Life and work.

Fuller was born on July 12, 1895, in Milton, Massachusetts, the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews, and grand-nephew of Margaret Fuller, an American journalist, critic, and women's rights advocate associated with the American transcendentalism movement. The unusual middle name, Buckminster, was an ancestral family name. As a child, Richard Buckminster Fuller tried numerous variations of his name. He used to sign his name differently each year in the guest register of his family summer vacation home at Bear Island, Maine. He finally settled on R. Buckminster Fuller.  Fuller spent much of his youth on Bear Island, in Penobscot Bay off the coast of Maine. He attended Froebelian Kindergarten. He disagreed with the way geometry was taught in school, being unable to experience for himself that a chalk dot on the blackboard represented an "empty" mathematical point, or that a line could stretch off to infinity. To him these were illogical, and led to his work on synergetics. He often made items from materials he found in the woods, and sometimes made his own tools. He experimented with designing a new apparatus for human propulsion of small boats. By age 12, he had invented a 'push pull' system for propelling a rowboat by use of an inverted umbrella connected to the transom with a simple oar lock which allowed the user to face forward to point the boat toward its destination. Later in life, Fuller took exception to the term "invention".  Years later, he decided that this sort of experience had provided him with not only an interest in design, but also a habit of being familiar with and knowledgeable about the materials that his later projects would require. Fuller earned a machinist's certification, and knew how to use the press brake, stretch press, and other tools and equipment used in the sheet metal trade.

Education.

Fuller attended Milton Academy in Massachusetts, and after that began studying at Harvard College, where he was affiliated with Adams House. He was expelled from Harvard

Wartime experience.

Between his sessions at Harvard, Fuller worked in Canada as a mechanic in a textile mill, and later as a laborer in the meat-packing industry. He also served in the U.S. Navy in World War I, as a shipboard radio operator,

Depression and epiphany.

Buckminster Fuller recalled 1927 as a pivotal year of his life. His daughter Alexandra had died in 1922 of complications from polio and spinal meningitis just before her fourth birthday. Stanford historian, Barry Katz, found signs that around this time in his life Fuller was suffering from depression and anxiety. Fuller dwelled on his daughter's death, suspecting that it was connected with the Fullers' damp and drafty living conditions. This provided motivation for Fuller's involvement in Stockade Building Systems, a business which aimed to provide affordable, efficient housing.  In 1927, at age 32, Fuller lost his job as president of Stockade. The Fuller family had no savings, and the birth of their daughter Allegra in 1927 added to the financial challenges. Fuller drank heavily and reflected upon the

Recovery.

In 1927 Fuller resolved to think independently which included a commitment to "the search for the principles governing the universe and help advance the evolution of humanity in accordance with them... finding ways of "doing more with less" to the end that all people everywhere can have more and more". By 1928, Fuller was living in Greenwich Village and spending much of his time at

Geodesic domes.

Fuller taught at Black Mountain College in North Carolina during the summers of 1948 and 1949, serving as its Summer Institute director in 1949. Fuller had been shy and withdrawn, but he was persuaded to participate in a theatrical performance of Erik Satie's "Le piège de Méduse" produced by John Cage, who was also teaching at Black Mountain. During rehearsals, under the tutelage of Arthur Penn, then a student at Black Mountain, Fuller broke through his inhibitions to become confident as a performer and speaker.  At Black Mountain, with the support of a group of professors and students, he began reinventing a project that would make him famous: the geodesic dome. Although the geodesic dome had been created, built and awarded a German patent on June 19, 1925 by Dr. Walther Bauersfeld, Fuller was awarded United States patents. Fuller neglected to cite that the self

Dymaxion Chronofile.

For half of a century, Fuller developed many ideas, designs and inventions, particularly regarding practical, inexpensive shelter and transportation. He documented his life, philosophy and ideas

World stage.

International recognition began with the success of huge geodesic domes during the 1950s. Fuller lectured at North Carolina State University in Raleigh in 1949, where he met James Fitzgibbon, who would become a close friend and colleague. Fitzgibbon was director of Geodesics, Inc. and Synergetics, Inc. the first licensees to design geodesic domes. Thomas C. Howard was lead designer, architect and engineer for both companies. Richard Lewontin, a new faculty member in population genetics at North Carolina State University, provided Fuller with computer

Honors.

Fuller was awarded 28 United States patents and many honorary doctorates. In 1960, he was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal from The Franklin Institute. Fuller was elected as an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa in 1967, on the occasion of the 50th year reunion of his Harvard class of 1917 (from which he was expelled in his first year). He was elected a Fellow

Last filmed appearance.

Fuller's last filmed interview took place on June 21, 1983, in which he spoke at Norman Foster's Royal Gold Medal

Death.

Fuller died on July 1, 1983, 11 days before his 88th birthday. During the period leading up to his death, his wife had been lying comatose in a Los Angeles hospital, dying of cancer. It

Philosophy and worldview.

Buckminster Fuller was a Unitarian, like his grandfather Arthur Buckminster Fuller, a Unitarian minister. Fuller was also an early environmental activist, aware of the Earth's finite resources, and promoted a principle he termed "ephemeralization", which, according to futurist and Fuller disciple Stewart Brand, was defined as "doing more with less". Resources and waste from crude, inefficient products could be recycled into making more valuable products, thus increasing the efficiency of the entire process. Fuller also coined the word synergetics, a catch-all term used broadly for communicating experiences using geometric concepts, and more specifically, the empirical study of systems in transformation; his focus was on total system behavior unpredicted by the behavior of any isolated components.  Fuller was a pioneer in thinking globally, and explored energy and material efficiency in the fields of architecture, engineering and design. Citing François de Chardenèdes' opinion that petroleum, from the standpoint of its replacement cost in our current energy "budget" (essentially, the net incoming solar flux), had cost nature "over a million dollars" per U.S. gallon (US$300,000 per litre) to produce. From this point of view, its use as a transportation fuel by people commuting to work represents a huge net loss compared to their actual earnings. An encapsulation quotation of his views might best be summed up as: "There is no energy crisis, only a crisis of ignorance."  Though Fuller was concerned about sustainability and human

Major design projects.

The geodesic dome.

Fuller was most famous for his lattice shell structures – geodesic domes, which have been used as parts of military radar stations, civic buildings, environmental protest camps and exhibition attractions. An examination of the geodesic design by Walther Bauersfeld for the Zeiss-Planetarium, built some 28 years prior to Fuller's work, reveals that Fuller's Geodesic Dome patent (U.S. 2,682,235; awarded in 1954) is the same design as Bauersfeld's.

Transportation.

The Dymaxion car was a vehicle designed by Fuller, featured prominently at Chicago's 1933-1934 Century of Progress World's Fair. During the Great Depression, Fuller formed the "Dymaxion Corporation" and built three prototypes with noted naval architect Starling Burgess and a team of 27 workmen — using donated money as well as a family inheritance.  Fuller associated the word "Dymaxion" with much of his work, a portmanteau of the words dynamic", maximum", and "tension" to sum up the goal of his study, "maximum gain of advantage from minimal energy input".  The Dymaxion was not an automobile "per se", but rather the 'ground-taxying mode' of a vehicle that might one day be designed to fly, land and drive — an "Omni-Medium Transport" for air, land and water. Fuller focused on the landing and taxiing qualities, and noted severe limitations in its handling.

Housing.

Fuller's energy-efficient and inexpensive Dymaxion house garnered much interest, but only two prototypes were ever produced. Here the term "Dymaxion" is used in effect to signify a "radically strong and light tensegrity structure". One of Fuller's Dymaxion Houses is on display as a permanent exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. Designed and developed during the mid-1940s, this prototype is a round structure (not a dome), shaped something like the flattened "bell" of certain jellyfish. It has several innovative features, including revolving dresser drawers, and a fine-mist shower that reduces water consumption. According to

Dymaxion map and World Game.

Fuller, along with co-cartographer Shoji Sadao, also designed an alternative projection map, called the Dymaxion map. This was designed to show Earth's continents with minimum distortion when projected or printed on a flat surface.  In the 1960s,

Appearance and style.

Buckminster Fuller wore thick-lensed spectacles to correct his extreme hyperopia, a condition that went undiagnosed for the first five years of his life. Fuller's hearing was damaged during his Naval service in World War I and deteriorated during the 1960s. After experimenting with bullhorns as hearing aids during the mid-1960s, Fuller adopted electronic hearing aids from the 1970s onward.  In public appearances, Fuller always wore dark-colored suits, appearing like "an alert little clergyman". Previously, he had experimented with unconventional clothing immediately after his 1927 epiphany, but found that breaking social fashion customs made others devalue or dismiss his ideas. Fuller

Quirks.

Following his global prominence from the 1960s onward, Fuller became a frequent flier, often crossing time zones to lecture. In the 1960s and 1970s, he wore three watches simultaneously; one for the time zone of his office at Southern Illinois University, one for the time zone of the location he would next visit, and one for the time zone he was currently in. In the 1970s, Fuller was only in 'homely' locations (his personal home in Carbondale, Illinois; his holiday retreat in Bear Island, Maine; and his daughter's home in Pacific Palisades, California) roughly 65 nights per year—the other 300 nights were spent in hotel beds in the locations he visited on his lecturing and consulting circuits.  In the 1920s, Fuller experimented with polyphasic sleep, which he called "Dymaxion sleep". Inspired by the sleep habits of animals such as dogs and cats, Fuller worked until he was tired, and

Language and neologisms.

Buckminster Fuller spoke and wrote in a unique style and said it was important to describe the world as accurately as possible. Fuller often created long run-on sentences and used unusual compound words (omniwell-informed, intertransformative, omni-interaccommodative, omniself-regenerative) as well as terms he himself invented.  Fuller used the word "Universe" without the definite or indefinite articles ("the" or "a") and always capitalized the word. Fuller wrote that "by Universe I mean: the aggregate of all humanity's consciously apprehended and communicated (to self or others) Experiences".  The words "down" and "up", according to Fuller, are awkward in that they refer to a planar concept of direction inconsistent with human experience. The words "in" and "out" should be used instead, he argued, because they better describe an object's relation to a gravitational center, the Earth. "I suggest to audiences that they say, 'I'm going "outstairs" and "instairs."' At first that sounds strange to them; They all laugh about it. But if they try saying in and out for a few days in fun, they find themselves beginning to realize that they are indeed going inward and outward in respect to the center of Earth, which is our Spaceship Earth. And for the first time they

Concepts and buildings.

His concepts

Influence and legacy.

Among the many people who were influenced by Buckminster Fuller are: Constance Abernathy, Ruth Asawa, J. Baldwin, Michael Ben-Eli, Pierre Cabrol, John Cage, Joseph Clinton, Peter Floyd, Medard Gabel, Michael Hays, Ted Nelson, David Johnston, Peter Jon Pearce, Shoji Sadao, Edwin Schlossberg, Kenneth Snelson, Robert Anton Wilson and Stewart Brand.  An allotrope of carbon, fullerene—and a particular molecule of that allotrope C (buckminsterfullerene or buckyball) has been named after him. The Buckminsterfullerene molecule, which consists of 60 carbon atoms, very closely resembles a spherical version of Fuller's geodesic dome. The 1996 Nobel prize in chemistry was given to Kroto, Curl, and Smalley for their discovery of the fullerene.  He is quoted in the lyric of "The Tower of Babble" in the musical "Godspell": "Man is a complex of patterns and processes."  The indie band Driftless Pony Club named their 2011 album, "Buckminster", after him. All the songs within the album are based upon his life and works.  On July 12, 2004, the United States Post Office released a new commemorative stamp honoring R. Buckminster Fuller on the 50th anniversary of his patent for the geodesic dome and by the occasion of his 109th birthday. The stamp's design replicated the January 10, 1964 cover of "Time Magazine".  Fuller was the subject of two documentary films: "The World of Buckminster Fuller" (1971) and "" (1996). Additionally, filmmaker Sam Green and the band Yo La Tengo collaborated on a 2012 "live documentary" about Fuller, "The Love Song of R. Buckminster Fuller".  In June 2008, the Whitney Museum of American Art presented "Buckminster Fuller: Starting with the Universe", the most comprehensive retrospective to date of his work and ideas. The exhibition traveled to the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago in 2009. It presented a combination of models, sketches, and other artifacts, representing six decades of the artist's integrated approach to housing, transportation, communication, and cartography. It also featured the extensive connections with Chicago from his years spent living, teaching, and working in the city.  In 2009, a number of US companies decided to repackage spherical magnets and sell them as toys. One company, Maxfield & Oberton, told "The New York Times" that they saw the product on YouTube and decided to repackage them as ""Buckyballs"", because the magnets could self-form and hold together in shapes reminiscent of the Fuller inspired buckyballs. The buckyball toy launched at New York International Gift Fair in 2009 and sold in the hundreds of thousands, but by 2010 began to experience problems with toy safety issues and the company was forced to recall the packages that were labelled as toys.  Robert Kiyosaki's 2015 book "Second Chance" is largely about Kiyosaki's interactions with Fuller, and Fuller's unusual final book "Grunch of Giants".  In 2012, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art hosted "The Utopian Impulse" – a show about Buckminster Fuller's influence in the Bay Area. Featured were concepts, inventions and designs for creating "free energy" from natural forces, and for sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. The show ran January through July.  Fuller is briefly mentioned in the 2014 superhero film, "", when Kitty Pryde is giving a lecture to a group of students regarding utopian architecture.  In a different note, Fuller's quote "Those who play with the Devil's toys, will be brought by degree to wield his sword" was used and referenced as the first display seen in the strategy sci-fi video game "" developed by Firaxis Games.  "The House of Tomorrow", is a 2017 American independent drama film written and directed by Peter Livolsi, based on Peter Bognanni's 2010 novel of the same name, featuring Asa Butterfield, Alex Wolff, Nick Offerman, Maude Apatow, and Ellen Burstyn. Burstyn's character is obsessed by all things Buckminster Fuller providing retro-futurist tours of her geodesic home, including authentic video of Buckminster Fuller talking and sailing with Ellen Burstyn, who'd actually befriended him in real life.

Richard Buckminster Fuller (; July 12, 1895 – July 1, 1983) was an American architect, systems theorist, author, designer, inventor, and futurist. Fuller published more than 30 books, coining or popularizing terms such as "Spaceship Earth", "Dymaxion" (house, car, map...), ephemeralization, synergetic, and "tensegrity". He also developed numerous inventions, mainly architectural designs, and popularized the widely known geodesic dome. Carbon molecules known as fullerenes were later named by scientists for their structural and mathematical resemblance to geodesic spheres.

巴克敏斯特·富勒(Richard Buckminster Fuller,1895年-7月12日-1983年-7月1日),美国哲学家、建筑师及发明家 。曾在1946年取得戴美克森氏投影法的专利。


Definition standards.

There are several international standards that give some definitions of words such as motorways, but there is no formal definition of the English language words such as "motorway", "freeway" and "expressway", or of the equivalent words in other languages such as,,,, that are accepted worldwide—in most cases these words are defined by local statute or design standards or regional international treaties. Descriptions that are widely used include:  One green or blue symbol (like ) appears at motorway entry in countries that follow Vienna Convention. Exit is marked with another symbol:.  The definitions of "motorway" from the OECD and PIARC are almost identical.  In the European Union, for statistic and safety purposes, some distinction might be made between "motorway" and "expressway", for instance a principal arterial might be considered as: Roads serving long distance and mainly interurban movements. Includes motorways (urban or rural) and expressways (road which does not serve properties bordering on it and which is provided with separate carriageways for the two directions of traffic). Principal arterials may cross through urban areas, serving suburban movements. The traffic is characterized by high speeds

History.

The first version of modern controlled-access highways evolved during the first half of the 20th century. The Long Island Motor Parkway on Long Island, New York, opened in 1908 as a private venture, was the world's first limited-access roadway. It included many modern features, including banked turns, guard rails and reinforced concrete tarmac.  Modern controlled-access highways originated in the early 1920s in response to the rapidly increasing use of the automobile, the demand for faster movement between cities and as a consequence of improvements in paving processes, techniques and materials. These original high-speed roads were referred to as "dual highways" and, while divided, bore little resemblance to the highways of today. Opened in 1921, the AVUS in Berlin is the oldest controlled-access highway in Europe, although it was initially opened as a race track.  The first dual highway opened in Italy in 1924, between Milan and Varese, and now forms parts of the A8 and A9 motorways. This highway, while divided, contained only one lane in each direction and no interchanges. Shortly thereafter, in New York in 1924, the Bronx River Parkway was opened to traffic. The Bronx River

Design.

Freeways, by definition, have no at-grade intersections with other roads, railroads or multi-use trails, and no traffic signal needed, hence "free of signal", but some movable bridges, such as the Interstate Bridge on Interstate 5 between Oregon and Washington, do require drivers to stop for ship traffic.  The crossing of freeways by other routes is typically achieved with grade separation either in the form of underpasses or overpasses. In addition to sidewalks (pavements) attached to roads that cross a freeway, specialized pedestrian footbridges or tunnels may also be provided. These structures enable pedestrians and cyclists to cross the freeway at that point without a detour to the nearest road crossing.  Access to freeways is typically provided only at grade-separated interchanges, though lower-standard right-in/right-out (left-in/left-out in countries that drive on the left) access can be used for direct connections to side roads. In many cases, sophisticated interchanges allow for smooth, uninterrupted transitions between intersecting freeways and busy arterial roads. However, sometimes it is necessary to exit onto a surface road to transfer from one freeway to another. One example in the United States (notorious for the resulting congestion) is the connection from Interstate 70 to the Pennsylvania Turnpike (Interstate 70 and Interstate 76) through the town of Breezewood, Pennsylvania.  Speed limits are generally higher on freeways and are occasionally nonexistent (as on much of Germany's Autobahn network). Because higher speeds reduce decision time, freeways are usually equipped with a larger number of guide signs than other roads, and the signs themselves are physically larger. Guide signs are often mounted on overpasses or overhead gantries so that drivers can see where each lane goes. Exit numbers are commonly derived from the exit's distance in miles or kilometers from the start of the freeway. In some areas, there are public rest areas or service areas on freeways, as well as emergency phones on the shoulder at regular intervals.  In the United States, mileposts usually start at the southern or westernmost point on the freeway (either its terminus or the state line). California, Ohio and Nevada use postmile systems in which the markers indicate mileage through the state's individual counties. However, Nevada and Ohio also use the standard milepost system concurrently with their respective postmile systems. California numbers its exits off of its freeways according to a milepost system but does not use milepost markers.  In Europe and some other countries, a typical motorways is subject to have some similar characteristics such as:

Interchanges and access points.

An interchange or a junction is a highway layout that permits traffic from one controlled-access highway to access another and vice versa, whereas an access point is a highway layout where traffic from a distributor or local road can join a controlled-access highway. Some countries, such as the United Kingdom, do not distinguish between the two, but others make a distinction; for example, Germany uses the word "Kreuz" ("cross") for the former and "Ausfahrt" ("exit") for the latter. In all cases one road crosses the other via a bridge or a tunnel, as opposed to an at-grade crossing.  The inter-connecting roads, or slip-roads, which link the two roads, can follow any one of a number of patterns. The actual pattern is determined by a number

Safety.

There are many differences between countries in their geography, economy, traffic growth, highway system size, degree of urbanization and motorization, etc.; all of which need to be taken into consideration when comparisons are made. According to some EU papers, safety progress on motorways is the result of several changes, including infrastructure safety and road user behavior (speed or seat belt use), while others matters such as vehicle safety and mobility patterns have a not quantified impact.

Motorways compared with other roads.

Motorways are the safest roads by design. While accounting for more than one quarter of all kilometres driven, they contributed only 8% of the total number of European road deaths in 2006. Germany's Federal Highway Research Institute provided International Road Traffic and Accident Database (IRTAD) statistics for the year 2010, comparing overall fatality rates with motorway rates (regardless of traffic intensity): The German autobahn network illustrates the safety trade-offs of controlled access highways. The injury crash rate is

Causes of accidents.

Speed, in Europe, is considered to be one of the main contributory factors to collisions. Some countries, such as France and Switzerland, have achieved a death reduction by a better monitoring of speed. Tools used for monitoring speed might be increase in traffic density, improved speed enforcement and stricter regulation leading to driver license withdrawal, safety cameras, penalty point,

Fatalities trends.

Although safety results do not change much from year to year, in Europe some changes have been observed: motorways fatalities decreased by 41%

Toll effect.

A University of Barcelona study suggests that if tolls are implemented on a controlled-access highway, drivers may

Safety in urban areas.

In the United Kingdom, there are very few studies regarding the impact of road traffic accidents from existing and new urban motorways. In particular, new urban motorways do not grant a reduction of traffic accidents.  In Italy, a study performed on urban motorway A56 "Tangenziale di Napoli" showed that reduction of speed leads to a decrease in accidents.  In Marseille, France, from June 2009 to May 2010, CEREMA, the French centre for studies on risk, mobility and

Environmental effects.

Controlled-access highways have been constructed both between major cities as well as within them, leading to the sprawling suburban development found near most modern cities. Highways have been heavily criticized by environmentalists, urbanists, and preservationists for the noise, pollution, and economic shifts they bring. Additionally, they have been criticized by the driving public for the inefficiency with which they handle peak hour traffic.  Often, rural highways open up vast areas to economic development and municipal services, generally raising property values. In contrast to this, above-grade highways in urban areas are often a source of lowered property values, contributing to urban decay. Even with overpasses and underpasses, neighbourhoods are divided—especially impoverished ones where residents are less likely to own a car, or to have the political and economic influence to resist construction efforts. Beginning in the early 1970s, the US Congress identified freeways and other urban highways as responsible for most of the noise exposure of the US population. Subsequently, computer models were developed to analyze freeway noise and aid in their design to help minimize noise exposure.  Some cities have implemented freeway removal policies, under which freeways have been demolished and reclaimed as boulevards or parks, notably in Seoul (Cheonggyecheon), Portland (Harbor Drive), New York City (West Side Elevator Highway), Boston (Central Artery), San Francisco (Embarcadero Freeway) and Milwaukee (Park East Freeway).  An alternative to surface or above ground freeway construction has been the construction of underground urban freeways using tunnelling technologies. This has been particularly employed in the Australian cities of Sydney (which has five such freeways), Brisbane (which has three), and Melbourne (which has two). This has had the benefit of not creating heavily trafficked surface roads and, in the case of Melbourne's Eastlink Motorway, prevented the destruction of an ecologically sensitive area.  Other Australian cities face similar problems (lack of available land, cost of home acquisition, aesthetic problems and community opposition). Brisbane, which also has to contend with physical boundaries (the Brisbane River) and rapid population increases, has embraced underground freeways. There are currently three open to traffic (Clem Jones Tunnel (Clem7), Airport

Route numbering.

United Kingdom.

Great Britain.

England and Wales  In England and Wales, the numbers of major motorways followed a numbering system separate to that of the A-road network, though based on the same principle of zones. Running clockwise from the M1 the zones were defined for Zones 1 to 4 based on the proposed M2, M3 and M4 motorways. The M5 and M6 numbers were reserved for the other two planned long distance motorways. The Preston Bypass, the UK's first motorway, should have been numbered A6(M) under the scheme decided upon, but it was decided to keep the number M6 as had already been applied.  A map "Showing Future Pattern of Principal National Routes" was issued by the Ministry of War Transport in 1946 shortly before the law that allowed roads to be restricted to specified classes of vehicle (the Special Roads Act 1949) was passed. The first section of motorway, the M6 Preston Bypass, opened in 1958 followed by the first major section of motorway (the M1 between Crick and Berrygrove in Watford), which opened in 1959. From then until the 1980s, motorways opened at frequent

Northern Ireland.

In Northern Ireland a distinct numbering system is used, which is separate from the rest of the United Kingdom, though the classification of roads along the lines of A, B and C is universal throughout the UK and the Isle of Man. According to a written answer to a parliamentary question to the Northern Ireland Minister for Regional Development, there is no known reason as to how Northern Ireland's road numbering system was devised. However motorways, as in the rest of the UK, are numbered M, with the two major motorways coming from Belfast being numbered M1 and M2. The M12 is a short spur of the M1 with the M22 being a short continuation (originally intended to be a spur) of the M2. There are two other motorways, the short M3, the M5 and a motorway section of the A8 road, known as the A8(M).

Republic of Ireland.

In the Republic of Ireland, motorway and "national road" numbering is quite different from the UK convention. Since the passage of the "Roads Act 1993", all motorways are part of, or form, "national primary roads". These routes are numbered in series, (usually, radiating anti-clockwise from Dublin, starting with the N1/M1) using numbers from 1 to 33 (and, separately from the series, 50). Motorways use the number of the route of which they form part, with an M prefix rather than N for national road (or in theory, rather than R for "regional road"). In most cases, the motorway has been built as a bypass of a road previously forming the national road (e.g. the M7 bypassing roads previously forming the N7)—the bypassed roads are reclassified as regional roads, although updated signposting may not be provided for some time, and

Elsewhere.

In Hungary, similar to Ireland, motorway numbers can be derived from the original national highway numbers (1–7), with an M prefix attached, e.g. M7 is on the route of the old Highway 7 from Budapest towards Lake Balaton and Croatia. New motorways not following the original Budapest-centred radial highway system get numbers M8, M9, etc., or M0 in the case of the ring road around Budapest.  Also in the Netherlands, motorway numbers can be derived from the original national highway numbers, but with an A ("Autosnelweg") prefix attached, like A9.  In Germany federal motorways have the prefix A ("Autobahn"). If the following number is an odd number the motorway generally follows a north–south direction, even-numbered motorways generally follow an east–west direction. Other controlled-access (dual carriageways) in Germany can be federal highways ("Bundesstraßen"), state highways ("Landesstraßen"), district highways ("Kreisstraßen")

Regional variation.

While the design characteristics listed above are generally applicable around the globe, every jurisdiction provides its own specifications and design criteria for controlled-access highways.

Africa.

Algeria.

In Algeria, motorway network has about in 2x3 lanes. The network is expanding increasingly, along with other kinds of infrastructure, though this is only true for the Northern region of the country, where most of

Egypt.

Egypt has many multiple-lane, high-speed motorways. Two routes in the Trans-African Highway network originate in Cairo. Egypt also has multiple highway links with Asia through the Arab Mashreq International Road Network.

Ethiopia.

Much of Ethiopia’s Highway network is developing. Road projects now represent around a quarter of the annual infrastructure budget of the Ethiopian government. Additionally, through the

Kenya.

The Kenya National Highways Authority is responsible for the maintenance, management, development, and rehabilitation of highways. According to the Kenya

Morocco.

The motorways and expressways of Morocco are a network of multiple-lane, high-speed, controlled-access highways in Morocco.  As of November 2016 the total length of Morocco's motorways is and expressways. Morocco plans to expand the road network. In the country of

Nigeria.

Nigeria has the largest highway network in West Africa. Although much of the highways are poorly maintained, the Federal Roads Maintenance Agency have drastically improved

South Africa.

In South Africa, the term "freeway" differs from most other parts of the world. A freeway is a road where certain restrictions apply. The following are forbidden from using a freeway:  Drivers may not use hand signals on a freeway (except in emergencies) and the minimum speed on a freeway is. Drivers in the rightmost lane of multi-carriageway freeways must move to the left if a faster vehicle approaches from behind to overtake.  Despite popular opinion that "freeway" means a road with at least two carriageways, single carriageway freeways exist, as is evidenced by the statement that "the roads include of dual carriageway freeway, of single carriageway freeway and of single carriage main road with unlimited access."

Americas.

Brazil.

Although some of Brazilian highway is built to motorway-standard, there is no distinct designation for controlled-access highways in the Brazilian federal and state highway systems. The term "autoestrada" (Portuguese for "motorway") is not commonly used in Brazil; the terms "estrada" ("road") and especially "rodovia" ("highway") are instead preferred. Nevertheless, the most technically advanced motorways in Brazil are defined "Class 0 motorways" by the National Department of Transport Infrastructure (DNIT). These motorways are built to safely allow for vehicular speeds of up to ). In mountainous terrain, the maximum allowable gradient is 5% and minimum allowable radius

British overseas territories.

A number of the United Kingdom's overseas territories

Canada.

Canada has no current national system for controlled-access highways. All controlled-access freeways, including sections that form part of the Trans Canada Highway, are under provincial jurisdiction, and have no numeric continuation across provincial boundaries. The largest networks in

El Salvador.

The RN-21 (East–West, Boulevard Monseñor Romero), is the very first freeway to be built in El Salvador and in Central America. The freeway passes the northern area of the city of Santa Tecla, La Libertad. It has a small portion serving Antiguo Cuscatlán, La Libertad, and merges with the RN-5 (East–West, Boulevard de Los

Mexico.

Federal Highways (), are a series of highways that

United States.

In the United States, a "freeway" is defined by the US government's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices as a divided highway with full control of access. This means two things: first, adjoining property owners do not have a legal right of access, meaning all existing driveways must be removed and access to adjacent private lands must be blocked with fences or walls; instead, frontage roads provide access to properties adjacent to a freeway in many places.  Second, traffic on a freeway is "free-flowing". All cross-traffic (and left-turning traffic) is relegated to overpasses or underpasses, so that there are no traffic conflicts on the main line of the highway, which must be regulated by traffic lights, stop signs, or other traffic control devices. Achieving such free flow requires the construction of many overpasses, underpasses, and ramp systems. The advantage of grade-separated interchanges is that freeway drivers can almost always maintain their speed at junctions since they do not need to yield to vehicles crossing perpendicular to mainline traffic.  In contrast, an expressway is defined as a divided highway with partial control of access. Expressways may have driveways and at-grade intersections, though these are usually less numerous than on ordinary arterial roads.  This distinction was apparently first developed in 1949 by the Special Committee on Nomenclature of what is now the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Prior to that distinction the first freeways

Asia.

Afghanistan.

Many highways of Afghanistan were built in the 1960s with American and Soviet assistance. The Soviets built a road and tunnel through the Salang pass in 1964, connecting northern and eastern Afghanistan. A highway connecting the principal

Armenia.

Armenia has about of paved roads, of which 96% are asphalted. Armenia is connected to Europe through

Azerbaijan.

Azerbaijan has about of paved roads; the first paved roads were built during the Russian Empire. The road network, from rural roads to motorways,

China.

The expressway network of China, with the national-level expressway system officially known as the National Trunk Highway System (; abbreviated as NTHS), is an integrated system of national and provincial-level expressways in China.  By the end of 2018, the total length of China's expressway network reached, the world's largest expressway system by length,

Georgia.

The road network in Georgia consists of of main or international highways that are considered to be in good condition and some of secondary and local

Hong Kong.

In Hong Kong major motorways are numbered from 1 to

India.

Expressways (known as "Gatimarg/गतिमार्ग", or "Speedways" in Hindi and other Indian languages) are the highest class of roads in India's road network and make up around of the

Indonesia.

In Indonesia, an expressway or highway is better known as a toll road (Indonesian: "Jalan Tol", or known as "Jalan Bebas Hambatan"). Indonesia has expressway length so far, almost 70% of its expressways are in Java island.  In 2009, the Indonesian government had planned to expand more expressway network in Java island by connecting Merak to Banyuwangi which is the total length of Trans-Java toll road including large cities expressway in Java such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung and its complements is more than

Iran.

The history of freeways in Iran goes back to before the Iranian Revolution. The first freeway in Iran

Iraq.

Iraq’s network of highways connects it from the inside to neighboring countries such as Syria, Turkey, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Iran. When Saddam Hussein visited the United States, he was impressed at the highway

Israel.

Controlled-access highways in Israel are designated by a blue colour. Blue highways are

Japan.

, generally known as, make up the majority of controlled-access highways in Japan. The network boasts an uninterrupted link between Aomori Prefecture at the northern part

South Korea.

Since Gyeongin Expressway linking Seoul and Incheon opened in 1968, national expressway system in South Korea has been expanded into 36 routes, with total length of as of 2017. Most of expressways are four-lane roads, while (26%) have six to ten lanes. Speed limit is typically

Malaysia.

Controlled-access highways in Malaysia are known as ( – this is also the name for highways). However, some expressways, particularly bridges and tunnels such as the Penang Bridge, do not formally use the "expressway" name; a small number confusingly use the term "highway", which is normally the designation for limited-access roads. Route numbers of designated expressways begin with the letter E. All expressways (excluding a section of the South Klang Valley Expressway, which is a two-lane expressway) are built with dual carriageways and at least two lanes in each direction; urban expressways generally have three or more lanes in each direction.  While all expressways are grade separated at major roadways, many urban expressways in the Greater Kuala Lumpur region often have

Pakistan.

The motorways of Pakistan and expressways of Pakistan are a network of multiple-lane, high-speed, limited-access or controlled-access highways in Pakistan, which are owned, maintained and operated federally by Pakistan's National Highway Authority. The total length of Pakistan's motorways and expressways is as of November 2016. Around of motorways are currently under construction in different parts of the country. Most of these motorway projects will be complete between 2018 and 2020.  Pakistan's

Philippines.

Full control-access highways in the Philippines are referred to as expressways, which are usually toll roads. The expressway network is concentrated in Luzon, with the North Luzon Expressway and South Luzon Expressway being the most important ones. The

Saudi Arabia.

Highways in Saudi Arabia vary from eight-laned roads to small two-lane roads in rural areas. The city highways and other major highways are well maintained, especially the roads in the capital Riyadh. The roads have been constructed to resist the

Singapore.

The expressways of Singapore are special roads that allow motorists to travel quickly from one urban area to another. All of them are dual carriageways with grade-separated access. They usually have three to four lanes in each direction, although there are two-lane carriageways at many expressway—expressway intersections and five-lane carriageways in some places.

Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka currently has over of designated expressways serving the southern part of the country. The first stage of the E01 Expressway (Southern Expressway) which opened in 2011 was Sri Lanka's first expressway spanning a distance of. The second stage of the Southern Expressway opened

Taiwan(Republic of China).

Taiwan has an extensive road network that includes two types of controlled-access highway: freeways and expressways. Only cars and trucks are allowed onto freeways, the first of which — Freeway 1 — was completed in

Thailand.

The Thai motorway network is an intercity motorway network that spans. It is to be extended to over according to the master plan.  Thailand's motorway network is considered to be separate from Thailand's expressway network, which is the system of usually elevated expressways within Greater Bangkok. Thailand also has a

Turkey.

Motorways () of Turkey are a network in constant development. Some motorways require toll

Uzbekistan.

Uzbekistan had of roads, about of which were paved. Much of the highways are in need of repair,

Vietnam.

At present, the expressway system of Vietnam is long. Under the government's plan, the national expressway system will have a total length of. The expressway system in Vietnam is separate from the national highway system.  Most of the expressways are located in the North, especially around Hanoi. Of the 21 expressways in Vietnam, 8 emanate from Hanoi and 14 are in the north, with a length of. The first motorway in Vietnam is the, which is inaugurated on 1 January 2002.  Currently, most of the expressways in Vietnam

Europe.

Regarding road function (see also ERSO Traffic Safety Synthesis on Roads), motorways serve exclusively the function of flow (Wegman & Aarts, 2005). They allow for efficient throughput of, usually long distance, motorized traffic, with unhindered flow of traffic, no traffic signals, at-grade intersections or property access and elimination of conflicts with other directions of traffic, thus, dramatically improving both safety and capacity.  Although roads are under the responsibility of each individual state, including within the European Union, there are some legal conventions (international treaties) and some European directives which give a legal framework for roads of a European importance with the goal to introduce some kind of homogenization between various members. They basically consider, at European level, three types of roads: motorways, express roads, and ordinary roads.  Some European treaties also define aspects such as the range of speed limit, or for some geometric aspects of roads, in particularly for the International E-road network.  According to Eurostat: A motorway is a road specially designed and built for motor vehicle traffic, which does not directly provide access to the properties bordering on it. Other characteristics of motorways include: In determining the extent of a motorway its entry and exit lanes are included irrespective of the location of the motorway signposts. Urban motorways are also included in this term.  Most of the European countries use the above motorway definition but different national definitions of motorways can be found in some countries.  Anyway, it is usually considered that:  Motorways status is signaled at the entry and exit of the motorway by a symbol conforming to international agreements, but specific to each country.  The peripheral northern and eastern regions of the EU have a lower density motorway network. Within the European Union, there are 26 regions (NUTS level 2) with no motorway network in 2013. Those regions are islands or remote regions, for instance four overseas French regions and Corsica. The Baltic member state of Latvia, as well as four regions from Poland, and two regions from each of Bulgaria and Romania also reported no motorway network; several of these regions bordered onto non-member neighbouring countries to the east of the EU.  European motorways provide reduced accident risks: 50% to 90% lower compared to standard roads, when new motorways only reduce injuries by 7%.  Some of the things which are considered as providing safety in the European motorways are central medians, grade separated interchanges, and access restrictions.  Nonetheless, some specific conditions provide a height risk of a more severe accidents, such as:

A controlled-access highway is a type of highway that has been designed for high-speed vehicular traffic, with all traffic flow—ingress and egress—regulated. Common English terms are freeway (in Australia, South Africa, United States and Canada), motorway (in the United Kingdom, Pakistan, Ireland, New Zealand and parts of Australia) and expressway (parts of Canada, parts of the United States, parts of the United Kingdom, India and many other Asian countries). Other similar terms include "Interstate" and "throughway" (in the United States) and "parkway". Some of these may be limited-access highways, although this term can also refer to a class of highway with somewhat less isolation from other traffic.

高速公路一般是指单向2条车道以上、双向分隔行驶、完全控制出入口、全部采用两旁封闭和立体交叉桥梁、地下隧道与匝道,时速限制比普通公路较高的行驶道路。其特点是车速快、交通量大和有较高的运输经济效益及社会效益。


Etymology.

During Manhattan Project research on the atomic bomb during World War II, American physicists at Purdue University needed a secretive unit to describe the approximate cross-sectional area presented by the typical nucleus (10 m) and decided on "barn". They considered this a large target for particle accelerators that needed to have direct strikes on nuclei, and the American idiom "couldn't hit the broad side of a barn" refers to someone whose aim is very bad. Initially they hoped the name would obscure any reference to the study of nuclear structure; eventually, the word became a standard unit in nuclear and particle physics.

Commonly used prefixed versions.

Other related units are the outhouse (1 μb, or 10 m) and the shed (10 b (1 yb), or 10 m), although these are rarely used in practice.

Conversions.

Calculated cross sections are often given in terms of gigaelectronvolts (GeV), via the conversion "ħ""c"/GeV = =.  In natural units (where "ħ" = "c" = 1), this simplifies to GeV = =.

SI units with prefix.

In SI, one can use units such as square femtometers (fm).

Inverse femtobarn.

The inverse femtobarn (fb) is the unit typically used to measure the number of particle collision events per femtobarn of target cross-section, and is the conventional unit for time-integrated luminosity. Thus if a detector has accumulated of integrated luminosity, one expects to find 100 events per femtobarn of cross-section within these data.  Consider a particle accelerator where two streams of particles, with cross-sectional areas measured in femtobarns, are directed to collide over a period of time. The total number of collisions will be directly proportional to the luminosity of the collisions measured over this time. Therefore, the collision count can be calculated by multiplying the integrated luminosity by the sum of the cross-section for those collision processes. This count is then expressed as inverse femtobarns for the time period (e.g., 100 fb in nine months). Inverse femtobarns are often quoted as an indication of particle collider productivity.  Fermilab produced in the first decade of the 21st century. Fermilab's Tevatron took about 4 years to reach in 2005, while two of CERN's LHC experiments, ATLAS and CMS, reached over of proton–proton data in 2011 alone. In April 2012 the LHC achieved the collision energy of with a luminosity peak of 6760 inverse microbarns per second; by May 2012 the LHC delivered 1 inverse femtobarn of data per week to each detector collaboration. A record of over 23 fb was achieved during 2012. As of November 2016, the LHC had achieved over that year, significantly exceeding the stated goal of. In total, the second run of the LHC has delivered around to both ATLAS and CMS in 2015–2018.

Usage example.

As a simplified example, if a beamline runs for 8 hours (28 800 seconds) at an instantaneous luminosity of, then it will gather data totaling an integrated luminosity of = = during this period. If this is multiplied by the cross-section, then a dimensionless number is obtained which would be simply the number of expected scattering events.

A barn (symbol: b) is a non-SI metric unit of area equal to (or 100 fm). Originally used in nuclear physics for expressing the cross sectional area of nuclei and nuclear reactions, today it is also used in all fields of high-energy physics to express the cross sections of any scattering process, and is best understood as a measure of the probability of interaction between small particles. A barn is approximately the cross-sectional area of a uranium nucleus. The barn is also the unit of area used in nuclear quadrupole resonance and nuclear magnetic resonance to quantify the interaction of a nucleus with an electric field gradient. While the barn never was an SI unit, the SI standards body acknowledged it in the 8th SI Brochure (superseded in 2019) due to its use in particle physics.

靶恩(符号为b,也简称为靶)是一种面积单位,原先用于核物理中描述原子核及核反应的截面,今天则用于所有高能物理学领域中描述任何散射过程的截面,并通常能代表细小粒子发生相互作用的几率。一个靶恩的定义为10 m(100 fm),大约为一个铀原子核的截面面积。靶恩也在核四极共振和核磁共振中用作面积单位,量化核子与电场斜率之间的交互作用。虽然靶恩并不是国际单位制单位,但由于长期使用于粒子物理学而被承认。它是国际单位制所接受的少数单位之一,也是最近期被承认的(节和巴是其他可接受有限使用的非国际单位制单位)。


Early life.

Murray was born on September 21, 1950, in Evanston, Illinois, to Lucille (née Collins), a mail-room clerk, and Edward Joseph Murray II, a lumber salesman. He was raised in Wilmette, Illinois, a northern suburb of Chicago.  Murray and his eight siblings were raised in an Irish-Catholic family. Murray's direct paternal grandfather was from County Cork, while his maternal origins are from County Galway. Three of his siblings, John Murray, Joel Murray, and Brian Doyle-Murray, are also actors. A sister, Nancy, is an Adrian Dominican nun in Michigan, who has traveled the United States in a one-woman program, portraying St. Catherine of Siena. Their father died in 1967 at the age of 46 from complications of diabetes when Bill was 17 years old.  As a youth, Murray read children's biographies of American heroes like Kit Carson, Wild Bill Hickok, and Davy Crockett. He attended St. Joseph's grade school and Loyola Academy. During his teen years, he worked as a golf caddy to fund his education at the Jesuit high school. One of his sisters had polio and his mother suffered several miscarriages. During his teen years he was the lead singer of a rock band called the Dutch Masters and took part in high school and community theater.  After graduating from Loyola Academy, Murray attended Regis University in Denver, Colorado, taking pre-medical courses. He quickly dropped out, returning to Illinois. Decades later, in 2007, Regis awarded him an honorary Doctor of Humanities degree. On September 21, 1970, his 20th birthday, the police arrested Murray at Chicago's O'Hare Airport for trying to smuggle of cannabis, which he had allegedly intended to sell. The drugs were discovered after Murray joked to the passenger next to him that he had packed a bomb in his luggage. Murray was convicted and sentenced to probation.

Career.

Second City.

With an invitation from his older brother, Brian, Murray got his start at The Second City in Chicago, an improvisational comedy troupe, studying under Del Close. In 1974, he moved to New York City and was recruited by John Belushi as a featured player on "The National Lampoon Radio Hour".

"Saturday Night Live".

In 1975, an Off-Broadway version of a "Lampoon" show led to his first television role as a cast member of the ABC variety show "Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell". That same season, another variety show titled "NBC's Saturday Night" premiered. Cosell's show lasted just one season, canceled in early 1976. After working in Los Angeles with the "guerrilla video" commune TVTV on several projects, Murray rose to prominence in 1976. He officially joined the cast of NBC's "Saturday Night Live" for the show's second season, following the departure of Chevy Chase. Murray was with "SNL" for three seasons from 1977 to 1980. A "Rutland Weekend Television" sketch Monty Python’s Eric Idle brought for his appearance on "SNL" developed into the 1978 mockumentary "All You Need Is Cash" with Murray (alongside other "SNL" cast members) appearing as "Bill Murray the K", a send-up of New York radio host Murray the K, in a segment of the film that is a parody of the Maysles Brothers's documentary "". During the first few seasons of "SNL", Murray engaged in a romantic relationship with fellow cast member Gilda Radner.

Film career.

Murray landed his first starring role with the film "Meatballs" in 1979. He followed this with a portrayal of Hunter S. Thompson in 1980's "Where the Buffalo Roam". In the early 1980s, he starred in a string of box-office hits, including "Caddyshack", "Stripes", and "Tootsie". Murray was the first guest on NBC's "Late Night with David Letterman" on February 1, 1982. He later appeared on the first episode of the "Late Show with David Letterman" on August 30, 1993, when the show moved to CBS. On January 31, 2012 – 30 years after his first appearance with Letterman – Murray appeared again on his talk show. He appeared as Letterman's final guest when the host retired on May 20, 2015.  Murray began work on a film adaptation of the novel "The Razor's Edge". The film, which Murray co-wrote, was his first starring role in a dramatic film. He later agreed with Columbia Pictures to star in "Ghostbusters"—in a role originally written for John Belushi—to get financing for "The Razor's Edge". "Ghostbusters" became the highest-grossing film of 1984 and the highest-grossing comedy of all-time. "The Razor's Edge", which was filmed before "Ghostbusters" but not released until after, was a box-office flop.  Frustrated over the failure of "The Razor's Edge", Murray stepped away from acting for four years to study philosophy and history at Sorbonne University, frequent the Cinémathèque in Paris, and spend time with his family in their Hudson River Valley home. During that time, his second son, Luke, was born. With the exception of a cameo appearance in the 1986 movie "Little Shop of Horrors", he did not make any appearances in films, though he did participate in several public readings in Manhattan organized by playwright/director Timothy Mayer and in a stage production of Bertolt Brecht's "A Man's a Man".  Murray returned to films with "Scrooged" in 1988 and "Ghostbusters II" in 1989. In 1990, Murray made his first and only attempt at directing when he co-directed "Quick Change" with producer Howard Franklin. His subsequent films "What About Bob?" (1991) and "Groundhog Day" (1993) were box-office hits. After "Groundhog Day", he appeared in a series of well-received supporting roles in films like "Ed Wood", "Kingpin", and "Space Jam" (where he appeared as himself). However, his starring roles in "Larger than Life" and "The Man Who Knew Too Little" were not as successful with critics or audiences. In 1998, he received much critical acclaim for Wes Anderson's "Rushmore", for which he won Best Supporting Actor awards from the New York Film Critics Circle, the National Society of Film Critics, and the Los Angeles Film Critics Association (tying with Billy Bob Thornton). Murray decided to take a turn towards more dramatic roles and experienced a resurgence in his career, taking on roles in "Wild Things", "Cradle Will Rock", "Hamlet" (as Polonius), and "The Royal Tenenbaums". In 2003, he appeared in Sofia Coppola's "Lost in Translation" and went on to earn a Golden Globe Award, a BAFTA Award, and an Independent Spirit Award, as well as Best Actor awards from several film critic organizations. He was considered a favorite to win the Academy Award for Best Actor, but Sean Penn ultimately won the award for his performance in "Mystic River". In an interview included on the "Lost in Translation" DVD, Murray states that it is his favorite movie in which he has appeared. Also in 2003, he appeared in a short cameo for Jim Jarmusch's "Coffee and Cigarettes", in which he played himself "hiding out" in a local coffee shop. During this time Murray still appeared in comedic roles such as "" and "Osmosis Jones". In 2004, he provided the voice of Garfield in "", and again in 2006 for "". Murray later said that he only took the role because he was under the mistaken impression the screenplay, co-written by Joel Cohen, was the work of Joel Coen. In 2004, he made his third collaboration with Wes Anderson in "The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou" and in 2005 his second collaboration with Jim Jarmusch in "Broken Flowers". That same year, Murray announced that he was taking a hiatus from acting as he had not had the time to relax since his new breakthrough in the late 1990s. He did return to the big screen for brief cameos in Wes Anderson's "The Darjeeling Limited" and in "Get Smart" as Agent 13, the agent in the tree. In 2008, he played an important role in the post-apocalyptic film "City of Ember", and in 2009, had a cameo role in the zombie comedy "Zombieland".  Murray provided the voice for the character Mr. Badger in the 2009 animated film "Fantastic Mr. Fox".  Since 2010, Murray has been part of ensembles which received several award nominations in two Wes Anderson movies: "Moonrise Kingdom" (2012) and "Grand Budapest Hotel" (2014). Murray was nominated for a Golden Globe for his performance in the 2014 film "St. Vincent". He played a music manager in 2015's "Rock the Kasbah". In 2016, he was the voice of Baloo in the live-action adaptation of Disney's "The Jungle Book", directed by Jon Favreau. The film earned a 95% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, and Murray was nominated to for Favorite Animated Movie Voice at the People's Choice Awards; he lost to Ellen DeGeneres.  Murray appeared as Martin Heiss, a cynical ghost debunker, in the reboot of "Ghostbusters", which was released on July 15, 2016. There had been speculation that he might return to the "Ghostbusters" franchise for a rumored "Ghostbusters 3", but he dispelled such rumors in an interview with "GQ". In March 2010, Murray appeared on the "Late Show with David Letterman" and talked about his return to "Ghostbusters III", stating "I'd do it only if my character was killed off in the first reel." In an interview with "GQ", Murray said: "You know, maybe I should just do it. Maybe it'd be fun to do." In the interview, when asked "Is the third "Ghostbusters" movie happening? What's the story with that?", Murray replied, "It's all a bunch of crock."  He was part of the ensemble cast of the 2018 animated film "Isle of Dogs", by Wes Anderson, which premiered at the 68th Berlin International Film Festival. He will appear in a small role in his next film "The French Dispatch".  On February 2, 2020, a Jeep commercial starring Murray aired during the Super Bowl referencing his role in the film Groundhog Day as Phil, with him stealing the groundhog and driving him to various places in the orange Jeep Gladiator.

Outside show business.

Murray is a partner with his brothers in Murray Bros. Caddy Shack, a restaurant with two locations. In 2001, they opened at the World Golf Village near St. Augustine, Florida. In 2018, they opened the second location inside the Crowne Plaza Rosemont Hotel near the O'Hare International Airport. He resides in Charleston, South Carolina, where he is a very active community member.  In 1978, Murray appeared in two at-bats for the Grays Harbor Loggers Minor League Baseball team, credited with one hit and a lifetime batting average of.500.  He is a part-owner of the St. Paul Saints independent baseball team and occasionally travels to Saint Paul, Minnesota to watch the team's games. He also owns part of the Charleston RiverDogs, the Hudson Valley Renegades, and the Brockton Rox. He has invested in a number of other minor league teams in the past, including the Utica Blue Sox, the Fort Myers Miracle, the Salt Lake Sting (APSL), the Catskill Cougars, and the Salt Lake City Trappers. In 2012 he was inducted into the South Atlantic League Hall of Fame for his ownership and investment activities in the league.  Being very detached from the Hollywood scene, Murray does not have an agent or manager and reportedly only fields offers for scripts and roles using a personal telephone number with a voice mailbox that he checks infrequently. This practice has the downside of sometimes preventing him from taking parts in films such as "Who Framed Roger Rabbit", "Monsters, Inc.", "The Squid and the Whale", "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory", and "Little Miss Sunshine". When asked about this practice, however, Murray seemed content with his inaccessibility, stating, "It's not that hard. If you have a good script that's what gets you involved. People say they can't find me. Well, if you can write a good script, that's a lot harder than finding someone. I don't worry about it; it's not my problem."  Murray's popularity has been such that () he holds an iconic status in U.S. popular culture. Murray's eccentric style of comedy, both on-screen and in his personal life, has caused him to be seen as a folk hero to many making him a significant meme in various media including books and the internet. In 2016 he was awarded the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor by the Kennedy Center.

Personal life.

During the filming of "Stripes", Murray married Margaret Kelly on Super Bowl Sunday in Las Vegas on January 25, 1981. Later, they remarried in Chicago for their families. Margaret gave birth to two sons, Homer and Luke. Following Murray's affair with Jennifer Butler, the couple divorced in 1996. In 1997, he married Butler. Together, they have four sons: Caleb, Jackson, Cooper, and Lincoln. Butler filed for divorce on May 12, 2008. Their divorce was finalized on June 13, 2008.  Murray stated in a 1984 interview: "I'm definitely a religious person, but it doesn't have much to do with Catholicism anymore. I don't think about Catholicism as much." He is also "apparently a big fan of Jazz Age mystic George Ivanovich Gurdjieff, creator of a religious philosophy known as "The Fourth Way."  Murray was once pulled over by Swedish police on suspicion of driving a golf cart under the influence of alcohol.  Murray has homes in Los Angeles, California, Rancho Santa Fe, California, Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, Charleston, South Carolina, and Palisades, New York, a suburb of New York City. Between 2008 and 2013, Murray maintained a residence in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan.  During the 2000 presidential campaign, Murray supported Green Party candidate Ralph Nader. He also donated $1,000 to former Governor of Nebraska Bob Kerrey's successful election to the United States Senate in 1988.  Murray is a fan of several Chicago professional sports teams, especially the Chicago Cubs, Chicago Bears, and the Chicago Bulls. (He was once a guest color commentator for a Cubs game during the 1980s.) He was in attendance, along with fellow Cubs fans John Cusack, Eddie Vedder and Bonnie Hunt, during the Cubs' historic Game Seven victory during the 2016 World Series. Murray is an avid Quinnipiac University basketball fan, where his son served as head of basketball operations, and he is a regular fixture at home games. He cheered courtside for the Illinois Fighting Illini's game against the 2004–05 Arizona Wildcats in the Regional Final game in Chicago. He is a fixture at home games of those teams when in his native Chicago. After traveling to Florida during the Cubs' playoff run to help "inspire" the team (Murray joked with Cubs slugger Aramis Ramírez he was very ill and needed two home runs to give him the hope to live), he was invited to the champagne party in the Cubs' clubhouse when the team clinched the NL Central in late September 2007, along with fellow actors John Cusack, Bernie Mac, James Belushi, and former Cubs player Ron Santo. Murray appears in Santo's documentary, "This Old Cub". In 2006, Murray became the sixth recipient of Baseball Reliquary's annual Hilda Award, established in 2001 "to recognize distinguished service to the game by a fan." He sang "Take Me Out to the Ballgame" during a 2016 World Series game at Wrigley Field.  As a Chicago native, Murray appeared at the 50th annual Chicago Air & Water Show in August 2008. He performed a tandem jump with the U.S. Army Parachute Team Golden Knights. He was the MC for Eric Clapton's Crossroads Guitar Festival on July 28, 2007, where he dressed in various guises of Clapton as he appeared through the years. He served as MC again in 2010 and once more in 2019.  In 1987, he donated a large amount of money to help build the Nathalie Salmon House, which provides affordable housing for low-income seniors. Michael and Lilo Salmon, the founders of Housing Opportunities and Maintenance for the Elderly (HOME), said Murray performed "miracles" for them.

Feuds.

Murray has been known for his mood swings, leading Dan Aykroyd to refer to him as "The Murricane". Murray has said of his reputation: "I remember a friend said to me a while back: 'You have a reputation.' And I said: 'What?' And he said: 'Yeah, you have a reputation of being difficult to work with.' But I only got that reputation from people I didn't like working with, or people who didn't know how to work, or what work is. Jim, Wes and Sofia, they know what it is to work, and they understand how you're supposed to treat people."  In the book "Live from New York: An Uncensored History of Saturday Night Live, as Told By Its Stars, Writers and Guests", Chevy Chase recalls being confronted by Murray shortly before an "SNL" broadcast in which Chase had returned to guest host. The issue, likely to do with Chase's insistence on doing the "Weekend Update" segment that had been taken over by Jane Curtin, led to Murray and Chase trading insults, with Murray telling Chase to go have sex with Jacqueline Carlin, Chase's wife at the time, while Chase commented that Murray's face looked "like something Neil Armstrong had landed on". The argument eventually turned physical. Murray later said of the incident, "It was an Oedipal thing, a rupture. Because we all felt mad he had left us, and somehow I was the anointed avenging angel, who had to speak for everyone. But Chevy and I are friends now. It's all fine." The two later starred together in "Caddyshack" in 1980.  According to Den of Geek, Murray did not get along with Sean Young during the production of "Stripes" and has refused to work with her ever again.  Murray has said in interviews that he did not get along with film director Richard Donner while filming "Scrooged", stating that they would disagree with each other. Donner said of Murray: "He's superbly creative, but occasionally difficult — as difficult as any actor."  Both Murray and Richard Dreyfuss have confirmed in separate interviews that they did not get along with each other during the making of "What About Bob?" In addition, the film's producer Laura Ziskin recalled having a disagreement with Murray that led him to toss her into a lake. Ziskin confirmed in 2003, "Bill also threatened to throw me across the parking lot and then broke my sunglasses and threw them across the parking lot. I was furious and outraged at the time, but having produced a dozen movies, I can safely say it is not common behavior." Dreyfuss later alleged in 2019 that Murray screamed at him while he was intoxicated and told him, "Everyone hates you! You are tolerated!" and then threw an ashtray at him. Although neither of them have crossed paths since the release of the film, Dreyfuss confirmed in a 2020 interview that he has forgiven Murray.  Murray also had a falling out with film director and longtime collaborator Harold Ramis during the production of "Groundhog Day". According to screenwriter Danny Rubin, "They were like two brothers who weren't getting along." Apparently, they had such intense creative differences that one day Ramis grabbed Murray by the shirt collar and threw him against a wall. As a result, "Groundhog Day" ultimately served as the final film collaboration between Murray and Ramis, although they did take part in the 2009's "". Murray eventually reconciled with Ramis 20 years later just before Ramis's death in February 2014.  During the making of "Charlie's Angels", Lucy Liu allegedly threw punches at Murray after he told her that she could not act. However, Murray claims that he and Liu only had an argument rather than a feud and that they have "made peace" since then. Film director McG, who directed "Charlie's Angels", alleged in 2009 that Murray headbutted him. Murray has denied ever doing so.  "Lost in Translation" director Sofia Coppola said that the central scene of Scarlett Johansson and Murray lying on the bed together took multiple takes because the actors did not seem to be getting along. She eventually stopped for the day and started again the next morning. Despite this, Sofia Coppola stated that Bill Murray was a lot of fun to work with on production.  Anjelica Huston recalled having a feud with Murray during the making of "The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou".

William James Murray (born September 21, 1950) is an American actor, comedian, filmmaker, and writer. Known for his deadpan delivery, he first rose to fame on "Saturday Night Live", a series of performances that earned him his first Emmy Award, and later starred in comedy films—including "Meatballs" (1979), "Caddyshack" (1980), "Stripes" (1981), "Tootsie" (1982), "Ghostbusters" (1984), "Scrooged" (1988), "Ghostbusters II" (1989), "What About Bob?" (1991), and "Groundhog Day" (1993). He also co-directed "Quick Change" (1990).

威廉·詹姆斯·莫瑞(英语:William James Murray,1950年-9月21日),暱称比尔·莫瑞(英语:Bill Murray),生于美国伊利诺伊州埃文斯顿,喜剧演员与作家。曾经入围过奥斯卡最佳男主角奖并获得过1次英国电影和电视艺术学院最佳男主角奖。


Origin.

John G. Kemeny was the math department chairman at Dartmouth College. Based largely on his reputation as an innovator in math teaching, in 1959 the school won an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation award for $500,000 to build a new department building. Thomas E. Kurtz had joined the department in 1956, and from the 1960s Kemeny and Kurtz agreed on the need for programming literacy among students outside the traditional STEM fields. Kemeny later noted that "Our vision was that every student on campus should have access to a computer, and any faculty member should be able to use a computer in the classroom whenever appropriate. It was as simple as that."  Kemeny and Kurtz had made two previous experiments with simplified languages, DARSIMCO (Dartmouth Simplified Code) and DOPE (Dartmouth Oversimplified Programming Experiment). These did not progress past a single freshman class. New experiments using Fortran and ALGOL followed, but Kurtz concluded these languages were too tricky for what they desired. As Kurtz noted, Fortran had numerous oddly-formed commands, notably an "almost impossible-to-memorize convention for specifying a loop: 'DO 100, I = 1, 10, 2'. Is it '1, 10, 2' or '1, 2, 10', and is the comma after the line number required or not?"  Moreover, the lack of any sort of immediate feedback was a key problem; the machines of the era used batch processing and took a long time to complete a run of a program. While Kurtz was visiting MIT, Marvin Minsky suggested that time-sharing offered a solution; a single machine could divide up its processing time among many users, giving them the illusion of having a (slow) computer to themselves. Small programs would return results in a few seconds. This led to increasing interest in a system using time-sharing and a new language specifically for use by non-STEM students.  Kemeny wrote the first version of BASIC. The acronym "BASIC" comes from the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz. The new language was heavily patterned on FORTRAN II; statements were one-to-a-line, numbers were used to indicate the target of loops and branches, and many of the commands were similar or identical to Fortran. However, the syntax was changed wherever it could be improved. For instance, the difficult to remember codice_1 loop was replaced by the much easier to remember codice_2, and the line number used in the DO was instead indicated by the codice_3. Likewise, the cryptic codice_4 statement of Fortran, whose syntax matched a particular instruction of the machine on which it was originally written, became the simpler codice_5. These changes made the language much less idiosyncratic while still having an overall structure and feel similar to the original FORTRAN.  The project received a $300,000 grant from the National Science Foundation, which was used to purchase a GE-225 computer for processing, and a Datanet-30 realtime processor to handle the Teletype Model 33 teleprinters used for input and output. A team of a dozen undergraduates worked on the project for about a year, writing both the DTSS system and the BASIC compiler. The first version BASIC language was released on 1 May 1964. One of the graduate students on the implementation team was Mary Kenneth Keller, one of the first people in the United States to earn a Ph.D. in computer science and the first woman to do so.  Initially, BASIC concentrated on supporting straightforward mathematical work, with matrix arithmetic support from its initial implementation as a batch language, and character string functionality being added by 1965. Usage in the university rapidly expanded, requiring the main CPU to be replaced by a GE-235, and still later by a GE-635.  Wanting use of the language to become widespread, its designers made the compiler available free of charge. (In the 1960s, software became a chargeable commodity; until then, it was provided without charge as a service with the very expensive computers, usually available only to lease.) They also made it available to high schools in the Hanover, New Hampshire area and regionally throughout New England on Teletype Model 33 and Model 35 teleprinter terminals connected to Dartmouth via dial-up phone lines, and they put considerable effort into promoting the language. In the following years, as other dialects of BASIC appeared, Kemeny and Kurtz's original BASIC dialect became known as "Dartmouth BASIC".  New Hampshire recognized the accomplishment in 2019 when it erected a highway historical marker recognizing the creation of BASIC.

Spread on minicomputers.

BASIC, by its very nature of being small, was naturally suited to porting to the newly emerging minicomputer market. These machines had very small main memory, perhaps as little as 4 kB in modern terminology, and lacked high-performance storage like hard drives that make compilers practical. Interpreters for BASIC on these platforms thus became the norm.  A particularly important example was HP Time-Shared BASIC, which, like the original Dartmouth system, used two computers working together to implement a timesharing system. One, a low-end machine in the HP 2100 series, was used to control user input and save and load their programs. The other, a high-end version of the same underlying machine, ran the programs and generated output. For the low-low cost of about $100,000, one could own a machine capable of running between 16 and 32 users at the same time. The system, bundled as the HP 2000, was the first mini platform to offer timesharing and was an immediate runaway success, catapulting HP to become the third-largest vendor in the minicomputer space, behind DEC and Data General (DG). This cemented BASIC as the language of choice for the timesharing market from large to small.  DEC initially ignored BASIC. This was due to their work with RAND Corporation, who had purchased a PDP-6 to run their JOSS language, which was conceptually very similar to BASIC. This led DEC to introduce a smaller, cleaned up version of JOSS known as FOCAL, which they heavily promoted in the late 1960s. However, with timesharing systems widely offering BASIC, and all of their competition in the minicomputer space doing the same, customers were clamouring for BASIC. After management repeatedly ignored their pleas, David H. Ahl took it upon himself to buy a BASIC for the PDP-8, which was a major success in the education market. By the early 1970s, FOCAL and JOSS had been forgotten and BASIC had become almost universal in the minicomputer market. DEC would go on to introduce their updated version, BASIC-PLUS, for use on the RSTS/E time-sharing operating system.  During this period a number of simple text-based games were written in BASIC, most notably Mike Mayfield's "Star Trek". David Ahl collected these, some ported from FOCAL, and published them in an educational newsletter he compiled. He later collected a number of these into book form, "101 BASIC Computer Games", published in 1973. During the same period, Ahl was involved in the creation of a small computer for education use, an early personal computer. When management refused to support the concept, Ahl left DEC in 1974 to found the seminal computer magazine, "Creative Computing". The book remained popular, and was re-published on several occasions.

Explosive growth: the home computer era.

The introduction of the first microcomputers in the mid-1970s was the start of explosive growth for BASIC. It had the advantage that it was fairly well known to the young designers and computer hobbyists who took an interest in microcomputers. Despite Dijkstra's famous judgement in 1975, "It is practically impossible to teach good programming to students that have had a prior exposure to BASIC: as potential programmers they are mentally mutilated beyond hope of regeneration", BASIC was one of the few languages that was both high-level enough to be usable by those without training and small enough to fit into the microcomputers of the day, making it the de facto standard programming language on early microcomputers.  The first microcomputer version of BASIC was co-written by Gates, Allen, and Monte Davidoff for their newly-formed company, Micro-Soft. This was released by MITS in punch tape format for the Altair 8800 shortly after the machine itself, immediately cementing BASIC as the primary language of early microcomputers. Members of the Homebrew Computer Club began circulating copies of the program, causing Gates to write his Open Letter to Hobbyists, complaining about this early example of software piracy.  Partially in response, Bob Albrecht urged Dennis Allison to write their own variation of the language. Albrecht had seen BASIC on minicomputers and felt it would be the perfect match for new machines. How to design and implement a stripped-down version of an interpreter for the BASIC language was covered in articles by Allison in the first three quarterly issues of the "People's Computer Company" newsletter published in 1975 and implementations with source code published in "". This led to a wide variety of versions with added features or other improvements, with versions from Tom Pittman and Li-Chen Wang becoming particularly well known.  Micro-Soft, by this time Microsoft, ported their interpreter for the MOS 6502, which quickly become one of the most popular microprocessors of the 8-bit era. When new microcomputers began to appear, notably the "1977 trinity" of the TRS-80, Commodore PET and Apple II, they either included a version of the MS code, or quickly introduced new models with it. By 1978, MS BASIC was a "de facto" standard and practically every home computer of the 1980s included it in ROM. Upon boot, a BASIC interpreter in direct mode was presented.  Commodore Business Machines included Commodore BASIC, based on Microsoft BASIC. The Apple II and TRS-80 each had two versions of BASIC, a smaller introductory version introduced with the initial releases of the machines and a more advanced version developed as interest in the platforms increased. As new companies entered the field, additional versions were added that subtly changed the BASIC family. The Atari 8-bit family had its own Atari BASIC that was modified in order to fit on an 8 kB ROM cartridge. Sinclair BASIC was introduced in 1980 with the Sinclair ZX-80, and was later extended for the Sinclair ZX-81 and the Sinclair ZX Spectrum. The BBC published BBC BASIC, developed by Acorn Computers Ltd, incorporating many extra structured programming keywords and advanced floating-point operation features.  As the popularity of BASIC grew in this period, computer magazines published complete source code in BASIC for video games, utilities, and other programs. Given BASIC's straightforward nature, it was a simple matter to type in the code from the magazine and execute the program. Different magazines were published featuring programs for specific computers, though some BASIC programs were considered universal and could be used in machines running any variant of BASIC (sometimes with minor adaptations). Many books of type-in programs were also available, and in particular, Ahl published versions of the original 101 BASIC games converted into the Microsoft dialect and published it from "Creative Computing" as "BASIC Computer Games". This book, and its sequels, provided hundreds of ready-to-go programs that could be easily converted to practically any BASIC-running platform. The book reached the stores in 1978, just as the home computer market was starting off, and it became the first million-selling computer book. Later packages, such as Learn to Program BASIC would also have gaming as an introductory focus. On the business-focused CP/M computers which soon became widespread in small business environments, Microsoft BASIC (MBASIC) was one of the leading applications.

IBM PC and compatibles.

When IBM was designing the IBM PC they followed the paradigm of existing home computers in wanting to have a built-in BASIC. They sourced this from Microsoft – IBM Cassette BASIC – but Microsoft also produced several other versions of BASIC for MS-DOS/PC DOS including IBM Disk BASIC (BASIC D), IBM BASICA (BASIC A), GW-BASIC (a BASICA-compatible version that did not need IBM's ROM) and QBasic, all typically bundled with the machine. In addition they produced the Microsoft BASIC Compiler aimed at professional programmers. Turbo Pascal-publisher Borland published Turbo Basic 1.0 in 1985 (successor versions are still being marketed by the original author under the name PowerBASIC). Microsoft wrote the windowed AmigaBASIC that was supplied with version 1.1 of the pre-emptive multitasking GUI Amiga computers (late 1985 / early 1986), although the product unusually did not bear any Microsoft marks.  These later variations introduced many extensions, such as improved string manipulation and graphics support, access to the file system and additional data types. More important were the facilities for structured programming, including additional control structures and proper subroutines supporting local variables. However, by the latter half of the 1980s, users were increasingly using pre-made applications written by others rather than learning programming themselves; while professional programmers now had a wide range of more advanced languages available on small computers. C and later C++ became the languages of choice for professional "shrink wrap" application development.

Visual Basic.

In 1991 Microsoft introduced Visual Basic, an evolutionary development of QuickBasic. It included constructs from that language such as block-structured control statements, parameterized subroutines and optional static typing as well as object-oriented constructs from other languages such as "With" and "For Each". The language retained some compatibility with its predecessors, such as the Dim keyword for declarations, "Gosub"/Return statements and optional line numbers which could be used to locate errors. An important driver for the development of Visual Basic was as the new macro language for Microsoft Excel, a spreadsheet program. To the surprise of many at Microsoft who still initially marketed it as a language for hobbyists, the language came into widespread use for small custom business applications shortly after the release of VB version 3.0, which is widely considered the first relatively stable version.  While many advanced programmers still scoffed at its use, VB met the needs of small businesses efficiently as by that time, computers running Windows 3.1 had become fast enough that many business-related processes could be completed "in the blink of an eye" even using a "slow" language, as long as large amounts of data were not involved. Many small business owners found they could create their own small, yet useful applications in a few evenings to meet their own specialized needs. Eventually, during the lengthy lifetime of VB3, knowledge of Visual Basic had become a marketable job skill. Microsoft also produced VBScript in 1996 and Visual Basic.NET in 2001. The latter has essentially the same power as C# and Java but with syntax that reflects the original Basic language.

Basic4X (B4X).

B4X is a suite of rapid application development IDE that allows the creation of applications for various platforms using BASIC-like (or VB-like) language. The 'X' in the name may stand for 'cross platform'. The suite comprises: B4A (Basic4Android) for creating Android applications; B4i (Basic4IOS) for creating applications for ipads/iphones; B4J (Basic4Java) for creating java-based applications that can run on Windows, Mac, Linux and ARM boards (such as Raspberry Pi); and B4R (Basic4aRduino) for creating IOT applications on arduino boards. B4X products are free except B4i. [see main article]

Post-1990 versions and dialects.

Many other BASIC dialects have also sprung up since 1990, including the open source QB64 and FreeBASIC, inspired by QBasic, and the Visual Basic-styled RapidQ, Basic For Qt and Gambas. Modern commercial incarnations include PureBasic, PowerBASIC, Xojo, Monkey X and True BASIC (the direct successor to Dartmouth BASIC from a company controlled by Kurtz).  Several web-based simple BASIC interpreters also now exist, including Quite BASIC and Microsoft's Small Basic. Many versions of BASIC are also now available for smartphones and tablets via the Apple App Store, or Google Play store for Android. On game consoles, an application for the Nintendo 3DS and Nintendo DSi called "Petit Computer" allows for programming in a slightly modified version of BASIC with DS button support.

Calculators.

Variants of BASIC are available on graphing and otherwise programmable calculators made by Texas Instruments, HP, Casio, and others.

Windows command line.

QBasic, a version of Microsoft QuickBASIC without the linker to make EXE files, is present in the Windows NT and DOS-Windows 95 streams of operating systems and can be obtained for more recent releases like Windows 7 which do not have them. Prior to DOS 5, the Basic interpreter was GW-Basic. QuickBasic is part of a series of three languages issued by Microsoft for the home and office power user and small-scale professional development; QuickC and QuickPascal are the other two. For Windows 95 and 98, which do not have QBasic installed by default, they can be copied from the installation disc, which will have a set of directories for old and optional software; other missing commands like Exe2Bin and others are in these same directories.

Other.

The various Microsoft, Lotus, and Corel office suites and related products are programmable with Visual Basic in one form or another, including LotusScript, which is very similar to VBA 6. The Host Explorer terminal emulator uses WWB as a macro language; or more recently the programme and the suite in which it is contained is programmable in an in-house Basic variant known as Hummingbird Basic. The VBScript variant is used for programming web content, Outlook 97, Internet Explorer, and the Windows Script Host. WSH also has a Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) engine installed as the third of the default engines along with VBScript, JScript, and the numerous proprietary or open source engines which can be installed like PerlScript, a couple of Rexx-based engines, Python, Ruby, Tcl, Delphi, XLNT, PHP, and others; meaning that the two versions of Basic can be used along with the other mentioned languages, as well as LotusScript, in a WSF file, through the component object model, and other WSH and VBA constructions. VBScript is one of the languages that can be accessed by the 4Dos, 4NT, and Take Command enhanced shells. SaxBasic and WWB are also very similar to the Visual Basic line of Basic implementations. The pre-Office 97 macro language for Microsoft Word is known as WordBASIC. Excel 4 and 5 use Visual Basic itself as a macro language. Chipmunk Basic, an old school interpreter similar to BASICs of the 1970s, is available for Linux, Microsoft Windows and macOS.

Nostalgia.

The ubiquity of BASIC interpreters on personal computers was such that textbooks once included simple "Try It In BASIC" exercises that encouraged students to experiment with mathematical and computational concepts on classroom or home computers. Popular computer magazines of the day typically included type-in programs.  Futurist and sci-fi writer David Brin mourned the loss of ubiquitous BASIC in a 2006 "Salon" article as have others who first used computers during this era. In turn, the article prompted Microsoft to develop and release Small Basic. Dartmouth held a 50th anniversary celebration for BASIC on 1 May 2014, as did other organisations; at least one organisation of VBA programmers organised a 35th anniversary observance in 1999.  Dartmouth College celebrated the 50th anniversary of the BASIC language with a day of events on April 30, 2014. A short documentary film was produced for the event.

Syntax.

Data types and variables.

Minimal versions of BASIC had only integer variables and one- or two-letter variable names, which minimized requirements of limited and expensive memory (RAM). More powerful versions had floating-point arithmetic, and variables could be labelled with names six or more characters long. There were some problems and restrictions in early implementations; for example, Applesoft BASIC allowed variable names to be several characters long, but only the first two were significant, thus it was possible to inadvertently write a program with variables "LOSS" and "LOAN", which would be treated as being the same; assigning a value to "LOAN" would silently overwrite the value intended as "LOSS". Keywords could not be used in variables in many early BASICs; "SCORE" would be interpreted as "SC" OR "E", where OR was a keyword. String variables are usually distinguished in many microcomputer dialects by having $ suffixed to their name, and values are often identified as strings by being delimited by "double quotation marks". Arrays in BASIC could contain integers, floating point or string variables.  Some dialects of BASIC supported matrices and matrix operations, useful for the solution of sets of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. These dialects would directly support matrix operations such as assignment, addition, multiplication (of compatible matrix types), and evaluation of a determinant. Many microcomputer BASICs did not support this data type; matrix operations were still possible, but had to be programmed explicitly on array elements.

Examples.

Unstructured BASIC.

The original Dartmouth Basic was unusual in having a matrix keyword, MAT. Although not implemented by most later microprocessor derivatives, it is used in this example from the 1968 manual which averages the numbers that are input: 5 LET S = 0 10 MAT INPUT V 20 LET N = NUM 30 IF N = 0 THEN 99 40 FOR I = 1 TO N 45 LET S = S + V(I) 50 NEXT I 60 PRINT S/N 70 GO TO 5 99 END New BASIC programmers on a home computer might start with a simple program, perhaps using the language's PRINT statement to display a message on the screen; a well-known and often-replicated example is Kernighan and Ritchie's "Hello, World!" program: 10 PRINT "Hello, World!" 20 END An infinite loop could be used to fill the display with the message.  Most first-generation BASIC versions, such as MSX BASIC and GW-BASIC, supported simple data types, loop cycles, and arrays. The following example is written for GW-BASIC, but will work in most versions of BASIC with minimal changes: 10 INPUT "What is your name: "; U$ 20 PRINT "Hello "; U$ 30 INPUT "How many stars do you want: "; N 40 S$ = "" 50 FOR I = 1 TO N 60 S$ = S$ + "*" 70 NEXT I 80 PRINT S$ 90 INPUT "Do you want more stars? "; A$ 100 IF LEN(A$) = 0 THEN GOTO 90 110 A$ = LEFT$(A$, 1) 120 IF A$ = "Y" OR A$ = "y" THEN GOTO 30 130 PRINT "Goodbye "; U$ 140 END  The resulting dialog might resemble:

Structured BASIC.

Second-generation BASICs (for example, VAX Basic, SuperBASIC, True BASIC, QuickBASIC, BBC BASIC, Pick BASIC, PowerBASIC, Liberty BASIC and (arguably) COMAL) introduced a number of features into the language, primarily related to structured and procedure-oriented programming. Usually, line numbering is omitted from the language and replaced with labels (for GOTO) and procedures to encourage easier and more flexible design. In addition keywords and structures to support repetition, selection and procedures with local variables were introduced.  The following example is in Microsoft QuickBASIC: REM QuickBASIC example  REM Forward declaration - allows the main code to call a REM subroutine that is defined later in the source code DECLARE SUB PrintSomeStars (StarCount!)  REM Main program follows INPUT "What is your name: ", UserName$ PRINT "Hello "; UserName$ DO LOOP WHILE UCASE$(Answer$) = "Y" PRINT "Goodbye "; UserName$ END  REM subroutine definition SUB PrintSomeStars (StarCount) END SUB

Object-oriented BASIC.

Third-generation BASIC dialects such as Visual Basic, Xojo, StarOffice Basic, BlitzMax and PureBasic introduced features to support object-oriented and event-driven programming paradigm. Most built-in procedures and functions are now represented as "methods" of standard objects rather than "operators". Also, the operating system became increasingly accessible to the BASIC language.  The following example is in Visual Basic.NET:  Public Module StarsProgram  End Module

BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy emphasizes ease of use. The original version was designed by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz and released at Dartmouth College in 1964. They wanted to enable students in fields other than science and mathematics to use computers. At the time, nearly all use of computers required writing custom software, which was something only scientists and mathematicians tended to learn.

BASIC(来自英语:Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code的缩写)又译培基,是一种直译式程序设计语言。名称的字面意思为“初学者的全方位符式指令代码”,设计给初学者使用的程序语言,在完成编写后不须经由编译及连结等手续,经过直译器即可执行,但如果需要单独执行时仍然需要将其建立成执行档。