Design.

The fourth and final Naval Law, passed in 1912, governed the building program of the German navy during World War I. The Imperial Naval Office ("Reichsmarineamt") decided the Navy should construct one battleship and one battlecruiser every year between 1913 and 1917, with an additional unit of both types in 1913 and 1916. Design work on the new class began in 1912, with construction intended to begin in the 1914 budget year. The question about the main battery for the new battlecruisers was the most pressing; the previous was armed with guns, though some consideration had been given to redesigning the last two ships— and —with guns.  The 35 cm guns were heavier than the 30.5 cm guns, and there were problems with enlarging the new ships to accommodate the heavier armament. The Imperial dry docks were deep enough only for ships with a draft of, and simply accepting an increased displacement on the same hull as the "Derfflinger" class would entail a reduction in speed. This meant that an increase in displacement would necessitate a longer and wider hull to keep any increases in draft minimal and avoid reducing the speed. The constraints on enlarging the hull were compounded by restrictions on width imposed by the locks of the canal in Wilhelmshaven. As a result, "Großadmiral" (Grand Admiral) Alfred von Tirpitz, the head of the RMA, prohibited a design displacement greater than.  The initial design was approved on 30 September 1912, though the heads of the General Navy Department—"Vizeadmiral" (Vice Admiral) Günther von Krosigk and "Konteradmiral" (Rear Admiral) Reinhard Scheer—and the Weapons Department head, "Vizeadmiral" Gerhard Gerdes, had to submit any revisions they deemed were necessary. The design staff suggested using triple or even quadruple gun turrets to keep the displacement under the 30,000-ton limit. Another suggested alternative was to use six 38 cm (15 in) guns in twin turrets, one forward and two aft; Wilhelm II accepted that design on 2 May 1913, though "Admiral" Friedrich von Ingenohl, the commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet, preferred the 30.5 cm gun of the "Derfflinger"-class ships. As a compromise, the new battlecruisers were to be armed with eight 35 cm (13.8 inch) guns.  The question of whether the new ships should be powered entirely by oil-fired boilers was less controversial. The design staff was generally in agreement with the standard practice of using coal-fired boilers for two-thirds of the power plant, with the remainder being oil-fired boilers. Coal-fired boilers were preferred because the coal, stored in the sides of the ship, provided additional protection, particularly for the battlecruisers, which carried less armor than their battleship counterparts. The finalized design was approved on 23 May 1914.

General characteristics.

The "Mackensen"-class ships were long and had a beam of and a draft of forward and aft. The ships were designed to displace on a standard load, and up to fully laden. The "Mackensen"s hulls were composed of longitudinal steel frames, over which the outer hull plates were riveted. This was the same type of construction as in the preceding "Derfflinger"-class battlecruisers, and was intended to save weight compared to the traditional method of construction, which incorporated both longitudinal and transverse frames. The ships' hulls contained 18 watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 92 percent of the length of the hull. This was significantly greater than the older "Derfflinger"-class ships, which had a double bottom for only 65 percent of the length of the hull.  Experience with previous battlecruiser designs led to the adoption of a continuous upper deck, which raised the level of the deck aft. This was necessary because the aft decks of earlier designs were usually awash when steaming at high speed, even in calm seas. The ships were also equipped with a bulbous bow to reduce drag on the hull, the first time the feature was used in the German Navy. The ships as designed required a crew of 46 officers and 1,140 enlisted sailors. Service as a squadron flagship would increase that number by an additional 14 officers and 62 sailors. The vessels carried a number of small boats, including two picket boats, one barge, two launches, two cutters, and three yawls.

Machinery.

The ships of the "Mackensen" class were equipped with four sets of marine-type turbine engines, each of which drove a three-bladed screw propeller that was in diameter. The turbines mounted in "Fürst Bismarck" were equipped with Föttinger fluid transmission, while those on the other three ships were two sets of direct-coupled turbines with geared transmissions. The ships had 24 coal-fired marine-type single ended boilers and eight oil-fired marine-type boilers. The power plants were designed to provide and 295 revolutions per minute. Maximum speed was rated at. The ships were equipped with a pair of rudders mounted side by side, as opposed to the tandem rudders used on the "Derfflinger"-class ships.  The ships' turbines were equipped with Föttinger gears, which significantly improved performance at cruising speeds and provided a corresponding increase in range of about 20 percent. The vessels were designed to store of coal and of oil in purpose-built storage spaces; the hull areas between the torpedo bulkhead and the outer wall of the ship were used to store additional fuel. Maximum fuel capacity was of coal and of oil. This was estimated to give a range of up to about at a cruising speed of. Electrical power on the vessels was provided by eight diesel generators that put out 2,320 kilowatts at 220 volts.

Armament.

The "Mackensen"s were equipped with a main battery of eight new 35 cm SK L/45 guns in four twin gun turrets. The turrets were mounted in superfiring pairs fore and aft of the main superstructure. The guns were placed in Drh LC/1914 mountings, which could elevate to 20 degrees and depress to −5 degrees. The guns were supplied with a total of 720 armor-piercing shells, or 90 per gun. The weapons were designed to fire 600 kg (1,323 lb) shells at a rate of fire of around 2.5 shots per minute. The shells were fired with a muzzle velocity of. As with other heavy German guns, these weapons used a fore propellant charge in a silk bag with a main charge in a brass case. These guns could hit targets out to a maximum distance of.  The ships' secondary battery consisted of fourteen 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/45 quick-firing guns mounted in armored casemates along the central superstructure. Each gun was supplied with 160 rounds, and had a maximum range of, though this was later extended to. The guns had a sustained rate of fire of 7 rounds per minute. The shells were 45.3 kg (99.8 lb), and were loaded with a 13.7 kg (31.2 lb) RPC/12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge. The guns fired at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second (2,740 ft/s). The guns were expected to fire around 1,400 shells before they needed to be replaced.  The ships were also armed with eight 8.8 cm (3.45 in) L/45 Flak guns in single pedestal mounts. Four were arranged around the rear superfiring main battery turret and the other four around the forward conning tower. The Flak guns were emplaced in MPL C/13 mountings, which allowed depression to −10 degrees and elevation to 70 degrees. These guns fired 9 kg (19.8 lb) shells, and had an effective ceiling of at 70 degrees.  As was standard for warships of the period, the "Mackensen"s were equipped with submerged torpedo tubes. There were five tubes: one in the bow, and two on each flank of the ship. The torpedoes were the H8 type, which were long and carried a 210 kg (463 lb) Hexanite warhead. The torpedoes had a range of when set at a speed of ; at a reduced speed of, the range increased significantly to.

Armor.

The "Mackensen"-class ships were protected with Krupp cemented steel armor, as was the standard for German warships of the period. Specific figures for the arrangement of the armor layout have not survived, but according to naval historian Erich Gröner "The outfit of Krupp armour was similar to that of the [preceding] "Derfflinger" class". The figures listed here are those for the "Derfflinger" class. They had an armor belt of thickness in the central citadel of the ship, where the most important parts of the vessel were located. This included the ammunition magazines and the machinery spaces. The belt was reduced in less critical areas, to forward and aft. The belt tapered down to at the bow, though the stern was not protected by armor at all. A torpedo bulkhead ran the length of the hull, several meters behind the main belt. The main armored deck ranged in thickness from 30 mm in less important areas to in the sections that covered the more critical areas of the ship.  The forward conning tower was protected with heavy armor: the sides were 300 mm thick and the roof was. The rear conning tower was less well armored; its sides were only, and the roof was covered with of armor plate. The main battery gun turrets were also heavily armored: the turret sides were and the roofs were. The 15 cm guns had 150 mm worth of armor plating in the casemates; the guns themselves had shields to protect their crews from shell splinters.

Construction and cancellation.

Seven ships were originally planned in the class: "Mackensen", "Graf Spee", "Prinz Eitel Friedrich", "A"/"Ersatz Friedrich Carl", and three other vessels. The last three ships were redesigned as the, leaving four ships to be built to the "Mackensen" design. The first two ships were ordered on 14 August 1914, shortly after the outbreak of World War I. "Mackensen" was funded through the 1914 budget, while funding for "Graf Spee" came from the war budget. "Mackensen"—ordered under the provisional name "Ersatz Victoria Louise", as a replacement for the old protected cruiser —was named after "Generalfeldmarschall" (Field Marshal) August von Mackensen. The ship was laid down on 30 January 1915 at Blohm & Voss in Hamburg, under construction number 240. She was launched on 21 April 1917; at the small launching ceremony, "Generaloberst" (Colonel General) Josias von Heeringen gave the speech and the ship was christened by Mackensen's wife. Construction was halted about 15 months before she would have been completed. The British mistakenly believed the ship to have been completed, and so they included the ship on the list of vessels to be interned at Scapa Flow instead of the fleet flagship. "Mackensen" was stricken from the German navy, according to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, on 17 November 1919. She was sold for scrap and eventually broken up in 1922 at Kiel-Nordmole.  "Graf Spee" was named for Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee, the commander of the German East Asia Squadron; he was killed when his squadron was annihilated at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in 1914. "Graf Spee" was laid down on 30 November 1915 in the Schichau yards in Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland), under the provisional name "Ersatz Blücher", to replace the large armored cruiser that had been sunk at the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915. She was launched on 15 September 1917. At the launching ceremony, "Großadmiral" Prince Heinrich gave the speech and Spee's widow Margarete christened the ship. Construction stopped about 12 months away from completion; "Graf Spee" was the furthest along of all four ships when work was halted. She too was struck on 17 November 1919; on 28 October 1921 the unfinished hull was sold for 4.4 million Marks and broken up in Kiel-Nordmole.  "Prinz Eitel Friedrich", ordered as "Ersatz Freya ("a replacement for ) was named for one of Kaiser Wilhelm II's sons, Eitel Friedrich. She was laid down on 1 May 1915 at Blohm & Voss under construction number 241. She was 21 months away from completion when she was launched to clear the slip on 13 March 1920 and was broken up at Hamburg in 1921. At the launching ceremony, dockyard workers named the ship "Noske", after "Reichswehr" Minister Gustav Noske. "A"/"Ersatz Friedrich Carl", which might have been named "Fürst Bismarck" for the famous German chancellor Otto von Bismarck, was laid down on 3 November 1915 at the Wilhelmshaven Imperial Shipyard under construction number 25. She was about 26 months from completion when work ended. She was never launched; instead, the vessel was broken up on the slip in 1922.  Experience at the Battle of Jutland led the RMA to conclude that ships with 38 cm guns, heavier armor, and a higher top speed were necessary. The "Mackensen" design was used as the basis for the "Ersatz-Yorck" class, which incorporated the larger guns and more armor for the main battery turrets and barbettes. More powerful engines were unavailable to compensate for the extra weight, so the designers were forced to accept a reduced speed. Nevertheless, like the "Mackensen"s, the three ships ordered under the "Ersatz-Yorck" design were never completed. In response, the British ordered the four s, though the British designed the class under the mistaken impression that the "Mackensen" class would be armed with guns and would be capable of. Three of the four Admiral-class ships were cancelled; only was completed after the end of the war.  The primary reason construction halted on the four ships was the shifting of construction materials and manpower from capital ships to U-boats in the last two years of the war. The RMA filed a report dated 1 February 1918 stating that capital ship construction had ground to a halt primarily for this reason. Some thought was given to convert all four of the ships into dry grain carriers after the war, but the proposals ultimately came to nothing.

The "Mackensen" class was the last class of battlecruisers to be built by Germany in World War I. The design initially called for seven ships, but three of them were redesigned as the. Of the four ships of the "Mackensen" class, "Mackensen", "Graf Spee", and "Prinz Eitel Friedrich" were launched, and "Fürst Bismarck" was not—but none were completed, after wartime shipbuilding priorities were redirected towards U-boat—and the ships were broken up in the early 1920s. The lead ship of the class was named for August von Mackensen, a prominent military commander during the war. In response to the "Mackensen"-class ships, the British Royal Navy laid down the s, all but one of which would eventually be cancelled; the sole survivor,, was completed after the end of the war.

马肯森级大巡洋舰(德语:Große Kreuzer der Mackensen-Klasse)是德国设计建造的一种战列巡洋舰。


Juries.

Main competition.

The following people were appointed as the Jury for the feature films of the 2002 Official Selection:

Un Certain Regard.

The following people were appointed as the Jury of the 2002 Un Certain Regard:

Cinéfondation and short films.

The following people were appointed as the Jury of the Cinéfondation and short films competition:

Camera d'Or.

The following people were appointed as the Jury of the 2002 Camera d'Or:

Official selection.

In competition - Feature film.

The following feature films competed for the Palme d'Or:

Un Certain Regard.

The following films were selected for the competition of Un Certain Regard:

Films out of competition.

The following films were selected to be screened out of competition:

Cinéfondation.

The following short films were selected for the competition of Cinéfondation:

Short film competition.

The following short films competed for the Short Film Palme d'Or:

Parallel sections.

International Critics' Week.

The following films were screened for the 41st International Critics' Week (41e Semaine de la Critique):  Feature film competition  Short film competition  Special screenings

Directors' Fortnight.

The following films were screened for the 2002 Directors' Fortnight (Quinzaine des Réalizateurs):

Awards.

Official awards.

The following films and people received the 2002 Official selection awards: Un Certain Regard Cinéfondation Golden Camera Short Films

1939 Palme d'Or.

The inaugural Cannes Film Festival was to have been held in 1939, but was cancelled by the outbreak of the Second World War. The organizers of the 2002 festival assembled a jury of six members, including Dieter Kosslick and Alberto Barbera, to watch seven of the twelve features which had been entered in the 1939 competition, namely: "Goodbye, Mr. Chips", "La piste du nord", "Lenin in 1918", "The Four Feathers", "The Wizard of Oz", "Union Pacific", and "Boefje". "Union Pacific" was retrospectively voted the winner of the 1939 Palme d'Or.

Independent awards.

FIPRESCI Prizes Ecumenical Jury Award of the Youth Awards in the frame of International Critics' Week Awards in the frame of Directors' Fortnight Association Prix François Chalais

The 55th Cannes Film Festival started on 15 May and ran until 26 May 2002. The Palme d'Or went to the Polish-French-German-British co-produced film "The Pianist" directed by Roman Polanski.

第55届戛纳影展于2002年5月15日至5月26日在法国戛纳举办,开幕片为美国导演伍迪·艾伦执导的《好莱坞结局》,闭幕片则为法国导演克劳德·雷路许执导的《》。


Administration divisions.

Cangnan is part of the greater Municipal region of Wenzhou, It comprises 10 towns and two Ethnic towns, which covers 1,261.08 square kilometres, 28 square kilometres of which are urban area of 1,184,600 people (2010 estimate).

Population.

The sixth national census in 2010 concluded that Cangnan County has a resident population of 1,184,600 people as compared to the result of 1,167,600 people that was calculated by the fifth national census on November 1, 2000. A total population increase of 17,000 people with an increase rate of 1.46% was reached during the period of 2000 to 2010 with an average annual growth rate of 0.15%.[1]

Economy.

The overall industrial economy of Cangnan County maintained a smooth operation in 2013. The annual total industrial output value of 67,976,000,000 RMB was achieved in 2013, of which more than 24,938,000,000 RMB of industrial output value was reached. This was following by the completion of a planned industrial investment of 7,741,000,000 RMB. As the traditional-manufacturing industry has not yet fully regained its vitality in 2013 after it experienced its declining, a new force of 37 high-tech enterprises suddenly rose in Cangnan County, which gave Cangnan County a strong boost in its development of industrial economy in 2013. As the result, the annual total industrial output value of 3,751,000,000 RMB with an increase rate of 26.55% were achieved by the year of 2013. As compared to the year of 2012, there were six more companies were found in 2013. Cangnan County had one company achieved an industrial output value over 500,000 RMB, two companies over 300,000 RMB, and four companies over their first billion RMB.[2]

County New Area.

The County New Area is located in the east of Lingxi New Area, close to the 104 National Highway, the entrance of the Ningbo-Taizhou- Wenzhou Expressway and Cangnan Railway Station. It is the main area of urbanisation in the county, planned to be about 6.56 square kilometres. The infrastructure of the new area has recently been greatly improved. Based on the planning pattern of “one centre, two shafts and two blocks”, the new area is being constructed with administration, trade, finance, culture, sports and living areas all integrated as a whole. Project proposals for investment include a County New Area complex, five-star hotel and economic headquarters building in the near future.

Cangnan Industrial Park.

Cangnan Industrial Park is a provincial-level development zone authorised by the Zhejiang Provincial People's Government in March 2006. It is also the plot of provincial-level co-operation granted by that same government. It is located between the entrances of Hushan and Xiaojiang on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou Expressway, with the 104 National Highway passing through it. The regulated planning area is 12.5 square kilometres and the reserved expansion space is 30 square kilometres. In recent years, 55 enterprises have been brought in, with a total investment of US$814.4m, and are now in production, with an annual GDP of more than US$977.2m.  A series of specialised industrial parks has been established, including home furnishings, electromechanical, clothing and a new energy industrial park. The industrial parks will play an important role as the “main battlefield” of industry transformation in the county, focusing on export-oriented, scientific and technological and efficiency projects. Electromechanical products, clothing, auto and motorbike parts, instruments, solar photovoltaic and other hi-tech industries will be the key to future development.

Zhejiang-Taiwan (Cangnan) Economic and Trade Co-operation Zone.

The Zhejiang-Taiwan (Cangnan) Economic and Trade Co-operation Zone is the first provincial-level economic and trade co-operation zone with Taiwan, authorised by the Zhejiang Provincial People's Government in May 2011. With the territory of Cangnan as the strategic planning base for co-operation, it integrates the Cangnan Port (and its surrounding area) Industrial Base, Cangnan Industry Park, Taiwan Farmer's Innovation Park and other blocks to form an area of “one zone with various parks”. The planned area of construction is up to 260 square kilometres.  With integration into Haixi, connecting with Taiwan and taking the lead in Zhejiang as its core responsibilities, the co-operation zone demonstrates the unique advantage that Cangnan and Taiwan have in their relationship with each other, allowing them to actively participate in the construction of “double-sea, double-district”. With more flexible and open strategic policies, it is trying to forge Zhejiang marine economic development and the Zhejiang Haixi Zone economic development, through communication about economy, trade, culture and personnel.  People in Cangnan are diligent and intelligent, good managers and always innovative. The annual outputs of the packaging-printing and plastic-plating industries are 15 per cent and 20 per cent of national outputs respectively

Transportation.

Cangnan has an advantageous location and convenient transportation links. It is located at the intersection of the Yangtze River Delta and Haixi district, in the middle of the mainland's “golden coastline”. Transportation and communication are convenient here because the infrastructure is complete, with the 104 National Highway, Shenhai (Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou) Highway and Wenzhou-Fuzhou railway passing through Xiaguan, Bacao and Yanting, with four ports also connecting the area. Also in use are the Provincial 78 Highway, Longjin Avenue, Century Avenue and Huanhai Road. Cangnan is only 60 kilometres away from Wenzhou Airport, and just 120 nautical miles from the port of Keelung, Taiwan.

Airport.

Cangnan is served by the Wenzhou Longwan International Airport, which provides direct service to many destinations such as Italy, South Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam. Regional routes reach Hong Kong and Taipei. It has an extensive domestic route network within the PRC and is consistently ranked top 30 in passenger traffic among Chinese airports. The airport is located just outside the city in the Longwan District with direct bus service linking the airport with Downtown Lingxi and Longgang. A new elevated express highway is under construction between the airport and Cangnan.

Train.

Cangnan sits on the one of the busiest rail corridors (Yanhai High speed Railway) in China. The main rail way station is Cangnan Railway Station. It is one of the busiest of the county-level rail station in Zhejiang Province, consisting of two platforms that house the High Speed CRH service to Shanghai, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Beijing, Xuzhou, Lu'an and beyond.

Public Transportation.

Central, north and west long-distance bus stations offer frequent coach service to nearby cities/towns within Zhejiang province, as well as surrounding provinces. Cangnan has an efficient public transportation network, consisting of a modern fleet of regular diesel bus, electric bus, taxi and disability scooters. The public bus service network expanding from downtown to many suburban areas. Bicycles and electric scooters are very popular. Cangnan has an extensive free public bike rental system.

Tourism.

Cangnan has both mountains and sea, and is rich in resources. The coastline of the county is 252 kilometres and the usable mud flat area is more than 95 square kilometres. In particular, marine resources and the tourist economy have great development potential. Within its borders it has the acclaimed “Puzhuang Castle”, “Yucang Mountain” forest park and “Binhai-Yucang Mountain” scenic spot. It has numerous islands and sandy beaches, among which Yuliao is one of the largest sand beaches in Asia.

References.

苍南县常住人口118.46万 流出人口明显多于流入人口. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2016, from http://www.cnxw.com.cn/system/2011/05/24/010787839.shtml  苍南县人民政府网 综合实力. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2016, from http://www.cncn.gov.cn/col/col416/index.html  1.http://www.cnxw.com.cn/system/2011/05/24/010787839.shtml(chinese) 2.http://www.cncn.gov.cn/col/col416/index.html(chinese)

Cangnan County ( ) is a county in the prefecture-level city of Wenzhou in southern Zhejiang. The county government is in Lingxi. Cangnan has 20 towns, 14 townships, and two nationality townships. The predominant Chinese dialect spoken in Cangnan is Zhenan Min, but other dialects, such as Wenzhou dialect and Jinxiang dialect, are also spoken.

苍南县,是浙江省温州市管辖的一个县,于1981年建立,北邻平阳县、龙港市,南交泰顺县、福建省福鼎市,西北抵文成县,东向东海。县政府驻灵溪镇。因地处玉苍山之南,以此取县名为苍南。


Feeding.

Marginocephalians have simple, peg-like teeth surrounded by rhamphotheca, a horny sheath of keratin. The teeth are arranged in batteries for easy replacement and have serrations which may have been useful for cutting up vegetation. Marginocephalia evolved several methods for breaking down vegetation. Pachycephalosaurs had especially large abdomens with broad girths and elongate sacral ribs suggesting the presence of a large stomach. This is presumed to have been useful for breaking down tough vegetation through bacterial fermentation. Another adaptation for advanced vegetation digestion is seen in Ceratopsians, which evolved features to improve their chewing apparatus. Derived ceratopsians have vertical grinding surfaces on their teeth to maximize break-down of tough vegetation. There is also evidence of advanced adductor musculature that extends from a large coronoid process on the mandible up to the ceratopsian frill, which would increase chewing force. Pachycephalosaurs had gastroliths to help in digestion of food, but only primitive ceratopsians, such as "Psittacosaurus", have been found to have gastroliths.

Margins and social behavior.

Marginocephalian remains reveal significant evidence of being social creatures, much of which is related to the many possible functions of the bony skull margins. Some possible functions of the variably shaped and sized margins are to ward off predators, display, ritualized combat, defense of territory, or establishing social ordering. Both pachycephalosaurs and ceratopsians show evidence of interspecific communication, and there may be evidence of intraspecific communication.  Pachycephalosaurs, with their dome-shaped heads, are commonly thought to have used their thick skulls for butting into each other. Their brains and vertebrae are positioned in ways to protect from the impact of head-butting. Also, the columnar structure found in bone remains is consistent with models used to recreate the practice of head-butting. However, some pachycephalosaurs such at "Stygimoloch" have vascularization in the skull cap that would not have supported head-butting behavior. Thus, the heads could have been used as ornamentation or to butt into the softer flank of other pachycephalosaurs for intraspecific communication or as a form of agonistic behavior.  The frills of ceratopsians are incredibly diverse. They may have been used for protective purposes as the frill sometimes splays over the neck. However, some say that the frill would have provided little protection from other large dinosaurs such as "Tyrannosaurus". Other possible functions include intraspecific communication for mating purposes or as a visual display of territorial protection, as seen in many common day organisms such as red-breasted robins. The frills also could have been used for species recognition purposes, as they seem to develop fairly early in life. There has also been evidence that ceratopsians care for their young, as bone-beds have been found of adult individuals with a nest of juveniles, although some refute this as viable evidence of care for young. There have also been bone-beds found with hundreds of adult ceratopsians, indicating herd activity. A few specimens have been found with puncture wounds, supporting the use of horns as protective or combative weapons. Other research examining juvenile ceratopsians reveals a change in horn morphology over time, suggesting frills and horns could have been used for intraspecific communication of age. Horns also could have been used for thermoregulation as indicated by isotope analysis, as aid in knocking down vegetation, or for horn-locking agonistic behavior.

Sexual dimorphism.

The study of sexual dimorphism in dinosaurs is incredibly difficult. The varying size and intricacy of margins in Marginocephalia have shown many signs of sexual dimorphism. Although the intricate frills of marginocephalians sometimes seem to present with dimorphic features, many doubt the validity of these claims. "Stegoceras validum", a pachycephalosaur, can be segregated into two groups based on the size and shape of their skulls. These two group classifications separated the species population in half, which is highly indicative of sexual dimorphism. However, some report that the two groups may actually represent two separate species. "Protoceratops", a type of ceratopsian, also shows signs of sexual dimorphism. However, their frills don't seem to develop until later in life, and may be coordinated with sexual maturity.

Locomotion.

In general, primitive marginocephalians were bipedal or facultative quadrupedal, and derived individuals were obligate quadrupedal. This is especially prominent in Ceratopsia, where only the primitive "Psittacosaurus" is bipedal. All the derived forms were strong quadrupeds, although their stance is controversial. Some think they were fairly columnar, with front limbs erect under the body, which would have been more efficient for speed. Others think the legs were more sprawling, as evidenced by the shape of the forelimb bones. Although not as fast, this posture would have been efficient for grazing vegetation on the ground. Less is known about bipedal pachycephalosaur locomotion, although they must have had a fairly broad girth in order to make room for their enlarged gut.

Classification.

The cladogram below follows a 2009 analysis by Zheng and colleagues.  Cladogram after Butler "et al.", 2011.

Marginocephalia (/mär′jə-nō-sə-făl′ē-ən/ Latin: margin-head) is a clade of ornithischian dinosaurs that is characterized by a bony shelf or margin at the back of the skull. These fringes were likely used for display. There are two clades included in Marginocephalia: the thick-skulled Pachycephalosauria and the horned Ceratopsia. All members of Marginocephalia were primarily herbivores. They basally used gastroliths to aid in digestion of tough plant matter until they convergently evolved tooth batteries in Neoceratopsia (or "new Ceratopsia") and Pachycephalosauria. Marginocephalia first evolved in the Jurassic Period and became more common in the Cretaceous. They are basally small facultative quadrupeds while derived members of the group are large obligate quadrupeds. Primitive marginocephalians are found in Asia, but the group migrated upwards into North America.

头饰龙类(学名: )是鸟臀目恐龙的一个演化支,包括有厚头颅骨的厚头龙亚目,以及有角的角龙亚目。牠们全是植食性恐龙,以二足或四足方式行走,特征是头颅后方有骨质隆起或装饰物。头饰龙类演化支在侏罗纪演化出来,繁盛于白垩纪晚期。


Description.

The tritylodont's skull has a high sagittal crest. They retained the reptilian joint between the quadrate bone of the skull and the articular bone of the lower jaw—the retention of the vestigial reptilian jawbones is one of the reasons they are technically regarded to not be mammals, but are instead mammaliamorphs. The back of the skull had huge zygomatic arches for the attachment of its large jaw muscles. They also had a very well-developed secondary palate. The tritylodont dentition was very different from that of other cynodonts: they did not have canines, and the front pair of incisors were enlarged and were very similar to rodents of today. Tritylodontids had a large gap, called a diastema, that separated the incisors from their square-shaped cheek teeth. The cheek teeth in the upper jaw had three rows of cusps running along its length, with grooves in between. The lower teeth had two rows of cusps which fitted into the grooves in the upper teeth. The matching of the cusps allowed the teeth to occlude more precisely than in earlier cynodonts. It would grind its food between the teeth in somewhat the same way as a modern rodent, though unlike rodents tritylodontids had a palinal jaw stroke (front-to-back), instead of a propalinal one (back-to-front). The teeth were well suited for shredding plant matter; however, there is evidence that some tritylodontids had more omnivorous diets, much in the same vein as modern mammals with "herbivore dentitions" like modern rats.  Like mammaliaformes, tritylodontids have epipubic bones, a possible synapomorphy between both clades, and this suggests they may also have laid eggs, or produced undeveloped fetus-like young like modern monotremes and marsupials. A recent "Kayentatherium" showcases that they were indeed produced undeveloped young, but at litter sizes much larger than any monotreme or marsupial, at around 38 perinates.  Tritylodonts were active animals that were likely warm-blooded and possibly burrowed. The small early tritylodontid, "Oligokyphus" has been compared to a weasel or mink, with a long, slim body and tail. In "Kayentatherium" the burrowing adaptations seen in the skeleton have been re-interpreted as possibly suggesting a semi-aquatic ecology.

Discovery.

The first tritylodontid named was "Stereognathus", from the Middle Jurassic of England and the family name was erected by Cope in 1884. Shortly after, another tritylodontid was discovered in the Upper Triassic rocks of South Africa.

Evolutionary history.

Tritylodontids appeared in the late Triassic period, and persisted through the Jurassic until the early Cretaceous. "Montirictus" was the latest surviving tritylodontid, from the Cretaceous Barremian-Aptian Kuwajima Formation of Japan. Some authors argue "Chronoperates" is a tritylodontid member that persisted into the Paleocene after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, but this is not widely accepted. If true, then tritylodontids would have to be extremely rare during the Late Cretaceous, because no tritylodontids were found by that time. "Chronoperates" anatomy closely resembles that of symmetrodonts—a mammalian lineage. It is therefore more likely to belong to this group.

Phylogeny.

Because of their extremely mammal-like appearance, tritylodontids were originally placed within Mammalia. Starting with the work of British paleontologist D. M. S. Watson in 1942, a close relationship was favored between tritylodontids and cynodonts. Watson and other paleontologists noted that tritylodontids lacked the dentary and squamosal jaw articulation that was characteristic of early mammals. Haughton and Brink (1954) were the first to classify tritylodontids within Cynodontia. Later studies identified close similarities between the teeth of tritylodontids and traversodontids, and tritylodontids were eventually thought to be descendants of traversodontids. Under this classification, which was widely accepted in the following decades, Tritylodontidae was previous considered to be part of Gomphodontia, a larger group within Cynognathia. The name Tritylodontoidea was previously used for the group, which traditionally included the families Diademodontidae, Trirachodontidae, Traversodontidae, and Tritylodontidae.  More recently, tritylodontids have been reinterpreted as close relatives of mammals. Beginning with Kemp (1983), Tritylodontidae has been proposed by numerous studies as a member of Probainognathia, the closest sister group to Mammalia. Gomphodontia is still used for the cynognathian group containing traversodontids and is preferred over Tritylodontoidea now that tritylodontoids are not part of it. A phylogenetic analysis performed by Liu and Olsen (2010) places Tritylodontidae very closely to Mammalia, as the sister taxon of the clade formed by Brasilodontidae and Mammalia. Ruta "et al." (2013) phylogenetic analysis which is partially based on Liu and Olsen (2010) places Tritylodontidae in a more derived position than Brasilodontidae. Below is a cladogram from this analysis.  The exact position of Tritylodontidae in relation to Mammalia is still debated, but most researchers agree they are closely related, usually considering Tritylodontidae to be non-mammaliaform, mammaliamorph cynodonts.

Tritylodontidae ("three-knob teeth", named after the shape of animal's teeth) is an extinct family of small to medium-sized, highly specialized mammal-like cynodonts, bearing several mammalian traits like erect limbs, endothermy and details of the skeleton. They were the last-known family of the non-mammalian synapsids, persisting into the Early Cretaceous.

三瘤齿兽科(学名:Tritylodontidae)又名三列齿兽科,是群体型小至中型、高度特化、极度类似哺乳类的犬齿兽类。三瘤齿兽科可被比喻为中生代的啮齿动物,外表类似现代的水貂、黄鼠狼、水獭、野兔、雪貂。


Sup35.

Sup35، the single protein which forms (PSI+) prion in yeast "Sarcomycess varisenes", can form a different amyloid with different structure and stability. Sup35's functions include different defense strategies against stress in yeast.  N-terminal and middle reagin (NM) of Sup35 have polar amino acids, such as glutamine and glycine, and can control stress-sensing capability and facilitate the phase separation of Sup35 into large quantities of molecular condensates. It is required for Sup35 to be misfiled and enter to aggregation {PSI+} prion region.  Under stress, Sup35 forms a protective gel followed by gelatin, and promotes the yeast cell more fitness. When we deprive yeast of energy (glucose)! Sup35 assembles into small particles which protect yeast and present in arrested state and stationary phase but dissolved after cell were supplied in fresh media. Another type of stress condition change of pH, when pH lowers from 7.5 to 6.0 by add dinitrophenol (DNP) the condensation of particles is formed and consist in spherical shap.. Like the substance that protects "Saccharomyces crevisiae", these particles form liquid droplets which solidify into a gel.

Etymology.

""Saccharomyces"" derives from Latinized Greek and means "sugar-mold" or "sugar-fungus", "saccharon" (σάκχαρον) being the combining form "sugar" and "myces" (μύκης) being "fungus". "cerevisiae" comes from Latin and means "of beer". Other names for the organism are:  This species is also the main source of nutritional yeast and yeast extract.

History.

In the 19th century, bread bakers obtained their yeast from beer brewers, and this led to sweet-fermented breads such as the Imperial "Kaisersemmel" roll, which in general lacked the sourness created by the acidification typical of "Lactobacillus". However, beer brewers slowly switched from top-fermenting ("S. cerevisiae") to bottom-fermenting ("S. pastorianus") yeast and this created a shortage of yeast for making bread, so the Vienna Process was developed in 1846. While the innovation is often popularly credited for using steam in baking ovens, leading to a different crust characteristic, it is notable for including procedures for high milling of grains (see Vienna grits), cracking them incrementally instead of mashing them with one pass; as well as better processes for growing and harvesting top-fermenting yeasts, known as press-yeast.  Refinements in microbiology following the work of Louis Pasteur led to more advanced methods of culturing pure strains. In 1879, Great Britain introduced specialized growing vats for the production of "S. cerevisiae", and in the United States around the turn of the century centrifuges were used for concentrating the yeast, making modern commercial yeast possible, and turning yeast production into a major industrial endeavor. The slurry yeast made by small bakers and grocery shops became cream yeast, a suspension of live yeast cells in growth medium, and then compressed yeast, the fresh cake yeast that became the standard leaven for bread bakers in much of the Westernized world during the early 20th century.  During World War II, Fleischmann's developed a granulated active dry yeast for the United States armed forces, which did not require refrigeration and had a longer shelf-life and better temperature tolerance than fresh yeast; it is still the standard yeast for US military recipes. The company created yeast that would rise twice as fast, cutting down on baking time. Lesaffre would later create instant yeast in the 1970s, which has gained considerable use and market share at the expense of both fresh and dry yeast in their various applications.

Biology.

Ecology.

In nature, yeast cells are found primarily on ripe fruits such as grapes (before maturation, grapes are almost free of yeasts). Since "S. cerevisiae" is not airborne, it requires a vector to move.  Queens of social wasps overwintering as adults ("Vespa crabro" and "Polistes" spp.) can harbor yeast cells from autumn to spring and transmit them to their progeny. The intestine of "Polistes dominula", a social wasp, hosts "S. cerevisiae" strains as well as "S. cerevisiae" × "S. paradoxus" hybrids. Stefanini et al. (2016) showed that the intestine of "Polistes dominula" favors the mating of "S. cerevisiae" strains, both among themselves and with "S. paradoxus" cells by providing environmental conditions prompting cell sporulation and spores germination.  The optimum temperature for growth of "S. cerevisiae" is.

Life cycle.

Two forms of yeast cells can survive and grow: haploid and diploid. The haploid cells undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth, and under conditions of high stress will, in general, die. This is the asexual form of the fungus. The diploid cells (the preferential 'form' of yeast) similarly undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth. The rate at which the mitotic cell cycle progresses often differs substantially between haploid and diploid cells. Under conditions of stress, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering meiosis and producing four haploid spores, which can subsequently mate. This is the sexual form of the fungus. Under optimal conditions, yeast cells can double their population every 100 minutes. However, growth rates vary enormously both between strains and between environments. Mean replicative lifespan is about 26 cell divisions.  In the wild, recessive deleterious mutations accumulate during long periods of asexual reproduction of diploids, and are purged during selfing: this purging has been termed "genome renewal".

Nutritional requirements.

All strains of "S. cerevisiae" can grow aerobically on glucose, maltose, and trehalose and fail to grow on lactose and cellobiose. However, growth on other sugars is variable. Galactose and fructose are shown to be two of the best fermenting sugars. The ability of yeasts to use different sugars can differ depending on whether they are grown aerobically or anaerobically. Some strains cannot grow anaerobically on sucrose and trehalose.  All strains can use ammonia and urea as the sole nitrogen source, but cannot use nitrate, since they lack the ability to reduce them to ammonium ions. They can also use most amino acids, small peptides, and nitrogen bases as nitrogen sources. Histidine, glycine, cystine, and lysine are, however, not readily used. "S. cerevisiae" does not excrete proteases, so extracellular protein cannot be metabolized.  Yeasts also have a requirement for phosphorus, which is assimilated as a dihydrogen phosphate ion, and sulfur, which can be assimilated as a sulfate ion or as organic sulfur compounds such as the amino acids methionine and cysteine. Some metals, like magnesium, iron, calcium, and zinc, are also required for good growth of the yeast.  Concerning organic requirements, most strains of "S. cerevisiae" require biotin. Indeed, a "S. cerevisiae"-based growth assay laid the foundation for the isolation, crystallisation, and later structural determination of biotin. Most strains also require pantothenate for full growth. In general, "S. cerevisiae" is prototrophic for vitamins.

Mating.

Yeast has two mating types, a and α ("alpha"), which show primitive aspects of sex differentiation. As in many other eukaryotes, mating leads to genetic recombination, i.e. production of novel combinations of chromosomes. Two haploid yeast cells of opposite mating type can mate to form diploid cells that can either sporulate to form another generation of haploid cells or continue to exist as diploid cells. Mating has been exploited by biologists as a tool to combine genes, plasmids, or proteins at will.  The mating pathway employs a G protein-coupled receptor, G protein, RGS protein, and three-tiered MAPK signaling cascade that is homologous to those found in humans. This feature has been exploited by biologists to investigate basic mechanisms of signal transduction and desensitization.

Cell cycle.

Growth in yeast is synchronised with the growth of the bud, which reaches the size of the mature cell by the time it separates from the parent cell. In well nourished, rapidly growing yeast cultures, all the cells can be seen to have buds, since bud formation occupies the whole cell cycle. Both mother and daughter cells can initiate bud formation before cell separation has occurred. In yeast cultures growing more slowly, cells lacking buds can be seen, and bud formation only occupies a part of the cell cycle.

Cytokinesis.

Cytokinesis enables budding yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" to divide into two daughter cells. "S. cerevisiae" forms a bud which can grow throughout its cell cycle and later leaves its mother cell when mitosis has completed.  "S. cerevisiae" is relevant to cell cycle studies because it divides asymmetrically by using a polarized cell to make two daughters with different fates and sizes. Similarly, stem cells use asymmetric division for self-renewal and differentiation.

Timing.

For many cells, M phase does not happen until S phase is complete. However, for entry into mitosis in "S. cerevisiae" this is not true. Cytokinesis begins with the budding process in late G1 and is not completed until about halfway through the next cycle. The assembly of the spindle can happen before S phase has finished duplicating the chromosomes. Additionally, there is a lack of clearly defined G2 in between M and S. Thus, there is a lack of extensive regulation present in higher eukaryotes.  When the daughter emerges, the daughter is two-thirds the size of the mother. Throughout the process, the mother displays little to no change in size. The RAM pathway is activated in the daughter cell immediately after cytokinesis is complete. This pathway makes sure that the daughter has separated properly.

Actomyosin ring and primary septum formation.

Two interdependent events drive cytokinesis in "S. cerevisiae". The first event is contractile actomyosin ring (AMR) constriction and the second event is formation of the primary septum (PS), a chitinous cell wall structure that can only be formed during cytokinesis. The PS resembles in animals the process of extracellular matrix remodeling. When the AMR constricts, the PS begins to grow. Disrupting AMR misorients the PS, suggesting that both have a dependent role. Additionally, disrupting the PS also leads to disruptions in the AMR, suggesting both the actomyosin ring and primary septum have an interdependent relationship.  The AMR, which is attached to the cell membrane facing the cytosol, consists of actin and myosin II molecules that coordinate the cells to split. The ring is thought to play an important role in ingression of the plasma membrane as a contractile force.  Proper coordination and correct positional assembly of the contractile ring depends on septins, which is the precursor to the septum ring. These GTPases assemble complexes with other proteins. The septins form a ring at the site where the bud will be created during late G1. They help promote the formation of the actin-myosin ring, although this mechanism is unknown. It is suggested they help provide structural support for other necessary cytokinesis processes. After a bud emerges, the septin ring forms an hourglass. The septin hourglass and the myosin ring together are the beginning of the future division site.  The septin and AMR complex progress to form the primary septum consisting of glucans and other chitinous molecules sent by vesicles from the Golgi body. After AMR constriction is complete, two secondary septums are formed by glucans. How the AMR ring dissembles remains poorly unknown.  Microtubules do not play as significant a role in cytokinesis compared to the AMR and septum. Disruption of microtubules did not significantly impair polarized growth. Thus, the AMR and septum formation are the major drivers of cytokinesis.

In biological research.

Model organism.

When researchers look for an organism to use in their studies, they look for several traits. Among these are size, generation time, accessibility, manipulation, genetics, conservation of mechanisms, and potential economic benefit. The yeast species "S. pombe" and "S. cerevisiae" are both well studied; these two species diverged approximately, and are significant tools in the study of DNA damage and repair mechanisms.  "S. cerevisiae" has developed as a model organism because it scores favorably on a number of these criteria.

In the study of aging.

For more than five decades "S. cerevisiae" has been studied as a model organism to better understand aging and has contributed to the identification of more mammalian genes affecting aging than any other model organism. Some of the topics studied using yeast are calorie restriction, as well as in genes and cellular pathways involved in senescence. The two most common methods of measuring aging in yeast are Replicative Life Span (RLS), which measures the number of times a cell divides, and Chronological Life Span (CLS), which measures how long a cell can survive in a non-dividing stasis state. Limiting the amount of glucose or amino acids in the growth medium has been shown to increase RLS and CLS in yeast as well as other organisms. At first, this was thought to increase RLS by up-regulating the sir2 enzyme, however it was later discovered that this effect is independent of sir2. Over-expression of the genes sir2 and fob1 has been shown to increase RLS by preventing the accumulation of extrachromosomal rDNA circles, which are thought to be one of the causes of senescence in yeast. The effects of dietary restriction may be the result of a decreased signaling in the TOR cellular pathway. This pathway modulates the cell's response to nutrients, and mutations that decrease TOR activity were found to increase CLS and RLS. This has also been shown to be the case in other animals. A yeast mutant lacking the genes sch9 and ras2 has recently been shown to have a tenfold increase in chronological lifespan under conditions of calorie restriction and is the largest increase achieved in any organism.  Mother cells give rise to progeny buds by mitotic divisions, but undergo replicative aging over successive generations and ultimately die. However, when a mother cell undergoes meiosis and gametogenesis, lifespan is reset. The replicative potential of gametes (spores) formed by aged cells is the same as gametes formed by young cells, indicating that age-associated damage is removed by meiosis from aged mother cells. This observation suggests that during meiosis removal of age-associated damages leads to rejuvenation. However, the nature of these damages remains to be established.  During starvation of non-replicating "S. cerevisiae" cells, reactive oxygen species increase leading to the accumulation of DNA damages such as apurinic/apyrimidinic sites and double-strand breaks. Also in non-replicating cells the ability to repair endogenous double-strand breaks declines during chronological aging.

Meiosis, recombination and DNA repair.

"S. cerevisiae" reproduces by mitosis as diploid cells when nutrients are abundant. However, when starved, these cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores.  Evidence from studies of "S. cerevisiae" bear on the adaptive function of meiosis and recombination. Mutations defective in genes essential for meiotic and mitotic recombination in "S. cerevisiae" cause increased sensitivity to radiation or DNA damaging chemicals. For instance, gene "rad52" is required for both meiotic recombination and mitotic recombination. "Rad52" mutants have increased sensitivity to killing by X-rays, Methyl methanesulfonate and the DNA cross-linking agent 8-methoxypsoralen-plus-UVA, and show reduced meiotic recombination. These findings suggest that recombination repair during meiosis and mitosis is needed for repair of the different damages caused by these agents.  Ruderfer et al. (2006) analyzed the ancestry of natural "S. cerevisiae" strains and concluded that outcrossing occurs only about once every 50,000 cell divisions. Thus, it appears that in nature, mating is likely most often between closely related yeast cells. Mating occurs when haploid cells of opposite mating type MATa and MATα come into contact. Ruderfer et al. pointed out that such contacts are frequent between closely related yeast cells for two reasons. The first is that cells of opposite mating type are present together in the same ascus, the sac that contains the cells directly produced by a single meiosis, and these cells can mate with each other. The second reason is that haploid cells of one mating type, upon cell division, often produce cells of the opposite mating type with which they can mate. The relative rarity in nature of meiotic events that result from outcrossing is inconsistent with the idea that production of genetic variation is the main selective force maintaining meiosis in this organism. However, this finding is consistent with the alternative idea that the main selective force maintaining meiosis is enhanced recombinational repair of DNA damage, since this benefit is realized during each meiosis, whether or not out-crossing occurs.

Genome sequencing.

"S. cerevisiae" was the first eukaryotic genome to be completely sequenced. The genome sequence was released to the public domain on April 24, 1996. Since then, regular updates have been maintained at the Saccharomyces Genome Database. This database is a highly annotated and cross-referenced database for yeast researchers. Another important "S. cerevisiae" database is maintained by the Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences (MIPS). The "S. cerevisiae" genome is composed of about 12,156,677 base pairs and 6,275 genes, compactly organized on 16 chromosomes. Only about 5,800 of these genes are believed to be functional. It is estimated at least 31% of yeast genes have homologs in the human genome. Yeast genes are classified using gene symbols (such as sch9) or systematic names. In the latter case the 16 chromosomes of yeast are represented by the letters A to P, then the gene is further classified by a sequence number on the left or right arm of the chromosome, and a letter showing which of the two DNA strands contains its coding sequence.  Examples:

Gene function and interactions.

The availability of the "S. cerevisiae" genome sequence and a set of deletion mutants covering 90% of the yeast genome has further enhanced the power of "S. cerevisiae" as a model for understanding the regulation of eukaryotic cells. A project underway to analyze the genetic interactions of all double-deletion mutants through synthetic genetic array analysis will take this research one step further. The goal is to form a functional map of the cell's processes.  From this, 170,000 gene interactions were found and genes with similar interaction patterns were grouped together. Genes with similar genetic interaction profiles tend to be part of the same pathway or biological process. This information was used to construct a global network of gene interactions organized by function. This network can be used to predict the function of uncharacterized genes based on the functions of genes they are grouped with.

Other tools in yeast research.

Approaches that can be applied in many different fields of biological and medicinal science have been developed by yeast scientists. These include yeast two-hybrid for studying protein interactions and tetrad analysis. Other resources, include a gene deletion library including ~4,700 viable haploid single gene deletion strains. A GFP fusion strain library used to study protein localisation and a TAP tag library used to purify protein from yeast cell extracts.  Stanford University's yeast deletion project created knockout mutations of every gene in the "S. cerevisiae" genome to determine their function.

Synthetic yeast genome project.

The international Synthetic Yeast Genome Project (Sc2.0 or "Saccharomyces cerevisiae version 2.0") aims to build an entirely designer, customizable, synthetic "S. cerevisiae" genome from scratch that is more stable than the wild type. In the synthetic genome all transposons, repetitive elements and many introns are removed, all UAG stop codons are replaced with UAA, and transfer RNA genes are moved to a novel neochromosome., 6 of the 16 chromosomes have been synthesized and tested. No significant fitness defects have been found.

Astrobiology.

Among other microorganisms, a sample of living "S. cerevisiae" was included in the Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment, which would have completed a three-year interplanetary round-trip in a small capsule aboard the Russian Fobos-Grunt spacecraft, launched in late 2011. The goal was to test whether selected organisms could survive a few years in deep space by flying them through interplanetary space. The experiment would have tested one aspect of transpermia, the hypothesis that life could survive space travel, if protected inside rocks blasted by impact off one planet to land on another. Fobos-Grunt's mission ended unsuccessfully, however, when it failed to escape low Earth orbit. The spacecraft along with its instruments fell into the Pacific Ocean in an uncontrolled re-entry on January 15, 2012. The next planned exposure mission in deep space using "S. cerevisiae" is BioSentinel. (see: List of microorganisms tested in outer space)

In commercial applications.

Brewing.

"Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is used in brewing beer, when it is sometimes called a top-fermenting or top-cropping yeast. It is so called because during the fermentation process its hydrophobic surface causes the flocs to adhere to CO and rise to the top of the fermentation vessel. Top-fermenting yeasts are fermented at higher temperatures than the lager yeast "Saccharomyces pastorianus", and the resulting beers have a different flavor than the same beverage fermented with a lager yeast. "Fruity esters" may be formed if the yeast undergoes temperatures near, or if the fermentation temperature of the beverage fluctuates during the process. Lager yeast normally ferments at a temperature of approximately, where "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" becomes dormant. A variant yeast known as "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" var. "diastaticus" is a beer spoiler which can cause secondary fermentations in packaged products.  In May 2013, the Oregon legislature made "S. cerevisiae" the official state microbe in recognition of the impact craft beer brewing has had on the state economy and the state's identity.

Baking.

"S. cerevisiae" is used in baking; the carbon dioxide generated by the fermentation is used as a leavening agent in bread and other baked goods. Historically, this use was closely linked to the brewing industry's use of yeast, as bakers took or bought the barm or yeast-filled foam from brewing ale from the brewers (producing the barm cake); today, brewing and baking yeast strains are somewhat different.

Nutritional yeast.

"Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is the main source of nutritional yeast, which is sold commercially as a food product. It is popular with vegans and vegetarians as an ingredient in cheese substitutes, or as a general food additive as a source of vitamins and minerals, especially amino acids and B-complex vitamins.

Uses in aquaria.

Owing to the high cost of commercial CO cylinder systems, CO injection by yeast is one of the most popular DIY approaches followed by aquaculturists for providing CO to underwater aquatic plants. The yeast culture is, in general, maintained in plastic bottles, and typical systems provide one bubble every 3–7 seconds. Various approaches have been devised to allow proper absorption of the gas into the water.

Direct use in medicine.

"Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is used as a probiotic in humans and animals. Especially, a strain "Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii" is industrially manufactured and clinically used as a medication.  Several clinical and experimental studies have shown that "Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii" is, to lesser or greater extent, useful for prevention or treatment of several gastrointestinal diseases. Moderate quality evidence shown "Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii" to reduce risk of antibiotic-associated diarrhea both in adults and in children and to reduce risk of adverse effects of "Helicobacter pylori" eradication therapy. Also some limited evidence support efficacy of "Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii" in prevention (but not treatment) of traveler's diarrhea and, at least as an adjunct medication, in treatment of acute diarrhea in adults and children and of persistent diarrhea in children. It may also reduce symptoms of allergic rhinitis.  Administration of "S. cerevisiae var. boulardii" is considered generally safe. In clinical trials it was well tolerated by patients, and adverse effects rate was similar to that in control groups (i. e. groups with "placebo" or no treatment). No case of "S. cerevisiae var. boulardii" fungemia has been reported during clinical trials.  In clinical practice, however, cases of fungemia, caused by "Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii" are reported. Patients with compromised immunity or those with central vascular catheters are at especial risk. Some researchers have recommended not to use "Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii" for treatment of such patients. Others suggest only that caution must be exercised with its use in risk group patients.

A human pathogen.

"Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is proven to be an opportunistic human pathogen, though of relatively low virulence. Despite widespread use of this microorganism at home and in industry, contact with it very rarely leads to infection. "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" was found in the skin, oral cavity, oropharinx, duodenal mucosa, digestive tract, and vagina of healthy humans (one review found it to be reported for 6% of samples from human intestine). Some specialists consider "S. cerevisiae" to be a part of the normal microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory tract, and the vagina of humans, while others believe that the species cannot be called a true commensal because it originates in food. Presence of "S. cerevisiae" in the human digestive system may be rather transient; for example, experiments show that in the case of oral administration to healthy individuals it is eliminated from the intestine within 5 days after the end of administration.  Under certain circumstances, such as degraded immunity, "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" can cause infection in humans. Studies show that it causes 0.45-1.06% of the cases of yeast-induced vaginitis. In some cases, women suffering from "S. cerevisiae"-induced vaginal infection were intimate partners of bakers, and the strain was found to be the same that their partners used for baking. As of 1999, no cases of "S. cerevisiae"-induced vaginitis in women, who worked in bakeries themselves, were reported in scientific literature. Some cases were linked by researchers to the use of the yeast in home baking. Cases of infection of oral cavity and pharynx caused by "S. cerevisiae" are also known.

Invasive and systemic infections.

Occasionally "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" causes invasive infections (i. e. gets into the bloodstream or other normally sterile body fluid or into a deep site tissue, such as lungs, liver or spleen) that can go systemic (involve multiple organs). Such conditions are life-threatening. More than 30% cases of "S. cerevisiae" invasive infections lead to death even if treated. "S. cerevisiae" invasive infections, however, are much rarer than invasive infections caused by "Candida albicans" even in patients weakened by cancer. "S. cerevisiae" causes 1% to 3.6% nosocomial cases of fungemia. A comprehensive review of "S. cerevisiae" invasive infection cases found all patients to have at least one predisposing condition.  "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" may enter the bloodstream or get to other deep sites of the body by translocation from oral or enteral mucosa or through contamination of intravascular catheters (e. g. central venous catheters). Intravascular catheters, antibiotic therapy and compromised immunity are major predisposing factors for "S. cerevisiae" invasive infection.  A number of cases of fungemia were caused by intentional ingestion of living "S. cerevisiae" cultures for dietary or therapeutic reasons, including use of "Saccharomyces boulardii" (a strain of "S. cerevisiae" which is used as a probiotic for treatment of certain forms of diarrhea). "Saccharomices boulardii" causes about 40% cases of invasive "Saccharomyces" infections and is more likely (in comparison to other "S. cerevisiae" strains) to cause invasive infection in humans without general problems with immunity, though such adverse effect is very rare relative to "Saccharomices boulardii" therapeutic administration.  "S. boulardii" may contaminate intravascular catheters through hands of medical personnel involved in administering probiotic preparations of "S. boulardii" to patients.  Systemic infection usually occurs in patients who have their immunity compromised due to severe illness (HIV/AIDS, leukemia, other forms of cancer) or certain medical procedures (bone marrow transplantation, abdominal surgery).  A case was reported when a nodule was surgically excised from a lung of a man employed in baking business, and examination of the tissue revealed presence of "Saccharomyces cerevisiae". Inhalation of dry baking yeast powder is supposed to be the source of infection in this case.

Virulence of different strains.

Not all strains of "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" are equally virulent towards humans. Most environmental strains are not capable of growing at temperatures above 35 °C (i. e. at temperatures of living body of humans and other mammalian). Virulent strains, however, are capable of growing at least above 37 °C and often up to 39 °C (rarely up to 42 °C). Some industrial strains are also capable of growing above 37 °C. European Food Safety Authority (as of 2017) requires that all "S. cerevisiae" strains capable of growth above 37 °C that are added to the food or feed chain in viable form must, as to be qualified presumably safe, show no resistance to antimycotic drugs used for treatment of yeast infections.  The ability to grow at elevated temperatures is an important factor for strain's virulence but not the sole one.  Other traits that are usually believed to be associated with virulence are: ability to produce certain enzymes such as proteinase and phospholipase, invasive growth (i.e. growth with intrusion into the nutrient medium), ability to adhere to mammalian cells, ability to survive in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (that is used by macrophages to kill foreign microorganisms in the body) and other abilities allowing the yeast to resist or influence immune response of the host body. Ability to form branching chains of cells, known as pseudohyphae is also sometimes said to be associated with virulence, though some research suggests that this trait may be common to both virulent and non-virulent strains of "Saccharomyces cerevisiae".

Saccharomyces cerevisiae () is a species of yeast. It has been instrumental in winemaking, baking, and brewing since ancient times. It is believed to have been originally isolated from the skin of grapes (one can see the yeast as a component of the thin white film on the skins of some dark-colored fruits such as plums; it exists among the waxes of the cuticle). It is one of the most intensively studied eukaryotic model organisms in molecular and cell biology, much like "Escherichia coli" as the model bacterium. It is the microorganism behind the most common type of fermentation. "S. cerevisiae" cells are round to ovoid, 5–10 μm in diameter. It reproduces by budding.

酿酒酵母(学名:',又称面包酵母或者啤酒酵母,出芽酵母。酿酒酵母是与人类关系最广泛的一种酵母,不仅因为传统上它用于制作面包和馒头等食品及酿酒,在现代分子和细胞生物学中用作真核模式生物,其作用相当于原核的模式生物大肠杆菌。酿酒酵母是发酵中最常用的生物种类。酿酒酵母的细胞为球形或者卵形,直径5–10 μm。其繁殖的方法为出芽生殖。


Early life.

Hawkes was born John Marvin Perkins in Alexandria, Minnesota, the son of Patricia Jeanne (née Olson) and Peter John "Pete" Perkins, a farmer of wheat, corn, hogs and cattle. He was raised in a "pastoral, small city... a midwest Scandinavian community." Hawkes graduated from Jefferson High School and moved to Austin, Texas, where he was a member of the bands Meat Joy, with Gretchen Phillips, and King Straggler, with fellow actors Rodney Eastman and Brentley Gore.

Career.

His first film role was in "Future-Kill" (1985), credited as John Perkins. He changed his stage name to John Hawkes because there was another actor named John Perkins.  Hawkes played the role of Greg Penticoff in season 1 of "24". From 2004 to 2006, Hawkes played merchant Sol Star on the HBO series "Deadwood". He portrayed Dustin Powers, brother of protagonist Kenny Powers, on all four seasons of the HBO series "Eastbound & Down", and played Lennon on ABC's "Lost".  His other film roles include "Me and You and Everyone We Know", "The Perfect Storm", "American Gangster", "", "Martha Marcy May Marlene", and "Lincoln".  In 2011, he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in "Winter's Bone", as well as for a number of other awards, including the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role. He won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male. Also in 2011, Hawkes was honored with a Rising Star Award by the Texas Film Hall of Fame.  In 2012, the film "The Sessions" was considered one of the Sundance breakout hits of that year. Hawkes received two prolonged standing ovations at the film's screening. It was praised by critics at the festival as "accessible, enjoyable, and light-hearted".  In 2016, it was announced that Hawkes would star in the Amazon pilot "The Legend of Master Legend", which is based on the popular real life superhero Master Legend.  In April 2017, Ian McShane confirmed that David Milch has submitted a script for a two-hour "Deadwood" movie to HBO. "[A] two-hour movie script has been delivered to HBO. If they don't deliver [a finished product], blame them," McShane said. He went on to say of the original cast returning, "we'd all love to do it... It would be nice to see all of the old gang again." Hawkes expressed interest in reprising his role as Sol Star. began production in October 2018, and premiered on May 31, 2019.

John Hawkes (born John Marvin Perkins; September 11, 1959) is an American actor. He is the recipient of several accolades, including two Independent Spirit Awards, and has been nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award.

约翰·霍克斯(英语:John Hawkes),原名约翰·马文·佩金斯(英语:John Marvin Perkins,1959年-9月11日)是美国电影和电视演员,其最具知名度的演出为于2010年上映的独立制片电影《冬天的骨头》,这一角色为他赢得了第83届奥斯卡金像奖提名。


History.

First owners.

During the 16th century, the building was owned by the Cini family. On February 1605, Alamanno Aragon Hocheppan, grandson of Cosimo I, acquired it. The Grassi family first moved in the building in 1655.

Grassi family.

The Palazzo Grassi was designed by Giorgio Massari, and rebuilt between 1748 and 1772. Massari started the Palazzo while he was finishing the Ca' Rezzonico on the opposite bank of the river.  A latecomer among the palaces on the Grand Canal of Venice, Palazzo Grassi has an academic classical style that is in contrast to the surrounding Byzantine Romanesque and Baroque Venetian palazzi. It has a formal palace façade, constructed of white marble, but lacks the lower mercantile openings typical of many Venetian patrician palaces. The main stairwell is frescoed by Michelangelo Morlaiter and Francesco Zanchi, and the ceilings are decorated by the artists Giambattista Canal and Christian Griepenkerl. The Palazzo Grassi was the last palace to be built on the Grand Canal before the fall of the Venetian Republic, and the largest-sited.

Fiat-Agnelli.

The Grassi family sold the palazzo in 1840, with ownership that followed passing through many different individuals. In 1857, the building was bought by Baron Simeone De Sina. A small scenic garden was created adjacent to the building.  In 1951, the building became the International Centre of Arts and Costume. The adjacent garden was turned into an open-air theatre (Teatrino), which was finally covered in the 1960s. The International Centre for Arts and Costume closed in 1983.  The Palazzo was purchased by the Fiat Group in 1983, under the late chairman Gianni Agnelli, and it underwent a complete restoration overseen by architect Gae Aulenti. The group's aim was to transform Palazzo Grassi into an exhibition hall for the visual arts. It continues to be used as an art gallery today.  Between 1984 and 1990, Pontus Hultén was in charge of the art museum which also contained a 600-seat outdoor theatre. In 1990, the architect Aldo Rossi received the Pritzker Architecture Prize in this building.

Pinault Collection.

In May 2005, the French entrepreneur François Pinault bought the Palazzo Grassi for 29 million euros. The remodeling of the building was assigned to the Japanese architect Tadao Ando. The Palazzo reopened in April 2006 with the exhibit "Where Are We Going?". The Palazzo is divided in 40 rooms, providing 5,000 m2 of exhibition floor. Jean-Jacques Aillagon was the museum's first director.  In 2007, François Pinault acquired the Punta della Dogana to transform it into a contemporary art museum paired with the Palazzo Grassi. The replanning of the building, which was in disrepair when acquired, was also assigned to Tadao Ando. The Punta della Dogana reopened after 14 months of renovation.  In 2013, Tadao Ando redesigned the Teatrino into a 225-seat auditorium.

Building.

The Palazzo Grassi was designed by Giorgio Massari. The main stairwell was frescoed by Michelangelo Morlaiter. and Francesco Zanchi. The ceilings were decorated by Giovanni Battista Canal and Christian Griepenkerl.

Palazzo Grassi (also known as the Palazzo Grassi-Stucky) is a building in the Venetian Classical style located on the Grand Canal of Venice (Italy), between the Palazzo Moro Lin and the campo San Samuele.

格拉西宫 ()是位于意大利城市威尼斯的一座宫殿建筑,由乔治·马萨里设计,建设于1722年至1748年期间。威尼斯大多数宫殿建筑为罗马式风格或巴洛克式风格,而格拉西宫的建筑外观为古典风格,颇为独特。现在格拉西宫是一座美术馆。


亨普斯特德 (德克萨斯州)

History.

On December 29, 1856, Dr. Richard Rodgers Peebles and James W. McDade organized the Hempstead Town Company to sell lots in the newly established community of Hempstead, which was located at the projected terminus of Houston and Texas Central Railway. Peebles named Hempstead after Dr. G. S. B. Hempstead, Peebles's brother-in-law. Peebles and Mary Ann Groce Peebles, his wife, contributed of the estate of Jared E. Groce, Jr., for the community. On June 29, 1858, the Houston and Texas Central Railway was extended to Hempstead, causing the community to become a distribution center between the Gulf Coast and the interior of Texas. On November 10 of that year, Hempstead incorporated. The Washington County Railroad, which ran from Hempstead to Brenham, enhanced the city upon its completion.

The Civil War and aftermath.

1861-1862.

The Confederate Military Post of Hempstead was established in the Spring of 1861. Numerous camps of instruction were established east of town along Clear Creek. Camp Hebert was established on the eastern bank of Clear Creek and south of the Washington Road. Camp Hebert was the earliest camp in the area, and served as the headquarters of the Post of Hempstead early in the war.  Camp Groce CSA was established in spring 1862 on Liendo Plantation on the eastern bank of Clear Creek as a camp of instruction for Confederate infantry recruits. Originally named Camp Liendo, the name was changed to Camp Groce in honor of Leonard Waller Groce, the owner of Liendo Plantation, and the owner of over 100 slaves. A contract to construct the barracks at Camps Groce and Hebert was let in February 1862. Numerous Confederate infantry regiments were organized, trained, and equipped at Camps Groce and Hebert. In spring 1862, the camps were abandoned due to their sickly locations. Camp Groce was reused as a military camp until spring 1863, but was again abandoned. From 1861 to 1863, nearly 200 Confederate soldiers fell sick at Camps Groce and Hebert and died. Many were taken to the Post Hospital in the Planter's Exchange Hotel located at the southwest corner of 12th and Wilkins Streets in downtown Hempstead. Many died in the hospital and almost all of them are buried on McDade Plantation west of town, which became the hospital cemetery.

1863.

In June 1863, Camp Groce was re-opened as a prison camp for Union prisoners captured in the Battles of Galveston (January 1, 1863) and Sabine Pass I (January 21, 1863). The Union prisoners of war taken at the Battle of Sabine Pass II (September 8, 1863) were also sent to Camp Groce. 427 Union prisoners were held at Camp Groce in 1863 and 21 died. Most of the dead were buried northeast of camp where most of them still rest today.

1864.

Camp Groce was re-opened in May 1864 for 148 Union prisoners captured at the battle of Calcasieu Pass, Louisiana. The group of prisoners included the crew of the USS "Granite City" and USS "Wave", Tinclad #45, and 37 soldiers. About 40 soldiers from the 1st Texas US Cavalry were sent to Camp Groce in June 1864, and 506 more Union prisoners were transferred to Camp Groce from Camp Ford in August 1864. Yellow fever and other diseases affected the prisoners. They were moved to Camp Gillespie near Bellville in late September 1864 and then to Camp Felder, 6.5 miles north-northwest of Chappell Hill, Texas. 221 prisoners died or were missing from Camps Groce, Gillespie, and Felder in 1864. 444 were paroled in December 1864.  1863: 427 POWs, 21 died, 2 escaped 1864: 683 POWs, 147 died, 28 missing, 18 escaped, 13 deserted to the enemy, 14 status unknown, and 1 political prisoner held by CS authorities until released in May 1865.  Totals: 1,110 POWs held, 168 died, 28 missing, 20 escaped, 13 deserted to the enemy, 14 status unknown  At least 277 Confederate soldiers died or went missing in and around Hempstead, Texas during the Civil War.  Most of the US and CS soldiers who died in and around Hempstead, Texas during the Civil War are still buried in the area. They are buried in 3 primary locations in and around Camp Groce and west of town on the old McDade Plantation Cemetery on Austin Branch Road near Sorsby Road. There is a Texas State Historical Marker there entitled "Union Army POW Cemetery," but there are also numerous US Navy POWs buried there along with numerous Confederate soldiers who died in the hospitals in downtown Hempstead.  Recently, a Waller County Historical Marker was placed within the boundaries of Camp Groce. It is located on the east side of FM 359 just south of Clear Creek. Entitled "Camp Groce Cemetery," the marker commemorates the deaths and burial location of US prisoners of war and Confederate soldiers who died and were buried within the boundaries of Camp Groce. Also, the Washington County Historical Commission has placed a Texas State Historical Marker entitled, "Camp Felder" on the west side of FM 1155 north of Chappell Hill, Texas to commemorate Camp Felder CSA.

1865.

About 8,000 Confederate soldiers from Walker's Division (commanded by Maj. Gen. John H. Forney) were ordered to Hempstead from Louisiana in March 1865. Upon the arrival of the division on March 24–30, 1865, the division began waiting for Confederate President Jefferson Davis to arrive to make the Last Stand of the Confederacy at Hempstead, Texas. Lee surrendered on April 9, 1865, Johnston surrendered on April 26, 1865, and Davis was captured in Georgia on May 10, 1865 all of which compelled Confederate Maj. Gen. Kirby Smith to surrender the Department of the Trans-Mississippi on June 2, 1865. All Confederate forces in Hempstead and all other CS posts in Texas mostly went home. Immediately after the surrender of CS forces in Texas, it took about a month before US troops entered the state. The first US forces to arrive in Hempstead after the war was the 29th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment. The 29th was relieved by the 37th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment that garrisoned the US Post of Hempstead, Texas well into 1866.  In August 1865, Maj. Gen. George A. Custer arrived in Hempstead with a division of volunteer US cavalry. The division camped in and around Liendo Plantation for about two months before moving to Austin or were mustered out of the service at Hempstead in 1865–66. The cavalry regiments under the command of Custer at Hempstead were the 1st Iowa, 2nd Wisconsin, 7th Indiana, and the 5th and 12th Illinois Cavalry. Company K of the 37th Illinois Volunteer Infantry occupied the town and guarded the railroad line until the regiment was mustered out in May 1866. The headquarters of US Post of Hempstead was located in town and not at Liendo Plantation.  US Forces fanned out and set up camps in numerous towns. Their mission was to parole former Confederate troops, collect CS property, and to establish law and order. Many former CS troops did not report for their paroles, however, and many went to Mexico. The volunteer US regiments stationed in Texas were nearly gone from the state by the end of 1865.

1866-1869.

In 1866, the 1st Battalion, Companies A and B of the 17th US Infantry, was stationed at Hempstead. The battalion arrived for duty in Hempstead in the Fall of 1866. They set up camp north of the US Post Office in downtown Hempstead. Their mission was primarily in support of the Freedmen's Bureau. In the Fall of 1867, a yellow fever epidemic devastated the civilian population of Hempstead, and nearly 40 soldiers of the 17th US Infantry died as well.

Twentieth century to present.

Hempstead is famous for its watermelon crop, and until the 1940s, the town was the top shipper of watermelons in the United States. Billy DiIorio was known as the Watermelon King and Angelina DiIorio was known as the Watermelon Queen. Both resided in Hempstead, Texas. The town holds an annual Watermelon Festival in July.  Hempstead also is famous (or infamous!) for its early 20th century rough-and-tumble character. The town was informally but somewhat aptly called Six Shooter Junction.https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hgh07  The town has grown in recent years because of its relative closeness to Houston along U.S. Highway 290. The current economy is based on county government, shipping, and a small but growing industrial base. However, the closing of a large auto dealership (Lawerence Marshall) in 2009 hurt the community's economy and correlated with a drop in the town's population. The town has, however, rebounded in its population since 2010.  One of the town's residents was Lillie E. Drennan, who in 1929 became the first woman to hold a commercial driver's license in Texas. She ran a regional hauling company called the Drennan Truck Line while maintaining an excellent driving record. Drennan received periodic attention in national newspapers and radio broadcasts.  In 2015, Sandra Bland was stopped by Texas State Trooper Brian Encinia for a traffic infraction. Three videos from varying perspectives confirm that the officer, looking at the woman's cellphone, was in no danger; but the officer drew his taser on the woman threatening to "light her up" because he claimed he was in danger; the videos confirm there was neither danger nor possibility of such reasonable inference. Three days later she was found dead in her jail cell, from, what was reported, a hanging suicide. Outrage over the unnecessary arrest and hostile behavior of officers sworn to protect its citizens led to passage of the "Sandra Bland Act," named in the victim's honor, requiring law enforcement officers to receive de-escalation training. The woman's own cellphone recording of the traffic stop was released on May 6, 2019, confirming the officer knew that the supposed "threat" was merely the woman's phone. The trooper who pulled the taser on Bland, as part of a plea deal to have perjury charges dropped, was prohibited from ever working again in law enforcement. The Sandra Bland incident was just one in a series of incidents across the country that led to what has been called the "Black Lives Matter" movement, and is one of the central stories discussed in Malcolm Gladwell's "Talking to Strangers: What We Should Know About the People We Don't Know" where he writes that Bland's death "is what happens when a society does not know how to talk to strangers."

Geography.

Hempstead is located at (30.091427, -96.081252). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 5.0 square miles (12.9 km2), of which 5.0 square miles (12.9 km2) are land and 0.04 square miles (0.1 km2) of it (0.40%) is covered by water.

Location.

The community, located at the junctions of U.S. Highway 290, Texas State Highway 6, and Texas State Highway 159, is about 50 miles northwest of downtown Houston. The population was 5,770 at the 2010 census.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2010, 5,770 people, 2,010 households, and 1,360 families resided in the city. The population density was 1,040.8 people per square mile (401.8/km2). The 2,220 housing units averaged 400.7 per square mile (154.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 36.8% White (including 22.5% non-Hispanic/Latino), 38.9% African American, 1.4% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 20.2% from other races, and 2.2% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 37.4% of the population.  Of the 2,010 households, 36.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.7% were married couples living together, 22.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.3% were not families. About 25.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.42.  In the city, the population was distributed as 30.6% under the age of 18, 14.7% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 20.1% from 45 to 64, and 9.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 27.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 95 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.4 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $35,859. In 2008–2012, the per capita income for the city was $15,888. About 25.4% of the population was below the poverty line.

Economy.

Until February 2009, the Lawrence Marshall car dealership was Hempstead's largest employer. The sudden closure of the dealership led the city to reconsider capital projects such as sewer upgrades and city park upgrades.

Government and infrastructure.

Hempstead is the county seat of Waller County. It maintains a police department.  In February 2009, the mayor "pro tem" and an alderman resigned as a result of an investigation into bribery and kickbacks in awarding contracts.  The United States Postal Service Hempstead Post Office is located at 901 12th Street.

Education.

The City of Hempstead is served by the Hempstead Independent School District. The one private Christian school in Hempstead is the Community Christian Academy. The grades of study offered are K through 5th grade.

Climate.

The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Hempstead has a humid subtropical climate, "Cfa" on climate maps.

Hempstead is a city in Waller County, Texas, United States, part of the metropolitan area. It serves as the county seat of Waller County.

亨普斯特德(英语:Hempstead)是一个位于美国德克萨斯州沃勒县的城市。根据2010年美国人口普查,该地共人口5770人,而该地的面积约为12.90平方千米。同时该地也是沃勒县的县治。


杰克斯伯勒 (德克萨斯州)

History.

Jacksboro was first settled in the 1850s, with newcomers attracted by land offers from the Texas Emigration and Land Office. Originally called "Mesquiteville", the community grew up along the banks of Lost Creek and spread out over the pastureland between Lost Creek and the waters of the West Fork of Keechi Creek. It was renamed "Jacksboro" in 1858 when it became the county seat, in honor of brothers William and Patrick Jack, veterans of the Texas Revolution. Regular postal service began in 1859. Jacksboro was located on one route of the Butterfield Overland Mail.  The county was one of the few in Texas to vote against secession before the Civil War. It continued to suffer from Native American raids until Fort Richardson was built and garrisoned in 1870 south of Jacksboro. The town gained national attention in 1871 when two Kiowa chiefs, Satanta and Big Tree, were tried for murder there.  The arrival of the Chicago, Rock Island & Texas Railroad in 1898 increased the town's commercial importance to the surrounding region, enhancing it as a center of trade. The completion of highways and other roads later on also connected the town to other markets.  Fort Richardson State Historical Park is in the southern part of the city. Jacksboro claims to have the first state 4-H club, formed in the 1910s.

Geography.

Jacksboro is located in central Jack County at (33.223355, -98.160845). U.S. Route 281 runs through the city center, leading south to Mineral Wells and northwest to Wichita Falls. U.S. Route 380 joins US 281 in the center of Jacksboro but heads west out of town on Belknap Street, leading to Graham. US 380 leaves Jacksboro to the southeast with US 281 but then leads east to Decatur. Fort Worth is southeast of Jacksboro via US 281 and Texas State Highway 199.  According to the United States Census Bureau, Jacksboro has a total area of, of which are land and, or 10.89%, are water. The water area comprises Lake Jacksboro, a reservoir on Lost Creek in the northeast part of the city. Jacksboro is part of the watershed of the West Fork of the Trinity River.

Climate.

The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Jacksboro has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.

Demographics.

At the census of 2000, there were 4,533 people in 1,382 households, including 954 families, in the city. The population density was 778.7 people per square mile (300.7/km). There were 1,559 housing units at an average density of 267.8 per square mile (103.4/km). The racial makeup of the city was 81.95% White, 10.46% African American, 0.57% Native American, 0.31% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 5.56% from other races, and 1.13% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.74% of the population.  Of the 1,382 households 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.7% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.9% were non-families. 28.4% of households were one person and 16.3% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.06. The age distribution was 21.7% under the age of 18, 13.0% from 18 to 24, 33.1% from 25 to 44, 17.9% from 45 to 64, and 14.3% 65 or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 139.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 156.5 males.  The median household income was $30,833 and the median family income was $36,759. Males had a median income of $26,716 versus $20,592 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,595. About 12.2% of families and 15.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.0% of those under age 18 and 14.4% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

The city is served by the Jacksboro Independent School District.

Jacksboro is a city in Jack County, Texas, in the United States. The population was 4,511 at the 2010 census. U.S. Highways 281 and 380 intersect at Jacksboro, which is the county seat of Jack County.

杰克斯伯勒(英语:Jacksboro)是一个位于美国德克萨斯州杰克县的城市。根据2010年美国人口普查,该地共人口4511人,而该地的面积约为21.10平方千米。同时该地也是杰克县的县治。


Production.

1-Naphthol is prepared by two main routes. In one method, naphthalene is nitrated to give 1-nitronaphthalene, which is hydrogenated to the amine followed by hydrolysis:  Alternatively, naphthalene is hydrogenated to tetralin, which is oxidized to 1-tetralone, which undergoes dehydrogenation.

Occurrence and degradation.

1-Naphthol is a metabolite of the insecticide carbaryl and naphthalene. Along with TCPy, it has been shown to decrease testosterone levels in adult men.  It biodegrades via formation of 1-naphthol-3,4-oxide, which converts to 1,4-naphthoquinone.

Applications.

1-Naphthol is a precursor to a variety of insecticides including carbaryl and pharmaceuticals including nadolol as well as for the antidepressant sertraline and the anti-protozoan therapeutic atovaquone. It undergoes azo coupling to give various azo dyes, but these are generally less useful than those derived from 2-naphthol.

Other uses.

In Molisch's test, 1-naphthol dissolved in ethanol, known as Molisch's reagent, is used as reagent for detecting the presence of carbohydrates. The test known as Molisch's test would give a red- or purple-colored compound to indicate the presence of carbohydrate. The rapid furfural test, similar to Molisch's test, also uses 1-naphthol.  The Sakaguchi test uses 1-naphthol with sodium hypobromite to detect the presence of arginine in proteins.  The Voges–Proskauer test uses 1-naphthol in potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution to detect the breakdown of glucose into acetoin which is used by bacteria for external energy storage. A positive test will be indicated by the appearance of a red color of the original yellow solution.

1-Naphthol, or α-naphthol, is a fluorescent organic compound with the formula CHOH. It is a white solid. It is an isomer of 2-naphthol differing by the location of the hydroxyl group on the naphthalene ring. The naphthols are naphthalene homologues of phenol, with the hydroxyl group being more reactive than in the phenols. Both isomers are soluble in simple alcohols, ethers, and chloroform. They are precursors to a variety of useful compounds. Naphthols (both 1 and 2 isomers) are used as biomarkers for livestock and humans exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

1-萘酚(即α-萘酚)是萘的1位氢被羟基取代后形成的化合物,是2-萘酚的异构体,化学式CHOH。1-萘酚常温常压下为白色固体,带有荧光,其羟基的反应活性高于苯酚。1-萘酚和2-萘酚都可溶于简单的醇、醚和氯仿,可作为许多化合物的合成前体,能作为生物体多环芳香烃暴露的标识。