Definition.

Ian Harris and John Synott have described peace education as a series of "teaching encounters" that draw from people: James Page suggests peace education be thought of as "encouraging a commitment to peace as a settled disposition and enhancing the confidence of the individual as an individual agent of peace; as informing the student on the consequences of war and social injustice; as informing the student on the value of peaceful and just social structures and working to uphold or develop such social structures; as encouraging the student to love the world and to imagine a peaceful future; and as caring for the student and encouraging the student to care for others".  Often the theory or philosophy of peace education has been assumed and not articulated. Johan Galtung suggested in 1975 that no theory for peace education existed and that there was clearly an urgent need for such theory. More recently there have been attempts to establish such a theory. Joachim James Calleja has suggested that a philosophical basis for peace education might be located in the Kantian notion of duty. James Page has suggested that a rationale for peace education might be located in virtue ethics, consequentialist ethics, conservative political ethics, aesthetic ethics and the ethics of care. Robert L. Holmes claim that a moral presumption against violence already exists amongst civilized nations. On the basis of this presumptive prohibition, he outlines several philosophical values which are relevant to the nonviolent resolution of conflicts between nations on the international level including pacifism.  Since the early decades of the 20th century, "peace education" programs around the world have represented a spectrum of focal themes, including anti-nuclearism, international understanding, environmental responsibility, communication skills, nonviolence, conflict resolution techniques, democracy, human rights awareness, tolerance of diversity, coexistence and gender equality, among others.

Forms.

Conflict resolution training.

Peace education programs centered on conflict resolution typically focus on the social-behavioural symptoms of conflict, training individuals to resolve inter-personal disputes through techniques of negotiation and (peer) mediation. Learning to manage anger, "fight fair" and improve communication through skills such as listening, turn-taking, identifying needs, and separating facts from emotions, constitute the main elements of these programs. Participants are also encouraged to take responsibility for their actions and to brainstorm together on compromises  In general, approaches of this type aim to "alter beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours...from negative to positive attitudes toward conflict as a basis for preventing violence" (Van Slyck, Stern and Elbedour, 1999, emphasis added). There are various styles or approaches in conflict resolution training (ADR, Verbal Aikido, NVC) that can give the practitioner the means to accept the conflictual situation and orient it towards a peaceful resolution. As one peer mediation coordinator put it: "Conflict is very natural and normal, but you can't go through your entire life beating everybody up—you have to learn different ways to resolve conflict".

Democracy education.

Peace education programs centered on democracy education typically focus on the political processes associated with conflict, and postulate that with an increase in democratic participation the likelihood of societies resolving conflict through violence and war decreases. At the same time, "a democratic society needs the commitment of citizens who accept the inevitability of conflict as well as the necessity for tolerance" (U.S. Department of State, The Culture of Democracy, emphasis added). Thus programs of this kind attempt to foster a conflict-positive orientation in the community by training students to view conflict as a platform for creativity and growth.  Approaches of this type train participants in the skills of critical thinking, debate and coalition-building, and promote the values of freedom of speech, individuality, tolerance of diversity, compromise and conscientious objection. Their aim is to produce "responsible citizens" who will hold their governments accountable to the standards of peace, primarily through adversarial processes. Activities are structured to have students "assume the role of the citizen that chooses, makes decisions, takes positions, argues positions and respects the opinions of others": skills that a multi-party democracy are based upon. Based on the assumption that democracy decreases the likelihood of violence and war, it is assumed that these are the same skills necessary for creating a culture of peace.

Justice education.

Education for justice is the process of promoting the rule of law (RoL) through educational activities at all levels. Education for justice teaches the next generation about crime prevention, and to better understand and address problems that can undermine the rule of law. It promotes peace and encourages students to actively engage in their communities and future professions.  Making the RoL and a culture of lawfulness a priority is not just about transmitting knowledge but also about values and behaviours that are modelled and enforced on a daily basis through what is called the ‘hidden curriculum. ‘The ‘hidden curriculum’ of the classroom and school transmits norms, values and beliefs to learners in ways other than formal teaching and learning processes and ensures learners develop the skills and know-how they need to engage in society as ethically responsible citizens.

Human rights education.

Peace education programs centered on raising awareness of human rights typically focus at the level of policies that humanity ought to adopt in order to move closer to a peaceful global community. The aim is to engender a commitment among participants to a vision of structural peace in which all individual members of the human race can exercise their personal freedoms and be legally protected from violence, oppression and indignity.  Approaches of this type familiarize participants with the international covenants and declarations of the United Nations system; train students to recognize violations of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; and promote tolerance, solidarity, autonomy and self-affirmation at the individual and collective levels.  Human rights education "faces continual elaboration, a significant theory-practice gap and frequent challenge as to its validity". In one practitioner's view: ""Human rights education does not work in communities fraught with conflict unless it is part of a comprehensive approach... In fact, such education can be counterproductive and lead to greater conflict if people become aware of rights which are not realized. In this respect, human rights education can increase the potential for conflict"" To prevent these outcomes, many such programs are now being combined with aspects of conflict resolution and democracy education schools of thought, along with training in nonviolent action.

Worldview transformation.

Some approaches to peace education start from insights gleaned from psychology which recognize the developmental nature of human psychosocial dispositions. Essentially, while conflict-promoting attitudes and behaviours are characteristic of earlier phases of human development, unity-promoting attitudes and behaviours emerge in later phases of healthy development. H.B. Danesh (2002a, 2002b, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008a, 2008b) proposes an "Integrative Theory of Peace" in which peace is understood as a psychosocial, political, moral and spiritual reality. Peace education, he says, must focus on the healthy development and maturation of human consciousness through assisting people to examine and transform their worldviews. Worldviews are defined as the subconscious lens (acquired through cultural, family, historical, religious and societal influences) through which people perceive four key issues: 1) the nature of reality, 2) human nature, 3) the purpose of existence, 4) the principles governing appropriate human relationships. Surveying a mass of material, Danesh argues that the majority of people and societies in the world hold conflict-based worldviews, which express themselves in conflicted intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, and international relationships. He subdivides conflict-based worldviews into two main categories which he correlates to phases of human development: the Survival-Based Worldview and the Identity-Based Worldview. It is through the acquisition of a more integrative, Unity-Based Worldview that human capacity to mitigate conflict, create unity in the context of diversity, and establish sustainable cultures of peace, is increased—be it in the home, at school, at work, or in the international community.

Critical peace education.

Modern forms of peace education relate to new scholarly explorations and applications of techniques used in peace education internationally, in plural communities and with individuals. Critical Peace Education (Bajaj 2008, 2015; Bajaj & Hantzopoulos 2016; Trifonas & Wright 2013) is an emancipatory pursuit that seeks to link education to the goals and foci of social justice disrupting inequality through critical pedagogy (Freire 2003). Critical peace education addresses the critique that peace education is imperial and impository mimicking the 'interventionism' of Western peacebuilding by foregrounding local practices and narratives into peace education (Salomon 2004; MacGinty & Richmond 2007; Golding 2017). The project of critical peace education includes conceiving of education as a space of transformation where students and teachers become change agents that recognise past and present experiences of inequity and bias and where schools become strategic sites for fostering emancipatory change.

Yogic peace education.

Where Critical Peace Education is emancipatory, seeking to foster full humanity in society for everyone, yogic peace education (Standish & Joyce 2017) is concerned with transforming personal (as opposed to interpersonal, structural or societal/cultural) violence. In yogic peace education, techniques from yogic science are utilized to alter the physical, mental and spiritual instrument of humanity (the self) to address violence that comes from within. Contemporary peace education (similar to all peace education) relate to specific forms of violence (and their transformation) and similar to teaching human rights and conflict resolution in schools critical peace education and yogic peace education are complementary curricula that seek to foster positive peace and decrease violence in society.

Criticism.

Toh Swee-Hin (1997) observes that each of the various streams of peace education "inevitably have their own dynamics and 'autonomy' in terms of theory and practice". "Salomon (2002) has described how the challenges, goals, and methods of peace education differ substantially between areas characterized by intractable conflict, interethnic tension, or relative tranquility".  Salomon (2002) raises the problem and its consequences: "Imagine that medical practitioners would not distinguish between invasive surgery to remove malignant tumors and surgery to correct one's vision. Imagine also that while surgeries are practiced, no research and no evaluation of their differential effectiveness accompany them. The field would be considered neither very serious nor very trustworthy. Luckily enough, such a state of affairs does not describe the field of medicine, but it comes pretty close to describing the field of peace education. First, too many profoundly different kinds of activities taking place in an exceedingly wide array of contexts are all lumped under the same category label of "peace education" as if they belong together. Second, for whatever reason, the field's scholarship in the form of theorizing, research and program evaluation badly lags behind practice... In the absence of clarity of what peace education really is, or how its different varieties relate to each other, it is unclear how experience with one variant of peace education in one region can usefully inform programs in another region." According to Clarke-Habibi (2005), "A general or integrated theory of peace is needed: one that can holistically account for the intrapersonal, inter-personal, inter-group and international dynamics of peace, as well as its main principles and pre-requisites. An essential component of this integrated theory must also be the recognition that a culture of peace can only result from an authentic process of transformation, both individual and collective."

Peace education is the process of acquiring the values, the knowledge and developing the attitudes, skills, and behaviors to live in harmony with oneself, with others, and with the natural environment.

和平教育旨在教导人们与自己以及他人、自然环境和谐相处。和平教育者相信,唯有让和平的价值观在学习的过程中内化,特别是由孩童/青年人着手,让他们体会到和平是好的东西,相信采取和平的手段更是一种积极而勇敢的选择,进而有态度上的变化,最后才能产生行动上的改变 (Brock-Utne, 1996: 42)。


History.

The first festival — then called 'Film International' — was organized in June 1972 under the leadership of Huub Bals. IFFR's logo is a tiger, loosely based on Leo, the lion in the MGM logo. From the beginning, the festival has profiled itself as a promoter of alternative, innovative and non-commercial films, with an emphasis on the Far East and developing countries. Around 1983, the festival founded CineMart to serve as a "regular film market," and later modified the business model to serve instead as a "co-production market", which helps a selected number of film producers connect with possible co-producers and funders for their film projects.  After the festival founder's sudden death in 1988, a fund was initiated and named after him (Hubert Bals Fund), used for supporting filmmakers from developing countries.  The non-competitive character of the festival changed in 1995, when the "VPRO Tiger Awards" were introduced—three yearly prizes for young filmmakers making their first or second film. The next year, Simon Field, formerly Cinema Director at the London Institute of Contemporary Arts, became director of the festival. In 2004 Sandra den Hamer took over as director of the festival, and from 2007 to 2015 the director was Rutger Wolfson. Film producer Bero Beyer was the next director and in 2020, Vanja Kaludjercic was appointed as the new director.  Despite financial difficulties in the mid-1980s, the festival has grown steadily, reaching more than 300,000 visitors in 2015.

Festival screening locations.

The IFFR screens films at multiple locations, including the Pathé cinema at Schouwburgplein, De Doelen, Cinerama, WORM, Oude Luxor Theater, Theater Rotterdam Schouwburg, KINO and Lantaren Venster.

Tiger Award winners.

The Tiger Award has had various sponsors over the years. In the years leading up to and including 2010 it was sponsored by the VPRO. In 2011 the award was presented by the Prins Bernhard Cultuurfonds and since 2012 by Hivos.

The International Film Festival Rotterdam (IFFR) is an annual film festival held at the end of January in various locations in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Since its foundation in 1972, it has maintained a focus on independent and experimental filmmaking by showcasing emerging talents and established auteurs. The festival also places a focus on presenting cutting edge media art and arthouse film, with most of the participants in the short film program identified as artists or experimental filmmakers. IFFR also hosts CineMart and BoostNL, for film producers to seek funding.

鹿特丹国际影展(,简称IFFR),是每年一月底在荷兰鹿特丹举办的影展,就其规模而言,足以与其他欧洲主要影展如戛纳、威尼斯、柏林和卢卡诺相称。影展也会举办市场展,提供电影工作者寻找资金;而影展本身亦在创办人休百特‧巴尔斯过世后成立基金会,用以投资发展中国家的电影拍摄。


History.

Potentially five or more teams have been called Chesterfield Football Club at different times. A "Derbyshire Times" newspaper report from 2 January 1864 noted a scheduled game between "Chesterfield and Norton football clubs", suggesting that a Chesterfield FC, whether loosely or formally organised, was active from at least 1863.  A second Chesterfield FC was formally created as an offshoot of Chesterfield Cricket Club in October 1867. The cricket and football clubs moved to the Recreation Ground at Saltergate in 1871, the same year that they became separate entities. However, a souring of the relationship between the two led to the closure of the football club in 1881, when it found itself homeless. Many players joined other local sides, notably Chesterfield Livingstone, a club that took up using the Saltergate site, and Chesterfield Spital, a team which competed in the early years of the FA Cup.  Three years later, in 1884, a third entity called Chesterfield Football Club was formed, again making its home at Saltergate. It drew in players from the preceding club and both Chesterfield Livingstone and Chesterfield Spital, though records show Spital continued as a separate club. After changing its name to Chesterfield Town, the club turned professional in 1891 and won several local trophies in the following two seasons, entering the FA Cup for the first time in 1892. For the 1892–93 season, the club wore an extraordinary playing strip of all dark blue with the Union Jack emblazoned across the front of the shirt. Chesterfield joined the Midland League in 1896, and successfully applied for a place in the Second Division of the Football League at the start of the 1899–1900 season, finishing seventh. After finishing bottom of the League three years in a row, the club failed to gain re-election to the League in 1909, returning to the Midland League.  In 1915 Chesterfield Town was put into voluntary liquidation and a new club with the same name was formed by a local restaurateur to play wartime football using locally based ’guests’ from Football League clubs. It lasted only two years before its management and players were suspended by the FA for illegal payments and the club shut down.  The current Chesterfield FC was formed on 24 April 1919 by Chesterfield Borough Council, seeing it as a way to spearhead improvements in local recreational provision. Initially called Chesterfield Municipal, the club made great strides on the pitch in its first season, lifting the Midland League title – and did so despite three changes of management. However, The Football Association and the Football League had already made clear their vehement opposition to a council-run club and ultimately forced it to cut its ties and become independent, reflected in a name change to Chesterfield FC in December 1920.  In 1921–22, Chesterfield became a founder member of the new Football League Third Division North. Following the arrival of new manager Ted Davison in 1926 and chairman Harold Shentall in 1928, the club won the Third Division North title in the 1930–31 season with an 8–1 victory over Gateshead on the final day, and were promoted to the Second Division. Relegation followed in 1933, but the Third Division North title was again won in 1936.  After the war the club achieved their best League position, finishing fourth in the Second Division in 1946–47. However, the sale of several players at the end of the season reduced their overall quality, and Chesterfield were relegated at the end of the 1950–51 season. They were placed in the Third Division on its formation at the start of the 1958–59 season; future England international goalkeeper Gordon Banks made his professional debut in a Third Division game in November 1958, but was sold to Leicester City for a then-club record £7,000 fee at the end of the season. In 1961 Chesterfield were relegated to the Fourth Division for the first time.  Chesterfield spent eight seasons in the Fourth Division, earning promotion as champions in 1969–70 under manager Jimmy McGuigan. The Anglo-Scottish Cup was won in 1981. The club was relegated in 1983–84, and won the Fourth Division title the following season. Financial difficulties forced Chesterfield Borough Council to bail out the club in 1985 and the club's training ground to be sold. Relegation followed in 1988–89; Chesterfield reached the play-off competition a year later, but were beaten by Cambridge United in the play-off final. The arrival of John Duncan as manager in 1993 was followed in the 1994–95 season by play-off victories over local rivals Mansfield Town and Bury to earn promotion to the redesignated Second Division. The 1996–97 season saw Chesterfield beat six clubs including Premier League side Nottingham Forest to reach the semi-final of the FA Cup for the first time. The semi-final match against Middlesbrough was contentiously drawn 3–3 after extra time; Chesterfield lost the replay 3–0.  The club were relegated to the Third Division in 2000 following a run of 21 games without a win, and chairman Norton Lea was replaced by Darren Brown. The following year, Chesterfield were deducted nine points for financial irregularities after Brown attempted to avoid paying Chester City the fee agreed by the FA for Luke Beckett. Amid mounting evidence of fraud, he relinquished control of the club in March 2001 and ownership passed to a hastily organised fans' group, the Chesterfield Football Supporters Society. Massive debts run up by Brown forced the club into administration, but the team still secured the division's final automatic promotion place. (Brown was later sentenced to four years in prison following a Serious Fraud Office investigation that led to charges including false accounting, furnishing false information and theft).  Chesterfield were relegated to League Two at the end of the 2006–07 season, although they did reach the regional semi-final of the League Trophy and the fourth round of the League Cup in the same year. The club departed its historic home at Saltergate at the end of the 2009–10 season, and moved to newly built B2net Stadium. Chesterfield were promoted to League One after winning the League Two title in 2010–11 season. They went on to win the EFL Trophy for the first time in March 2012, defeating Swindon Town 2–0 in the final. However they were relegated out of League One the following month, before again returning to the third tier as League Two champions at the end of the 2013–14 season.  Chesterfield secured sixth-place in League One at the end of the 2014–15 campaign, and went on to lose 4–0 on aggregate to Preston North End in the two-legged play-off semi-final. On 14 November 2016, majority shareholder Dave Allen resigned from his roles as chairman and director of the club. This signalled a crisis, and four days later a further four directors resigned from their roles. It was announced that Chesterfield was openly up for sale, and desperately needed some kind of investment in order to avoid administration. Mike Warner was installed as chairman on 19 November. On 8 January 2017, manager Danny Wilson was sacked, with Gary Caldwell being announced as his replacement nine days later. On 16 September 2017, manager Caldwell was sacked after three wins in 29 competitive games, giving him the worst win record of any Spireites manager. On 29 September 2017, club legend Jack Lester was appointed the club's new manager, bringing with him Nicky Eaden as his assistant and former caretaker manager Tommy Wright as a first team coach. However he was unable to prevent the club being relegated out of the English Football League at the end of the 2017–18 season. In the Spireites first season in the national league they achieved a disappointing 14th place finish.

Stadium.

Chesterfield's historic ground was Saltergate, officially named the Recreation Ground, which was in use from 1872 to 2010. Saltergate's record attendance was 30,561, which was set when Chesterfield hosted Tottenham Hotspur in the FA Cup Fifth Round in February 1938.  Since the 2010–11 season, Chesterfield have played their home games at the £13 million B2net Stadium. The first match was against Derby County in a pre-season friendly which Derby won 5–4, Craig Davies becoming the first goalscorer at the stadium. The first competitive fixture was against Barnet, which ended in a 2–1 win after Dwayne Mattis scored the opening League goal at the ground in the first half. Chesterfield suffered their first home league defeat at the B2net Stadium after a 2–1 loss at Burton Albion on 13 November 2010. The highest attendance at the B2net Stadium was 10,089 at home to Rotherham United which they won 5–0 with Jack Lester getting a hat-trick. On 13 August 2012, it was announced that the Stadium was to be renamed the Proact Stadium.

Rivalries.

Chesterfield's geographical position means that the club holds many local derbies. Their main rival is considered to be the Nottinghamshire club Mansfield Town, with the club contending a number of fiery encounters. The last fixture between the sides finished in a 1–0 win for Mansfield at the Proact Stadium in April 2018. Chesterfield also have strong rivalries with nearby South Yorkshire clubs Rotherham United, Sheffield Wednesday and Sheffield United. The fiercest of the three rivalries comes with Rotherham, with whom the Spireites have much animosity and mutual dislike. Chesterfield supporters' fondest memory of the fixture is a 5–0 victory over the Millers in March 2011. The rivalries with Sheffield United and Sheffield Wednesday both came to the fore with the two former Premier League clubs' descent into League One. The Spireites have encountered United much more in recent years, continuing to do battle in the third tier of English football until 2017.  A slight rivalry with Grimsby Town intensified with a number of fiesty encounters over the years. Supporters of both clubs often used to cause disturbances at the fixture, leading to the fixture becoming a slight grudge match. Other smaller rivalries include Barnsley, Doncaster Rovers, Derby County, Notts County and Lincoln City.

Honours and achievements.

Third Division North (third tier):  Fourth Division / League Two (fourth tier):  Midland League:  League Trophy:  Anglo-Scottish Cup:  Derbyshire Senior Cup:

Chesterfield Football Club is a professional association football club based in the town of Chesterfield, Derbyshire, England. The team competes in the National League, the fifth tier of the English football league system. Chesterfield play their home games at the 10,504 capacity Proact Stadium, having moved from their historic home of Saltergate during the summer of 2010. Notable players include record appearance holder Dave Blakey, who played in 617 of Chesterfield's league games, and 162 league goal club record holder Ernie Moss. The club contests numerous local rivalries, though Nottinghamshire club Mansfield Town are their main rivals.

车士打菲特足球会(英语:Chesterfield Football Club,)是位于英格兰中部德比郡的切斯特菲尔德(Chesterfield)的职业足球会,于2014年取得乙级联赛冠军而升班到英格兰足球甲级联赛作赛,主场是于2010年启用的波奥特球场(Proact Stadium);因切斯特菲尔德的圣玛莉及诸圣教堂(Church of Saint Mary and All Saints)的螺旋尖顶而被暱称为「螺旋塔尖」("Spireites")。


马丁努斯·威廉·拜耶林克

Biography.

Born in Amsterdam, Beijerinck studied at the Technical School of Delft, where he was awarded the degree of Chemical Engineer in 1872. He obtained his Doctor of Science degree from the University of Leiden in 1877.  At the time, Delft, then a Polytechnic, did not have the right to confer doctorates, so Leiden did this for them. He became a teacher in microbiology at the Agricultural School in Wageningen (now Wageningen University) and later at the "Polytechnische Hogeschool Delft" (Delft Polytechnic, currently Delft University of Technology) (from 1895). He established the Delft School of Microbiology. His studies of agricultural and industrial microbiology yielded fundamental discoveries in the field of biology. His achievements have been perhaps unfairly overshadowed by those of his contemporaries, Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur, because unlike them, Beijerinck never studied human disease.  In 1885 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Scientific contributions.

He is considered one of the founders of virology. In 1898, he published results on the filtration experiments demonstrating that tobacco mosaic disease is caused by an infectious agent smaller than a bacterium.  His results were in accordance with the similar observation made by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892. Like Ivanovsky before him and Adolf Mayer, predecessor at Wageningen, Beijerinck could not culture the filterable infectious agent; however, he concluded that the agent can replicate and multiply in living plants. He named the new pathogen "virus" to indicate its non-bacterial nature. Beijerinck asserted that the virus was somewhat liquid in nature, calling it ""contagium vivum fluidum"" (contagious living fluid). It was not until the first crystals of the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) obtained by Wendell Stanley in 1935, the first electron micrographs of TMV produced in 1939 and the first X-ray crystallographic analysis of TMV performed in 1941 proved that the virus was particulate.  Beijerinck also discovered nitrogen fixation, the process by which diatomic nitrogen gas is converted to ammonium ions and becomes available to plants. Bacteria perform nitrogen fixation, dwelling inside root nodules of certain plants (legumes). In addition to having discovered a biochemical reaction vital to soil fertility and agriculture, Beijerinck revealed this archetypical example of symbiosis between plants and bacteria.  Beijerinck discovered the phenomenon of bacterial sulfate reduction, a form of anaerobic respiration. He learned bacteria could use sulfate as a terminal electron acceptor, instead of oxygen. This discovery has had an important impact on our current understanding of biogeochemical cycles. "Spirillum desulfuricans", now known as "Desulfovibrio desulfuricans", the first known sulfate-reducing bacterium, was isolated and described by Beijerinck.  Beijerinck invented the enrichment culture, a fundamental method of studying microbes from the environment. He is often incorrectly credited with framing the microbial ecology idea that "everything is everywhere, but, the environment selects", which was stated by Lourens Baas Becking.

Personal life.

Beijerinck was a socially eccentric figure. He was verbally abusive to students, never married, and had few professional collaborations. He was also known for his ascetic lifestyle and his view of science and marriage being incompatible. His low popularity with his students and their parents periodically depressed him, as he very much loved spreading his enthusiasm for biology in the classroom. After his retirement at the Delft School of Microbiology in 1921, at age 70, he moved to Gorssel where he lived for the rest of his life, together with his two sisters.

Recognition.

Beijerinckia (a genus of bacteria), Beijerinckiaceae (a family of Rhizobiales), and Beijerinck (crater) are named after him.

Martinus Willem Beijerinck (16 March 1851 – 1 January 1931) was a Dutch microbiologist and botanist who was one of the founders of virology and environmental microbiology.

马丁努斯·威廉·拜耶林克(,1851年-3月16日-1931年-1月1日),荷兰微生物学家和植物学家。他出生在阿姆斯特丹。


History.

The Danish state-owned company Dansk Naturgas A/S was founded in 1972 to manage gas and oil resources in the Danish sector of the North Sea. After some years, the company was renamed to Dansk Olie og Naturgas A/S (DONG), meaning Danish Oil and Natural Gas. At the beginning of the decade of the 2000s, DONG started to expand itself into the electricity market by taking long positions in electricity companies. In 2005, DONG acquired and merged Danish electrical power producers Elsam and Energi E2 and public utility (electricity distribution) companies NESA, Københavns Energi and Frederiksberg Forsyning. The result of the merger was the creation of DONG Energy. The merger was approved by the European Commission on 14 March 2006.  In 2002, one of predecessors of DONG Energy named Elsam installed the 160 MW Horns Rev offshore wind farm, which was the first large scale offshore wind farm in the world.  In 2005, DONG Energy acquired 10.34% in the Ormen Lange gas field (operated by Shell). The share of gas reserves allocated to DONG Energy are approximately.  In 2009, DONG Energy sold its fiber broadband in northern Zealand to TDC A/S.  In 2007, DONG Energy entered into the Dutch market. In 2010, it started a cooperation with Dutch. However, in 2014 DONG Energy withdrew its consumer activities from the Dutch market. In 2010, DONG divested Norwegian power companies Salten and Nordkraft. In September 2013, DONG Energy sold a power cable accessing the London Array wind farm to its partners, E.ON and Masdar for around $728 million.  In 2013, DONG Energy finished the construction of the 400 MW Anholt Offshore Wind Farm off the Danish island of Anholt in the Kattegat at a cost of 10 billion Danish kroner (€1.35 bln). DONG Energy was the only bidder in the process. As of 2012, DONG Energy had a wind turbine capacity of 794 MW and planned to add another 594 MW in 2013. In 2014 DONG Energy divested its last onshore wind turbines, focusing on offshore wind power. of which DONG Energy had 3,000 MW in 2015;  As part of a restructuring plan, in January 2014 DONG Energy sold an 18% stake to New Energy Investment S.a.r.l., a subsidiary of Goldman Sachs, while Danish pension funds, ATP and PFA Pension acquired 4.9% and 1.8% accordingly. The deal was heavily criticised and caused a split of the ruling coalition of Helle Thorning-Schmidt. Six cabinet ministers and the Socialist People's Party withdrew from the government. On 9 June 2016, some of these shares were sold in an IPO at Copenhagen Stock Exchange.  In 2015, DONG Energy had a deficit of 12 billion DKK, the largest of any Danish company ever. In 2016, DONG Energy was voted number 11 on the Clean200 list.  DONG Energy was listed at the Copenhagen Stock Exchange in June 2016. At the same time, it divested its ownership shares of five Norwegian oil and gas fields to Faroe Petroleum.  In 2017, DONG Energy completed decommissioning the world's first offshore wind farm, Vindeby Offshore Wind Farm. Also in 2017, the company decided to phase-out the use of coal for power generation, and it sold off its oil and gas business to Ineos for US$1.05 billion. After selling its oil and gas business the company announced its intention to transition to renewable energy and change its name to Ørsted after the Danish scientist Hans Christian Ørsted, citing that DONG was inappropriate considering they had no oil and natural gas assets under ownership any more.  In 2018 Ørsted acquired Deepwater Wind to expand offshore wind in the US.

Operations.

Ørsted considers Denmark, Sweden, United Kingdom, Germany and the Netherlands as core markets of corporation. However, in 2015 they also received a lease from the Department of the Interior and Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, which, in the lease, handed over some sea area in the United States for wind park development, specifically in New Jersey.

Oil and gas exploration and production.

Before divestment of its oil and gas upstream assets to Ineos in 2017, DONG Energy's core areas of oil and gas exploration and production laid in southern part of the Norwegian North Sea and the Danish part of the North Sea, Barents Sea, west of Shetland, and in the middle region of Norway (gas production). The reserve base was expected to be of oil equivalent. In 2016, it produced of oil equivalent.  In 2016, DONG Energy agreed to sell its oil and gas pipelines to Energinet.dk. It owned oil and gas pipelines which extend from the Danish part of the North Sea to Nybro and the Swedish gas transmission network (Nova Naturgas). DONG Energy co-owned the Tyra West – F3 pipeline pipelines, which create a link from the North Sea Danish section to the Netherlands natural gas hub in Den Helder, the DEUDAN pipeline from Jutland to north of Hamburg in Germany, and the Langeled pipeline from Nyhamna terminal in Norway to Easington in the UK. DONG Energy also owned a share of the Norwegian gas pipeline system.

Power production.

Ørsted is the largest power producer in Denmark with market shares of 49% for electricity production and 35% for heat production. It also owns power production facilities and projects in Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands, Norway and the United Kingdom.  Ørsted is the largest offshore wind farm company in the world with a market share of 16%. Ørsted surpassed 1,000 offshore wind turbines in 2016. In Denmark, it operates the 209 MW Horns Rev 2 offshore wind farm. In the United Kingdom Ørsted operates Barrow and Burbo Bank offshore windfarms and will construct Walney and Gunfleet Sands I and II wind farms. In addition, it is building the world largest wind farms, the 1,200 MW Hornsea 1 and the 1,386 MW Hornsea 2. In North America it is a partner for the Bay State Wind offshore wind farm in the United States and the Haida Energy Field offshore wind farm in Canada. The company is also developing Ocean Wind, an offshore wind farm on the Atlantic coast near Atlantic City, New Jersey. In the Netherlands, it develops Borssele 1 and 2 wind farms.  Ørsted is the largest shareholder (51%) of offshore wind turbine installer A2SEA, while Siemens owns the other 49%. Ørsted also has 30% of subsea cabling installer CT Offshore.

Shareholders.

Ørsted is listed at the Nasdaq Copenhagen stock exchange. The Danish Government holds the majority of Ørsted shares (50.1%). Capital Group Companies, EuroPacific Growth Fund's, and SEAS-NVE holds over 5% of shares. According to a political agreement, the Danish Government shall maintain a majority in the company until 2025. Reduction of the ownership below 50% requires political agreement of Danish parties.

Sponsorship.

Ørsted is the main sponsor of the Danish men's national ice hockey team.

Ørsted A/S (formerly DONG Energy) is a Danish multinational power company based in Fredericia, Denmark. It is the largest energy company in Denmark. The company adopted its current name on 6 November 2017.

沃旭能源(),原名丹能(), 沃旭能源总部位于丹麦,前身为丹麦石油与天然气公司(DONG Energy),自2017年11月6日改为现名「沃旭」(Ørsted)。以股票代号「Orsted」于哥本哈根证券交易所挂牌上市, 2017年营收达到2,844亿新台币(595亿丹麦克朗)。。


Salem trials.

In early 1692, Abigail Williams and Betty Parris were both living in the household of Betty's father, the village pastor Samuel Parris, along with his two slaves Tituba and John Indian. This group would play an outsize role in the accusations to come.  Tituba was part of a group of three women — with Sarah Good and Sarah Osborne — who were the very first to be arrested, on February 29, 1692, under the accusation that their specters (ghosts) were afflicting the young girls in Parris' household. The three women were questioned separately but were aware of each other and, in a classic prisoner's dilemma, they were turned against each other. Sarah Good was the first interrogated and held to her innocence. Judge John Hathorne directed all "the children... to look upon her and see if this were the person that hurt them... and they all did look upon her" and claimed her specter tormented them. "Sarah Good... why do you thus torment these poor children?" Hathorne asked. "What do I know, you bring others here and now you charge me with it," Sarah Good responded. Next Hathorne interrogated Sarah Osbourne, who claimed not to know Sarah Good or even her full name. But Hathorne said to her, "Sarah Good saith that it was you that hurt the children." According to the transcript, this is a distortion of what Sarah Good had said, as she had only vaguely referred to the others without naming them, in a way that was only intended to deflect blame from herself. Tituba was interrogated last and was the only of the three women to offer a full and elaborate confession against herself and pointing the finger of blame at the other two women: "Sarah Good and Osbourne would have me hurt the children." According to an investigation by Robert Calef that began soon after the trials, Tituba later recanted her confession as forced and claimed abuse from the slaveowner Parris:  "The account she [Tituba] since gives of it is that her master [Parris] did beat her and otherwise abuse her, to make her confess and accuse, such as he [Parris] called her'sister-witches' and that whatever she said by way of confessing or accusing others, was the effect of such usage."  Further accusations against many others emerged from the Parris household (and others) and eventually lead to the imprisonment of hundreds and the deaths of more than 20 in 1692. Sarah Osborne died in prison in May and Sarah Good was executed on July 19 along with four other women. Members of Parris household all managed to survive the entire episode including Tituba, who was released from jail a year later, when the slaveowner Parris paid her prison fees and sold her.

Orphaned.

Williams was living with her uncle Parris after having been orphaned when Native Americans killed her parents during a raid. Her parents' names were Joseph and Abigail Rogers. Abigail Rogers later became Abigail Parris Williams.

Later life.

After 1692, Abigail Williams seems to disappear from all written records.

"The Crucible".

In Arthur Miller's 1953 play, "The Crucible", a fictionalized story of the Salem witch trials, Abigail Williams is the name of a character whose age in the play is raised a full five or six years, to age 17, and she is motivated by a desire to be in a relationship with John Proctor, a married farmer with whom she had previously had an affair. In the historical record, there's no evidence of John Proctor and Abigail Williams ever meeting before the trials. She was portrayed by Winona Ryder in the 1996 film adaptation of the play.

Popular culture.

Abigail Williams is an American black metal band formed in 2004.  Abigail appears in 2010 film "The Sorcerer's Apprentice" as a minor antagonist. In the film, she was confirmed to be a witch who had both framed others and setup others to take the fall for her witchcraft to divert attention from herself, which resulted in the Salem Witch Trials. Her actions and crimes against humanity, coupled with her conspiracy with Horvath to release Morgana, catch the attention of Balthazar Blake, who seals her into the Grimhold so she can do no more harm. She is later released by Horvath to kidnap the main protagonist Dave's love interest, Becky Barnes, only for the former Merlinean fatally drains her of her magic once she completes the deed.  Abigail is revealed as the antagonist of the 2014 video game "". In the story, flashbacks reveal that she was hanged for her part in the witch trials. Over the centuries, she has existed as a ghost, using her supernatural powers to kill those she believes are witches. In the game's climax, she is seized by demons and dragged to Hell.  "Fate/Grand Order", a 2015 online free-to-play role-playing mobile game, has a character under the "Foreigner" class based on both Abigail Williams and Yog-Sothoth.

Bread mold theory.

In 1976, Linnda R. Caporael put forward the hypothesis that these strange symptoms may have been caused by ergotism, the ingestion of fungus-infected rye. This theory has been widely rejected.

Abigail Williams (born circa 1681) was an 11 or 12-year-old girl who, along with her nine-year-old cousin Betty Parris, was among the first of the children who accused her neighbor John Proctor of witchcraft; her accusations eventually led to the Salem witch trials.

艾比盖儿‧威廉斯(英语:Abigail Williams,1680年7月12日-1697年10月?)是塞勒姆审巫案的最初原告之一,她导致超过150名无辜者因涉及巫术而被捕或遭监禁。


Plot.

The series premise was set up in the opening narration, but the full details about the crime were not offered in the pilot episode; at the time of the pilot, Kimble has been on the run for six months, having exhausted all of his appeals against his death sentence. While in transit, the train carrying Kimble derails, and Kimble becomes the titular 'fugitive' in an attempt to clear his name. In the series' first season, the premise (heard

Cast and characters.

Main cast.

Dr. Richard Kimble.

The show's lead, and the only character seen in all 120 episodes, was Dr. Richard David Kimble (David Janssen), based in part on the story of Sam Sheppard.  Though Dr. Richard Kimble was a respected pediatrician in the fictional small town of Stafford, Indiana, it was generally known that he and his wife Helen had been having arguments prior to her death. Helen's pregnancy had ended in a stillborn birth of a son, and surgery to save her life had also rendered her infertile. The couple was devastated, but Helen refused to consider adopting children as Richard wanted. On the night of Helen's murder, the Kimbles had been heard, earlier the same day, arguing heatedly over this topic by their neighbors. Richard later went out for a drive to cool off; as he was returning home, he nearly struck with his car a man with only one arm, who was seen fleeing five blocks away from the house. Richard then found that Helen had been killed. But no one had seen or heard Richard go out for his drive,

Lt. Philip Gerard.

Dr. Richard Kimble is pursued by the relentless Stafford police detective Lt. Philip Gerard (Morse), a formidably intelligent family man and dedicated public servant. Gerard directly appears in 37 episodes and also in the main title sequences of all 120 episodes; Barry Morse is also listed in the closing credits of every episode.  Morse portrayed Gerard as a man duty-bound to capture Kimble. Guilt or innocence was of no consequence to Gerard, whose own beliefs have been stated as follows: In "Never Wave Goodbye Pt. I", he states again, "The "law" pronounced him guilty, not me." In "Nightmare at Northoak" and "Wife Killer", he states with certainty that the one-armed man does not exist and that Kimble is guilty; in "Corner of Hell", even after his own Kimble-like experience, he still scoffs at the existence of the one-armed man. ("Still the same fairy tale", he sneers.) He also tells Kimble, "The truth is, you're still guilty before the law."  Contributing to Gerard's obsession with re-capturing Kimble is the personal responsibility he

The One-Armed Man.

"The One-Armed Man" (Bill Raisch) is a shadowy figure, seen fleeing Kimble's house by Kimble after the murder of Helen. The series revealed little about the man's personal life, especially not how or when he lost his right arm.  In the 29th episode of the first season ("Storm Center"), it is revealed that Helen Kimble was strangled. This is not the method of choice for a man with only one arm.  The One-Armed Man was rarely seen in the series, appearing in person in only ten episodes. He also appears in the opening credits beginning with

Minor characters.

In season one, episode 15, Billy Mumy and Clint Howard appear in roles as Kimble's nephews, sons of Kimble's sister Donna. There were 4 episodes with two parts over the course of the series, all of them featuring characters in both parts. "Never Wave Goodbye" features in both parts, in addition to Gerard, Susan Oliver as Karen Christian, Robert Duvall as her brother Eric, and Lee Philips as Dr. Ray Brooks, with Karen and Richard Kimble falling in love, while Ray pines for Karen. "Angels Travel on Lonely Roads" has in both parts, in addition to Sister Veronica, Albert Salmi as Chuck Mathers, the brutish owner of a gas station who gives Kimble trouble and later tries to collect the reward money when he finds out who Kimble is; and, filling in for Gerard (this is the only two-parter in which Gerard does not appear) Sandy Kenyon as a local

Guest cast.

With 120 episodes and typically two or more guest stars per episode, the series offered a massive who's who of stars from

Production.

Development.

The series was conceived by Roy Huggins and produced by Quinn Martin. It is popularly believed that the series was based in part on the real-life story of Sam Sheppard, an Ohio doctor accused of murdering his wife. However, Huggins repeatedly denied basing the series on Sheppard.  Although convicted and imprisoned, Sheppard claimed that his wife had been murdered by a "bushy-haired man". Sheppard's brothers hired F. Lee Bailey to appeal the conviction. Bailey defended Sheppard and won an acquittal in the second trial. Coincidentally, the show's music supervisor, Ken Wilhoit, was married to Susan Hayes, who had had an intimate relationship with Sheppard prior to the murder and testified during the first trial in 1954.  The show presents a popular plot device of an innocent man on the run from the police for a murder he did not commit while simultaneously pursuing the real killer. It had its antecedents in the Alfred Hitchcock movies "The 39 Steps", "Saboteur", and "North by Northwest." The theme of a doctor in hiding for committing a major crime had also been depicted by James Stewart as the mysterious “Buttons

Musical score.

Pete Rugolo, who had worked on David Janssen's earlier series "Richard Diamond, Private Detective", composed the original music for "The Fugitive". (Rugolo would later work with creator Roy Huggins on "Run for Your Life" and other projects.) Tracking music was standard practice at the time, but unlike virtually all primetime scripted series of the 1960s, no episode – not even "The Judgment" – received an original score; all the original music used for the series was composed by Rugolo and recorded in London before the series was filmed. In fact, many episodes had Rugolo as the sole credited composer for the episode's scores. However, only a fraction of all the music heard throughout the series was original Rugolo music. Library music (either from other classic TV shows or from stock music libraries, as was the case with "The Adventures of Superman") provided

Episodes.

"The Fugitive" premiered in the United States on September 17, 1963. A total of 120 episodes were produced over the course of the show's four seasons, with the last original episode airing in the United States on August 29, 1967.  The series aired Tuesdays at 10:00 PM on ABC.

Final episode.

The two-part final episode, titled "The Judgment", aired on Tuesday, August 22, and Tuesday, August 29, 1967.  The one-armed man, going by the alias "Fred Johnson", is arrested after tearing up a Los Angeles strip bar. When Kimble reads about it in a newspaper, he travels to Los Angeles. However, Gerard has already arrived in Los Angeles and is working with the local police, convinced Kimble will come to the city. Gerard is spotted by Jean Carlisle (Diane Baker), an old friend of the Kimble family who is working as a typist with the Los Angeles Police Department. Jean manages to reach Kimble just as the police start searching the area and takes him to her apartment.  Meanwhile, Gerard interrogates Johnson and begins thinking that Kimble may be telling the truth. After Kimble learns that Johnson has been arrested, he elects to turn himself in, hoping to confront Johnson. Before he can carry out his plan, Johnson

Reception.

Ratings.

In its debut season, "The Fugitive" was 28th in the U.S. Nielsen ratings (with a 21.7 rating), and it jumped to 5th in the second season

Awards.

"The Fugitive" was nominated for five Emmy Awards and won the Emmy for Outstanding Dramatic Series in 1966. In 2002, it was ranked No. 36 on "TV Guide"s 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. "TV Guide" named the one-armed man

Home media.

A total of 40 episodes have been released on VHS by NuVentures Video (Volumes 1–10 were later re-released with Barry Morse providing introductions to each episode, as in Volumes 11–20), with selected shows from the 40 later issued by Republic Pictures. Twelve episodes were also released on laserdisc.  Currently, Republic Pictures and CBS Television Studios own the copyrights to the series (while CBS itself now owns distribution rights); CBS DVD (with distribution by Paramount Pictures Home Entertainment) released Season 1, Volume 1 on DVD in Region 1 in late 2007. Reviews of the first DVD set have been very positive as the show appears uncut, unedited and uncompressed, digitally transferred and re-mastered from the original negatives and restored from original magnetic soundtrack, although a disclaimer by CBS mentions some episodes are "edited from their original broadcast versions" and some music changed for home video. Incidental music was altered in at least two episodes, "Where the Action Is" and "The Garden House". There are no subtitles or alternate languages, but English closed captions are provided, and the "liner notes" consist

In other media.

Soundtrack.

In 1963, a soundtrack was issued containing the key music that Rugolo wrote and recorded for the series. In

Syndication/Cable.

"The Fugitive" was part of the original lineup on the Arts & Entertainment Network (A&E), beginning in February 1984. It ran until the summer of 1994. The show also appeared on the nationwide WWOR EMI Service and briefly on Nickelodeon’s TV Land network in 2000.  In February 2015, reruns of "The Fugitive" appeared on Decades, a new Digital TV (DTV) subchannel

Remakes and Spin-Offs.

Film.

A feature film of the same name, based on the series, was released by Warner Bros. Pictures on August 6, 1993, starring Harrison Ford as Kimble, Tommy Lee Jones as Gerard (now named 'Samuel' instead of 'Philip'), and Andreas Katsulas as the one-armed man (now called Fredrick Sykes instead of Fred Johnson). The movie's success came as Hollywood was embarking on a trend of remaking old television series into features. In the film, Kimble is portrayed as a prominent Chicago vascular surgeon instead of a small town Indiana pediatrician, while Gerard is portrayed as a U.S. Marshal rather than a police lieutenant. Kimble's wife is killed in an attempt on Kimble’s own life (rather than during a robbery

In other languages.

Malayalam movie named "Nirnayam" was produced following same storyline which was directed by Santosh Sivan.

"The Fugitive" (2000).

A short-lived TV series remake (CBS, October 6, 2000 – May 25, 2001) of the same name also aired, starring Tim Daly

"The Fugitive" (2020).

A modern day spinoff, that will be broadcast on the Quibi platform, is set to feature Boyd Holbrook as a new fugitive, blue-collar worker Mike Ferro, who is wrongly accused of setting off a bomb on a Los Angeles subway train. He is relentlessly pursued by Detective Clay Bryce (Kiefer Sutherland), a legendary cop who is uncovering evidence that Mike may not be guilty.

The Fugitive is an American crime drama television series created by Roy Huggins. It was produced by QM Productions and United Artists Television. It aired on ABC from September 1963 to August 1967. David Janssen starred as Dr. Richard Kimble, a physician who is wrongfully convicted of his wife's murder and sentenced to receive the death penalty. En route to death row, Dr. Richard Kimble's train derails over a switch, allowing him to escape and begin a cross-country search for the real killer, a "one-armed man" (played by Bill Raisch). At the same time, Dr. Kimble is hounded by the authorities, most notably by Police Lieutenant Philip Gerard (Barry Morse).

《法网恢恢》(英语:"The Fugitive"),为QM制作公司(QM Productions)与联艺电视(United Artists Television)制作,自1963年9月17日至1967年8月29日于美国广播公司(ABC)播出的美国电视系列剧,由大卫强生(David Janssen)主演。共播出4季(每季各30集),全120集。


Background.

A former dancer and fixture on the New York club scene, Madonna Ciccone became known to the world simply as Madonna, with the release of her 1983 self-titled debut album "Madonna". Fueled by hit songs like "Holiday", "Borderline" and "Lucky Star", the album was one of the best selling of the year and helped Madonna become one of the most exciting new artists of the 1980s. When she started work on her second album, Madonna felt that her first album had succeeded in introducing her "street-smart dance queen" persona, and she wanted to solidify and build upon that concept. According to her, "My work, my dedication—the stubbornness for getting "Madonna" released—had paid off. Now it was time to solidify my future."  For "Like a Virgin", Madonna attempted to become one of the primary record producers, feeling the need to control the various aspects of her music. She believed that depending on a particular producer for her album was not something that suited her. Madonna said "I learnt my lesson while creating my debut album, and the way [Reggie, the producer of her debut project] Lucas left me in the water with the project, you can't trust men"—referring to the incident, when due to a certain difference of opinion between producer Reggie Lucas and Madonna, Lucas had left the project half-way. However, Warner Bros. Records was not ready to give her the artistic freedom that she wanted. In J. Randy Taraborrelli's biography of Madonna, she commented,  Ultimately, Nile Rodgers was chosen by Madonna as the producer of the album, with the approval of the Warner Brothers executives. Madonna chose Rodgers mostly because of his work as a member of the 1970s band Chic, and his most recent production work with David Bowie on his 1983 album "Let's Dance". She commented, "When I was making the record, I was just so thrilled and happy to be working with Nile Rodgers. I idolized Nile because of the whole Chic thing. I couldn't believe that the record company gave me the money so that I could work with him."  For his part, Rodgers recalled that he had first seen Madonna perform at a small club in New York in 1983. In an interview with "Time" magazine, Rodgers explained: "I went to the club to see another woman sing, but when I got there Madonna was onstage. I loved her stage presence and then we met right after that. I kept thinking to myself, 'Damn, is she a star', but she wasn't at that time. I always wanted to work with her and "Like a Virgin" seemed like a perfect opportunity."

Recording.

The album was recorded at Power Station Studio in New York at a quick pace. Rodgers enlisted the help of his former Chic bandmates Bernard Edwards, who was the bassist, and Tony Thompson, who played the drums; they appeared on several tracks of the album. Rodgers decided to be the guitarist, when Edwards requested him to do so, in exchange for their help. The recording sessions did not start until the afternoon as Rodgers, who attended late-night parties, was not accustomed to work in early mornings. The schedule was also difficult for Madonna, who recalled that she used to "go to the swim club on the Upper West Side and go swimming and walk from there to the recording studio. It was impossible for me to reach there at morning." Rodgers recalled that Madonna was a real hard worker and incredibly tenacious. He commented: "I am always amazed by Madonna's incredible judgement when it comes to making pop records. I've never seen anyone do it better, and that's the truth. When we did that album, it was the perfect union, and I knew it from the first day in the studio. The thing between us, man, it was sexual, it was passionate, it was creativity... it was pop."  Jason Corsaro, the record's audio engineer, persuaded Rodgers to use digital recording, a new technique at the time which Corsaro believed was going to be the future of recording. To ensure this, Corsaro used a Sony 3324 24-track digital tape recorder and a Sony F1 two-track during the mixing of the tracks. Madonna recorded the lead parts of the songs in a small, wooden, high-ceilinged piano room at the back of Studio C, also known as Power Station's "R&B room". Corsaro then placed gobos around her while using the top capsule of a stereo AKG C24 tube microphone, with a Schoeps microphone preamplifier and a Pultec equalizer. Once the tracks met with everybody's approval, Robert Sabino added the keyboard parts, playing mostly a Sequential Circuits Prophet-5, as well as some Rhodes piano and acoustic piano, while Rodgers also played a Synclavier. Madonna, although not required, was present every minute of the recording sessions and the mixing process, Corsaro commented: "Nile was there most of the time, but she was there all of the time. She never left".

Packaging and title.

The cover sleeve and images were shot by Steven Meisel, who would become a regular collaborator with Madonna, in a suite at the St. Regis Hotel. Madonna wanted the album title to make provocative link between her own religious name—Madonna as the Roman Catholic title for Jesus' mother Mary—and the Christian concept of the virgin birth. With the title song alluding to this concept, Madonna wanted the album cover to have mixed messages as well. Author Graham Thompson described that "reclining on a satin sheet, with a bouquet on her lap and wearing a wedding dress, a closer inspection reveals Madonna's image as highly fetishized and sexualized." He added that the heavy make-up, pouting lips, and despoiled hair, along with the tight-fitting bustier and full-length gloves, turned Madonna's image into a figure not of virtue, but of desire. This point, according to Thompson, is further emphasized by the belt she is wearing, the wording on which is just visible as "Boy Toy". He added: "The image was ambiguous and was based upon the fact that Madonna's appeal at that point of her career was not presenting herself just as an object of desire, but also as a desiring female subject".  Erlewine commented that the "Steven Meisel-shot cover... was as key to her reinvention as the music of the album itself." William McKeen, author of "Rock and roll is here to stay: an anthology", felt that the image was another trigger and testament to the fact that Madonna was the last word on fashion for women and young girls of that era, the epitome of cool. Costume designer Arianne Phillips commented of the "Like a Virgin" look: "This was one of the most shocking, liberating and influential moments in pop culture/fashion history... Fashion has never been the same." Madonna herself declared: "I have always loved to play cat and mouse with the conventional stereotypes. My "Like a Virgin" album cover is a classic example. People were thinking who was I pretending to be—the Virgin Mary or the whore? These were the two extreme images of women I had known vividly, and remembered from childhood, and I wanted to play with them. I wanted to see if I can merge them together, Virgin Mary and the whore as one and all. The photo was a statement of independence, if you wanna be a virgin, you are welcome. But if you wanna be a whore, it's your fucking right to be so."

Composition.

According to Taraborrelli, "Madonna and Rodgers' collective energy—she wanting to score with a smash second album and he wanting to be the producer to give it to her—drove the production of "Like a Virgin" with great precision." Madonna also collaborated with her former boyfriend Steve Bray, who co-wrote many of the album's songs. Reflecting on the music composition for the album, Bray noted: "I've always kind of made the rib cage and the skeleton of the songs already—she's there for the last things like the eyebrows and the haircut." The opening track "Material Girl" was written by Peter Brown and Robert Rans. Madonna explained that the concept of the song was similar to her life's situation at that time. According to her, the song was provocative, hence she was attracted to it. "Material Girl" incorporated new wave music and consists of synth arrangements with a robotic voice repeating the hook. The lyrics identify with materialism, with Madonna asking for a rich and affluent life, rather than romance and relationships. Written by Madonna and Steve Bray, "Angel" is the second track on the album. It was one of the first songs developed for the project and, according to Madonna, was inspired by a girl who is saved by, and subsequently falls in love with an angel. "Angel" consists of a three-chord ascending hook, which serves as the verse and chorus. It has vocal harmonies beneath the main chorus and the lyrics repeat the angel-like image of Madonna's savior. The title track "Like a Virgin" was written by Billy Steinberg and Tom Kelly. Steinberg said that the song was inspired by his personal experiences of romance. It was chosen for Madonna by Michael Ostin of Warner Bros. Records, after listening to a demo sung by Kelly. However, Rodgers initially felt that the song did not have a good enough hook and was not suitable for Madonna, but subsequently changed his opinion after the hook was stuck in his mind. He credits Madonna with recognizing the song's potential: "I handed my apology to Madonna and said, 'you know... if it's so catchy that it stayed in my head for four days, it must be something. So let's do it.'" "Like a Virgin" is a dance-oriented song, composed of two hooks. Madonna's voice is heard in a high register while a continuous arrangement of drums are heard along the bassline. According to author Rikky Rooksby, the lyrics of the song are ambiguous and consist of hidden innuendo. In sexual terms, the lyrics can be interpreted in different ways for different people.  In "Over and Over", Madonna sings about determination and picking yourself up from disappointments. The song consists of instrumentation from drums, synths and has a three-chord progression. An emotional moment occurred in the recording studio when Madonna covered the 1978 Rose Royce song "Love Don't Live Here Anymore". Rodgers recalled: "Madonna had never performed with a live orchestra before. I was very much into doing everything live, so I just said, 'Madonna, you go out there and sing and we will follow you.' At first Madonna was hesitant, but the live setting ended up producing memorable results. She sang and she was overcome with emotions and she started crying, but I left it on the record." The song features Madonna's vocals supported by acoustic guitars and synth strings, with Thompson playing the drum in the second verse. Towards the end, Madonna emotes in the voice of a soul singer. "Into the Groove" is the sixth track on the 1985 worldwide reissue of "Like a Virgin"; it has never been part of "Like a Virgin" on any North American release. Madonna's inspiration behind the song was the dance floor, and she wrote it while watching a handsome Puerto Rican man across her balcony. Initially written for her friend Mark Kamins, Madonna later decided to use it in the soundtrack of her 1985 film "Desperately Seeking Susan". Unlike the other songs on "Like A Virgin", "Into the Groove" was recorded at Sigma Sound Studios, and produced by Madonna and Steve Bray. Madonna's friend Erika Belle was present during the recording and watched the whole process. In Andrew Morton's "Madonna" biography, she noted that at one point of the recording, Bray was facing difficulties with the bridge of the song, as the melody thought by him was not syncing with the rest of the composition. Undeterred by his obvious difficulties, Madonna stepped up to the microphone and sang the words "Live out your fantasy here with me". Bray's problem was solved; Belle remembered the experience as: "[The song] seemed to come out of her, I was awestruck." The song consists of instrumentation from drums, percussion, congas and whistles. Madonna's voice is double-tracked in the chorus. The lyrics are simple, and written as an invitation to dance with the singer, with sexual innuendos and undertones in the meaning.  "Dress You Up" was the last track to be added to the album as it was submitted late by songwriters Andrea LaRusso and Peggy Stanziale. Although Rodgers rejected it as there was no time to compose a melody and record it for the album, Madonna pushed for the song's inclusion on "Like a Virgin", as she particularly liked its lyrics. The song is a drum beat-driven dance track featuring instrumentation of guitars and vocals from a choir. The lyrics are an extended metaphor for fashion and sex, comparing dressing up with passion. "Shoo-Bee-Doo" contains homage to Motown music. Beginning with a slow introduction, the song is in the doo-wop genre and resembles the songs of early Sixties girl groups like The Shirelles or The Crystals. The saxophone breakdown is played by Lenny Pickett. The lyrics discuss relationship problems, and are phrased as clichés in the coda. "Pretender" starts with the chorus and then moves to the verse. It talks about seduction and the insecurity felt by a woman who feels that things are moving too quickly for her with her man. "Stay" is the final track on the album. Using triple-rhythms and double-tracked vocals, the song includes a noise resembling someone slapping a microphone and a spoken sequence which fades away in the end.

Promotion.

Live performances.

Madonna debuted the first single "Like a Virgin" at the first MTV Video Music Awards on September 14, 1984, where she appeared on stage atop a giant wedding cake dressed in a wedding dress, adorned with the infamous "Boy Toy" belt buckle, and veil. The climax of her risqué performance found her masturbating and rolling around on the stage. The performance is noted as one of the iconic performance in MTV's history. On December 13, 1984, Madonna performed "Like a Virgin" on BBC One's program "Top of the Pops", wearing punky torn tights, a vivid pink wig, religious accessories and layered mesh tops. It was later voted as the second best "Top of the Pops" performance of all time. She also appeared at the 1985 Live Aid charity concert, where she performed "Into the Groove".  The album was further promoted on her first headlining tour, The Virgin Tour, which only visited cities in the United States and Canada. Early on there were plans to schedule dates in England and Japan due to Madonna's large fan base in both countries. However, the final schedule did not reflect the idea. In the end several more US dates were added and moved to larger concert venues due to overwhelmingly strong ticket sales. Madonna's performance on the tour was described by Taraborrelli as "full of excitement", singing songs from her debut album as well as "Like a Virgin", and asking the audience "Will you marry me?" The costumes included colorful new wave jackets for "Holiday" and white wedding gowns similar to the one worn in her "Like a Virgin" music video. Referring to her Detroit roots and contemporary artist Michael Jackson, Madonna sang a verse of "Billie Jean" during "Like a Virgin".  The Virgin Tour was a success and collected a total of more than US$5 million. During a 2009 interview with "Rolling Stone", interviewer Austin Scaggs asked Madonna regarding her feelings and emotions during the tour, since it was the first time she was playing in arenas. Madonna replied saying,

Singles.

"Like a Virgin" was released as the lead single from the album in late 1984. It received positive reviews from contemporary as well as old critics, who frequently called it as one of the defining songs for Madonna. It became her first number-one single on the "Billboard" Hot 100, while reaching the top of the charts in Australia, Canada and Japan and the top-ten of other countries. The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on January 10, 1985, for shipping a million copies across United States – the requirement for a gold single prior to 1989. The music video portrayed Madonna sailing down the riverways of Venice in a gondola, as well as roaming around a palace wearing a white wedding dress. With the video, scholars noted Madonna's portrayal of a sexually independent woman, the symbolism of the appearance of a man with lion's mask to that of Saint Mark, and compared the eroticism of the video to the vitality of the city of Venice.  "Material Girl" was the second single from the album, released in November 1984. Critics have frequently noted "Material Girl" and "Like a Virgin" as the songs that made Madonna an icon. The song was a commercial success, reaching the top-five in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Ireland, Japan and United Kingdom. It reached position two on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in the United States. The music video was a mimicry of Marilyn Monroe's performance of the song "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" from the 1953 film "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes". The mimicked scenes are interspersed with scenes of a Hollywood producer trying to win the heart of an actress, played by Madonna herself. Discovering that, contrary to her song, the young woman was not impressed by money and expensive gifts, he pretended to be penniless and succeeded in taking her out on a date. "Angel" was the third released single from the album, in April 1985. Critics gave mixed review of the song, with one group denoting it as a classic while the others felt it was sub-par compared to the other Madonna singles. "Angel" became Madonna's fifth consecutive top-five single on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and reached the top of its dance chart.  "Into the Groove" was released as the album's fourth single outside North America in July 1985. The song was appreciated by contemporary critics as well as authors, who have frequently called it "Madonna's first great single". "Into the Groove" reached the top of the charts in Australia, Belgium, Ireland, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, where it was Madonna's first number-one single. In the United States, the song was only available as the B-side of the 12-inch single of "Angel", therefore it was ineligible to chart on the "Billboard" Hot 100 at the time. It reached number one on the US Hot Dance Club Play chart where it was listed as a double-sided single with "Angel". "Dress You Up" was the last single from the album. Critics reacted positively to the dance-pop nature of the track. "Dress You Up" became Madonna's sixth consecutive top-five single in the United States. It also reached the top-ten in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom.

Critical reception.

According to "Q" magazine, "Like a Virgin" was the album that "propelled [Madonna] into the stratosphere – and rightly so. The songs are smart, funny, sexy and irresistible." Taraborrelli said, "It was "Like a Virgin" which reflected Madonna as a more versatile and artistic performer and vocals on this album being reflectively sharper in contrast to her early works in the music industry." Michael Paoletta from "Billboard" commented that the songs on the album sustain a "fevered dance-rock momentum". Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic commented, "Overall, the album adds up to less than the sum of its parts—partially because the singles are so good, but also because on the first album, she stunned with style and a certain joy. Here, the calculation is apparent, and while that's part of Madonna's essence—even something that makes her fun—it throws the record's balance off a little too much for it to be consistent, even if it justifiably made her a star." Debby Miller from "Rolling Stone" preferred Madonna's debut album over "Like a Virgin". In "The Village Voice", Robert Christgau was also lukewarm towards the record, writing "[Madonna's] so sure of herself she's asking men and women both to get the hots for the calculating bitch who sells the fantasy even while she bids for the sincerity market where long-term superstars ply their trade. And to make the music less mechanical, she's hired Nile Rodgers, who I won't blame for making it less catchy."  Jim Farber from "Entertainment Weekly" said that "In addition to raising the Madonna/whore ante with songs like the title cut, "Virgin" cradled the kind of '80s hits ("Dress You Up") built to transcend the Dynasty era." Alfred Soto from Stylus Magazine remembered the first time that he heard the songs from the album and commented, "Lots of critics think something similar occurred when Madonna followed her eponymous debut with "Like a Virgin", helmed by Nile Rodgers with all the fixin's—too calculated next to the 'raw passion' of the debut. This is nonsense; it misses how Madonna conflated notions of spontaneity and calculation. Rodgers is the ideal collaborator." Stephen Holden from "The New York Times" said: "With a tough-cookie voice that's both coy and streetwise, Madonna's singing harks back to the rock-and-roll "girl-group" tradition that preceded the Beatles. But where girl groups, from the Shirelles to the Ronettes, worshipfully extolled their boyfriends' cars, haircuts and rebel poses, Madonna's point of view is decidedly more self-interested. In matters of love, she is a comparison shopper with a shrewd sense of her own market value. The words'shiny and new' describe not only the way the love-smitten singer feels in the title song but the sound of the album."  Matt Damsker from "Los Angeles Times" commented: "Madonna's beating vibrato sometimes makes her sound so robotic in the album." Lou Papineau, while writing for "The Providence Journal", said that "In "Like a Virgin", Madonna proves she's shallow, but spunky." Sal Cinquemani from "Slant Magazine" gave a positive review, saying "Though not as innovative as her debut, "Like a Virgin" stands as one of the most definitive pop artifacts from the indulgent Reagan Era. The mid-tempo ballad 'Shoo-Bee-Doo' and a soulful cover of Rose Royce's 'Love Don't Live Here Anymore' proved Madonna could churn out more than just novelty hits, while the sugary 'Angel' and the irresistible 'Dress You Up' contributed to the singer's record-breaking list of consecutive Top 5 hits (16 in all). The retro-infused 'Stay' and the percussive 'Over and Over' are the album's hidden gems." Ed Stevenson from "People" felt that "Madonna does have a sense of humor, though she is buried under so many layers of self-parody it's hard to tell sometimes... She is backed on this by the reliable rhythmic touch of veteran Nile Rodgers, whose contributions have helped her create a tolerable bit of fluff. Hugo Mistry from "Chicago Tribune" felt that ""Like a Virgin" was Madonna's breakthrough, playing off her self-conscious campiness with a series of hot dance tracks, attention-grabbing lyrics and steamy videos."

Commercial performance.

"Like a Virgin" was recorded and finished by September 1984, but the release of the album was held up, much to Madonna's frustration, by the continuing sales of her debut album, which was approaching two million sales in the United States. "Like a Virgin" debuted at number 70 on the "Billboard" 200 issued for December 1, 1984. The album reached the top ten of the "Billboard" 200 on December 8, 1984, and after one month reached the top of the chart on February 9, 1985, where it stayed for three weeks. It also reached a peak of ten on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. After 14 weeks, the album sold 3.5 million copies. By July 1985, "Like a Virgin" became the first album by a female artist to be certified for sales of five million units in the United States. It was eventually certified ten times platinum (diamond) by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for shipment of ten million copies of the album. It placed at three on the year-end chart for 1985, with Madonna becoming the top pop artist for the year. After the advent of the Nielsen SoundScan era in 1991, the album sold a further 574,000 copies. It sold additional 882,000 units at the BMG Music Club, which are not counted by the Nielsen SoundScan. In Canada, the album debuted at number 78 on the "RPM" Albums Chart, on November 10, 1984. It reached a peak of number three, on February 16, 1985. The album was present for a total of 74 weeks on the chart, and was certified diamond by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA), for shipment of one million copies of the album. "Like a Virgin" ranked sixth on the "RPM" Top 100 Albums for 1985. As of June 1986, the album sold more than 750,000 units in Latin America.  In the United Kingdom, "Like a Virgin" debuted at number 74 on the UK Albums Chart, on January 12, 1985. However, the album fluctuated on the chart for the next eight months and it was only in September that it finally reached the top of the chart. It remained at the top for two weeks, and a total of 152 weeks on the chart. The album was certified three times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) and has sold over a million copies there. In France, the album debuted at number five on the French Albums Chart on October 6, 1985, staying there for eight weeks, then descending down the chart. It was certified two times platinum by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP) for shipment of 600,000 copies. In Australia, the album debuted and peaked at two on the Kent Music Report albums chart, and was certified seven times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipment of 490,000 copies of the album. It reached the top of the New Zealand Albums Chart and was certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) for shipment of 75,000 copies. Elsewhere, "Like a Virgin" reached number one in Germany, the Netherlands and Spain, while peaking within the top five in many other countries, including Austria, Japan, Sweden and Switzerland. It also became Madonna's first number-one album on the European Top 100 Albums, reaching the summit on November 23, 1985, for two weeks. "Like a Virgin" has sold more than 21 million copies worldwide as of August 2008 and became one of the best-selling albums of all time.

Legacy.

After the release of "Like a Virgin", Stephen Holden from "The New York Times" commented: "No phenomenon illustrates more pointedly how pop music history seems to run in cycles than the overnight success of the 24-year-old pop siren known as Madonna. The month before Christmas, Madonna's second album, "Like a Virgin" sold more than two million copies. Teen-agers were lining up in stores to purchase the album the way their parents had lined up to buy Beatles records in the late 60's." Madonna proved she was not a one-hit wonder with the release of the album which sold 12 million copies worldwide at the time of its release. In 2016, "Billboard" ranked at number nine in the list of Certified Diamond Albums From Worst to Best. "Like a Virgin" was placed at fifth at Album of the Decade by "Billboard"—the highest peak by a female performer.  Taraborrelli felt that ""Like a Virgin" is really a portrait of Madonna's uncanny pop instincts empowered by her impatient zeal for creative growth and her innate knack for crafting a good record." He added that the success of the album made it clear what was Madonna's real persona. "She was a street-smart dance queen with the sexy allure of Marilyn Monroe, the coy iciness of Marlene Dietrich and the cutting and protective glibness of a modern Mae West". Although the album received mixed reviews, Taraborrelli believed that the "mere fact that at the time of its release so many couldn't resist commenting on the record was a testament to the continuous, growing fascination with Madonna... Every important artist has at least one album in his or her career whose critical and commercial success becomes the artist's magic moment; for Madonna, "Like a Virgin" was just such a defining moment"  Chris Smith, author of "101 Albums That Changed Popular Music", believed that it was with "Like a Virgin" that Madonna was able to steal the spotlight towards herself. She asserted her sexuality as only male rock stars had done before, moving well beyond the limited confines of being a pop artist, to becoming a focal point for nationwide discussions of power relationships in the areas of sex, race, gender, religion, and other divisive social topics. Her songs became a lightning rod for both criticism by conservatives and imitation by the younger female population. "Consequence of Sound" ranked the album at number two on "The 10 Greatest Sophomore Albums of All Time", calling it the album that "carved out the throne...that would be Madonna's forever: the Queen of Pop."

Track listing.

Notes

Personnel.

Credits adapted from the album's liner notes.

Certifications and sales.

!scope="row"|Worldwide

Like a Virgin is the second studio album by American singer and songwriter Madonna, released on November 12, 1984, by Sire Records. Following the success of her self-titled debut album, Madonna wanted to become the record producer of her next album. However, her label was not ready to give her the artistic freedom and she chose Nile Rodgers instead to produce the album due to his work with David Bowie. Madonna wrote six songs on the record, five of which feature Steve Bray as a co-writer. The album was recorded at Power Station Studio in New York at a quick pace. Rodgers enlisted the help of his former Chic bandmates Bernard Edwards, who was the bassist, and Tony Thompson, who played drums. Jason Corsaro, the record's audio engineer, persuaded Rodgers to use digital recording, a new technique introduced at that time.

《宛如处女》(Like a Virgin)是美国知名女歌手玛丹娜的第2张录音室专辑,由华纳兄弟唱片公司旗下Sire唱片公司在1984年11月12日作首批发行,隔年在北美以外地区重新改版发行,新版本内增加了一首歌曲〈跟上旋律〉。这是玛丹娜首张英、美冠军专辑,在美销售数字经RIAA在1998年已认证为钻石唱片(销售达1,000万张)。