History.

Until 1937, Colchester Town were Colchester's main club and were the original tenants of Layer Road. Colchester Town joined the Eastern Counties League in 1935, but their poor performances in the league convinced supporters that the club should turn professional, much like nearby Ipswich Town. With club officials against the idea of turning professional, a new professional club was formed in March 1937, Colchester United, which would also play at Layer Road. United joined the Southern Football League as crowds for Town matches dwindled. In December 1937, Colchester United formed a reserve team, signing many of Town's players. As a result of this and Town struggling with £300 debts, Colchester Town folded the same month.  The club were Southern League champions in 1939 prior to the Second World War. Following the war, in 1947–48, the U's produced one of the most notable FA Cup runs by a non-league side, defeating fellow non-leaguers Banbury Spencer in the first round, before beating Football League clubs Wrexham, Huddersfield Town and Bradford Park Avenue. They finally fell to Blackpool in the fifth round. This set them in good stead for potential election to the Football League.  Colchester United were elected to the Football League in 1950 on the back of their second Southern League Cup win and ending the 1949–50 season second to Merthyr Tydfil on goal average alone. They spent eleven years in the Third Division South and Third Division following the league's reorganisation, with a best finish of third place in 1957, just one point behind rivals Ipswich Town and Torquay United.  The club suffered their first relegation in 1961 as they finished 23rd in the Third Division, but didn't have to wait long until their first Football League promotion, spending just one season in the Fourth Division as they ended the season second to Millwall by just one point. This trend continued over the next two decades as they were relegated to the Fourth Division in 1965 and promoted to the Third Division in 1966, then relegated in 1968 and promoted in 1974, relegated in 1976 and promoted in 1977 before a final relegation to the Fourth Division in 1981.  During this time, the club embarked on one of the most notable runs in FA Cup history, as manager Dick Graham took his ageing side to the 1970–71 quarter-finals, dispatching non-league Ringmer, Cambridge United, Barnet and Rochdale following a replay. With the draw having been made prior to the replay against Rochdale, the U's knew they would face a home tie with First Division Leeds United, and duly trounced Dale 5–0. In the match with Leeds, the U's raced to an unprecedented 3–0 lead in front of a 16,000 Layer Road crowd, with two goals from Ray Crawford and one from Dave Simmons. Leeds did grab two goals back but Colchester held on for a famous 3–2 victory. The club faced Everton in the quarter-finals but succumbed to a 5–0 defeat in front of 53,028 at Goodison Park.  Financial difficulties and a number of changes at board level in the mid-1980s caused a slide towards the lower end of the Fourth Division table and crowd numbers to dwindle. Despite a brief turn around in form under former Rangers manager Jock Wallace, United were relegated from the Football League for the first time since their election.  Despite their relegation, the U's remained a full-time club while playing in the Football Conference, as they sold their Layer Road ground to the Colchester Borough Council to clear the club's debts. The club finished the season as runners-up to Barnet during their first season outside of the Football League, but, under the stewardship of player-manager Roy McDonough, the U's won the league the following season on goal difference over bitter rivals Wycombe Wanderers. In addition to earning a swift return to League football, the club also won the FA Trophy in 1992.  The club had a successful 1995–96 season as they reached the 1995–96 Football League play-offs, but were defeated by Plymouth Argyle at the semi-final stage. The club narrowly missed the play-offs in 1996–97 but did however reach the Football League Trophy Final held at Wembley. The U's drew 0–0 with Carlisle United but were defeated 4–3 on penalties. The following season however, Colchester were promoted via the Third Division play-off Final with a 1–0 Wembley win against Torquay United.  Colchester consolidated their position in the third tier of English football for a number of seasons, before achieving their then-highest league finish of second place only to Essex rivals Southend United in the 2005–06 season. Under Phil Parkinson's stewardship, the U's were promoted to the second tier for the first time in their history. However, when Parkinson left to take the reins at Hull City, his assistant Geraint Williams was handed the daunting task of guiding Colchester into their first season in the Championship. He led the side to a 10th position finish, above East Anglian rivals Ipswich Town, Norwich City and Essex rivals Southend United, while gaining the Pride of Anglia title in the process for the first time in their history. The momentum however did not continue into their second season in the Championship, as they finished bottom of the league and were relegated back to League One.  During the club's second season in the Championship, Layer Road hosted its final game on 26 April 2008 as the U's fell to a 1–0 defeat to Stoke City. The club then moved to their new ground, the Colchester Community Stadium, in the summer of 2008 in preparation for life back in the third tier. Despite hoping to make an immediate return to the Championship, the club made a dreadful start to the 2008–09 campaign, which saw manager Geraint Williams lose his job, leaving the club second from bottom. He was replaced by former Wycombe Wanderers manager Paul Lambert as he guided the club to a mid-table finish.  The 2009–10 season kicked off with a bang as Colchester United thrashed recently relegated Norwich City 7–1 on the opening day of the season at Carrow Road. Manager Lambert then defected to Norwich when their manager Bryan Gunn was sacked following a poor start to the season. This ensured a fiery return fixture, held at the Community Stadium in January 2010. The game saw a record crowd of 10,064 watch as the U's fell to a 5–0 defeat, with Ian Henderson being sent off on his United debut against his former club. The season ended with Colchester finishing in 8th position. The club finished in 10th position for both the 2010–11 and 2011–12 seasons, before narrowly avoiding relegation to League Two in the 2012–13 season, defeating Carlisle United 2–0 on the final day of the season to ensure their safety. The club then finished the 2013–14 season in 16th position.  Colchester secured League One safety on the final day of the 2014–15 season when they beat promotion hopefuls Preston North End 1–0 on 3 May 2015. However, Colchester could not stave off relegation to League Two in the 2015–16 season as they finished the campaign in 23rd position, confining them to the fourth tier of English football for the first time in 18 years.

Colours and crest.

When the club was formed, Colchester United continued in the tradition of their predecessors Colchester Town and played in blue and white striped shirts combined with white shorts. For the majority of the club's history, the kit has remained true to the traditional design, with slight variations occurring in 1967 and 1968, when candy stripes were preferred, with white on blue used for 1967–68 and blue on white for 1968–69. The stripes were removed altogether between 1969 and 1973, with blue shirts and blue shorts adopted between 1969 and 1972 as modelled by Chelsea, and white shirts for 1972–73 during a failed relaunch. The original stripes were reinstated for the following campaign, and remained largely unchanged since this period. The club briefly used blue kits with white pinstripes between 1982 and 1986, and a crosshatch design between 1988 and 1990.  The club adopted the coat of arms of Colchester for their club crest upon their formation in June 1937. The coat of arms, which features the living cross of St Helena and the crowns of the Three Kings, was used until 1972, when a dispute between the club and Colchester Borough Council pushed United to design a new crest. Tied to the rebranding of the club and the new all-white kit, the U's earned a new nickname (The Eagles) with a new badge featuring a Roman eagle standard. Following a disastrous season where the club were obliged to seek re-election, the kits were reverted and the club played with no crest on the shirts until 1979. Adidas replaced Umbro as kit manufacturer and the shirts were adorned with a simple "CUFC" cypher. The club emblem was modified to a circular badge in 1983 based on the 1972 design and was once again adjusted in 1986, updating the image of the eagle. In 1994, the crest was modified from a circular shape to a shield shape, with the golden eagle set against a blue and white striped background, a nod to the club's traditional shirt colours. A slightly updated version was introduced in 2004 which rounded the shield, a design which has since remained unchanged.  A number of different manufacturers have provided the kits for Colchester United since the mid-1970s, with kits supplied by Umbro (1975–1979), Adidas (1979–1982), Le Coq Sportif (1982–1986), Olympic (1987–1988), Spall (1988–1990, 1993–1995), Ribero (1991–1993), Vandanel (1995–1997), Patrick (1997–2000), Strike Force (2000–2004), Admiral (2004–2006), Diadora (2006–2008), Puma (2008–2016) and Macron (2016–).  Since the 1980–81, the club has offered sponsorship for its shirts, and offered away strip sponsorship from the 1999–2000 season. Primary shirt sponsorships have included Royal London Group (1980–1986), 0800 Linkline (1986–1987), Norcross Estates (1987–1990), Holimarine (1990–1991), Colchester Hippodrome (1991–1992), The Sun (1992, 1992–1993), Strovers (1993–1994), SGR Colchester (1994–1996), Goldstar Fabrications (1996–1997), Guardian Direct (1997–1999), East Anglian Daily Times (1999–2000), JobServe (2000–2002, 2018–2019), Tiptree Jams (2002–2004), ICS Triplex (2004–2005), Easy-Skip (2005–2006), MutualPoints.com (2006–2007), Haart (2007–2008), Weston Homes (2008–2010, 2013–2018), ROL Cruise (2010–2012), and TEXO Scaffolding (2019–present). Away shirt sponsorship has been provided by Ashby's (1999–2000), Ridley's (2000–2002), 188Trades.com (2005–2006), Smart Energy (2006–2009) and JobServe (2009–2010, 2012–present).  For the 2012–13 season, the U's marked their 75th anniversary with a special kit. The shirt was coloured in the traditional blue and white stripes, however, the kit did not carry a main sponsorship logo, as the club looked to promote local businesses on a game-by-game basis and to reflect on the club's early days without sponsorship.

Stadia.

Layer Road.

Colchester's Layer Road stadium was built in 1910 and was home to United's predecessors Colchester Town. The U's shared the facilities with Town, as Colchester United's first ever game at the ground came on 2 September 1937, a 6–1 win against Bath City. Gale-force winds almost destroyed the Layer Road End of the ground in January 1938. This was followed by the outbreak of World War II, and Layer Road was closed down by the club and passed over to Colchester Garrison. After the war, the club returned to the ground, as the Main Stand was extended for the 1946–47 season. Soon after, the Popular Side stand was demolished and the timber re-used to improve the Layer Road End.  The ground hosted the record home crowd for a Colchester United game on 27 November 1948 for an FA Cup first round tie with Reading. 19,072 fans gathered for the game which lasted just 35 minutes. The game was abandoned due to thick fog. More storm damage meant that the U's went into the 1949–50 season with no roof to the Layer Road End due to a steel shortage.  During Colchester's first season in the Football League, Layer Road hosted an average crowd of 10,573. This was to be the only time the club hosted a five-figure average at the ground. It wasn't until 1959 that the stadium had floodlights installed, with proceeds from an FA Cup game against Arsenal funding the installation. In 1971, the ground was purchased from Colchester Borough Council with a series of covenants placed on the ground, including the clause that the ground could not be sold for development into housing. In 1980, the club's chairman Maurice Cadman announced that Layer Road was in need of £280,000 of basic safety improvement to meet legislation. Plans were drawn up to remove the Open End altogether and construct a 5,000 capacity stand at the Layer Road End and a new main stand on the Popular side. The plans never came to fruition, as further plans for a new stadium were rejected by the Council on the basis of the covenant. Following the Bradford City stadium fire and the Heysel Stadium disaster, Layer Road faced £500,000 worth of safety improvements. With the club struggling financially, sections of the ground were closed off, reducing capacity to 4,900.  Layer Road was sold back to Colchester Borough Council in the early 1990s for £1.2 million to help clear the club's debts, as Colchester United leased the stadium back. The council then started to identify and investigate potential sites for a new stadium. In the meantime, the club refreshed the stadium ahead of the 1996–97 season with the Clock End all-seated and covered. With the lease due to expire in 2002, Kirklees McAlpine were commissioned as consultants for a new stadium in 1998. A preferred site at Cuckoo Farm in Colchester was identified, with the additional benefit being that the land was already Council-owned.  Plans for a new stadium were submitted in April 1999, with planning consent approved in 2003. The Council backed the £14.23 million project by taking out a £10.23 million loan in November 2006, with the remaining £4 million supplied in the form of grants from the Football Foundation and local government and development agencies. Scottish firm Barr Construction were announced as contractors for the stadium, with work beginning in July 2007.

Colchester Community Stadium.

With building work neared completion, Colchester United announced the official name for the stadium would be the Colchester Community Stadium, but owing to a deal with building firm Weston Homes, the ground would initially be known as the Weston Homes Community Stadium. The ten-year sponsorship would be worth up to £2 million for the club and included shirt sponsorship for the 2008–09 season. Upon the expiry of the deal, JobServe won the naming rights for the stadium in a further ten-year sponsorship ahead of the 2018–19 season.  The club played their final match at Layer Road in front of 6,300 on 26 April 2008 as they fell to a 1–0 defeat to Stoke City.  Colchester United hosted the opening ramp-up event to Spanish club Athletic Bilbao on 4 August 2008. The first goal scored at the stadium came from Aritz Aduriz for Bilbao after 15 minutes, with Scott Vernon equalising with a penalty kick on 32 minutes. The game ended 2–1 to ten-man Bilbao with David López Moreno scoring a penalty on 83 minutes. The first competitive fixture at the Community Stadium came on 16 August 2008 when Colchester hosted Huddersfield Town in front of a crowd of 5,340. Mark Yeates scored the first competitive goal at the stadium in a 2–2 draw with Oldham Athletic on 30 August 2008 and registered their first win on 25 October 2008, winning emphatically against Carlisle United. They scored five goals from David Perkins, Dean Hammond, Akanni-Sunday Wasiu and two netted by Mark Yeates.  Colchester Community Stadium has a capacity of 10,105 and the record attendance at the ground was 10,064 when Colchester hosted Norwich City on 16 January 2010 as they fell to a 5–0 defeat.

Supporters and rivalries.

Colchester United has an official supporters association known as the CUSA. They were formed in 1995 and is run entirely by fans on a volunteer basis. The club produces its own match day programme, titled "We Are United", which replaced the former untitled official programmes from the beginning of the 2012–13 season. The club have also had a number of fanzine publications produced over the years, including "The U'sual", "Floodlight", "Out of The Blue" and "The Blue Eagle". The club mascot is an eagle named "Eddie the Eagle".  The 2003 Football Fans Census revealed that Colchester United fans considered Wycombe Wanderers to be their primary rival, with both Wycombe and Southend United considering the U's to be their primary rival. Colchester fans considered Ipswich Town to be their secondary rivals, with Southend only third. Cambridge United additionally considered Colchester to be their tertiary rivals. However, in the 2012–13 census, Colchester fans changed their chief rivals from Wycombe to Southend, with Wycombe falling to second and Ipswich to third. Ipswich Town fans also named Colchester United as their third rivals after Norwich City and West Ham United. The U's remained primary choice for both Southend and Wycombe fans. United were also ranked as the 12th least offensive club to the supporters of all other Football League clubs.  Colchester's main recent rivalry is with fellow Essex side Southend United, with whom they contest the Essex derby. The competitive head-to-head record is 31 wins to Southend, 25 wins for Colchester and 17 draws. The most recent result ended in a 3–0 defeat for the U's on 6 February 2016.  The club also contest the Pride of Anglia award, which they have won once when they finished in 10th position in the Championship ahead of East Anglian rivals Ipswich Town and Norwich City.

Records and statistics.

Micky Cook is the current Colchester United record holder for most appearances, holding the record for appearances made in both the league at 613, and in all competitions with 700 between 1969 and 1984. Mike Walker ranks in second with 524 appearances in all competitions, and Tony English third with 515. Tony Adcock holds the record for most goals in all competitions with 149, but Martyn King is the club's record league goalscorer with 132 goals.  Colchester United's widest margin victory in the league was a 9–1 win over Bradford City on 30 December 1961 at Layer Road. Their highest losing margin came on 15 December 1988 when they were thrashed 8–0 at Leyton Orient.  The club's record home attendance was for an FA Cup first round tie at Layer Road with Reading on 27 November 1948, when 19,072 fans turned up for a game that was abandoned after 35 minutes due to thick fog. The record Colchester Community Stadium attendance was 10,064 when Norwich City won 5–0 in a fiery match on 16 January 2010.  The highest transfer fee received for a Colchester United player is £2,500,000 for Greg Halford by Reading in January 2007. The highest fee paid by Colchester United for a player was £400,000 for Cheltenham Town striker Steven Gillespie in the summer of 2008.

Players.

Notable former players.

At the end of the 2006–07 season, Colchester United created a "Hall of Fame", with inducted players being one of "those who have made a difference to the club's history". Fans chose two inaugural players; Peter Wright and record appearance holder Micky Cook. Wright had previously been named as Colchester United's "Player of the Century" by Colchester's Gazette newspaper in 2000. A committee decided on a further three players to join the Hall of Fame in the same season, with Brian Hall, Mark Kinsella and Tony English chosen. New inductees have been announced most seasons since 2007, with the entire team that famously defeated Leeds United in the FA Cup in 1971 entered into the Hall of Fame. The manager of that team, Dick Graham was inducted as the first manager to the Hall of Fame in November 2007. The following list contains all those inducted into the Hall of Fame.  In addition to the Hall of Fame, which excludes players who are currently active, Lomana LuaLua was named as Colchester United's cult hero by fans in a poll by the BBC in 2004, with the Congolese international registering 39% of the overall vote. He narrowly pipped Mark Kinsella who garnered 38% of the vote, while influential player-manager Roy McDonough earned 23%.

Club officials.

Board members  Coaching staff

Honours.

Colchester United's honours include the following:  League One (level 3)  Fourth Division / Third Division (level 4)  Conference (level 5)  Southern Football League  Football League Trophy  FA Trophy  Watney Cup  Southern League Cup  Southern League Mid-Week Section  Essex Senior Cu

Colchester United Football Club is a professional association football club based in the town of Colchester, Essex, England. The team competes in, the fourth tier of the English football league system.

科尔切斯特联足球俱乐部(英语:Colchester United Football Club,)是位于英格兰东部埃塞克斯郡的科尔切斯特的职业足球会,在升级英格兰冠军联赛仅一季后,2007/08年球季后再降回英格兰甲级联赛作赛。


克里斯托尔湖 (伊利诺伊州)

History.

Founding.

The City of Crystal Lake traces its origin to two separate communities which were established in the 1800s. Those communities were generally known as Nunda and Crystal Lake. In 1835, Ziba S. Beardsley had come to the shores of the lake and commented that the "waters were as clear as crystal", thereby giving the lake its name. Ziba Beardsley continued south to Naperville. In February 1836, the first white settlers, Beman and Polly Crandall and six of their ten children, came from New York State traveling to Crystal Lake in a covered wagon. Their original cabin was built in the vicinity of today's intersection of Virginia Street and Van Buren Street. Four of the Crandall children were born there. Najah Beardsley's family was the second to settle in the area; his grandson, William Beardsley, was the first white child born on the Crystal Lake prairie, on May 7, 1837.  The town was first known as Crystal Ville. It was changed to Crystal Lake sometime before 1840. The area known today as downtown Crystal Lake was first called Dearborn and later, Nunda, from an area in New York where many settlers originated. The village of Dearborn was founded in the 1850s after an extension of railroads through the area. The first train station was built in 1856, although it was pre-fabricated and shipped from Chicago on a flatcar. At that time, the main business district for the village of Crystal Lake was located on Virginia Street, about one mile (1.6 km) southwest of the railroad station. The railroad served to connect both the people and industries of Crystal Lake and Dearborn to Chicago and the rest of the country. Dearborn grew quickly due to this new rail connection.  On October 7, 1868, Dearborn's name was changed to Nunda. The village was platted in 1868 by local surveyor, John Brink, after whom a downtown street is now named. The village included the area now generally bounded by Illinois Route 176 on the north, Crystal Lake Avenue on the south, Main Street on the east, and Walkup Avenue on the west. Much of the land was originally owned by two early settlers, Daniel Ellsworth and Simon S. Gates. The villages of Crystal Lake and Nunda were both incorporated in 1874. In 1908, the name of the village of Nunda changed its name to North Crystal Lake. Several attempts were made to consolidate the two villages, and finally, after much disagreement, the village of North Crystal Lake was annexed to the Village of Crystal Lake in 1914, and a consolidated city government was established.

Dole family.

Back in the 1860s, when the town of Crystal Lake was about 25 years old, Charles S. Dole purchased over of land overlooking the lake. It was his dream to construct an elaborate estate that would reflect his position as a successful businessman. He was an early member of the Chicago Board of Trade, being associated with Armour, Dole & Co. in Chicago. To carry out his plan, he built a three-story mansion with adjoining gardens and stables. European craftsmen were imported to lay parquet floors, fashion archways and carve interior wood work from black walnut trees grown on the property. As a final touch, he brought in Italian artisans to build several marble fireplaces. According to Mr. Dole's obituary, construction costs exceeded $100,000, an enormous amount of money in those days.  The estate was known as Lakeland Farm. Mr. Dole lived there with his wife Julia, his mother-in-law, Mrs. Harriet Coffin, his two daughters, Mary Florence, Harriet (Hattie), and son, Sydney. Dole maintained the estate for over 30 years, entertaining lavishly. As an example, for his daughter's wedding in 1883 he built a spur line from the Chicago and Northwestern railway tracks almost to his doorstep. A canopied and carpeted walkway extended from the front door to the train enabling the guests to walk to the mansion for the ceremony and return to the train without concern for the weather. Notable wedding guests included Julian Rumsey (mayor of Chicago and Dole's first cousin) and Levi Leiter (first partner with Marshall Field).  Mr. Dole's interests changed throughout the years. He laid out a half-mile racetrack on his property and purchased the finest horses that money could buy, soon accumulating a string of horses that was the envy of northern Illinois. It is said that Dole loved to go up in his tower (currently closed off) and watch his horses run. When tired of the fad of his stable, he disposed of his horses by holding an elaborate sale. The Doles lived in the mansion until the late 1890s when the property was sold to his son in law for $1.00.  During the early 1900s, the property was owned and operated by several different ice companies. Ice was harvested from Crystal Lake and shipped by rail to nearby Chicago. The advent of refrigeration brought about the decline of the ice business. After laying vacant for several years, the property was sold in 1922 to the Lake Development Company. Today the Dole Mansion is owned by the Lakeside Legacy, along with Lakeside center, which is the building connected to the Dole Mansion. Dole Mansion is located along the lake, and there is a festival held on the grounds every year.

Eliza Ringling.

Ringling Road is an east-west road which curves from Country Club Road back up to Lake Avenue. There are less than one dozen houses that claim a Ringling Road address; but those houses range from a small, stone cottage to large, imposing mansions. It is no mistake that Ringling Road provides the northern boundary for the Dole Mansion property. The road was named after Eliza "Lou" Ringling who, as founder of the Lake Development Company, purchased the Dole Mansion in 1922 and converted it into the first Crystal Lake Country Club. The transaction involved nearly a half million dollars and was one of the largest real estate deals handled in the area. The original Crystal Lake Country Club faltered in the stock market crash of 1929, and Mrs. Ringling, with her group of investors (the Lake Development Company) subdivided much of the large Dole estate into what is known as the Country Club Additions subdivision parts of which are in the neighboring village Lakewood, Illinois.  Eliza "Lou" Ringling was the widow of the oldest Ringling brother, Albert, of circus fame.

Teco pottery.

The American Terra Cotta Tile and Ceramic Company was founded in 1881 just north of Crystal Lake, Illinois. Most of the workers at the tile and ceramic works factory came from Crystal Lake, The production consisted of drain tile, brick and architectural items. In 1886 the Gates Pottery was established as a subsidiary with William D. Gates, a Crystal Lake area native as its president. The company fabricated architectural glazed terra cotta that was used on buildings designed by architects Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in the style of the Prairie School. American Terra Cotta's company records show that architectural glazed terra cotta was used on many local buildings including Oak Manufacturing Company, Teckler Building, Cohn Store, Telephone Exchange and Commercial Building, El-Tovar Theatre, Crystal Lake High School and additions, Central School and additions, Pure Oil Research Lab and additions, Sinclair Refining Company Service Station, Warner Building, Citizens State Bank, Garbe Garage, Home State Bank, various Williams Street stores and bakeries, and Martinetti's Motel.  Gates used the facilities to experiment with clays and glazes in an effort to design a line of art pottery which led to the introduction of Teco pottery (from TErra COtta, but pronounced locally as "Tea-co") in 1902. Many of the pottery pieces were designed by architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright Produced for only a few years, this pottery exemplifies the Arts and Crafts Movement and today is highly sought after by art collectors. Teco pottery is in the collection of many museums.

Recent history.

On April 11, 1965, during the Palm Sunday tornado outbreak, a large and devastating tornado damaged or destroyed large portions of the city. Six people were killed by the tornado, and a further 75 wounded. Damages in the city totaled over $1.5 million, as 80 homes and a shopping center were completely destroyed. Disaster shelters were set up to house the homeless, and then-governor of Illinois, Otto Kerner, Jr., personally visited the city to view the damage.  In the past 20 years, the history of Crystal Lake has consisted mainly of the growing of suburban subdivisions, as the population increased to 38,000 in the 2000 Census from 21,823 in the 1990 Census. In order to deal with the growth, Crystal Lake South High School was opened in 1978. Previously, Crystal Lake Community High School (now Crystal Lake Central High School) had served the entire city of Crystal Lake since 1924. Even more recently a third high school, Prairie Ridge High School, opened in 1997 north of the city to accommodate the spread moving into the area between Crystal Lake and the two communities directly to its north, Prairie Grove and Bull Valley.  Some challenges currently facing the city of Crystal Lake include a large and sudden increase in immigration, and an inconvenient road system leading to frequently snarled traffic. However, the overall quality of life and education in the city remains quite high. In addition, a robust city park system and continued revitalization of the downtown area, including a new city hall, have continued to make Crystal Lake an attractive community for new residents. Another positive note for the city is that Crystal Lake is the city where the tradition of giving gold coins to the Salvation Army anonymously began in 1982.  The Raue Center for the Arts, in the downtown district, has distinguished itself as a regional and national tourism draw. The National Piano Conference has been held in the Raue Center since 2012.  In 2015, Crystal Lake was ranked tenth best city among 1,268 U.S. cities with populations between 25,000 and 100,000 by WalletHub.  In 2016, it was reported that there were zero retail vacancies in the downtown district of Crystal Lake. This was the case until 2017.

Crystal Lake Park District.

The Crystal Lake Park District, a separate elected governing body not associated with the city, offers in excess of 40 parks (totaling over 2,000 acres) and recreation areas. Notable parks maintained by the Park District include the 140 acre Veteran Acres Park and Lippold Park, the largest single park in the district at 305 acres. Lippold Park has played host to the McHenry County Youth Sports Association Summer International 15-year-old Baseball Championships for the past 22 years, drawing teams from across the United States and Puerto Rico as well as from Japan, Brazil, and other countries. The Park District also owns and operates 2 beach parks located on the city namesake Crystal Lake and also maintains Illinois Nature Preserve land and the Col. Palmer House a historic landmark and home of the first settler in the area. Additionally, the district operates The Racket Club, an indoor/outdoor tennis facility that has 9 indoor courts. The facility is operated as an Enterprise Fund meaning that it is totally self-supporting with no tax dollars going towards it in any manner.

Geography.

According to the 2010 census, Crystal Lake has a total area of, of which (or 96.8%) is land and (or 3.2%) is water.

Neighborhoods.

As the largest city in McHenry County, Crystal Lake contains three high schools and has many separate neighborhoods.  Starting from the north of the city, the ten largest neighborhoods are easy to trace out. The first has no de facto name like the others, but is referred to as "by Prairie Ridge," referring to the nearby high school of the same name. Houses in this neighborhood are large and widely spaced. The entire area lies just to the north of the city, from the downtown area to the adjacent community of Bull Valley. Some of the communities include Deer Wood, Covered Bridge Trails and Walk-up Woods. Next is downtown Crystal Lake, which rings Crystal Lake Central High School. Houses here range greatly in size and age, and it is the most diverse neighborhood in the city. Directly south of downtown Crystal Lake is the Coventry neighborhood, named for the major through street Coventry Lane. Students in the Coventry neighborhood attend either Central High School of Crystal Lake or Crystal Lake South High School. Oral tradition holds that Coventry was originally populated by pilots who fly out of O'Hare Airport. The neighborhood Burtons Bridge is located at the north-eastern side of Crystal Lake.  To the southwest of downtown Crystal Lake is the sprawling Four Colonies neighborhood, which covers nearly. Students from Four Colonies attend both Central and South High School. South of Four Colonies is The Villages neighborhood, which is named for its major thoroughfare, Village Road. An important feature of The Villages is Indian Prairie Elementary School, which is built on a large and steep series of hills that is a favorite sledding location during the snowy months. The residents attend South High School. A neighborhood Northeast of Four Colonies is Wedgewood. Wedgewood includes five ponds, and a forest that backs up to Huntley Road, with a paved walking path. Wedgewood has five brick entrance signs saying "Wedgewood", and 3 prominent entrances; the front entrance on Huntley Road's intersection with Lakeview Drive, the back entrance on Huntley Road's intersection with Boneset Drive, and the side entrance on Country Club Road. Wedgewood consists of single family homes and multi-family dwellings such as townhouses. Wedgewood Drive circles the whole neighborhood, and is a 11⁄2-mile circle.  Other neighborhoods in Crystal Lake ring the town's namesake lake, and are called West End, North Shore, and the Vista. These neighborhoods consist of many older homes built on the lake shore, and vary greatly in size and style. Effectively a neighborhood and occupying the entire south shore of the lake is the independent Village of Lakewood, historically a restricted community connected strongly to the Crystal Lake Country Club alongside it.  There are also numerous smaller subdivisions found in various spots around the city.

Climate.

The city's climate is much like that of its large neighboring city, Chicago. The city experiences hot summers and cold winters, with temperatures slightly more extreme than those of closer suburbs, because rural land still surrounds the city. Due to the lack of the urban heat island effect, Crystal Lake experiences colder nights and lower precipitation than recorded at Chicago. High temperatures are usually comparable to those in Chicago, with only a few degrees difference on most days.  The hottest month of the year is July, when the average high temperature is approximately. Temperatures in July, and in summer in general, can frequently exceed, and occasionally exceed, although this does not happen each year. The coldest month of the year is January, where the average high temperature is. Overnight low temperatures are usually around. In winter, the low temperatures fall below on many (often as many as fifteen or twenty) occasions per year. Extremely cold nights may record temperatures as low as or lower, but this is rare and does not happen each year.  The wettest month of the year is August, when thunderstorms contribute brief, heavy downpours of rain. July is the second-wettest month of the year, also mainly due to thunderstorms. However, long dry spells can also occur at this time of year, sometimes lasting weeks. The two driest months of the year are January and February, where almost all of the precipitation falls as snow. In a typical year, total precipitation is with a winter snowfall total of. Large snowstorms, although rare, do occur and can accumulate large amounts of snow. In many years, at least one storm will deliver of snow in one day. Most snow-bearing systems are Alberta clippers, while the more infrequent heavy snows are caused by Panhandle hooks.

Government.

"See the full article, List of mayors of Crystal Lake, Illinois"

Mayor.

Haig Haleblian (acting)

City council.

The city council consists of Ellen Brady Mueller, Cathy A. Ferguson, Cameron Hubbard, Brett Hopkins, and Haig Haleblian.

City clerk.

Nick Kachiroubas is the City Clerk in Crystal Lake.

Demographics.

As of the 2010 Census, there were 40,743 people, 14,421 households, and 10,551 families living in the city. The population density was 2,220/sq mi (857/km2). There were 15,176 total housing units and 22% of all housing units were in multi-unit structures. The racial makeup of the city was 90.2% White, 1.0% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 2.5% Asian, <0.01% Pacific Islander, 4.1% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11.7% of the population.  39.2% of the households included children under 18, 58.9% were married couples living together, 10.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.8% were non-families. 22.1% of all households were made up of individuals living alone and 20.3% had someone at least 65 years old living alone. The average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.31.  In the city, the population was spread out with 28.1% under the age of 18, 8.% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 27.7% from 45 to 64, and 10.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.6 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $78,311, and the median income for a family was $91,870. Males had a median income of $61,982 versus $44,288 for females. The median income for the city was $36,405. About 5.2% of families and 6.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.1% of those under age 18 and 5.3% of those age 65 or over.  In 1990, the population of Latinos (Hispanics) was at 0.1%. Per the 2000 US Census, the Latino population increased to 7% and per the 2010 US Census, the Latino population is now 11.7%.

Culture and sites of interest.

Crystal Lake, as a city, is large enough to entertain its cultural institutions. However, it also shares many cultural opportunities with the city of Chicago, and the other large communities which surround it, as they are easily accessible from Crystal Lake, and vice versa. The city is home to the "Northwest Herald", the only daily newspaper published in McHenry County. The newspaper deals mainly with local issues, but also carries national and world news. Churches are also a large influence within the city, hosting many annual events. Crystal Lake is also home to WZSR Star 105.5, owned by Alpha Media, which broadcasts throughout the northwest suburbs and Fox Valley.  Another large presence in the city is the Crystal Lake Park District, which runs all of the city's numerous parks and the yearly events which take place within them. Two major parks run by the park district are Veterans Acres, along Walkup Road, and Main Beach, along with the namesake Crystal Lake. Crystal Lake is open whenever the weather is accommodating. However, boating is often restricted due to disputes with both the homeowners on the lake and the village of Lakewood, in which approximately 30% of the lake lies. The Crystal Lake Rowing Club has a boathouse in Kamijima Park, on the west end of Crystal Lake, and rows on the lake during the no-wake hours (usually early mornings and early evenings). In Crystal Lake lies the famed Dole mansion, where visitors can take tours for a small donation.  Among the city's sites of interest is the historic downtown district. The downtown district, which recently has undergone a revitalization, is home to many small specialty shops and businesses, and is a local shopping district. Also located in the downtown district is the Raue Center for the Arts, which seats 750 and performs plays and hosts concerts throughout the year. Raue Center has recently transformed itself into a regional destination spot by providing an in house professional theater company, Williams Street Repertory, Jazz Festival launched by Ramsey Lewis and hosting several recent Tony, Grammy, and Academy award winners. The Raue Center has received 4 MacArthur Grants as well as regularly receives National Endowment for the Arts support. The city is also home to the Crystal Lake Strikers, Crystal Lake Community Band, McHenry County Music Center and Voices in Harmony (formerly, The Crystal Lake Community Choir).  The Col. Gustavus A. Palmer House is a historic residence in Crystal Lake, being constructed in 1858.

Economy.

The economy of Crystal Lake is fairly decentralized, as there is no central industry within the city. There are several large companies, but none of them is a majority employer. The main economic activities in the city are retail, dining, and light industry. This includes small, specialized, local-owned shops and restaurants as well as broader-ranged national chains. There are several industrial parks in Crystal Lake, which are full of small, independently-owned businesses which engage in various industries, such as landscaping or automotive repair.  The shopping center for most of Crystal Lake centers on "the strip", a long stretch of road that runs along what once used to be Crystal Pointe Mall but is now a series of strip malls. The strip is located on Route 14 between Route 31 and Dole Avenue. As the name suggests, this area has mostly national chains. Another shopping area is the downtown district, which is where some, small independent stores are located. Because of parking challenges in the downtown area, many thriving independent businesses can be found in convenient areas throughout the city where access for their customers is more centralized and parking is more abundant.  If any particular industry could be called prevalent, the city of Crystal Lake has several car dealerships, and the south side of the city features several gravel quarries.  The majority of these quarries are already exhausted, and have been allowed to fill with water, forming an area known as the Vulcan Lakes, also stretching into Lake in the Hills and Algonquin. The two northernmost lakes are now known as Three Oaks Recreation Area. Recreational operations at this site started in Autumn, 2010, and it has since become one of the most popular destinations in Crystal Lake.  An approval for a hospital for Crystal Lake was given by the board in Springfield, but has since met opposition. Illinois State law forbids the construction of new hospitals with less than 100 beds. The proposed Crystal Lake Hospital would hold 80-95 beds and be run by a Wisconsin corporation. Opposition from hospitals in Lake Barrington, Woodstock, McHenry, and Elgin were immediately voiced and it remains to be seen just when the hospital will be built.

Education.

The city of Crystal Lake high schools are in a different school district than the middle schools and elementary schools. High schools in the city are run by Community High School District 155, which runs four high schools, including all three in the city of Crystal Lake. Crystal Lake Community Consolidated School District 47 runs all middle schools and elementary schools in the city of Crystal Lake. Prairie Grove Consolidated School District #46 also serves a portion of northeast Crystal Lake.  There are five high schools which serve the city of Crystal Lake. The oldest, Crystal Lake Central High School (Central for short), graduated its first class in 1924 and was known as Crystal Lake Community High School when it opened. It is located in the downtown area of the city, and has an enrollment of approximately 1600. This school serves Crystal Lake and Lakewood, as well as the far west side of Huntley and southwestern Woodstock. In response to pressures from increasing population, Crystal Lake South High School (South for short), was opened in 1978. When it was completed, the school was ridiculed for being remotely located and surrounded by corn fields. It now stands boxed in by suburban development. Prairie Ridge High School (often simply called PR) opened in the fall of 1997, again due to increasing population pressure. The school stands on a hill off to the north of the city. The school serves mostly students who live in the 60012 and northern/eastern 60014 ZIP code areas of Crystal Lake, as well as Prairie Grove, Ridgefield, Oakwood Hills, and Burtons Bridge. They also serve some students who live in Cary, Woodstock, McHenry and Bull Valley. A very small portion of far-eastern Crystal Lake is served by Cary-Grove High School, which opened in 1961. It's located all the way in Cary, Illinois, and has an enrollment of approximately 1795. Students who live on the far east side of Crystal Lake attend Cary-Grove. The school also serves Cary, Fox River Grove, Barrington, Trout Valley, and Oakwood Hills as well. Lastly for public schools a very small portion of western Crystal Lake is served by Woodstock High School. Also located in Crystal Lake is Faith Lutheran High School which serves the larger McHenry County area.  Crystal Lake is home to ten elementary schools and three high schools. Three of the elementary schools have been constructed since 1990 due to the increasing expansion of suburban developments. The names of the ten elementary schools include:  There are four middle schools in Crystal Lake:  Additional schools serving Crystal Lake include Lord and Savior Lutheran School, a Pre-K-8 grade school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Crystal Lake, St. Thomas the Apostle, a private Roman Catholic school that serves Pre-K through eighth grade, also in Crystal Lake, Immanuel Lutheran School, a private Lutheran school that serves Pre-K through eighth grade, also in Crystal Lake, Alexander Leigh Center for Autism in McHenry, a full day, year-round therapeutic day school for children 3–21 years old with autism spectrum disorder, OHI, multiple disabilities, developmental delay and/or intellectual disabilities, and the School of Expressive Arts & Learning campus in Woodstock for those with learning disorders and autism spectrum disorder.  Additionally, there are two colleges in Crystal Lake: McHenry County College, a community college, offers associate degrees. Columbia College also has an extension campus based in Crystal Lake.

Public transportation.

Crystal Lake, Illinois, located northwest of Chicago, is about a 45-minute drive from O'Hare International Airport, and near several major highways and interstates. The Metra Rail Union Pacific Northwest Line provides transportation to and from Chicago, and all other stations on Metra's Northwest Line. Taxi service in Crystal Lake is provided by the Crystal Lake Cab Company, Crystal Lake Taxi Services, and American Dependable. Also serving Crystal Lake is the Pace Bus system, which is the owned by the RTA (Regional Transit Authority).

Crystal Lake is a city in McHenry County in the U.S. state of Illinois. Named after a lake southwest of the city's downtown, Crystal Lake is 45 miles northwest of Chicago. The population was estimated at 39,829 in July 2019, a 2.3% decrease from 2010. Crystal Lake is the largest city in McHenry County, part of the Chicago metropolitan area.

克里斯托尔湖(英语:Crystal Lake)是一个位于美国伊利诺伊州麦克亨利县的城市。


History.

The "Gaia" space telescope has its roots in ESA's Hipparcos mission (1989–1993). Its mission was proposed in October 1993 by Lennart Lindegren (Lund Observatory, Lund University, Sweden) and Michael Perryman (ESA) in response to a call for proposals for ESA's Horizon Plus long-term scientific programme. It was adopted by ESA's Science Programme Committee as cornerstone mission number 6 on 13 October 2000, and the B2 phase of the project was authorised on 9 February 2006, with EADS Astrium taking responsibility for the hardware. The name "Gaia" was originally derived as an acronym for Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics. This reflected the optical technique of interferometry that was originally planned for use on the spacecraft. While the working method evolved during studies and the acronym is no longer applicable, the name "Gaia" remained to provide continuity with the project.  The total cost of the mission is around €740 million (~ $1 billion), including the manufacture, launch and ground operations. "Gaia" was completed two years behind schedule and 16% above its initial budget, mostly due to the difficulties encountered in polishing "Gaia" ten mirrors and assembling and testing the focal plane camera system.

Objectives.

The "Gaia" space mission has the following objectives:  In order to achieve these objectives, "Gaia" has these goals:

Spacecraft.

"Gaia" was launched by Arianespace, using a Soyuz ST-B rocket with a Fregat-MT upper stage, from the "Ensemble de Lancement Soyouz" at Kourou in French Guiana on 19 December 2013 at 09:12 UTC (06:12 local time). The satellite separated from the rocket's upper stage 43 minutes after launch at 09:54 UTC. The craft headed towards the Sun–Earth Lagrange point L2 located approximately 1.5 million kilometres from Earth, arriving there 8 January 2014. The L2 point provides the spacecraft with a very stable gravitational and thermal environment. There it uses a Lissajous orbit that avoids blockage of the Sun by the Earth, which would limit the amount of solar energy the satellite could produce through its solar panels, as well as disturb the spacecraft's thermal equilibrium. After launch, a 10-metre-diameter sunshade was deployed. The sunshade always faces the Sun, thus keeping all telescope components cool and powering "Gaia" using solar panels on its surface.

Scientific instruments.

The "Gaia" payload consists of three main instruments:  In order to maintain the fine pointing to focus on stars many light years away, there are almost no moving parts. The spacecraft subsystems are mounted on a rigid silicon carbide frame, which provides a stable structure that will not expand or contract due to heat. Attitude control is provided by small cold gas thrusters that can output 1.5 micrograms of nitrogen per second.  The telemetric link with the satellite is about 3 Mbit/s on average, while the total content of the focal plane represents several Gbit/s. Therefore, only a few dozen pixels around each object can be downlinked.

Measurement principles.

Similar to its predecessor "Hipparcos", but with a precision one hundred times better, "Gaia" consists of two telescopes providing two observing directions with a fixed, wide angle of 106.5° between them. The spacecraft rotates continuously around an axis perpendicular to the two telescopes' lines of sight. The spin axis in turn has a slight precession across the sky, while maintaining the same angle to the Sun. By precisely measuring the relative positions of objects from both observing directions, a rigid system of reference is obtained.  The two key telescope properties are: Each celestial object will be observed on average about 70 times during the mission, which is expected to last five years. These measurements will help determine the astrometric parameters of stars: two corresponding to the angular position of a given star on the sky, two for the derivatives of the star's position over time (motion) and lastly, the star's parallax from which distance can be calculated. The radial velocity of the brighter stars is measured by an integrated spectrometer observing the Doppler effect. Because of the physical constraints imposed by the Soyuz spacecraft, "Gaia" focal arrays could not be equipped with optimal radiation shielding, and ESA expects their performance to suffer somewhat toward the end of the five-year mission. Ground tests of the CCDs while they were subjected to radiation provided reassurance that the primary mission's objectives can be met.  The expected accuracies of the final catalogue data have been calculated following in-orbit testing, taking into account the issues of stray light, degradation of the optics, and the basic angle instability. The best accuracies for parallax, position, and proper motion are obtained for the brighter observed stars, apparent magnitudes 3–12. The standard deviation for these stars is expected to be 6.7 micro-arc seconds or better. For fainter stars, error levels increase, reaching 26.6 micro-arc seconds error in the parallax for 15th magnitude stars, and several hundred micro-arc seconds for 20th magnitude stars. For comparison, the best parallax error levels from the new Hipparcos reduction are no better than 100 micro-arc seconds, with typical levels several times larger.

Data processing.

The overall data volume that will be retrieved from the spacecraft during the nominal five-year mission at a compressed data rate of 1 Mbit/s is approximately 60 TB, amounting to about 200 TB of usable uncompressed data on the ground, stored in an InterSystems Caché database. The responsibility of the data processing, partly funded by ESA, is entrusted to a European consortium, the Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC), which was selected after its proposal to the ESA Announcement of Opportunity released in November 2006. DPAC's funding is provided by the participating countries and has been secured until the production of "Gaia" final catalogue scheduled for 2020.  "Gaia" sends back data for about eight hours every day at about 5 Mbit/s. ESA's three 35-metre-diameter radio dishes of the ESTRACK network in Cebreros, Spain, Malargüe, Argentina and New Norcia, Australia, receive the data.

Launch and orbit.

In October 2013 ESA had to postpone "Gaia" original launch date, due to a precautionary replacement of two of "Gaia" transponders. These are used to generate timing signals for the downlink of science data. A problem with an identical transponder on a satellite already in orbit motivated their replacement and reverification once incorporated into "Gaia". The rescheduled launch window was from 17 December 2013 to 5 January 2014, with "Gaia" slated for launch on 19 December.  "Gaia" was successfully launched on 19 December 2013 at 09:12 UTC. About three weeks after launch, on 8 January 2014, it reached its designated orbit around the Sun-Earth L2 Lagrange point (SEL2), about 1.5 million kilometers from Earth.  In 2015, the Pan-STARRS observatory discovered an object orbiting the Earth, which the Minor Planet Center catalogued as object. It was soon found to be an accidental rediscovery of the Gaia spacecraft and the designation was promptly retracted.

Stray light problem.

Shortly after launch, ESA revealed that "Gaia" was suffering from a stray light problem. The problem was initially thought to be due to ice deposits causing some of the light diffracted around the edges of the sunshield and entering the telescope apertures to be reflected towards the focal plane. The actual source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield. This results in a "degradation in science performance [which] will be relatively modest and mostly restricted to the faintest of "Gaia" one billion stars." Mitigation schemes are being implemented to improve performance. The degradation is more severe for the RVS spectrograph than for the astrometry measurements.  This kind of problem has a historical background. In 1985 on STS-51-F, the Space Shuttle Spacelab-2 mission, another astronomical mission hampered by stray debris was the Infrared Telescope (IRT), in which a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated into the line-of-sight of the telescope causing corrupted data. The testing of stray-light and baffles is a noted part of space imaging instruments.

Mission progress.

The testing and calibration phase, which started while "Gaia" was en route to SEL2 point, continued until the end of July 2014, three months behind schedule due to unforeseen issues with stray light entering the detector. After the six-month commissioning period, the satellite started its nominal five-year period of scientific operations on 25 July 2014 using a special scanning mode that intensively scanned the region near the ecliptic poles; on 21 August 2014 "Gaia" began using its normal scanning mode which provides more uniform coverage.  Although it was originally planned to limit "Gaia"s observations to stars fainter than magnitude 5.7, tests carried out during the commissioning phase indicated that "Gaia" could autonomously identify stars as bright as magnitude 3. When "Gaia" entered regular scientific operations in July 2014, it was configured to routinely process stars in the magnitude range 3 – 20. Beyond that limit, special procedures are used to download raw scanning data for the remaining 230 stars brighter than magnitude 3; methods to reduce and analyse these data are being developed; and it is expected that there will be "complete sky coverage at the bright end" with standard errors of "a few dozen μas".  In 2018 the "Gaia" mission was extended to 2020, with an additional "indicative extension" extending for another two years until 2022. The limiting factor to further mission extensions is the supply of fuel for the micro-propulsion system, which is expected to last until November 2024.  On 12 September 2014, "Gaia" discovered its first supernova in another galaxy. On 3 July 2015, a map of the Milky Way by star density was released, based on data from the spacecraft. As of August 2016, "more than 50 billion focal plane transits, 110 billion photometric observations and 9.4 billion spectroscopic observations have been successfully processed."

Data releases.

The Gaia catalogue is released in stages that will contain increasing amounts of information; the early releases also miss some stars, especially fainter stars located in dense star fields and members of close binary pairs. The first data release, Gaia DR1, based on 14 months of observations made through September 2015, took place on 14 September 2016 and is described in a series of articles published in "Astronomy and Astrophysics". The data release includes "positions and... magnitudes for 1.1 billion stars using only "Gaia" data; positions, parallaxes and proper motions for more than 2 million stars" based on a combination of "Gaia" and Tycho-2 data for those objects in both catalogues; "light curves and characteristics for about 3000 variable stars; and positions and magnitudes for more than 2000... extragalactic sources used to define the celestial reference frame". Data from this DR1 release can be accessed at the "Gaia" archive, as well as through astronomical data centers such as CDS.  The second data release (DR2), which occurred on 25 April 2018, is based on 22 months of observations made between 25 July 2014 and 23 May 2016. It includes positions, parallaxes and proper motions for about 1.3 billion stars and positions of an additional 300 million stars in the magnitude range g = 3–20, red and blue photometric data for about 1.1 billion stars and single colour photometry for an additional 400 million stars, and median radial velocities for about 7 million stars between magnitude 4 and 13. It also contains data for over 14,000 selected Solar System objects. The coordinates in DR2 use the "Gaia" celestial reference frame ("Gaia"–CRF2), which is based on observations of 492,006 sources believed to be quasars, and which has been tied to the International Celestial Reference System. Comparison of "Gaia"–CRF2 with a preliminary version of the forthcoming ICRF3 shows a global agreement of 20 to 30 μas, although individual sources may differ by several mas. Since the data processing procedure links individual Gaia observations with particular sources on the sky, in some cases the association of observations with sources will be different in the second data release. Consequently, DR2 uses different source identification numbers than DR1. A number of issues have been identified with the DR2 data, including small systematic errors in astrometry and significant contamination of radial velocity values in crowded star fields, which may affect some one percent of the radial velocity values. Ongoing work should resolve these issues in future releases. A guide for researchers using Gaia DR2, which collected "all information, tips and tricks, pitfalls, caveats, and recommendations relevant to" DR2, was prepared by the Gaia Helpdesk in December 2019.  Due to uncertainties in the data pipeline, the third data release, which will be based on 34 months of observations, has been split into two parts so that data that is ready first, will be released first. The first part, EDR3, consisting of improved positions, parallaxes and proper motions, was originally scheduled for the third quarter of 2020; DR3, originally scheduled for the second half of 2021, will include the EDR3 data plus Solar System data; variability information; results for non-single stars, for quasars, and for extended objects; astrophysical parameters; and a special data set, the Gaia Andromeda Photometric Survey (GAPS), providing a photometric time series for about 1 million sources located in a 5.5 degree radius field centered on the Andromeda galaxy. Most measurements in DR3 are expected to be 1.2 times more precise than DR2; proper motions will be 1.9 times more precise. The release dates of EDR3 and DR3 have been further delayed by the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium; a new release schedule will be issued once the overall situation is clarified.  The full data release for the five-year nominal mission, DR4, will include full astrometric, photometric, and radial-velocity catalogues, variable-star and non-single-star solutions, source classifications plus multiple astrophysical parameters for stars, unresolved binaries, galaxies, and quasars, an exo-planet list and epoch and transit data for all sources. Additional release(s) will take place depending on mission extensions. Most measurements in DR4 are expected to be 1.7 times more precise than DR2; proper motions will be 4.5 times more precise.  Assuming an additional five-year extension until 2024, most measurements incorporating the full ten years of data will be 1.4 times more precise than DR4, while proper motions will be 2.8 times more precise than DR4.  An outreach application, "Gaia Sky", has been developed to explore the galaxy in three dimensions using "Gaia" data.

Significant results.

In November 2017, scientists led by Davide Massari of the Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, Netherlands released a paper describing the characterization of proper motion (3D) within the Sculptor dwarf galaxy, and of that galaxy's trajectory through space and with respect to the Milky Way, using data from "Gaia" and the Hubble Space Telescope. Massari said, “With the precision achieved we can measure the yearly motion of a star on the sky which corresponds to less than the size of a pinhead on the Moon as seen from Earth.” The data showed that Sculptor orbits the Milky Way in a highly elliptical orbit; it is currently near its closest approach at a distance of about, but the orbit can take it out to around distant.  In October 2018, Leiden University astronomers were able to determine the orbits of 20 hypervelocity stars from the DR2 dataset. Expecting to find a single star exiting the Milky Way, they instead found seven. More surprisingly, the team found that 13 hypervelocity stars were instead approaching the Milky Way, possibly originating from as-of-yet unknown extragalactic sources. Alternatively, they could be halo stars to this galaxy, and further spectroscopic studies will help determine which scenario is more likely. Independent measurements have demonstrated that the greatest "Gaia" radial velocity among the hypervelocity stars is contaminated by light from nearby bright stars in a crowded field and cast doubt on the high "Gaia" radial velocities of other hypervelocity stars.  In November 2018, the galaxy Antlia 2 was discovered. It is similar in size to the Large Magellanic Cloud, despite being 10,000 times fainter. Antlia 2 has the lowest surface brightness of any galaxy discovered.  In December 2019 the star cluster Price-Whelan 1 was discovered. The cluster belongs to the Magellanic Clouds and is located in the leading arm of these Dwarf Galaxies. The discovery suggests that the stream of gas extending from the Magellanic Clouds to the Milky Way is about half as far from the Milky Way as previously thought.  The Radcliffe wave was discovered in data measured by Gaia, published in January 2020.

GaiaNIR.

GaiaNIR (Gaia Near Infra-Red) is a proposed successor of Gaia in the Near Infra-Red. The mission could enlarge the current catalog with sources that are only visible in the Near Infra-Red and at the same time improving the star parallax and proper motion accuracy by revisiting the sources of the Gaia catalog.  One of the main challenges in building GaiaNIR is the development of near-infrared time delay and integration detectors. Current TDI technology used for the Gaia spacecraft is only available in visible light and not in near-infrared. Alternatively a de-spin mirror and conventional near-infrared detectors could be developed. This technological challenge will likely increase the cost over an ESA M-class mission and might need shared cost with other space agencies. One possible partnership with US institutions was proposed.

Gaia is a space observatory of the European Space Agency (ESA), launched in 2013 and expected to operate until 2022. The spacecraft is designed for astrometry: measuring the positions, distances and motions of stars with unprecedented precision. The mission aims to construct by far the largest and most precise 3D space catalog ever made, totalling approximately 1 billion astronomical objects, mainly stars, but also planets, comets, asteroids and quasars among others.

盖亚任务(Gaia)是欧洲太空总署的太空望远镜。该任务的目的是要绘制一个包含约10亿颗或银河系1%恒星的三维星图。作为依巴谷卫星的后继任务,盖亚任务是欧洲太空总署在2000年以后的远期科学任务。盖亚任务在约5年的任务中将可观测到视星等最暗为20等的天体。它的目标包含:


History.

Shirak was founded in Gyumri in 1958, when Armenia was still a part of the Soviet Union. The club was originally named "Shirak Leninakan," the latter being the name for Gyumri during the Soviet Union. From its creation to the fall of the Soviet Union, Shirak played all its matches in the Soviet third division First League.  Following the fall of the Soviet Union and the renaming of Leninakan, Shirak changed its name to "Shirak Kumayri," and was placed in the Armenian Premier League with head coach Andranik Adamyan in charge.  1992 was the first Armenian Premier League season played in history, which ended with Shirak and Pyunik tied at the top with 37 points each. After failing to agree on a tie-breaking match, it was decided to award the title to both teams. Thus, Shirak managed to win the league in the first domestic league in Armenian history.  Shirak once again changed its name in late 1992 after the name Kumayri was changed for "Gyumri." Therefore 1993 was the first appearance as "Shirak Gyumri" in the Armenian Premier League. After finishing second in the 1993 league season, Shirak qualified to the Armenian Cup final for the first time, yet failed to claim the title after losing 3-1 to Ararat.  Shirak went on to win the 1994 and 1995 seasons, however was not given the 1995 title due to it being a transitional spring season.  The next four seasons were not successful for the club, however Shirak managed to claim the league title again in 1999, with striker Arayik Adamyan scoring 16 goals. The league title would end up being the last title Shirak would win until the 2011-12 Armenian Cup.  Shirak would eventually go on to win the 2012-13 Armenian Premier League and the 2016-17 Armenian Cup final.

Kit and badge.

For most of the club's history, the team's colours were orange and black, inspired on the dominant colours present in Gyumri's architecture, specifically the Holy Saviour's Church, located in the city.  As of 2019, Shirak has reached an agreement with Swiss sportswear company Fourteen to provide all match and training apparel.

Badge.

The club's current badge design was inspired by Gyumri's seal, with the main feature being the lion and cross which were present on the flag of the Bagratuni dynasty, which ruled Bagratid Armenia during the middle ages.

Stadium.

Shirak's home stadium has always been the Gyumri City Stadium, built in 1924 and currently the oldest football stadium in the country. Following renovation works in 1999, the stadium became an all-seater stadium with a capacity for 2,844. The stadium pitch and facilities were upgraded in 2012 to meet all UEFA stadium regulations, allowing Shirak to play its UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League qualifying matches at home.  The stadium capacity was once again increased, this time to the current 4,500 capacity following a second round of renovations in 2019. These renovations included new seating in the south end of the stadium.

Supporters.

Shirak's fans are known as the Black Panthers, in honor of the panther that appears on the flag of the Bagratid dynasty. Shirak's supporters are also considered to be one of the best in Armenian football, with high match attendance and active supporters during matches. Supporters have rioted against club management when the club failed to reach desired results in the past.

Rivalries.

Shirak's main rival is considered to be Gandzasar. This rivalry grew as both teams were the only teams in the league that weren't from Yerevan, and thus competed to be the best team from the provinces.

Institutional.

Executive board.

Arman Sahakyan has been the President of Shirak since he purchased the club in 2010.

Other sports sections.

Football reserves and academy.

Shirak's youth academy has produced several notable players throughout its history. Artur Petrosyan is the most prominent academy product, having a successful career in Armenia and European football.  Shirak's reserves compete in the Armenian First League, the second division in Armenian football. The reserves are currently coached by Tigran Davtyan and also play their matches at the Gyumri City Stadium.

Futsal.

On 8 September 2017, prior to the beginning of the 2017-18 Armenian Futsal Premier League season, Shirak Sports Club took over the "Gyumri Futsal" club, who were a founding member of the domestic futsal championship in Armenia which began in 1998. As a result, the futsal team was re-branded as Shirak SC Futsal.

Basketball.

On 19 September 2017, Shirak announced the creation of a basketball team that would compete in the newly created Armenia Basketball League A.

Shirak Gyumri Sports Club (), commonly known as Shirak is an Armenian professional sports club based in Gyumri. Shirak is known for its professional football team which is one of the oldest football clubs in Armenia, having been created in 1958. The club is the only team that participated in all seasons of the Armenian Premier League. since its creation in 1992. Shirak is one of the more successful clubs in Armenia, having won a total of 11 domestic titles including four Armenian Premier League titles, two Armenian Cup, and five Armenian Super Cup.

舒拉克体育会(),亚美尼亚赫拉克省第二大城市久姆里的一个足球俱乐部。


History.

The airline was established on 10 February 1986 by Captain Arngrimur Johannsson and his wife, Thora Gudmundsdottir. It started operations in 1986. Its first contract came when Caribbean Airways wet-leased a Boeing 707-320 from them for its London to Barbados flights. In 1988, the airline leased planes for Air Afrique to be used during the Hajj pilgrimage trips. This would become an important part of the structure of Air Atlanta Icelandic later on. Sudan Airways and Lufthansa were among the other airlines that benefited from leasing passenger airplanes from Air Atlanta Icelandic during the late 1980s, as well as Finnair, which leased a Boeing 737 from the Icelandic company.  It was in 1991 that Air Atlanta Icelandic was able to take passengers to the sky with its own airline operation. Its first flight was with a Lockheed L-1011-500 plane. Later in 1992, Air Atlanta Icelandic participated in the United Nations peacekeepers airlifting, flying the UN representatives from former Yugoslavia to Nigeria and France.  In 1993, the Boeing 747 arrived, and Saudia became one of the first airlines to lease that plane from Air Atlanta Icelandic, also for Hajj flights. After signing a contract with Samvinn Travel, Air Atlanta Icelandic began operating domestic charter flights as well. Later in 1993, a flight from Phnom Penh to Bangkok was launched using a Boeing 737-200.  By 1994, Air Atlanta Icelandic had obtained rights to operate service from many other countries, including the United States, from where it had a flight to Colombia; and the Philippines, from where it was allowed to operate domestic charter flights. About that time, it began to offer flights within Europe and began service to Portugal.  In 1996, a couple rented an Air Atlanta Icelandic Lockheed L-1011-500 to have a sky-wedding. The couple and its wedding guests were treated to a flight over the Arctic Circle, while the wedding was performed inside of the jet.  1997 saw the arrival of contracts with airlines such as Britannia Airways and Iberia, which would use an Air Atlanta Icelandic plane for its routes from Barajas International Airport in Madrid to José Martí International Airport in Havana and to other points in the Caribbean. That year also saw the arrival of the airline's first Boeing 747SP plane, which would later be utilized by government officials, sports teams, The Rolling Stones, and others.  In 1998, Air Atlanta Icelandic leased planes for British Airways. In 1999, Magnus G. Thorstenn was named the company's new CEO. The airline became a fully wide bodied airplane airline in 1999 when it sold the last of its Boeing 737s. In 2000, Air India joined the growing list of airlines that have leased airplanes from Air Atlanta Icelandic airlines.  In 2003, Air Atlanta Icelandic expanded into the United Kingdom with its subsidiary, Air Atlanta Europe, which operated Boeing 747s ad-hoc, charter and for the Florida tour operator, Travel City Direct.  In March 2004, the company acquired a 40.5% stake in the UK charter airline Excel Airways. That stake later increased to 76.9%. In January 2005, the Avion Group was formed, and Air Atlanta Icelandic and Islandsflug merged under the Air Atlanta Icelandic brand name.  In 2005, the Avion Group acquired Eimskip, a leading Icelandic sea transportation company, and Travel City Direct, a UK holiday company. In 2006, the Avion Group announced the purchase of the entire issued share capital of French charter airline Star Airlines, the second largest charter airline in the French market. Star Airlines operated charter flights mainly to destinations in Africa, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean, in addition to regular services to Lebanon, Male, and cities in Mexico.  In June 2006, Air Atlanta Icelandic wet-leased one Boeing 747-200 to Yangtze River Express to operate cargo freight between Shanghai - Anchorage - Los Angeles.  In October 2006, the Avion Group changed its name to HF Eimskipafélag Íslands, and at the same time sold UK Leisure Group Excel as well as 51% of Avion Aircraft Trading. A decision was also made to merge both Excel Airways and Air Atlanta Europe into one airline. This was completed by October 2006.  In mid-2007, the airline decided to shift its focus to Air Cargo operations. The airline planned to move to cargo aircraft and laid off most of its passenger aircraft aircrew. Today, the company focuses on both passenger aircraft and cargo aircraft.  Britflights cancelled plans to operate aircraft from Air Atlanta Icelandic from the UK to Canada from June 2011, citing fuel uncertainties.  Air Atlanta Icelandic operated two Boeing 747-400s for National Airlines (N8) in the year 2011. One flew cargo charter flights and the other one was wet-leased to Cargolux for a period of time.  In December 2015, three former Air Atlanta Icelandic Boeing 747 registered TF-ARH, TF-ARM and TF-ARN were reported abandoned at Kuala Lumpur International Airport. Air Atlanta Icelandic senior vice president of sales and marketing Baldvin M. Hermannsson said that the three aircraft had belonged to Air Atlanta, but were returned to their owner in 2010.  In 2016 the airline provided a Boeing 747-428 (registration TF-AAK) to the heavy metal band Iron Maiden for the Book of Souls World Tour, which replaced a modified Astraeus Airlines 757 as "Ed Force One". On 12 March, the aircraft sustained damage to engines 1 and 2 while being towed for refueling at Santiago, Chile. The extent of the damage required the band and its crew to charter additional aircraft to continue touring through Argentina and Brazil while the aircraft awaited repairs at Santiago International Airport. Repairs involving replacing both port-side engines, cowlings, and reversers were completed by 20 March and the aircraft returned to the tour.

Destinations.

Air Atlanta Icelandic operates worldwide passenger and cargo flights as charters and ACMI services for various customers. For example, as of January 2012, the airline operated cargo flights on behalf of Saudia from their hub in Jeddah to Brussels, Amsterdam, Frankfurt (Hahn), Hong Kong, Houston and New York.

Fleet.

Current fleet.

As of May 2020, the Air Atlanta Icelandic fleet consists of the following aircraft:

Air Atlanta Icelandic is a charter and ACMI airline based in Kópavogur, Iceland. It specialises in leasing aircraft on an ACMI (Aircraft, Crews, Maintenance, Insurance) and wet lease basis to airlines worldwide needing extra passenger and cargo capacity. It also operates charter services. The company operates in different countries and has bases worldwide.

亚特兰大冰岛航空(Air Atlanta Icelandic)是一间位于冰岛科帕沃于尔的航空公司。航空公司主要业务为飞机租赁。该航空公司也提供冰岛游览的包机服务。在2007年中期,航空公司开始重视于航空货运服务。航空公司的基地是位于凯夫拉维克国际机场。


Organization.

Leadership.

The head of the office holds the title of United States Trade Representative (USTR), which is a Cabinet-level position, though not technically within the Cabinet, as is the case with office heads not of US departments but rather of offices contained within the Executive Office of the President. To fill the post, the president nominates someone for the position, and the appointment is then approved or rejected by a simple majority of the Senate. The United States trade representative and deputy United States trade representatives (DUSTR) carry the title of Ambassador.  Michael Froman served as the US trade representative until 2017, with Michael Punke and Robert Holleyman serving as deputy US trade representatives. Ambassador Punke also concurrently serves as the U.S. ambassador to the World Trade Organization (WTO).  On May 2, 2013, President Obama nominated Michael Froman to succeed Ambassador Ron Kirk as the U.S. trade representative. The Senate confirmed Froman on June 19, 2013, and he was sworn into office on June 21, 2013.  Robert Lighthizer, who is the current U.S. trade representative, was confirmed on April 25, 2017, after being nominated by President Trump.

Office of WTO and Multilateral Affairs.

The USTR participates in the World Trade Organization, which is currently in the Doha Development Round. This is partially managed by the USTR Office of WTO and Multilateral Affairs (WAMA). Relevant WTO agreements include the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and the Generalized System of Preferences.

Issue areas.

Agriculture.

There are two key advisory committees when it comes to agriculture. These two are the Agricultural Policy Advisory Committee (APAC) and the Agricultural Technical Advisory Committees (ATAC). APAC is made up of 34 organizations. ATAC is made up of 6 groups. These groups being animal and animal products; fruits and vegetables; grains, feed, oilseeds, and planting seeds; sweeteners and sweetener products; tobacco, cotton, and peanuts; and processed foods. APAC and ATAC allow the private sector to play a role in the U.S. government when it comes to trade.  In agriculture, free trade agreements (FTAs) play a big role. As stated, “[f]or 16 of the 20 countries that the U.S. has FTAs with, U.S. exporters will face zero tariffs on 98% or more of agricultural goods once the agreements are fully implemented.”

Economy and trade.

Global trade is one area in which America excels. They also have the world's largest economy. Being competitive allows an increase in productivity and the growth of the economy. Expanding and shifting production has increased productivity and the country's economic growth rate as well. “Exports have contributed nearly a third of economic growth since mid-2009, and account for approximately 13.5 percent of our economy”.

Enforcement.

USTR uses enforcement to secure U.S. trading. This is especially keen to American workers, farmers, ranchers, and businesses. It is interpreted to be fair and open, making sure that everyone follows it.

Environment.

Some trade includes overlap with environmental policies. Wildlife trafficking, illegal logging, and marine conservation and protection are a few examples of this overlap.

Government procurement.

The purchasing done under the government makes up 10 to 15 percent of the country's GDP. In 1979, the first major government procurement agreement appeared. Relations with Canada and Europe are especially noticeable in government procurement.

Industry and manufacturing.

The Office of Small Business, Market Access, and Industrial Competitiveness (SBMAIC) manages manufactured goods that the United States exports. Two of the biggest goals are to expand export opportunities and strengthen enforcement of trade rules. Industrial tariffs are a huge commodity, for approximately 96 percent of U.S. merchandise imports are nonagricultural goods.

Intellectual property.

The Office of Intellectual Property and Innovation (IPN) focuses heavily on intellectual property laws and enforcing them worldwide. Trade agreements, the annual Special 301 review and report, World Trade Organization, and pharmaceutical and medical technology industries are all key areas.

Labor.

The Labor office holds the United States responsible in making sure they follow all labor laws. Worker's participation and rights is looked at thoroughly through this office.

Preference Programs.

Preference programs are used as aiding other countries. It provides greater access to the U.S. market.

Services and Investment.

The Office of Services and Investment partakes in anything involving services, investment, and digital trade relevant to U.S. trade policy. International Investment provides both economic growth and protection for American workers. Services allows the world to connect. Through businesses, technology, retail, and all other forms of services, people interact globally. In the United States, service industries make up two thirds of the GDP and four out of five private-sector jobs.

Small Business.

Small businesses are significant in U.S. trade because they account for 98 percent of the country's exports. The top exports going to Canada, Mexico, China, Japan, and the United Kingdom.

Textiles and apparel.

The Office of Textiles is in charge of both textiles and apparel. It works closely with Congress, domestic partners, and international ones.

Trade and development.

Worldwide aid and domestic funding related to trade are coordinated through the USTR.

Trade organizations.

The World Trade Organization (WTO), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) all have an impact in trade. The WTO deals heavily with FTAs. Licensing and trade barriers are addressed here. APEC facilitates trade with Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, People's Republic of China, Hong Kong, China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, the Philippines, the Russian Federation, Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Thailand, The United States of America, and Vietnam. The U.S. also has a relationship with the ASEAN. ASEAN comprises Brunei Darussalam, Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Lastly, OECD accounts for 78 percent of the entire world's GDP and has 34 democracies in Europe, North America, the Pacific Rim, and Latin America in the organization.

Reports.

"National Trade Estimate".

The "National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers" ("National Trade Estimate" or "NTE") is an annual series that surveys prepared by the USTR, which reports significant foreign barriers to U.S. exports. Since 1986, the "NTE" provides, where feasible, quantitative estimates of the impact of these foreign practices on the value of U.S. exports. Information is also included on actions taken to eliminate barriers. It is based on information provided by USTR, the U.S. departments of commerce and agriculture, and other agencies and sources.

The Special 301 Report.

The Special 301 Report is prepared annually by the USTR under Section 182 as amended of the Trade Act of 1974. The act states that the USTR must on an annual basis, by April of each year: identify those foreign countries that deny adequate and effective protection of intellectual property rights, or deny fair and equitable markets access to United States persons that rely upon intellectual property protection, and those foreign countries identified under" this "paragraph that are determined by the Trade Representative to be priority foreign countries". The Act defines "priority foreign countries" as "those foreign countries that have the most onerous or egregious acts, policies, or practices that deny adequate and effective intellectual property rights, or deny fair and equitable market access to United States persons that rely upon intellectual property protection, whose acts, policies, or practices described in" this "paragraph have the greatest adverse impact (actual or potential) on the relevant United States products, and that are not entering into good faith negotiations, or making significant progress in bilateral or multilateral negotiations to provide adequate and effective protection of intellectual property rights.  The Uruguay Round Agreement Act furthermore states that countries may be identified under Special 301 "taking into account the history of intellectual property laws and practices of the foreign country, including any previous identifications" and "the history of efforts of the United States, and the response of the foreign country, to achieve adequate and effective protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights". It also states that compliance with the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights does not include a country from being identified as denying "adequate and effective protection of intellectual property rights".

Notorious markets.

In 2006, along with the International Intellectual Property Alliance, the USTR published a list of places where large-scale copyright infringement takes place in the Special 301 Report. Since 2010, the notorious markets report has been published as a separate report.

Living former trade representatives.

As of, there are nine living former trade representatives (with all representatives that have served since 1989 still living), the oldest being Bill Brock (served 1981–1985, born 1930). The most recent representative to die was Frederick Dent (served 1975-1977) on December 10, 2019. The most recently serving representative to die was Clayton Yeutter (served 1985–1989, born 1930) on March 4, 2017.

The Office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR) is the United States government agency responsible for developing and recommending United States trade policy to the president of the United States, conducting trade negotiations at bilateral and multilateral levels, and coordinating trade policy within the government through the interagency Trade Policy Staff Committee (TPSC) and Trade Policy Review Group (TPRG).

美国贸易代表处(Office of the United States Trade Representative,英文简称USTR)是美国政府的一个行政部门,美国总统办事机构的一部分,负责在双边和多边的层面上推行美国的贸易政策。


Life and career.

McClelland, born in Mt. Vernon, New York, was awarded a Bachelor of Arts from Wesleyan University in 1938, an MA from the University of Missouri in 1939, and a PhD in experimental psychology from Yale University in 1941. He taught at Connecticut College and Wesleyan University before joining the faculty at Harvard University in 1956, where he worked for 30 years, serving as chairman of the Department of Psychology and Social Relations. In 1987, he moved to Boston University, where he was awarded the American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions.  The major themes of David McClelland's work were on personality and the application of that knowledge to helping people make their lives better. One theme was the development of the expectancy-value theory of human motivation. A second theme was the development of tests and operant methods, such as the Thematic Apperception Test, Behavioral Event Interview, and the Test of Thematic Analysis. A third theme was the development of job-competency studies, and a fourth theme was the application of this research to helping people and their social systems, whether that was through motivation and competency development, organization and community development, and changing behavior to battle stress and addiction. David McClelland believed in applying the results from the research and testing to see if they helped people. He was instrumental in starting 14 research and consulting companies, the largest was McBer and Company (1965-1989), which later was sold to Yankelovich, Skelly & White.

Expectancy Value Theory of Motivation.

McClelland claimed that motivation is “a recurrent concern for a goal state or condition as measured in fantasy, which drives, directs and selects the behavior of the individual”. Basing his work on the work of Henry Murray, he focused on three particular motives: the need for achievement (N-Ach); the need for affiliation (N-Aff); and the need for power (N-Pow). N-Ach is the desire to excel in relation to a set of standards. It is the drive to succeed. N-Pow is the desire to be influential and affect an organization. N-Aff is the desire for close personal relationships. McClelland's three needs, are non-sequential, but instead are used in relation to each other. “According to his theory, most people possess and portray a mixture of these needs: those with a high need for achievement have an attraction to situations offering personal accountability; individuals with a dominating need for authority and power have a desire to influence and to increase personal status and prestige; and finally, those with a great need for affiliation value building strong relationships and belonging to groups or organizations.” The work in the 1940s through the late 1960s focused on the Achievement Motive and its impact on development of economies and entrepreneurship. He shifted his work in the 1960s to focus on the power motive, first addressing issues of addiction and alcoholism (McClelland, Davis, Kalin and Wanner, 1972), then to leadership effectiveness, and later to community development. The work on leadership and management helped to create a behavioral level of a person's capability, which McClelland called “competencies.' He also led efforts to show how important competencies were relative to knowledge and traditional personality traits in the desired outcomes of higher education (Winter, McClelland and Stewart, 1981). His work on power extended into research on the body's natural healing process.  In an exception from the typical focus of a psychologist, McClelland also examined cultural and country-wide effects of motives and related them to large-scale trends in society, such as economic development, job creation, the provocation of wars and health. McClelland's work on motivation was cited as the most useful approach to motivation in a study by the former accounting firm Touche Ross & Company (Miller, 1981).

In Search of Operant Tests and Measures.

David McClelland argued that operant methods (i.e., tests where a person must generate thoughts or actions) were much more valid predictors of behavioral outcomes, job performance, life satisfaction and other similar outcomes. Specifically, he claimed that operant methods had greater validity and sensitivity than respondent measures (i.e., tests calling for a true/false, rating or ranking response). He fought against more traditional psychologists insisting on using self-assessment, respondent measures and avoiding operant measures because, in traditional views, operant measures suffered from less traditional measures of reliability. McClelland believed that better operant measures were possible with the use of reliable codes for processing the information in them. He claimed his lifelong quest was to instill in psychological researchers a value of extracting people's actual thought (i.e., conscious and unconscious) along with their behavior. He was repeatedly publishing research and encouraging his doctoral students and colleagues to show that operant methods, as compared to respondent methods, consistently show: (a) more criterion validity; (b) increased insightfulness despite less test-retest reliability; (c) greater sensitivity in discriminating mood and such differences; (d) more uniqueness and less likelihood of suffering from multicollinearity; (e) greater cross-cultural validity, because they did not require a person to respond to prepared items; and (f) increased utility in applications to human or organizational development.

Job Competencies.

McClelland and colleagues conceptualized a broad array of capabilities. Reviving his 1951 personality theory, McClelland and his colleagues at McBer and Company intensified competency research on management, leadership and professional jobs in the early 1970s (i.e., skills, self-image, traits, and motives, see Boyatzis, 1982; Spencer and Spencer, 1993; Goleman, 1998). The definition of a job competency required that the person's intent is understood, not merely that the person's behavior is observed. They used operant methods like audiotaped Critical Incident Interviews, which they called Behavioral event Interviews and videotaped simulations with inductive research designs comparing effective with ineffective or even less effective performers. This approach was focused on the “person,” rather than the tasks or job.  The research results developed a picture of how a superior performer in a job thinks, feels, and acts in his/her work setting. This became a model for how to help anyone in a job, or aspiring to one, develop their capability. It became, over the coming decades, the norm for training design, selection and promotion practices, career development and even higher education in developing people for such jobs.

Helping People Change.

David McClelland believed that if you know how an outstanding performer thinks and acts, you could teach people how to think and act that way. The early projects addressed entrepreneurial development and training in achievement thinking and behavior for small business owners in India, Tunisia, Iran, Poland, Malawi and the US.  “Understanding human motivation ought to be a good thing. It should help us to find out what we really want so that we can avoid chasing rainbows that are not for us. It should open up opportunities for self-development if we apply motivational principles to pursuing our goals in life”.

David Clarence McClelland (May 20, 1917 – March 27, 1998) was an American psychologist, noted for his work on motivation Need Theory. He published a number of works between the 1950s and the 1990s and developed new scoring systems for the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and its descendants. McClelland is credited with developing Achievement Motivation Theory, commonly referred to as "need for achievement" or "n"-achievement theory. A "Review of General Psychology" survey published in 2002, ranked McClelland as the 15th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.

大卫·麦克利兰(英语:David McClelland, 1917年-1998年),美国哈佛大学教授、行为心理学家、社会心理学家、当代研究动机的权威专家,从1940年代1950年代起就开始对人的需求和动机进行研究,提出了著名的“成就动机理论(即“三种需要理论”)”。