History.

Founding.

The origins of The University of Hong Kong can be traced back to the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese founded in 1887 by Ho Kai later known as Sir Kai Ho Kai, which was later incorporated as the university's faculty of medicine. It was renamed the Hong Kong College of Medicine in 1907. The college became HKU's medical school in 1911.  The University of Hong Kong was founded in 1911. Governor Sir Frederick Lugard had proposed to establish a university in Hong Kong to compete with the other Great Powers opening universities in China, most notably Prussia, which had just opened the Tongji German Medical School in Shanghai. Sir Hormusjee Naorojee Mody, an Indian Parsi businessman in Hong Kong, learned of Lugard's plan and pledged to donate HK$150,000 towards the construction and HK$30,000 towards other costs. The Hong Kong Government and the business sector in southern China, which were both equally eager to learn "secrets of the West's success" (referring to technological advances made since the Industrial Revolution), also gave their support. The Government contributed a site at West Point. Swire Group contributed £40,000 to endow a chair in Engineering, in addition to thousands of dollars in equipment (its aim was partly to bolster its corporate image following the death of a passenger on board one of its ships, SS "Fatshan", and the subsequent unrest stirred by the Self-Government Society). Along with donations from other donors including the British Government and companies such as HSBC, Lugard finally had enough to fund the building of the university.  Charles Eliot was appointed HKU's first Vice-Chancellor. As Governor of Hong Kong, Lugard laid the foundation stone of the Main Building on 16 March 1910 and hoped that the university would educate more Chinese people in British "imperial values", as opposed to those of other Western powers. The university was incorporated in Hong Kong as a self-governing body of scholars on 30 March 1911 and had its official opening ceremony on 11 March 1912. It was founded as an all-male institution; women students were admitted for the first time ten years later.  As Lugard felt that the Chinese society at the time was not suited to ideals such as communism, the university originally emulated the University of Manchester in emphasising the sciences over the humanities. It opened with three founding faculties, Arts, Engineering and Medicine. The Faculty of Medicine was founded as the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese by the London Missionary Society in 1887. Of the College's early alumni, the most renowned was Sun Yat-sen, who led the Chinese Revolution of 1911 which changed China from an empire to a republic. In December 1916, the university held its first convocation, with 23 graduates and five honorary graduates.

Move towards Chinese cultural education, and WW2.

After the Canton-Hong Kong strikes of 1925 and 1926, the government moved towards greater integration of Eastern culture, increasing the number of Chinese courses. In 1927, a degree in Chinese was created. Donations from wealthy businessmen Tang Chi Ngong and Fung Ping Shan – after whom two campus buildings are named – triggered an emphasis on Chinese cultural education. In 1937, the Queen Mary Hospital opened. It has served as the university's teaching hospital ever since. In 1941, the Japanese invasion of Hong Kong caused damage to university buildings, and the university closed until 1945, during this period, the Medical College of The University of Hong Kong moved to Chengdu to run a school.

1945 to 2001.

After the end of the Second World War, the university reopened and investment in law and the social sciences increased as post-war reconstruction efforts began in earnest. The Faculty of Social Sciences was established in 1967 and the Department of Law in 1969. The student population in 1961 was 2,000, quadrupled from 1941, and in 1980 the number of students exceeded 5,500.  In 1982, the Faculty of Dentistry, based at the Prince Philip Dental Hospital, was established. To this day, it remains Hong Kong's only faculty training dental professionals. In 1984, both the School of Architecture and School of Education became fully-fledged faculties and in the same year the Faculty of Law was created. The Faculty of Business and Economics was established in 2001 as the university's tenth and youngest faculty.  After 1989, the Hong Kong government began to emphasise local tertiary education in order to retain local students who would otherwise have studied abroad in the United Kingdom. Student places and course variety were greatly increased in preparation for the handover of Hong Kong. By 2001, the number of students had grown to 14,300 and the number of degree courses to over a hundred.

2001 to present.

In 2002, "Growing with Hong Kong: HKU and its Graduates – The First 90 Years" was published by the Hong Kong University Press as a study of the impact of HKU's graduates on Hong Kong.  In January 2006, despite protest from a portion of students and alumni, the Faculty of Medicine was renamed as the Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine "as a recognition of the generosity" of Li Ka Shing and his foundation, which pledged HK$1 billion in support of the university's "general development as well as research and academic activities in medicine".  On 16 August 2011, Li Keqiang, Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China, began a three-day visit to promote development between Hong Kong and mainland China. The university was locked down. The mishandling by the police force caused the Hong Kong 818 incident. In a statement to the HKU community, the university vice-chancellor Professor Lap-chee Tsui admitted that the security arrangements could have been better planned and organised, and apologised to students and alumni for not having been able to prevent the incident. He assured them that "the University campus belongs to students and teachers, and that it will always remain a place for freedom of expression". On 30 August 2011, the university council resolved to set up a panel to review issues arising from the vice premier's visit, to improve arrangements and to set up policies for future university events that are consistent with its commitment to freedom of expression.  From 2010 to 2012, the university celebrated its 100th anniversary and the opening of the Centennial Campus at the western end of the university site in Pok Fu Lam. The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Hospital (also known as Binhai Hospital), which is operated by the university, also opened in 2011.  On 10 April 2015, HKU declared itself as the first university in the world to join HeForShe, a UN initiative urging men to achieve more female rights. The university promised that it would triple the number of female dean-level members by 2020, so that more than 1 out of 5 deans would be women.  On 15 December 2017, the university's governing council appointed UC Berkeley nanoscience professor Xiang Zhang to the posts of President and Vice-Chancellor with effect from January 2018. Zhang was the first vice-chancellor of the university born in mainland China and educated to undergraduate degree level there.

2015 political interference.

The HKU Council made headlines in 2015 for alleged political interference behind the selection process for a new pro-vice chancellor. A selection committee unanimously recommended the council appoint Johannes Chan to the post, which involved the responsibility for staffing and resources, and which had been left vacant for five years. Chan, the former dean of the Faculty of Law, was a distinguished scholar in constitutional law and human rights and "a vocal critic on Hong Kong’s political reform issues". Owing to his liberal political stance, Chan was roundly criticised by Communist Party-controlled media including "Wen Wei Po", "Ta Kung Pao", and "Global Times", which together published at least 350 articles attacking him.  Customarily the HKU Council accepts the recommendations of search committees for senior posts, with no prior recommendation having been rejected by the council. The council was criticised when it delayed the decision to appoint Chan, stating that it should wait until a new provost was in place. Finally, in September 2015, the council rejected Chan's appointment (12 votes to eight) through an anonymous vote in a closed meeting, providing no reason for the decision. Political interference was widely suspected and the opacity of the council criticised.  The decision is seen widely viewed as a pro-government act of retaliation against "pro-democracy leaders and participants" and a blow to academic freedom. Six members of the council are directly appointed by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, who acts as chancellor of all publicly funded tertiary institutions in the territory. Five members are delegates to the National People’s Congress in Beijing and, as such, are obliged to toe the Communist Party line or risk expulsion. In overall Council makeup, university students and staff are outnumbered by members from outside the university.  The decision was decried by student groups including the Hong Kong University Students’ Union and Hong Kong Federation of Students, faculty members, leading international law scholars, and legislators. They noted that the decision would serve as a warning to other academics not to engage in pro-democratic politics and would severely tarnish Hong Kong's reputation for academic freedom and education excellence. The law faculty also refuted the allegations against Chan. Billy Fung, student union president, revealed details of the discussion to the public and was subsequently expelled from the council.

Campus.

The university's main campus covers 160,000 square metres of land on Pokfulam Road and Bonham Road in Lung Fu Shan of Hong Kong Island. The university also has a few buildings in Sandy Bay Gap. HKU buildings are some of the few remaining examples of British Colonial architecture in Hong Kong. The university lends its name to HKU Station, the main public transport access to the campus opened in 2014.  The Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine is situated 4.5 km southwest of the main campus, in the Southern District near Sandy Bay and Pokfulam. The medical campus includes Queen Mary Hospital, the William M.W. Mong Building and research facilities. The Faculty of Dentistry is situated in the Prince Philip Dental Hospital, Sai Ying Pun.  The university also operates the Kadoorie Agricultural Research Centre, which occupies 95,000 square metres of land in the New Territories, and the Swire Institute of Marine Science at the southern tip of the d'Aguilar Peninsula on Hong Kong Island.

Main building.

Constructed between 1910 and 1912, the Main Building is the university's oldest structure and was sponsored by Sir Hormusjee Naorojee Mody and designed by Architect Messrs Leigh & Orange. It is built in the post-renaissance style with red brick and granite and has two courtyards. The main elevation is articulated by four turrets with a central clock tower (a gift from Sir Paul Chater in 1930). The two courtyards were added in the south in 1952 and one floor in the end block in 1958. The building was originally used as classrooms and laboratories for the Faculty of Medicine and Engineering and was later the home of departments within the Faculty of Arts. The central Great Hall (Loke Yew Hall) is named after Loke Yew, a Malayan benefactor of the university in its early years. It became a declared monument in 1984.

Swire building.

In around 1980, the Swire Group sponsored the building of a new residential hall in the eastern end of the campus. Because of the sponsorship, the new student residence was named Swire Building. The building was officially opened by Mr. John Anthony Swire on 11 November 1980. In 1983, the colour orange was chosen to be the hall colour in the second Annual General Meeting since the colour was used as the background colour during the first open day of Swire Hall and no other halls were using orange as their hall colour.  In 1983, Mrs. J. Lau (Director of Centre Media Resources) provided a design for the hall logo. The Swire Hall Students' Association, HKUSU, then made some amendments to that design. The logo shows the words 'S' and 'H'. The design of the word 'S' looks like two hands holding each other, signifying that all hall-mates should co-operate with each other, and promoting the hall motto 'Unity and Sincerity'.

Hung Hing Ying Building.

Financed by Sir Paul Chater, Professor G. P. Jordan and others, it was opened in 1919 by the Governor of Hong Kong Sir Reginald Stubbs and housed the students' union. After World War II, the building was used temporarily for administrative purposes. The East Wing was added in 1960. The building was converted into the Senior Common Room in 1974. It was named in honour of Mr Hung Hing Ying in 1986 for his family's donations to the university. The building was subsequently used again for administrative purposes, and housed Department of Music until early 2013. It is currently used by the Development & Alumni Affairs Office. The two-storey Edwardian style structure is characterised by a central dome and the use of red brick to emulate the Main Building opposite. The building became a declared monument in 1995.

Tang Chi Ngong Building.

The idea to establish a school of Chinese was proposed in the inter-war period. Construction of the premises began in 1929 following a donation from Tang Chi-ngong, father of the philanthropist Sir Tang Shiu-kin, after whom the building was named. It was opened by Sir William Peel, Governor of Hong Kong, in 1931 and since then further donations have been received for the endowment of teaching Chinese language and literature. The building has been used for other purposes since the 1970s but the name remained unchanged. At present, it houses the Centre of Asian Studies. This three-storey flat-roofed structure is surfaced with Shanghai plaster and became a declared monument in 1995.

Centennial campus.

To provide additional space for students under the new four-year undergraduate curriculum the Centennial Campus was built at the western end of the main campus, which was previously occupied by the Water Supplies Department. The construction of the campus started in late 2009, and was completed in 2012, the first year of the introduction of the new academic structure in Hong Kong. In 2012, the Faculty of Arts, the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Social Sciences moved to the Centennial Campus.

Academics.

Admission.

Admission to HKU is highly competitive. In 2016, the university received around 40,000 applications for undergraduate studies, over 16,000 of which were from outside the Hong Kong schools' system. For Mainland China applicants, the enrollment rate was 1 student for every 21 applications. According to a survey done by the "Education18.com" (The Hong Kong Education Net), HKU enrolled students with the best performance in HKDSE examination in 2012. Internationally, applicants with more than 5 A*s in their GCE A-Levels, 75/75 in the Taiwan GSAT, 45/45 in IB, and 16 5** Zhuangyuan () (the top Gaokao scoring students in their province or city in mainland China) are amongst those matriculated into the University. The latest Global Admissions Profile, with information and data about last year's admission and current international opportunities for those admitted, and the International Admissions Brochure, with information about applications for admission, are available on the HKU website.  Undergraduate candidates are selected according to their relative merit in the local public examination (HKDSEE) and apply online via JUPAS. Other applicants, including overseas students or ones taking other examinations, are classified as non-JUPAS applicants who are required to apply via the official website, where postgraduate applications may also be made.

Teaching and learning.

Most undergraduate courses are 4-year degrees while the medical and nursing programmes require two and one more year(s) of studies respectively. English is the main medium of instruction, and the University's Senate has endorsed English as the campus lingua franca. Starting from 2012, local students are required to take Academic English courses and Chinese language enhancement courses; however, students who are native-speakers of languages other than Chinese, and students who have not studied Chinese language in their secondary curriculum can be exempted from the Chinese course requirement. Cantonese credit-courses for Mainland Chinese and Taiwan students, and "ab initio" Mandarin Chinese and Cantonese credit-courses for international and exchange students are offered by the Chinese Language Centre, School of Chinese.

Research.

The university is a founding member of Universitas 21, an international consortium of research-led universities, and a member of the Association for Pacific Rim Universities, the Association of Commonwealth Universities, Washington University in St. Louis’s McDonnell International Scholars Academy, and many others. HKU benefits from a large operating budget supplied by high levels of government funding compared to many Western countries. In 2018/19, the Research Grants Council (RGC) granted HKU a total research funding of HK$12,127 million (41.3% of overall RGC funding), which was the highest among all universities in Hong Kong. HKU professors were among the highest paid in the world as well, having salaries far exceeding those of their US counterparts in private universities. However, with the reduction of salaries in recent years, this is no longer the case.  HKU research output, researchers, projects, patents and theses are profiled and made publicly available in the HKU Scholars Hub. 100 members of academic staff (>10% of professoriate staff) from HKU are ranked among the world's top 1% of scientists by the Thomson Reuters' Essential Science Indicators, by means of the citations recorded on their publications. The university has the largest number of research postgraduate students in Hong Kong, making up approximately 10% of the total student population. All ten faculties and departments provide teaching and supervision for research (MPhil and PhD) students with administration undertaken by the Graduate School.

Libraries and museums.

HKU Libraries (HKUL) was established in 1912, being the oldest academic library in Hong Kong with over 2.3 million current holdings. It comprises the Main Library and six specialist branch libraries: the Dental, Education, Fung Ping Shan (East Asian Language), Yu Chun Keung Medical, Lui Che Woo Law, and Music libraries. They are located in buildings around the campus with varying opening hours. A web-based library catalogue, DRAGON, allows one to search HKUL's books, journals and other resources.  The HKUL Digital Initiatives, through its digitisation projects, has opened up online access to local collections originally in print format. The first HKUL Digital Initiative, ExamBase, was launched in 1996 and other projects of scholarly interests were introduced. More digital projects are being developed to provide continuous access to digital content and services. It provides open access to Chinese and English academic and medical periodicals published in Hong Kong.  The three-storey Fung Ping Shan Building was erected in 1932 originally as a library for Chinese books. Named after its donor, the building consists of masonry on the ground level surmounted by a two-storey red-brick structure with ornamental columns topped by a pediment over its entrance. Since 1962, the Chinese books collection, now known as the Fung Ping Shan Library, was transferred to the university's Main Library and the whole building was converted into a museum for Chinese art and archaeology. Among its collections are ceramics, pottery and bronze sculptures. In 1996, the lowest three floors of the new Tsui Building were added to the old building to form the University Museum and Art Gallery.

Reputation and rankings.

HKU admits the highest number of top scorers from the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examinations. In terms of internationalization, HKU is ranked as the most international university in the world by the Times Higher Education 2019, 3rd in the world for International Outlook and 7th in the world for International Collaboration. Three broad subject areas are currently ranked #1 in the world for International Outlook by the Times Higher Education, namely, Engineering & Technology, Arts & Humanities, and Clinical, Pre-clinical & Health. "China's Alumni Association" placed it among the "6-Star Greater China's Universities" (the highest level) and it also topped the Association's "2014 Ranking of Institutions with the Most Best Disciplines in HK, Macau and Taiwan".  HKU’s Dental Faculty is currently ranked #1 in the world.  HKU's Faculty of Education is currently ranked #3 in the world.  HKU's MBA program was considered one of the best in Asia by "the Economist's 2019 ranking" where it was ranked 67th worldwide (2nd in Asia) while the "Global MBA Rankings (2019)" ranked it 41st (7th in Asia). HKU's EMBA-Global Asia: Columbia/HKU/LBS came 4th in the world (4th in Asia) whilst the HKU-Fudan IMBA programme came 35th (18th in Asia) in the "Financial Times EMBA Rankings" (2018).

Student life.

Student welfare is served by several units, including the Centre of Development and Resources for Students (CEDARS), which provides guidance for most areas of student life including career counselling, and the University Health Service, which provides health care, referrals and preventive services.

Demographics.

According to the latest profile indicators, the student population of the university was 21,652 in 2008–2009, comprising 11,962 undergraduates, 7,326 taught postgraduates and 2,364 research postgraduates. In recent years, it has become a popular choice for international students, with 6,814 non-local students on campus (including exchange students) from 83 countries in 2012.

Halls and colleges.

There are 20 residential halls and colleges for undergraduates, postgraduates and visitors.  The residential halls include:  Moreover, there are three non-residential halls:

Student organisations.

Two officially recognised student bodies, the Hong Kong University Students' Union (HKUSU) and the Postgraduate Students Association (PGSA), give opportunities for students to participate in extracurricular activities. HKUSU existed in one form or another since 1912 and represents both undergraduate and postgraduate students, while its membership mainly consists of undergraduates. PGSA focuses on postgraduate students.  HKUSU offers more than a hundred clubs and associations for students. This organisation is renowned amongst student activists, having been the main driving force behind evicting a chancellor in recent years. There was controversy when the head of the union, Ayo Chan, said that some of the protesters involved in the Tiananmen Square massacre had acted irrationally. Many students thought his remarks were offensive and he was ousted by a vote in under one week. The Postgraduate Students Association represents the university's postgraduate students.

Study abroad programme.

Through the Exchange Buddy Program, students from abroad can choose to be matched with local students whom they can correspond with before they arrive in Hong Kong. These local students greet the visiting students upon arrival at the airport, help them to settle into student residence and offer advice and support during their stay.  Every year, over 1,000 undergraduates participate in exchange programmes. As part of their HKU degree, they study at universities spanning 40 countries around the world with the support of the University Grants Committee, University of Hong Kong Foundation for Educational Development and Research, Hongkong Bank Foundation, UBC Alumni Association (Hong Kong), Dr. Lee Shiu Scholarships for Hong Kong and South-East Asia Academic Exchange, Shell (Hong Kong) Limited, C. V. Starr Scholarship Fund, and others. The university welcomes a similar number of students from those 340 partner universities onto the HKU campus to study each year.

Organisation and administration.

Governance.

Prior to Hong Kong's handover, the colony's Governor was the de jure chancellor of the University. That role was assumed by the city's Chief Executive following the handover.  The Chief Executive's role as the university's Chancellor is enshrined in the "University of Hong Kong Ordinance".  For a list of pre and post-handover university chancellors, refer to the articles for the Governor of Hong Kong and the Chief Executive of Hong Kong.

The Court.

The Court is a large overseeing and legislative body comprising University and lay members. The purpose of the Court is to represent the wider interests of the communities served by the University. It has the power to make, repeal and amend statutes.

The Senate.

The Senate is the principal academic authority of the University. It is responsible for all academic matters and welfare of students. Its 50 members are mainly academic staff while there are also student representatives.

The Council Membership.

The Council is the body which governs the university. It is responsible for the management of financial and human resources of the university and for the university’s future developments. The council comprises university members (both staff and students) and lay members (i.e. neither staff nor students of the university), with a ratio of lay to university members of 2:1 members are serving on the council as trustees in their personal capacity.  The Chief Executive of Hong Kong has the power to appoint the chairman and six other members of the 24-person council. The vice-chancellor is in turn appointed by the council, although two seats are vacant.  The university has ten faculties, namely the Faculties of Architecture, Arts, Business & Economics, Dentistry, Education, Engineering, Law, Science, and Social Sciences, and the Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, alongside a graduate school and a number of non-faculty academic units, which provide various study programmes and courses for students. The medium of instruction in most classes is English.  Additionally, HKU operates two associate institutions:

Shield, motto and coat of arms.

The design of the university's shield of arms was proposed to the College of Arms by the university in October 1912. On 14 May 1913, the shield, along with two mottoes (one in Latin, one in Chinese) was granted by the College of Arms. The field resembles the lions on the coat of arms of England, whereas the book on the shield is a common reference to university's role in learning and knowledge.  The Latin motto "Sapientia et Virtus" is translated into English as "Wisdom and Virtue". The Chinese motto on the pages of the opened book, written from top to bottom, right to left in accordance with traditional Chinese writing direction, contains two phrases: 明德 ("ming tak") and 格物 ("kak mat"), meaning "illustrious virtue" and "the investigation of things" respectively. The first phrase "ming tak" makes homage to the opening sentence of classic Confucian Classical Chinese literature the Great Learning, in which the author discusses the three great duties of a ruler: illustrious virtue, the renewal of the people, and repose in the highest good. The second phrase "kak mat" is a reference to the writing of Confucian scholar Zhu Xi 致知在格物 (lit. exhausting by examination the principles of things and affairs). The phrase occurs in discussion regarding how wise rulers set about cultivating wisdom and virtue. If one desires to rectify their heart, they must first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they must first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things.  In 1981, the year of the university's 70th anniversary, an application was made to the College of Arms for a full achievement of arms, which was granted in 1984, comprising the original shield and mottoes with the addition of a crest, supporters, a helmet and compartment. The supporters of the coat of arms are a Chinese dragon and a lion representing Britain, indicating the university's aspiration to blend East and West cultures, from the foundation by British people in Hong Kong and the later development of the university's research and studies in both west and east culture and technology, whereas the compartment is an allusion to Hong Kong Island, where the university is located.

University anthem.

The recording of the reconstructed University Anthem was recorded by the Hong Kong Sinfonietta, the Diocesan Choral Society and HKU Students' Union Choir, conducted by the Sinfonietta's musical director, Yip Wing-sie, with new orchestration by Dr Chan Hing-yan, Chairperson of the Department of Music.

Notable alumni.

The University of Hong Kong has educated many notable alumni in many varied fields. Among them is Dr Sun Yat-sen, the founder of the Republic of China, who was a graduate of the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, the predecessor of HKU. Over 40 principal officials, permanent secretaries, Executive Council and Legislative Council members of the Hong Kong SAR Government are HKU graduates. HKU graduates also form the senior management teams of many large organisations in the private sector.

The University of Hong Kong (HKU) is a public research university in Hong Kong. Founded in 1911, its origins trace back to the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, which was founded in 1887. It is the oldest tertiary institution in Hong Kong. HKU was also the first university established by the British Empire in East Asia.

香港大学,简称港大(英语:The University of Hong Kong,缩写:英语:HKU),是香港的一所公立研究型大学,大学本部位于香港岛的薄扶林。香港大学成立于1911年,并于1912年3月11日正式办学,是香港最早建立的高等教育机构。成立之初,更是大英帝国在东亚成立的唯一一间大学。


Design.

The "Forrestal" class was the first completed class of "supercarriers" of the Navy, so called because of their then-extraordinarily high tonnage (75,000 tons, 25% larger than the post-World War II-era ), full integration of the angled deck, very large island, and most importantly their extremely strong air wing (80–100 jet aircraft, compared to 65–75 for the "Midway" class and fewer than 50 for the ). and were laid down as axial deck carriers and converted to angled deck ships while under construction; and were laid down as angled deck ships and had various minor improvements compared to the first two. The most visible differences were between the first pair and second pair: "Forrestal" and "Saratoga" were completed with two island masts, an open fantail, and a larger flight deck segment forward of the port aircraft elevator; "Ranger" and "Independence" had a single island mast, a more closed fantail (as seen in all carriers since), and a smaller flight deck segment forward of the port aircraft elevator. Compared to the "Midway" class, the "Forrestal"s were longer and nearly wider abeam, resulting in a far more stable and comfortable aircraft platform even in very rough weather. When commissioned, the "Forrestal"-class ships had the roomiest hangar decks and largest flight decks of any carrier ever built. Because of their immense size they were built to a new, deep-hulled design that incorporated the armored flight deck into the hull (previous American design practice was to design the flight deck as superstructure). This was a very similar structural design as used on British "armored" carriers, and grew out of the requirement for such a very large carrier, because carrying the strength deck at the flight deck level produced a stronger and lighter hull. The "Midway"-class ships sat very low in the water and were poor sea boats through their long careers; they were very wet forward and their aviation characteristics were poor. The deeper "Forrestal" hull allowed the ships more freeboard and better seakeeping. The "Forrestal"-class carriers, like the "Midway" class that preceded it, were designed with armored flight decks. "Forrestal"-class ships were the first examples of supercarriers and thus not quite a perfected design; their elevators in particular were badly arranged for aircraft handling. The portside elevator, a relic of the original axial-deck design, was especially poorly suited, as it was located at the fore end of the angled deck, in the landing path as well as the launch path of aircraft from the No. 3 and No. 4 catapults. The subsequent moved the portside elevator to the aft end of the angle and reversed the position of the island and the second starboard elevator, vastly improving aircraft handling. The sponson-mounted guns suffered from poor range and complicated firing arcs, and were located in very wet and thus nearly useless positions in the bow and stern. They were removed after only a few years and were later replaced by missiles and much later by close-in weapon systems (CIWS). The aft guns in "Forrestal" lasted until the fire in 1967, then were removed and eventually replaced by missiles in the mid-70s.  The original design of the "Forrestal"-class ships would have had a very small, retractable island; this design had numerous problems (the mechanism to raise and lower the island was never perfected before the angled deck was added to the design) and smoke fouling of the deck was expected to be a severe problem due to lack of adequate venting. The redesign to an angled deck allowed a very large island, much larger than on previous carriers, giving unprecedented flexibility and control in air operations.  In the late 1990s, the US offered Brazil a "Forrestal"-class carrier, but the offer was declined on the grounds of significant operating costs; Brazil instead received from France the aircraft carrier, which was renamed.  All four ships have been struck from the Naval Vessel Register. Although one, ex-"Ranger", had at one time been on donation hold as a potential museum ship, as of July 2017 it and two others have been dismantled, with the fourth's scrapping underway in Brownsville, TX.

The "Forrestal"-class aircraft carriers were four aircraft carriers designed and built for the United States Navy in the 1950s. It was the first class of supercarriers, combining high tonnage, deck-edge elevators and an angled deck. The first ship was commissioned in 1955, the last decommissioned in 1998.

福莱斯特级航空母舰(Forrestal-class)是美国海军在第二次世界大战结束后,首批为配合喷射机的诞生而建造的航空母舰。在本级船舰开始发展前,美国海军原本预计建造一系列为数5艘的美国级航空母舰,但计划因种种原因而取消。本级航空母舰的一号舰以已故美国国防部长詹姆斯·福莱斯特(James Forrestal)命名为福莱斯特号,亦成为本舰级命名。


Characteristics.

The lesser flamingo is the smallest species of flamingo, though it is a tall and large bird by most standards. The species can weigh from. The standing height is around. The total length (from beak to tail) and wingspan are in the same range of measurements, from. Most of the plumage is pinkish white. The clearest difference between this species and the greater flamingo, the only other Old World species of flamingo, is the much more extensive black on the bill. Size is less helpful unless the species are together, since the sexes of each species also differ in height.  The lesser flamingo may be the most numerous species of flamingo, with a population that (at its peak) probably numbered up to two million individual birds. This species feeds primarily on "Spirulina", algae which grow only in very alkaline lakes. Presence of flamingo groups near water bodies is indication of sodic alkaline water which is not suitable for irrigation use. Although blue-green in colour, the algae contain the photosynthetic pigments that give the birds their pink colour. Their deep bill is specialised for filtering tiny food items.  Lesser flamingos are prey to a variety of species, including marabou stork, baboon, African fish eagle, African wildcat, and African golden wolf.

Breeding.

In Africa, where they are most numerous, the lesser flamingos breed principally on the highly caustic Lake Natron in northern Tanzania. Their other African breeding sites are at Etosha Pan, Sua Pan, and Kamfers Dam. The last confirmed breeding at Aftout es Saheli in coastal Mauritania was in 1965. Breeding occurred at Lake Magadi in Kenya in 1962 when Lake Natron was unsuitable due to flooding. In the early 20th century, breeding was also observed at Lake Nakuru.  The species also breeds in southwestern and southern Asia. In 1974, they bred at the Rann of Kutch, but since then, only at the Zinzuwadia and Purabcheria salt pans in northwestern India. Some movement of individuals occurs between Africa and India.  Like all flamingos, they lay a single chalky-white egg on a mound they build of mud. Chicks join creches soon after hatching, sometimes numbering over 100,000 individuals. The creches are marshalled by a few adult birds that lead them by foot to fresh water, a journey that can reach over.

Conservation.

Despite being the most numerous species of flamingo, it is classified as near threatened due to its declining population and the low number of breeding sites, some of which are threatened by human activities.  The population in the two key East African lakes, Nakuru and Bogoria, have been adversely affected in recent years by suspected heavy metal poisoning, while its primary African breeding area in Lake Natron is currently under threat by a proposed soda ash plant by Tata Chemicals. The only breeding site in South Africa, situated at Kamfers Dam, is threatened by pollution and encroaching development.  The lesser flamingo is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds applies.

The lesser flamingo ("Phoeniconaias minor") is a species of flamingo occurring in sub-Saharan Africa, with another population in India. Birds are occasionally reported from further north, but these are generally considered vagrants.

小红鹳(学名:'),又名小火烈鸟,是一种栖息在非洲及南亚的火烈鸟。


Early life and career under Lysimachus.

He was born in Tieium (Greek: "Tieion"), a small town which is situated in the geographical region of Pontus Euxinus on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia between Bithynia to the west and Paphlagonia to the east. His father Attalus (Greek: "Attalos") was Greek (perhaps from Macedon) and his mother Boa was Paphlagonian.  After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Philetaerus became embroiled in the struggle for supremacy, called the Wars of the Diadochi (diadochi means "successors" in Greek) among Alexander's regional governors, Antigonus in Phrygia, Lysimachus in Thrace, and Seleucus in Babylonia (among others). Philetaerus served first under Antigonus. He then shifted his allegiance to Lysimachus (ruler of Thrace from 323 BC to 281 BC), who, after Antigonus was killed at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, made Philetaerus commander of Pergamon, where Lysimachus kept a treasury of nine thousand talents of silver.

Ruler of Pergamon.

Philetaerus served Lysimachus until 282 BC, when, perhaps because of conflicts involving the court intrigues of Arsinoë, Lysimachus' third wife, Philetaerus deserted Lysimachus, offering himself and the important fortress of Pergamon, along with its treasury to Seleucus, who subsequently defeated and killed Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC. Seleucus himself was killed by Ptolemy Ceraunus, a brother of Arsinoë at Lysimachia a few months later.  Though nominally under Seleucid control, Philetaerus, especially after the death of Seleucus, had considerable autonomy and was able with the help of his considerable wealth to increase his power and influence beyond Pergamon. There are numerous records of Philetaerus as benefactor to neighboring cities and temples, including the temples at Delphi and Delos. He also contributed troops, money and food to the city of Cyzicus for defense against the invading Gauls. As a result, Philetaerus gained prestige and goodwill for himself and his family.  During his nearly forty year rule, he constructed the temple of Demeter on the acropolis of Pergamon, and the temple of Athena (Pergamon's patron deity), and Pergamon's first palace, and he added considerably to the city's fortifications.  Philetaerus was a eunuch, though scholars differ on the reason for his castration. Attalus I, the first Attalid king of Pergamon, explained that when Philetaerus was a baby, he was brought into a crowd where he was pressed upon and his testicles were crushed.  Philetaerus never married and, since he was a eunuch, had no children. He adopted his nephew Eumenes I (the son of Philetaerus' brother also named Eumenes), who succeeded him as ruler of Pergamon, upon his death in 263 BC. With the exception of Eumenes II, all future Attalid rulers depicted the bust of Philetaerus on their coins, paying tribute to the founder of their dynasty.

Philetaerus (;, "Philetairos" or "ΦΙΛΟΤ" while "αιρογ" was most likely the rank, c. 343 –263 BC) was the founder of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon in Anatolia.

菲莱泰罗斯(希腊语:,约前343年-前263年),原先为安提柯的手下,后来转为利西马科斯的守将,统治帕加马。菲莱泰罗斯开启阿塔罗斯家族对帕加马城的统治,虽然在他在世时仍臣服于塞琉古帝国,但终究其家族后代自塞琉古帝国独立,并建立帕加马王国。


Free samples.

A free sample or "freebie" is a portion of food or other product (for example beauty products) given to consumers in shopping malls, supermarkets, retail stores, or through other channels (such as via the Internet). Sometimes samples of non-perishable items are included in direct marketing mailings. The purpose of a free sample is to acquaint the consumer with a new product, and is similar to the concept of a test drive, in that a customer is able to try out a product before purchasing it.  Although an expensive method of targeting customers, conversions to sales can be as high as 90% making it one of the main marketing strategies for certain markets. With effective sampling, marketers can create brand loyalty and assist in the launch of a product through the word of mouth.  Many consumer product companies now offer free samples through their websites, to encourage consumers to use the products regularly, and to gather data for mailing lists of potentially interested customers. Paint chips are samples of paint colors that are sometimes offered as free samples.  Companies such as C.A. Courtesy, Costco, Sam's Club, Food Courts and Grocery Stores give out free samples to customers to persuade a customer to buy the product.  The expansion of online marketing with regards to promotional giveaways has facilitated the rise of "Freebie sites" that seek to aggregate all promotional free sample offers in one place. These sites will often compile free product samples from all over the World Wide Web and categorize them by type. Some product sample offers may require consumers to complete a survey or refer a friend in order to qualify for the freebies. When all requirements are fulfilled, the product samples are shipped to the consumer. Some sample products might be digital goods, where sample might be closely related to a product trial.

History.

19th century soap manufacturer Benjamin T. Babbitt was one of the first known people, though not the first ever, to offer free samples of his products.  Innkeepers are portrayed offering free samples in the 14th-century poem "Piers Plowman:" "Tauerners 'a tast for nouht' tolden the same" (Innkeepers said the same thing, 'A taste for free!').  In 1987 C. A. Courtesy became the first demonstration company to secure exclusivity with a retailer.

Other samples.

It is also possible to purchase products in small "trial size" containers. This is common with toiletries such as shampoo, which are useful for vacations or other travel, where large bottles or other containers would be impractical (or more recently, not permitted for air travel). These are also often provided in hotel and motel rooms for the guests. Samples may also be loaned to the customer if they are too valuable to be given for free, such as samples of a countertop or of carpet to be used for remodeling. Sometimes companies in b2b market will offer sample of data or service for free before engaging business relationship.  Other type of samples may include industrial samples, such as in the plastic industry, provided to companies for trial molding to see if the selected material is suitable for manufacturing the application (testing). Such samples may or may not be free of charge.

A product sample is a sample of a consumer product that is given to the consumer free of cost so that he or she may try a product before committing to a purchase.

样品在商业宣传上所指的是顾客在购买前所做的试验或体验,通常样品为免费的,但是一般都为少量并且限制数量。样品通常都为较贵或高价商品,为了让消费者能够在购买前先体验至满意为止。大多在百货公司专柜或是大卖场较高价的商品。


History.

Finland Station was built by Finnish State Railways as the eastern terminus of the Riihimäki–Saint Petersburg railway. It was designed by Swedish architects and opened in 1870. The station formerly contained a special pavilion for Russian royalty.

Russian Revolution.

The station was owned and operated by Finnish railways until early 1918, when the last train, carrying station personnel and equipment, as well as some of the last Finns escaping revolutionary Russia, left for Finland. Later, ownership of the station was exchanged for Russian property in Finland, including the Alexander Theatre in Helsinki.  The station is famously known for the arrival of Vladimir Lenin by train from Switzerland on 3 April 1917 (O.S.). The event is commemorated by the Soviet statue of Lenin dominating the square in front of the station. This event is also referred to in the title of Edmund Wilson's book "To the Finland Station" (1940), a well-known study of revolutionary thought.  After the turmoil of the July Days, when workers and soldiers in the capital clashed with government troops, Lenin had to flee to Finland for safety, to avoid arrest. Lenin secretly returned from Finland disguised as a railway worker and protected by Eino Rahja and Alexander Shotman on 9 August 1917. Both times Lenin crossed the Russian–Finnish border on the engine #293 driven by Finnish engineer Hugo Jalava (Гуго Эрикович Ялава). The steam locomotive was donated by Finland to the Soviet Union in 1957, and is now installed as a permanent exhibit at one of the platforms on the station.

Siege of Leningrad.

During the Siege of Leningrad in 1941–43, the Finland Station was the only Leningrad rail terminus that remained in use. The railway would connect Leningrad with a station near the western shore of Lake Ladoga, at which supplies from the non-occupied parts of the Soviet Union would arrive from across the lake, by boat or over the lake ice, via the so-called Road of Life.

Reconstruction.

In the 1950s, the old station building was demolished and replaced with a new one, inaugurated in 1960. The turreted building is decorated with sculptures glorifying the October Revolution and incorporates a portico preserved from the original 1870 edifice.

Damage to Lenin's statue.

Before dawn on Wednesday 1 April 2009 a bomb exploded in the statue of Lenin, creating an 80–100 cm hole in the back of the statue.

In popular culture.

"West End Girls", a 1984 song by The Pet Shop Boys, contains the lyric "From Lake Geneva to the Finland Station". The song's co-writer, Neil Tennant, has a well-known interest and background in history (subject of his degree), particularly that of Russia. This line refers to the train route taken by Vladimir Lenin when he was smuggled by the Germans to Russia during the First World War, a pivotal event in the Russian Revolution. Edmund Wilson's book "To the Finland Station", which Tennant most likely had read, may have also influenced this song's line.

Trains and destinations.

Trains from Helsinki arrive at the station, except for a transit train to Moscow through Ladozhsky railway station. The station is also a part of high-speed rail line between Saint Petersburg and Helsinki (see Karelian Trains).  The main entrance to the metro station Ploshchad Lenina is in the main building of Finland Station.

Suburban destinations.

Suburban commuter trains ("elektrichka") connect Finlyandsky station with the towns of Sestroretsk, Zelenogorsk, Primorsk, Vyborg and Priozersk.

St Petersburg–Finlyandsky ( "Stantsiya Sankt-Peterburg-Finlyandskiy"), is a railway station in St. Petersburg, Russia, handling transport to westerly destinations including Helsinki and Vyborg.

芬兰车站()是俄罗斯第二大城市圣彼得堡涅瓦河北岸的一个铁路总站,是里希迈基-圣彼得堡铁路的终点站。地址是加里宁区列宁广场5号。前往维堡和芬兰的快板号列车在这里开出。


Responsibilities.

The separate office of the "Premier of the Government of Moscow" existed in 1991-2001 (Yuri Luzhkov was the only officeholder), but it was merged with the office of Mayor of Moscow. 1999 Moscow mayoral election was the last time when the mayor ran together with the vice-mayor.  Mayor of Moscow heads Government of Moscow. The mayor's office administers all city services, public property, police and fire protection, most public agencies, and enforces all city and state laws within Moscow. The mayor's office is located in Tverskaya Street and has jurisdiction over all districts of the City of Moscow. The mayor appoints deputy mayors, directors (heads of city departments) and other officials.  The Government of Moscow's budget is the largest regional budget in Russia.

Elections.

The position of Mayor of Moscow was elected between 1991 and 2004. In 2004, Vladimir Putin suggested a law to abolish direct elections of governors, the Moscow mayor, and presidents of Russian regions. The law was swiftly adopted by the parliament. The new legislation moved the election system to an indirect one in which parliamentary political parties and the President of Russia nominated a candidate who must then have been approved by the Moscow City Duma. Following the 2011–13 Russian protests which followed the 2011 parliamentary election, President Dmitry Medvedev offered to re-introduce the direct elections of the governors and the mayor of Moscow, and corresponding legislation was approved by the Parliament. In 2013 for the first time in 10 years mayor was chosen by a popular vote (2013 Moscow mayoral election).  A candidate to the office must be citizen of the Russian Federation over the age of 30. Candidates can be nominated both by political parties and as self-nomination. In any case, candidates must pass the "municipal filter" (collection of signatures of municipal deputies).

Latest election.

Sergey Sobyanin was re-elected for a new term in 2018.

The Mayor of the City of Moscow (Russian: Мэр Москвы) is head (governor) of Russian region, the highest official of Moscow, who leads the Government of Moscow, the main executive body of the city.

莫斯科,俄罗斯的首都,是俄罗斯第一大政治、经济、文化、交通、科技中心,也是全世界面积最大、欧洲人口最多都市,市中心就是克里姆林宫建筑群,因此莫斯科市长的全国性的代表意义十分重要,也因此自十月革命胜利后的历任莫斯科市长在绝大部分时间都是由中央政府直接任命。由于掌握的资源非常丰富,也是各方政治势力的必争之地。


The axioms of Zermelo set theory.

The axioms of Zermelo set theory are stated for objects, some of which (but not necessarily all) are called sets, and the remaining objects are urelements and do not contain any elements. Zermelo's language implicitly includes a membership relation ∈, an equality relation = (if it is not included in the underlying logic), and a unary predicate saying whether an object is a set. Later versions of set theory often assume that all objects are sets so there are no urelements and there is no need for the unary predicate.

Connection with standard set theory.

The most widely used and accepted set theory is known as ZFC, which consists of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the addition of the axiom of choice. The links show where the axioms of Zermelo's theory correspond. There is no exact match for "elementary sets". (It was later shown that the singleton set could be derived from what is now called the "Axiom of pairs". If "a" exists, "a" and "a" exist, thus {"a","a"} exists, and so by extensionality {"a","a"} = {"a"}.) The empty set axiom is already assumed by axiom of infinity, and is now included as part of it.  Zermelo set theory does not include the axioms of replacement and regularity. The axiom of replacement was first published in 1922 by Abraham Fraenkel and Thoralf Skolem, who had independently discovered that Zermelo's axioms cannot prove the existence of the set {"Z", "Z", "Z",...} where "Z" is the set of natural numbers and "Z" is the power set of "Z". They both realized that the axiom of replacement is needed to prove this. The following year, John von Neumann pointed out that this axiom is necessary to build his theory of ordinals. The axiom of regularity was stated by von Neumann in 1925.  In the modern ZFC system, the "propositional function" referred to in the axiom of separation is interpreted as "any property definable by a first-order formula with parameters", so the separation axiom is replaced by an axiom schema. The notion of "first order formula" was not known in 1908 when Zermelo published his axiom system, and he later rejected this interpretation as being too restrictive. Zermelo set theory is usually taken to be a first-order theory with the separation axiom replaced by an axiom scheme with an axiom for each first-order formula. It can also be considered as a theory in second-order logic, where now the separation axiom is just a single axiom. The second-order interpretation of Zermelo set theory is probably closer to Zermelo's own conception of it, and is stronger than the first-order interpretation.  In the usual cumulative hierarchy "V" of ZFC set theory (for ordinals α), any one of the sets "V" for α a limit ordinal larger than the first infinite ordinal ω (such as "V") forms a model of Zermelo set theory. So the consistency of Zermelo set theory is a theorem of ZFC set theory. Zermelo's axioms do not imply the existence of א or larger infinite cardinals, as the model "V" does not contain such cardinals. (Cardinals have to be defined differently in Zermelo set theory, as the usual definition of cardinals and ordinals does not work very well: with the usual definition it is not even possible to prove the existence of the ordinal ω2.)  The axiom of infinity is usually now modified to assert the existence of the first infinite von Neumann ordinal formula_2; the original Zermelo axioms cannot prove the existence of this set, nor can the modified Zermelo axioms prove Zermelo's axiom of infinity. Zermelo's axioms (original or modified) cannot prove the existence of formula_3 as a set nor of any rank of the cumulative hierarchy of sets with infinite index.  Zermelo allowed for the existence of urelements that are not sets and contain no elements; these are now usually omitted from set theories.

Mac Lane set theory.

Mac Lane set theory, introduced by, is Zermelo set theory with the axiom of separation restricted to first-order formulas in which every quantifier is bounded, Mac Lane set theory is similar in strength to topos theory with a natural number object, or to the system in Principia mathematica. It is strong enough to carry out almost all ordinary mathematics not directly connected with set theory or logic.

The aim of Zermelo's paper.

The introduction states that the very existence of the discipline of set theory "seems to be threatened by certain contradictions or "antinomies", that can be derived from its principles – principles necessarily governing our thinking, it seems – and to which no entirely satisfactory solution has yet been found". Zermelo is of course referring to the "Russell antinomy".  He says he wants to show how the original theory of Georg Cantor and Richard Dedekind can be reduced to a few definitions and seven principles or axioms. He says he has "not" been able to prove that the axioms are consistent.  A non-constructivist argument for their consistency goes as follows. Define "V" for α one of the ordinals 0, 1, 2,...,ω, ω+1, ω+2..., ω·2 as follows: Then the axioms of Zermelo set theory are consistent because they are true in the model "V". While a non-constructivist might regard this as a valid argument, a constructivist would probably not: while there are no problems with the construction of the sets up to "V", the construction of "V" is less clear because one cannot constructively define every subset of "V". This argument can be turned into a valid proof in Zermelo–Frenkel set theory, but this does not really help because the consistency of Zermelo–Frenkel set theory is less clear than the consistency of Zermelo set theory.

The axiom of separation.

Zermelo comments that Axiom III of his system is the one responsible for eliminating the antinomies. It differs from the original definition by Cantor, as follows.  Sets cannot be independently defined by any arbitrary logically definable notion. They must be constructed in some way from previously constructed sets. For example, they can be constructed by taking powersets, or they can be "separated" as subsets of sets already "given". This, he says, eliminates contradictory ideas like "the set of all sets" or "the set of all ordinal numbers".  He disposes of the Russell paradox by means of this Theorem: "Every set formula_4 possesses at least one subset formula_5 that is not an element of formula_4 ". Let formula_5 be the subset of formula_4 for which, by AXIOM III, is separated out by the notion "formula_9". Then formula_5 cannot be in formula_4. For  Therefore, the assumption that formula_5 is in formula_4 is wrong, proving the theorem. Hence not all objects of the universal domain "B" can be elements of one and the same set. "This disposes of the Russell antinomy as far as we are concerned".  This left the problem of "the domain "B"" which seems to refer to something. This led to the idea of a proper class.

Cantor's theorem.

Zermelo's paper is notable for what may be the first mention of Cantor's theorem explicitly and by name. This appeals strictly to set theoretical notions, and is thus not exactly the same as Cantor's diagonal argument.  Cantor's theorem: "If "M" is an arbitrary set, then always "M" < P("M") [the power set of "M"]. Every set is of lower cardinality than the set of its subsets".  Zermelo proves this by considering a function φ: "M" → P("M"). By Axiom III this defines the following set "M' ":  But no element "m' " of "M " could correspond to "M' ", i.e. such that φ("m' ") = "M' ". Otherwise we can construct a contradiction:  so by contradiction "m' " does not exist. Note the close resemblance of this proof to the way Zermelo disposes of Russell's paradox.

Zermelo set theory (sometimes denoted by Z), as set out in an important paper in 1908 by Ernst Zermelo, is the ancestor of modern set theory. It bears certain differences from its descendants, which are not always understood, and are frequently misquoted. This article sets out the original axioms, with the original text (translated into English) and original numbering.

策梅洛集合论(),设立自恩斯特·策梅洛在1908年的重要论文,它是现代集合论的祖先。它与它的后代有特定的差别,经常被误解并经常被误引用。本文架设最初的公理,带有最初的文本(从德文译成了英文)和编号。


RTL description.

A synchronous circuit consists of two kinds of elements: registers (Sequential logic) and combinational logic. Registers (usually implemented as D flip-flops) synchronize the circuit's operation to the edges of the clock signal, and are the only elements in the circuit that have memory properties. Combinational logic performs all the logical functions in the circuit and it typically consists of logic gates.  For example, a very simple synchronous circuit is shown in the figure. The inverter is connected from the output, Q, of a register to the register's input, D, to create a circuit that changes its state on each rising edge of the clock, clk. In this circuit, the combinational logic consists of the inverter.  When designing digital integrated circuits with a hardware description language, the designs are usually engineered at a higher level of abstraction than transistor level (logic families) or logic gate level. In HDLs the designer declares the registers (which roughly correspond to variables in computer programming languages), and describes the combinational logic by using constructs that are familiar from programming languages such as if-then-else and arithmetic operations. This level is called "register-transfer level". The term refers to the fact that RTL focuses on describing the flow of signals between registers.  As an example, the circuit mentioned above can be described in VHDL as follows: D <= not Q; process(clk) begin end process; Using an EDA tool for synthesis, this description can usually be directly translated to an equivalent hardware implementation file for an ASIC or an FPGA. The synthesis tool also performs logic optimization.  At the register-transfer level, some types of circuits can be recognized. If there is a cyclic path of logic from a register's output to its input (or from a set of registers outputs to its inputs), the circuit is called a state machine or can be said to be sequential logic. If there are logic paths from a register to another without a cycle, it is called a pipeline.

RTL in the circuit design cycle.

RTL is used in the logic design phase of the integrated circuit design cycle.  An RTL description is usually converted to a gate-level description of the circuit by a logic synthesis tool. The synthesis results are then used by placement and routing tools to create a physical layout.  Logic simulation tools may use a design's RTL description to verify its correctness.

Power estimation techniques for RTL.

The most accurate power analysis tools are available for the circuit level but unfortunately, even with switch- rather than device-level modelling, tools at the circuit level have disadvantages like they are either too slow or require too much memory thus inhibiting large chip handling. The majority of these are simulators like SPICE and have been used by the designers for many years as performance analysis tools. Due to these disadvantages, gate-level power estimation tools have begun to gain some acceptance where faster, probabilistic techniques have begun to gain a foothold. But it also has its trade off as speedup is achieved on the cost of accuracy, especially in the presence of correlated signals. Over the years it has been realized that biggest wins in low power design cannot come from circuit- and gate-level optimizations whereas architecture, system, and algorithm optimizations tend to have the largest impact on power consumption. Therefore, there has been a shift in the incline of the tool developers towards high-level analysis and optimization tools for power.

Motivation.

It is well known that more significant power reductions are possible if optimizations are made on levels of abstraction, like the architectural and algorithmic level, which are higher than the circuit or gate level This provides the required motivation for the developers to focus on the development of new architectural level power analysis tools. This in no way implies that lower level tools are unimportant. Instead, each layer of tools provides a foundation upon which the next level can be built. The abstractions of the estimation techniques at a lower level can be used on a higher level with slight modifications.

Gate Equivalents.

It is a technique based on the concept of gate equivalents. The complexity of a chip architecture can be described approximately in terms of gate equivalents where gate equivalent count specifies the average number of reference gates that are required to implement the particular function. The total power required for the particular function is estimated by multiplying the approximated number of gate equivalents with the average power consumed per gate. The reference gate can be any gate e.g. 2-input NAND gate.

Precharacterized Cell Libraries.

This technique further customizes the power estimation of various functional blocks by having separate power model for logic, memory, and interconnect suggesting a Power Factor Approximation (PFA) method for individually characterizing an entire library of functional blocks such as multipliers, adders, etc. instead of a single gate-equivalent model for “logic” blocks. The power over the entire chip is approximated by the expression:  Where K is PFA proportionality constant that characterizes the i functional element,G is the measure of hardware complexity, and f denotes the activation frequency.

Example.

G denoting the hardware complexity of the multiplier is related to the square of the input word length i.e. N where N is the word length. The activation frequency is the rate at which multiplies are performed by the algorithm denoted by f and the PFA constant, K, is extracted empirically from past multiplier designs and shown to be about 15 fW/bit2-Hz for a 1.2 μm technology at 5V. The resulting power model for the multiplier on the basis of the above assumptions is: Advantages:  Weakness:  The estimation error (relative to switch-level simulation) for a 16x16 multiplier is experimented and it is observed that when the dynamic range of the inputs doesn’t fully occupy the word length of the multiplier, the UWN model becomes extremely inaccurate. Granted, good designers attempt to maximize word length utilization. Still, errors in the range of 50-100% are not uncommon. The figure clearly suggests a flaw in the UWN model.

In digital circuit design, register-transfer level (RTL) is a design abstraction which models a synchronous digital circuit in terms of the flow of digital signals (data) between hardware registers, and the logical operations performed on those signals.

在数位电路设计中,寄存器传输级(英语:register-transfer level, RTL)是一种对同步数位电路的抽象模型,这种模型是根据数字信号在硬件寄存器、存储器、组合逻辑装置和总线等逻辑单元之间的流动,以及其逻辑代数运作方式来确定的。


History.

The University of Naples Federico II was founded by emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Frederick II on 5 June 1224. It is the world's oldest state-supported institution of higher education and research. One of the most famous students was Roman Catholic theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas.

Political project of Fredrick II.

Fredrick II had specific objectives when he founded the university in Naples: first, to train administrative and skilled bureaucratic professionals for the "curia regis" (the kingdom's ministries and governing apparatus), as well as preparing lawyers and judges who would help the sovereign to draft laws and administer justice. Second, he wanted to facilitate the cultural development of promising young students and scholars, avoiding any unnecessary and expensive trips abroad: by creating a State University, Emperor Frederick avoided having young students during his reign complete their training at the University of Bologna, which was in a city that was hostile to the imperial power.  The University of Naples was arguably the first to be formed from scratch by a higher authority, not based upon an already-existing private school. Although its claim to be the first state-sponsored university can be challenged by Palencia (which was founded by the Castilian monarch c.1212), Naples certainly was the first chartered one.  The artificiality of its creation posed great difficulties in attracting students; Thomas Aquinas was one of the few who came in these early years. Those years were further complicated by the long existence, in nearby Salerno, of Europe's most prestigious medical faculty, the Schola Medica Salernitana. The fledgling faculty of medicine at Naples had little hope of competing with it, and in 1231 the right of examination was surrendered to Salerno. The establishment of new faculties of theology and law under papal sponsorship in Rome in 1245 further drained Naples of students, as Rome was a more attractive location. In an effort to revitalize the dwindling university, in 1253, all the remaining schools of the university of Naples moved to Salerno, in the hope of creating a single viable university for the south. But that experiment failed and the university (minus medicine) moved back to Naples in 1258 (in some readings, Naples was "refounded" in 1258 by Manfred Hohenstaufen, as by this time there were hardly any students left). The Angevin reforms after 1266 and the subsequent decline of Salerno gave the University of Naples a new lease on life and put it on a stable, sustainable track.

Academics.

The university has 13 faculties:

Noted people.

Notable alumni.

Among those who have attended the University of Naples Federico II are Italian presidents Enrico De Nicola, Giovanni Leone and Giorgio Napolitano; Italian political leader Luigi de Magistris; business executive Fabrizio Freda; and philosophers Benedetto Croce and Nicola Abbagnano.

Rankings.

Several professors from various disciplines are among the top Italian Scientists by H-index. According to the 2016 QS World University Rankings by subject the University of Federico II ranks in the following ranges respectively: 51–100 for civil engineering, 101–150 for mechanical engineering, pharmacy and pharmacology, agriculture and forestry and physics and astronomy, 151–200 for law and legal studies, medicine and chemical engineering, 201–250 for electrical and electronic engineering, mathematics, economics and econometrics, 251–300 for biological sciences, computer science and chemistry. In November 2018 Expertscape recognized it as No. 10 in the world for expertise in Celiac Disease.

The University of Naples Federico II () is a university in Naples, Italy. Founded in 1224, it is the oldest public non-sectarian university in the world, and is now organized into 26 departments. It was Europe's first university dedicated to training secular administrative staff, and one of the oldest academic institutions in continuous operation. Federico II is the third University in Italy by number of students enrolled, but despite its huge size it is still one of the best universities in Italy, being particularly notable for research; in 2015 it was ranked among the top 100 universities in the world by citations per paper. As of 2016 it is the only generalist Italian university in the Times higher education reputation, which considers the 200 best universities in the world. The university is named after its founder Frederick II. In October 2016 the University hosted the first ever Apple IOS Developer Academy and in 2018 the Cisco Digital Transformation Lab.

那不勒斯腓特烈二世大学()是一所大学,位于意大利那不勒斯。它创建于1224年,是世界上古老的国立大学,也是最古老的连续运行的学术机构之一。该大学得名于其创建者腓特烈二世。该大学分为13个系,学生96,867人(2010年)。