Language.

The Fang people speak the Fang language, also known as Pahouin or Pamue or Pangwe. The language is a Southern Bantu language belonging to the Niger-Congo family of languages. The Fang language is similar and intelligible with languages spoken by Beti-Pahuin peoples, namely the Beti people to their north and the Bulu people in central. Their largest presence is in the southern regions, up to the Ogooué River estuary where anthropologists refer them also as "Fang proper".  They have preserved their history largely through a musical oral tradition. Many Fang people are fluent in Spanish, French, German and English, a tradition of second language they developed during the Spanish colonial rule in Equatorial Guinea, the French colonial rule in Gabon and the German-later-French colonial rule in Cameroon.

History.

The Fang people are relatively recent migrants into the Equatorial Guinea, and many of them moved from central Cameroon in the 19th century.  Early ethnologists conjectured them to be Nilotic peoples from the upper Nile area, but a combination of evidence now places them to be of Bantu origins who began moving back into Africa around the seventh or eighth century possibly because of invasions from the north and the wars of West Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. Their migration may be related to an attempt to escape the violence of slave raiding by the Hausa people, but this theory has been contested.  The Fang people were victims of the large transatlantic and trans-Saharan slave trade between the 16th and 19th century. They were stereotyped as cannibals by slave traders and missionaries, in part because human skulls and bones were found in open or in wooden boxes near their villages, a claim used to justify violence against them and their enslavement. When their villages were raided, thousands of their wooden idols and villages were burnt by the slave raiders. Later ethnologists who actually spent time with the Fang people later discovered that the Fang people were not cannibalistic, the human bones in open and wooden boxes were of their ancestors, and were Fang people's method of routine remembrance and religious reverence for their dead loved ones.

Society and culture.

They have a patrilineal kinship social structure. The villages have been traditionally linked through lineage. They are exogamous, particularly on the father's side. Polygamy was accepted in the culture of the Fang people. The independence of villages from each other is notable, and they are famed for their knowledge of animals, plants and herbs in the Equatorial forests they live in. They are traditionally farmers and hunters, but became major cocoa farmers during the colonial era.  Under French colonial rule, they converted to Christianity. However, after independence their interest in their own traditional religion, called "Biere", also spelled "Byeri", has returned, and many practice syncretic ideas and rites. One of the syncretic traditions among Fang people is called "Bwiti", a monotheistic religion that celebrates Christian Easter but over four days with group dancing, singing and psychedelic drinks.  The art works of Fang people, particularly from wood, iron and steatite, are regionally famous. Their wooden masks and idol carvings are on display at numerous museums of the world.

Art.

The art works of Fang people, particularly from wood, iron and steatite, are regionally famous. Their wooden masks and idol carvings are on display at numerous museums of the world. Discovery of Fang artwork was source of inspiration for much of the European avant-garde artwork created during the 20th century. Much of the art is either used for their masquerades, or function as reliquaries and effigies. All are primarily made by the men of the village. There is reason to believe that many of these reliquaries were made during the Fang's migration as a form of burial which was also portable.

Wooden heads.

One of the most popular art forms attributed to the Fang culture are the wooden reliquary heads, many of which contain the skull or bones of ancestors. There is a characteristic heart-shaped face and large bulbous forehead. The heads are very abstract and focus on geometric form and covered in a black patina. Some appear to 'cry', which is streaks of resin made from a mixture of palm oil and other seed oils. They are tied to the ideas of welfare and social power.  There is a characteristic heart shaped, concave face with a large bulbous forehead. The heads are often tied to welfare and social power.  Heads are an effigy and can be affixed to a wooden reliquary box/barrel. The bones and skulls of deceased leaders are kept in cylindrical boxes that are decorated with wooden sculptured figures. These bones are believed to be have special powers that protect the well-being of the community. The bones are always within the possession of the deceased leader's family and it's kept hidden from the eyes of the uninitiated and of women.

Reliquary figures.

Throughout Gabon, these figures serve as talisman or guardian to protect the remains of ancestors. Known as "bieri, byeri" or "mwan bian", these reliquary figures widely range in style, but most common characteristics are:  Some earlier figures had cavities in the abdomen as a place to store bones of ancestors. The figures aren't completed until they are ceremoniously presented and rubbed with palm oil. Members of the community will continually visit figures and rub them with oil so they maintain their protective powers.  It was during colonization that many of these reliquaries had to be destroyed due to missionary and government pressure.

Music.

Music plays a central to the oral history of the Fang. The "mvet" is a musical instrument popular in the Fang society, which is played by the "mbomo mvet". The instrument is a chordophone with attached resonators. Often, one resonator is regarded as'male' and the other as 'female'. Some mvet come with two, three, or even five strings. To become a master "mbomo mvet" takes years of dedication and sacrifice.  The "mbomo mvet" will often pass through villages once a month to play at the council house where all members of the village will gather to be entertained. Members of the community participate by keeping time while the "mbomo mvet" plays the sings praises to the ancestors.

The Fang people, also known as Fãn or Pahouin, are a Central African ethnic group found in Equatorial Guinea, northern Gabon, and southern Cameroon. Representing about 85% of the total population of Equatorial Guinea, concentrated in the Río Muni region, the Fang people are its largest ethnic group. The Fang are also the largest ethnic group in Gabon, making up about a quarter of the population. In other countries, in the regions they live, they are one of the most significant and influential ethnic groups.

芳人(Fang),非洲中西部民族,属于班图尼格罗人种,又称帕胡因人(Pahouin)、庞圭人、芳维人。主要分布在喀麦隆南部、赤道几内亚、加蓬北部以及刚果部分地区。使用芳语,属于尼日尔-科尔多凡语系西北班图语群。使用拉丁字母拼写的文字。多信万物有灵,崇拜祖先、土地神和水神,部分人信基督教。共分 6 个部族、112 个部落,其中:埃翁多族有22个部落;贝内族有14个部落;布卢族有11个部落;恩图穆族有26个部落;姆韦族有13个部落;有26个部落。以父系氏族为基础,社会组织分为家庭、村庄、家族、氏族4级。实行一夫多妻制。主要种植木薯、芋头、玉米和芭蕉,兼事狩猎和采集。民间艺术与原始宗教信仰有密切关系,主要为造型艺术和面具雕刻等。村落中均有一座造型别致的公房,供全村用于开会议事、接待客人或娱乐活动。


Geographical context.

Scammonden Dam, is the highest dam in UK at 73 metres, and Dean Head cutting is the deepest roadway cutting in Europe at 183 ft, at Scammonden Bridge, on the M62. Sutton-under-Whitestonecliffe claims to be longest place name in England.

Geology.

In the Yorkshire and the Humber region, there is a very close relationship between the major topographical areas and the underlying geology. The Pennine chain of hills in the west is of Carboniferous

Rivers.

The region is drained by several rivers. In western and central Yorkshire, the many rivers empty their waters into the River Ouse, which reaches the North Sea via the Humber Estuary. The most northerly of the rivers in the Ouse system is the River Swale, which drains Swaledale before passing through Richmond and meandering across the Vale of Mowbray. Next, draining Wensleydale, is the River Ure, which joins the Swale east of Boroughbridge. The River Nidd rises on the edge of the Yorkshire Dales National Park and flows along Nidderdale before reaching the Vale of York. The Ouse is the name given to the river after its confluence with the Ure at Ouse Gill Beck. The River Wharfe, which drains Wharfedale, joins the Ouse upstream of Cawood. The Rivers Aire and Calder are more southerly contributors

Climate.

This region of England generally has cool summers and relatively mild winters, with the upland areas of the North York Moors and the Pennines experiencing the coolest weather and the Vale of York the warmest. Weather conditions vary from day to day as well as from season to season. The latitude of the area means that it is influenced by predominantly westerly winds with depressions and their associated fronts, bringing with them unsettled and windy weather, particularly in winter. Between depressions, there are often small mobile anticyclones that bring periods of fair weather. In winter anticyclones bring cold dry weather. In summer the anticyclones tend

Settlements.

There are seven cities in Yorkshire and the Humber: Bradford, Kingston upon Hull, Leeds, Ripon, Sheffield, Wakefield and York. Large towns in the area include Barnsley, Doncaster, Grimsby, Halifax, Harrogate, Huddersfield, Rotherham and Scunthorpe. Leeds is the largest settlement and the largest part of an urban area with a population of 1.5 million. Leeds is now one of the largest financial centres in the United Kingdom. Sheffield is the second-largest settlement and is a large manufacturing centre. Bradford is the third-largest city and was a textile manufacturing city. As jobs moved offshore the decline of this industry has resulted in a more diverse economy. Kingston upon Hull is the main port in the region and historically a notable fishing harbour. While cities such as Bradford, Leeds and Sheffield grew during the industrial revolution, older cities in the region, such as Wakefield and York, were established in trade and politics before them.  The tallest occupied building in Yorkshire is Bridgewater Place in central Leeds, commonly referred to as "The Dalek." Built in 2007, at 361 feet it is the 34th tallest building in the UK. The 37-storey Sky Plaza in Leeds is the world's second-tallest student accommodation building at 338 feet, and the second tallest building in the region, and the UK's 42nd tallest building, built in 2009. The 32-storey St Pauls Tower is now the tallest building in Sheffield at 331 feet. The Royal Hallamshire Hospital at 249 feet is the tallest hospital in the UK outside of London, and was built in 1979.

List of cities and towns.

NY = North Yorkshire, WY = West Yorkshire, SY = South Yorkshire, EY = East Riding of Yorkshire, NL = North Lincolnshire, NEL = North

Local government.

The official region consists of the following subdivisions:  Key: †shire county | *metropolitan county  North Lincolnshire, North

History.

Star Carr, south of Scarborough, is the earliest known dwelling in the UK – 8700 BC, in the Mesolithic age.  The Battle of Towton in March 1461, in the Wars of the Roses, is the most costly on British soil. William Bradley of Market Weighton is the tallest British man ever, being 7 ft 9 in, known as the "Yorkshire Giant". Bradford had the first trolley bus in the UK in 1910.  Wentworth Woodhouse is the largest private house in the UK, off the B6090, which housed until 1979 the Lady Mabel College of Physical Education, for female PE teachers, later owned by Sheffield City Polytechnic until 1988, north of Rotherham and east of M1 junction 35a.  The Tucano entered service with the RAF with 7 FTS in December 1989 at RAF Church Fenton. On 10 May 1990 at RAF Linton-on-Ouse, Flt Lts Julie Gibson and Sally Cox were the RAF's first female pilots to fly in an RAF jet aircraft – a BAC Jet Provost – with 1 FTS. Sally Cox was later the first female RAF pilot selected for fast jet training at RAF Chivenor on 14 January 1992 on the No.128 Course with the Hawk, but she withdrew seven weeks into the 17-week tactical weapons courses (No.2 Tactical Weapons Unit) in March 1992 as she found low flying too stressful. Julie would later be the RAF's first female Hercules captain in 1998; she was the first female pilot to qualify at 6 FTS at RAF Finningley. On 1 March 1991, the RAF's first female navigator, Flying Officer Anne-Marie Dawe, began with 6 FTS at RAF Finningley; she later flew on the Hercules at RAF Lyneham. On 20 July 1989 it had been announced that female RAF pilots could fly in non-combat roles.

Industrial history.

Stainless steel was invented in 1913 by Harry Brearley of Sheffield, working for Firth Brown Steels (now called Sheffield Forgemasters). SAE 304 stainless steel is the most common stainless steel today, invented by Dr William Herbert Hatfield FRS in 1924 at Firth-Vickers known as Staybrite 18/8, a chromium-nickel steel. Many Swiss watches were mostly made out of Staybrite.  Crucible steel had been invented in the 1740s by Benjamin Huntsman of Epworth in Lincolnshire (part of the region); previously steel was made by the cementation process; the 1856 Bessemer process allowed much more steel to be made. Sheffield early steel used Swedish bar iron as it had less phosphorus. The fast acting tilting converter was a huge improvement in 1860 for Sheffield steel; the process meant high-phosphorus iron ore from local mines could be used. At one point, Sheffield was producing 10,000 tons of steel a week. The metallurgist Eric Colbeck, when working at Hadfields Limited in Sheffield, invented boron steel for control rods for nuclear reactors. Metallurgists

Scientific heritage.

John Harrison of Barrow upon Humber (but born in Yorkshire at Foulby), invented the marine chronometer which allowed longitude to be accurately measured, and hence navigation at sea. This allowed Captain James Cook of Whitby to colonise much of Australia. Harrison also invented the bimetallic strip and the rolling bearing, without which most vehicles could not move. Albert Crewe, born near Huddersfield in 1927 and attended grammar school in Bradford, invented the scanning electron microscope in 1970 at the Argonne National Laboratory (US). John Carbutt (1832–1905), from Sheffield and moved to America, founded his Keystone Dry Plate Works in 1879 and was the first to develop sheets of celluloid coated with photographic

Second World War.

The RAF's first heavy bomber, the Short Stirling, entered service at RAF Leeming with 7 Sqn. On 2

Culture.

The area is well known for its brass bands, with the Brighouse and Rastrick Brass Band, Black Dyke Band, Grimethorpe Colliery Band, Carlton Main Frickley Colliery Band, Rothwell Temperance Band and Hammonds Saltaire Band. Brass bands have mostly been linked with coal mines. John Bacchus Dykes from Hull wrote the hymn tunes for "The King of Love My Shepherd Is" and "Eternal Father, Strong to Save", and arranged "We Plough the Fields and Scatter". The "Cranbrook" tune to "On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at" was written by Thomas Clark, a Kent shoemaker.  The Brontë family are the region's best known authors. The region's most popular city for tourists is York.  Castleford is the birthplace

Regional assembly.

The Yorkshire and Humber Assembly was a partnership of all local authorities in the region and representatives of various economic, social and environmental sectors. The full Assembly normally met three times a year, normally in February, June and October.  The full Assembly is responsible for providing regional leadership, agreeing regional strategic priorities, directing the development of the Integrated Regional Framework and endorsing key regional strategies. Membership comprises all 22 local authorities in this region, plus

European Parliament.

The European constituency of Yorkshire and the Humber is coterminous with the English region. After the European Parliament election in May 2014, Yorkshire and the Humber was represented by three UK Independence Party two Labour and one Conservative MEPs.

Election results 2014.

Elected candidates are shown in bold.

Election results 2019.

After the European Parliament election in May 2019, Yorkshire and the Humber was represented by three Brexit Party, one Labour, one Liberal

Demographics.

Population, density and settlements.

The region has fewer degree-educated adults than

Teenage pregnancy.

For top-tier authorities, Kingston upon Hull has the highest teenage pregnancy rate, closely followed by North East Lincolnshire. For top-tier authorities, North Yorkshire has the lowest teenage pregnancy

Social deprivation.

For multiple deprivation in England, measured by the Indices of deprivation 2007, the most deprived council districts in the region are, in descending order – Kingston upon Hull (11th in England), Bradford (32nd), Doncaster (41st), Barnsley (43rd), North East Lincolnshire (49th), Sheffield (63rd), Wakefield (66th), Rotherham (68th), Kirklees (82nd), Leeds (85th), and Scarborough (97th). These areas are mostly represented by Labour MPs, with a few Conservative MPs representing parts of Leeds (with a Lib Dem MP) and North East Lincolnshire, and all of Scarborough. Apart from Scarborough, they are unitary authorities.  The least deprived districts are, in descending order – Harrogate, Hambleton, Richmondshire, Craven, and Selby – all in North Yorkshire. Like all of North Yorkshire, they are represented

Elections.

In the 2015 general election, 39% of the region's electorate voted Labour, 33% Conservative, 16% UKIP, 7% Liberal Democrat and 4% Green. Labour had almost twice as many seats than the Conservatives with 33 Labour, 19 Conservative and 2 Liberal Democrat. There was a 2.5% swing from

Eurostat NUTS.

In the Eurostat Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS),

Transport.

Transport policy.

As part of the national transport planning system, the Regional Assembly is required to produce a Regional Transport Strategy to provide long-term planning for transport in the region. This involves region wide transport schemes such as those carried out by the Highways Agency and Network Rail. Within the

Road.

The M62 motorway is Yorkshire's main east–west thoroughfare, and north–south routes are the M1 and the A1, with only the A1 continuing further north, with an upgrade to motorway status currently being built between Leeming and Barton. The other main north–south road in the region is the A19. The M180 (continuing as the A180) connects the ports at Grimsby and Immingham via the M18 (European route E22).  The A64 road connects areas in the North East of the region to the main body of motorways. The M1 was originally designed to finish at the A1 at Doncaster; this section became the M18 in December 1967. The section from the Thurcroft Interchange to Leeds (originally known as the Leeds-Sheffield Spur) was essentially designed to replace the A61, which is still the main road that connects the centres of Sheffield, Barnsley, Wakefield and

Rail.

The central hubs of the rail network in the region are Leeds, Sheffield and York. The East Coast Main Line passes through Leeds and York, operated by London North Eastern Railway which has its headquarters in York. The Midland Main Line finishes at Sheffield, with a less regular service to Leeds, operated by East Midlands Railway. East–west routes are operated by TransPennine Express to Manchester and Liverpool. Leeds has a fairly extensive commuter network and an electrified section in the North of Bradford provides many commuter services. Sheffield has a smaller commuter rail network and there are also less extensive systems in Doncaster, Huddersfield, Wakefield and Harrogate, which connect the districts of the settlements to the centre

Mass transit.

Only Sheffield has its own mass-transit system, the Sheffield Supertram, owned by SYPTE and run by Stagecoach. Leeds and Bradford have more developed commuter rail systems but lack any mass transit

Air.

Airports in the region are Leeds Bradford Airport at Yeadon, Doncaster Sheffield Airport (which opened in April 2005 on the former RAF Finningley) near Doncaster and Humberside Airport (which opened in April 1974 on the former RAF Kirmington) near Brigg in North Lincolnshire. Leeds Bradford Airport is the largest in the region by passenger numbers, Robin Hood boasts the longest runway (2.7 km) of any airport in the region and Humberside Airport boasts an active

Water.

Hull has daily ferries (former North Sea Ferries) to Zeebrugge and Rotterdam (Europoort). Hull also has a large freight port and an active fishing port. Immingham carries much freight transport via DFDS Tor Line and the Stena Line. Goole is Britain's most inland port and is used mostly for importing commodities such as coal and timber.  The region also

Economy.

Until 2011, Yorkshire Forward was the Regional Development Agency charged with improving the Yorkshire and Humber economy, where some 270,000 businesses contribute to an economy worth in excess of £80 billion. With over 5 million people living in the region it ranks alongside some small countries including Ireland, Greece, Norway and Singapore. The region has the second lowest rate of GVA in England. However, Leeds has a much higher average GVA than most of South Yorkshire. Business Link Yorkshire until November 2011 was on the Capitol Business Park in Dodworth, west of the M1 near Barnsley near the bypass (A628). The region's Manufacturing Advisory Service was until March 2016 at Saint Martins House in Potternewton next to Chapel Allerton Hospital, on the former A61, with two other offices at the Advanced Manufacturing Park, Catcliffe off the A630 Sheffield Parkway, and also on "St. Georges Road" in the west of Hull; the functions are now represented by the organisation Made in Yorkshire. The UKTI office for the region was off the A653, directly south of Bridgewater Place in Holbeck, and its successor (in July 2016) DIT Yorkshire and the Humber is at the Digital Media Centre near Barnsley Interchange, run by Mark Robson.  NHS Yorkshire and the Humber, the regional strategic health authority, was at the roundabout at the bottom of "Kirkstall Road" in Leeds, with another office in the north of Sheffield. The charity-funded Yorkshire Air Ambulance, established in October 2000, is based at Nostell Priory south-east of Wakefield on the A638 (previously at Leeds Bradford Airport) and RAF Topcliffe (previously until 2012 at Bagby near Thirsk); the helicopter can land on the main hospitals' roofs. The state-funded Yorkshire Ambulance Service is based next to Coca-Cola on the Wakefield 41 Business Park, near the A650. National Blood Service for the area is off the A6102 in the north of Sheffield, at the west end of the Northern General Hospital.  Yorkshire in the past has been synonymous with coal mining. Many pits closed in the 1990s, with the last two that were open in the Pontefract area at Kellingley (closed on 18 December 2015) and Sharlston. In South Yorkshire, there was Maltby Main Colliery and Hatfield Colliery (closed in June 2015) at Stainforth. The NUM was very Yorkshire-dominated. Coal still plays a part in the economy – there are two large power stations along the Aire Valley, with Drax being the second largest in Europe with 3,945 MW of capacity, and Eggborough which is owned by the Czech Republic's Energetický a průmyslový holding (EPH) since 2014 and was owned by British Energy until 2010; Ferrybridge C closed on 23 March 2016. The distribution area once looked after by the regional electricity company Yorkshire Electricity is now looked after by Northern Powergrid (former YEDL), owned by Berkshire Hathaway (since 2001) of Omaha, Nebraska. The supply side of the region is now owned by npower (former National Power, now owned by RWE of Essen, Germany). 29% of the UK's oil is refined on the Humber.

Sport.

The English Institute of Sport is situated in north-east Sheffield, towards Tinsley Viaduct; it is the home of many indoor national sports teams, and Basketball England.  The Sports Turf Research Institute, off the B6459 at Bingley St Ives in Harden, west of Bingley, is the world authority on natural and artificial sports turf.  Sheffield is the home of UK climbing, being near the Peak District, and most well-known climbs are at Malham Cove, Kilnsey and Gordale.

Football.

The region is home to numerous Premier League and Football League clubs. Leeds United, Sheffield Wednesday, Sheffield United and Huddersfield Town are the most successful clubs in the region in terms of trophies won, each winning 9, 9, 5 and 4 major trophies respectively. Leeds United are the most successful club in terms of European appearances and success, they have also been the UEFA coefficient Top Club on 3 occasions, more than

Rugby League.

The area, similar to north Cheshire and parts of Greater Manchester (along the M62), is synonymous with rugby league. Tanya Arnold, presents the BBC rugby league programme

Horse racing.

The St Leger Stakes, at Doncaster Racecourse, is the world's oldest classic horse race, first run

Cricket.

Jim Laker, of Saltaire, took

Education.

There are 15 local education authorities in the Yorkshire and Humber region. The schools in each authority are listed in the following –

Secondary education.

Schools are mostly comprehensive, with some grammar schools in North Yorkshire, Calderdale and Kirklees.  There are around 235,000 at the region's secondary schools, the 4th lowest for English regions. The region has the highest overall truancy rate in England for both urban and rural areas. Inside the region for districts, Leeds has the highest rate with 6.9% persistent truants at secondary school, then Hull is second with 6.3%. Calderdale has the lowest truancy rate for unitary authorities, almost half that of Leeds, followed by North Lincolnshire. For districts Craven has the lowest rate.  The schools in Hull have often performed among the worst (on average) in England at GCSE after Knowsley in Merseyside. To Hull's credit, three schools in its LEA get above-average GCSE results whereas Knowsley usually has none (it managed two in 2010). Also at GCSE, schools in Barnsley and Bradford have low-achieving results with Barnsley the worst of these, and the lowest in the region in 2010. All three of these areas coincidentally have an above-average teenage pregnancy problem. In past years, Doncaster would be included in this group, but has managed to perform much better. For the metropolitan areas, Calderdale and Wakefield consistently perform the best, with both above the England average. Rotherham usually has the best results in South Yorkshire, but in 2010 it was Doncaster. York and North Yorkshire consistently perform the best at GCSE in the region, and with the East Riding of Yorkshire have results above the UK

Colleges.

There are twenty seven FE colleges. The main four

Universities.

There are ten universities and three higher education colleges in Yorkshire and the Humber, along with (in 2007) 27 Further Education colleges teaching some Higher Education courses.  The Krebs Cycle was discovered at the University of Sheffield in 1937. Liquid crystal displays were developed by the University of Hull in 1972, in conjunction with the Royal Radar Establishment in Worcestershire. Low fat spreads were developed at the University of Leeds (in conjunction with Unilever) in the 1980s, and in the 1930s William Astbury's x-ray diffraction experiments at the university started the road to the discovery of the double helix structure.  Sheffield Hallam University is the largest in the region with 37,000 students, but does not have the most funding. The University of Leeds is not too far behind. The University of York, a large campus similar to a collegiate

Yorkshire and the Humber is one of nine official regions of England at the first level of Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) for statistical purposes. It comprises most of Yorkshire (the administrative areas of South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, East Riding of Yorkshire, Hull, North Yorkshire and the City of York), as well as North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire. It does not include Middlesbrough, Redcar and Cleveland or other areas of the historic county of Yorkshire, such as Sedbergh not included in the aforementioned administrative areas. The largest settlements are Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, Hull, and York. The population in 2011 was 5,284,000.

约克郡-亨伯(英语:Yorkshire and the Humber),英国英格兰下辖的9个次级行政区之一,涵盖过去的约克郡以及林肯郡北部。


Plot.

Harry Sanborn is a wealthy New York music mogul who has had a 40-year habit of dating women under 30, including his latest conquest, Marin Klein. The two drive to her mother's Hamptons beach house expecting to be alone, but are surprised by Marin's mother, the successful playwright Erica Barry, who is there with her sister Zoe.  After an awkward dinner, the night turns disastrous when — during foreplay with Marin — Harry has a heart attack and is rushed to a hospital. The doctor, Julian Mercer, tells Harry to stay nearby for a few days, so Harry ends up staying with Erica. Their personalities clash and create awkward living arrangements — until they get to know each other. Harry's relationship with her daughter and Julian's crush on Erica leave the two struggling to deal with relationships.  Marin tells her mother that she will break up with Harry after having met another man closer to her age, but he ends things first. Harry and Erica spend more time together and eventually consummate their relationship. Harry discovers that his improving health means that he no longer has to stay with Erica, so he heads home.  Marin receives news that her father and Erica's ex-husband, Dave Klein, whom Erica still allows to direct her plays, is getting remarried to Kristen, an ear, nose and throat doctor who is only two years older than Marin. Though Erica is unaffected by the news, Marin is devastated and pressures her mother into accompanying her to a family dinner. Erica is the life of the party until she sees Harry at another table with another much-younger woman. In the argument that follows, Harry suffers from what he believes is another heart attack, but is told by the young ER physician, Dr. Martinez, who treats him like her father, that it was only a panic attack.  Erica is heartbroken but figures that these events would be great to use in a play. Harry hears about it and rushes to the NYC theater where it is being rehearsed. Despite her denials, it is quickly obvious that she has used the most personal details of their affair in the play. Erica coolly rebuffs his every insinuation that he cares about her and hints that his character will die in the play — for a laugh. He then has another panic attack and is again treated by Dr. Martinez, who warns him that he needs to learn to "decompress."  Six months pass. Erica's play is a huge success. Harry pays Marin a visit to apologize for anything he ever did to hurt her. She replies that he was nothing but nice to her and happily tells him that she is pregnant with her husband. Harry expresses a desire to see Erica. Marin tells him that her mother is in Paris celebrating her birthday. Harry decides to surprise Erica. Remembering how they had once planned to spend their birthdays together there, he shows up at the Paris restaurant where she is seated at a table. Harry explains that over the past six months, he reached out to all of the women he had affairs with, and though repeatedly rebuffed at first, he finally broke through. They all had identical harsh stories that helped him learn how he arrived at being him, with his trip to find Erica being the last and farthest. Julian, whom Erica is now dating, then appears since she had been waiting at the restaurant for him. It is subsequently implied that he plans to propose to her.  Harry and Erica get along well during the dinner, but they part outside the restaurant. While he is gazing in heartache over the river Seine, Erica shows up. She explains that Julian realized what was happening between them and decided to step aside to let her be with Harry. Harry explains that his search the last six months has made him realize he truly loves Erica. As a plus, it starts snowing.  A year later at a New York restaurant, Erica and Harry, now married, are out with Marin, her husband Danny and their new baby daughter as one big happy family.

Soundtrack.

"Something's Gotta Give" was a co-production between Columbia Pictures and Warner Bros. Pictures. Both companies have released soundtracks for the movie.  The following soundtrack was released on December 9, 2003 by Warner Bros. Records.

Track listing – Warner Bros..

The following soundtrack was released on February 23, 2004 by Columbia Records.

Track listing – Columbia.

The film was originally scored by Alan Silvestri and orchestrated by Tony Blondal, however creative differences led to Silvestri being replaced at the last minute by members of Remote Control Productions. As Alan's music was already recorded some of it remains in the film.

Reception.

Critical response.

The film holds a 72% approval rating from the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 170 critics reviews, with the summary: "Though it occasionally stumbles into sitcom territory, "Something's Gotta Give" is mostly a smart, funny romantic comedy, with sharp performances from Jack Nicholson, Diane Keaton, and Keanu Reeves." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 66 out of 100, based on reviews from 40 critics. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "A-" on scale of A to F.  Mick LaSalle, writing for the "San Francisco Chronicle", felt the performances of the film's stars, Diane Keaton and Jack Nicholson, were among their best, and that Nicholson's acting, as his role covered a wider range of emotions, was the more complex. The reviewer praised the film for being a romantic comedy for adults: Roger Ebert describes the film's dialog as "smart". Although noting that Keanu Reeves's role "seems like nothing more than a walking plot complication", he praises the performances of Keaton and Nicholson: "A movie like this depends crucially on its stars. To complain that Nicholson is playing "himself" – or that Keaton is also playing a character very much like her public persona – is missing the point. Part of the appeal depends on the movie's teasing confusion of reality and fiction."

Accolades.

The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

Home media.

"Something's Gotta Give" was released on VHS on June 8, 2004 and DVD on March 30, 2004 by Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment and Warner Home Video.

Something's Gotta Give is a 2003 American romantic comedy film written, produced and directed by Nancy Meyers. It stars Jack Nicholson and Diane Keaton as a successful 60-something and 50-something, who find love for each other in later life, despite being complete opposites. Keanu Reeves and Amanda Peet co-star, with Frances McDormand, Paul Michael Glaser, Jon Favreau, and KaDee Strickland playing key supporting roles.

是一部发行于2003年的美国电影,导演南希·迈耶斯,主演杰克·尼科尔森、黛安·基顿和基努·里维斯。


萨旺尼县 (佛罗里达州)

History.

Suwannee County was created in 1858, as railways were constructed through the area connecting it to Jacksonville, Tallahassee, and points north. It was named after the Suwannee River, which forms the county's northern, western, and much of its southern border. The word "Suwannee" may either be a corruption of the Spanish "San Juan" ("Saint John") or from the Cherokee "sawani" ("echo river").  The rural areas supported numerous lumber and turpentine camps. In the 1930s, anthropologist Zora Neale Hurston did research in North Florida timber camps.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.5%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 34,844 people, 13,460 households, and 9,691 families residing in the county. The population density was 51 people per square mile (20/km2). There were 15,679 housing units at an average density of 23 per square mile (9/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 84.53% White, 12.11% Black or African American, 0.39% Native American, 0.51% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.12% from other races, and 1.29% from two or more races. 4.89% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 13,460 households out of which 29.50% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.50% were married couples living together, 11.20% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.00% were non-families. 23.30% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 2.96.  In the county, the population was spread out with 24.00% under the age of 18, 8.50% from 18 to 24, 25.10% from 25 to 44, 25.40% from 45 to 64, and 16.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 95.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.90 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $29,963, and the median income for a family was $34,032. Males had a median income of $26,256 versus $21,136 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,678. About 14.80% of families and 18.50% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.90% of those under age 18 and 12.40% of those age 65 or over.  In March 2016, the county's unemployment rate was 4.8%.

Libraries.

Suwannee County is served by the Suwannee River Regional Library System, which contains eight branches and also serves Hamilton and Madison counties.

Transportation.

Airports.

Suwannee County is accessed by air from Suwannee County Airport, located two miles west of Live Oak. It is a publicly operated airport run by the county government that has a paved runway in excess of 4,000 feet, major aircraft maintenance, training, car rental, as well as selling 100LL aviation fuel from a manned FBO. There are also many private airparks scattered throughout the county.

Railroads.

Suwannee County has one surviving railroad line. The primary one is a Florida Gulf & Atlantic Railroad line formerly owned by CSX, Seaboard System Railroad, Seaboard Coast Line Industries and Seaboard Air Line Railroad that served Amtrak's Sunset Limited until it was truncated to New Orleans in 2005 by Hurricane Katrina. Union Depot and Atlantic Coast Line Freight Station was Suwannee County's premiere railroad station on the corner of US 129 & SR 136 in Live Oak, and served both the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad and Seaboard Air Line Railroad but has not been in use since the mid-20th Century. Various abandoned lines also exist within the county, one of which was converted into the Suwannee River Greenway Trail, along the southeastern part of the county.

Suwannee County is a county located in the north central portion of the state of Florida. As of the 2010 census, the population was 41,551. Its county seat is Live Oak. Suwannee County was a moist county until August 2011, when the sale of alcoholic beverages became legal in the county.

朝鲜海峡,是韩国和日本两国之间的海峡,连接黄海、东海和日本海之间的要道,有广义和狭义两种用法。


Early history.

Nauru was first settled by Micronesian and Polynesian people at least 3,000 years ago. Nauruans subsisted on coconut and pandanus fruit, and engaged in aquaculture by catching juvenile "ibija" fish, acclimated them to freshwater conditions, and raised them in Buada Lagoon, providing an additional reliable source of food. Traditionally only men were permitted to fish on the reef, and did so from canoes or by using trained man-of-war hawks.  There were traditionally 12 clans or tribes on Nauru, which are represented in the 12-pointed star in the nation's flag. Nauruans traced their descent on the female side. The first Europeans to encounter the island were on the British whaling ship "Hunter", in 1798. When the ship approached, "many canoes ventured out to meet the ship. The "Hunter"s crew did not leave the ship nor did Nauruans board, but Captain John Fearn's positive impression of the island and its people" led to its English name, Pleasant Island. This name was used until Germany annexed the island 90 years later.  From around 1830, Nauruans had contact with Europeans from whaling ships and traders who replenished their supplies (such as fresh water) at Nauru. The islanders traded food for alcoholic toddy and firearms. The first Europeans to live on the island, starting perhaps in 1830, were Patrick Burke and John Jones, Irish convicts who had escaped from Norfolk Island, according to "Paradise for Sale". Jones became "Nauru's first and last dictator," who killed or banished several other beachcombers who arrived later, until the Nauruans banished Jones from the island in 1841.  The introduction of firearms and alcohol destroyed the peaceful coexistence of the 12 tribes living on the island. A 10-year internal war began in 1878 and resulted in a reduction of the population from 1,400 (1843) to around 900 (1888). Ultimately, alcohol was banned and some arms were confiscated.

German protectorate.

In 1886, Germany was granted the island under the Anglo-German Declaration. The island was annexed by Germany in 1888 and incorporated into Germany's New Guinea Protectorate. On 1 October 1888, the German gunboat SMS "Eber" landed 36 men on Nauru. Accompanied by William Harris the German marines marched around the island and returned with the twelve chiefs, the white settlers and a Gilbertese missionary. The chiefs were kept under house arrest until the next morning, when the annexation ceremony began with the raising of the German flag. The Germans told the chiefs that they had to surrender all weapons and ammunition within 24 hours or the chiefs would be taken prisoner. By the morning of 3 October, 765 guns and 1,000 rounds of ammunition had been turned over. The Germans called the island Nawodo or Onawero. The arrival of the Germans ended the war, and social changes brought about by the war established kings as rulers of the island, the most widely known being King Auweyida. Christian missionaries from the Gilbert Islands also arrived in 1888. The Germans ruled Nauru for almost three decades. Robert Rasch, a German trader who married a native woman, was the first administrator, appointed in 1888.  At the time there were twelve tribes on Nauru: Deiboe, Eamwidamit, Eamwidara, Eamwit, Eamgum, Eano, Emeo, Eoraru, Irutsi, Iruwa, Iwi and Ranibok. Today the twelve tribes are represented by the twelve-pointed star in the flag of Nauru.  Phosphate was discovered on Nauru in 1900 by the prospector Albert Ellis. The Pacific Phosphate Company started to exploit the reserves in 1906 by agreement with Germany. The company exported its first shipment in 1907.

World War I to World War II.

In 1914, following the outbreak of World War I, Nauru was captured by Australian troops, after which Britain held control until 1920. Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom signed the Nauru Island Agreement in 1919, creating a board known as the British Phosphate Commission (BPC). This took over the rights to phosphate mining. According to the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics (now the Australian Bureau of Statistics), "In common with other natives, the islanders are very susceptible to tuberculosis and influenza, and in 1921 an influenza epidemic caused the deaths of 230 islanders." In 1923, the League of Nations gave Australia a trustee mandate over Nauru, with the United Kingdom and New Zealand as co-trustees. In 1932, the first Angam Baby was born.

World War II.

During World War II, Nauru was subject to significant damage from both Axis (German and Japanese) and Allied forces.  On 6 and 7 December 1940 the Nazi German auxiliary cruisers "Orion" and "Komet" sank four merchant ships. On the next day, "Komet" shelled Nauru's phosphate mining areas, oil storage depots, and the shiploading cantilever. The attacks seriously disrupted phosphate supplies to Australia and New Zealand (mostly used for munition and fertiliser purposes.)  Japanese troops occupied Nauru on 26 August 1942. The native Nauruans were badly treated by the occupying forces. On one occasion thirty nine leprosy sufferers were reputedly loaded onto boats which were towed out to sea and sunk. The Japanese troops built an airfield on Nauru which was bombed for the first time on 25 March 1943, preventing food supplies from being flown to Nauru. In 1943 the Japanese deported 1,200 Nauruans to work as labourers in the Chuuk islands.  Nauru was finally set free from the Japanese on 13 September 1945, when Captain Solda, the commander of all the Japanese troops on Nauru, surrendered the island to the Royal Australian Navy and Army. This surrender was accepted by Brigadier J. R. Stevenson, who represented Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee, the commander of the First Australian Army, on board the warship HMAS "Diamantina" Arrangements were made to repatriate from Chuuk the 737 Nauruans who survived Japanese captivity there. They were returned to Nauru by the BPC ship "Trienza" in on 1 January 1946. In 1947, a trusteeship was established by the United Nations, and Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom became the U.N. trustees of the island, with administration passing mostly to Australia.

Independence.

Nauru became self-governing in January 1966. On 31 January 1968, following a two-year constitutional convention, Nauru became the world's smallest independent republic. It was led by founding president Hammer DeRoburt. In 1967, the people of Nauru purchased the assets of the British Phosphate Commissioners, and in June 1970, control passed to the locally owned Nauru Phosphate Corporation. Money gained from the exploitation of phosphate was put into the Nauru Phosphate Royalties Trust and gave Nauruans the second highest GDP Per Capita (second only to the United Arab Emirates) and one of the highest standards of living in the Third World.  In 1989, Nauru took legal actions against Australia in the International Court of Justice over Australia's actions during its administration of Nauru. In particular, Nauru made a legal complaint against Australia's failure to remedy the environmental damage caused by phosphate mining. "Certain Phosphate Lands: Nauru v. Australia" led to an out-of-court settlement to rehabilitate the mined-out areas of Nauru.  By the close of the twentieth century, the finite phosphate supplies were fast running out. Nauru finally joined the UN in 1999.

Modern-day Nauru.

As its phosphate stores began to run out (by 2006, its reserves were exhausted), the island was reduced to an environmental wasteland. Nauru appealed to the International Court of Justice to compensate for the damage from almost a century of phosphate strip-mining by foreign companies. In 1993, Australia offered Nauru an out-of-court settlement of A$2.5 million annually for 20 years. New Zealand and the UK additionally agreed to pay a one-time settlement of $12 million each. Declining phosphate prices, the high cost of maintaining an international airline, and the government's financial mismanagement combined to make the economy collapse in the late 1990s. By the new millennium, Nauru was virtually bankrupt.  In December 1999, four major United States banks banned dollar transactions with four Pacific island states, including Nauru. The United States Department of State issued a report identifying Nauru as a major money laundering centre, used by narcotics traffickers and Russian organized crime figures.  President Bernard Dowiyogo took office in April 2000 for his fourth and, after a minimal hiatus, fifth stints as Nauru's top executive. Dowiyogo first served as president from 1976 to 1978. He returned to that office in 1989, and was re-elected in 1992. A vote in parliament, however, forced him to yield power to Kinza Clodumar in 1995. Dowiyogo regained the presidency when the Clodumar government fell in mid-1998.  In 2001, Nauru was brought to world attention by the Tampa affair, a Norwegian cargo ship at the centre of a diplomatic dispute between Australia, Norway and Indonesia. The ship carried asylum seekers, hailing primarily from Afghanistan, who were rescued while attempting to reach Australia. After much debate many of the immigrants were transported to Nauru, an arrangement known in Australia as the "Pacific Solution". Shortly thereafter, the Nauruan government closed its borders to most international visitors, preventing outside observers from monitoring the refugees' condition.  In December 2003, several dozen of these refugees, in protest of the conditions of their detention on Nauru, began a hunger strike. The hunger strike was concluded in early January 2004 when an Australian medical team agreed to visit the island. Since then, according to recent reports, all but two of the refugees have been allowed into Australia.  During 2002 Nauru severed diplomatic recognition with Taiwan (Republic of China) and signed an agreement to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China. This move followed China's promise to provide more than U.S. $130 million in aid. In 2004, Nauru broke off relations with the PRC and re-established them with the ROC.  Nauru was also approached by the U.S. with a deal to modernize Nauru's infrastructure in exchange for suppression of the island's lax banking laws that allow activities that are illegal in other countries to flourish. Under this deal, allegedly, Nauru would also establish an embassy in China and perform certain "safehouse" and courier services for the U.S. government, in a scheme codenamed "Operation Weasel". Nauru agreed to the deal and instituted banking reform, but the U.S. later denied knowledge of the deal. The matter is being pursued in an Australian court, and initial judgments have been in favor of Nauru.  The government is desperately in need of money to pay off salary arrears of civil servants and to continue funding the welfare state built up in the heyday of phosphate mining (Nauruans pay no taxes). Nauru has yet to develop a plan to remove the innumerable coral pinnacles created by mining and make those lands suitable for human habitation.

The history of human activity in Nauru, an island country in the Pacific Ocean, began roughly 3,000 years ago when 12 Micronesian and Polynesian clans settled the island.

瑙鲁的历史和磷酸盐的采集有关。瑙鲁最初由密克罗尼西亚人和波利尼西亚人居住。19世纪,德国占有了瑙鲁。第一次世界大战后,澳大利亚,新西兰和英国开始托管瑙鲁。第二次世界大战期间,日本占领瑙鲁。战后恢复托管。1968年瑙鲁独立。


Personal life.

Linda B. Buck was born in Seattle, Washington on January 29, 1947. Her father was an electrical engineer who spent his time inventing and building different items in his spare time, while her mother was a homemaker who spent a majority of her free time solving word puzzles. Buck was the second of three children, all of them being girls. Buck's parents raised them to believe that they had the ability to do anything they wanted with their lives and she attributes her affinity of science to her parents interest and dedication she grew up around. In 1994 Buck met Roger Brent, also a biologist. The two married in 2006.

Education.

Buck received her B.S. in psychology and microbiology in 1975 from the University of Washington, Seattle and her Ph.D. in immunology in 1980 under the direction of Professor Ellen Vitetta at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas.

Career and research.

In 1980, Buck began postdoctoral research at Columbia University under Dr. Benvenuto Pernis (1980–1982). In 1982, she joined the laboratory of Dr. Richard Axel, also at Columbia in the Institute of Cancer Research. After reading Sol Snyder's group research paper at Johns Hopkins University, Linda Buck set out to map the olfactory process at the molecular level, tracing the travel of odors through the cells of the nose to the brain. Buck and Axel worked with rat genes in their research and identified a family of genes that code for more than 1000 odor receptors and published these findings in 1991. Later that year, Buck became an assistant professor in the Neurobiology Department at Harvard Medical School where she established her own lab. After finding how odors are detected by the nose, Buck published her findings in 1993 on how the inputs from different odor receptors are organized in the nose. Essentially, her primary research interest is on how pheromones and odors are detected in the nose and interpreted in the brain. She is a Full Member of the Basic Sciences Division at Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, and an Affiliate Professor of Physiology and Biophysics at the University of Washington, Seattle.

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2004).

In her landmark paper published in 1991 with Richard Axel, Linda Buck discovered hundreds of genes code for the odorant sensors located in the olfactory neurons of our noses. Each receptor is a protein that changes when an odor attaches to the receptor, causing an electrical signal to be sent to the brain. Differences between odorant sensors mean that certain odors cause a signal to be released from a certain receptor. We are then able to interpret varying signals from our receptors as specific scents. To do this, Buck and Axel cloned olfactory receptors, showing that they belong to the family of G protein-coupled receptors. By analyzing rat DNA, they estimated that there were approximately 1,000 different genes for olfactory receptors in the mammalian genome. This research opened the door to the genetic and molecular analysis of the mechanisms of olfaction. In their later work, Buck and Axel have shown that each olfactory receptor neuron remarkably only expresses one kind of olfactory receptor protein and that the input from all neurons expressing the same receptor is collected by a single dedicated glomerulus of the olfactory bulb.

Awards and honors.

Buck was awarded the Takasago Award for Research in Olfaction (1992), Unilever Science Award (1996), R.H. Wright Award in Olfactory Research (1996), Lewis S. Rosenstiel Award for Distinguished Work in Basic Medical Research (1996), Perl/UNC Neuroscience Prize (2002), and Gairdner Foundation International Award (2003). Buck was inducted into the National Academy of Sciences in 2003 and the Institutes of Medicine in 2006. Buck has been a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences since 2008. She also sits on the Selection Committee for Life Science and Medicine which chooses winners of the Shaw Prize. In 2015, Buck was awarded an honorary doctorate by Harvard University and elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS).

Linda Brown Buck (born January 29, 1947) is an American biologist best known for her work on the olfactory system. She was awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, along with Richard Axel, for their work on olfactory receptors. She is currently on the faculty of the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle.

琳达·布朗·巴克(英语:Linda Brown Buck,1947年-1月29日),美国生物学家,她由于在嗅觉受器方面的卓越研究与理乍得·阿克塞尔一起获得2004年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。


Education and early life.

Born in New York City, New York to Polish Jewish immigrants, Axel grew up in the borough of Brooklyn. He graduated from Stuyvesant High School in 1963, received his B.A. in 1967 from Columbia University, and his M.D. in 1971 from Johns Hopkins University. He returned to Columbia later that year and became a full professor in 1978.

Research and career.

During the late 1970s, Axel, along with microbiologist Saul J. Silverstein and geneticist Michael H. Wigler, discovered a technique of cotransformation via transfection, a process which allows foreign DNA to be inserted into a host cell to produce certain proteins. A family of patents, now colloquially referred to as the "Axel patents", covering this technique were filed for February 1980 and were issued in August 1983. As a fundamental process in recombinant DNA research as performed at pharmaceutical and biotech companies, this patent proved quite lucrative for Columbia University, earning it almost $100 million a year at one time, and a top spot on the list of top universities by licensing revenue. The Axel patents expired in August 2000.  In their landmark paper published in 1991, Buck and Axel cloned olfactory receptors, showing that they belong to the family of G protein coupled receptors. By analyzing rat DNA, they estimated that there were approximately one thousand different genes for olfactory receptors in the mammalian genome. This research opened the door to the genetic and molecular analysis of the mechanisms of olfaction. In their later work, Buck and Axel have shown that each olfactory receptor neuron remarkably only expresses one kind of olfactory receptor protein and that the input from all neurons expressing the same receptor is collected by a single dedicated glomerulus of the olfactory bulb.  Axel's primary research interest is on how the brain interprets the sense of smell, specifically mapping the parts of the brain that are sensitive to specific olfactory receptors. He holds the titles of University Professor at Columbia University, Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics and of Pathology at Columbia University's College of Physicians and Surgeons, and Investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. In addition to contributions to neurobiology, Axel has also made seminal discoveries in immunology, and his lab was one of the first to identify the link between HIV infection and immunoreceptor CD4.  In addition to making contributions as a scientist, Axel has also mentored many leading scientists in the field of neurobiology. Seven of his trainees have become members of the National Academy of Sciences, and currently six of his trainees are affiliated with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute's investigator and early scientist award programs.

Awards and honors.

In addition to the Nobel Prize, Axel has won numerous awards and honors. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1983. Axel was awarded the Double Helix Medal in 2007. CSHL Double Helix Medal Honoree and was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 2014. His nomination reads:

Personal life.

Axel is married to fellow scientist and olfaction pioneer Cornelia Bargmann. Previously, he had been married to Ann Axel, who is a social worker at Columbia University Medical Center. Owing to his tall stature, Axel played basketball during high school.

Richard Axel (born July 2, 1946) is an American molecular biologist and university professor in the Department of Neuroscience at Columbia University and investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. His work on the olfactory system won him and Linda Buck, a former postdoctoral research scientist in his group, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2004.

理乍得·阿克塞尔(英语:Richard Axel,1946年-7月2日),美国医学科学家。他由于在嗅觉方面的卓越研究与琳达·巴克一起获得2004年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。


Plot.

United States Naval Aviator LT Pete "Maverick" Mitchell and his Radar Intercept Officer LTJG Nick "Goose" Bradshaw fly the F-14A Tomcat aboard. During an interception with two hostile MiG-28 aircraft, Maverick gets missile lock on one, while the other hostile aircraft locks onto Maverick's wingman, Cougar. While Maverick drives off the remaining MiG-28, Cougar is too shaken to land, and Maverick, defying orders, shepherds him back to the carrier. Cougar gives up his wings, citing his newborn child that he has never seen. Despite his dislike for Maverick's recklessness, CAG "Stinger" sends him and Goose to attend TOPGUN, the Naval Fighter Weapons School at Naval Air Station Miramar.  At a bar the day before Topgun starts, Maverick, assisted by Goose, unsuccessfully approaches a woman. Maverick learns the next day that she is Charlotte "Charlie" Blackwood, an astrophysicist and civilian TOPGUN instructor. Charlie later becomes interested in Maverick upon learning of his inverted maneuver with the MiG-28, which disproves US intelligence on the enemy aircraft's performance.  During Maverick's first training sortie he defeats instructor LCDR Rick "Jester" Heatherly but through reckless flying breaks two rules of engagement and is reprimanded by chief instructor CDR Mike "Viper" Metcalf. Privately, Jester confides that he admires Maverick's skill, but wouldn't trust him as a teammate in combat. Maverick also becomes a rival to top student LT Tom "Iceman" Kazansky, who considers Maverick's attitude "dangerous"—as Maverick's tendency to abandon his team and pursue reckless objectives makes him "unsafe" to fly with. In class, Charlie also objects to Maverick's aggressive tactics but privately admits to him that she admires his flying and omitted it from her reports to hide her feelings for him, and the two begin a romantic relationship.  During a training sortie, Maverick abandons his wingman "Hollywood" to chase Viper, who is impressed with his flying abilities but is defeated when Viper maneuvers Maverick into a position from which his wingman Jester can shoot down Maverick from behind, demonstrating the value of teamwork over individual prowess. Jester publicly tells Maverick that his flying is excellent, but that he should "never leave [his] wingman."  Maverick and Iceman, now direct competitors for the TOPGUN Trophy, chase an A-4 in a later training engagement. Maverick pressures Iceman to break off his engagement so he can shoot it down himself, but Maverick's F-14 flies through the jet wash of Iceman's aircraft and suffers a flameout of both engines, going into an unrecoverable flat spin. Maverick and Goose eject, but Goose hits the jettisoned aircraft canopy head-first and is killed.  Although the board of inquiry clears Maverick of responsibility for Goose's death, he is overcome by guilt and his flying skill diminishes. Charlie and others attempt to console him, but Maverick considers retiring. He seeks advice from Viper, who reveals that he served with Maverick's father Duke Mitchell on and was in the air battle in which Mitchell was killed. Contrary to official reports which faulted Mitchell, Viper reveals classified information that proves Mitchell died heroically and informs Maverick that he can succeed if he can regain his self-confidence. Maverick chooses to graduate, though Iceman wins the TOPGUN Trophy.  During the graduation party, Viper calls in the newly graduated aviators with the orders to deploy. Iceman, Hollywood, and Maverick are ordered to immediately return to "Enterprise" to deal with a "crisis situation", providing air support for the rescue of a stricken ship that has drifted into hostile waters.  Maverick and Merlin (Cougar's former RIO) are assigned as back-up for F-14s flown by Iceman and Hollywood, despite Iceman's reservations over Maverick's state of mind. The subsequent hostile engagement with six MiGs sees Hollywood shot down; Maverick is scrambled alone due to a catapult failure and nearly retreats after encountering circumstances similar to those that caused Goose's death. Upon finally rejoining Iceman, the two are still badly outnumbered, but Maverick vocally refuses to leave Iceman without a wingman and manages to shoot down three MiGs. Iceman, shifting to offense also shoots one down, which forces the other two to flee. Upon their triumphant return to "Enterprise", Iceman and Maverick share newfound respect in each other, and Maverick throws Goose's dog tags overboard.  Offered any assignment he chooses, Maverick decides to return to TOPGUN as an instructor. At a bar in Miramar, Maverick and Charlie reunite.

Production.

Background.

The primary inspiration for the film was the article "Top Guns" by Ehud Yonay, from the May 1983 issue of "California" magazine, which featured aerial photography by then-Lieutenant Commander Charles "Heater" Heatley. The article detailed the life of fighter pilots at Naval Air Station Miramar in San Diego, self-nicknamed as "Fightertown USA". Numerous screenwriters allegedly turned down the project. Bruckheimer and Simpson went on to hire Jim Cash and Jack Epps, Jr., to write the first draft. The research methods, by Epps, included attendance at several declassified Topgun classes at Miramar and gaining experience by being flown in an F-14. The first draft failed to impress Bruckheimer and Simpson, and is considered to be very different from the final product in numerous ways. Tony Scott was hired to direct on the strength of a commercial he had done for Swedish automaker Saab in the early 1980s, where a Saab 900 turbo is shown racing a Saab 37 Viggen fighter jet.  Actor Matthew Modine turned down the role of Pete Mitchell (that went to Tom Cruise) because he felt the film's pro-military stance went against his politics. The character of Chipper Piper was created just for Pasdar as Scott loved his performance.  The producers wanted the assistance of the US Navy in the production of the film. The Navy was influential in relation to script approval, which resulted in changes being made. The opening dogfight was moved to international waters as opposed to Cuba, the language was toned down, and a scene that involved a crash on the deck of an aircraft carrier was also scrapped. Maverick's love interest was also changed from a female enlisted member of the Navy to a civilian contractor with the Navy, due to the US military's prohibition of fraternization between officers and enlisted personnel. The "Charlie" character also replaced an aerobics instructor from an early draft as a love interest for Maverick after producers were introduced to Christine "Legs" Fox, a civilian mathematician employed by the Center for Naval Analyses as a specialist in Maritime Air Superiority (MAS), developing tactics for aircraft carrier defense.  Julianne Phillips was in consideration for the role of Charlie, and had been scheduled to perform a screen test opposite Tom Cruise.  Rear Admiral Pete "Viper" Pettigrew, a former Navy aviator, Vietnam War veteran, and Topgun instructor served as a technical advisor on the film, and also made a cameo appearance in the film as a colleague of Charlie's.  Former Top Gun instructor pilot and Congressman Randy "Duke" Cunningham claimed to have been the inspiration for Pete Mitchell, although the film's producers have denied that the character was based on any specific Naval Aviator.

Filming.

The Navy made several aircraft from F-14 fighter squadron VF-51 "Screaming Eagles" (which Tom Skerritt mentions in the scene at his home) available for the film. Paramount paid as much as US$7,800 per hour (equivalent to $ today) for fuel and other operating costs whenever aircraft were flown outside their normal duties. Shots of the aircraft carrier sequences were filmed aboard USS "Enterprise", showing aircraft from F-14 squadrons VF-114 "Aardvarks" and VF-213 "Black Lions". The majority of the carrier flight deck shots were of normal aircraft operations and the film crew had to take what they could get, save for the occasional flyby which the film crew would request. During filming, director Tony Scott wanted to shoot aircraft landing and taking off, back-lit by the sun. During one particular filming sequence, the ship's commanding officer changed the ship's course, thus changing the light. When Scott asked if they could continue on their previous course and speed, he was informed by the commander that it cost US$25,000 (equivalent to $ today) to turn the ship, and to continue on course. Scott wrote the carrier's captain a US$25,000 check so that the ship could be turned and he could continue shooting for another five minutes.  Most of the sequences of the aircraft maneuvering over land were shot at Naval Air Station Fallon, in Nevada, using ground-mounted cameras. Air-to-air shots were filmed using a Learjet, piloted by Astrovision inventor and legendary pilot Clay Lacy. His name is misspelled in the closing credits, as Clay Lacey. Grumman, manufacturer of the F-14, was commissioned by Paramount Pictures to create camera pods to be placed upon the aircraft that could be pointed toward either the front or rear of the aircraft providing outside shots at high altitude.  In July 1985, Kansas City Barbeque served as a filming location for two scenes. The first scene features Goose and Maverick singing "Great Balls of Fire" while seated at the piano. The final scene, where "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'" can be heard on the restaurant's jukebox, was also filmed at the restaurant. Both scenes were filmed consecutively. After release of the movie, the restaurant went on to collect a significant amount of memorabilia from the motion picture until a kitchen fire on June 26, 2008, destroyed much of the restaurant. Some memorabilia and props, including the original piano used in the film, survived the fire, and the restaurant re-opened in November 2008.  Renowned aerobatic pilot Art Scholl was hired to do in-flight camera work for the film. The original script called for a flat spin, which Scholl was to perform and capture on a camera on the aircraft. The aircraft was observed to spin through its recovery altitude, at which time Scholl radioed "I have a problem... I have a real problem". He was unable to recover from the spin and crashed his Pitts Special bi-plane into the Pacific Ocean off the Southern California coast near Carlsbad on September 16, 1985. Neither Scholl's body nor his aircraft was recovered, leaving the official cause of the accident unknown. "Top Gun" was dedicated to Scholl's memory.  The film was shot in the Super 35 format, as anamorphic lenses were too large to fit inside the cockpits of the fighter jets.

Music.

The "Top Gun" soundtrack is one of the most popular soundtracks to date, reaching 9× Platinum certification and #1 on the "Billboard" Hot 200 albums chart for five nonconsecutive weeks in the summer and fall of 1986. Harold Faltermeyer, who previously worked with both Jerry Bruckheimer and Don Simpson on "Beverly Hills Cop", was sent the script of "Top Gun" by Bruckheimer before filming began. Giorgio Moroder and Tom Whitlock worked on numerous songs including the Oscar-winning "Take My Breath Away". Kenny Loggins performed two songs on the soundtrack, "Playing with the Boys", and "Danger Zone". Berlin recorded the song "Take My Breath Away", which would later win numerous awards, sending the band to international acclaim. After the release of Loggins's single "Danger Zone", sales of the album exploded, selling 7 million in the United States alone. On the re-release of the soundtrack in 2000, two songs that had been omitted from the original album (and had been released many years before the film was made), "Great Balls of Fire" by Jerry Lee Lewis and "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'" by The Righteous Brothers, were added. The soundtrack also includes ""Top Gun" Anthem" and "Memories" by Steve Stevens/Faltermeyer and Faltermeyer.  Other artists were considered for the soundtrack project but did not participate. Bryan Adams was considered as a potential candidate but refused to participate because he felt the film glorified war. The band Toto was originally meant to record "Danger Zone", and had also written and recorded a song "Only You" for the soundtrack. However, there was a dispute between Toto's lawyers and the producers of the film, paving the way for Loggins to record "Danger Zone" and "Only You" being omitted from the film entirely.

Release.

Theatrical.

The film's premiere was held in New York City on May 12, 1986 with another held in San Diego on May 15.  The film opened in the United States in 1,028 theaters on May 16, 1986.

Home media.

In addition to its box office success, "Top Gun" went on to break further records in the then still-developing home video market. It was the first new-release blockbuster on video cassette to be priced as low as $26.95 and, backed by a massive $8 million marketing campaign, including a "Top Gun"-themed Diet Pepsi commercial, the advance demand was such that the film became the best-selling videocassette in the industry's history on pre-orders alone, with over 1.9 million units ordered before its launch on March 10, 1987. It eventually sold a record 2.9 million units.  The film was first released in the U.S. on DVD under Paramount Pictures on October 21, 1998 and included the film in both Widescreen (non-anamorphic Univisium 2.00:1) and Full Screen (open matte) versions. "Top Gun"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s home video success was again reflected by strong DVD sales, which were furthered by a Special Collector's Edition 2-disc DVD release in December 2004 in both Widescreen (anamorphic 2.39:1) and Full Screen (open matte) versions, that include new bonus features. Special features comprise audio commentary by Bruckheimer, Tony Scott and naval experts, four music videos including the "Top Gun Anthem" and "Take My Breath Away", a six-part documentary on the making of "Top Gun", and vintage gallery with interviews, behind-the-scenes and survival training featurettes.  Subsequently, the film was first released on Blu-ray disc on July 29, 2008 with the same supplemental features as the Collector's Edition DVD and also as a 2-disc limited edition 3D copy on February 19, 2013. The remastered Blu-ray and Digital Copy version of the film was released on May 19, 2019 on Paramount Movies. "Top Gun" was released in the U.S. on remastered Blu-ray and 4K Ultra HD on May 19, 2020 with two new special features titled "The Legacy of Top Gun" and "On Your Six: Thirty Years of Top Gun", with the remaining bonus features being ported over.

IMAX 3D re-release.

"Top Gun" was re-released in IMAX 3D on February 8, 2013, for six days. A four-minute preview of the conversion, featuring the "Danger Zone" flight sequence, was screened at the 2012 International Broadcasting Convention in Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Reception.

Box office.

The film quickly became a success and was the highest-grossing film of 1986. It would be six months before its theater count dropped below that of its opening week. It was number one on its first weekend with a gross of US$8,193,052, and went on to a total domestic gross of US$176,781,728. Internationally it took in an estimated US$177,030,000 for a worldwide box office total of US$353,811,728. The film sold an estimated 47,650,100 tickets in North America in its initial theatrical run.  The film grossed an additional US$3,018,873 in its IMAX re-release in 2013 bringing its domestic gross to US$179,800,601 and its worldwide gross to US$356,830,601.

Critical response.

Upon the film's original release, critical response was mixed. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 55% based on reviews from 55 critics, with an average rating of 5.85/10. The website's critical consensus states: "Though it features some of the most memorable and electrifying aerial footage shot with an expert eye for action, "Top Gun" offers too little for non-adolescent viewers to chew on when its characters aren't in the air." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 50 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade A on scale of A to F.  Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 2.5 out of 4 stars, saying that "Movies like "Top Gun" are hard to review because the good parts are so good and the bad parts are so relentless. The dogfights are absolutely the best since Clint Eastwood's electrifying aerial scenes in "Firefox". But look out for the scenes where the people talk to one another."

Awards.

The film was nominated for and won many awards, most prominently for its sound and effects. The film won the following awards:  The film was nominated for the following awards:  In 2008, the film was ranked at number 455 in "Empire"s list of the 500 greatest films of all time. Yahoo! Movies ranked "Top Gun" #19 on their list of greatest action films of all-time. The film was nominated multiple times for various AFI lists, but broke through only once. In 2005, the line "I feel the need... the need for speed!" was ranked 94 on AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes list.

Effect on military recruiting.

Movie producer John Davis said that "Top Gun" was a recruiting video for the Navy, that people saw the movie and said, "Wow! I want to be a pilot." The Navy had recruitment booths in some theaters to attract enthusiastic patrons. After the film's release, the US Navy stated that the number of young men who joined wanting to be Naval Aviators went up by 500 percent.

Foreign affairs.

On January 23, 2011, China's state broadcaster "China Central Television" published a TV news story about the alleged efficiency of Chinese fighter pilots which incorporated footage from the "Top Gun" action sequences. Chinese internet users noticed the plagiarism, whereupon the broadcast was immediately withdrawn. Ironically, this occurred shortly after the initiation of a Chinese campaign to purge such forged reports; CCTV has declined comments on this incident.

In popular culture.

Bomber jacket sales increased and Ray-Ban Aviator sunglasses jumped 40%, due to their use by characters in the film.  Since its initial release, the film has made many top film lists and has been the subject of comedic interpretation.  The 1991 film "Hot Shots!" was a comedy spoof of "Top Gun". Starring Charlie Sheen, Cary Elwes, Valeria Golino, and Lloyd Bridges, the movie revolves around a US Navy pilot who is force to come out of retirement so he can go on a classified mission to bomb Iraq; all while being haunted by his father's death, falling in love with a therapist trying to prevent him from flying, and getting into a rivalry with another pilot. The film is also a parody of other films, such as "9 1/2 Weeks", "The Fabulous Baker Boys", "Dances With Wolves", "Marathon Man", "Rocky", and Gone with the Wind. It would later be followed by a sequel, "Hot Shots! Part Deux", but the film would mostly be a parody of "Rambo".  The masculine theme of the film has been the subject of humorous examination, with the homoerotic subtext examined in a monologue performed by Quentin Tarantino in the 1994 film "Sleep with Me".  "Top Gun" is one of many war and action films, especially those by Jerry Bruckheimer, parodied in the 2004 comedy "".  "Top Gun" along with "A Few Good Men" are recognized for being an inspiration for the TV series "JAG" and the subsequent "NCIS" franchise in turn. "JAG" and "NCIS" are also owned by Paramount.  The DisneyToon Studios film "Planes" (2013), pays homage to "Top Gun" with Val Kilmer and Anthony Edwards appearing in the film as part of the voice cast. In the film, they voice Bravo and Echo, a pair of F/A-18E Super Hornets who helps Dusty Crophopper get to the aircraft carrier so he can refuel and win the "Wings Around the Globe Rally".  Two propaganda Chinese films, 2011's "Jian Shi Chu Ji" ("Skyfighters") and 2017's "Kong Tian Lie" ("Sky Hunter"), were based on "Top Gun".

Sequel.

A sequel has been in active development since at least 2010. However plans were complicated by Scott's death in 2012. In 2013 Bruckheimer said, "For 30 years we've been trying to make a sequel and we're not going to stop. We still want to do it with Tom and Paramount are still interested in making it. What Tom tells me is that no matter where he goes in the world, people refer to him as Maverick. It's something he is excited about so as long as he keeps his enthusiasm hopefully we'll get it made."  By September 2014 it was revealed that Justin Marks was in negotiations to write the screenplay, which was confirmed that following June. Marks would go on later to say that the film was a dream project for him, calling the original an "iconic film in my memory" due in part to it being one of the first films he remembers seeing in a movie theater.  In May 2017, during the promotional tour for "The Mummy", Cruise confirmed that a sequel to "Top Gun" will start filming in 2018. By June of the same year, he said that the title will be "Top Gun: Maverick" with Faltermeyer back as composer for the sequel. Cruise further stated that, "Aviators are back, the need for speed. We're going to have big, fast machines. It's going to be a competition film, like the first one...but a progression for Maverick." Later that month it was announced Joseph Kosinski, who directed Cruise in 2013's "Oblivion", was set to direct the sequel.  The release date has since been pushed back one year to June 2020, and later to December of that same year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. A trailer was released for the first time at ComicCon International on July 18, 2019.

Video games.

"Top Gun" also spawned a number of video games for various platforms. The original game was released in 1986 under the same title as the film. It was released on Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, and Atari ST. Another game, also titled "Top Gun", was released in 1987 for Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) and Nintendo VS. System arcade cabinets. In the 1987 game, the player pilots an F-14 Tomcat fighter, and has to complete four missions. A sequel, "Top Gun: The Second Mission", was released for the NES three years later.  Another game, "", was released in 1996 for the PC and later for the Sony PlayStation platform. "" was released in 1998. "" was released for PlayStation 2 in 2001 and was subsequently released for the GameCube and Microsoft Windows. "Combat Zones" features other aircraft besides the F-14. In 2006, another game simply titled "Top Gun" was released for the Nintendo DS. A 2010 game, also titled "Top Gun", retells the film's story. At E3 2011, a new game was announced, "Top Gun: Hard Lock", which was released in March 2012 for Xbox 360, PC, and PlayStation 3.

Top Gun is a 1986 American action drama film directed by Tony Scott, and produced by Don Simpson and Jerry Bruckheimer, in association with Paramount Pictures. The screenplay was written by Jim Cash and Jack Epps Jr., and was inspired by an article titled "Top Guns" published in "California" magazine three years earlier. The film stars Tom Cruise, Kelly McGillis, Val Kilmer, Anthony Edwards, and Tom Skerritt. It also marked the debut of actor Adrian Pasdar. Cruise plays Lieutenant Pete "Maverick" Mitchell, a young naval aviator aboard the aircraft carrier. He and his Radar Intercept Officer, Nick "Goose" Bradshaw (Edwards) are given the chance to train at the US Navy's Fighter Weapons School at Naval Air Station Miramar in San Diego, California.

,1986年出品的美国电影,是一出以航空母舰与美国海军战斗机武器学校(United States Navy Fighter Weapons School,暱称为「Top Gun」,也就是片名的由来)为背景的励志动作电影。该片上映后缔造了1亿7千6百万美元的美国国内票房与3亿5千3百万美元的全球票房成绩,被誉为是自《火狐狸》("Firefox")之后,最成功的一部空战电影。


Origins.

It may have been a direct translation of a similar phrase in ("it is Greek, [therefore] it cannot be read"). This phrase was increasingly used by monk scribes in the Middle Ages, as knowledge of the Greek alphabet and language was dwindling among those who were copying manuscripts in monastic libraries.  Recorded usage of the metaphor in English traces back to the early modern period. It appears in 1599 in Shakespeare's play "Julius Caesar", as spoken by Servilius Casca to Cassius after a festival in which Caesar was offered a crown: Here, Casca's literal ignorance of Greek is the source of the phrase, using its common meaning to play on the uncertainty among the conspirators about Cicero's attitude to Caesar's increasingly regal behaviour. Shakespeare was not the only author to use the expression.  It was also used in 1603 by Thomas Dekker in his play "Patient Grissel": The expression is almost exclusively used with reference to the speaker (generally "Greek to me"); Dekker's "Greek to him" is rare.

Variations.

Different languages have similar formulations. Many have picked the point of reference to be a foreign language with another alphabet or writing system.  This is an example of the usage of demonyms in relation to the ability of a people to be understood, comparable to the development of the words "barbarian" (one who babbles), "Nemec" (Slavic for "the mute one" indicating Germans).

In other languages.

In an article published by Arnold L. Rosenberg in the language journal "Lingvisticæ Investigationes", he claimed that there was a popular "consensus" that Chinese was the "hardest" language, since various non-English languages most frequently used the Chinese language in their equivalent expression to the English idiom "it's all Greek to me". Also, David Moser of the University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies made the same claim as Arnold L. Rosenberg.

That's Greek to me or it's (all) Greek to me is an idiom in English, expressing that something is difficult to understand.

天书,道家称元始天尊所说之经,或托言天神所赐之书。用来比喻表达方式令人费解的话语或文章。诱因往往是句式杂糅或用词不当,表述上可能有滥用方言、古语、行话、术语、借词、外语、生造词或等缺陷,涉及信息接收者不熟悉的领域。就书面表达而言还可因为字迹潦草或使用特殊文字。另天人、天王、天后等并没有反面之意。在香港和台湾天书是大全、绝世好书之意。惊为天人、惊为天书。


Early life and education.

Tomlinson was born in Amsterdam, New York, but his family soon moved to the small, unincorporated village of Vail Mills, Broadalbin, New York. He attended Broadalbin Central School in nearby Broadalbin, New York. Later he attended Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) in Troy, New York where he participated in the co-op program with IBM. He received a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from RPI in 1963.  After graduating from RPI, he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to continue his electrical engineering education. At MIT, Tomlinson worked in the Speech Communication Group and developed an analog-digital hybrid speech synthesizer as the subject of his thesis for the master's degree in electrical engineering, which he received in 1965.

Career.

In 1967, he joined the technology company of Bolt, Beranek and Newman (now BBN Technologies), where he helped develop the TENEX operating system including the ARPANET Network Control Program, implementations of Telnet, and implementations on the self-replicating programs Creeper and Reaper. He wrote a file transfer program called CPYNET to transfer files through the ARPANET. Tomlinson was asked to change a program called SNDMSG, which sent messages to other users of a time-sharing computer, to run on TENEX. He added code he took from CPYNET to SNDMSG so messages could be sent to users on "other" computers—the first email.  The first email Tomlinson sent was a test. It was not preserved and Tomlinson describes it as insignificant, "something like "QWERTYUIOP"". This is commonly misquoted as "The first e-mail was QWERTYUIOP". Tomlinson later commented that these "test messages were entirely forgettable and I have, therefore, forgotten them."  At first, his email messaging system was not considered important. Its development was not a directive of his employer, with Tomlinson merely pursuing it "because it seemed like a neat idea". When showing the system to a colleague, Tomlinson said "Don't tell anyone! This isn't what we're supposed to be working on".  Tomlinson said he preferred "email" over "e-mail", joking in a 2010 interview that "I'm simply trying to conserve the world's supply of hyphens" and that "the term has been in use long enough to drop the hyphen".

Death.

Tomlinson died at his home in Lincoln, Massachusetts, on March 5, 2016, from a heart attack. He was 74 years old.

Raymond Samuel Tomlinson (April 23, 1941 – March 5, 2016) was a pioneering American computer programmer who implemented the first email program on the ARPANET system, the precursor to the Internet, in 1971; he is internationally known and credited as the inventor of email. It was the first system able to send mail between users on different hosts connected to ARPANET. Previously, mail could be sent only to others who used the same computer. To achieve this, he used the @ sign to separate the user name from the name of their machine, a scheme which has been used in email addresses ever since. The Internet Hall of Fame in its account of his work commented "Tomlinson's email program brought about a complete revolution, fundamentally changing the way people communicate".

雷蒙德·塞缪尔·汤姆林森(英语:Raymond Samuel Tomlinson,1941年-4月23日-2016年-3月5日),暱称雷·汤姆林森(英语:Ray Tomlinson),美国程序员,以发明电子邮件而知名,被誉为“电子邮件之父”。


Testing.

The boundary scan architecture provides a means to test interconnects (including clusters of logic, memories, etc.) without using physical test probes; this involves the addition of at least one "test cell" that is connected to each pin of the device and that can selectively override the functionality of that pin. Each test cell may be programmed via the JTAG scan chain to drive a signal onto a pin and thus across an individual trace on the board; the cell at the destination of the board trace can then be read, verifying that the board trace properly connects the two pins. If the trace is shorted to another signal or if the trace is open, the correct signal value does not show up at the destination pin, indicating a fault.

On-chip infrastructure.

To provide the boundary scan capability, IC vendors add additional logic to each of their devices, including scan cells for each of the external traces. These cells are then connected together to form the external boundary scan shift register (BSR), and combined with JTAG TAP (Test Access Port) controller support comprising four (or sometimes more) additional pins plus control circuitry.  Some TAP controllers support scan chains between on-chip logical design blocks, with JTAG instructions which operate on those internal scan chains instead of the BSR. This can allow those integrated components to be tested as if they were separate chips on a board. On-chip debugging solutions are heavy users of such internal scan chains.  These designs are part of most Verilog or VHDL libraries. Overhead for this additional logic is minimal, and generally is well worth the price to enable efficient testing at the board level.  For normal operation, the added boundary scan latch cells are set so that they have no effect on the circuit, and are therefore effectively invisible. However, when the circuit is set into a test mode, the latches enable a data stream to be shifted from one latch into the next. Once a complete data word has been shifted into the circuit under test, it can be latched into place so it drives external signals. Shifting the word also generally returns the input values from the signals configured as inputs.

Test mechanism.

As the cells can be used to force data into the board, they can set up test conditions. The relevant states can then be fed back into the test system by clocking the data word back so that it can be analyzed.  By adopting this technique, it is possible for a test system to gain test access to a board. As most of today's boards are very densely populated with components and tracks, it is very difficult for test systems to physically access the relevant areas of the board to enable them to test the board. Boundary scan makes access possible without always needing physical probes.  In modern chip and board design, Design For Test is a significant issue, and one common design artifact is a set of boundary scan test vectors, possibly delivered in Serial Vector Format (SVF) or a similar interchange format.

JTAG test operations.

Devices communicate to the world via a set of input and output pins. By themselves, these pins provide limited visibility into the workings of the device. However, devices that support boundary scan contain a shift-register cell for each signal pin of the device. These registers are connected in a dedicated path around the device's boundary (hence the name). The path creates a virtual access capability that circumvents the normal inputs and provides direct control of the device and detailed visibility at its outputs. The contents of the boundary scan are usually described by the manufacturer using a part-specific BSDL file.  Among other things, a BSDL file will describe each digital signal exposed through pin or ball (depending on the chip packaging) exposed in the boundary scan, as part of its definition of the Boundary Scan Register (BSR). A description for two balls might look like this:  That shows two balls on a mid-size chip (the boundary scan includes about 620 such lines, in a 361-ball BGA package), each of which has three components in the BSR: a control configuring the ball (as input, output, what drive level, pullups, pulldowns, and so on); one type of output signal; and one type of input signal.  There are JTAG instructions to SAMPLE the data in that boundary scan register, or PRELOAD it with values.  During testing, I/O signals enter and leave the chip through the boundary-scan cells. Testing involves a number of test vectors, each of which drives some signals and then verifies that the responses are as expected. The boundary-scan cells can be configured to support external testing for interconnection between chips (EXTEST instruction) or internal testing for logic within the chip (INTEST instruction).

Board test infrastructure.

Typically high-end commercial JTAG testing systems allow the import of design 'netlists' from CAD/EDA systems plus the BSDL models of boundary scan/JTAG compliant devices to automatically generate test applications. Common types of test include  When used during manufacturing, such systems also support non-test but affiliated applications such as in-system programming of various types of flash memory: NOR, NAND, and serial (I2C or SPI). Such commercial systems are used by board test professionals and will often cost several thousand dollars for a fully-fledged system. They can include diagnostic options to accurately pin-point faults such as open circuits and shorts and may also offer schematic or layout viewers to depict the fault in a graphical manner. Tests developed with such tools are frequently combined with other test systems such as in-circuit testers (ICTs) or functional board test systems.

Debugging.

The boundary scan architecture also provides functionality which helps developers and engineers during development stages of an embedded system. A JTAG Test Access Port (TAP) can be turned into a low-speed logic analyzer.

History.

James B. Angell at Stanford University proposed serial testing.  IBM developed level-sensitive scan design (LSSD).

Boundary scan is a method for testing interconnects (wire lines) on printed circuit boards or sub-blocks inside an integrated circuit. Boundary scan is also widely used as a debugging method to watch integrated circuit pin states, measure voltage, or analyze sub-blocks inside an integrated circuit.

边界扫描(英语:Boundary scan)是一种检查印刷电路板上的连线或是积体电路中模组的方式。边界扫描也可以当作是一种调试的方式。