Geography.

Ranong is on the Kra Isthmus, a narrow strip of land, only wide, that connects Thailand with the Malay Peninsula, on the west of the Phuket mountain range. It has a long coast on the Andaman Sea. The province, together with Trat Province, is known for being one of the wettest places in Thailand, the rainy season lasting for about eight months.  Ranong is the least populated province. Eighty percent of its area is covered by forests, and 67 percent is mountainous. In former years the major industry was tin mining, but most mines are now exhausted. White clay mining (for the production of porcelain) and fishing are now the main industries, along with rubber and cashew nuts.  The Ngao Mangrove Forest Research Centre, also known as the Ranong Biosphere Reserve, in the north of Kapoe District, covering 189,431 rai (303.09 km), was declared in 1997. It is the fourth biosphere reserve of Thailand, and the only one on the seacoast protecting mangrove forests. Khlong Nakha Wildlife Sanctuary is in the south of the province.

History.

Ranong province once was a deputy town of Chumphon in the Ayutthaya era (1350–1767). It was a small, mountainous town that protected Chumphon from Burma. The population was very low until the discovery of tin, when people from many cities and foreigners started to visit Ranong to do tin business there. This also gave rise to the name Ranong, which was a distorted form of "rae nong" (แร่นอง), meaning "full of minerals". The ruler of Ranong was known after the town as "Luang Ranong" ()  At the start of the Rattanakosin era (1781–present), there was a wealthy Chinese merchant named Kho Su Jiang who bought all the tin business in Ranong and was appointed tax collector of Ranong, with the title "Luang Rattana Setti" (), by King Nangklao (Rama III). In 1854, the "Luang Ranong" died. King Mongkut (Rama IV) then promoted Kho Su Jiang to the position, promoting him to "Phra Rattana Setti" (). By then, Ranong's wealth had increased greatly and through taxation was a significant source of income for the capital, thus in 1877 King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) elevated Ranong to provincial status, answering directly to Bangkok as opposed to Chumphon, with Phra Rattana Setti becoming its first governor.  After the First Anglo-Burmese War, when the British assumed control of Tenasserim and the Kraburi River became the demarcation line between Siam and British-controlled Burma, Rayong became an important border city where goods were exchanged, a status which extends past the independence of Burma to the present.  Being located on the Kra Isthmus, the narrowest part (44 kilometres) of the Malay Peninsula, the idea of a canal through the area has been long suggested, particularly by the French. If successful, traveling from Europe to China would be easier because one would pass through Thailand, which was faster and cheaper, instead of circumnavigating Malaysia. This was seen as a threat to the financial growth of the harbors of Singapore and Penang, which at the time were owned by Britain, who therefore forced the suspension of the project. At the end of World War II, Thailand signed a British-imposed treaty called "The Termination of The State of War Between Siam and Allies", which forbade Thailand from digging such a canal without British permission. This treaty was revoked in 1954. Since then, plans for the canal have continued to be suggested and discussed, even in the present day, though prime minister Prayut Chan-o-cha said in 2018 that it was not a government priority.  Ranong has also been historically significant as a residence for royal tours of the southern provinces, with many kings of Thailand visiting Ranong in the past. The first was King Chulalongkorn, who stayed at Rattana Ransan palace for three nights in 1890. The palace is now a landmark in Ranong. King Prajadhipok (Rama VII) visited in 1928, and King Bhumibol (Rama IX) and Queen Sirikit visited in 1959.

Climate.

Most of Thailand receives from 1,200 to 1,600 mm of precipitation per year. Two provinces, Ranong and Trat, receive more than 4,500 mm a year making them the wettest places in the country.

Symbols.

The provincial seal shows a castle on top of a hill, as an aide memoire that King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) once visited Ranong and stayed at the Ratana Rangsan Castle on top of the Niveskiri Hill. The number five refers to King Rama V; the castle is Ratana Rangsan Palace; the mountain is Niveshkiri; the royal tray refers to the people of Ranong.  The provincial slogan is, "Kra Isthmus, mountain grass, cashew nut, mineral water stream, and real pearl of Ranong."  The provincial tree is the Banaba ("Lagerstroemia speciosa"), and the provincial flower is the orchid "Dendrobium formosum".

Administrative divisions.

Provincial government.

Ranong is divided into five districts ("amphoe"). These are further divided into 30 subdistricts ("tambon") and 167 villages ("muban").

Local government.

As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Ranong Provincial Administration Organisation ("ongkan borihan suan changwat") and 12 municipal ("thesaban") areas in the province. Ranong and Bang Rin have town ("thesaban mueang") status. Further 10 subdistrict municipalities ("thesaban tambon"). The non-municipal areas are administered by 18 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO ("ongkan borihan suan tambon").

Transportation.

Phet Kasem Road (Thailand Route 4) runs through the city. Ranong Airport is about south of town.  The Port Authority of Thailand operates the Ranong Port, which is Thailand's principal Indian Ocean port. In 2008, the Ranong human-smuggling incident resulted in 54 deaths.

Human achievement index 2017.

Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.

Tourism.

Namtok Ngao National Park (อุทยานแห่งชาติน้ําตกหงาว) Covering a total area of approximately 417,500 rai (668 km) it was declared a national park on 3 June 1999.  Ko Chang (Ranong) (เกาะช้าง) island in tambon Ko Phayam. With an area of 18 square kilometres and 80 homes on the entire island. Cashew and para rubber plantations as well as coastal fisheries are the main industries.  Laem Son National Park (อุทยานแห่งชาติแหลมสน) It covers a total area of 196,875 rai (31.5 hectares). It also includes islands in the Andaman Sea; namely, Ko Khangkhao and Mu Ko Kam. Places of interest within the national park include:

Notes.

Reports (data) from Thai government are "not copyrightable" (Public Domain), Copyright Act 2537 (1994), section 7.

Ranong (, ) is one of Thailand's southern provinces ("changwat"), on the west coast along the Andaman Sea. It has the fewest inhabitants of all Thai provinces. Provinces neighboring Ranong are (clockwise) Chumphon, Surat Thani, and Phang Nga. To the west, it borders Kawthaung, Tanintharyi, Myanmar.

拉廊府(,)在泰国南部,她座落在安达曼海滂。西面是缅甸德林达依省的高当(Kawthaung),东到南分别是泰国的春蓬府、素叻府和攀牙府。


Origins.

The origin of the practice has been traced to ancient Rome. Here relationships between the patron "(patronus)" and client "(cliens)" were seen as crucial to understanding the political process. While the obligations between these were mutual, the key point is they were hierarchical. These relationships might be best viewed not as an entity but rather as a network "(clientela)", with the "patronus" himself perhaps being obligated to someone of greater power, and the "cliens" perhaps having more than one patron. These extensions increase the possibilities of conflicting interests arising. While the "familia" was the basic unit underlying Roman society, the interlocking networks "(clientela)" acted as restrictions on their autonomy but allowed a more complex society to develop. Historians of the late medieval period evolved the concept into bastard feudalism. There is, as is usual, ambiguity in the use of political terminology and the terms "clientelism", the "patron–client relationship", "patronage" and the political machine are sometimes used to describe similar or related concepts.  The reigns of Julius Caesar (49–44 BCE) and Tiberius (14–16 AD) have been characterized as examples of widespread clientelism. In the 1500s, French political theorist Étienne de La Boétie did not use the term "clientelism", but described the practice of emperors who used gifts to the public to gain loyalty from those who were eager to accept what amounted to bribery:

Mechanics.

Susan Stokes et al. distinguish clientelism as a form of non-programmatic policy within distributive politics. It meets the criteria through failing to meet the two requirements of programmatic distribution, that are (1) 'formalized and public' and (2)'shape actual distribution of benefits or resources'. Within non-programmatic policy, clientelism is then distinguished from 'pork-barrel politics' in that voters are given a benefit or are able to avoid a cost conditional on their returning the favor with a vote. The patron/client system can be defined as a mutual arrangement between a person that has authority, social status, wealth, or some other personal resource (patron) and another who benefits from their support or influence (client). The patron provides selective access to goods and opportunities, and place themselves or their support in positions from which they can divert resources and services in their favor. Their partners-clients- are expected to buy support, and in some cases, votes. Patrons target low-income families to exchange their needed resources for their abundant resources: time, a vote, and insertion into networks of other potential supporters whom they can influence. However, patrons are unable to access the information needed to effectively form the exchange; thus they hire intermediaries, brokers, that more equipped to find out what the targeted voter needs, which voters will require less prodding, and if the voter followed through on their end of the bargain. As Stokes, Dunning, Nazareno, and Brusco emphasize, brokers in turn serve political leaders, and they may also not target resources exactly as leaders would wish; the resulting principal-agent problems can have important implications for understanding how clientelism works.  Patronage, turnout buying, abstention buying, and vote buying are subcategories of clientelism. Patronage refers to an intra-party flow of benefits to members. Turnout buying, coined by Nichter, treats or bribes voters to the polls whereas abstention buying treats or bribes voters to keep them from going to the polls. Vote buying is a direct transfer of goods or services, in exchange for one's support and vote. The result for the good or service is a question of did you or will you vote for me? A key to understanding clientelism might come in stressing not only the mutually beneficial relationships of exchange but also asymmetries in power or standing. Implied is a certain selectivity in access to key resources and markets. Those with access, the "patrons" (and/or sometimes "sub-patrons" or "brokers") rely on the subordination and dependence of the clients. In return for receiving some benefits the clients should provide political support.

Forms of clientelism.

Politicians can engage in clientelism on either (or both) a group or individual level. One way individual level clientelism can manifest itself is in a vote buying relationship: a politician gives a citizen goods or services, and, in exchange, that individual citizen promises to vote for that politician in the next election. Individual level clientelism can also be carried out through coercion where citizens are threatened with lack of goods or services unless they vote for a certain politician or party. The relationship can also work in the opposite direction, where voters pressure politicians into clientelistic relationships in exchange for electoral support.  Stokes' research on clientelism in Argentina assumed that the Peronist party was providing financial support to prospective voters to buy their votes. It was hypothesized that Peronists targeted moderately opposed voters because they were thought to be easily persuaded to change sides at the party's minimal expense. Stokes elaborated on the need of the Argentinian Peronist party to be able to track who their clientele in fact voted for amidst the secret ballot system. Stokes' argument is that the potential for vote buying depends on the accuracy with which the patron party, the Peronists in the case of Argentina, are able to monitor votes. She uses evidence to show that overall smaller communities offer less anonymity, making it easier for the patrons to find out who committed to supporting them. Thus, Stokes concludes that this is one of the reasons why vote buying is more frequent in relatively small communities. Another reason is that smaller communities are generally poorer. Furthermore, smaller communities, which are generally poorer and have a greater need for resources, are a more attractive target.  Research by Nichter promoted a simpler hypothesis for the Argentinian election cycle: to prove Peronists were solely buying supporting voters' turnout, not all the people's votes. He dismissed Stokes' arguments on patrons spying on smaller and poorer communities, instead saying the Peronists initially targeted votes assumed to be their strong supporters. In this case the patrons would be reasonably sure they receive a vote from a person if this person receives a good from them.  In many young low-income democracies, clientelism may assume the form of group-level targeting, where parties channel benefits to specific groups of voters, conditional on past or future electoral support. For group-based targeting to work, parties must find efficient ways to distribute benefits while also holding voters accountable—i.e., ensuring that they don't renege on their commitments. This leads parties to hire intermediaries, often referred to as 'brokers', who supply them with fine-grained information about who needs what and what sorts of voters will and will not vote for them, regardless of the benefit(s) provided. "Party brokers" are not the only type of intermediaries that mediate clientelist exchanges; there are "organizational brok"ers who represent specific interest groups but mobilize voters for multiple parties, "hybrid brokers" who also represent specific interest groups but demonstrate strong party loyalties, and "independent brokers" who neither represent specific group interests nor exhibit stable partisan attachments.  Scholarly consensus has thus far eluded the question of why parties channel clientelist benefits to certain groups more than others. Some of the earlier work on group-level targeting argues that politicians are more likely to direct party largesse to their co-ethnics because ethnicity helps parties solve the commitment problems that are so critical to making clientelism work. Some of the more contemporary work underscores the salience of partisan loyalties: politicians direct the bulk of their vote-buying efforts at persuadable swing voters—i.e., voters who are either indifferent to the party's professed programmatic goals, or moderately opposed to them.[6] Some studies have challenged these claims, suggesting instead that most instances of vote-buying in clientelist democracies might actually be instances of turnout-buying, whereby parties shower benefits on their most loyal supporters with the hope they will show up at the polling booth on election day. However, the lack of well-developed political machines does not preclude clientelist targeting. Recent studies have shown that in many emerging democracies where parties often lack the organizational capacity to monitor individual-level voting behavior, parties fine-tune their targeting strategies by updating their beliefs about what sorts of groups have been most responsive to their clientelist appeals in the past.

Clientelism in context.

Clientelism may not look the same from context to context. Several individual and country-level factors may shape if and how clientelism takes hold in a country including the types of individual leaders, socioeconomic status of individuals, economic development, democratization, and institutional factors. In some contexts, clientelistic behavior is almost expected, as these types of interactions can become embedded in the formal political structures. Some types of leaders (such as hereditary traditional leaders who remain in power for extended periods of time) are more effective in carrying out clientelistic relationships than others (such as elected officials). Research has also shown that although politicians can benefit electorally from clientelistic relationships by gaining support from those who receive goods from them, there are also potential costs as clientelistic politicians may lose support from wealthier voters who do not engage in clientelistic relationships themselves view the practice negatively. Not all voters view clientelistic behavior as a positive trait in politicians, especially voters of higher socioeconomic statuses. In short, there is no one factor that "causes" clientelism to take hold.

Consequences.

Clientelism has generally negative consequences on democracy and government while also having more uncertain consequences on the economy.  The accountability relationship in a democracy, where voters hold elected officials accountable for their actions, is undermined by clientelism. This is because under clientelism, votes are contingent on gifts to clients rather than the performance of elected officials in office. Clientelism also degrades democratic institutions such as the secret ballot and administrative oversight. These factors both weaken democratic institutions and negatively impact the efficiency of government.  Corruption and the perception of corruption have also been established as strongly correlated with clientelist systems. There are many reasons for this. For one, patrons often appear above the law in many clientelist systems. What is more, some acts in clientelist systems such as vote buying, could be inherently illegal. Finally, resources needed for patrons to maintain the clientelist system could necessitate illicit means of obtaining goods.  Some scholars believe that because patrons focus on the control and procurement of private goods, they also neglect public goods such as roads and public schools which aid economic development. Scholars also note that rent seeking and corruption, prevalent in clientelist systems, could negatively impact the economy as well. Nevertheless, there is still great uncertainty in the economic effects of clientelism.

Controversy.

It is common to link clientelism with corruption; both involve political actors using public and private resources for personal gain, but they are not synonymous. Corruption is commonly defined as "dishonest and fraudulent conduct by those in power, typically involving bribery", while political clientelism is seen as "the distribution of benefits targeted to individuals or groups in exchange for electoral support". It is common to associate the two together because they moderately overlap. There are different forms of corruptions that have nothing to do with clientelism, such as voter intimidation or ballot stuffing. "Clientelism is considered negative because its intention is to generate 'private' revenue for patrons and clients and, as a result obstruct 'public' revenue for members of the general community who are not a part of the patron-client arrangement."  Clientelism as a strategy of political organisation is substantially different from other strategies which rely on appeals to wider programmatic objectives or simply emphasize higher degrees of competence. It is often assumed that clientelism is a vestige of political underdevelopment, a form of corruption, and that political modernization will reduce or end it. But alternative views stressing the persistence of clientelism – and the patronage associated with it – have been recognized.

Clientelism is the exchange of goods and services for political support, often involving an implicit or explicit quid-pro-quo. Clientelism involves an asymmetric relationship between groups of political actors described as "patrons, brokers", and "clients".

侍从主义,也译作庇护主义(英语:Clientelism)指的是以交换商品或服务的方式来得到政治支持(political support),在这过程中双方常会有明示或暗示的交换条件。侍从主义中,恩庇者(patron)、掮客(broker)、侍从者(client)等政治参与者之间的关系是不对称的。Richard Graham曾经将侍从主义定义为一连串基于「你拿那,我拿这」为原则的行为,然后彼此因为对方的支持来得到好处,互利共生。更甚者,侍从主义事实上就是是选民以政治上的支持换取政府多种公共政策上的回馈,也属于分赃政治。


Synthesis and reactions.

The first known synthesis of quinazoline was reported in 1895 by August Bischler and Lang through the decarboxylation of the 2-carboxy derivative (quinazoline-2-carboxylic acid). In 1903, Siegmund Gabriel reported the synthesis of the parent quinazoline from "o"-nitrobenzylamine, which was reduced with hydrogen iodide and red phosphorus to 2-aminobenzylamine. The reduced intermediate condenses with formic acid to yield dihydroquinazoline, which was oxidized to quinazoline.

Hydrolysis.

Quinazoline hydrolyzes under acidic and alkaline conditions to 2-aminobenzaldehyde and formic acid and ammonia/ammonium.

Electrophilic and nucleophilic substitution.

The pyrimidine ring resists electrophilic substitution, although the 4-position is more reactive than the 2-position. In comparison, the benzene ring is more susceptible to electrophilic substitution. The ring position order of reactivity is 8 > 6 > 5 > 7. 2- and 4-halo derivatives of quinazoline undergo displacement by nucleophiles, such as piperidine.

Biological and pharmacological significance.

Gefitinib.

In May 2003, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a quinazoline-containing drug gefitinib. The drug, produced by AstraZeneca, is an inhibitor of the protein kinase of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). It binds to the ATP-binding site of EGFR, thus inactivating the anti-apoptotic Ras signal transduction cascade preventing further growth of cancer cells.

Lapatinib.

In March 2007, GlaxoSmithKline's drug lapatinib was approved by the U.S. FDA to treat advanced-stage or metastatic breast cancer in combination with Roche's capecitabine. Lapatinib eliminates the growth of breast cancer stem cells that cause tumor growth. The binding of lapatinib to the ATP-binding site in the EGFR and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) protein kinase domains inhibits signal mechanism activation (through reversible, competitive inhibition).

Erlotinib.

In May 2013, erlotinib, a drug manufactured by Astellas, was approved by the U.S. FDA to treat NSCLC patients with tumors caused by mutations of EGFR. The binding of erlotinib to the ATP-binding sites of the EGFR receptors prevents EGFR from producing phosphotyrosine residues (due to competitive inhibition), thus rendering the receptor incapable of generating signal cascades to promote cell growth.

Afatinib.

In July 2013, the U.S. FDA approved afatinib, a drug developed by Boehringer Ingelheim, as an irreversible, competitive inhibitor of HER2 and EGFR kinases. While afatinib demonstrates a similar mechanism to laptinib in which it acts as an irreversible HER2 and EGFR inhibitor, afatinib has also shown activity against tyrosine kinases that have become resistant to gefinitib and erlotinib.

Quinazoline is an organic compound with the formula CHN. It is an aromatic heterocycle with a bicyclic structure consisting of two fused six-membered aromatic rings, a benzene ring and a pyrimidine ring. It is a light yellow crystalline solid that is soluble in water. Also known as 1,3-diazanaphthalene, quinazoline received its name from being an aza derivative of quinoline. Though the parent quinazoline molecule is rarely mentioned by itself in technical literature, substituted derivatives have been synthesized for medicinal purposes such as antimalarial and anticancer agents. Quinazoline is a planar molecule. It is isomeric with the other diazanaphthalenes of the benzodiazine subgroup: cinnoline, quinoxaline, and phthalazine. Over 200 biologically active quinazoline and quinoline alkaloids are identified.

喹唑啉(Quinazoline)是一种杂环化合物,化学式CHN,由一个苯环与一个嘧啶环稠合而成。喹唑啉也可看做萘环的两个CH被N原子替换,这样的结构称为萘啶。


米尔温–庞多夫–韦尔莱还原反应

Mechanism.

The MPV reduction is believed to go through a catalytic cycle involving a six-member ring transition state as shown in Figure 2. Starting with the aluminium alkoxide 1, a carbonyl oxygen is coordinated to achieve the tetra coordinated aluminium intermediate 2. Between intermediates 2 and 3 the hydride is transferred to the carbonyl from the alkoxy ligand via a pericyclic mechanism. At this point the new carbonyl dissociates and gives the tricoordinated aluminium species 4. Finally, an alcohol from solution displaces the newly reduced carbonyl to regenerate the catalyst 1.  Each step in the cycle is reversible and the reaction is driven by the thermodynamic properties of the intermediates and the products. This means that given time the more thermodynamically stable product will be favored.  Several other mechanisms have been proposed for this reaction, including a radical mechanism as well as a mechanism involving an aluminium hydride species. The direct hydride transfer is the commonly accepted mechanism recently supported by experimental and theoretical data.

Chemoselectivity.

One of the great draws of the Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction is its chemoselectivity. Aldehydes are reduced before ketones allowing for a measure of control over the reaction. If it is necessary to reduce one carbonyl in the presence of another, the common carbonyl protecting groups may be employed. Groups, such as alkenes and alkynes, that normally pose a problem for reduction by other means have no reactivity under these conditions.

Stereoselectivity.

The aluminium based Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction can be performed on prochiral ketones leading to chiral alcohols. The three main ways to achieve the asymmetric reduction is by use of a chiral alcohol hydride source, use of an intramolecular MPV reduction, or use of a chiral ligand on the aluminium alkoxide.  One method of achieving the asymmetric MPV reduction is with the use of chiral hydride donating alcohols. The use of chiral alcohol (R)-(+)-"sec"-"o"-bromophen-ethyl alcohol gave 82%ee (percent enantiomeric excess) in the reduction of 2-chloroacetophenone. This enantioselection is due to the sterics of the two phenol groups in the six membered transition state as shown in Figure 3. In Figure 3, 1 is favored over 2 due to the large steric effect in 2 from the two phenyl groups.  The use of an intramolecular MPV reduction can give good enantiopurity. By tethering the ketone to the hydride source only one transition state is possible (Figure 4) leading to the asymmetric reduction. This method, however, has the ability to undergo the reverse Oppenauer oxidation due to the proximity of the two reagents. Thus the reaction runs under thermodynamic equilibrium with the ratio of the products related to their relative stabilities. After the reaction is run the hydride-source portion of the molecule can be removed.  Chiral ligands on the aluminium alkoxide can affect the stereochemical outcome of the MPV reduction. This method lead to the reduction of substituted acetophenones in up to 83%ee (Figure 5). The appeal of this method is that it uses a chiral ligand as opposed to a stoichiometric source of chirality. It has been recently shown that the low selectivity of this method is due to the shape of the transition state. It has been shown that the transition state is a planar six member transition state. This is different than the believed Zimmerman-Traxler model like transition state.

Scope.

Several problems restrict the use of the Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction compared to the use of other reducing agents. The stereochemical control is seriously limited. Often a large amount of aluminium alkoxide is needed when using commercial reagent, and there are several known side reactions.  While commercial aluminium isopropoxide is available, the use of it often requires catalyst loadings of up to 100-200 mol%. This hinders the use of the MPV reduction on scale. Recent work has shown that aluminium alkoxides made in situ from trimethyl aluminium reagents have far better activity requiring as little as 10% loading. The activity difference is believed to be due to the large aggregation state of the commercially available product.  Several side reactions are known to occur. In the case of ketones and especially aldehydes aldol condensations have been observed. Aldehydes with no α-hydrogens can undergo the Tishchenko reaction. Finally, in some cases the alcohol generated by the reduction can be dehydrated giving an alkyl carbon.

Variations.

The Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction has been recently used in the synthesis of chiral amines from ketimines using a chiral alkoxide. The addition of a phosphinoyl group to the nitrogen of the ketimine allowed for high enantioselectivity up to 98%ee.  Work has been done in the use of lanthanides and transition metals for the Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction. Both Ruthenium and Samarium have shown high yields and high stereoselectivity in the reduction of carbonyls to alcohols. The Ruthenium catalyst has been shown, however, to go through a Ruthenium hydride intermediate. The Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction has also been effected with synthetically useful yield by plutonium (III) isopropoxide.  The standard MPV reduction is a homogeneous reaction several heterogeneous reactions have been developed.

The Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley (MPV) reduction in organic chemistry is the reduction of ketones and aldehydes to their corresponding alcohols utilizing aluminium alkoxide catalysis in the presence of a sacrificial alcohol. The advantages of the MPV reduction lie in its high chemoselectivity, and its use of a cheap environmentally friendly metal catalyst.

Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley还原反应(密尔温-彭杜夫-魏雷还原反应;梅尔魏因-庞多夫-维尔来还原反应),又称 Meerwein–Ponndorf还原反应(麦尔外因-彭杜尔夫还原反应),简称 MPV 还原


Early career.

Salutati was born in Stignano, a tiny commune near Buggiano (today's province of Pistoia, Tuscany). After studies in Bologna, where his father lived in exile after a Ghibelline coup in Buggiano, the family returned to Buggiano, which had become more securely part of the Republic of Florence. There he worked as notary and pursued his literary studies, coming into contact with the Florentine humanists Boccaccio and Francesco Nelli. The refined and masterful classical Latin of his letters to Florentine scholars earned him the admiring nickname of "Ape of Cicero", In 1367 Coluccio was appointed chancellor of Todi in the Papal States. Papal secretary Francesco Bruni took Salutati with him to Rome from 1368 to 1370, as assistant in the Papal curia of Pope Urban V recently returned from Avignon. In 1370, through his connections in the curia he was made chancellor of the powerful Tuscan city of Lucca, a post he quickly lost in internecine struggles there.

Chancellor of Florence.

In 1374 Coluccio received an appointment in Florence and the following year was appointed Chancellor of Florence, the most important position in the bureaucracy of the Florentine Republic. In his position, Salutati was responsible for the widely circulated official correspondences with other states, drafting confidential instructions to ambassadors, conducting diplomacy and negotiating treaties: "in its chancellor Florence had someone truly exceptional, endowed not only with legal knowledge, political cunning and diplomatic skill, but also with psychological penetration, a gift for public relations, and unusual literary skill." His abilities as a statesman were soon tested as Florence was immediately faced with war with the papacy. Salutati was charged with addressing Pope Gregory XI to assure him that Florence was still a loyal member of the Guelf party. Although he failed to prevent war with the papacy, Salutati soon became the most celebrated chancellor in all of Italy and a master of the formal letter. Florence's principal nemesis during his tenure, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan, once remarked that one of Salutati's letters could "cause more damage than a thousand Florentine horsemen." During his life, Florence warred twice against its powerful northern rival, Giangaleazzo Visconti. His treatise "De tyranno" ("On the tyrant") published in 1400, has, most likely, its model in Visconti, although in it Salutati (despite being a republican) remains a supporter of the providential universal monarch already put forward by Dante. Occasionally his letters had unintended consequences. When he wrote to the people of Ancona in 1376, inciting them, in the name of their freedom, to revolt against the governor imposed by the pope, he called to mind the evils Italy had suffered on behalf of the French. Word of his nasty tone got to the King of France, which prompted a most conciliatory letter from Salutati, assuring the King that he meant no harm and that Florence would always be a friend to France.  In testimony to his service as chancellor the city of Florence paid 250 florins for his funeral in 1406.

Cultural achievements.

Coluccio's cultural achievements are perhaps even greater than his political ones. A skilled writer and orator, Coluccio drew heavily upon the classical tradition and developed a powerful prose style based on the Latin of Virgil and Cicero: "I have always believed," Salutati wrote, "I must imitate antiquity not simply to reproduce it, but in order to produce something new". In this sense his own view of humanism was broader-based than the antiquarianism of the generation of humanists he fostered.  An admiring correspondent of Petrarch, he spent much of his salary on amassing a collection of 800 books, slightly less than his contemporary Niccolò de' Niccoli. He also pursued classical manuscripts, making a number of important discoveries, the most important being Cicero's lost "Letters to his Friends" ("Epistulae ad Familiares"), which showed Cicero as a defender of republican liberty. Coluccio also did important studies of history, tying Florence's origin not to the Roman Empire but to the Roman Republic.  He promoted the work of younger humanists such as Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini, Niccolò de' Niccoli, Leonardo Bruni and Pier Paolo Vergerio.  He also brought the Byzantine scholar Manuel Chrysoloras to Florence in 1397 to teach one of the first courses in Greek since the end of the Roman Empire. After Boethius, few Westerners spoke or read Greek. Many ancient Greek works of science and philosophy were not available in Latin translation. By Salutati's time, a few Latin texts of Aristotle had arrived in Europe via Muslim Spain and Sicily. These texts, however, had been translated from Arabic, rather than directly from the Greek. By bringing Chrysoloras to Florence, Salutati made it possible for a select group of scholars (including Bruni and Vergerio) to read Aristotle and Plato in the original ancient Greek.

Coluccio Salutati (16 February 1331 – 4 May 1406) was an Italian humanist and man of letters, and one of the most important political and cultural leaders of Renaissance Florence; as chancellor of the Republic and its most prominent voice, he was effectively the permanent secretary of state in the generation before the rise of the Medici.

萨卢塔蒂(Coluccio Salutati,1331年-2月16日-1406年-5月4日)意大利文艺复兴时期人文主义者,曾任佛罗伦斯执政官。


Accounts.

Some early texts such as those of the Pāli tradition do not mention Rāhula at all; but he is mentioned in later Pāli texts such as the Apadāna and the commentaries, as well as in the texts on monastic discipline of the Mūlasarvāstivāda and Mahāsaṇghika traditions. Earliest texts do not describe Rāhula in much detail, and he remains an ideal figure without much depth in character. Because of the lack of detail, especially after Rāhula's ordination, some scholars have argued Rāhula did not have an important role in Buddhism. Apart from the early texts, there are many post-canonical Buddhist texts that contain accounts about Rāhula. The accounts about Rāhula reveal that when Prince Siddhārtha left his palace to become a monk; his decision and subsequent spiritual quest was not just a personal matter, but also affected his family every step during the way, as they responded to and affected the prince on his path to enlightenment. Thus, the prince's life before enlightenment is about two parallel spiritual lives, that of the Buddha and that of his family.

Birth.

Pāli tradition.

Rāhula was born on same day Prince Siddhārtha Gautama renounced the throne by leaving the palace, when the prince was 29 years old, on the full moon day of the eight lunar month of the ancient Indian calendar. That day, Prince Siddhārtha was preparing himself to leave the palace. The Pāli account claims that when he received the news of his son's birth he replied "", meaning "A "rāhu" is born, a fetter has arisen", that is, an impediment to the search for enlightenment. Accordingly, Śuddhodana, Prince Siddhārtha's father and king of the Śākya clan, named the child "Rāhula", because he did not want his son to pursue a spiritual life as a mendicant. In some versions, Prince Siddhārtha was the one naming his son this way, for being a hindrance on his spiritual path. Just before the prince left the palace for the spiritual life, he took one look at his wife Yaśodharā and his just-born child. Fearing his resolve might waver, Prince Siddhārtha resisted to hold his son and left the palace as he had planned. Rāhula therefore became Prince Siddhārtha's first and only son.

Other traditions.

Other texts derive "rāhu" differently. For example, the Pāli "Apadāna", as well as another account found in the texts of monastic discipline of the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition, derive "rāhu" from the eclipse of the moon, which traditionally was seen to be caused by the asura (demon) Rāhu. The "Apadāna" states that just like the moon is obstructed from view by Rāhu, Prince Siddhārtha was obstructed by Rāhula's birth. The Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition relates, however, that Rāhula was conceived on the evening of the renunciation of Prince Siddhārtha, and born six years later, on the day that his father achieved enlightenment, which was during a lunar eclipse. Further credence is given to the astrological theory of Rāhula's name by the observation that sons of previous Buddhas were given similar names, related to constellations.  Mūlasarvāstivāda and later Chinese texts such as the "Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra" give two types of explanation for the long gestation period. The first type involves the karma of Princess Yaśodharā and Rāhula himself. According to this interpretation, Yaśodharā had to bear the suffering of carrying a child in her womb for six years, because in a previous life as a cow herder she had refused to help her mother to carry a pail of milk and left it for her mother to carry the extra pail for six leagues. As for Rāhula, his karma was that in a previous life as a king he unintentionally had a sage wait for six days. In this life, he was a king called Sūrya and his brother, a previous life of the Buddha, was a hermit called Candra or Likhita who had taken a vow he would only live from what was given by people. One day, the brother broke his vow to take some water, and feeling guilty, asked the king to punish him. The king refused to issue a punishment for such a trivial matter, but had his brother wait for his final decision and constrained in the royal gardens. After six days, the king suddenly realized he had forgotten about the hermit and immediately set him free, including apologies and gifts. As a result, Rāhula had to wait for six years before being born. In some versions, the king did not allow a sage to enter his kingdom and accumulated the same bad karma of a long gestation period. The later Mahāyāna commentary "Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa" () does not blame Yaśodharā's karma for the six years gestation period, but does mention Rāhula's same karma as a king. However, in the 13th-century Japanese devotional text "Raun Kōshiki", Rāhula's late birth is seen as evidence of a miracle, rather than a result of karma.  The second type of explanation consists of the more naturalistic argument that Yaśodharā was practicing religious austerities involving fasting and sleeping on a straw bed, which caused Rāhula's growth to slow down. She was involved in these practices during the time when Siddhārtha was practicing self-mortification. Later, King Śuddhodana prevented Yaśodharā from hearing any news of her former husband, and she gradually became healthier, as the pregnancy continued normally. However, some time later, the false rumor spread that the former prince had died of his ascetism. Yaśodharā became very desperate and depressed, endangering her own pregnancy. When the news reached the palace that Siddhārtha had attained enlightenment, Yaśodharā was overjoyed and gave birth to Rāhula. Buddhist Studies scholar John S. Strong notes that this account draws a parallel between the quest for enlightenment and Yaśodharā's path to being a mother, and eventually, they both are accomplished at the same time.  The late childbirth leads to doubts in the Śākya clan as to who is the father, as told in the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition, in the "Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa" and in the later Chinese "Zabaozang jing" (). Since Rāhula's birth was not regarded by Buddhists to be a virginal or miraculous birth, tradition had to explain that Prince Siddhārtha was actually the father. Yaśodharā responded by putting her child on a stone in a pond of water and making an act of truth that if Rāhula really was his child, that Rāhula and the stone may not sink, but rather float back-and-forth. After she made the declaration, the child floated according to her vow. Strong notes that this is a symbolic parallel with the attainment of enlightenment by the Buddhadescribed as the "further shore"and the return to teach humankind. The "Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa" contains another account, in which Prince Siddhārtha has several wives, and a wife other than Yaśodharā is the one defending her, being witness of her purity in conduct.  Furthermore, in both the Mūlasarvāstivāda texts and the "Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa", there is a third account that proves Yaśodharā's purity in conduct: in this version, the Buddha made everyone around him look identical to him, through a supernatural accomplishment. Rāhula proved that the Buddha was his true father when he managed to approach the real Buddha straight away. In a fourth story about proving Yaśodhara's purity, appearing in Chinese Avadāna-style texts from the 5th century CE onward, she was burnt alive, but miraculously survived. In this account, King Śuddhodana ordered that she be killed by burning her alive as punishment for her alleged impurity. Instead of being hurt by the flames, however, she performed an act of truth and the fire transformed into a pond of water. Śuddhodana welcomed her and her son back into the clan, and later became very fond of Rāhula. Some Chinese Jātakas say that he recognized his son Siddhārtha in the child, and managed to better cope with the loss of Prince Siddhārtha. Religion scholar Reiko Ohnuma sees the fire ordeal as a metaphor that parallels the Buddha's enlightenment, a similar argument that Strong makes.

Scholarly analysis.

Historians Mircea Eliade and H.W. Schumann hypothesized that Prince Siddhārtha conceived Rāhula to please his parents, to obtain their permission for leaving the palace and becoming a mendicant. It was an Indian custom to renounce the world only after the birth of a child or grandchild. Schumann further speculated that the prince only conceived a son thirteen years after his marriage, because Yaśodharā initially did not want to bear a child, for fear that the prince would leave the palace and the throne as soon as the child was conceived. Orientalist Noël Péri believed that a late gestation period was more historically probable than the birth on the same day, as in the Pāli tradition. He believed that if Prince Siddhārtha had left an heir to the throne, there would have been no sound reason for him to leave secretly at night. In many traditional biographies, Prince Siddhārtha is described leaving the palace without his parents' permission. Péri argued that this makes little sense if he had already provided an heir to his parents' satisfaction. He further argued that there are many sources that try to explain the long gestation period, indicating an established tradition. Although many traditional accounts of the Buddha's life relate that Siddhartha leaves the palace in secret, Early Buddhist Texts clearly state that his parents are aware of his choice, as they are said to weep at the time their son leaves them.  From a mythological and text critical point of view, Buddhist Studies scholar Kate Crosby argues that Prince Siddhārtha conceiving or giving birth to a son before his renunciation functions as a motif to prove that he was the best at each possible path in life: after having tried the life of a father to the fullest, he decided to leave it behind for a better alternative. In early Buddhist India, being a father and bearing a son was seen as a spiritual and religious path as well as that of renouncing one's family, and Prince Siddhārtha's bringing a son in the world before renunciation proves he was capable of both. Buddhist studies scholar John S. Strong hypothesizes that the Mūlasarvāstivāda version of the story of the prince conceiving a child on the eve of his departure was developed to prove that the Buddha was not physically disabled in some way. A disability might have raised doubts about the validity of his ordination in monastic tradition.

Ordination.

The accounts continue and describe that Rāhula was raised by his mother Yaśodharā and grandfather King Śuddhodana. When Rāhula was between seven and fifteen years old, the Buddha returned to his home city of Kapilavastu at the request of Śuddhodana. The Mahāvastu text from the Lokottaravāda tradition states that the royals tried to prevent Rāhula from learning about the return of his father, but eventually he insisted to know who the "Great Ascetic" about to arrive was, and he was told. Next, the Mahāvastu and the Mūlasarvāstivāda texts relate that Yaśodharā tried to tempt the Buddha back into his life as a prince by having Rāhula offer the Buddha an aphrodisiac. Mūlasarvāstivāda texts continue and tell that her plan backfired when the Buddha had Rāhula eat it himself, and Rāhula therefore became enamored by his father and wished to follow him. In the Pāli version of the story, on the seventh day of the Buddha's return, Yaśodharā took Rāhula to see his father, the Buddha. She told Rāhula that since his father had renounced the palace life and as he was the next royal prince in line, he should ask his father for his inheritance of crown and treasure. This would be for his future sake when his grandfather would no longer rule the kingdom. After the Buddha had a meal, Rāhula followed the Buddha and asked him for his inheritance. The Buddha did not try to prevent Rāhula from following him, but in some versions of the story, some women from the court did try to, yet Rāhula persisted. He then looked at his father and says, "Pleasant is your shadow, recluse". After Rāhula reached the Park of Nigrodha, where the Buddha was staying, the Buddha considered that the heritage of the throne would one day perish, and was tied up with suffering and stress: "I will give him the wealth I obtained under the tree of enlightenment thus making him the heir of an inheritance that does not perish."  Most traditions relate that the Buddha then called Śāriputra and asked him to ordain Rāhula. Rāhula was ordained, becoming the first "śrāmaṇera" (novice monk), and probably the first person in the monastic order to receive ordination in a formal way. In some versions of the story, such as the 9th-century Chinese "Weicengyou Yinyuan Jing" (), a group of young boys were ordained together with him. The king discovered that his grandson, his son Nanda and a number of other young men in the royal family had then received ordination and left the palace. Seeing his daughter grieve, he asked the Buddha that from now on, he only ordain people with the consent of their parents. Śuddhodana explained that Rāhula's ordination was a great shock to him. The Buddha assented to the proposal. This rule was later expanded in the case of women ordaining, as both parents and the husband had to give permission first to allow women to join the order of monks and nuns. In some versions of the story of Rāhula's ordination, Yaśodharā also protested, but relented in the end. The Mahāvastu states, however, that Rāhula asked to ordain himself, and was eventually granted permission by Yaśodharā and Śuddhodana.  Archaeologist Maurizio Taddei has noted that in many Gandhāran art depictions, Rāhula's life is linked to that of a previous life of the Buddha, the hermit Sumedha. The Buddha giving his spiritual heritage to his son is compared to that of Sumedha allowing the Buddha Dīpaṃkara to walk over him, which was followed by Dipaṃkara predicting that Sumedha will become a Buddha in a future life. Both the figure of Gautama Buddha giving his inheritance to his son, and the figure of Dīpaṃkara Buddha giving his inheritance of Buddhahood to Sumedha are depicted with flames emitting from their bodies; both scenes are depictions of inheritance, filial and disciple piety; both may have been considered by 5th-century Buddhists to be representations of "eager youth".

Enlightenment and death.

According to the Pāli texts, once Rāhula had become novice, the Buddha taught Rāhula regularly. His instructions were very age-specific, using vivid metaphors and simple explanations. The Buddha's teachings have led to numerous discourses being named after Rāhula in the Early Buddhist Texts. Pāli texts relate how Rāhula grew up to become a novice that was diligent, dutiful, amenable and eager for learning, but there are also some early medieval Chinese and Japanese accounts which relate that Rāhula initially struggled with being a novice and only later appreciated the Buddha's teaching. Besides the Buddha, Śāriputra and Maugalyayāna also helped to teach Rāhula. Rāhula often assisted Śāriputra on his rounds for alms in the morning, and sometimes on other travels. Every morning, Rāhula woke up and threw a handful of sand in the air, making the wish that he may be counselled by good teachers as much as those grains of sand.  Still in the same year as Rāhula's ordination, the Buddha taught his son the importance of telling the truth in a discourse known as the "Ambalatthika-Rāhulovāda Sutta". In this discourse, the Buddha taught and encouraged consistent self-reflection, to help let go of all evil actions that lead to harm to oneself and others, and to develop self-control and a moral life. He encouraged reflection before, during and after one's actions, and explained that lying makes the spiritual life void and empty, leading to many other evils.  When Rāhula became eighteen years old, the Buddha instructed Rāhula in a meditation technique to counter the desires that hinder him during his tours for alms. Rāhula had grown enamored with his own and his father's handsome appearance. To help Rāhula, the Buddha taught another discourse to him. He told Rāhula that all matter is not-self, and the same held for the different parts of one's mental experience. Having heard the discourse, Rāhula started to practice meditation. His teacher Śāriputra recommended him to practice breathing meditation, but was unable to give Rāhula the instructions he needed. Rāhula therefore asked the Buddha to explain the meditation method in more detail and the Buddha responded by describing several meditation techniques to him. On a similar note, the Buddha taught Rāhula at a place called Andhavana about the impermanence of all things, and instructed him how to overcome the "taints" inside the mind. As a result, Rāhula attained enlightenment. Pāli tradition has it that the sermon was also attended by a crore of heavenly beings, who once had vowed to witness the enlightenment of the son of the Buddha. Rāhula obtained the name "Rāhula the Lucky" (; ), which he himself explained was because of being the son of the Buddha, and because of having attained enlightenment.  Later, the Buddha declared that Rāhula was foremost among all disciples in eagerness in learning (). and in the Pāli Udāna, the Buddha included him as one of eleven particularly praiseworthy disciples. Chinese sources add that he was also known for his patience, and that he was foremost in 'practicing with discretion' (), meaning practicing the Buddha's teaching consistently, dedication to the precepts and study, but without seeking praise or being proud because of being the son of the Buddha. Pāli texts give examples of Rāhula's strictness in monastic discipline. E.g. after there was a rule established that no novice could sleep in the same room as a fully ordained monk, Rāhula was said to have slept in an outdoor toilet. When the Buddha became aware of this, he admonished the monks for not taking proper care of the novices. After that, the Buddha adjusted the rule.  Pāli texts state that despite Rāhula being his son, the Buddha did not particularly favor him: he is said to have loved problematic disciples such as Aṅgulimāla and Devadatta as much as his own son, without any bias. Schumann writes that the Buddha's relationship with his son was "... trusting and friendly, but not cordial or intimate", in order to prevent attachment in the monastic life. Schumann concludes that the Buddha's discourses to his son were essentially not different in nature from those he gave to his other disciples.  Later in Rāhula's life his mother Yaśodharā became ordained as a nun. In one story, the nun Yaśodharā fell ill with flatulence. Rāhula helped her recover by asking his teacher Śāriputra to find sweetened mango juice for her, which was the medicine she was used to and required. Therefore, with Rāhula's help, she eventually recovered.  When he was 20 years old, Rāhula fully ordained as a monk in Sāvatthī.  Rāhula's death receives little attention in the earliest sources. Rāhula died before the Buddha and his teacher Śariputra do. According to Pāli and Chinese sources, this happened as he was travelling psychically through the second Buddhist heaven (). According to the early "Ekottara Āgama" (Sārvastivāda or Mahāsaṅghika tradition) and the later "Śāriputrapṛcchā", however, Rāhula was one the four enlightened disciples whom Gautama Buddha asked to prolong their lives to stay in the world until the next Buddha Maitreya has risen, to protect his dispensation.

Previous lives.

Following the Pāli and Sanskrit language sources, Rāhula was the son of the Buddha-to-be throughout many lifetimes. He developed his habit of being amenable and easy to teach in previous lives. Pāli texts explain that in a previous life he was impressed by the son of a previous Buddha, and vowed to be like him in a future life.

Legacy.

Texts in the Mahayāna tradition describe that Rāhula is the eleventh of the 16 Elders (; Chinese tradition added two elders in the 10th century, making for 18 Elders), enlightened disciples that have been entrusted with taking care of the Buddha's dispensation until the rising of Maitreya Buddha. Tradition states therefore that Rāhula will be alive until the next Buddha, and until that time resides with 1,100 of his pupils in an island called the 'land of chestnuts and grains' (). The pilgrim Xuan Zang (602664) heard a brahmin claim that he met Rāhula as an old man, who had delayed his passing into Nirvana and was therefore still alive. On a similar note, Rāhula is considered one of the Ten Principal Disciples, known for his dedication to training new monks and novices. Moreover, he is considered to be one of the 2328 masters in the lineage of the Tiantai tradition, one of the 28 in the Chan lineage, and one of the eight enlightened disciples in the Burmese tradition.  As one of the enlightened disciples responsible for protecting the Buddha's dispensation, Rāhula has often been depicted in East Asian art. He is depicted with a large, "umbrella-shaped" head, prominent eyes and a hooked nose.  The Chinese monks Xuan Zang and Faxian (320420 CE) noted during their pilgrimages in India that a cult existed that worshiped Rāhula, especially in the Madhura area. Whereas monks would worship certain early male disciples following their particular specialization, and nuns would honor Ānanda in gratitude for helping to set up the nun's order, novices would worship Rāhula. The two Chinese pilgrims noted that Emperor Aśoka built a monument in honor of Rāhula, especially meant for novices to pay their respects. Religious studies scholar Lori Meeks points out with regard to Japan, however, that Rāhula was not the individual object of any devotional cult, but was rather honored as part of a group of enlightened disciples, such as the 16 Elders. Exception to this was the 13th14th century, when the figure of Rāhula became an important part of a revival of devotion to early Buddhist disciples among the old Nara schools, as chanted lectures ("kōshiki") rites, and images were used in dedication to Rāhula. On regular days of religious observance, male and female novices performed rites and gave lectures in honor of Rāhula. These were popular with the laypeople, as well as with priests that aimed to revive Indian Buddhism, in particular early Buddhist monastic discipline. In the "kōshiki" Rāhula was praised extensively, and was described as the "Eldest Child", "eldest" being a devotional term, since Prince Siddhārtha had no other children. Thus, the person of Rāhula became an object of devotion and inspiration for monks who wished to observe monastic discipline well.  The "Lotus Sūtra", as well as later East Asian texts such as the "Raun Kōshiki", relate that Gautama Buddha predicts Rāhula will become a Buddha in a future life, named "Stepping on Seven Treasure Flowers" (). In these texts, Rāhula is seen as a Mahāyāna type of Buddha-to-be, who would save many sentient beings and lives in a Pure Land.  The exhortations the Buddha gives to Rāhula have also become part of his legacy. The "Ambalatthika-Rāhulovāda Sutta" became one of the seven Buddhist texts recommended for study in the inscriptions of the Emperor Aśoka. This discourse has been raised by modern ethicists as evidence for consequentalist ethics in Buddhism, though this is disputed.  Rāhula is mentioned as one of the founders of a system of Buddhist philosophy called the "Vaibhāṣika", which was part of the Sarvāstivāda schools. He is also considered by some Thai schools of Buddhist "boran" meditation to be the patron of their tradition, which is explained by referring to Rāhula's gradual development in meditation as opposed to the instant enlightenment of other disciples.

Childhood in Buddhism.

From the narratives surrounding Rāhula several conclusions have been drawn with regard to Buddhist perspectives on childhood. Several scholars have raised Rāhula's example to indicate that children in Buddhism are seen as an obstacle to spiritual enlightenment, or that Buddhism, being a monastic religion, is not interested in children. Education scholar Yoshiharu Nakagawa argues, however, that Rāhula's story points at two ideals of childhood which exist parallel in Buddhism: that of the common child, subject to the human condition, and that of the child with a potential for enlightenment, who Crosby describes as a heroic disciple. Religion scholar Vanessa Sasson notes that although Prince Siddhārtha initially abandons his son, he comes back for him and offers a spiritual heritage to him as opposed to a material one. This heritage is given from a viewpoint of trust in the potential of the child Rāhula, presuming that the Buddhist path can also be accessed by children.  The acceptance of Rāhula in the monastic order as a child set a precedent, which later developed into a widespread Buddhist tradition of educating children in monasteries. The numerous teachings given to Rāhula have left behind teaching material which could be used for teaching children of different ages, and were sophisticated for the time period with regard to their age-specific material. Theravāda tradition further built on this genre, with Pāli manuals of religious teaching for novices. Writing about the Buddha's teachings methods used for Rahula, psychologist Kishani Townshend argues "... Buddha's use of Socratic questioning, poetic devices and role modelling are still relevant to developing virtue in today's children."

Rāhula (Pāli and Sanskrit) was the only son of Siddhārtha Gautama (commonly known as the Buddha) ( ), and his wife and princess Yaśodharā. He is mentioned in numerous Buddhist texts, from the early period onward. Accounts about Rāhula indicate a mutual impact between Prince Siddhārtha's life and the lives of his family members. According to the Pāli tradition, Rāhula was born on the day of Prince Siddhārta's renunciation, and was therefore named "Rāhula", meaning a fetter on the path to enlightenment. According to the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition, and numerous other later sources, however, Rāhula was only on the day of Prince Siddhartha's renunciation, and was born six years later, when Prince Siddhārtha became enlightened as the Buddha. This long gestation period was explained by bad karma from previous lives of both Yaśodharā and of Rāhula himself, although more naturalistic reasons are also given. As a result of the late birth, Yaśodharā needed to prove that Rāhula was really Prince Siddhārtha's son, which she eventually did successfully by an act of truth. Historian H.W. Schumann has argued that Prince Siddhārtha conceived Rāhula and waited for his birth, to be able to leave the palace with the king and queen's permission, but Orientalist Noël Péri considered it more likely that Rāhula was born after Prince Siddhārtha left his palace.

罗<unk>罗(),又译罗侯罗、罗怙罗、罗护罗、罗云,意译覆障、障月或是障碍,相传公元前6世纪至前5世纪生于古印度北部迦毘罗卫国(今尼泊尔境内),是释迦牟尼佛与耶输陀罗的独生子。罗<unk>罗跟随释迦牟尼佛出家后,成为十大弟子之一。


History.

Although named after the 16th–17th-century physicist Galileo, the thermometer was not invented by him. (Galileo did invent a thermometer, called Galileo's air thermometer (more accurately termed a thermoscope), in or before 1603.)  The instrument now known as a Galileo thermometer was invented by a group of academics and technicians known as the Accademia del Cimento of Florence, who included Galileo's pupil, Torricelli and Torricelli's pupil Viviani. Details of the thermometer were published in the "Saggi di naturali esperienze fatte nell'Academia del Cimento sotto la protezione del Serenissimo Principe Leopoldo di Toscana e descritte dal segretario di essa Accademia" (1666), the Academy's main publication. The English translation of this work (1684) describes the device ('The Fifth Thermometer') as'slow and lazy', a description that is reflected in an alternative Italian name for the invention, the "termometro lento" (slow thermometer). The outer vessel was filled with'rectified spirits of wine' (a concentrated solution of ethanol in water); the weights of the glass bubbles were adjusted by grinding a small amount of glass from the sealed end; and a small air space was left at the top of the main vessel to allow 'for the Liquor to rarefie' [i.e. expand].  The device now called the Galileo thermometer was revived in the modern era by the Natural History Museum, London, which started selling a version in the 1990s.

Operation.

In the Galileo thermometer, the small glass bulbs are partly filled with different-coloured liquids. The composition of these liquids is not important for the functioning of the thermometer; they merely function as fixed weights and their colours are only for decoration. Once the hand-blown bulbs have been sealed, their effective densities are adjusted by means of the metal tags hanging from beneath them. Any expansion due to the temperature change of the coloured liquid and air gap inside the bulbs does not affect the operation of the thermometer, as these materials are sealed inside a glass bulb of fixed size. The clear liquid in which the bulbs are submerged is not water, but some organic compound (such as ethanol) the density of which varies with temperature more than water does. Temperature changes affect the density of the outer clear liquid and this causes the bulbs to rise or sink.

Theory of operation.

The Galilean thermometer works on the principle of buoyancy. Buoyancy determines whether objects float or sink in a liquid, and is responsible for the fact that even boats made of steel float in water while a solid bar of steel sinks.  The only factor that determines whether a large object rises or falls in a particular liquid is the object's density relative to the density of the liquid. If the object is denser than the liquid, it sinks to the bottom, as it is heavier than the liquid it displaces. If it is less dense, it floats on the water, and will be partially submerged until the weight of the displaced liquid becomes equal to the object's weight.  Suppose there are two objects, each with a volume of. The mass of water displaced by an object of this size is. The brown object on the left is floating because the mass of water it would displace if completely submerged () is greater than the mass of the object. It floats half submerged because that is the point where the mass of the water displaced () is equal to the mass of the object. The green object on the right has sunk because the mass of water it is displacing () is less than the object's mass ().  All objects made of the green material above will sink. In Figure 2, the interior of the green object has been hollowed out. The total mass of the object is now, yet its volume remains the same, so it floats halfway out of the water like the brown object in Figure 1.  In the examples above, the liquid in which the objects have been floating is assumed to be water. Water has a density of, which means that the mass of water displaced by any of the above objects when fully submerged, is.  Galileo discovered that the density of a liquid is a function of its temperature. This is the key to how the Galileo thermometer works: as the temperature of most liquids increases, their density decreases.  Figure 3 shows a hollow object made of the green material. In the left-hand container, the density of the liquid is. Since the object weighs less than the water it displaces, it floats. In the right-hand container, the density of the liquid is. Since the object weighs more than the mass of the water it displaces, it sinks. This shows that very small changes in the density of the liquid can easily cause an almost-floating object to sink.  Figure 4 shows a schematic representation of a Galileo thermometer at two different temperatures.  In some models, if there are some bulbs at the top (Figure 4, left) and some at the bottom, but one floating in the gap, then the one floating in the gap (green ) tells the temperature. If there is no bulb in the gap (Figure 4, right) then the average of the values of the bulb above and below the gap gives the approximate temperature. In other models, the lowest floating bulb gives the approximate temperature.  The weight and size of each bulb is adjusted so they do not jam together, either by being at least half the size of the tube diameter to retain their stacking order or, as an alternative, less than half the tube diameter to freely pass each other in the tubes.

A Galileo thermometer (or Galilean thermometer) is a thermometer made of a sealed glass cylinder containing a clear liquid and several glass vessels of varying density. The individual floats rise or fall in proportion to their respective density and the density of the surrounding liquid as the temperature changes. It is named after Galileo Galilei because he discovered the principle on which this thermometer is based—that the density of a liquid changes in proportion to its temperature.

伽利略温度计(英文:Galileo thermometer)是一种由玻璃圆筒、透明液体及不同密度的重物所构成的温度计。当温度改变时,液体的密度会随之改变,使得悬浮的重物上下移动,直到与周围的液体密度相等。密度最低的重物会在最顶部,最高的在最底部。每个重物都挂着刻有数字的金属圆盘,读取周遭温度时,找悬浮在顶部最底端的重物。


Family.

Oenomaeus' mother was either naiad Harpina (daughter of the river god Phliasian Asopus, the armed ("harpe") spirit of a spring near Pisa) or Sterope, one of the Pleiades, whom some identify as his consort instead.  He married, if not Sterope, then Evarete of Argos, the daughter of Acrisius and Eurydice. Yet others give Eurythoe, daughter of Danaus, either as his mother or consort. His children besides Hippodamia were Leucippus (who perished because of his love for Daphne) and Alcippe (mother of Marpessa by Evenus). Pausanias, who is generally skeptical about stories of humans descending from gods, makes Oenomaus son of a mortal father, Alxion. John Tzetzes adduces a version which, in the same vein, calls Oenomaus son of a Hyperochus by Sterope. The genealogy offered in the earliest literary reference, Euripides' "Iphigenia in Tauris", would place him two generations before the Trojan War, making him the great-grandfather of the Atreides, Agamemnon and Menelaus.

Mythology.

Courtship of Hippodamia.

King Oenomaus, fearful of a prophecy that claimed he would be killed by his son-in-law, had killed eighteen suitors of his daughter Hippodamia after defeating them in a chariot race. He affixed their heads to the wooden columns of his palace. Pausanias was shown what was purportedly the last standing column in the late second century CE; he mentions that Pelops erected a monument in honor of all the suitors who preceded him, and lists their names:

Death.

Pelops son of King Tantalus of Lydia, came to ask for her hand and prepared to race Oenomaus. Worried about losing, Pelops went to the seaside and invoked Poseidon, his former lover. Reminding Poseidon of their love ("Aphrodite's sweet gifts"), he asked Poseidon for help. Smiling, Poseidon caused a chariot drawn by winged horses to appear. Pelops and Hippodamia, very much in love, devised a plan to replace the bronze linchpins attaching the wheels to the chariot axle with fake ones made of beeswax. The race began, and went on for a long time. But just as Oenomaus was catching up to Pelops and readying to kill him, the wheels flew off and the chariot broke apart. Oenomaus' charioteer, Myrtilus, survived, but Oenomaus was dragged to death by his horses.  Pelops then killed Myrtilus (by throwing him off a cliff into the sea as he cursed him) after the latter attempted to claim Hippodamia. As Myrtilus died, he cursed Pelops. This was the source of the curse that haunted descendants of Pelops', including Atreus, Thyestes, Agamemnon, Aegisthus, Menelaus and Orestes. Also, the burial place of Myrtilus was a "taraxippus" in Olympia, a "horse-frightening place" during races.  In memory of Oenomaus, the Olympic Games were created (or alternatively the Olympic Games were in celebration of Pelops' victory). Oenomaus' chariot race was one legendary origin of the Olympic Games; one of its turning-posts was preserved, and round it grew an Elean legend of a burnt "house of Oenomaus", reported by Pausanias in the 2nd century CE.

In Greek mythology, King Oenomaus (also Oenamaus;, "Oἱnómaos") of Pisa, was the father of Hippodamia and the son of Ares. His name "Oinomaos" signifies him as a wine man.

俄诺玛俄斯(希腊语:Οινόμαος)是古希腊神话中的比萨王,那伊阿得斯哈珀娜或普勒阿得斯斯忒洛珀(有时也被认为是俄诺玛俄斯的配偶)和战神阿瑞斯之子,希波达弥亚之父。除去斯忒洛珀的可能性之外,他的妻子也可能是阿尔戈斯的Evarete(阿克里西俄斯和欧律狄刻之女)。另外达那俄斯之女Eurythoe也被认为是他的母亲或配偶。除去希波达弥亚,他的孩子还有留基伯(因爱恋达佛涅而死)和阿尔卡珀。鲍桑尼亚认为俄诺玛俄斯的父亲不可能是神而是人类。欧里庇得斯著作《在陶里斯的伊菲革涅亚》中的谱系证据显示,俄诺玛俄斯是特洛伊战争的前二代之人,是亚崔迪、阿伽门农和墨涅拉俄斯的祖父。


Early life.

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1836, Homer was the second of three sons of Charles Savage Homer and Henrietta Benson Homer, both from long lines of New Englanders. His mother was a gifted amateur watercolorist and Homer's first teacher. She and her son had a close relationship throughout their lives. Homer took on many of her traits, including her quiet, strong-willed, terse, sociable nature; her dry sense of humor; and her artistic talent. Homer had a happy childhood, growing up mostly in then-rural Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was an average student, but his art talent was evident in his early years.  Homer's father was a volatile, restless businessman who was always looking to "make a killing". When Homer was thirteen, Charles gave up the hardware store business to seek a fortune in the California gold rush. When that failed, Charles left his family and went to Europe to raise capital for other get-rich-quick schemes that did not pay off.  After Homer's high school graduation, his father saw a newspaper advertisement and arranged for an apprenticeship. Homer's apprenticeship at the age of 19 to J. H. Bufford, a Boston commercial lithographer, was a formative but "treadmill experience". He worked repetitively on sheet music covers and other commercial work for two years. By 1857, his freelance career was underway after he turned down an offer to join the staff of "Harper's Weekly". "From the time I took my nose off that lithographic stone," Homer later stated, "I have had no master, and never shall have any."  Homer's career as an illustrator lasted nearly twenty years. He contributed illustrations of Boston life and rural New England life to magazines such as "Ballou's Pictorial" and "Harper's Weekly" at a time when the market for illustrations was growing rapidly and fads and fashions were changing quickly. His early works, mostly commercial wood engravings of urban and country social scenes, are characterized by clean outlines, simplified forms, dramatic contrast of light and dark, and lively figure groupings—qualities that remained important throughout his career. His quick success was mostly due to this strong understanding of graphic design and also to the adaptability of his designs to wood engraving.  Before moving to New York in 1859, Homer lived in Belmont, Massachusetts with his family. His uncle's Belmont mansion, the 1853 Homer House, was the inspiration for a number of his early illustrations and paintings, including several of his 1860s croquet pictures. The Homer House, owned by the Belmont Woman's Club, is open for public tours.

Homer's studio.

In 1859, he opened a studio in the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York City, the artistic and publishing capital of the United States. Until 1863, he attended classes at the National Academy of Design, and studied briefly with Frédéric Rondel, who taught him the basics of painting. In only about a year of self-training, Homer was producing excellent oil work. His mother tried to raise family funds to send him to Europe for further study but instead "Harper's" sent Homer to the front lines of the American Civil War (1861–1865), where he sketched battle scenes and camp life, the quiet moments as well as the chaotic ones. His initial sketches were of the camp, commanders, and army of the famous Union officer, Major General George B. McClellan, at the banks of the Potomac River in October 1861. Although the drawings did not get much attention at the time, they mark Homer's expanding skills from illustrator to painter. Like with his urban scenes, Homer also illustrated women during wartime, and showed the effects of the war on the home front. The war work was dangerous and exhausting. Back at his studio, Homer would regain his strength and re-focus his artistic vision. He set to work on a series of war-related paintings based on his sketches, among them "Sharpshooter on Picket Duty" (1862), "Home, Sweet Home" (1863), and "Prisoners from the Front" (1866). He exhibited paintings of these subjects every year at the National Academy of Design from 1863 to 1866. "Home, Sweet Home" was shown at the National Academy to particular critical acclaim; it was quickly sold and the artist was consequently elected an Associate Academician, then a full Academician in 1865. During this time, he also continued to sell his illustrations to periodicals such as "Our Young Folks" and "Frank Leslie's Chimney Corner".  After the war, Homer turned his attention primarily to scenes of childhood and young women, reflecting nostalgia for simpler times, both his own and the nation as a whole.  Homer was also interested in postwar subject matter that conveyed the silent tension between two communities seeking to understand their future. His oil painting "A Visit from the Old Mistress" (1876) shows an encounter between a group of four freed slaves and their former mistress. The formal equivalence between the standing figures suggests the balance that the nation hoped to find in the difficult years of Reconstruction. Homer composed this painting from sketches he had made while traveling through Virginia.  Near the beginning of his painting career, the 27-year-old Homer demonstrated a maturity of feeling, depth of perception, and mastery of technique which was immediately recognized. His realism was objective, true to nature, and emotionally controlled. One critic wrote, "Winslow Homer is one of those few young artists who make a decided impression of their power with their very first contributions to the Academy... He at this moment wields a better pencil, models better, colors better, than many whom, were it not improper, we could mention as regular contributors to the Academy." And of "Home, Sweet Home" specifically, "There is no clap-trap about it. The delicacy and strength of emotion which reign throughout this little picture are not surpassed in the whole exhibition." "It is a work of real feeling, soldiers in camp listening to the evening band, and thinking of the wives and darlings far away. There is no strained effect in it, no sentimentality, but a hearty, homely actuality, broadly, freely, and simply worked out."

Early landscapes and watercolors.

Before exhibiting at the National Academy of Design, Homer finally traveled to Paris, France in 1867 where he remained for a year. His most praised early painting, "Prisoners from the Front", was on exhibit at the Exposition Universelle in Paris at the same time. He did not study formally but he practiced landscape painting while continuing to work for "Harper's", depicting scenes of Parisian life.  Homer painted about a dozen small paintings during the stay. Although he arrived in France at a time of new fashions in art, Homer's main subject for his paintings was peasant life, showing more of an alignment with the established French Barbizon school and the artist Millet than with newer artists Manet and Courbet. Though his interest in depicting natural light parallels that of the early impressionists, there is no evidence of direct influence as he was already a plein-air painter in America and had already evolved a personal style which was much closer to Manet than Monet. Unfortunately, Homer was very private about his personal life and his methods (even denying his first biographer any personal information or commentary), but his stance was clearly one of independence of style and a devotion to American subjects. As his fellow artist Eugene Benson wrote, Homer believed that artists "should never look at pictures" but should "stutter in a language of their own."  Throughout the 1870s, Homer continued painting mostly rural or idyllic scenes of farm life, children playing, and young adults courting, including "Country School" (1871) and "The Morning Bell" (1872). In 1875, Homer quit working as a commercial illustrator and vowed to survive on his paintings and watercolors alone. Despite his excellent critical reputation, his finances continued to remain precarious. His popular 1872 painting "Snap-the-Whip" was exhibited at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as was one of his finest and most famous paintings "Breezing Up" (1876). Of his work at this time, Henry James wrote:  We frankly confess that we detest his subjects... he has chosen the least pictorial range of scenery and civilization; he has resolutely treated them as if they "were" pictorial... and, to reward his audacity, he has incontestably succeeded.  Many disagreed with James. "Breezing Up", Homer's iconic painting of a father and three boys out for a spirited sail, received wide praise. The "New York Tribune" wrote, "There is no picture in this exhibition, nor can we remember when there has been a picture in any exhibition, that can be named alongside this." Visits to Petersburg, Virginia, around 1876 resulted in paintings of rural African American life. The same straightforward sensibility which allowed Homer to distill art from these potentially sentimental subjects also yielded the most unaffected views of African American life at the time, as illustrated in "Dressing for the Carnival" (1877) and "A Visit from the Old Mistress" (1876).  In 1877, Homer exhibited for the first time at the Boston Art Club with the oil painting, "An Afternoon Sun", (owned by the Artist). From 1877 through 1909, Homer exhibited often at the Boston Art Club. Works on paper, both drawings and watercolors, were frequently exhibited by Homer beginning in 1882. A most unusual sculpture by the Artist, "Hunter with Dog – Northwoods", was exhibited in 1902. By that year, Homer had switched his primary Gallery from the Boston-based Doll and Richards to the New York City based Knoedler & Co.  Homer became a member of The Tile Club, a group of artists and writers who met frequently to exchange ideas and organize outings for painting, as well as foster the creation of decorative tiles. For a short time, he designed tiles for fireplaces.  Homer's nickname in The Tile Club was "The Obtuse Bard". Other well known Tilers were painters William Merritt Chase, Arthur Quartley, and the sculptor Augustus Saint Gaudens.  Homer started painting with watercolors on a regular basis in 1873 during a summer stay in Gloucester, Massachusetts. From the beginning, his technique was natural, fluid and confident, demonstrating his innate talent for a difficult medium. His impact would be revolutionary. Here, again, the critics were puzzled at first, "A child with an ink bottle could not have done worse." Another critic said that Homer "made a sudden and desperate plunge into water color painting". But his watercolors proved popular and enduring, and sold more readily, improving his financial condition considerably. They varied from highly detailed ("Blackboard" – 1877) to broadly impressionistic ("Schooner at Sunset" – 1880). Some watercolors were made as preparatory sketches for oil paintings (as for "Breezing Up") and some as finished works in themselves. Thereafter, he seldom traveled without paper, brushes and water based paints.  As a result of disappointments with women or from some other emotional turmoil, Homer became reclusive in the late 1870s, no longer enjoying urban social life and living instead in Gloucester. For a while, he even lived in secluded Eastern Point Lighthouse (with the keeper's family). In re-establishing his love of the sea, Homer found a rich source of themes while closely observing the fishermen, the sea, and the marine weather. After 1880, he rarely featured genteel women at leisure, focusing instead on working women.

England.

Homer spent two years (1881–1882) in the English coastal village of Cullercoats, Tyne and Wear. Many of the paintings at Cullercoats took as their subjects working men and women and their daily heroism, imbued with a solidity and sobriety which was new to Homer's art, presaging the direction of his future work. He wrote, "The women are the working bees. Stout hardy creatures." His works from this period are almost exclusively watercolors. His palette became constrained and sober; his paintings larger, more ambitious, and more deliberately conceived and executed. His subjects more universal and less nationalistic, more heroic by virtue of his unsentimental rendering. Although he moved away from the spontaneity and bright innocence of the American paintings of the 1860s and 1870s, Homer found a new style and vision which carried his talent into new realms.

Maine and maturity.

Back in the U.S. in November 1882, Homer showed his English watercolors in New York. Critics noticed the change in style at once, "He is a very different Homer from the one we knew in days gone by", now his pictures "touch a far higher plane... They are works of High Art." Homer's women were no longer "dolls who flaunt their millinery" but "sturdy, fearless, fit wives and mothers of men" who are fully capable of enduring the forces and vagaries of nature alongside their men.  In 1883, Homer moved to Prouts Neck, Maine (in Scarborough), and lived at his family's estate in the remodeled carriage house seventy-five feet from the ocean. During the rest of the mid-1880s, Homer painted his monumental sea scenes. In "Undertow" (1886), depicting the dramatic rescue of two female bathers by two male lifeguards, Homer's figures "have the weight and authority of classical figures". In "Eight Bells" (1886), two sailors carefully take their bearings on deck, calmly appraising their position and by extension, their relationship with the sea; they are confident in their seamanship but respectful of the forces before them. Other notable paintings among these dramatic struggle-with-nature images are "Banks Fisherman", "The Gulf Stream", "Rum Cay", "Mending the Nets", and "Searchlight on Harbor Entrance, Santiago de Cuba". Some of these he repeated as etchings.  At fifty years of age, Homer had become a "Yankee Robinson Crusoe, cloistered on his art island" and "a hermit with a brush". These paintings established Homer, as the "New York Evening Post" wrote, "in a place by himself as the most original and one of the strongest of American painters." But despite his critical recognition, Homer's work never achieved the popularity of traditional Salon pictures or of the flattering portraits by John Singer Sargent. Many of the sea pictures took years to sell and "Undertow" only earned him $400.  In these years, Homer received emotional sustenance primarily from his mother, brother Charles, and sister-in-law Martha ("Mattie"). After his mother's death, Homer became a "parent" for his aging but domineering father and Mattie became his closest female intimate. In the winters of 1884–5, Homer ventured to warmer locations in Florida, Cuba, and the Bahamas and did a series of watercolors as part of a commission for "Century Magazine". He replaced the turbulent green storm-tossed sea of Prouts Neck with the sparkling blue skies of the Caribbean and the hardy New Englanders with Black natives, further expanding his watercolor technique, subject matter, and palette. During this trip he painted "Children Under a Palm Tree" for Lady Blake, the Governor's wife. His tropical stays inspired and refreshed him in much the same way as Paul Gauguin's trips to Tahiti. "A Garden in Nassau" (1885) is one of the best examples of these watercolors. Once again, his freshness and originality were praised by critics but proved too advanced for the traditional art buyers and he "looked in vain for profits". Homer lived frugally, however, and fortunately, his affluent brother Charles provided financial help when needed.  Homer frequently visited Key West, Florida between 1888 and 1903. Some of his best-known works, "A Norther, Key West, The Gulf Stream, Taking on Wet Provisions," and "Palms in the Storm", are said to have been produced there.  Homer found inspiration in summer trips to the North Woods Club, near the hamlet of Minerva, New York, in the Adirondack Mountains. It was on these fishing vacations that he experimented with the watercolor medium, producing works of the utmost vigor and subtlety, hymns to solitude, nature, and to outdoor life. Homer doesn't shrink from the savagery of blood sports nor the struggle for survival. The color effects are boldly and facilely applied. In terms of quality and invention, Homer's achievements as a watercolorist are unparalleled: "Homer had used his singular vision and manner of painting to create a body of work that has not been matched."  In 1893, Homer painted one of his most famous "Darwinian" works, "The Fox Hunt", which depicts a flock of starving crows descending on a fox slowed by deep snow. This was Homer's largest painting, and it was immediately purchased by the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, his first painting in a major American museum collection. In "Huntsman and Dogs" (1891), a lone, impassive hunter, with his yelping dogs at his side, heads home after a hunt with deer skins slung over his right shoulder. Another late work, "The Gulf Stream" (1899), shows a black sailor adrift in a damaged boat, surrounded by sharks and an impending maelstrom.  By 1900, Homer finally reached financial stability, as his paintings fetched good prices from museums and he began to receive rents from real estate properties. He also became free of the responsibilities of caring for his father, who had died two years earlier. Homer continued producing excellent watercolors, mostly on trips to Canada and the Caribbean. Other late works include sporting scenes such as "Right and Left", as well as seascapes absent of human figures, mostly of waves crashing against rocks in varying light. His late seascapes are especially valued for their dramatic and forceful expression of nature's powers, and for their beauty and intensity.  In his last decade, he at times followed the advice he had given a student artist in 1907: "Leave rocks for your old age—they're easy."  Homer died in 1910 at the age of 74 in his Prouts Neck studio and was interred in the Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His painting, "Shooting the Rapids, Saguenay River", remains unfinished.  His Prouts Neck studio, a National Historic Landmark, is now owned by the Portland Museum of Art, which offers tours.

Influence.

Homer never taught in a school or privately, as did Thomas Eakins, but his works strongly influenced succeeding generations of American painters for their direct and energetic interpretation of man's stoic relationship to an often neutral and sometimes harsh wilderness. Robert Henri called Homer's work an "integrity of nature".  American illustrator and teacher Howard Pyle revered Homer and encouraged his students to study him. His student and fellow illustrator, N. C. Wyeth (and through him Andrew Wyeth and Jamie Wyeth), shared the influence and appreciation, even following Homer to Maine for inspiration. The elder Wyeth's respect for his antecedent was "intense and absolute" and can be observed in his early work "Mowing" (1907). Perhaps Homer's austere individualism is best captured in his admonition to artists: "Look at nature, work independently, and solve your own problems."

U.S. stamp.

In 1962, the U.S. Post Office released a commemorative stamp honoring Winslow Homer. Homer's famous oil painting "Breezing Up", now hanging in the National Gallery in Washington DC, was chosen as the image for the design of this issue. On August 12, 2010, The Postal Service issued a 44-cent commemorative stamp featuring Homer's "Boys in a Pasture" at the APS Stamp Show in Richmond, Virginia.  This stamp was the ninth to be issued in a series entitled "American Treasures". The original painting is part of the Hayden Collection at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. It depicts two boys from Belmont, Massachusetts—John Carney and Patrick Keenan—who posed for the artist for 75 cents per day.

Works.

Unlike many artists who were well known for working in only one art medium, Winslow Homer was prominent in a variety of art media, as in the following examples:  Pastoral landscapes and lifestyle (see pastoralism) is a genre of literature, art and music that depicts shepherds herding livestock around open areas of land according to seasons and the changing availability of water and pasturage. A "pastoral" is a work of this genre.  Winslow Homer's paintings always depicted marine landscapes. Later, when Winslow Homer spent the years between 1881 and 1882 in the village of Cullercoats, Tyne and Wear, his paintings depicting shores and coastal landscapes changed. Many of the paintings from the English coast have as subjects working men and women from the area.

Winslow Homer (February 24, 1836 – September 29, 1910) was an American landscape painter and printmaker, best known for his marine subjects. He is considered one of the foremost painters in 19th-century America and a preeminent figure in American art.

温斯洛·霍默(英语:Winslow Homer,1836年-2月24日-1910年-9月29日)是一位美国风景艺术和版画家,他被认为是19世纪美国最重要的画家之一,是美国艺术界的卓越人物。


Service patterns.

Tōzai Line through service.

All through service trains enter the Tōzai Line at either Nakano, or Nishi-Funabashi. These trains operate within the following routes:

Limited express.

Certain limited express and seasonal trains run through, or stop at stations on this line. For information on the "Shinjuku Wakashio" and the "Shinjuku Sazanami" that make stops on the Chūō-Sōbu Line at, see their respective articles.

Former Early morning / Late night.

At around 9 -10pm, a few westbound trains headed beyond Mitaka onto the Chūō Line (Rapid), with some terminating at Musashi-Koganei, and the others at Tachikawa. The other trains during the hour operated regularly.  At around 4 - 6am and 11pm - 1am, Chūō-Sōbu Line services were divided at Ochanomizu Station, into two sections.  This service pattern last operated on 13 March 2020. To prepare for the eventual installation of platform doors on Chūō-Sōbu Line platforms and the future addition of Green Cars on the Rapid line, Chūō Line Rapid service trains no longer operate on the Chūō-Sōbu Line tracks.

Rolling stock.

Chūō-Sōbu Line.

Trains used on the line are based at Mitaka Depot.

Tozai Line - Toyo Rapid Line through service.

Trains run between Mitaka and Tsudanuma (Chūō-Sōbu Line) or Toyo-Katsutadai (Toyo Rapid Line), all via the Tokyo Metro Tozai Line between Nakano and Nishi-Funabashi.

History.

Women-only cars, designed to prevent gropers, were introduced on this line during morning peak periods starting on November 20, 2006.

The is a railway line that runs through Tokyo and Chiba Prefecture, Japan.

中央·总武缓行线()是东日本旅客铁道(JR东日本)的通勤列车运行系统,由千叶县千叶市中央区千叶站开始,经东京都千代田区御茶之水站,至东京都三鹰市三鹰站为止。千叶站-御茶之水站之间属于总武本线的一部分,御茶之水-三鹰站之间为中央本线的一部分。


亨伯斯通和圣劳拉硝石采石场

Geography.

Humberstone and Santa Laura are located 48km east of the city of Iquique in the Atacama Desert in the Tarapacá Region in northern Chile. Other saltpeter works or "nitrate towns" include Chacabuco, Maria Elena, Pedro de Valdivia, Puelma and Aguas Santas among many others.

History.

In 1872, the Guillermo Wendell Nitrate Extraction Company founded the saltpeter works of Santa Laura, while the region was still a part of Peru. In the same year, James Thomas Humberstone founded the "Peru Nitrate Company", establishing the works of "La Palma". Both works grew quickly, becoming busy towns characterized by English-style buildings.  While La Palma became one of the largest saltpeter extractors of the whole region, Santa Laura did not do well, as production was low. It was taken over in 1902 by the Tamarugal Nitrate Company. In 1913 Santa Laura halted its production until the Shanks extraction process was introduced, which enhanced productivity.  However the economic model collapsed during the Great Depression of 1929 because of the development of the synthesis of ammonia by the Germans Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, which led to the industrial production of fertilizers. Practically bankrupt, both works were acquired by COSATAN (Compañía Salitrera de Tarapacá y Antofagasta) in 1934. COSATAN renamed La Palma into "Oficina Santiago Humberstone" in honor of its founder. The company tried to produce a competitive natural saltpeter by modernizing Humberstone, which led to its becoming the most successful saltpeter works in 1940.  Both works were abandoned in 1960 after the rapid decline that caused COSATAN to disappear in 1958. In 1970, after becoming ghost towns, they were declared national monuments and opened to tourism. In 2005 they were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works are two former saltpeter refineries located in northern Chile. They were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005.

亨伯斯通和圣劳拉硝石采石场(英语:Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works),地处智利北部的阿他加马沙漠中,位于塔拉帕卡大区伊基克城东48公里处,包括亨伯斯通和圣劳拉的200多座硝石采石场。来自智利、秘鲁和玻利维亚的大批工人在这里采矿,制取硝石,形成了特有的pampinos文化。这一文化以其语言的多样性,具有创新活力和对社会公平的早期探索而著称,对社会历史产生过重大影响。2005年,该地被列为世界遗产,同时也被列入濒危世界遗产列表。2019年从濒危世界遗产列表中移除。


History.

The invention of the plunger pump is attributed to Samuel Morland based on a patent of 1675.

Operation.

Piston pumps and plunger pumps are reciprocating pumps that use a plunger or piston to move media through a cylindrical chamber. The plunger or piston is actuated by a steam powered, pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric drive.  Rotary piston and plunger pumps use a crank mechanism to create a reciprocating motion along an axis, which then builds pressure in a cylinder or working barrel to force gas or fluid through the pump. The pressure in the chamber actuates the valves at both the suction and discharge points. Plunger pumps are used in applications that could range from. Piston pumps are used in lower pressure applications. The volume of the fluid discharged is equal to the area of the plunger or piston, multiplied by its stroke length. The overall capacity of the piston pumps and plunger pumps can be calculated with the area of the piston or plunger, the stroke length, the number of pistons or plungers and the speed of the drive. The power needed from the drive is proportional to the pressure and capacity of the pump.  Seals are an integral part of piston pumps and plunger pumps to separate the power fluid from the media that is being pumped. A stuffing box or packing is used to seal the joint between the vessel where the media is transferred and the plunger or piston. A stuffing box may be composed of bushings, packing or seal rings, and a gland.  Plunger pumps component materials are chosen for wear and contact with the media type. Component materials include bronze, brass, steel, stainless steel, iron, nickel alloy, or other material. For example, plunger pumps that function in general service or oil service applications often have an iron cylinder and plunger. The plunger, discharge valves, and suction valves come in contact with the media type transferred, and material choices are based on the fluid transferred. In power applications where continuous duty plunger pumps are needed, solid ceramic plungers may be used when in contact with water and oil, but may not be compatible for use with highly acidic media types.

A plunger pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure seal is stationary and a smooth cylindrical plunger slides through the seal. This makes them different from piston pumps and allows them to be used at higher pressures. This type of pump is often used to transfer municipal and industrial sewage.

柱塞泵(plunger pump)属于容积式泵,往复泵。柱塞泵通过柱塞在柱塞缸体中作往复运动造成柱塞缸体中密封容积的变化而产生的压力差而使流体介质进行工作。改变柱塞的工作行程就可以控制柱塞泵流量的大小。