was 6.1 years. This indicates that Chinese women have later first memories than Chinese men, which differs from the general finding that women report earlier first memories than men. It has been suggested that since sons are prized far over daughters in China, parents may have more elaborate, evaluative, and emotional reminiscent styles with boys than with girls. Among American subjects, it has been found that Black women have later memories than Black males or White females. Black women also tend to report a low proportion of personal experience which is independently correlated with being older at the age of first memory. It may be that White parents are more likely to use directives to elaborately reminisce than Black parents are with daughters in Black American culture.  Findings that Korean individuals have significantly later first memories than American individuals were originally thought to be caused by the collectivist nature of Asian cultures. The lack of an age discrepancy between Chinese males and New Zealand European individuals serves to cast doubt on this theory. Additionally, studies on the Black American population, which is considered a more collectivist society, have not indicated later first memories than non-collectivist cultures. It has been shown, however, that children from Western cultures tell more elaborated, detailed, and emotional narratives than children from eastern cultures.  Maori adults report significantly earlier memories than either Pakeha or Chinese individuals. The traditional emphasis on the past in Maori culture may have led to an earlier understanding of the nature of time, and to the retrieval of earlier memories. Maori are also more likely than Pakeha or Chinese individuals to indicate a family story as a source for their memory.

Implications.

Personality.

Individuals' first memories significantly reflect their personality traits. People who reveal a more detailed memory are more likely to be open in their daily lives and disclose a range of personal information to others. Characteristics of early recollections are reflective of friendliness for males and dominance for females.

Forgotten memories.

Even when childhood events are not remembered episodically, they can be implicitly remembered. Humans can be primed and implicitly trained earlier before they can remember facts or autobiographical events. This is most important in terms of emotional trauma. Adults can generally recall events from 3–4 years old, and have primarily experiential memories beginning around 4.7 years old. However, some suggest that adults who had traumatic and abusive early childhoods report an offset of childhood amnesia around 5–7 years old. It has been suggested that this is because stressful experiences can injure memory centers and possibly make it harder to form memories. This coupled with the fact that priming can occur at a younger age may indicate that children in abusive situations have implicit memory connections that were formed in response to the abuse. Whether or not these'repressed' memories can affect individuals is a matter of considerable debate in psychology.

False memories.

Very few adults have memories from before 2.5 years old. Those who do report memories from before this age usually cannot tell the difference between personal memory of the event and simple knowledge of it, which may have come from other sources. Events from after the age of 10 years are relatively easy to remember correctly, whereas memories from the age of 2 are more often confused with false images and memories. Memories from early childhood (around age two) are susceptible to false suggestion, making them less trustworthy. These should be treated with caution, especially if they have severe consequences. Imagining details of a false event can encourage the generation of false memories. Studies have shown that people who merely imagine a childhood event are more likely to believe that it happened to them compared to events they did not imagine. This term has been coined imagination inflation and shows that merely imagining an event can make it seem more plausible that it really happened. Using the same paradigm, people that are shown a doctored photograph of themselves as a child in an event that never occurred can create false memories of the event by imagining the event over time. Therefore, this implies that it would be possible for false memories to be generated in and/or fed by a court case. This concern has led the APA to advise caution in accepting memories of physically and sexually abusive events from before the age of 2. However, they also recommend that these memories not be entirely discounted, due to the heinous nature of the crimes.

Proposed explanations.

Freud's trauma theory.

Sigmund Freud is famous for his theories of psychosexual development which suggest that people's personality traits stem from their libido (sexual appetite) which develops from early childhood experiences. Freud's trauma theory, originally named "Seduction Theory" posits that childhood amnesia was the result of the mind's attempt to repress memories of traumatic events (i.e. sexual abuse by caretakers) that occurred in the psychosexual development of every child. This supposedly led to the repression of the majority of memories from the first years of life when children were supposedly obsessed with exploring their sexuality. Notably, Freud himself abandoned this theory in the late 1800s. Freudian theory, including his explanation for childhood amnesia, has been criticized for extensive use of anecdotal evidence rather than scientific research, and his observations that allow for multiple interpretations.  While the Freudian psychosexual theory is widely debunked, there are some insights to be made into the effect of childhood emotional abuse on memory. Examining the effects of emotional trauma and childhood amnesia shows that stressful experiences do in fact disrupt memory and can damage central parts of the memory system such as the hippocampus and amygdala. Adults who were abused or traumatized in childhood form their earliest memories about 2–3 years after the general population. In addition, they demonstrate considerable problems with visual, pictorial, and facial memory storage and retrieval compared to non-traumatized individuals. This implies that trauma can disrupt the formation of early childhood memories, but does not necessarily give evidence for Freud's theory of repression.

Emotion.

The amygdala (which is primarily concerned with emotions and emotional content of memories) and the hippocampus (which concerns primarily autobiographical memories) are generally independent, but emotions and the amygdala are known to play a role in memory encoding, which is typically associated with the hippocampus. Research has found that later memories in childhood have more propositional and emotional content than earlier memories and are rated as more meaningful and vivid. It has been suggested that differences in the emotions experienced by infants and adults may be a cause of childhood amnesia. Whether highly emotional events can stimulate and improve reliable recall (flashbulb memories) is still highly debated.  Some studies have discovered that emotional experiences are connected with faster retrieval times, leading to the belief that emotional events have heightened accessibility in our memories. If an event is particularly surprising, it receives prioritized processing in the brain, most likely due to evolutionary reasons. The evolutionary psychology states that if a past event was particularly frightening or upsetting, one is apt to avoid a similar situation in the future, especially if it is endangering to one's well-being. In addition, the more significant an event, the bigger impact it has and the more rehearsal it receives.  Various findings have shown that events such as hospitalization and the birth of a sibling are correlated with an earlier offset of childhood amnesia, which may be because they were more emotionally memorable. However, other seemingly emotional memories such as the death of a family member or having to move do not affect offset, possibly because the events were not as meaningful to the child. Some memories are therefore available from earlier in childhood than others, which has led to the conclusion that very emotional events can be encoded and recalled earlier than non-emotional events.

Neurological.

One possible explanation for childhood amnesia is the lack of neurological development of the infant brain, preventing the creation of long term or autobiographical memories. The hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, two key structures in the neuroanatomy of memory, do not develop into mature structures until around the age of three or four. These structures are known to be associated with the formation of autobiographical memories.  The physiological approach appears to support findings of memory loss in relation to amnesiacs and others who have experienced damage to the hippocampus. They cannot efficiently store or recall memories from past events, but still exhibit perceptual and cognitive skills and can still learn new information. The development of the Medial Temporal Lobe (MTL), which contains the hippocampus, has been found to specifically have a defining impact on the ability to encode and maintain memories from early childhood.  While the neurological explanation does account for blanks in very young children's memories, it does not give a full explanation for childhood amnesia because it fails to account for the years after the age of four. It also fails to address the issue that children themselves do not show childhood amnesia. Children around the age of two to three have been found to remember things that occurred when they were only one to two years old. This discovery that three-year-olds can retrieve memories from earlier in their life implies that all necessary neurological structures are in place.  There are, however, reasons to believe that different associations within the cerebral hemisphere have an effect on remembering events from a very early period in a person's life. Mixed-handedness and bilateral saccadic eye movements (as opposed to vertical or pursuit eye movements) have been associated with an earlier offset of childhood amnesia, leading to the conclusion that interactions between the two hemispheres correlate with increased memory for early childhood events.

Neurobiological.

Research into the neural substrates of infantile amnesia using animal models has found that the major inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) may be involved in the regulation of retrieval of infantile memories in adults. GABA activity is known to be higher in early childhood development than it is in adulthood, not just in animals but also in humans. Researchers have hypothesized that increased GABA activity in development has an effect on memory retrieval later in life. Past studies have shown that GABA aids in forgetting of fear memories in infancy and that it may be a general mechanism for regulating infant memory retrieval. This can also be seen in humans. Benzodiazepines are a class of psychiatric medication which increase GABA expression and are known to produce anterograde amnesia, or a failure to encode memories after taking the medication. Subjects taking benzodiazepines are found to perform worse on learning and memory tasks compared to drug-naive subjects.  Previously, it was assumed that neurogenesis, or the continued production of neurons, ended after development. However, recent findings have shown that there are high levels of neurogenesis in the hippocampus in early childhood which taper out into adulthood, although neurogenesis continues to persist slowly. As the hippocampus is known to be vital to memory processes, there are obvious implications for childhood amnesia. Animal research has shown that the age of high neurogenesis is in the developmental period when persistent memories are least likely to be formed. It has been proposed that hippocampal neurogenesis degrades existing memories. This may be due to increased competition between the new and existing neurons, followed by the replacement of synapses in preexisting memory circuits. This theory has been supported in mouse models in which increasing neurogenesis levels also increased forgetting. Additionally, decreasing neurogenesis after new memory formation resulted in decreased forgetting. In addition, memories are consolidated via transferral from the hippocampus to the cortex. This transferral occurs preferably during periods of elevated excitability in the hippocampus i.e. during ripple oscillations. Ripple oscillations represent increased hippocampo-cortical communication. This increase in experience-associated activity does not occur up to a certain age suggesting that this might be a mechanism for infantile amnesia.

Developmental.

The development of a cognitive self is also thought by some to have a strong effect on encoding and storing early memories. As toddlers grow, a developing sense of the self begins to emerge as they realize that they are a person with unique and defining characteristics and have individual thoughts and feelings separate from others. As they gain a sense of the self, they can begin to organize autobiographical experiences and retain memories of past events. This is also known as the development of a theory of mind which refers to a child's acceptance that they have beliefs, knowledge, and thoughts that no one else has access to.  The developmental explanation asserts that young children have a good concept of semantic information but lack the retrieval processes necessary to link past and present episodic events to create an autobiographical self. Young children do not seem to have a sense of a continuous self over time until they develop awareness for themselves as an individual human being. Some research suggests this awareness is thought to form around the age of 4 or 5, as children in this time period can understand that recent past events affect the present, while 3-year old children still seem unable to grasp this concept.  This acknowledged link of the past to the present and the concept of continuous-time and therefore a continuous self is also helped by memory talk with adults. Through elaboration and repetition of events experienced, adults help children to encode memories as a part of their personal past and it becomes essential to their being.

Language.

The incomplete development of language in young children is thought to be a critical cause of childhood amnesia as infants do not yet have the language capacity necessary to encode autobiographical memories. The typical schedule of language development seems to support this theory. There appears to be a direct correlation between the development of language in children, and the earliest age at which we can obtain childhood memories (around the age 3-4). Performance on both verbal and nonverbal memory tasks shows that children with more advanced language abilities can report more during a verbal interview and exhibit superior nonverbal memory compared to children with less advanced language skills. If children lack language, they are unable to describe memories from infancy because they do not have the words and knowledge to explain them. Adults and children can often remember memories from around three or four years of age which is during a time of rapid language development. Before language develops, children often only hold preverbal memories and may use symbols to represent them. Therefore, once language comes online, one can actively describe their memories with words. The context that one is in when they encode or retrieve memories is different for adults and infants because language is not present during infancy.  Language allows children to organize personal past and present experiences and share these memories with others. This exchange of dialogue makes children aware of their personal past and encourages them to think about their cognitive self and how past activities have affected them in the present. Several studies have shown that simply discussing events with children, in general, could lead to more easily retrievable memories. There has also been researching that suggests the degree to which a child discusses events with adults shapes autobiographical recollection. This has implications for gender and cultural differences. Autobiographical memory begins to emerge as parents engage in memory talk with their children and encourage them to think about why a certain event happened. Memory talk allows children to develop memory systems in order to categorize generic versus unique events.  The social-cultural developmental perspective states that both language and culture play a role in the development of a child's autobiographical memory. An important aspect of this theory considers the difference between parents who discuss memories at length with their children in an elaborative style, and those who do not. Children of parents who discuss memories with them in an elaborative style report a greater number of memories than children who do not discuss their memories. Memories are described in greater detail. This has implications for cultural differences.

Childhood amnesia, also called infantile amnesia, is the inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories (memories of situations or events) before the age of two to four years, as well as the period before the age of ten of which adults retain fewer memories than might otherwise be expected given the passage of time. The development of a cognitive self is also thought by some to have an effect on encoding and storing early memories.

童年失忆症,也称为婴儿经验失忆,指的是成年人无法提取2到4岁之前的情景性记忆(对情景或事件的记忆),以及随着时间流逝,成年人对10岁之前的记忆可能会比想象中还差。 一些人认为,认知自我的发展也会对早期记忆的编码和储存产生影响。


Early life and education.

Marcy graduated from Granada Hills High School in Granada Hills, California, in 1972. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts "summa cum laude" with a double major in physics and astronomy from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1976. He then completed a doctorate in astronomy in 1982 at the University of California, Santa Cruz, with much of his work done at Lick Observatory.

Academic career.

Marcy has held teaching and research positions, first at the Carnegie Institution of Washington (then the Mt. Wilson and Las Campanas Observatories) as a Carnegie Fellow from 1982 to 1984. He then worked as an Associate Professor of Physics and Astronomy from 1984 to 1996 and then as a Distinguished University Professor from 1997 to 1999 at the San Francisco State University.  Marcy was a Professor of Astronomy and the Watson and Marilyn Alberts Chair for SETI at the University of California, Berkeley from 1999 through 2015. In 2015, he resigned after being found in violation of UC Berkeley's sexual harassment policy. From 2000 to 2012, he was the Director of UC Berkeley's Center for Integrative Planetary Science. Marcy was also one of the project leaders of the Breakthrough Initiatives that will search for intelligent life in the universe, using large radio and optical telescopes.  Marcy and his team confirmed Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz's discovery of the first extrasolar planet orbiting a Sun-like star—51 Pegasi b. Two months later, Marcy and his team followed this confirmation with the announcement of the discovery of two additional planets around 47 Ursa Majoris and 70 Virginis. Other achievements include discovering the first multiple planet system around a star similar to our own (Upsilon Andromedae), the first transiting planet around another star, simultaneously with David Charbonneau and Timothy Brown (HD209458b), the first extrasolar planet orbiting beyond 5 AU (55 Cancri d), and the first Neptune-sized planets (Gliese 436b and 55 Cancri e). Marcy was a Co-Investigator of the NASA Kepler mission that discovered over 4000 exoplanets, most being smaller than 4 times the size of Earth. His team, led by Erik Petigura and Andrew Howard, showed that approximately 20% of Sun-like stars have a planet of 1–2 times the size of Earth and receive incident stellar light within a factor of 4 of the light the Earth receives from the Sun, making them warm planets, many of which accommodate liquid water.  More recently, in May 2017, Marcy was involved in studies related to laser light emissions from stars, as a way of detecting technology-related signals from an alien civilization. The study included Tabby's Star (KIC 8462852), an oddly dimming star in which its unusual starlight fluctuations may be the result of interference by an artificial megastructure, such as a Dyson swarm, made by such a civilization. No evidence was found for technology-related signals from Tabby's Star in the studies.

Sexual harassment.

In 2015, an investigation by the University of California, Berkeley Title IX office found that Geoffrey Marcy had violated the University's sexual harassment policy between 2001 and 2010. Four complaints were filed with the University's Title IX office, one of which Marcy denied. At least three additional allegations were made against Marcy as early as 1995 while he was at San Francisco State University, as corroborated by Penny Nixon, then SFSU's sexual harassment officer.  On October 7, 2015, Geoff Marcy posted an "Open Letter to the Astronomy Community" stating “While I do not agree with each complaint that was made, it is clear that my behavior was unwelcomed by some women. I take full responsibility and hold myself completely accountable for my actions and the impact they had. For that and to the women affected, I sincerely apologize.”  On October 12, 2015, the UC Berkeley Astronomy Department met and released a statement asserting that Marcy was "inadequately disciplined" by the University, and "we believe that Geoff Marcy cannot perform the functions of a faculty member." Berkeley had recently been found on a list produced by the United States Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights, revealing that they were under review for potentially mishandling previous sexual violence cases. In a follow-up statement, the university claimed they had "imposed real consequences on Professor Geoff Marcy by establishing a zero tolerance policy regarding future behavior and by stripping him of the procedural protections that all other faculty members enjoy".  On the same day, Marcy resigned as Principal Investigator of the Breakthrough Listen project. Two days later, on October 14, 2015, he indicated his intention to step down from his professorship at UC Berkeley.

Personal.

Marcy lives with his wife, Susan Kegley, in California.

In the media.

Earlier, and as a pioneer in the study of extrasolar planets, Marcy has been featured prominently in the media, including "Time magazine", "The New York Times", "Astronomy magazine" and as a participant in various PBS "Nova" episodes: "Hunt for Alien Worlds" (1997), "Finding Life Beyond Earth" (2012), "Alien Planets Revealed" (2014); a BBC "Horizon" episode: "The Planet Hunters" (1996) and History Channel programs: "The Universe" (2007). Marcy was also featured on ABC News "Nightline" (October 20, 1995), "The MacNeil-Lehrer News Hour" (January 18, 1996), "The David Letterman Show" (April 12, 2001), a "Planetary Radio" interview (2007) and a National Academy of Sciences interview (2014).

Geoffrey William Marcy (born September 29, 1954) is an American astronomer. He is one of the pioneers and leaders in the discovery and characterization of exoplanets. Marcy was Professor of Astronomy at the University of California, Berkeley and an Adjunct Professor of Physics and Astronomy at San Francisco State University before stepping down in October 2015. His colleagues in the Berkeley Astronomy Department forced him to resign after allegations of sexual harassment.

杰佛瑞·马西(英语:Geoffrey W. Marcy,1954年-9月29日),美国天文学家,曾任教于柏克莱加州大学。他以太阳系外行星发现数量最多者闻名。前100颗太阳系外行星的其中70颗是他和保罗·巴特勒和黛布拉·费希尔共同发现。2015年因性骚扰辞职。


World War II.

Helfrich was appointed overall commander of all forces in the Netherlands East Indies in October 1939. At the outbreak of the war in the Pacific he gave instructions to wage war aggressively. His small force of submarines sank more Japanese ships in the first weeks of the war than the entire British and US navies together, an exploit which earned him the nickname "Ship-a-day Helfrich". Admiral Helfrich worked tirelessly to establish co-operation with the Allied navies in the area since he knew that the Dutch could not hope to protect the Dutch East Indies by themselves.

Java Sea.

When a combined command (ABDA) was finally created in January 1942, he was bypassed for the post of commander of the navy, in favour of Admiral Thomas C. Hart of the United States Navy. Helfrich's mission to defend Java at all costs clashed with Hart's desire to conserve as many naval units as possible. On 12 February 1942, Helfrich succeeded Hart as commander of the American–British–Dutch–Australian naval forces in the Pacific and immediately went on the offensive. Unfortunately, the courage of the "Striking Force" was to no avail in the face of the overwhelming superiority of the Japanese navy and after the disastrous Battle of the Java Sea, most of the ABDA ships under his command had been put out of action and ABDA itself was dismantled. Helfrich spent the remainder of the war in Ceylon preparing the return of Dutch administration to the Dutch East Indies.

Japanese surrender.

In 1945, he was given command of all Dutch naval forces and promoted to lieutenant admiral. On 2 September 1945, he signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender aboard the battleship on behalf of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.  Helfrich returned to the Dutch East Indies on 1 October 1945, where he commanded the Dutch forces in the Dutch East Indies until 24 January 1946 when the post of commander of the armed forces in the East was abolished. During that time, Commander Helfrich had to deal with the Indonesian struggle for independence. He was a fierce opponent of compromising with Sukarno and, supported by Chief of the General Staff Hendrik Johan Kruls, he objected to the Linggarjati Agreement of 15 December 1946, but without effect.  He remained in command until his retirement from the navy on 1 January 1949.  He wrote his memoirs which were published in 1950 and he died in the Hague, on 20 September 1962.

Honours and awards.

For his services during the World War, Helfrich received several awards. He was Commander of the Order of Orange-Nassau with Swords, Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (UK) and awarded the Silver Cross (5th grade) of the Virtuti Militari (Poland). He had also received the Expedition Cross.

Lieutenant Admiral Conrad Emil Lambert Helfrich (11 October 1886 – 20 September 1962) of the Royal Netherlands Navy was a leading Dutch naval figure of World War II. He was born in Semarang.

克劳迪娜·奥格尔(英语:Claudine Auger,1941年-4月26日-2019年-12月19日),出生于德占法国时期的巴黎,是一位法国女演员。曾在1958年获得「法国世界小姐大赛」的亚军,于1965年的007电影《霹雳弹》中扮演邦德女郎多明诺最为人所知。


History.

In 1939 the USSR captured several hundred Polish Model 35 anti-tank rifles, which had proved effective in the September Campaign when Poland was invaded by Germany. Vasily Degtyaryov copied its lock and several features of the German Panzerbüchse 38 when hasty construction of an anti-tank rifle was ordered in July 1941.  The PTRD and the similar but semi-automatic PTRS-41 were the only individual anti-tank weapon available to the Red Army in numbers upon the outbreak of the war with Germany. The 14.5 mm armor-piercing bullet had a muzzle velocity of. It could penetrate an armor plate up to 35 to 40mm (40mm with tungsten ammunition) thick at a distance of 100 meters at 0 degrees. During the initial invasion, and indeed throughout the war, most German tanks had side armor thinner than 40mm (Panzer I and Panzer II: 13-20mm, Panzer III and Panzer IV series: 30mm, Panzer V Panther (combat debut mid-1943): 40-50mm). The PTRD was considered obsolete early-mid war when German medium tanks were introduced. Even when used against the early, light German tanks, the 14.5 round more often shattered upon impact rather than penetrating the armor.  Guns captured by the Germans were given the designation 14.5 mm PzB 783(r).  After World War II the PTRD was also used extensively by North Korean and Chinese armed forces in the Korean War. During this war, William Brophy, an American Army Ordnance officer, mounted a.50 BMG barrel to a captured PTRD to examine the effectiveness of long-range shooting. Furthermore, Americans also captured certain number of PTRD from Viet Cong in Vietnam War. The weapon proved effective out to 2,000 yards.

The PTRD-41 (Shortened from Russian, "ProtivoTankovoye Ruzhyo Degtyaryova"; "Противотанковое однозарядное ружьё системы Дегтярёва образца 1941 года"; "Degtyaryov Single Shot Anti-Tank Weapon System Model of 1941") was an anti-tank rifle produced and used from early 1941 by the Soviet Red Army during World War II. It was a single-shot weapon which fired a 14.5×114mm round. Although unable to penetrate the frontal armor of German tanks, it could penetrate the thinner sides of early-war German tanks as well as thinly armored self-propelled guns.

PTRD-41(,意为:捷格加廖夫系统反坦克步枪1941年型)是苏联红军于二次大战期间采用的一种反坦克步枪,它是一种发射14.5×114毫米枪弹的单发步枪。在苏德战争初期它是为数不多的非摩托化的苏联步兵可携带的反坦克武器,可以对付德军二线坦克以及装甲较弱的突击炮及坦克歼击车,但无法击穿较新的德国坦克。至43年后因苏军摩托化程度提高逐渐退出。


History.

Early years.

Maccabi Haifa Football Club was established in 1913 in the port city of Haifa in the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem (present-day Israel). As the local football association wasn't founded in Mandatory Palestine until July 1928, there were no officially organized competitions during the season, and the club played only friendly matches.  After a period of inactivity, the club was re-organized in February 1923. The club playing a handful of matches during the season, including taking part in a cup competition which was called "The Hebrew Cup". Due to its distance, the club was given a bye to the final, which it lost to Maccabi Nes Tziona 0–2.  The club was overshadowed by its city rival Hapoel Haifa, but even in its first years adopted a very adventurous and offensive style of play based on technique and short passes.  In 1942, the club reached the Israel State Cup final, but was defeated 12–1 by Beitar Tel Aviv in the final. Maccabi Haifa remained a small, struggling club that spent most of its time shifting between Liga Leumit and the lower leagues.  In 1962, the team defeated Maccabi Tel Aviv 5–2 in the State Cup final, and won the first title of the club. In 1963 it reached the final again, but lost to Hapoel Haifa 1–0 in the first Haifa derby in State Cup final.

The 80s.

In the 1980s Maccabi Haifa finally entered the 'Israeli' champions' club, clinching the title thrice (in 1983–84, 1984–85 and 1988–89 seasons).  In the 1983–84 season Maccabi Haifa won its first ever championship, under coach Shlomo Sharf and general manager Yochanan Vollach, overcoming Beitar Jerusalem and Hapoel Tel Aviv. The "Yerukim" (Greens) were known for their "all-around-offense" and flashy technique football style, often resulting in bad defensive formation and resultant losses.  Sharf's team played with 4 strikers, including: Moshe Selecter, Zahi Armeli and Ronny Rosenthal who were positioned at point and midfield and managed to build their defense around the legendary goalkeeper Avi Ran.  A year later, Maccabi Haifa won a second championship in a decisive performance. In 1986 Maccabi lost the championship in a controversial final match against runners-up Hapoel Tel Aviv. The single goal scored in that match by Gili Landau was said to be scored from a passive offside position, which by the rules of the time should have resulted in a disqualification of the goal and a scoreless draw, guaranteeing MHFC the title. Due to poor TV coverage, the issue has never been resolved.  In 1988, Maccabi Haifa decimated Maccabi Tel Aviv 10–0 to earn its biggest win ever. That game, one of the more famous in Israeli's football lore, wasn't even televised. Furthermore, it probably was the beginning of the intense rivalry between the two clubs. In 1989, under the capable hands of Amazzia Levkovic, the club won another championship.

The 90s.

In 1990 Maccabi Haifa established itself as a dominant club in Israel. It began by winning the Double – League championship and the national cup in the 1990/1 season and continued with the introduction of three talented young players: Eyal Berkovic, Reuven Atar and Tal Banin.  In 1992 Maccabi Haifa was purchased by Ya'akov Shahar, who became the owner and president of the club. Under Shahar's management, Maccabi Haifa enjoyed financial stability and professional working regulations on a par with European football clubs' standards. Maccabi Haifa's highlight season was 1993–94. After winning the 1993 cup, Maccabi Haifa gave a stunning performance in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup (CWC), beating Torpedo Moscow 3–1 and Parma 1–0 in the last 16, only to lose on penalties. During the season in the domestic league (then called Liga Leumit), the team went unbeaten for the entire season, out of an overall unbeaten streak of 48 games, thus winning a spectacular championship, and breaking many Israeli records. The Maccabi Haifa 1993–94 squad including Eyal Berkovic, Reuven Atar, Alon Mizrahi and Serhiy Kandaurov, and is considered one of the best squads in Israeli football history.  In 1996 Eyal Berkovic and Haim Revivo, the latter had joined the team the previous season, both left Haifa for European clubs. While the two gained great personal success there, Maccabi Haifa went into a slump. The team's standards of maintaining the services of the manager for multiple seasons was thrown as the team went through several managers during 4 years. As result, the team failed to win the national championship title, despite securing the National cup in 1998.  In 1999, under the guidance of the Czech manager Dušan Uhrin, Maccabi Haifa beat French giants Paris Saint-Germain and Austrian club SV Ried to reach the quarter-final of the Cup Winners' Cup. In the middle of the season, Haifa's excellent striker Alon Mizrahi left for French club Nice resulting in a defeat in the CWC quarter-final and a slump in the club's league performance. The club's winning record continued to falter until the arrival of Avram Grant.

2000 and Beyond.

Former Maccabi Tel Aviv Manager Avram Grant was appointed in 2000 as manager of Maccabi Haifa. Under Grant's guidance, the team regained its dominating offensive style. Grant, along with a much improved squad, led the club with an almost unstoppable team, winning the championship. At the center of attention were a series of virtuoso performances by Yossi Benayoun, including what some consider to be several of the finest goals in Israeli league history. A spontaneous burst of celebrating fans onto the pitch caused a tragic disaster. A young fan, Amir Rand, was crushed against the guarding rails and left comatose.  A year later, Grant won a second championship, relying on a veteran Israeli defense: Alon Harazi, Arik Benado and Adoram Keise, and on a trio of foreign footballers: Giovanni Rosso (Croatia), Raimondas Žutautas (Lithuania) and the young Nigerian striker Yakubu. Following the second championship, Avraham Grant left Haifa for the Israeli national team and was replaced by then Israel U-21 manager Itzhak Shum.  In 2002, Haifa made Israeli club history by becoming the first Israeli team to qualify for the group phase of the UEFA Champions League. In the group phase, the team defeated Olympiacos and Manchester United. Haifa managed 7 points overall scoring 12 goals, and finished in the third place, securing a place in the UEFA Cup.  In the 2003–04 season Maccabi Haifa, led by ex-Maccabi footballer Ronny Levy won the championship mainly due to the poor showing of the other league teams. Maccabi Haifa youth club (ages 16–18) won the domestic championship, and an Israel national kids team of Maccabi Haifa players won Fox Kids World Cup for 12-year-olds.  History was made during the 2005–06 season. After months of indecision regarding the contract of Ronny Levy, it was renewed and Levy guided the club to eleven straight victories in the first eleven games of the Israeli Premier League season. This was also the key to Maccabi Haifa taking the league title after building a strong lead. While the club enjoyed great domestic success, it was not as fortunate in European play. Though Haifa was a seeded team for the UEFA Champions League second qualifying round, it drew the strong Swedish club, Malmö FF. Haifa lost 3–2 in Sweden, and drew 2–2 at home.  In the 2006–07 season, the club played against Liverpool. In the first game of the third round of the qualifying matches held in England, Haifa's Gustavo Boccoli scored on the 29th minute an advantage that lasted just four minutes. Craig Bellamy evened the score and in front of 40,000 local fans, Haifa stood bravely up to the 88th minute when Mark Gonzales scored the winning goal for the hosts. Due to the security situation in Israel, the return match was not held in Ramat Gan but in Kiev, Ukraine, at the Valery Lobanovsky stadium, with 1,700 spectators. The game ended in a 1–1 tie. The last twenty minutes of the game were stressful for Rafa Benitez's players. Indeed, the giant Peter Crouch gave his team the advantage (54) and an away goal, but Roberto Colautti (63) tied the score and from here on the movement towards the host's goalpost became one-sided. The tie score sent Haifa to compete in the UEFA Cup.  In the return match in Bulgaria, Haifa played well: Xavier Dirceu scored an impressive goal from a distance, Alain Masudi and Roberto Colautti left Eljendario Sanderinio one honor goal. In the Groups stage, Haifa faced strong opponents: The Scottish Rangers, the Serbian Partizan Belgrade, the French Auxerre and the Italian Serie A team Livorno. In the 88th minute, the Scots succeeded in doubling the score from another penalty kick given away by a Haifa defender. This time Charlie Adam scored and sealed the victory. Haifa returned home and hosted Partizan Belgrade. An early goal by Anderson Xavier, the Brazilian midfielder, put Haifa in an excellent place with six points. Haifa needed one point in the away game in Italy against Livorno to complete the task successfully. At this stage Haifa was drawn against CSKA Moscow. The game was moved to the Spartak stadium in Vladikavkaz due to extreme weather in Moscow. 30,000 Russian fans crowded the stadium. Torpedo beat Haifa 1–0 and Lokomotiv beat it 3–0. Again Haifa did not score an away goal, but the result (0–0) signaled that Haifa might use its home advantage in the return match.  In the 2007–08 season, Maccabi Haifa finished 5th place in the League and was eliminated in the last-16 phase of the State Cup. Ronny Levy announced that he was leaving. Haifa won the Toto Cup after a 2–0 victory over Bnei-Sakhnin.  Haifa opened the 2008–09 season with hopes of remaining a top team. At the end of the season, coach Elisha Levy won his first personal title and Haifa made Israeli soccer history, winning six championships in one decade. Maccabi Haifa returned to the Champions League for the 2009–10 season. A 3–0 win over FC Red Bull Salzburg insured its second win in the span of seven years, with goals by Dvalishvili, Golasa and Ghadir. Haifa entered the 2009–10 Champions League group stage in Group A, competing against Bayern Munich, Juventus and Bordeaux. Haifa finished the competition with a record of 6 losses, conceding 8 goals and without scoring. The club subsequently lost the championship title to Hapoel Tel Aviv on the last day of the season.  In the 2010–11 Israeli Premier League season, Maccabi Haifa has won the Israeli Championship title but lost the chance to achieve the Double by losing to rivals Hapoel Tel-Aviv in the State Cup final.  The 2011–12 season was a disappointing one. After winning the League title in the previous season, the team started the season with qualification matches in the UEFA Champions League, but eliminated after a penalty defeat to the Belgian Genk. At the local Israeli Premier league it was another disappointment. Maccabi Haifa struggled for the European football spot but a draw in the last round wasn't enough and Maccabi finished in a disappointing 5th place. Another failure was at the State Cup as the team lost in the Final to rivals Hapoel Tel Aviv from a controversial 93rd-minute goal. The disappoint season caused the owner Ya'akov Shahar to appoint former player and club icon Reuven Atar as the manager for the next season instead of Elisha Levi who left the club after clinching 3 championship titles in 5 years with the club.  With Reuven Atar on the lines Haifa opened the season with one win 4 draws and 4 losses and was next to last and so did the worst opening season in her history. After the ninth round Atar was Fired and replaced by Arik Benado, the youth team coach and team captain in the past. Under Benado Haifa return to the top of the table and showed good performances during the season. Haifa gave fight to Maccabi Tel Aviv but finished only second.  On 25 July 2013 Maccabi Haifa defeated Xazar Lankaran 8–0 in qualifying round of UEFA Europa League. thus set a new record of the highest win of an Israeli team in European competition.  On 24 May 2016 Maccabi Haifa winne Maccabi Tel Aviv 1–0 on the Israel State Cup Final after eighteen years and return play on European competition after three years.

Sponsorship and fan base.

The club is sponsored by Ya'akov Shahar, chairman of Mayer's Cars and Trucks Ltd., the official importer to Israel of Volvo and Honda. The fan base is mainly in Haifa and northern Israel, although the club is one of the most popular in Israel. Average attendance in the home matches is approximately 24,000 fans. According to a survey which had been conducted in 2010, Maccabi Haifa has the biggest number of fans of all the teams in Israel, approximately 25.8% of Israeli football fans. 2  On 30 June 2011, a "Haaretz" poll identified Maccabi Haifa as the most popular football team among Arab citizens of Israel.  Another survey had been conducted in March 2012 by Yedioth confirmed that Maccabi Haifa is the most popular team among Israeli football fans (28%), female football fans (33%) and Arab citizens of Israel. Same survey revealed that 75% of Haifa residents support the team.  Historically, the block group encourages fans were home games Kiryat Eliezer Stadium stands 11–12 called also "Yetzia Gimel (יציע ג')" – C Block – which has become synonymous with the hardcore and dedicated fans.  In 2002, The fans established an organization named Green Apes, which supports both soccer and basketball. Members usually sit in the bleachers section 11.  In addition, Maccabi Haifa has an official fan club which was founded in the first decade of the 21st century, and has about 20,000 members. The club is also supported overseas. The club are also support overseas, kept contact with them by buying items gift shop club through his website.  At the 2008–09 Championship season the Maccabi Haifa audiences won the title of Fair Audience of the Year.  In 2010, another organization of fans was established for Maccabi Haifa, and named Inferno Verde, whose members sit in the stands section 5a. The organization's goal is not to outdo the Green Apes, but rather to join forces for victories and championships of the team.  Maccabi Haifa supporters have friendly relations with supporters of other clubs: Green Apes are in good relations with AZ Alkmaar's Alkmaar Fanatics and Ultra Boys Haifa are in good relations with Werder Bremen's Ultra Boys  Number of surveys made during the first decade of the 21st century found that Maccabi Haifa is Israel's most favorite team.  At the beginning of the 21st century the club website was upgraded, at Walla!. The edits were made by the historian of the club, Isaac Haverman, and include breaking news, articles, information about the club, officials, staff, players and former players, information on past games, galleries, statistics, multi–seasonal Guinness Book of club and depth articles, some of which also include a unique research statistic, work of Haverman. The site also includes an online forum, online store and club fans.  Starting in 2011 Haifa operates an official Facebook page, which includes information, news, pictures, online ticketing- online and update time – real game results. The Facebook page has 83,000 registered fans. In February 2011, the club opened an official YouTube page, which puts up interviews of players and the coach before and after games. The club has uploaded about 373 movies and has approximately 3200 subscribers, and approximately 550,000 video views (as of May 2014).

City rivalry with Hapoel Haifa.

"For more information see: Haifa derby"

The rivalry with Maccabi Tel Aviv.

The strong rivalry between the two Israeli soccer clubs (something called “the Israeli Classico” and “the derby of israel”) on the hegemony of Maccabi Israel as well as Israeli soccer in general and the title of the best soccer club in Israel. Maccabi Haifa aspires to oust Maccabi Tel Aviv from this position, which is the club with the largest number of titles in Israel, and to become the leading club in Israel by winning many titles and qualifying for the European Cup stages (Cup Winners' Cup, UEFA Cup) (Haifa and Tel Aviv) competed against each other for the championship title, and Haifa beat Maccabi Tel Aviv in a number of games, including a 10–0 win in 1988 (a game in which revenge for the loss was 2–10 in 1949). Losing 0–7 in 1952), and winning 5–0 in the 1993/1994 season in which Haifa won the championship without loss but was eliminated from the State Cup factory three days Following Maccabi Tel Aviv's 1–1 win at Kiryat Eliezer, a repeat of the Maccabi Cup in the first decade of the 21st century alongside Maccabi Tel Aviv's weakness (except for the 2002/2003 season) ) Cooled the rivalry between them, but rivalry with Hapoel Tel Aviv, which competed with the top of the table during this period, strengthened.

Club crest.

The origin of the club crest is the World Zionist sports organization "Maccabi". The icon is actually fine M.c.b.i. Within the Star of David symbolizes Judaism. In most years the symbol of the group was supposed to symbolize "Maccabi" with the words "Haifa" beneath green on white or white on green. With the success of the club at the end of the 1980s added an illustration of a lion next to a symbol, but this figure has been removed. At the beginning of the 1990s, with Europe joining the club different games icon, and added a picture of football left with the words "Maccabi Haifa BC" Maccabi Haifa and Hebrew F.C. English. At the end of 2005/2006 season, when the team won its 10th championship, added a gold star above the symbol. At the end of the 2009 season winning its 11th championship, the group played its inaugural game with the traditional symbol of the club as it was the early '80s. At the end of the 2013 season, in 100 of the club, added bay leaves around the icon used as a sign of victory and glory dating back to Greek mythology. In addition, also added a gold plaque indicating the year of the establishment of the club and the current year (100th club).

Grounds.

Kiryat Eliezer Stadium.

Maccabi originally played in Kiryat Haim, which is the main training grounds of Hapoel. In 1955, a gift from the Italian Labour Union was a football pitch in the heart of the city of Haifa, which would become the new home of Maccabi. The opening match was a Haifa derby, won by Maccabi 4–1 over Hapoel.  Kiryat Eliezer missed out on staging a historic event when Maccabi reached the group stage of the UEFA Champions League. It was the first time an Israeli club had made it that far in the competition, though the lucrative gate receipts expected to have been made by hosting matches in Israel were lost when UEFA forced Maccabi to look for an alternative in Europe but outside of Israel because of security concerns. The choice was to host the matches at Neo GSP Stadium in Nicosia, Cyprus. After Israel had increased the security and proved stability, MHFC was allowed to play their European matches in the State of Israel. Because Kiryat Eliezer was not up to par with UEFA's demands, the team played their European home matches in Central Israel at Bloomfield Stadium (14,413 capacity), as well as Ramat Gan National Stadium (41,583 capacity) due to the high demand of Maccabi Haifa fans wanting to attend the matches. Finally, Maccabi Haifa was allowed to host European matches at Kiryat Eliezer Stadium. In 2013, Maccabi Haifa played in the Europa League against PAOK (Greece), AZ Alkmaar (Netherlands), and Shakhter Karagandy (Kazakhstan).  On 14 May 2014, the last match was played in the stadium, in which Maccabi Haifa hosted Maccabi Tel Aviv in the Israeli Premier League.

Sammy Ofer Stadium.

Due to the recent success of the club in European competitions, the municipality of Haifa offered the club land by the beach for a brand new stadium at the southern entrance to the city. In the fall of 2008, the final plans were approved. Sammy Ofer Stadium was completed in November 2013. Constructions costs are estimated $135,000,000.00 with a seating capacity of 30,870. The stadium is named after naval-mogul Sammy Ofer, who donated $20,000,000 to build the stadium and the rights to name it after himself. The Sammy Ofer Stadium is developed and built by the Haifa Economic corporation managed by Adv. Gal Peleg. It is the home ground of Maccabi Haifa, Hapoel Haifa. It also hosts international matches of Israel national football team along Teddy Stadium.

Players.

Foreigners 2019–20.

Only up to six non-Israeli nationals can be in an Israeli club squad (only five can play at the same time). Those with Jewish ancestry (e.g., Josh Cohen and Joe Kuzminsky), married to an Israeli (e.g., Nikita Rukavytsya) or have played in Israel for an extended period of time, can claim a passport or permanent residency which would allow them to play with Israeli status.

Captains.

Neta Lavi, has been the captain since 2019.

Personnel.

Managerial history.

"See also": "List of Maccabi Haifa F.C. managers"

Maccabi Haifa Football Club (, "Moadon HaKaduregel Maccabi Haifa") is an Israeli professional football club, based in City of Haifa, a section of Maccabi Haifa sports club. The club plays in the Israeli Premier League. Maccabi Haifa home games are played at Sammy Ofer Stadium. The stadium, which is shared with rivals Hapoel Haifa, is the second largest in Israel football, with a capacity of 30,780.

海法马卡比足球俱乐部()是以色列实力最强的足球会之一。成立于1913年,曾夺得 10 届联赛冠军、5 次国家杯冠军及 3 次图图杯,是国内最成功的球队,更是首队晋级欧联分组赛阶段的以色列球队。


History.

Itami Airport opened as in 1939. Prior to the opening of Itami, Kizugawa Airport was Osaka's main civilian airport. It handled both Seaplanes and Conventional ones. In 1931, the Osaka municipal government drafted plans to construct a new "No. 1 Osaka Airport" near the mouth of the Yamato River, also targeted at seaplanes, but concerns about fog and protests from Kobe-based businesses led the government to build the "No. 2 Airport" for land-based aircraft instead.  Construction began in July 1936 on a 53-hectare (131 acre) site. The new airport was primarily used by the Imperial Japanese Army during its early years. U.S. occupation forces took over Osaka Airport after the end of World War II in 1945, expanding it to 221 hectares and renaming it Itami Air Base. The airfield was used extensively by US forces during the Korean War. In 1954, Marilyn Monroe and Joe DiMaggio stopped at Itami during their honeymoon and in 1956, the base was used in the filming of the movie "Sayonara".  Itami was renamed following its return to Japanese control in March 1959. The Japanese government quickly implemented a plan to expand the airport by an additional 82.5 ha so that it could accommodate jet aircraft. Despite some protests from locals, the plan was approved by the neighboring city assemblies between 1960 and 1961 with strong backing from local business groups, and land was purchased between 1962 and 1964, in part out of the aviation industry's interest in keeping pace with the development of the Tokaido Shinkansen high-speed rail link between Tokyo and Osaka. The main runway was completed in 1970.  In its heyday Itami was served by a variety of major international carriers, including Pan Am (Japan routes transferred to United in 1985), British Airways, Air India, Cathay Pacific and Korean Air. Northwest Airlines was a major international operator at Itami, and by 1992 offered nonstop service to New York, Los Angeles, Honolulu and Sydney. The Sydney service became the focus of a rare aviation agreement dispute between the United States and Australia, as less than 30% of passengers on the Australia-Japan segment were originating in the U.S. even though the "primary objective" of the route authority, according to the US-Australia aviation agreement, was service between the US and Australia. In 1993, after Australia demanded arbitration and the US implemented retaliatory sanctions against Qantas, Northwest was forced to limit the amount of local Australia-Japan traffic on the Osaka-Sydney route, and subsequently abandoned the service entirely.

Political friction.

While Japan's economy was growing rapidly, the area around Itami Airport became an increasingly dense residential area for commuters to Osaka.  A number of factors made the airport an intensely debated political issue in the 1960s and 1970s, among them:  Jet flights at Itami began on June 1, 1964 and triggered complaints by neighboring residents about noise pollution. In addition, eminent domain procedures were used in 1966 to obtain land for the runway expansion at Itami and led to local protests, as had also been the case in the construction of Narita International Airport near Tokyo.  In May 1968, a group of local citizens decided to sue the government for damages related to noise pollution from Itami Airport. The lawsuit was filed in December 1969. The Japanese government concurrently banned takeoffs and landings at Itami between 10:30 PM and 6:30 AM, effective February 1970.  In February 1974, the Osaka District Court issued a qualified ruling in favor of the plaintiffs which limited the scope of their damages. The plaintiffs appealed to the Osaka High Court, which ruled in November 1975 that the plaintiffs were entitled to both a wider scope of damages and an injunction halting flights at the airport between 9 PM and 7 AM. This was a landmark decision in Japanese environmental law as it set a precedent for polluters to be enjoined and to be required to pay damages to victims. However, the state then appealed to the Supreme Court of Japan, which deliberated for almost six years before ruling in 1981 that the High Court injunction was illegal (though the victims remained entitled to damages).  By the mid-1970s, the airport was subject to extensive slot restrictions, with operations limited to 200 jets and 170 propeller aircraft per day, and no takeoffs or landings allowed after 9 PM. These restrictions led the major domestic airlines to adopt more widebody aircraft in ultra-high-density configurations on Itami routes. The introduction of these widebodies caused additional concern among locals who protested the increased pollution and greater dangers in the event of a crash.

Domestic era.

Because of the political friction surrounding Itami, planners began work in the 1970s to relocate many of its flights to an offshore location. This plan led to the opening of Osaka's current international airport, referred to as Kansai International Airport, in 1994 on an artificial island in Kansai region.  There were originally plans to close Itami Airport following the opening of Kansai, but nearby communities opposed such a move for economic reasons, so Itami was retained as a domestic-only airport after Kansai opened in 1994. Itami has been used by international charters for state visits – Air Force One visited Itami in November 2005 and Chinese premier Wen Jiabao landed at Itami in April 2007 – and by Asiana Airlines charter flights to and from South Korea in late 2015. All Nippon Airways retains a large maintenance base at Itami which occasionally services aircraft ferried in from overseas without passengers, and some international cargo flights continue to use the airport as well.  The policy of the Japanese government has been to limit operations at Itami in order to spur development at Kansai and Kobe. Commercial passenger aircraft with more than two engines were banned from Itami effective April 2006, although such aircraft may continue to make ferry flights to and from Itami for maintenance purposes. All Nippon Airways flew a 747 to Itami on January 12, 2014, the first 747 operation at the airport in eight years, for an open house event to commemorate the upcoming retirement of ANA's 747 fleet in March 2014.  The government proposed changing Itami's status from first-class airport to second-class airport, which would saddle local governments with one-third of its operating costs; after protests from the surrounding local authorities, the national government withdrew this proposal. The government also proposed banning widebody aircraft from Itami, although this proposal was criticized as unrealistic given the volume of traffic there.  In May 2011, the Diet of Japan passed legislation to form a new Kansai International Airport Corporation using the state's existing equity stake in Kansai Airport and its property holdings at Itami Airport. The move was aimed at offsetting Kansai Airport's debt burden. NKIAC started free shuttle bus service between Itami and Kansai for transfer passengers in order to further integrate the two as a single hub. Itami has also seen increased domestic passenger traffic in 2013 following the easing of flight restrictions, which was possible due to propeller aircraft being replaced by quieter regional jets; JAL was able to increase the frequency on its Itami-Fukuoka route from two flights to five flights daily, making the route more competitive with the Sanyō Shinkansen rail service.  In September 2013, NKIAC announced that it would acquire Osaka Airport Terminal Co. for 27.8 billion yen, which an NKIAC official called the "last piece" of the integration of both airports' management. NKIAC plans to market Itami Airport to business travelers by touting its convenience for domestic business travel and improving its connectivity to Narita International Airport, while continuing to market Kansai Airport to leisure and international travelers.  Following Typhoon Jebi, which resulted in the temporary closure of Kansai Airport in September 2018, operating hours at both Itami and Kobe were extended, and the government began considering permitting international service at all three Osaka area airports. Japan Airlines later announced that it would operate two special flights between Itami and Hong Kong in mid-October 2018. These would be the first scheduled international passenger flights to or from Itami in 24 years.

Plans.

Itami is limited to domestic flights, and can only handle 18 landings per hour and 370 landings per day., NKIAC is considering providing more leniency to the aforementioned restrictions through negotiations with local authorities, on the basis that advances in technology have allowed modern aircraft to be quieter than those in operation when the restrictions were imposed. NKIAC hopes to coordinate with local governments to increase the number of slots allowed during the day and to open additional slots during nighttime hours.  Both Hyogo Prefecture and Itami City are supporters of expanded service at Itami, and established a formal coordination body in July 2013 to propose further reforms such as allowing international charter flights, and to engage in local efforts such as improving ground transportation and publicizing the airport's convenience. They planned to enlist the support of the other neighboring municipalities of Toyonaka, Takarazuka and Ikeda. On the other hand, the Japanese government has supported Kansai at Itami's expense, and current Osaka City mayor and former Osaka Prefecture governor Toru Hashimoto has been a particularly vocal critic of the airport, arguing that the Chuo Shinkansen maglev line will make much of its domestic role irrelevant, and that its domestic functions should be transferred to Kansai in conjunction with upgraded high-speed access to Kansai from central Osaka. In 2009, Hashimoto proposed closing Itami and converting the site into an "International Campus Freedom City" operating in the English language with 20,000 residents; the governor of Hyogo criticized the idea as "complete nonsense." Hashimoto later expressed support for Transport Minister Seiji Maehara's plan to maintain Itami with further restrictions on the size of aircraft.  Kansai International Airport Corporation conducted a public tender to sell the operating rights for Kansai and Itami Airport in May 2015. Orix and Vinci SA were the sole bidder for the 45-year contract, at a price of around $18 billion. The new operating company will be formed around the end of 2015 and will be 80% owned by Orix and Vinci, with the remaining 20% owned by Kansai-based enterprises such as Hankyu Hanshin Holdings and Panasonic.

Terminals, airlines and destinations.

Itami Airport has a single terminal building with 21 gates, divided into the "North Terminal" for JAL and Amakusa; and the "South Terminal" for ANA and IBEX. The departure and arrival zones of the two terminals are connected by a "Central Block" containing shops, restaurants and a hotel.  The terminal is planned to be extensively renovated by August 2020 to include a new pier for additional aircraft, consolidated departures and arrivals facilities (including a single central security checkpoint with expanded capacity) and a new shopping and dining area. Work began in February 2016, and the renovated central area is scheduled to become operational in 2018.

Ground transportation.

Rail.

The only direct rail connection to the airport is the Osaka Monorail, which stops in the northern suburbs of Osaka, connecting to the Hankyu Takarazuka Main Line at Hotarugaike and the Kita-Osaka Kyuko Railway (Midōsuji Line) at Senri-Chuo.  Several plans have been formulated for improving rail access to the airport. Hankyu considered building a spur from the Takarazuka Line to the airport in the 1970s, but did not proceed with the project due to capacity constraints on the Takarazuka Line; Hankyu reportedly re-commenced studies of the project in 2017. JR West announced a plan to build a line to the airport from Itami around 1989 but never proceeded, due in part to the 2005 Amagasaki derailment and demand concerns following the opening of Kobe Airport. Hyogo Prefecture also considered building a light rail system from the airport to central Itami around 2007, but was unwilling to commit funding for the project due to profitability concerns. An April 2018 study by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism concluded that a 4 km, 70 billion yen spur line from Sone to the airport, allowing one-stop express service to Umeda in around 20 minutes, would deliver a greater benefit-cost ratio than many other Japanese rail projects in terms of the number of passengers assisted, but would not be profitable at Hankyu's standard fare level and would require a significant surcharge in order to break even.

Road.

Itami Airport is directly connected to the Hanshin Expressway Ikeda Route and is five minutes' drive from the Chugoku Expressway, making it possible to reach central Osaka by car or bus in 25 to 30 minutes, central Kobe in 40 minutes and central Kyoto in 55 minutes.

Despite its "international" designation, the airport's scheduled passenger air traffic is entirely domestic. Kansai International Airport ( away) took over the region's international traffic in 1994 and competes with Itami for domestic traffic. Itami also faces competition from Kobe Airport ( away), a smaller domestic airport opened in 2006.

大阪国际机场(,),通称伊丹机场(),座落于日本兵库县伊丹市、大阪府丰中市、以及大阪府池田市之间,启用于1939年,与关西国际机场、神户机场并列为关西地方。虽以「国际」为名,但在1994年关西国际机场启用后与前者分工,成为国内航线专用机场。根据日本《空港法》,其分类为国内航线的据点机场。


Premise.

When the Earth is threatened by alien invaders and giant monsters, the world relies on the Science Patrol, a special anti-monster defense agency armed with high-tech weaponry and vehicles to combat these threats from the unknown. When the Science Patrol's weaponry is ineffective and all hope is lost, one of their members, Hayata, transforms into a giant alien called Ultraman to defeat the monstrous menace threatening the Earth, unbeknownst to the other Science Patrol members, who are unaware of his secret identity.

Production.

Development.

Due to the success of "Ultra Q", Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS) wanted a new monster-themed show from Tokyo Broadcasting System, this time filmed in color. TBS hoped to create a continuing series with Tsuburaya Productions. Eiji Tsuburaya and writer Tetsuo Kinjo chose to take the barebones idea of "Ultra Q" about civilians and scientists dealing with monsters and have a group specifically created to deal with monsters and supernatural phenomena as the focus of the new show. The group was tentatively named the "Scientific Investigation Agency" (SIA). Tsuburaya and Kinjo decided to add unused ideas from "Ultra Q" and the rejected outline "Woo".  Tsuburaya had spent significant amounts of studio money to build his miniatures for the Godzilla films. The studio was desirous to monetize these miniatures, and was looking for a project that could repurpose the sets and costumes from the Godzilla franchise. The first iteration of Ultraman was named "Bemler". Bemler's human host would have been a 28-year-old man named "Officer Sakomizu", described as a "tough guy" in early drafts. Captain Muramatsu would have been the only SIA member to know his secret identity. The name "Bemler" (sometimes trademarked as "Bemular") was later given to Ultraman's foe in the premiere episode "Ultra Operation No. 1".  Pre-production and story layout for the show began in December 1965 as "Bemler: Scientific Investigation Agency". Masahiro Yamada completed a sample teleplay titled "The Birth of Bemler" that featured an unused scenario originally written for "Ultra Q". TBS producer Takashi Kakoi demanded to have Bemler be easily differentiated from other similarly designed monsters to avoid confusion. Tsuburaya and Kinjo then decided to make Bemler more humanoid in design. Kakoi later requested that Bemler have a more metallic-based image.  In January 1966, the production's title was changed to "Redman", due to the protagonist's color scheme. The following month, the show was unanimously approved for production. In this version, Redman arrives as a refugee on Earth after invaders destroyed his home planet. Redman fuses with officer Sakomizu and together, they protect the Earth from giant monsters and alien invaders. This version also featured an early version of the Beta Capsule called a "Flashbeam" that resembled a futuristic fountain pen. During casting TBS suggested casting actors that looked as Western as possible, in order to appeal to overseas markets. It was later decided to add a female character to the SIA roster. Many of the cast members came from Toho. On March 22, 1966, the copyright offices approved registration of the show, now titled "Ultraman".

Design.

The first iteration of the "Ultraman" character was originally named "Bemler". Bemler was originally conceived by Kinjo as an intergalactic reptilian creature that would enlarge itself to 164 feet and come to the SIA's aid. The original design was a cross between Garuda, a mythological Hindu/Buddhist guardian bird, and Tengu, a Japanese folkloric crow-goblin. Eiji Tsuburaya found the early versions of Ultraman's design to be too alien and sinister and requested that production designer Tohl Narita draft something more benevolent, despite teleplays already being written. Narita took inspiration from classical Greek art, ancient Egypt, the European Renaissance, and Miyamoto Musashi. Tsuburaya and Kinjo added input to each of Narita's new drawings. Ultraman's silver skin symbolized steel from an interstellar rocket and the red lining represented the surface of Mars.  Narita's assistant, Akira Sasaki, sculpted clays, but became concerned about the nose and mouth looking too human. They eventually decided on a brim-like nose that runs from the mouth to the top of the head like a dorsal fin. They also allowed the mouth to be flexible for speech. Early outlines had Ultraman capable of spitting fire and a liquid called "silver iodine", but these ideas were later dropped. Ultraman's three-minute Color Timer was added at the last minute due to the filmmakers feeling that Ultraman was too invincible, and also the belief that it would add suspense and make viewers cheer for Ultraman.

Filming.

A decision was made to film "Ultraman" in color. To keep production costs from going over budget, the show was shot on 16mm stock and optical effects were shot using 35mm. This met the network's requirement for making new episodes on a fast-paced production schedule (due to filming starting in March 1966 for a scheduled debut that July). The production crew were separated into three teams subdivided into separate live-action filming and special effects filming groups. TBS and Tsuburaya Productions originally agreed to air "Ultraman" on July 17. TBS pushed the release up one week in order to cover the spot originally intended for the final episode of "Ultra Q", which was pulled from the broadcast schedule due to not featuring any monsters. TBS also wanted to beat the release of Fuji Television's "Ambassador Magma" (a.k.a."The Space Giants"), a show similar to "Ultraman".  Though production on "Ultraman" was running smoothly, it was not running fast enough to meet the premiere date. After meetings between TBS, Tsuburaya Productions, and sponsors, the decision was made to produce a live broadcast on July 10 of a special titled "Ultraman Eve Festival", a TV special intended to introduce Ultraman to viewers. This was also done to help the production crew catch up and finish the premiere episode. The special was then retitled "The Birth of Ultraman: An Ultraman Premiere Celebration". Kunio Miyauchi, who composed the music for "Ultra Q", was brought back to compose the music for "Ultraman". The lyrics to the show's opening theme music were written by Hajime Tsuburaya (credited as Koichi Fuji).

Monsters.

Production designer Tohl Narita designed all of the monsters for the show. Narita sometimes deviated from the original descriptions. A majority of the time, the writers did not include any specific descriptions of the monsters in the teleplays. Most of the monsters were not named. The names of the monsters were decided via staff meetings, where it would also be determined if the writer had created a creature that was capable or incapable of being filmed with the special effects technology available at the time. The monsters were sculpted and fabricated by Ryosaku Takayama, Akira Sasaki, and Ekisu Productions.  Bin Furuya was chosen to play Ultraman due to his physical stature and proportions. Furuya trained in tap-dancing, karate, and practiced the beam and "Shuwatch" poses at home nearly 300 times. According to Furuya, the Ultraman suits were destroyed after production wrapped. Due to the thinness of the suit, Furuya was more prone to pain than the other suit actors, and claimed to always get hurt in one way or another.  Haruo Nakajima (who played Godzilla for the first 12 films in the franchise) choreographed all the monsters' battles with Furuya and even played a few monsters, such as Neronga (episode 03) and Jiras (episode 10). Nakajima also had two cameos, one in episode 24 and one in episode 33 as a police officer. "Ultraman" featured new monster suits, as well as recycled suits from "Ultra Q". Two Godzilla suits were recycled from Toho for the monster Jiras, with the head of the Godzilla suit from "Ebirah, Horror of the Deep" placed upon the body of the Godzilla suit from "Mothra vs. Godzilla". The dorsal fins and parts of the suit were sprayed yellow and a large yellow frill was added to disguise the connection of the head with the body. The show also marks the first appearance of "Ultraman Zoffy" in the finale "Farewell, Ultraman".

Episode list.

Unproduced film.

Due to the show's success, a feature film titled "Ultraman: Operation Giant" was planned. Toshihiro Iijima was attached to write the script. The film was to be filmed in CinemaScope and was to introduce new characters, such as a self-sacrificing automaton built by the Science Patrol, the Baltans invading Earth with the help of a human scientist, a new subterranean monster named "Morugo", and Ultraman was to be given a new sword weapon. The project never materialized.

English version.

United Artists Television picked up the rights for "Ultra Q" and "Ultraman" in the fall of 1966, two months after the first episode of "Ultraman" aired. "Ultra Q" was dubbed but never broadcast in the United States due to American TV stations preferring color shows over black-and-white shows. "Ultraman" ran in and out of syndication until the mid-1980s. UA-TV also syndicated "Ultraman" internationally. UA-TV commissioned an English dub from Titra Studios. Peter Fernandez, Earl Hammond, and Corinne Orr provided the voices for the dub. Fernandez also wrote and supervised the dub.  Describing the process, Fernandez said: "I had a moviola, sometimes a projector, and I’d go back and forth over each line carefully and carefully, building the line to look like English." Fernandez also went on to explain that a greased pencil was used to mark scenes that needed to be dubbed, even if it were a few lines. A loop of the film would be projected so that the voice actor could memorize his or her lines and see where the scene needed to be dubbed. The voice actors had to wait for a beeping signal before starting, Fernandez explained: "So in the studio you hear “Beep... beep... beep...” then you talk, as if there is a fourth beep. Those beeps are drilled into me. They are two-thirds of a second apart. Later on, the film is reassembled and mixed with the original music and sound effects." The English dub was featured in the BCI Eclipse DVD release of "Ultraman", as well as subsequent DVD re-issues from Mill Creek Entertainment.

Home media.

In 1996, Ohio-based company Expressions In Animation, Inc. produced the "Ultraman 30th Anniversary Collection" VHS, which featured haphazardly restored prints of the first four English dubbed episodes. It also included an English subtitled version of the Japanese opening, which was adapted by musician Dow Thomas as well as an interview with monster performer Haruo Nakajima.  BCI Eclipse Home Entertainment LLC officially released "Ultraman" on two separate DVD volumes in 2006 and 2007, licensed from then-rights holder Southern California-based Golden Media Group Inc. (via Tokyo-based UM Corporation). BCI’s first DVD release featured the first 20 episodes, while the second release featured the final 19 episodes, all presented uncut, unedited and re-mastered in color with stereo sound. These releases also featured the original Japanese audio and the English dub. When Navarre folded BCI Eclipse in December 2008, the series was shuffled over to Navarre's other home video label, Mill Creek Entertainment. In June 2009, Mill Creek re-released the complete series set on September 29, 2009, in a four-disc set with the same special features from the previous release. In Japan, there have been numerous releases in numerous home video formats over the last 25 years (from VHS to DVD) on several labels, including Bandai's various home video divisions, such as Bandai Visual.  In April 2013, Tsuburaya held a press conference announcing the new Ultra Series show and character, "Ultraman Ginga", where they also announced that the original 1966 show will be given an HD remaster treatment in Japan. In July 2013, Bandai Visual released an HD transfer of "Ultraman" on Blu-ray titled "Ultraman HD Remaster 2.0", to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Tsuburaya Productions. Bandai Visual released the series on three separate box sets, each containing 13 episodes. The first box set was released on July 10, 2013, the second one on October 25, 2013 and the final one on January 29, 2014.  In July 2019, Mill Creek Entertainment announced that it had acquired most of the Ultraman library from Tsuburaya Productions through Indigo Entertainment, including 1,100 episodes and 20 films. The 1966 series was released on Blu-ray in North America on October 15, 2019 in standard and steelbook editions. In June 2020, Mill Creek announced it will release "The Birth of Ultraman Collection" on Blu-ray on July 10, 2020. It will include the pre-premiere special and seven episodes from the 1966 series. The '66 episodes will include audio and subtitle options for both the Japanese and English tracks. The Blu-ray features artwork by Alex Ross (originally created for Marvel's "Ultraman" comic) and will be sold exclusively on DeepDiscount.

Adaptations.

Harvey Comics Entertainment published two short comic book series based on Ultraman in 1993 and 1994. Bandai published the video game "Ultraman" for Super Famicom in 1990, and "PD Ultraman Battle Collection 64" for the Nintendo 64 in 1997. The games were released in Japan only. In 2011, a manga adaptation simply titled "Ultraman" began serialization in Shogakukan's "Monthly Hero's" magazine. It serves as a sequel to the television series. It was released on August 18, 2015 in North America by Viz Media, having received the rights earlier on February 18, 2015.

Although "Ultraman" is the first series to feature an Ultraman character, it is the second installment in the Ultra Series, following "Ultra Q". This is signified in the Japanese show opening by the "Ultra Q" logo exploding into the "Ultraman" logo. "Ultraman" and its titular hero became a major pop culture phenomena in Japan, spawning dozens of sequels, spin-offs, rip-offs, imitators, parodies and tributes. Ultraman went on to generate in merchandising revenue from 1966 to 1987 (equivalent to more than adjusted for inflation) and become the world's third top-selling licensed character by the 1980s (largely due to his popularity in Asia).

《-{zh-hk:超人; zh-tw:超人力霸王; zh-hans:奥特曼;}-》(;英语:Ultraman),是由日本圆谷株式会社制作特摄电视系列剧,共39集。该部作品通常被认为是继“超异象之谜”之后圆谷特摄系列的第二部。若未将仅有怪兽出现的《超异象之谜》列入,本作为正式出现超人的超人系列第一部作品。 “-{zh-hans:奥特曼; zh-tw:超人力霸王; zh-hk:超人吉田;}-”亦为剧中登场的巨大变身英雄名称。整个奥特曼系列中的英雄经常被人们统称为“超人力霸王”。为了避免与后来的作品产生混淆,本作品中登场的奥特曼通常称作“-{zh-hans:初代奥特曼; zh-tw:初代超人力霸王; zh-hk:超人吉田;}-”()。 1960至1970年代,在台湾无版权时期出版物中的译名也有「飞-{}-天超空人」、「-{大超人}-」等。