Aims.

The field of plant physiology includes the study of all the internal activities of plants—those chemical and physical processes associated with life as they occur in plants. This includes study at many levels of scale of size and time. At the smallest scale are molecular interactions of photosynthesis and internal diffusion of water, minerals, and nutrients. At the largest scale are the processes of plant development, seasonality, dormancy, and reproductive control. Major subdisciplines of plant physiology include phytochemistry (the study of the biochemistry of plants) and phytopathology (the study of disease in plants). The scope of plant physiology as a discipline may be divided into several major areas of research. First, the study of phytochemistry (plant chemistry) is included within the domain of plant physiology. To function and survive, plants produce a wide array of chemical compounds not found in other organisms. Photosynthesis requires a large array of pigments, enzymes, and other compounds to function. Because they cannot move, plants must also defend themselves chemically from herbivores, pathogens and competition from other plants. They do this by producing toxins and foul-tasting or smelling chemicals. Other compounds defend plants against disease, permit survival during drought, and prepare plants for dormancy, while other compounds are used to attract pollinators or herbivores to spread ripe seeds.  Secondly, plant physiology includes the study of biological and chemical processes of individual plant cells. Plant cells have a number of features that distinguish them from cells of animals, and which lead to major differences in the way that plant life behaves and responds differently from animal life. For example, plant cells have a cell wall which restricts the shape of plant cells and thereby limits the flexibility and mobility of plants. Plant cells also contain chlorophyll, a chemical compound that interacts with light in a way that enables plants to manufacture their own nutrients rather than consuming other living things as animals do.  Thirdly, plant physiology deals with interactions between cells, tissues, and organs within a plant. Different cells and tissues are physically and chemically specialized to perform different functions. Roots and rhizoids function to anchor the plant and acquire minerals in the soil. Leaves catch light in order to manufacture nutrients. For both of these organs to remain living, minerals that the roots acquire must be transported to the leaves, and the nutrients manufactured in the leaves must be transported to the roots. Plants have developed a number of ways to achieve this transport, such as vascular tissue, and the functioning of the various modes of transport is studied by plant physiologists.  Fourthly, plant physiologists study the ways that plants control or regulate internal functions. Like animals, plants produce chemicals called hormones which are produced in one part of the plant to signal cells in another part of the plant to respond. Many flowering plants bloom at the appropriate time because of light-sensitive compounds that respond to the length of the night, a phenomenon known as photoperiodism. The ripening of fruit and loss of leaves in the winter are controlled in part by the production of the gas Ethylene as a plant hormone#ethylene by the plant.  Finally, plant physiology includes the study of plant response to environmental conditions and their variation, a field known as environmental physiology. Stress from water loss, changes in air chemistry, or crowding by other plants can lead to changes in the way a plant functions. These changes may be affected by genetic, chemical, and physical factors.

Biochemistry of plants.

The chemical elements of which plants are constructed—principally carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, etc.—are the same as for all other life forms animals, fungi, bacteria and even viruses. Only the details of the molecules into which they are assembled differs.  Despite this underlying similarity, plants produce a vast array of chemical compounds with unique properties which they use to cope with their environment. Pigments are used by plants to absorb or detect light, and are extracted by humans for use in dyes. Other plant products may be used for the manufacture of commercially important rubber or biofuel. Perhaps the most celebrated compounds from plants are those with pharmacological activity, such as salicylic acid from which aspirin is made, morphine, and digoxin. Drug companies spend billions of dollars each year researching plant compounds for potential medicinal benefits.

Constituent elements.

Plants require some nutrients, such as carbon and nitrogen, in large quantities to survive. Some nutrients are termed macronutrients, where the prefix "macro-" (large) refers to the quantity needed, not the size of the nutrient particles themselves. Other nutrients, called micronutrients, are required only in trace amounts for plants to remain healthy. Such micronutrients are usually absorbed as ions dissolved in water taken from the soil, though carnivorous plants acquire some of their micronutrients from captured prey.  The following tables list element nutrients essential to plants. Uses within plants are generalized.

Pigments.

Among the most important molecules for plant function are the pigments. Plant pigments include a variety of different kinds of molecules, including porphyrins, carotenoids, and anthocyanins. All biological pigments selectively absorb certain wavelengths of light while reflecting others. The light that is absorbed may be used by the plant to power chemical reactions, while the reflected wavelengths of light determine the color the pigment appears to the eye.  Chlorophyll is the primary pigment in plants; it is a porphyrin that absorbs red and blue wavelengths of light while reflecting green. It is the presence and relative abundance of chlorophyll that gives plants their green color. All land plants and green algae possess two forms of this pigment: chlorophyll "a" and chlorophyll "b". Kelps, diatoms, and other photosynthetic heterokonts contain chlorophyll "c" instead of "b", red algae possess chlorophyll "a". All chlorophylls serve as the primary means plants use to intercept light to fuel photosynthesis.  Carotenoids are red, orange, or yellow tetraterpenoids. They function as accessory pigments in plants, helping to fuel photosynthesis by gathering wavelengths of light not readily absorbed by chlorophyll. The most familiar carotenoids are carotene (an orange pigment found in carrots), lutein (a yellow pigment found in fruits and vegetables), and lycopene (the red pigment responsible for the color of tomatoes). Carotenoids have been shown to act as antioxidants and to promote healthy eyesight in humans.  Anthocyanins (literally "flower blue") are water-soluble flavonoid pigments that appear red to blue, according to pH. They occur in all tissues of higher plants, providing color in leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits, though not always in sufficient quantities to be noticeable. Anthocyanins are most visible in the petals of flowers, where they may make up as much as 30% of the dry weight of the tissue. They are also responsible for the purple color seen on the underside of tropical shade plants such as "Tradescantia zebrina". In these plants, the anthocyanin catches light that has passed through the leaf and reflects it back towards regions bearing chlorophyll, in order to maximize the use of available light  Betalains are red or yellow pigments. Like anthocyanins they are water-soluble, but unlike anthocyanins they are indole-derived compounds synthesized from tyrosine. This class of pigments is found only in the Caryophyllales (including cactus and amaranth), and never co-occur in plants with anthocyanins. Betalains are responsible for the deep red color of beets, and are used commercially as food-coloring agents. Plant physiologists are uncertain of the function that betalains have in plants which possess them, but there is some preliminary evidence that they may have fungicidal properties.

Signals and regulators.

Plants produce hormones and other growth regulators which act to signal a physiological response in their tissues. They also produce compounds such as phytochrome that are sensitive to light and which serve to trigger growth or development in response to environmental signals.

Plant hormones.

Plant hormones, known as plant growth regulators (PGRs) or phytohormones, are chemicals that regulate a plant's growth. According to a standard animal definition, hormones are signal molecules produced at specific locations, that occur in very low concentrations, and cause altered processes in target cells at other locations. Unlike animals, plants lack specific hormone-producing tissues or organs. Plant hormones are often not transported to other parts of the plant and production is not limited to specific locations.  Plant hormones are chemicals that in small amounts promote and influence the growth, development and differentiation of cells and tissues. Hormones are vital to plant growth; affecting processes in plants from flowering to seed development, dormancy, and germination. They regulate which tissues grow upwards and which grow downwards, leaf formation and stem growth, fruit development and ripening, as well as leaf abscission and even plant death.  The most important plant hormones are abscissic acid (ABA), auxins, ethylene, gibberellins, and cytokinins, though there are many other substances that serve to regulate plant physiology.

Photomorphogenesis.

While most people know that light is important for photosynthesis in plants, few realize that plant sensitivity to light plays a role in the control of plant structural development (morphogenesis). The use of light to control structural development is called photomorphogenesis, and is dependent upon the presence of specialized photoreceptors, which are chemical pigments capable of absorbing specific wavelengths of light.  Plants use four kinds of photoreceptors: phytochrome, cryptochrome, a UV-B photoreceptor, and protochlorophyllide "a". The first two of these, phytochrome and cryptochrome, are photoreceptor proteins, complex molecular structures formed by joining a protein with a light-sensitive pigment. Cryptochrome is also known as the UV-A photoreceptor, because it absorbs ultraviolet light in the long wave "A" region. The UV-B receptor is one or more compounds not yet identified with certainty, though some evidence suggests carotene or riboflavin as candidates. Protochlorophyllide "a", as its name suggests, is a chemical precursor of chlorophyll.  The most studied of the photoreceptors in plants is phytochrome. It is sensitive to light in the red and far-red region of the visible spectrum. Many flowering plants use it to regulate the time of flowering based on the length of day and night (photoperiodism) and to set circadian rhythms. It also regulates other responses including the germination of seeds, elongation of seedlings, the size, shape and number of leaves, the synthesis of chlorophyll, and the straightening of the epicotyl or hypocotyl hook of dicot seedlings.

Photoperiodism.

Many flowering plants use the pigment phytochrome to sense seasonal changes in day length, which they take as signals to flower. This sensitivity to day length is termed photoperiodism. Broadly speaking, flowering plants can be classified as long day plants, short day plants, or day neutral plants, depending on their particular response to changes in day length. Long day plants require a certain minimum length of daylight to starts flowering, so these plants flower in the spring or summer. Conversely, short day plants flower when the length of daylight falls below a certain critical level. Day neutral plants do not initiate flowering based on photoperiodism, though some may use temperature sensitivity (vernalization) instead.  Although a short day plant cannot flower during the long days of summer, it is not actually the period of light exposure that limits flowering. Rather, a short day plant requires a minimal length of uninterrupted darkness in each 24-hour period (a short daylength) before floral development can begin. It has been determined experimentally that a short day plant (long night) does not flower if a flash of phytochrome activating light is used on the plant during the night.  Plants make use of the phytochrome system to sense day length or photoperiod. This fact is utilized by florists and greenhouse gardeners to control and even induce flowering out of season, such as the "Poinsettia".

Environmental physiology.

Paradoxically, the subdiscipline of environmental physiology is on the one hand a recent field of study in plant ecology and on the other hand one of the oldest. Environmental physiology is the preferred name of the subdiscipline among plant physiologists, but it goes by a number of other names in the applied sciences. It is roughly synonymous with ecophysiology, crop ecology, horticulture and agronomy. The particular name applied to the subdiscipline is specific to the viewpoint and goals of research. Whatever name is applied, it deals with the ways in which plants respond to their environment and so overlaps with the field of ecology.  Environmental physiologists examine plant response to physical factors such as radiation (including light and ultraviolet radiation), temperature, fire, and wind. Of particular importance are water relations (which can be measured with the Pressure bomb) and the stress of drought or inundation, exchange of gases with the atmosphere, as well as the cycling of nutrients such as nitrogen and carbon.  Environmental physiologists also examine plant response to biological factors. This includes not only negative interactions, such as competition, herbivory, disease and parasitism, but also positive interactions, such as mutualism and pollination.

Tropisms and nastic movements.

Plants may respond both to directional and non-directional stimuli. A response to a directional stimulus, such as gravity or sunlight, is called a tropism. A response to a nondirectional stimulus, such as temperature or humidity, is a nastic movement.  Tropisms in plants are the result of differential cell growth, in which the cells on one side of the plant elongates more than those on the other side, causing the part to bend toward the side with less growth. Among the common tropisms seen in plants is phototropism, the bending of the plant toward a source of light. Phototropism allows the plant to maximize light exposure in plants which require additional light for photosynthesis, or to minimize it in plants subjected to intense light and heat. Geotropism allows the roots of a plant to determine the direction of gravity and grow downwards. Tropisms generally result from an interaction between the environment and production of one or more plant hormones.  Nastic movements results from differential cell growth (e.g. epinasty and hiponasty), or from changes in turgor pressure within plant tissues (e.g., nyctinasty), which may occur rapidly. A familiar example is thigmonasty (response to touch) in the Venus fly trap, a carnivorous plant. The traps consist of modified leaf blades which bear sensitive trigger hairs. When the hairs are touched by an insect or other animal, the leaf folds shut. This mechanism allows the plant to trap and digest small insects for additional nutrients. Although the trap is rapidly shut by changes in internal cell pressures, the leaf must grow slowly to reset for a second opportunity to trap insects.

Plant disease.

Economically, one of the most important areas of research in environmental physiology is that of phytopathology, the study of diseases in plants and the manner in which plants resist or cope with infection. Plant are susceptible to the same kinds of disease organisms as animals, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi, as well as physical invasion by insects and roundworms.  Because the biology of plants differs with animals, their symptoms and responses are quite different. In some cases, a plant can simply shed infected leaves or flowers to prevent the spread of disease, in a process called abscission. Most animals do not have this option as a means of controlling disease. Plant diseases organisms themselves also differ from those causing disease in animals because plants cannot usually spread infection through casual physical contact. Plant pathogens tend to spread via spores or are carried by animal vectors.  One of the most important advances in the control of plant disease was the discovery of Bordeaux mixture in the nineteenth century. The mixture is the first known fungicide and is a combination of copper sulfate and lime. Application of the mixture served to inhibit the growth of downy mildew that threatened to seriously damage the French wine industry.

History.

Early history.

[Francis Bacon]] published one of the first plant physiology experiments in 1627 in the book, "Sylva Sylvarum." Bacon grew several terrestrial plants, including a rose, in water and concluded that soil was only needed to keep the plant upright. Jan Baptist van Helmont published what is considered the first quantitative experiment in plant physiology in 1648. He grew a willow tree for five years in a pot containing 200 pounds of oven-dry soil. The soil lost just two ounces of dry weight and van Helmont concluded that plants get all their weight from water, not soil. In 1699, John Woodward published experiments on growth of spearmint in different sources of water. He found that plants grew much better in water with soil added than in distilled water.  Stephen Hales is considered the Father of Plant Physiology for the many experiments in the 1727 book,"Vegetable Staticks"; though Julius von Sachs unified the pieces of plant physiology and put them together as a discipline. His "Lehrbuch der Botanik" was the plant physiology bible of its time.  Researchers discovered in the 1800s that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil are dissolved in water, plant roots absorb nutrients readily, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive. This observation is the basis for hydroponics, the growing of plants in a water solution rather than soil, which has become a standard technique in biological research, teaching lab exercises, crop production and as a hobby.

Economic applications.

Food production.

In horticulture and agriculture along with food science, plant physiology is an important topic relating to fruits, vegetables, and other consumable parts of plants. Topics studied include: "climatic" requirements, fruit drop, nutrition, ripening, fruit set. The production of food crops also hinges on the study of plant physiology covering such topics as optimal planting and harvesting times and post harvest storage of plant products for human consumption and the production of secondary products like drugs and cosmetics.

Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning, or physiology, of plants. Closely related fields include plant morphology (structure of plants), plant ecology (interactions with the environment), phytochemistry (biochemistry of plants), cell biology, genetics, biophysics and molecular biology.

植物生理学是植物学的一个分支科学,它研究植物的功能或生理学。密切相关的领域包括植物形态学(植物结构),植物生态学(与环境的相互作用),植物化学(植物的生物化学),细胞生物学,遗传学,生物物理学,和分子生物学。


Pre-conquest Itelmen society.

Village structure.

Itelmen tended to settle along the various rivers of the Kamchatka Peninsula. At the time of the arrival of the first Cossacks to the peninsula, in the early 1650s, villages numbered between 200 and 300 residents, a number which had dwindled to 40 or 50 at most by the time of the composition of Steller's account in 1744. Each village was centered around a single patriarchal household. Generally, young men seeking marriage joined the village of their wife. When a village became too large to sustain itself, it was divided and a portion of the villagers would create a settlement at another point along the same river. Steller describes a great variation of dialects from river to river, as the Itelmen predominantly communicated with communities which shared the river.

Itelmen houses.

Itelmen lived in different houses during the summer and winter seasons. The winter house, which was inhabited beginning in November, was dug into the soil in the shape of a rectangle. The walls were then covered with sticks and straw to prevent moisture from penetrating the interior. Four beams at the center of the dwelling supported the roof of the house, upon which rafters were laid, connecting the top of the yurt to the earthen walls. Atop the wooden rafters, approximately a foot of straw was laid, on top of which the excavated dirt was placed and stamped down. An opening atop the yurt, off to one side of the four posts and supported by the two beams, served as a smoke hole and an entrance. Opposite the fireplace, they made a passageway to the outside facing the river, which was left open only when fires were lit. Different sleeping quarters were demarcated by pieces of wood on which straw mats and reindeer or seal skins were used as bedding.  In the summer months, the Itelmen live in raised houses called "pehm" or "pehmy". As the ground thaws in the summer, the floors of the winter houses began to flood. In the summer months, each family in the village lived in their own house, rather than sharing a large house as in winter. These raised homes, or "balagans" as the Cossacks called them, were pyramids on raised platforms, with a door on the south and the north side. The extreme moisture of the climate required the raising of the homes for dry storage. Most villages, in addition to summer and winter houses, contained straw huts built on the ground, which were used for cooking dog food, boiling salt from sea water and rendering fat. Villages were surrounded by an earthen wall or palisades until the arrival of the Russians, after which this practice was banned.

Religion.

The Itelmen subscribed to a polytheistic religion. The creative god was referred to as "Kutka" or "Kutga". Though he is regarded as the creator of all things, Steller describes a complete lack of veneration for him. The Itelmen attribute the problems and difficulties of life to his stupidity, and are quick to scold or curse him. They believed "Kutka" to be married to an intelligent woman named "Chachy", who was said to have kept him from much foolishness and to have corrected him constantly. "Kutka" was believed to have lived on the greatest rivers of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and is said to have left a son and daughter for each river, which is used to explain the great variety of dialects present on the peninsula. The Itelmen also worshiped several spirits, "Mitgh", who dwelled in the ocean and lived in the form of a fish. They believed in forest sprites, who were called "ushakhtchu", said to resemble people. The mountain gods were called "gamuli" or little souls, who resided in the high mountains, especially volcanoes. The clouds were believed to be inhabited by the god "billukai", who was responsible for thunder, lightning and storms. They postulated a devil, who was called "kamma", who was said to live in a tree outside Nizhnoi village, which was annually shot up with arrows.

Division of labor.

In general, labor was very clearly divided based on gender, though many tasks were shared. When fishing, the men and women paddled together, however only the men fished while the women performed all related tasks such as cleaning and drying the fish and collecting the eggs. In home construction, men performed all the wood work, digging and carpentry while the women performed the task of thatching the straw roof and cutting the straw with bone sickles made from bear shoulder blades. The women prepare the whole fish supply, except fermented fish and dog food, which is left to the men. The women perform all the tasks of gathering seeds, berries and fireweed, which is used as a type of tea. From grass they construct mats, bags, baskets and boxes for storage and transportation. Dog and reindeer skins are tanned, dyed and sewn into the various garments worn by men and women.

Food.

The Itelmen seldom observed a set eating time except when entertaining. They also seldom ate as a family unit except when eating "opana" (warm food) or fresh fish. Unlike their indigenous island neighbors, the Tungus and Yakuts, they do not enjoy fried food, eating mostly a diet of cold food. A common staple was fish eggs with willow or birch bark. A common food enjoyed at festivities, "selaga", was a mash made of sarana, pine nuts, fireweed, cow parsnip, bistort roots, and various berries cooked in seal, whale or fish oil. In Lopatkan, a fermented berry drink was consumed, though there is no indication that any other Itelmen settlements created fermented drinks.

Cossack conquest.

Steller cites anecdotal evidence of several Russian forays into Kamchatka prior to the arrival of Vladimir Atlasov. Atlasov began his conquest of Kamchatka by sending Luka Morozko on reconnaissance foray in 1695, and embarked himself a year later with 120 men, half of whom were Yukakghir auxiliaries, to gather tribute and to annex the region for the crown. Leaving from Anadyrsk bay on the backs of reindeer, they explored much of the western coast and crossed the mountains to the east to subdue the population there. By mid July 1696, he had reached the Kamchatka River, at which point he divided his party in two, one band returning westward and the other remaining on the eastern coast. At this point the Yukaghir auxiliaries rebelled, killing 6 Russians and wounding 6. A band of Koryaks additionally absconded with Atlasov’s itinerant reindeer herd, but were chased down by the Russians and killed to one man.  At the head of the Kamchatka River, they first encountered several heavily fortified Itelmen settlements. Here they were initially greeted cordially by the natives, and received tribute without contest. They proceeded to sack a rival Itelmen village upriver, cementing the alliance with the Itelmen. The first Cossack settlement in the area was Bolsheretsk, founded in 1703 by Atlasov, although Steller notes that it was already a prominent village at the arrival of “that wind-bag Atlasov.”  The Itelmen he found there were in possession of a captive Japanese merchant's clerk, who had been part of an expedition that was shipwrecked and overtaken by Itelmen upon arrival at the Kamchatka River. Atlasov, who initially assumed the prisoner to be a Hindu from India, resulting in confusion over the word "Hondo" or Tokyo, had him sent to Moscow where Peter the Great had him establish a Japanese-language school.  In 1706, senior governing officials were killed by a band of Koryaks and a period of general lawlessness abounded. The Cossacks began to take great liberties with the legal amount of tribute required and began the practice of taking Itelmen as slaves, often gambling with and trading them. During this time, rebellions were frequent. Atlasov resumed legal control, in an effort to reimpose law and order on the peninsula, after serving some time in jail. In 1711, his men mutinied and he was assassinated in his bed, after fleeing to Nizhnekamchatsk, where he was given asylum. The mutineers were excused from the death penalty provided they continue government work. Thus an expedition to the southern tip of the peninsula and onto the Kuril Islands was conducted, led by Danila Antsiferov and Ivan Kozyrevsky.  Under his rule, the Itelmen allied with their northern neighbors, the Koryaks, and burned Antsyferov to death in his bed. The rebellions did not quiet down until the 1715 outbreak of smallpox on the peninsula, at which point the Russian Crown had lost 5 years of tribute and the lives of at least 200 Russians.  Over time, the remaining populations were assimilated. Due to increasingly large suicide rates, the Crown made a law prohibiting natives from taking their own lives. A large mixed population emerged, who were Russian Orthodox in religion, but distinctly Itelmen in looks and customs. The government granted legal status to these mixed children readily, and Itelmen women were legally allowed to marry into the Orthodox Religion. By the arrival of Bering’s second expedition to Kamchatka, the population had shrunk to approximately 10% of what it was prior to the arrival of the Cossacks.

Subsequent history.

Goods such as guns, tobacco, tea, sugar, and vodka became widely available to Itelmens in the 19th century. Over time, many Itelmens accepted baptism into the Russian Orthodox Church, though animism remained widespread in practice. The Itelmen population was recorded as 4,029 at the 1889 census; by 1959, this had fallen to 1,109, though the population had risen to 2,480 by the 1989 census. Russian-medium schooling became the norm in the 1930s, and as of the 1989 census, fewer than one Itelmen in five could speak the Itelmen language.

The Itelmens (Itelmen: Итәнмән, ) are an ethnic group native to the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia. The Itelmen language is distantly related to Chukchi and Koryak, forming the Chukotko-Kamchatkan language family, but it is now virtually extinct, the vast majority of ethnic Itelmens being native speakers of Russian. A. P. Volodin has published a grammar of the Itelmen language.

伊捷尔缅族(俄语:Ительме́ны,伊捷尔缅语:Ительмень, итэмэн)是俄罗斯堪察加半岛的本土民族。他们的语言伊捷尔缅语与楚科奇语及科里亚克语形成一个语系,称为楚科奇-堪察加语系,现在几近灭绝。现在多数说俄语。


History.

The first commercial SDRAM was the Samsung KM48SL2000 memory chip, which had a capacity of 16Mb. It was manufactured by Samsung Electronics using a CMOS (complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor) fabrication process in 1992, and mass-produced in 1993. By 2000, SDRAM had replaced virtually all other types of DRAM in modern computers, because of its greater performance.  SDRAM latency is not inherently lower (faster) than asynchronous DRAM. Indeed, early SDRAM was somewhat slower than contemporaneous burst EDO DRAM due to the additional logic. The benefits of SDRAM's internal buffering come from its ability to

Timing.

There are several limits on DRAM performance. Most noted is the read cycle time, the time between successive read operations to an open row. This time decreased from 10 ns for 100 MHz SDRAM to 5 ns for DDR-400, but has remained relatively unchanged through DDR2-800 and DDR3-1600 generations. However, by operating the interface circuitry at increasingly higher multiples of the fundamental read rate, the achievable bandwidth has increased rapidly.  Another limit is the CAS latency, the time between supplying a column address and receiving the corresponding data. Again, this has remained relatively constant at 10–15 ns through the last few generations of DDR SDRAM.  In operation, CAS latency is a specific number of clock cycles programmed into

SDR SDRAM.

Originally simply known as "SDRAM", single data rate SDRAM can accept one command and transfer one word of data per clock cycle. Typical clock frequencies are 100 and 133 MHz. Chips are made with a variety of data bus sizes (most commonly 4, 8 or 16 bits), but chips are generally assembled into 168-pin DIMMs that read or write 64 (non-ECC) or 72 (ECC) bits at a time.  Use of the data bus is intricate and thus requires a complex DRAM controller circuit. This is because data written to the DRAM must be presented in the same cycle as the write command, but reads produce output 2 or 3 cycles after the read command. The DRAM controller must ensure that the data bus is never required for a read and a write at the same time.  Typical SDR SDRAM clock rates are 66, 100, and 133 MHz (periods of 15, 10, and 7.5 ns), respectively denoted PC66, PC100, and PC133. Clock rates up to 200 MHz were available. It operates at a voltage of 3.3 V.

Control signals.

All commands are timed relative to the rising edge of a clock signal. In addition to the clock, there are six control signals, mostly active low, which are sampled on the rising edge of the clock:

Bank selection (BAn).

SDRAM devices are internally divided into either two, four or eight independent internal data

Addressing (A10/An).

Many commands also use an address presented on the address input pins. Some

Commands.

The commands are defined as follows:  All SDRAM generations (SDR and DDRx) use essentially the same commands, with the changes being:

Construction and operation.

For example, a 512 MB SDRAM DIMM (which contains 512 MiB (mebibytes) = = 536,870,912 bytes exactly), might be made of eight or nine SDRAM chips, each containing 512 Mbit of storage, and each one contributing 8 bits to the DIMM's 64- or 72-bit width. A typical 512 Mbit SDRAM "chip" internally contains four independent 16 MB (MiB) memory banks. Each bank is an array of 8,192 rows of 16,384 bits each. (2048 8-bit columns). A bank is either idle, active, or changing from one to the other.  The "active" command

Command interactions.

The no operation command is always permitted, while the load mode register command requires that all banks be idle, and a delay afterward for the changes to take effect. The auto refresh command also requires that all banks be idle, and takes a refresh cycle time t to return the chip to the idle state. (This time is usually equal to t+t.) The only other command that is permitted on an idle bank is the active command. This takes, as mentioned above, t before the row is fully open and can accept read and write commands.  When a bank is open, there are four commands permitted: read, write, burst terminate, and precharge. Read and write commands begin bursts, which can be interrupted by following commands.

Interrupting a read burst.

A read, burst terminate, or precharge command may be issued at any time after a read command, and will interrupt the read burst after the configured CAS latency. So if a read command is issued on cycle 0, another read command is issued on cycle 2, and the CAS latency is 3, then the first read command will begin bursting data out during cycles 3 and 4, then the results from the second read command will appear beginning with cycle 5.  If the command issued on cycle 2 were burst terminate, or a precharge of the active bank, then no output would be generated during cycle 5.  Although the interrupting read may be to any active bank, a precharge command will only interrupt the read burst if it is to the same bank or all

Burst ordering.

A modern microprocessor with a cache will generally access memory in units of cache lines. To transfer a 64-byte cache line requires eight consecutive accesses to a 64-bit DIMM, which can all be triggered by a single read or write command by configuring the SDRAM chips, using the mode register, to perform eight-word bursts. A cache line fetch is typically triggered by a read from a particular address, and SDRAM allows the "critical word" of the cache line to be transferred first. ("Word" here refers to the width of the SDRAM chip or DIMM, which is 64 bits for a typical DIMM.) SDRAM chips support two possible conventions for the ordering of the remaining words in the cache line.  Bursts always access an aligned block of BL consecutive words beginning on a multiple of BL. So, for example, a four-word burst access to any column address from four to seven will return words four to seven. The ordering, however, depends on the requested address, and the configured burst type option: sequential or interleaved. Typically, a

Mode register.

Single data rate SDRAM has a single 10-bit programmable mode register. Later double-data-rate SDRAM standards add additional mode registers, addressed using the bank address pins. For SDR SDRAM, the bank address pins and address lines A10 and above are ignored, but should be zero during a mode register write.  The bits are

Auto refresh.

It is possible to refresh a RAM chip by opening and closing (activating and precharging) each row in each bank. However, to simplify the memory controller, SDRAM chips support an "auto refresh" command, which performs these operations to one row in each

Low power modes.

As mentioned, the clock enable (CKE) input can be used to effectively stop the clock to an SDRAM. The CKE input is sampled each rising edge of the clock, and if it is low, the following rising edge of the clock is ignored for all purposes other than checking CKE. As long as CKE is low, it is permissible to change the clock rate, or even stop the clock entirely.  If CKE is lowered while the SDRAM is performing operations, it simply "freezes" in place until CKE is raised again.  If the SDRAM is idle (all banks precharged, no commands in progress) when CKE is lowered, the SDRAM automatically enters power-down mode, consuming minimal power until CKE is raised again. This must not last longer than the maximum refresh interval

DDR SDRAM prefetch architecture.

DDR SDRAM employs prefetch architecture to allow quick and easy access to multiple data words located on a common physical row in the memory.  The prefetch architecture takes advantage of the specific characteristics of memory accesses to DRAM. Typical DRAM memory operations involve three phases: bitline precharge, row access, column access. Row access is the heart of a read operation, as it involves the careful sensing of the tiny signals in DRAM memory cells; it is the slowest phase of memory operation. However, once a row is

Generations.

SDR.

This type of SDRAM is slower than the DDR variants, because only one word of data is transmitted per clock

DDR.

While the access latency of DRAM is fundamentally limited by the DRAM array, DRAM has very high potential bandwidth because each internal read is actually a row of many thousands of bits. To make more of this bandwidth available to users, a double data rate interface was developed. This uses the same commands, accepted once per cycle, but reads or writes two words of data per clock cycle. The DDR interface accomplishes this by reading and writing data on both

DDR2.

DDR2 SDRAM is very similar to DDR SDRAM, but doubles the minimum read or write unit again, to four consecutive words. The bus protocol was also simplified to allow higher performance operation. (In particular, the "burst terminate" command is deleted.) This allows the bus rate of the SDRAM to be doubled without increasing the clock rate of internal RAM operations; instead, internal operations are performed in units four times as wide as SDRAM. Also, an extra bank address pin (BA2) was added

DDR3.

DDR3 continues the trend, doubling the minimum read or write unit to eight consecutive words. This allows another doubling of bandwidth and external bus rate without having to change the clock rate of internal operations, just the width. To maintain 800–1600 M transfers/s (both edges of a 400–800 MHz clock), the internal RAM array has to perform 100–200 M fetches per second.  Again, with every doubling, the downside is the increased latency. As with all DDR SDRAM generations, commands are

DDR4.

DDR4 SDRAM is the successor to DDR3 SDRAM. It was revealed at the Intel Developer Forum in San Francisco in 2008, and was due to be released to market during 2011. The timing varied considerably during its development - it was originally expected to be released in 2012, and later (during 2010) expected to be released in 2015, before samples were announced in early 2011 and manufacturers began to announce that commercial production and release to market was anticipated in 2012. DDR4 reached mass market adoption around 2015, which is comparable with the approximately five years taken for DDR3 to achieve mass market transition over DDR2.  The DDR4 chips run at

DDR5.

In March 2017, JEDEC announced a DDR5 standard is under development, but provided no

Failed successors.

In addition to DDR, there were several other proposed memory technologies to succeed SDR SDRAM.

Rambus DRAM (RDRAM).

RDRAM was a proprietary technology that competed against DDR. Its relatively high price and disappointing performance

Synchronous-link DRAM (SLDRAM).

SLDRAM boasted higher performance and competed against RDRAM. It was developed during the late 1990s by the SLDRAM Consortium. The SLDRAM Consortium consisted of about 20 major DRAM and computer industry manufacturers. (The SLDRAM Consortium became incorporated as SLDRAM Inc. and then changed its name to Advanced Memory International, Inc.). SLDRAM was an open standard and did not require licensing fees. The specifications called for a 64-bit bus running at a 200, 300 or 400 MHz clock frequency. This is achieved by all signals being on the same line and thereby avoiding the synchronization time of multiple lines. Like DDR SDRAM, SLDRAM uses a double-pumped bus, giving it an effective speed of 400, 600, or 800 MT/s.  SLDRAM used an 11-bit command bus (10 command bits CA9:0 plus one start-of-command FLAG line) to transmit 40-bit command packets on 4 consecutive edges of a differential command clock (CCLK/CCLK#). Unlike SDRAM, there were no per-chip select signals; each chip was assigned an ID when reset, and the command contained the ID of the chip that should process it. Data was transferred in 4- or 8-word bursts across an 18-bit (per chip) data bus, using one of

Virtual channel memory (VCM) SDRAM.

VCM was a proprietary type of SDRAM that was designed by NEC, but released as an open standard with no licensing fees. It is pin-compatible with standard SDRAM, but the commands are different. The technology was a potential competitor of RDRAM because VCM was not nearly as expensive as RDRAM was. A Virtual Channel Memory (VCM) module is mechanically and electrically compatible with standard SDRAM, so support for both depends only on the capabilities of the memory controller. In the late 1990s, a number of PC northbridge chipsets (such as the popular VIA KX133 and KT133)

Synchronous graphics RAM (SGRAM).

Synchronous graphics RAM (SGRAM) is a specialized form of SDRAM for graphics adaptors. It is designed for graphics-related tasks such as texture memory and framebuffers, found on video cards. It adds functions such as bit masking (writing to a specified bit plane without affecting the others) and block write (filling a block of memory with a single colour). Unlike VRAM and WRAM, SGRAM is single-ported. However, it can open two memory pages at once, which simulates the dual-port nature of other video RAM technologies.  The earliest known SGRAM memory are 8Mb chips dating back to 1994: the Hitachi HM5283206, introduced in November 1994, and the NEC μPD481850, introduced in December 1994. The earliest known commercial device to use SGRAM is Sony's PlayStation (PS) video game console, starting with the Japanese SCPH-5000 model released in December 1995, using the NEC μPD481850 chip.

Graphics double data rate SDRAM (GDDR SDRAM).

Graphics double data rate SDRAM (GDDR SDRAM) is a type of specialized DDR SDRAM designed to be used as the main memory of graphics processing units (GPUs). GDDR SDRAM is distinct from commodity types of DDR SDRAM such as DDR3, although they share

High Bandwidth Memory (HBM).

High Bandwidth Memory (HBM) is a high-performance RAM interface for 3D-stacked SDRAM from Samsung, AMD and SK Hynix.

Timeline.

SDRAM.

<section

SGRAM and HBM.

<section

Synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) is any dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) where the operation of its external pin interface is coordinated by an externally supplied clock signal.

同步动态随机存取内存(synchronous dynamic random-access memory,简称SDRAM)是有一个同步接口的动态随机存取内存(DRAM)。通常DRAM是有一个异步接口的,这样它可以随时响应控制输入的变化。而SDRAM有一个同步接口,在响应控制输入前会等待一个时钟信号,这样就能和计算机的系统总线同步。时钟被用来驱动一个有限状态机,对进入的指令进行(Pipeline)操作。这使得SDRAM与没有同步接口的异步DRAM(asynchronous DRAM)相比,可以有一个更复杂的操作模式。


History.

Key events.

North America.

In 1981, United Video Satellite Group launched the first EPG service in North America, a cable channel known simply as The Electronic Program Guide. It allowed cable systems in the United States and Canada to provide on-screen listings to their subscribers 24 hours a day (displaying programming information up to 90 minutes in advance) on a dedicated cable channel. Raw listings data for the service was supplied via satellite to participating cable systems, each of which installed a computer within its headend facility to present that data to subscribers in a format customized to the system's unique channel lineup. The EPG Channel would later be renamed Prevue Guide and go on to serve as the de facto EPG service for North American cable systems throughout the remainder of the 1980s, the entirety of the 1990s, and – as TV Guide Network or TV Guide Channel – for the first decade of the 21st century. In 1986 at a trade show in Nashville, STV/Onsat, a print programming guide publisher, introduced SuperGuide, an interactive electronic programming guide for home satellite dish viewers. The system was the focus of a 1987 article in "STV Magazine". The original system had a black-and-white display, and would locally store programming information for around one week in time. A remote control was used to interact with the unit. When the user found a show they wanted to watch, they would have to turn off the guide and then tune the satellite receiver to the correct service. The system was developed by Chris Schultheiss of STV/OnSat and engineer Peter Hallenbeck. The guide information was distributed by satellite using the home owner's dish as the receiver. The information was stored locally so that the user could use the guide without having to be on a particular satellite or service. In March 1990, a second generation SuperGuide system was introduced that was integrated into the Uniden 4800 receiver. This version had a color display and the hardware was based on a custom chip; it was also able to disseminate up to two weeks of programming information. When the user found the show of interest, they pressed a button on the remote and the receiver tuned to the show they wanted to watch. This unit also had a single button recording function, and controlled VCRs via an infrared output (see ). Available in North America, it was the first commercially available unit for home use that had a locally stored guide integrated with the receiver for single button viewing and taping. A presentation on the system was given at the 1990 IEEE consumer electronics symposium in Chicago.  In June 1988, was awarded to Eli Reiter, Michael H. Zemering and Frank Shannon. This patent concerned the implementation of a searchable electronic program guide – an interactive program guide (IPG).  TV Guide Magazine and Liberty Media established a joint venture in 1992 known as TV Guide On Screen to develop an EPG. The JV was led by video game veteran, Bruce Davis. Leading competitors to TV Guide On Screen included Prevue Guide and Starsight Telecast. The joint venture introduced the first ever interactive program guide to the market in late 1995 in the General Instrument CFT2200 set top cable box. Telecommunications Inc, owner of Liberty Media, acquired United Video Satellite Group, owner of Prevue Guide, in 1995. TV Guide On Screen and Prevue Guide were later merged. TV Guide On Screen for digital cable set top boxes premiered in the DigiCable series of set top boxes from General Instrument shortly thereafter. See wiki on TV Guide for subsequent developments.

Western Europe.

In Western Europe, 59 million television households were equipped with EPGs at the end of 2008, a penetration of 36% of all television households. The situation varies from country to country, depending on the status of digitization and the role of pay television and IPTV in each market. With Sky as an early mover and the BBC iPlayer and Virgin Media as ambitious followers, the United Kingdom is the most developed and innovative EPG market to date, with 96% of viewers having frequently used an EPG in 2010. Inview Technology is one of the UK's largest and oldest EPG producers, dating back to 1996 and currently in partnership with Humax and Skyworth.  Scandinavia also is a highly innovative EPG market. Even in Italy, the EPG penetration is relatively high with 38%. In France, IPTV is the main driver of EPG developments. In contrast to many other European countries, Germany lags behind, due to a relatively slow digitization process and the minor role of pay television in that country.

Current applications.

Interactive program guides are nearly ubiquitous in most broadcast media today. EPGs can be made available through television (on set-top boxes and all current digital TV receivers), mobile phones (particularly through smartphone apps), and on the Internet. Online TV Guides are becoming more ubiquitous, with over 7 million searches for "TV Guide" being logged each month on Google.  For television, IPG support is built into almost all modern receivers for digital cable, digital satellite, and over-the-air digital broadcasting. They are also commonly featured in digital video recorders such as TiVo and MythTV. Higher-end receivers for digital broadcast radio and digital satellite radio commonly feature built-in IPGs as well.  Demand for non-interactive electronic television program guides – television channels displaying listings for currently airing and upcoming programming – has been nearly eliminated by the widespread availability of interactive program guides for television; TV Guide Network, the largest of these services, eventually abandoned its original purpose as a non-interactive EPG service and became a traditional general entertainment cable channel, eventually rebranding as Pop in January 2015. Television-based IPGs provide the same information as EPGs, but faster and often in much more detail. When television IPGs are supported by PVRs, they enable viewers to plan viewing and recording by selecting broadcasts directly from the EPG, rather than programming timers.  The aspect of an IPG most noticed by users is its graphical user interface (GUI), typically a grid or table listing channel names and program titles and times: web and television-based IPG interfaces allow the user to highlight any given listing and call up additional information about it supplied by the EPG provider. Programs on offer from subchannels may also be listed.  Typical IPGs also allow users the option of searching by genre, as well as immediate one-touch access to, or recording of, a selected program. Reminders and parental control functions are also often included. The IPGs within some DirecTV IRDs can control a VCR using an attached infrared emitter that emulates its remote control.  The latest development in IPGs is personalization through a recommendation engine or semantics. Semantics are used to permit interest-based suggestions to one or several viewers on what to watch or record based on past patterns. One such IPG, iFanzy, allows users to customize its appearance.  Standards for delivery of scheduling information to television-based IPGs vary from application to application, and by country. Older television IPGs like Guide Plus+ relied on analog technology (such as the vertical blanking interval of analog television video signals) to distribute listings data to IPG-enabled consumer receiving equipment. In Europe, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) published standard ETS 300 707 to standardize the delivery of IPG data over digital television broadcast signals. Listings data for IPGs integrated into digital terrestrial television and radio receivers of the present day is typically sent within each station's MPEG transport stream, or alongside it in a special data stream. The ATSC standard for digital terrestrial television, for instance, uses tables sent in each station's PSIP. These tables are meant to contain program start times and titles along with additional program descriptive metadata. Current time signals are also included for on-screen display purposes, and they are also used to set timers on recording devices.  Devices embedded within modern digital cable and satellite television receivers, on the other hand, customarily rely upon third-party listings metadata aggregators to provide them with their on-screen listings data. Such companies include Tribune TV Data, Gemstar-TV Guide (now TiVo Corporation), FYI Television, Inc. in the United States and Europe; TV Media in the United States and Canada; Broadcasting Dataservices in Europe and Dayscript in Latin America; and What's On India Media Pvt. Ltd in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, the Middle East and Asia.  Some IPG systems built into older set-top boxes designed to receive terrestrial digital signals and television sets with built-in digital tuners may have a lesser degree of interactive features compared to those included in cable, satellite and IPTV converters; technical limitations in these models may prevent users from accessing program listings beyond (at maximum) 16 hours in advance and complete program synopses, and the inability for the IPG to parse synopses for certain programs from the MPEG stream or displaying next-day listings until at or after 12:00 a.m. local time. IPGs built into newer television (including Smart TV), digital terrestrial set-top box and antenna-ready DVR models feature on-screen displays and interactive guide features more comparable to their pay television set-top counterparts, including the ability to display grids and, in the case of DVRs intended for terrestrial use, the ability – with an Internet connection – to access listings and content from over-the-top services.  A growing trend is for manufacturers such as Elgato and Topfield and software developers such as Microsoft in their Windows Media Center to use an Internet connection to acquire data for their built-in IPGs. This enables greater interactivity with the IPG such as media downloads, series recording and programming of the recordings for the IPG remotely; for example, IceTV in Australia enables TiVo-like services to competing DVR/PVR manufacturers and software companies.  In developing IPG software, manufacturers must include functions to address the growing volumes of increasingly complex data associated with programming. This data includes program descriptions, schedules and parental television ratings, along with flags for technical and access features such as display formats, closed captioning and Descriptive Video Service. They must also include user configuration information such as favorite channel lists, and multimedia content. To meet this need, some set-top box software designs incorporate a "database layer" that utilizes either proprietary functions or a commercial off-the-shelf embedded database system for sorting, storing and retrieving programming data.

Electronic programming guides (EPGs) and interactive programming guides (IPGs) are menu-based systems that provide users of television, radio and other media applications with continuously updated menus that display scheduling information for current and upcoming broadcast programming (most commonly, TV listings). Some guides also feature backward scrolling to promote their catch up content. They are commonly known as guides or TV guides.

电子节目指南(英语:Electronic program guide,缩写:EPG)又名节目指南、电子节目表或者电子节目导览,是一种电视节目单,通常伴随数字电视信号或数码广播信号传送。这些信号可以通过有线电视、卫星电视、或地面电视被接收。


德意志民主共和国国际航空

History.

Founding years.

Until 1945, Deutsche Luft Hansa had served as German flag carrier. Following the end of World War II and the subsequent allied occupation of Germany, all aircraft in the country were seized and the airline was liquidated. In 1954, a West German company acquired the "Lufthansa" trademark. In 1955, Deutsche Lufthansa was founded as rival East German flag carrier. It soon became obvious that the East German airline would likely lose a lawsuit over the use of the "Lufthansa" branding. As a consequence, Interflug was set up on 18 September 1958 as a "back-up" company, initially intended to complement the East German aviation industry by operating chartered flights. In 1963, the East German Lufthansa was liquidated, officially due to poor profitability (though this step foreclosed the imminent stripping of the "Lufthansa" name). Its staff, aircraft fleet, and route network was transferred to Interflug, which henceforth served as the East German flag carrier.

East German national airline.

As a state-owned airline, Interflug with its approximately 8,000 employees was under control of the National Defense Council, which held the supreme command of the East German armed forces. The majority of the pilots of Interflug were reserve officers of the National People's Army (and as such required to be members of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany), and all of its aircraft could have been requisitioned for military purposes at any time. Klaus Henkes, who became General Director of the airline in 1978, had previously served as General of the East German Air Force. Applicants for the job of a flight attendant needed to be approved of by the Stasi, in order to assess their so-called "political reliability", minimizing espionage and escape attempts in Western countries. On warning of suspension, Interflug crews were not allowed to associate with employees of airlines from non-socialist countries.  Over the 1960s, the airline saw significant growth, concerning both its route network and fleet of Soviet-built aircraft. The Ilyushin Il-18 turboprop airliner became the backbone of Interflug's short haul flights during that period. The company had been the intended primary operator of the Baade 152, an early jet airliner constructed in East Germany. The development never went beyond the prototype phase, though, and was abandoned in 1961. In 1969, the Tupolev Tu-134 was introduced, the first jet airliner operated by Interflug. It was operated on the airline's European routes. The long range Il-62 became part of the fleet in 1971. In the same year, the number of annual Interflug passengers reached 1 million.  Following the 1970s energy crisis with its growing fuel prices, Interflug gradually dismantled its domestic route network. The last scheduled flight (from East Berlin to Erfurt) took place in April 1980.

Late 1980s and German reunification.

During the 1980s, Interflug had to cope with increasing problems due to its ageing fleet: The fuel efficiency proved to be inferior compared to contemporary Western airliners, and noise protection regulations meant that the company had to pay increased landing fees, in some cases even facing bans from operating at certain airports. With some exceptions, Western-built airliners (most notably those produced by Boeing, McDonnell Douglas or Airbus) could not be delivered to countries of the Soviet bloc because of the CoCom embargo. Following a deal between Boeing and LOT Polish Airlines for the purchase of six Boeing 767 aircraft and in order to acknowledge the Perestroika movement, commercial airliners were exempted from the trade embargo in 1988. Also Malév Hungarian Airlines bought Boeings in 1988. In the same year, Interflug placed an order for three Airbus A310 long haul aircraft, worth DM 420 million. The deal was secured with the sponsorship of Franz Josef Strauss, then Minister-President of Bavaria, chairman of the Airbus supervisory board and responsible for West German loans granted to East Germany.  The first Airbus A310 was delivered to Interflug on 26 June 1989. The East German crews for the new aircraft type were trained in West Germany; aircraft maintenance was also performed there. The A310 allowed for non-stop flights to Cuba (previously, flights had needed a fuel stop at Gander International Airport in Canada).  Following the Fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 and the subsequent political changes in East Germany, several foreign airlines expressed intentions to take over parts of the highly unprofitable company, in order to get a grip on the German air traffic market, especially concerning Berlin. In early March 1990, Lufthansa signed a letter of intent to acquire 26 percent in Interflug, but the offer was blocked by the Federal Cartel Office. Plans for a take-over by British Airways did not materialize, either (instead, Deutsche BA was formed in 1992). On 1 July 1990, Interflug became a member of the International Air Transport Association (IATA).  As a consequence of the German reunification on 3 October 1990, Interflug came under the administration of the "Treuhandanstalt", along with all other state-owned property of East Germany. As no investors could be found, it was announced on 7 February 1991 that Interflug (then having 2,900 employees and 20 aircraft) would be liquidated. Subsequently, the airline was dismantled. The last commercial flight (on the Berlin-Vienna-Berlin route using a Tu-134) took place on 30 April 1991.

Legacy.

Following the liquidation, a group of former Interflug employees acquired five of the company's Ilyushin Il-18 airliners and set up Il-18 Air Cargo, which soon became known as "Berline", operating chartered cargo and leisure flights out of Schönefeld Airport.  The three Airbus A310 purchased by Interflug in 1988 were handed over from "Treuhandanstalt" to the property of the Federal Republic of Germany. Henceforth, they were operated by the German Air Force, also being used for the representative VIP transport of high-ranking politicians like the German president or chancellor.  Several former Interflug aircraft have been preserved in different places in Germany.

Route network.

As the national airline of East Germany from 1963 to 1991, Interflug operated scheduled passenger flights to the following destinations.

Flights to Western countries.

As a state-owned company of East Germany, Interflug had the important role of securing foreign exchanges, as the national East German mark was considered a weak currency. For most of its existence, Interflug was not a member of the International Air Transport Association (IATA), and therefore could significantly undercut ticket prices of other European carriers. From the 1970s, an increased effort was put on operating chartered flights to Mediterranean and Black Sea holiday resorts, many of which specifically catered to West Germans (as travel restrictions applied for East Germans). From the 1970s, Interflug gained traffic rights to several destinations in Western Europe. All of these flights could be booked at travel agencies in West Berlin and West Germany, which had signed sale contracts with Interflug. To simplify the transfer of passengers from West Berlin to and from Schönefeld Airport, a dedicated border crossing checkpoint was inaugurated at "Waltersdorfer Chaussee", and scheduled shuttle buses were operated from the in the Westend locality.  By the early 1980s, the low Interflug ticket prices had resulted in a considerable impact on Berlin Tegel Airport in West Berlin, which experienced a severe decline of holiday flights. Reportedly, pilots of Pan American World Airways, which had a hub at Tegel, considered operating flights to Greece without payments, in order to allow the airline to compete with Interflug.  With Turkish Airlines, Interflug had signed an agreement, by which the two airlines were established as the only ones to offer dedicated flights for Turkish "Gastarbeiter" to and from West Germany and West Berlin. With KLM, Interflug set up a partnership for a joint operation on the East Berlin-Amsterdam route during the 1980s. Of the six weekly flights, two were operated by KLM's Fokker F28 Fellowships, and four by Interflug's Tu-134s and Il-62s. As neither airline was entitled to cross the intra-German border, the KLM flights were routed via Denmark, and Interflug chose a southern routing over Czechoslovakia.  During the annual Leipzig Trade Fair, which at that time was considered the most important meeting place for businessmen and politicians on both sides of the Iron Curtain, Lufthansa and Interflug were granted special permits to operate flights between Leipzig and West Germany. In 1986, Lufthansa and Interflug applied for joint traffic rights for year-round scheduled intra-German flights over the Iron Curtain, which was initially rejected by the Western Allies (probably due to concerns that their unique market position for flights to and from Berlin might be weakened), and only granted in August 1989. As a consequence, Interflug launched flights on the Leipzig-Düsseldorf route, with Lufthansa serving Frankfurt-Leipzig. In 1990, Interflug flights from Dresden to Hamburg and Cologne were added.

Fleet.

Over the years, Interflug operated the following aircraft types on its commercial flights:

Interflug GmbH (; ) was the national airline of the German Democratic Republic from 1963 to 1990. Based in East Berlin, it operated scheduled and chartered flights to European and intercontinental destinations out of its hub at Berlin Schönefeld Airport, focusing on Comecon countries. Following German reunification, the company was liquidated.

国际航空有限责任公司(),简称「国际航空」(),是德意志民主共和国(东德)的一家国营航空公司。该企业始创自1958年,于1963至1990年间转型成国家航空公司,总部设在东柏林,以柏林-舍讷费尔德机场为枢纽机场,设有欧洲洲际航班,主要航点集中于经济互助委员会各成员国境内。因其品牌标识一直以「德意志民主共和国国际航空」()为名,故也被俗称作「东德国际航空」或「东德航空」。两德统一之后,该公司与原西德的汉莎航空合并,直至1991年完全注销。


Biography.

1984–2000: Early life and career beginnings.

Known to all her friends by her nickname "Lili", Alizée began dancing early in life, and by age four was already proficient. During 1988–2000 she studied in what was then called "Ecole de Danse Monique Mufraggi", a famous dance and theatre school in Ajaccio. In 1995, aged 11, she won a colouring competition with about 7,000 entrants organised by the (now defunct) French airline "Air Outre Mer". Her design was used to paint the exterior of one of their airliners, subsequently named after her, for which Alizée won a vacation trip with her family to the Maldives.  In 1999, she appeared on the TV talent show "Graines de Star", broadcast on Métropole 6. She initially intended to sign up for the programme's dance contest, but that category was reserved for groups only. Alizée therefore joined the singing category instead, performing the song "Waiting for Tonight" by Jennifer Lopez and "Ma Prière" (a single released by Axelle Red in 1997). She went on to win the "Meilleure Graine" award for most promising young singing star of tomorrow.

2000–2002: "Gourmandises", "Moi... Lolita", "L'Alizé" and international success.

Her winning performance was seen by veteran songwriters Mylène Farmer and Laurent Boutonnat, who were looking for a young, fresh voice to partake in their new project. They approached Alizée, and she was selected after studio auditions. The duo arranged her debut with a meticulously orchestrated launch, controlling her image and public appearances. In 2000, they produced her maiden album, "Gourmandises" which was a great success in France, Belgium, Germany, Mexico, and the United Kingdom. The first single, "Moi... Lolita", resurrected the rich French musical tradition pioneered by Serge Gainsbourg in 1964 with the song, inspired by the celebrated novel "Lolita", creating the image which defined Alizée in the early years of her career. She won an M6 award in 2000 and returned with a follow-up album, "Mes Courants Électriques", in 2003. This second album was also quite successful, though less so than her first album. A video album shot during her European concert tour soon followed.  Alizée made her debut with the single "Moi... Lolita", her most successful to date. It enjoyed success throughout most of Europe and parts of East Asia, reaching number one in several countries. The associated music video portrayed Alizée as an impoverished rustic teen visiting a dance club in the city with her little sister, pursued by a young man who had lent them the bus fare to get there, but whose romantic interest in her she never returned. The song was later used in the UK trailer of the 2006 film, "A Good Year", and was a part of the film's soundtrack.  The single was from her debut album, "Gourmandises" ("Delicacies"), released in 2000. The album, written by Farmer and composed by Boutonnat, sold over 788,000 copies in France – it reached Platinum status in just three months. In 2001, the album was launched internationally and Alizée became the highest-selling female French singer ever. The album went on to sell over two million copies worldwide. Farmer and Boutonnat kept a tight rein how the album was marketed and controlled the image in which Alizée was portrayed. In the meantime, Alizée gave very few interviews, and even when she did, they did not stretch beyond 20 minutes per journalist. Neither did she agree to any photoshoots.  Her second single "L'Alizé" (2000), also from the same album, followed soon. It also hit number one in France, and gained some international success. The video of the "sexily alliterative" song (compare its title to "Lola," a variant on "Lolita") shows a miraculously acrobatic (even airborne) Alizée frolicking amidst popping bubbles in front of a pink backdrop, erotically singing about her cautious search for a true love. The video was shot in a studio in Brussels, which had a 25-metre by 10-metre painted canvas to serve as the background, with real bubbles. This single was followed up with another single from the same album – the title song, "Gourmandises". The video, which shows a group of teenage boys and girls on a picnic, was shot in a day. The last single from the album was "Parler tout bas", about coming of age, and was illustrated with a surreal music video. In France, "Parler tout bas" was the third single, then followed by the release of "Gourmandises".

2003–2004: "Mes courants électriques", "En Concert".

In 2003, Alizée returned with her second album "Mes Courants Électriques" ("My Electric Currents"). With the release of this album, she changed her image from a "Lolita" to that of a more toned-down teenager. This album was also written by Farmer and Boutonnat and sold 400,000 copies in France.  The first single from this album, "J'en ai marre!" (also known as "Mon bain de mousse" in Japan) was released in 2003. The music video for this shows Alizée in a glass cage, singing while having water splashed on her. The plexiglass cage, 3 by 3 meters in dimension, was constructed in a Parisian studio, and the shooting of the video took two days. The other singles from this album were "J'ai pas vingt ans" and "À contre-courant". The video for "J'ai pas vingt ans" ("I'm Not Twenty") resembles the ambience of a concert with Alizée dancing in the midst of several other dancers. "À contre-courant", the last single from this album, was shot in an abandoned coal factory.  The albums features English versions of four tracks. The translations are artistic translations rather than literal, attempting to capture the rough feeling and concepts rather than the specific words and expressions. In some cases they are "dumbed down", lacking the clever French wordplays of the originals.  Following the release of "Mes Courants Électriques", Alizée went on a countrywide tour of France, along with a performance each in Belgium and Switzerland, during the second half of 2003. The tour started off with a performance on 26 August 2003 in Paris. It concluded with her performance on the prestigious l'Olympia hall in Paris and eve of 17 January 2004 at the Le Zénith concert hall in the same city and had covered major cities including Lyon, Rouen, Lille, Grenoble and Dijon. A live CD and DVD, titled "Alizée En Concert", composed of selected performances from her tour, was launched a year later in the fall of 2004. The audio CD contained tracks, taken from her two studio albums. The DVD featured video footage of the same performances as on the CD, along with bonus footage of her rehearsals.

2005–2007: The hiatus and release in Mexico.

In 2005 after the success of her first tour and first live album release, Alizée first disappeared from the limelight, then reappeared in the media as it was revealed she was pregnant. She gave birth to a baby girl, Annily, 28 April 2005 (the child she had with Jérémy Chatelain) and put her career on hold. However, the tabloids devoted several articles, for the name Alizée appeared with others, including the false listings of the Clearstream affair. After several rumors of an imminent return, especially in collaboration with the band Indochine, Alizée left Universal Records to sign with RCA (Sony BMG) in August 2007 also revealing that the En Concert album and tour were her last collaboration with her mentors.  Meanwhile, a compilation of the live album was re-released in early 2007 in Mexico by Universal Music as a CD+DVD release, following the featuring of the songs on local radio stations. With the re-release and renewed interest, the songs climbed up the music charts in the country. The album became a hit, peaking at number four in the International Chart on 28 May 2007, and number eight on the main albums chart. "En concert" has a Gold certification for shipments over 50,000 copies only in Mexico.

2007–2009: "Psychédélices", "Tout Alizée" and Latin American success.

After a three-year hiatus, a time spent out of the media spotlight, Alizée returned in December 2007 with a new album, "Psychédélices", the first one to be made without the creative supervision of her former mentor, Mylène Farmer. The album, which features 11 tracks, was made available for digital downloads 26 November 2007, with a full release on 3 December 2007 on the RCA label. The album includes collaborations with Bertrand Burgalat, Daniel Darc, Oxmo Puccino, Jérémy Chatelain, Michel-Yves Kochmann, and Jean Fauque. The first single from the album was "Mademoiselle Juliette", officially released on 30 September 2007. It was accidentally released early on the Virgin Megastore website on 23 September 2007, but was taken down later citing an error on the part of Virgin Music, France. The single was later made available in online music stores as well as on radio stations, and went on to capture the No. 13 spot on the legal music downloads charts. To promote the single, Alizée appeared on the French radio station, "NRJ", on 27 September 2007. The video for the single was released for broadcast on 19 November 2007, though it was made available on MSN France on 16 November 2007. It was released on physical media, both CD and vinyl, on 21 January 2008.  Another track from the album, "Fifty-Sixty", was leaked two months before the album was released. Though the song was not mentioned by name, the leak was confirmed in a press release which revealed the title and release schedule of the album. "Fifty-Sixty" later launched as the second single from the album in February 2008. The lyric of "Fifty-Sixty" tells, in personal and metaphorical manner, of a young model under the guidance of Andy Warhol, possibly inspired by real-life story of Edie Sedgwick. The song ends with a reiteration of how she foolishly believed Andy thought her the most beautiful model of all. Three music videos were released for the single – one for the album version of the song and the other two for two remixes. An Alizée website, "Psychedeclips.com", was dedicated to the video series, the first of which was released on 5 May 2008.  Coinciding with the new album, a new official website was created, which, despite being announced on 11 September 2007, was kept under wraps until 28 November 2007. The album was also promoted via an official artist profile at MySpace. Advertising and marketing campaigns for the album began 22 November 2007 with ad campaigns on NRJ Radio, TF1-TV, and the web.  In March 2008 Alizée visited Mexico for the first time in a short promotional tour. On 5 March she was supposed to hold the second-ever public autograph session of her career but it was cancelled due to problems with the store's security. Alizée held an improvised press conference to apologise to all her Mexican fans and to explain that it was not her fault. Sony BMG Mexico also released a statement saying it was not Alizée's fault, that it was the store who had problems with the security, and that they did not expect so many people in attendance; fences had been broken and children were in danger. Alizée also promised to make amends by having another autograph session when she returned to the country on the following tour. She also stated that her tour would start on 18 May in Moscow, followed by concerts in Mexico and then France. She also commented that piracy in music has two sides "one good" and "one bad" saying that sometimes it's good because her music reaches places that she never thought to reach. After the success of Alizée's tour in Mexico, and in an attempt to mitigate the damage caused during her first promotional visit, Alizée announced an autograph session with fans on 26 June 2008 in Mexico City, over 300 CDs were signed and the record label executives of Sony BMG Mexico presented a Gold certification for shipments over 50,000 copies of "Psychédélices – Mexican Tour Edition". A new cover singing in Mexico was Madonna's cover, "La Isla Bonita"; it went on to become Alizée's first top ten on the airplay chart.  Following the success of "Alizée En Concert" and "Psychédélices" in Mexico, Alizée's former music label, Universal Music released a compilation album, titled "Tout Alizée". The compilation, which is a Mexico-only release, consists of 15 tracks (with 4 remixes) from her first two studio albums. It is augmented with a bonus DVD featuring some of her music videos. The compilation debuted at No. 62 on the Mexican Top 100 Albums Chart and No. 20 on the Mexican International Top 20 Albums Chart.

2010–2011: "Une enfant du siècle", new style and transition.

At the beginning of 2009, Alizée had to cancel a concert in France. She announced then that she was already working on her future album, which would sound very different from all of her previous recordings. The album was called "Une Enfant Du Siècle" and was released in France on 29 March 2010. A teaser can be seen on the Internet, called "Une enfant du siècle" (A child of the century).  According to British website Popjustice, the first single is partially in English and it is called "Limelight". On 15 February 2010 they uploaded the full version of the song and a clip from the music video. The Special Collector Edition of the album was made available for pre-orders on 4 February 2010. However, it was later confirmed by Popjustice itself that "Limelight" was a teaser single, and the official single from Alizée's fourth album is "Les Collines (Never Leave You)".  The full album leaked on to the Internet on 19 March 2010. The album was released in France on 29 March 2010. The album received mixed-to-positive reviews by critics, praising her radical change from her teen pop roots, but also criticizing her perceived lack of interest in the project, and the uncatchy nature of the melodies. On that day Alizée signed autographs at the Virgin Megastore in Paris. The album is inspired by and depicts the life of Edie Sedgwick.  Alizée performed in Israel in a tribute to Serge Gainsbourg on 28 July 2010 in Tel Aviv in National Opéra. She covered a song called "Dis-lui toi que je t'aime" originally sung by Vanessa Paradis, accompanied by the national orchestra. She also performed a song with Israeli singer Harel Skaat. The music video of the first single "Les collines (Never leave you)" was released on 19 March 2010 on Alizée's official YouTube channel, which peaked the daily most-viewed musician's channel worldwide.

2012–2013: "5" and "Danse avec les stars".

Between 1 and 6 February 2012, Alizée appeared in several shows on French television. She announced that a new album was scheduled for spring 2012, marking a return to roots music which would be released on the Sony Music label; Sony subsequently announced that the album was to be delayed until the fall of 2012. In April 2012, she was featured on the single "Clara veut la Lune" by Alain Chamfort. On 27 June 2012, Alizée announced on live chat that the first single, "À cause de l'automne", from the new album was to be released 28 June 2012. The first music video was shot on 15 July 2012 but this was only released in VidZone platform for PS3. Alizée also revealed that for the new album she was working with Jean-Jacques Goldman, BB Brunes and Thomas Boulard (singer and guitarist of French rock band "Luke"). 12 July, a limited Collector's Edition of the fifth album became available for pre-order. The original release date was changed from 1 October 2012 to March 2013. A "Collector's Box was released for " pre-order page states 23 January 2013 as for the release.  In December 2012 the official video of À cause de l'automne was published on Alizée's VEVO channel, initially available only in France and made available for the rest of the world in February 2013. The first performance of her latest single was on RFM radio on 21 December 2012 where she sang the song in a live broadcast. Alizée made a several promotion of the album including the January/February 2013 issue of the French edition of Inked magazine.  Alizée announced Alexandre Azaria as the "artistic director" for her newest album "5". In January the name and the cover of the album were shown on a Star Academy, where Alizée made an appearance.  She promoted the album with performances during Soccer Beach Show of Monaco, Alain Chamfort's "En Concert" at Le Grand Rex. also her new participation in Les Enfoirés 2013 concert at the Paris-Bercy hall and Le Tour de France 2013 opening ceremony performance in Porto-Vecchio, where she sang the second single from the album "Je veux bien".  In August, Alizée was confirmed to be participating in the upcoming fourth season of the popular reality show "Danse avec les stars" (the French version of "Strictly Come Dancing") for the promotion of 5, about a month later she announced that she was again in the studio for a "surprise" and in September she revealed her collaboration with the singer Olly Murs in a new, French version of his single "Dear Darlin'". Alizée won the first place in "Danse avec les stars" in November 2013.

2014–present: "Blonde".

As announced by MetroNews, the singer would perform during NRJ Music Awards on 14 December 2013. She performed "Scream & Shout" with will.i.am, singing the lines originally sung by Britney Spears, including the line "Alizée, bitch"; along with "Le tourbillion" with Tal. At the end of December 2013, the singer began recording her sixth studio album. Her new single "Blonde" was announced in March 2014 and released on 17 March as the first single from "Blonde", which was released on 23 June 2014. The album received mixed to positive reviews from critics and had mediocre success. Another song, "Alcaline", was released on 16 June as a single.  On 6 December, Alizée announced on Instagram that she was in a studio for dubbing an animation film. The film is French version of "Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast", titled "Clochette et la créature légendaire". The film was released on 8 April 2015.

Personal life.

Though described as a very shy and reserved person, she likes performing in front of audiences. Although she is most famous as a singer, Alizée prefers dancing, and is quite proficient in classical dance, jazz, Italian style ballet, tap and flamenco.  Alizée married fellow French singer Jérémy Chatelain in Las Vegas, Nevada on 6 November 2003. They have a daughter named Annily (born 28 April 2005). The public found out about their marriage in February 2004 when "Voici" magazine released a copy of their marriage certificate in an article. She was quiet about her private and family life and kept her baby out of the press to the best of her ability, but since 2011 has been much more open about her private life. Jérémy and Alizée divorced in early 2012. During "Danse avec les stars" in fall 2013, Alizée met and started to date Grégoire Lyonnet, whom she married on 18 June 2016.  In an Instagram post dated 24 May 2019, Alizee announced that she was pregnant with her second child. Alizée gave birth to Maggy Lyonnet on 24 November 2019.

Artistry.

Music and voice.

Alizée has a mezzo-soprano vocal type and range. She started her musical career with songs she described as "soulful pop music". In 2000 she erupted in the musical world, becoming an international sensation because she was the most successful female French singer in a long while. Alizée is known for blending Electronic sounds with pop, such as psychedelic pop and most recently, mainstream Europop. At the time of her debut, NRJ Radio said about her, "The Queen of Europop is a French Lolita". In her debut album Alizée used Europop with mellow sounds, World Music and the classic French Chanson. The second album was primarily house sounds, instrumentals and electronic sounds mixed with the sounds from her last album. The third album marked a change, replacing her earlier styles with psychedelic sounds and a very rhythmic world music. The single "Fifty-Sixty" is dedicated to the memory of model Edie Sedgwick. For her fourth album she had another radical change in musical style with a new genre for her career: "Mainstream", with strong rhythms compared to her previous three albums. Alizée made clear that the renewal is a big part of her contribution to music.

Public image.

Even though early albums portrayed her in a sexy, Lolita-like manner, Alizée was modest, demure and family-oriented in public during her teenage years. For her second album she mostly kept a similar style but with more electronic influences. Her hairstyle was usually a simple bob and her make-up was designed to emphasize and enhance her natural beauty.  After a two-year hiatus, she returned with a third album whose style was more "psychedelic" and which saw her seeking a new and wider audience. Alizée is very fond of tattoos, of which she has many. The best known is the large Disney-style Tinkerbell on her back, which reflects the fact that she had regarded the character as a mascot since childhood, amassing a large collection of its statuettes. It was often shown during her promotion of the Psychédélices album, presumably because Psyche is something of an ancient forerunner of Tinkerbell.  The anime superheroine Sailor Moon, who shares a few commonalities with Tinkerbell, is prominent on Alizée's right arm.  For her fourth album she changed her style radically in terms of both music and image, with a more mature performance and more elaborate make-up, clothing and hairstyle. For the promotion of this album Alizée posed for a French magazine, "Technikart", in the "Like a Virgin" style of her idol Madonna.  Over the years Alizée has been declared a fashionista, appearing in various fashion magazines, beauty and culture. She has attended major Fashion Weeks in the world and smaller events.  In the 2010 'Sexiest Women in the World' polls, run by the French edition of "FHM" magazine, readers voted Alizée as the second sexiest woman out of 100.  Since 2012 Alizée has appeared in many magazines and publications including the January/February 2013 issue of the French edition of Inked magazine which featured a photo shoot, including on the cover, of her as a manacled and bloodied punk princess by the French photographer Julien Lachaussée and many more. In 2013, she was one of the guests of honour for her friend John Galliano in Paris Fashion Week 2013.  Alizée was ranked fourth in a list of the most influential female artists in France by the amount of followers in social media in March 2014.

Legacy.

Alizée became an international pop culture icon immediately after launching her recording career. Media says: "One of the most controversial and female vocalists of the 21st century who broke into the music world at 17 years old with a worldwide success coming in the "Europop queen "spearheaded the rise of post-millennial Europop... Alizée early on cultivated a mixture of a sweet Lolita innocence and experience that broke the bank".  Her debut album "Gourmandises" sold 700,000 in only three months in France, and 1,000,000 in Europe in 2001. In early 2001, she won the NRJ Music Awards for Francophone Revelation after she won an M6 Award in late 2000. It is also named in a similar category to the Victoires de la Musique, Alizée won the World Music Award for Best French exporter in early 2002 (more than 4 million records worldwide in an album).  She has the 31st best-selling single in the history of France for Moi... Lolita and two singles in the French Top 100 singles of the 2000s and List of best-selling singles in France history respectively. In the same year "Le Figaro" newspaper announced as Alizée's music was the top earning French music of the year thanks in part to Farmer and Boutonnat's collaboration, which earned 10.4 million €. The Mademoiselle Juliette video released on 19 November 2007 is listed at 138 in the countdown of 150 most important videos of the last 15 years of the MTV Latin America channel.  Alizée is famous for her most successful single to date Moi... Lolita which became a worldwide sensation, with the singer becoming a phenomenon and a national obsession in France. The singer is known for her fast rise to fame, also in media is known as "The most famous of Lolita" also today as the French singer with most exports from France.  A dance move of hers, including body rolls and her hands moving behind her back, is emulated in the game World of Warcraft as the night elf female /dance emote.

Critical response.

Despite the marketing hype and commercial success, there were mixed critical responses to the launch of "Moi... Lolita", Alizée's first single. The critics felt that the similarity in style to that of Mylène Farmer was too striking. Some felt that her "Lolita" image overshadowed her singing prowess, describing her as "desperately trying to be sexy", and many were ready to write her off. Some of her songs have been described as "sweeping, atmospheric ballads" whose "melodies are so sparkling and beguiling", and from which Alizée manages to "squeeze more emotion than the usual pop package". Alizée's three albums include a wide range of songs, from catchy pop tunes to soulful ballads. Radio France Internationale featured "Gourmandises" as their CD of the week, stating: The ten songs on Alizée's debut album, Gourmandises (Goodies), have all been expertly manufactured by the Farmer hit-machine. Sweet syrupy pop ditties are wrapped in silky synths, violins and catchy techno beats and judging by the success of Alizée's sexily alliterative second single, L'Alizé, the Farmer team have hit upon a winning formula. ...Gourmandises the French word for sweets (or candies) is the appropriate title of French pop princess Alizée's debut album. Like an aniseed ball, the mix of pop tunes and ballads are pleasant and consistent throughout, but at the same time never too adventurous. The French lyrics may spoil the album for some but the catchy tunes and lyrics (even though they may mean little to the average English speaker) highlight the universal language of pop... ...Sixteen-year-old Alizée is France's answer to the teen queen phenomenon. With one notable exception: Alizée has real talent...  In recent years, critics have commented upon the maturing of Alizée's image and style, and her being a growing artist full of "classy" sounds, and having a strong voice. They have observed how "Lolita", who had begun her career at the beginning of the new century, has transformed into a mature woman and accomplished singer throughout the years.

Other ventures.

Philanthropy.

Alizée was involved in charity work through "Les Enfoirés", a group of French celebrities who organise fundraising concerts every year. The proceeds from these concerts go to "Les Restaurants du Coeur". The organisation, set up by French comedian Coluche, helps feed the poor. Alizée participated in these concerts in 2001, 2002 and from 2008 to 2013.  In 2011, the singer participated in the Collectif Paris-Africa to fight against famine in Africa (similar to USA for Africa). She recorded the song "Des ricochets" along with 60 artists, for the compilation album Collectif Paris-Africa pour l'UNICEF.

Alizée Jacotey (born 21 August 1984), known professionally as Alizée, is a French singer, dancer and musician. She was born and raised in Ajaccio, Corsica.

艾莉婕(,1984年-8月21日),本名阿利泽·雅科泰(),法国科西嘉岛女歌手。她在15岁时出道,她以罗莉塔的形象为她的注册商标。