Early life and education.

Nimitz, a German Texan, was born the son of Anna Josephine (Henke) and Chester Bernhard Nimitz on February 24, 1885, in Fredericksburg, Texas, where his grandfather's hotel is now the Admiral Nimitz State Historic Site. His frail, rheumatic father had died six months earlier, on August 14, 1884. He was significantly influenced by his German-born paternal grandfather, Charles Henry Nimitz, a former seaman in the German Merchant Marine, who taught him, "the sea – like life itself – is a stern taskmaster. The best way to get along with either is to learn all you can, then do your best and don't worry – especially about things over which you have no control." His grandfather became a Texas Ranger in the Texas Mounted Volunteers in 1851. He then served as captain of the Gillespie Rifles Company in the Confederate States Army during the Civil War.  Originally, Nimitz applied to West Point in hopes of becoming an Army officer, but no appointments were available. His congressman, James L. Slayden, told him that he had one appointment available for the United States Naval Academy and that he would award it to the best qualified candidate. Nimitz felt that this was his only opportunity for further education and spent extra time studying to earn the appointment. He was appointed to the Naval Academy from Texas's 12th congressional district in 1901, and he graduated with distinction on January 30, 1905, seventh in a class of 114.

Military career.

Early career.

Nimitz joined the battleship at San Francisco, and cruised on her to the Far East. In September 1906, he was transferred to the cruiser ; on January 31, 1907, after the two years at sea as a warrant officer then required by law, he was commissioned as an ensign. Remaining on Asiatic Station in 1907, he successively served on the gunboat, destroyer, and cruiser.  The destroyer "Decatur" ran aground on a mud bank in the Philippines on July 7, 1908 while under the command of Ensign Nimitz. The ship was pulled free the next day, and Nimitz was court-martialed, found guilty of neglect of duty, and issued a letter of reprimand.  Nimitz returned to the United States on board USS "Ranger" when that vessel was converted to a school ship, and in January 1909, began instruction in the First Submarine Flotilla. In May of that year, he was given command of the flotilla, with additional duty in command of, later renamed "A-1". He was promoted directly from ensign to lieutenant in January 1910. He commanded (later renamed "C-5") when that submarine was commissioned on February 2, 1910, and on November 18, 1910 assumed command of (later renamed "D-1").  In the latter command, he had additional duty from October 10, 1911 as Commander 3rd Submarine Division Atlantic Torpedo Fleet. In November 1911, he was ordered to the Boston Navy Yard, to assist in fitting out and assumed command of that submarine, which had been renamed "E-1", at her commissioning on February 14, 1912. On the monitor "Tonopah" (then employed as a submarine tender) on March 20, 1912, he rescued Fireman Second Class W. J. Walsh from drowning, receiving a Silver Lifesaving Medal for his action.  After commanding the Atlantic Submarine Flotilla from May 1912 to March 1913, he supervised the building of diesel engines for the fleet oil tanker, under construction at the New London Ship and Engine Company, Groton, Connecticut.

World War I.

In the summer of 1913, Nimitz (who spoke German) studied engines at the diesel engine plants in Nuremberg, Germany, and Ghent, Belgium. Returning to the New York Navy Yard, he became executive and engineer officer of "Maumee" at her commissioning on October 23, 1916.  After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917, Nimitz was Chief Engineer of "Maumee" while the vessel served as a refueling ship for the first squadron of U.S. Navy destroyers to cross the Atlantic, to take part in the war. Under his supervision, "Maumee" conducted the first-ever underway refuelings. On August 10, 1917, Nimitz became aide to Rear Admiral Samuel S. Robison, Commander, Submarine Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet ().  On February 6, 1918, Nimitz was appointed chief of staff and was awarded a Letter of Commendation for meritorious service as's chief of staff. On September 16, he reported to the office of the Chief of Naval Operations, and on October 25 was given additional duty as Senior Member, Board of Submarine Design.

Between the wars.

From May 1919 to June 1920, Nimitz served as executive officer of the battleship. He then commanded the cruiser with additional duty in command of Submarine Division 14, based at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Returning to the mainland in the summer of 1922, he studied at the Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island.  In June 1923, he became aide and assistant chief of staff to the Commander, Battle Fleet, and later to the Commander In Chief, United States Fleet. In August 1926, he went to the University of California, Berkeley, to establish the Navy's first Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps unit.  Nimitz lost part of one finger in an accident with a diesel engine, saving the rest of it only when the machine jammed against his Annapolis ring.  In June 1929, he took command of Submarine Division 20. In June 1931, he assumed command of the destroyer tender and the destroyers out of commission at San Diego, California. In October 1933, he took command of the cruiser and deployed to the Far East, where in December, "Augusta" became the flagship of the Asiatic Fleet.  In April 1935, Nimitz returned home for three years as assistant chief of the Bureau of Navigation, before becoming commander, Cruiser Division 2, Battle Force. In September 1938 he took command of Battleship Division 1, Battle Force. On June 15, 1939, he was appointed chief of the Bureau of Navigation. During this time, Nimitz conducted experiments in the underway refueling of large ships which would prove a key element in the Navy's success in the war to come.  From 1940 to 1941, Nimitz served as President of the Army Navy Country Club, in Arlington, Virginia.

World War II.

Ten days after the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Nimitz was selected by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to be commander-in-chief, United States Pacific Fleet (CINCPACFLT). He was promoted to the rank of admiral, effective December 31, 1941. Nimitz immediately departed Washington for Hawaii and took command in a ceremony on the top deck of the submarine. The change of command ceremony would normally have taken place aboard a battleship, but every battleship in Pearl Harbor had been either sunk or damaged during the attack. Assuming command at the most critical period of the war in the Pacific, Admiral Nimitz organized his forces to halt the Japanese advance, despite the shortage of ships, planes, and supplies. He had a significant advantage in that the United States had cracked the Japanese diplomatic naval code and had made progress on the naval code JN-25. The Japanese had kept radio silence before the attack on Pearl Harbor, but now events were moving so rapidly that they had to rely on coded radio messages that they did not realize were being read in Hawaii.  On March 24, 1942, the newly formed US-British Combined Chiefs of Staff issued a directive designating the Pacific theater an area of American strategic responsibility. Six days later, the US Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) divided the theater into three areas: the Pacific Ocean Areas, the Southwest Pacific Area (commanded by General Douglas MacArthur), and the Southeast Pacific Area. The JCS designated Nimitz as "Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas", with operational control over all Allied units (air, land, and sea) in that area. Nimitz, in Hawaii, and his superior Admiral Ernest King, the Chief of Naval Operations, in Washington, rejected the plan of General Douglas MacArthur to advance on Japan through New Guinea and the Philippines and Formosa. Instead they proposed an island-hopping plan that would allow them to bypass most of the Japanese strength in the Central Pacific until they reached Okinawa. President Roosevelt compromised, giving both MacArthur and Nimitz their own theaters. The two Pacific theaters were favored, to the dismay of generals George Marshall and Dwight Eisenhower, who favored a Germany-first strategy. King and Nimitz provided MacArthur with some naval forces, but kept most of the carriers. However, when the time came to plan an invasion of Japan, MacArthur was given overall command.  Nimitz faced superior Japanese forces at the crucial defensive actions of the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway. The Battle of the Coral Sea, while a loss in terms of total damage suffered, resulted in the strategic success of turning back a Japanese invasion of Port Moresby on the island of New Guinea. Two Japanese carriers were temporarily taken out of action in the battle, which would deprive the Japanese of their use in the Midway operation that shortly followed. The Navy's intelligence team figured that the Japanese would be attacking Midway, so Nimitz moved all his available forces to the defense. The severe losses in Japanese carriers at Midway affected the balance of naval air power during the remainder of 1942, and was crucial in neutralizing Japanese offensive threats in the South Pacific. Naval engagements during the Battle of Guadalcanal left both forces severely depleted. However, with the allied advantage in land-based air power, the results were sufficient to secure Guadalcanal. The US and allied forces then undertook to neutralize remaining Japanese offensive threats with the Solomon Islands campaign and the New Guinea Campaign, while building capabilities for major fleet actions. In 1943, Midway became a forward submarine base, greatly enhancing US capabilities against Japanese shipping.  In terms of combat, 1943 was a relatively quiet year, but it proved decisive inasmuch as Nimitz gained the materiel and manpower needed to launch major fleet offensives to destroy Japanese power in the central Pacific region. This drive opened with the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign from November 1943 to February 1944, followed by the destruction of the strategic Japanese base at Truk Lagoon, and the Marianas campaign that brought the Japanese homeland within range of new strategic bombers. Nimitz's forces inflicted a decisive defeat on the Japanese fleet in the Battle of the Philippine Sea (June 19–20, 1944), which allowed the capture of Saipan, Guam, and Tinian. His Fleet Forces isolated enemy-held bastions on the central and eastern Caroline Islands and secured in quick succession Peleliu, Angaur, and Ulithi. In the Philippines, his ships destroyed much of the remaining Japanese naval power at the Battle of Leyte Gulf, October 24 to 26, 1944. With the loss of the Philippines, Japan's energy supply routes from Indonesia came under direct threat, crippling their war effort.  By Act of Congress, passed on December 14, 1944, the rank of fleet admiral — the highest rank in the Navy — was established. The next day President Franklin Roosevelt appointed Nimitz to that rank. Nimitz took the oath of that office on December 19, 1944.  In January 1945, Nimitz moved the headquarters of the Pacific Fleet forward from Pearl Harbor to Guam for the remainder of the war. Nimitz's wife remained in the continental United States for the duration of the war, and did not join her husband in Hawaii or Guam. In 1945, Nimitz's forces launched successful amphibious assaults on Iwo Jima and Okinawa and his carriers raided the home waters of Japan. In addition, Nimitz also ordered the Army Air Corps to mine the Japanese ports and waterways by air with B-29 Superfortresses in a successful mission called Operation Starvation, which severely interrupted the Japanese logistics.  On September 2, 1945, Nimitz signed as representative of the United States when Japan formally surrendered on board in Tokyo Bay. On October 5, 1945, which had been officially designated as "Nimitz Day" in Washington, D.C., Nimitz was personally presented a second Gold Star for the third award of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal by President Harry S. Truman "for exceptionally meritorious service as Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas, from June 1944 to August 1945."

Post war.

On November 26, 1945, Nimitz's nomination as Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) was confirmed by the U.S. Senate, and on December 15, 1945, he relieved Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King. He had assured the President that he was willing to serve as the CNO for one two-year term, but no longer. He tackled the difficult task of reducing the most powerful navy in the world to a fraction of its war-time strength, while establishing and overseeing active and reserve fleets with the strength and readiness required to support national policy.  For the postwar trial of German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz at the Nuremberg Trials in 1946, Nimitz furnished an affidavit in support of the practice of unrestricted submarine warfare, a practice that he himself had employed throughout the war in the Pacific. This evidence is widely credited as a reason why Dönitz was sentenced to only 10 years of imprisonment.  Nimitz endorsed an entirely new course for the U.S. Navy's future by way of supporting then-Captain Hyman G. Rickover's chain-of-command-circumventing proposal in 1947 to build, the world's first nuclear-powered vessel. As is noted at a display at the Nimitz Museum in Fredericksburg, Texas: "Nimitz's greatest legacy as CNO is arguably his support of Admiral Hyman Rickover's effort to convert the submarine fleet from diesel to nuclear propulsion."  From 1949 to 1953, Nimitz served as UN-appointed Plebiscite Administrator for Jammu and Kashmir. His proposed role as administrator was accepted by Pakistan but rejected by India.

Inactive duty as a fleet admiral.

Nimitz retired from office as CNO on December 15, 1947 and received a third Gold Star in lieu of a fourth Navy Distinguished Service Medal. However, since the rank of fleet admiral is a lifetime appointment, he remained on active duty for the rest of his life, with full pay and benefits. He and his wife, Catherine, moved to Berkeley, California. After he suffered a serious fall in 1964, he and Catherine moved to US Naval quarters on Yerba Buena Island in the San Francisco Bay.  In San Francisco, Nimitz served in the mostly ceremonial post as a special assistant to the Secretary of the Navy in the Western Sea Frontier. He worked to help restore goodwill with Japan after World War II by helping to raise funds for the restoration of the Japanese Imperial Navy battleship, Admiral Heihachiro Togo's flagship at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905.  Nimitz was also appointed as the United Nations Plebiscite Administrator for Kashmir on 31 December 1948. The terms of the plebiscite were that Pakistan would vacate regions of Kashmir under its control, and that India would remove additional military from Kashmir. But due to disagreements between the two nations regarding demilitarisation, the plebiscite is still pending.  Nimitz became a member of the Bohemian Club of San Francisco. In 1948, he sponsored a Bohemian dinner in honor of U.S. Army General Mark Clark, known for his campaigns in North Africa and Italy.  Nimitz served as a regent of the University of California during 1948–1956, where he had formerly been a faculty member as a professor of naval science for the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps program. Nimitz was honored on October 17, 1964, by the University of California on Nimitz Day.

Personal life.

Nimitz married Catherine Vance Freeman (March 19, 1913 – February 1, 1979) on April 9, 1913, in Wollaston, Massachusetts. Nimitz and his wife had four children:  Catherine Vance graduated from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1934, became a music librarian with the Washington D.C. Public Library, and married U.S. Navy Commander James Thomas Lay (1909–2001), from St. Clair, Missouri, in Chester and Catherine's suite at the Fairfax Hotel in Washington, D.C., on March 9, 1945. She had met Lay in the summer of 1934 while visiting her parents in Southeast Asia.  Chester Nimitz, Jr., graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1936 and served as a submariner in the Navy until his retirement in 1957, reaching the (post retirement) rank of rear admiral; he served as chairman of PerkinElmer from 1969–1980.  Anna Elizabeth ("Nancy") Nimitz was an expert on the Soviet economy at the RAND Corporation from 1952 until her retirement in the 1980s.  Sister Mary Aquinas (Nimitz) became a sister in the Order of Preachers (Dominicans), working at the Dominican University of California. She taught biology for 16 years, and was academic dean for 11 years, acting president for one year, and vice president for institutional research for 13 years before becoming the university's emergency preparedness coordinator. She held this job until her death, due to cancer, on February 27, 2006.

Death.

In late 1965, Nimitz suffered a stroke, complicated by pneumonia. In January 1966, he left the U.S. Naval Hospital (Oak Knoll) in Oakland to return home to his naval quarters. He died at home at age 80 on the evening of February 20 at Quarters One on Yerba Buena Island in San Francisco Bay. His funeral on February 24 was at the chapel of adjacent Naval Station Treasure Island and Nimitz was buried with full military honors at Golden Gate National Cemetery in San Bruno. He lies alongside his wife and his long-term friends Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, Admiral Richmond K. Turner, and Admiral Charles A. Lockwood and their wives, an arrangement made by all of them while living.

Memorials and legacy.

Besides the honor of a United States Great Americans series 50¢ postage stamp, the following institutions and locations have been named in honor of Nimitz:

Chester William Nimitz, Sr. (; February 24, 1885 – February 20, 1966) was a fleet admiral of the United States Navy. He played a major role in the naval history of World War II as Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet and Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, commanding Allied air, land, and sea forces during World War II.

老切斯特·威廉·尼米兹(英语:Chester William Nimitz, Sr.,1885年-2月24日-1966年-2月20日)是一位美国海军将领,最高军阶为五星上将。尼米兹早期以研究潜艇为主,而后成为美军中柴油引擎技术的专家,太平洋战争爆发后,尼米兹担任了美国太平洋舰队总司令、太平洋战区盟军总司令等职务,主导对日作战,军事历史学家埃德温·帕尔默·霍伊特(Edwin Palmer Hoyt)因而评论:「海尔赛能在一场海战中取胜,斯普鲁恩斯能在一场战役中取胜,而尼米兹能在一场战争中取胜。」战后,尼米兹担任海军作战部长,一直至1947年退役为止。


Early life and military career.

Remek was born on 26 September 1948 in the city of České Budějovice. He spent two years studying at the observatory in Kraví hora, Brno between 1962 and 1964. Remek was influenced by his father, Jozef Remek, himself a military pilot. Remek was an active member both in the Pioneers and the Czechoslovak Union of Youth. He studied mathematics and physics at middle school in Čáslav where he earned awards in track running the 400-meter, 800-meter, and 1,500-meter events. Remek graduated in 1966 and proceeded to "Vyšší Letecké Učiliště", an aviation school in Košice, where he trained in an Aero L-29 Delfín. Remek graduated in 1970 and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Czechoslovak Air Force. Remek served as a fighter pilot, flying MiG-21s in the 1st Fighter Air Regiment. In the 1970s Remek married his first wife, Czech actress Hana Davidová, the daughter of politician Václav David. They had a daughter together, Anna, in 1980. He had a second daughter, Jana, three years after the first, with his second wife, also called Jana.  From 1972 to 1976, Remek studied at the Gagarin Air Force Academy. Upon his return to Czechoslovakia in 1976, he was promoted to captain and appointed deputy commander of his fighter regiment, after which Remek went back to Russia to train for the Soviet-led space program. Following his return from space in March 1978, Remek spent time in the Czechoslovak People's Army (ČSLA) staff as the deputy director of the Flight Research Institute in Prague. In 1986, Remek became the deputy commander of a flight division based in Čáslav. In 1988 he graduated from Voroshilov-Staff Academy of Soviet Air Force and was appointed to his highest command, as deputy of the 2nd Air Defense Division stationed in Moravia. Following the Velvet Revolution in 1989, Remek was relegated to a role as Director of the Museum for Aviation and Astronautics in Prague. Following his retirement from the air force in 1995, Remek represented Czech firm CZ Strakonice and joint venture CZ–Turbo-GAZ in Moscow.

Intercosmos program.

Remek (then a Captain) joined the Interkosmos program in 1976; his backup was Oldřich Pelčák, the other Czechoslovak cosmonaut selected to participate with the program. During the flight, Remek experimented with the Kristall furnace on board the capsule. The mission, coinciding with the 30th anniversary of the Soviet-backed 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état, and including Remek, the son of a Czech mother and Slovak father, had propaganda value in stressing Czechoslovak-Soviet cooperation. Remek himself has not denied this although he retains pride in his voyage regardless of the circumstances. On the Soyuz 28 mission that launched 2 March 1978, he became the first cosmonaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States, and with the entry of the Czech Republic into the European Union, Remek is considered to be the first astronaut from the European Union. After Remek's flight, he was celebrated in his home country with a series of receptions at factories and other civil workplaces. He was also recognized at a ceremony at Prague Castle as a guest of Gustáv Husák, then the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. On 16 March, Remek and Aleksei Gubarev, the other member of the crew, were awarded the medal Hero of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovak reaction to Remek's flight included comments about the media's inundation focused on Remek and the fact that he was only able to journey with a Soviet cosmonaut as if Remek needed a minder. One joke went: "Why didn't the Soviets send up two Czechoslovak cosmonauts? Because they would've landed in West Germany." Remek himself joked that his Soviet counterpart would slap Remek's hands off of controls if he touched anything without permission. French astronaut Jean-Loup Chrétien experienced this same behavior onboard Soyuz TM-7 in 1988.

Political career.

Due in part to his previous business contacts in Russia, Remek was appointed to the Czech Embassy in Moscow as a Trade and Economic Counselor. During the 2004 European Parliament election, Remek was a candidate for the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia and, being second on the list behind Miloslav Ransdorf, was elected into the European Parliament. During his first term (20 July 2004 to 13 July 2009), Remek was a member of the Confederal Group of the European United Left–Nordic Green Left in the European Parliament.<ref name="European Parliament / MEPs "></ref> He was a vocal proponent of the EU's Galileo satellite constellation, warning that bureaucratic delay could cede opportunity to the BeiDou, a Chinese competitor. He was reelected in 2009. When Petr Kolář resigned as the Czech Ambassador to Russia in December 2012, the ambassadorship sat empty for a year until the President of the Czech Republic, Miloš Zeman, appointed Remek in January 2014. The appointment met with controversy as it was against the wishes of Zeman's Foreign Minister, Karel Schwarzenberg. Observers have noted Remek has a friendly history with the Russians and although his communist affiliations are a minority in Russia, his appointment represents Zeman's pragmatic and pro-Russia stance.

In popular culture.

Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos discovered an asteroid in September 1978 and named it 2552 Remek after the cosmonaut. Remek is featured in a 2009 independent comedy film called "Osadne" about three residents from Osadné that seek out Remek at his office in Brussels to help tourism in their town. Sculptor Jan Bartoš created a statue of Remek and Gubarev, which is located at Háje metro station, formerly known as Kosmonautů (meaning [station of] the astronauts) until 1990, in Prague. Another statue of Remek is located in Košice, Slovakia.

Vladimír Remek (born 26 September 1948) is a Czech politician and diplomat as well as a former cosmonaut and military pilot. He flew aboard Soyuz 28 from 2 to 10 March 1978, becoming the first and only Czechoslovak in space. As the first cosmonaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States, and with the entry of the Czech Republic and Slovakia into the European Union, Remek is considered to be the first astronaut from the European Union. Remek was a member of the European Parliament between 2004 and 2013 for the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia. Since 2014, he has been the Czech Ambassador to Russia.

弗拉迪米尔·雷梅克(,1948年-9月26日)生于捷克布杰约维采,捷克斯洛伐克飞行员、宇航员、政治家,曾任捷克驻俄罗斯大使,现任欧洲议会议员。


By religion.

Christianity.

Catholicism.

Officially, the Roman Catholic Church prefers normal casket burials over cremations, but does allow for cremation subject to the condition that the ashes are entombed or buried. Catholics believe it is not proper to scatter or pour the cremated remains over the sea, water, or on the land. According to the Roman Catholic Church this action does not give due respect to the remains of the deceased, nor does it allow for the closure and healing of family and friends. Likewise they see that the custom of housing the remains with family or friends and not placing the deceased in the ground does not offer loved ones a specific and sacred place to visit the individual. Visiting the deceased in a holy place provides believers with a space to offer prayers, commune with those who have gone before them in faith, and reminds them to await the resurrection of their own bodies. Burial at sea in a casket or in an urn is approved for cases where the deceased expired in the sea. The committal prayer number 406§4 is used in this case.

Protestantism.

The Anglican Communion has detailed procedures for burial at sea. The ship has to be stopped, and the body has to be sewn in canvas, suitably weighted. Anglican (and other) chaplains of the Royal Navy bury cremated remains of ex-Naval personnel at sea. Scattering of cremated remains is discouraged, not least for practical reasons  The Book of Common Prayer (1928) of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States (ECUSA), a member of the Anglican Communion provides a specific prayer of committal for burials at sea:  At the Burial of the Dead at Sea. The same Office may be used; but instead of the Sentence of Committal, the Minister shall say: Many Lutheran naval veterans and seamen prefer to be buried at sea. In those cases either the casket or urn is set to sea, or ashes scattered. The procedure is similar as that with the Anglican church. Some parishes have specific consecrated sea areas where ashes can be sprinkled.

Hinduism.

Traditionally, the deceased are cremated, the bones and ashes are collected, and the ashes/remains are immersed in the Ganges River if possible or in any other river if not.

Islam.

The sacred texts of Islam prefer burial on land, "so deep that its smell does not come out and the beasts of prey do not dig it out". However, if a person dies at sea and it is not possible to bring the body back to land before decay, or if burial at land becomes impossible, burial at sea is allowed. A weight is tied to the feet of the body, and the body is lowered into the water. This would preferably occur in an area where the remains are not immediately eaten by scavengers.  In the Sunni Fiqh book "Umdat al-Salik wa Uddat al-Nasik", the condition for sea burial is:

Judaism.

According to Jewish law,dead people must be quickly buried and burial requires covering in earth. This law is derived from Devarim (Deuteronomy) 21:23 "Bury, you will bury him the same day; for the (unburied body) is a curse to God" the double command to bury causing a positive commandment to entomb in the earth and a negative commandment forbidding leaving an unburied body. The legal text Shulchan Aruch brings a case example explaining that even if a person is known to have drowned in a closed body of water such as a small pond where there can be certainty that the victim had not somehow survived, the family does not begin ritual mourning and remains in extended state of most intense mourning aninut until either the body is found or after an exhaustive search despairs of recovering and burying the body. This shows that the body is considered unburied when underwater; as shiva mourning normally only begins after burial. B'resheit (Genesis) 3:19 states "With the sweat of your face you shall eat bread, until you return to the ground, from (dust) you were taken and you are dust, and to dust you will return." From this we see that the only proper treatment of a dead body is physically to cover it with earth once land is available for the crew to bury the body, rather than to leave the body at sea or some other fate such as cremation.  If for some reason the body of someone deceased aboard a ship causes an immediate life threat to those aboard the vessel the commandment to protect innocent life or pikuach nefesh overrides nearly all commandments including the command to bury the dead, as any appropriate actions to ensure safety of surviving crew are required to be taken which may include jettisoning a body at sea without burial. However, attempts would later be made to recover and bury when possible without life hazard.  An example of the desire to bury a body in the ground even after it has been long dead at sea, is that of the Israeli submarine "Dakar" which was lost with no survivors in 1968 but was only discovered in 1999 lying broken at a depth of 3,000 meters. Search and recovery of any potentially existing remains at this very difficult to access depth has not shown results despite requests from family and the Chief Rabbi of the IDF. In another case Jewish rabbis, after finding of the remains of Holocaust victims using a new penetrating sonar technology, called for a proper Jewish burial claiming that many of these martyrs were adherent to traditional Jewish law themselves and would insist on being removed from a river, where Nazis had dumped them en masse, to rest in a proper in-earth Jewish burial.

By country.

Australia.

Burial at sea within Australian territorial waters, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf is covered by the "Environmental Protection (Sea Dumping Act) 1981" administered by the federal Department of the Environment. A permit is required for burial of bodies at sea. Permits are usually only granted in cases of a strong connection to the sea, such as long-serving navy personnel. The body must not be embalmed or placed in a casket, it may only be sewn into a weighted shroud. The burial must be in water deeper than and not interfere with shipping, fishing or undersea communications. Australian Defence Force vessels engaged in armed conflicts or emergency situations are exempt from these requirements.  No permit is required to scatter ashes at sea.

United Kingdom.

British burials at sea of the 18th and 19th century involved wrapping the deceased in sailcloth weighted with cannonballs.  In England, cremated remains may be scattered freely at sea but a burial must be made in a coffin meeting regulatory requirements and in one of three locations: off The Needles, Isle of Wight; between Hastings and Newhaven; and off Tynemouth, North Tyneside. Permission may be sought for another burial site. Some funeral directors will arrange the event. Charity organisation the Maritime Volunteer Service also helps carry out burials at sea.  In Scotland, there are two designated sites for burial at sea. These are due west of Oban and west of John O'Groats.

United States.

A funeral director is not required for the burial of cremated remains at sea. However, full body burials require specific preparation to ensure the body or coffin sinks quickly, and in many states a licensed funeral director is required. The Environmental Protection Agency regulations for full body burials at sea in the United States require that the site of interment be from land and at a depth of at least. In California, a whole body must be buried at least three miles off the coast. Off the eastern coast of the United States, the closest sufficient depths are off Long Island (), Ocraacoke (), and Miami (). This may require travel in excess of for a suitable site.  Departing from the New England area requires a voyage of about to reach the required 600 ft ocean depth. Sufficient depth is within or less at many harbors along the U.S. west coast, including San Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterey, Fort Bragg, Eureka, and Crescent City, all in California. The United States Navy inters intact remains from Norfolk and San Diego only. The United States Navy requires a metal casket for intact remains, but full body burial in a suitably weighted shroud is also legal.  The United States is similar to many countries which permit the spreading of cremation ashes within their Exclusive Economic zone. When spreading ashes from a ship which is registered in a different country, the regulations and reporting procedures for the ship's flag state need to be complied with once the vessel is in international waters, that is, outside. Ships follow the London Convention principles, as opposed to MARPOL regulations, as the ash is intentionally taken on board for discharge at sea, as opposed to ash generated on passage from the ship's incinerators. It should be further considered that on 1 January 2013, MARPOL Annex V came into force, which prevents discharge of a ship's incinerator ash.

United States Navy.

The United States Navy has performed many burials at sea in its history, with wartime burials as recently as World War II, and peacetime burials still common. Enemy deaths received the same ceremony as Americans or allies. Most other armed forces also perform burials at sea, such as the British Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy.  If the deceased died on land or has been returned to shore after death, the remains may be brought aboard either in a coffin or in an urn after cremation. The ceremony is performed while the ship is deployed, and consequently civilians are not allowed to be present. In the US, people eligible for a free Navy burial at sea are:  In preparation, the officer of the deck calls "All hands bury the dead", and the ship is stopped (if possible). The ship's flags are lowered to half mast. The ship's crew, including a firing party, casket bearers and a bugler, are assembled on the deck. The crew stands at parade rest at the beginning of the ceremony. The coffin is covered with a flag, and is carried feet first on deck by the casket bearers. The casket is placed on a stand, with the feet overboard. In case of cremated remains, the urn is brought on deck and placed on a stand.  The ceremony is divided into a military portion and a religious portion. The religious part is specific to the religion of the deceased, and may be performed by a Navy chaplain, or by the commanding officer if no chaplain of the appropriate faith is available. A scripture is read and prayers are said.  After the religious ceremony, the firing party is ordered "Firing party, present arms". The casket bearers tilt the platform with the casket, so that the casket slides off the platform into the ocean. The flag which was draped over the casket is retained on board. For cremated remains, there is the option to bury the remains using the urn in a similar fashion to the procedure used for caskets. Alternatively, the urn can be opened, and the remains scattered in the wind. In this case, the wind direction has to be taken under consideration before burial to ensure a smooth procedure.  The firing party fires a three volley salute, the bugler plays Taps, and flowers may also be dropped into the ocean. After the flag is folded, the ceremony ends. The relatives are informed of the time and location of the burial, and given photos and video recordings if available.

Wartime burial at sea.

In wartime, attempts are made for burial at sea to follow the same procedure as for peacetime burial at sea, although a ship on a combat mission may not have all the necessary resources available. Nowadays, it is usually possible to airlift the remains back to shore, and prepare a burial ceremony on land. However, as recently as the Falklands War, deceased were buried at sea without returning to land. Due to the limited facilities of military ships, this procedure usually does not include a casket, but the body is sewn into a sailcloth with weights, usually rocks or cannonballs. Cremation is usually not possible on a ship. During the Pacific campaign there was at least one instance where a member of an aircrew was buried at sea in his damaged aircraft, which was ceremonially pushed overboard from an aircraft carrier.

Memorial services at sea.

If no remains of the deceased are available a memorial service may be held, and flowers may be dropped in the water, often over or near the location of the death.

People buried at sea.

A few notable burials at sea:

Burial at sea is the disposal of human remains in the ocean, normally from a ship or boat. It is regularly performed by navies, and is done by private citizens in many countries.

海葬(Burial at sea),水葬的一种,又分为将尸体烧成骨灰(先火葬处理),撒向大海;和直接把死者沉在海中两种。多见于临海国家的传统或海军。


History.

On 24 July 1900, Pope Leo XIII issued a papal bull appointing John J. Keane, former Bishop of Richmond and the first rector of the Catholic University of the Catholic University of America, as Archbishop of Dubuque. This same document provided for the creation of a new diocese by the separation of twenty-four counties in northwestern Iowa from the Archdiocese of Dubuque. The Catholic population of the diocese was about 50,000 people who spoke English and/or German.  The first bishop of the Diocese of Sioux City was Irish-born Philip Joseph Garrigan. Garrigan grew up in Lowell, Massachusetts and was ordained 11 June 1870 the Provincial Seminary of New York at Troy. After a short term as curate of St. John's Church, Worcester, Massachusetts, he was appointed director of the Troy seminary for three years, and later pastor of St. Bernard's Church, Fitchburg, Massachusetts. In the fall of 1888 he was appointed the first vice-rector of the Catholic University at Washington, D. C., during the tenure of Keane as rector. Garrigan held the position of vice-rector for fourteen years. He was serving as vice-rector when he was named Bishop of Sioux City on 21 March 1902, and consecrated at the see of his home diocese, Springfield, Massachusetts, on 25 May of the same year, by the Right Rev. T.D. Beaven, and on 18 June took possession of his see.  Bishop Garrigan designated the not yet completed St. Mary's Church, in the center of the city, as the Cathedral Church of the Diocese. With permission from the Holy See he renamed the church the Cathedral of the Epiphany. Bishop Garrigan carried on an extensive visitation of all the parishes of the diocese. Garrigan died 14 October 1919, and his auxiliary bishop, Edmond Heelan, was appointed his successor.  Heelan was born in County Limerick, Ireland and ordained to the priesthood on June 24, 1890. He was rector (1893–1897) of St. Raphael's Cathedral in Dubuque from 1893 to 1897. He was pastor of Sacred Heart Church in Fort Dodge, Iowa when named Auxiliary Bishop of Sioux City. He received his episcopal consecration on April 8, 1919 from Archbishop James Keane. As an auxiliary, he served as rector of the Cathedral of the Epiphany. Heelan was named the second Bishop of Sioux City on March 8, 1920. During his nearly thirty-year tenure, he guided the diocese through the Great Depression and World War II, and greatly expanded Catholic education. He died 20 September 1948 at age 80. Heelan was succeeded by his coadjutor, Joseph Maximilian Mueller. Born in St. Louis, Missouri, Mueller studied at Pontifical College Josephinum in Columbus, Ohio and was ordained on June 14, 1919. He then served as rector of St. Peter's Cathedral in Belleville, Illinois. He was named a Domestic Prelate in 1939. On August 20, 1947, Mueller was appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Sioux City, Iowa. Upon the death of Bishop Edmond Heelan, Mueller became succeeded the third Bishop of Sioux City. During his 22-year-long tenure, he presided over a period of great expansion in the diocese. He built several new schools, churches, and other parish facilities. He also attended all four sessions of the Second Vatican Council between 1962 and 1965. After reaching the mandatory retirement age of 75, Mueller retired as Bishop.  Upon the resignation of Bishop Mueller, Pope Paul VI appointed native Iowan, auxiliary bishop Frank Henry Greteman, the fourth Bishop of Sioux City. Greteman held a Licentiate of Sacred Theology from the Pontifical North American College in Rome, and a Licentiate of Canon Law from the Catholic University of America. He was named a Domestic Prelate in 1953, and vicar general of the Sioux City Diocese in 1965. On April 14, 1965, Greteman was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Sioux City. The primary focus of his episcopate was Catholic education. Upon reaching the mandatory retirement age of 75, Greteman submitted his letter of resignation to Pope John Paul II in December 1982. The Pope accepted the resignation of Bishop Greteman's resignation as ordinary and named him apostolic administrator.  On June 15, 1983, John Paul appointed Msgr. Lawrence D. Soens, pastor of St. Mary Church, Clinton, Iowa, as the fifth ordinary of the Diocese of Sioux City. His ordination and installation were held Aug. 17, 1983, at the Cathedral of the Epiphany, Sioux City. During his period of tenure, a number of programs were established or expanded. In 1997 Soens requested a coadjutor bishop be named and on August 19, 1997, Pope John Paul II named Msgr. Daniel DiNardo from the Diocese of Piitsburgh. Soens' resignation as Bishop of Sioux City was accepted by the Holy See on November 28, 1998, and he was succeeded by his coadjutor, Bishop Daniel DiNardo.  Bishop DiNardo succeeded as Bishop of Sioux City on Nov. 28, 1998. In 2004 Bishop DiNardo left to become the coadjutor bishop of the Diocese of Galveston-Houston in Texas. Msgr. Roger Augustine was named the administrator of the Diocese of Sioux City.  On Nov. 10, 2005, it was announced that Pope Benedict XVI had appointed Msgr. R. Walker Nickless of Denver as the seventh bishop of the diocese. His episcopal ordination was held on Jan. 20, 2006 at Nativity of Our Lord Jesus Christ Church in Sioux City. On Nov. 23, 2015, Bishop R. Walker Nickless granted permission to the Ministry Institute of Christ the Servant to identify as a Catholic institute. The Ministry Institute is affiliated with Briar Cliff University.  In 2016, the Diocese announced plans to consolidate forty-one parishes due a shortage of priests and decreased attendance at Mass. Parishes being consolidated would become oratories for prayer services, funerals, and weddings but weekly Masses would not be held. Most of the parishes affected are in rural areas. With more priests reaching retirement age, the proposal is intended in part to reduce the workload of those left, that they remain healthy and not overworked.  The Diocese of Sioux City is a suffragan see of the Archdiocese of Dubuque.  On October 31, 2018, it became known that the Diocese of Sioux City had for decades concealed sexual abuse committed by one of its priests, the Rev. Jerome Coyle. Coyle abused at least 50 boys during his time in the priesthood, and reported his history of abuse to the diocese's bishop in 1986, who placed him on 6-month medical leave but did not report the admission to police or defrock him. Coyle was eventually forbidden to publicly function as a priest, although he remained formally a member of the priesthood and continued to collect financial assistance from the diocese while living in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The diocese did not notify anyone of his admission nor of allegations against him, and it did not take any further action against him.

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Sioux City () is the Roman Catholic diocese for the northwestern quarter of the US state of Iowa. The diocese comprises 24 counties in northwestern Iowa, and it covers an area of. The See city for the diocese is Sioux City. It is a suffragan see of the Archdiocese of Dubuque. The cathedral parish for this diocese is the Epiphany. R. Walker Nickless was ordained as bishop of Sioux City on 20 January 2006.

天主教苏城教区(、英语:Roman Catholic Diocese of Sioux City)是美国一个罗马天主教教区,属迪比克总教区。成立于1902年1月15日。


Purpose.

The purpose of the CPM metric is to compare the costs of advertising campaigns within and across different media. A typical advertising campaign might try to reach potential consumers in multiple locations and through various media. The cost per thousand impressions (CPM) metric enables marketers to make cost comparisons between these media, both at the planning stage and during reviews of past campaigns.  Marketers calculate CPM by dividing advertising campaign costs by the number of impressions (or opportunities-to-see) that are delivered by each part of the campaign. Thus, CPM is the cost of a media campaign, relative to its success in generating impressions to see. As the impression counts are generally sizeable, marketers customarily work with the CPM impressions. Dividing by 1,000 is an industry-standard.  Similarly, revenue can be expressed in terms of Revenue per mille (RPM).

Construction.

To calculate CPM, marketers first state the results of a media campaign (gross impressions). Second, they divide that result into the relevant media cost:  For example:  Note: Notice how the CPM is $6.25 and not $0.00625, this is because we are looking at cost per thousand.

Related metrics and concepts.

Effective cost per mille.

The Search Engine Marketing Professionals Organization (SEMPO) defines eCPM as:  In internet marketing, effective cost per mille is used to measure the effectiveness of a publisher's inventory being sold (by the publisher) via a CPA, CPC, or Cost per time basis. In other words, the eCPM tells the publisher what they would have received if they sold the advertising inventory on a "CPM" basis (instead of a CPA, CPC, or Cost per time). This information can be used to compare revenue across channels that may have widely varying traffic—by figuring the earnings per thousand impressions.  Example  This shows that:

Cost per point (CPP) or cost per rating point (CPR or CPRP).

CPP is the cost of an advertising campaign, relative to the rating points delivered. In a manner similar to CPM, cost per point measures the cost per rating point for an advertising campaign by dividing the cost of the advertising by the rating points delivered.  The American Marketing Association defines cost-per-rating point (CPR or CPRP) as:

Cost per mille (CPM), also called cost per thousand (CPT) (in Latin, French and Italian, "mille" means "one thousand"), is a commonly used measurement in advertising. It is the cost an advertiser pays for one thousand views or clicks of an advertisement. Radio, television, newspaper, magazine, out-of-home advertising, and online advertising can be purchased on the basis of exposing the ad to one thousand viewers or listeners. It is used in marketing as a benchmarking metric to calculate the relative cost of an advertising campaign or an ad message in a given medium.

千次印象费用(Cost Per Mille,或者Cost Per Thousand Impressions,缩写为CPM),以广告每显示1000次作为单位收取广告费用。是西方一些网络广告应用比较成熟的国家所采用的最常规的收费模式之一。


History.

"Harper's Magazine" began as Harper's New Monthly Magazine in New York City on June 1850, by the New York City publisher Harper & Brothers. The company also founded the magazines "Harper's Weekly" and "Harper's Bazaar", and grew to become HarperCollins Publishing. The first press run of "Harper's Magazine"—7,500 copies—sold out almost immediately. Circulation was some 50,000 issues six months later.  The early issues reprinted material pirated from English authors such as Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, and the Brontë sisters. The magazine soon was publishing the work of American artists and writers, and in time commentary by the likes of Winston Churchill and Woodrow Wilson. Portions of Herman Melville's novel "Moby Dick" were first published in the October 1851 issue of "Harper's" under the title, "The Town-Ho's Story" (titled after Chapter 54 of "Moby Dick").  In 1962, Harper & Brothers merged with Row, Peterson & Company, becoming Harper & Row (now HarperCollins). In 1965, the magazine was separately incorporated, and became a division of the Minneapolis Star and Tribune Company, owned by the Cowles Media Company.  In the 1970s, "Harper's Magazine" published Seymour Hersh's reporting of the My Lai Massacre by United States forces in Vietnam. In 1971 editor Willie Morris resigned under pressure from owner John Cowles, Jr., prompting resignations from many of the magazine's star contributors and staffers, including Norman Mailer, David Halberstam, Robert Kotlowitz, Marshall Frady and Larry L. King:  Robert Shnayerson, a senior editor at "Time" magazine, was hired to replace Morris as "Harper's" ninth editor, serving in that position from 1971 until 1976.  Lewis H. Lapham served as managing editor from 1976 until 1981; he returned to the position again from 1983 until 2006. On June 17, 1980, the Star Tribune announced it would cease publishing "Harper's Magazine" after the August 1980 issue. But, on July 9, 1980, John R. MacArthur (who goes by the name Rick) and his father, Roderick, obtained pledges from the directorial boards of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Atlantic Richfield Company, and CEO Robert Orville Anderson to amass the $1.5 million needed to establish the Harper's Magazine Foundation. It now publishes the magazine.  In 1984, Lapham and MacArthur—now publisher and president of the foundation—along with new executive editor Michael Pollan, redesigned "Harper's" and introduced the "Harper's Index" (statistics arranged for thoughtful effect), "Readings", and the "Annotation" departments to complement its fiction, essays, reportage, and reviews. As of the December 2019 issue, Julian Lucas writes the print edition's "New Books" column.  Under the Lapham-MacArthur leadership, "Harper's Magazine" continued publishing literary fiction by John Updike, George Saunders, and others. Politically, "Harper's" was an especially vocal critic of U.S. domestic and foreign policies. Editor Lapham's monthly "Notebook" columns have lambasted the Clinton and the George W. Bush administrations. Since 2003, the magazine has concentrated on reportage about U.S. war in Iraq, with long articles about the battle for Fallujah, and the cronyism of the American reconstruction of Iraq. Other reporting has covered abortion issues, cloning, and global warming.  In 2007, "Harper's" added the "No Comment" blog, by attorney Scott Horton, about legal controversies, Central Asian politics, and German studies. In April 2006, "Harper's" began publishing the "Washington Babylon" blog on its website, written by Washington Editor Ken Silverstein about American politics; and in 2008, "Harper's" added the "Sentences" blog, by contributing editor Wyatt Mason, about literature and "belles lettres." Since that time these two blogs have ceased publication. Another website feature, composed by a rotating set of authors, is the "Weekly Review", single-sentence summaries of political, scientific, and bizarre news; like the "Harper's Index" and "Findings" in the print edition of the magazine, the "Weekly Review" items are arranged for ironic contrast.

Controversies.

Editor Lewis H. Lapham was criticized for his reportage of the 2004 Republican National Convention, which had yet to occur, in his essay "Tentacles of Rage: The Republican Propaganda Mill, a Brief History," published in the September 2004 issue which implied that he had attended the convention. He apologized in a note. Lapham left two years later, after 28 years as "Harper's" editor in chief, and launched "Lapham's Quarterly".  The August 2004 issue contained a photo essay by noted photojournalist Peter Turnley, who had been hired to do a series of photo essays for the magazine. The eight-page spread in August 2004 showed images of death, grieving and funerals from both sides of the U.S. war in Afghanistan. On the U.S. side, Turnley visited the funeral of an Oklahoma National Guard member, Spc. Kyle Brinlee, 21, who was killed when his vehicle ran over an improvised explosive device (IED) in Afghanistan. During his funeral, Turnley shot the open casket as it lay in the back of the high school auditorium where the funeral was held to accommodate 1,200 mourners, and this photo was used in the photo essay. Subsequently, the family sued the magazine in federal court. The case ended in 2007 when the U.S. Supreme Court, although saying the unauthorized publication was in "poor taste," upheld the ruling of the Tenth Circuit that the magazine had not violated the privacy rights of the family, as the family had invited the press, and thus "opened up the funeral scene to the public eye."  The March 2006 issue contained Celia Farber's article, "Out of Control: AIDS and the Corruption of Medical Science," presenting Peter Duesberg's theory that HIV does not cause AIDS. It was strongly criticized by AIDS activists, scientists and physicians, the "Columbia Journalism Review", and others as inaccurate and promoting a scientifically discredited theory. The Treatment Action Campaign, a South African organization working for greater popular access to HIV treatments, posted a response by eight researchers documenting more than fifty errors in the article.  Lewis Lapham was succeeded as "Harper's" editor by Roger Hodge in 2006. Since that time, the magazine has had a number of shorter-termed editors in chief, several of whom were fired amid various controversies. On January 25, 2010, the abrupt firing of the magazine's well-liked editor, Roger Hodge, by publisher John R. MacArthur was met with widespread and well-publicized criticism among the magazine's subscribers and staff. MacArthur initially claimed Hodge was stepping down for "personal reasons," but later disclosed that he fired Hodge.  Ellen Rosenbush served from 2010 to 2015. She returned in January 2016, when MacArthur fired Christopher Cox, who had been named editor only three months prior in October 2015. According to "Gawker", Cox's termination was reportedly opposed by the magazine's entire staff, none of whom were consulted about MacArthur's decision.  James Marcus assumed the post of editor in 2016. In March 2018, an essay by Katie Roiphe on the #MeToo movement excited controversy both online and inside "Harper's". Marcus had complained about the piece, suggesting the critique of #MeToo was inappropriate in light of "Harper's" "longtime reputation as a gentleman's smoking club"; he attributed this disagreement as a primary cause of his firing in 2018. In April 2018, Ellen Rosenbush assumed the title of editorial director. In October 2019, the magazine announced that novelist and essayist Christopher Beha would be taking over as editor, with Rosenbush remaining as editor-at-large.

Gallery.

Posters by Edward Penfield

Harper's Magazine is a monthly magazine of literature, politics, culture, finance, and the arts. Launched in New York City on June 1850, it is the second-oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the U.S. ("Scientific American" is the oldest, although it did not become monthly until 1921). "Harper's Magazine" has won 22 National Magazine Awards.

《哈泼斯杂志》("英语:Harper's Magazine")是一本带有美国进步人士及左派立场的月刊,她涵盖了文学、政治、文化、艺术诸多方面。它是美国第二长寿的持续发行的月刊(最古老的是《科学美国人》),最近的发行量为二十万左右。现任编辑是Roger Hodge,他于2006年3月31日替代了在此位置工作良久的Lewis Lapham。


Muonic atoms.

In a "muonic atom" (previously called a "mu-mesic" atom, now known to be a misnomer as muons are not mesons), an electron is replaced by a muon, which, like the electron, is a lepton. Since leptons are only sensitive to weak, electromagnetic and gravitational forces, muonic atoms are governed to very high precision by the electromagnetic interaction.  Since a muon is more massive than an electron, the Bohr orbits are closer to the nucleus in a muonic atom than in an ordinary atom, and corrections due to quantum electrodynamics are more important. Study of muonic atoms' energy levels as well as transition rates from excited states to the ground state therefore provide experimental tests of quantum electrodynamics.  Muon-catalyzed fusion is a technical application of muonic atoms.

Hydrogen-4.1.

Hydrogen-4.1 looks like helium, it has 2 protons and 2 neutrons. One of its electrons is replaced by a muon. Since the orbital of the muon is very near the atomic nucleus due to its larger mass, that muon can be considered as a part of the atomic nucleus. The atomic nucleus is composed of 1 muon, 2 protons and 2 neutrons, and only one electron orbiting, so it can be considered as an exotic isotopes of hydrogen. A muon's weight is 0.1U, hence the name Hydrogen-4.1(H). The Hydrogen-4.1 atom can react with other atoms. It behaves like a hydrogen atom rather than a helium atom.

Hadronic atoms.

A "hadronic atom" is an atom in which one or more of the orbital electrons are replaced by a negatively charged hadron. Possible hadrons include mesons such as the pion or kaon, yielding a "pionic atom" or a "kaonic atom" (see Kaonic hydrogen), collectively called "mesonic atoms"; antiprotons, yielding an "antiprotonic atom"; and the particle, yielding a or "sigmaonic atom".  Unlike leptons, hadrons can interact via the strong force, so the orbitals of hadronic atoms are influenced by nuclear forces between the nucleus and the hadron. Since the strong force is a short-range interaction, these effects are strongest if the atomic orbital involved is close to the nucleus, when the energy levels involved may broaden or disappear because of the absorption of the hadron by the nucleus. Hadronic atoms, such as pionic hydrogen and kaonic hydrogen, thus provide experimental probes of the theory of strong interactions, quantum chromodynamics.

Onium.

An "onium" (plural: "onia") is the bound state of a particle and its antiparticle. The classic onium is positronium, which consists of an electron and a positron bound together as a metastable state, with a relatively long lifetime of 142 ns in the triplet state. Positronium has been studied since the 1950s to understand bound states in quantum field theory. A recent development called non-relativistic quantum electrodynamics (NRQED) used this system as a proving ground.  Pionium, a bound state of two oppositely-charged pions, is useful for exploring the strong interaction. This should also be true of protonium, which is a proton–antiproton bound state. Understanding bound states of pionium and protonium is important in order to clarify notions related to exotic hadrons such as mesonic molecules and pentaquark states. Kaonium, which is a bound state of two oppositely charged kaons, has not been observed experimentally yet.  The true analogs of positronium in the theory of strong interactions, however, are not exotic atoms but certain mesons, the "quarkonium states", which are made of a heavy quark such as the charm or bottom quark and its antiquark. (Top quarks are so heavy that they decay through the weak force before they can form bound states.) Exploration of these states through non-relativistic quantum chromodynamics (NRQCD) and lattice QCD are increasingly important tests of quantum chromodynamics.  Muonium, despite its name, is "not" an onium containing a muon and an antimuon, because IUPAC assigned that name to the system of an antimuon bound with an electron. However, the production of a muon–antimuon bound state, which is an onium, has been theorized.

Hypernuclear atoms.

Atoms may be composed of electrons orbiting a hypernucleus that includes strange particles called hyperons. Such hypernuclear atoms are generally studied for their nuclear behaviour, falling into the realm of nuclear physics rather than atomic physics.

Quasiparticle atoms.

In condensed matter systems, specifically in some semiconductors, there are states called excitons which are bound states of an electron and an electron hole.

Exotic molecules.

An exotic molecule contains one or more exotic atoms.  "Exotic molecule" can also refer to a molecule having some other uncommon property such as a pyramidal hexamethylbenzene#Dication and a Rydberg atom.

An exotic atom is an otherwise normal atom in which one or more sub-atomic particles have been replaced by other particles of the same charge. For example, electrons may be replaced by other negatively charged particles such as muons (muonic atoms) or pions (pionic atoms). Because these substitute particles are usually unstable, exotic atoms typically have very short lifetimes and no exotic atom observed so far can persist under normal conditions.

奇异原子通常是指与一般原子构成不同的原子,普通的原子是由电子e、质子p和中子n这三种长寿的粒子构成,但奇异原子却是以其他的粒子代替这三种稳定粒子中的一个或多个,通过电磁相互作用构成。


Biography.

Uri Orlev, born Jerzy Henryk Orlowski, was born in Warsaw, Poland, the son of a physician. During World War II he lived in the Warsaw Ghetto until his mother was killed by the Nazis, and he was then sent to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. After the war he moved to Israel. He began writing children's literature in 1976 and has since published over 30 books, which are often biographical. His books have been translated from Hebrew into 36 languages. Orlev has also translated Polish literature into Hebrew. Uri Orlev was later interviewed in the documentary film "Life is Strange" not only on his book, but also on his life before World War II.  Orlev is married with two sons, a daughter, and four grandchildren. One of his sons, Itamar Orlev, is also a writer and made his debut with the novel "Bandit" in 2015.

Awards and critical acclaim.

The biennial Hans Christian Andersen Award conferred by the International Board on Books for Young People is the highest recognition available to a writer or illustrator of children's books. Orlev received the writing award in 1996. The jury stated:  In 1972, he received the Prime Minister's Prize for Hebrew Literary Works. In 2006, he was awarded the Bialik Prize for literature (jointly with Ruth Almog and Raquel Chalfi).  In the U.S., four books by Orlev have won the Batchelder Award in English-language translations by Hillel Halkin published by Houghton Mifflin. The annual American Library Association award recognizes the "children's book considered to be the most outstanding of those books originally published in a foreign language in a foreign country, and subsequently translated into English and published in the United States". The four American titles were "The Island on Bird Street", "The Man from the Other Side", "The Lady with the Hat", and "Run, Boy, Run", published from 1984 to 2003 by Houghton Mifflin, eventually by its Walter Lorraine Books imprint.

Uri Orlev (; born 24 February 1931) is a Polish-born Israeli children's author and translator. He received the international Hans Christian Andersen Award in 1996 for his "lasting contribution to children's literature."

尤里·奥莱夫(,拉丁化:,1931年-2月24日),原名泽基·亨利克·奥洛夫斯基(),生于波兰华沙,是一位多次获奖的波兰籍以色列犹太儿童文学作家及翻译家,同时也会创作广播稿及电视剧本。


History.

On 8 May 1995 ABB and Daimler-Benz proposed a merger of their rail industry related activities into a single autonomous 50:50 joint venture; the combined group would be the largest rail-technology company in the world. In Germany the combined company, along with Siemens would have a duopoly or near-duopoly in the market areas of electric locomotives, mainline and regional electric and diesel multiple units, trams and metros, and catenary systems. In the EU, outside Germany, the merger would have meant no significant market share increase, including Scandinavia, where ABB had a dominant market share. The proposed merger was suspended pending a report on any potential anti-competitive effects of the merger, on 18 October 1995 the merger was allowed, provided that both companies divest themselves of any shares in Kiepe (traction components company). The merger came into force on 1 January 1996.  The company's manufacturing facilities and product lines were rationalised, including a standard form of car body; after 18 months manufacturing costs had been reduced by 30%, revenues and orders also rose from 1996-7. However the company continued to be loss making, losing $111 million in 1997. Polish manufacturer Pafawag was acquired in 1997 and the facility modernised, controlling interests in "MÁV Dunakeszi", Hungary and "Schindler Waggon" Switzerland were also acquired by the end of 1997.  In March 1998 Adtranz presented a set of new product brands for modular product platforms, with designs that can be adapted for the specific requirements of different customers: the "Innovia" guided transport vehicle, the "Incentro" low floor tram, the "Itino" diesel multiple unit, the "Crusaris" medium-high speed train (based on the GMB Class 71 "flytoget" trains), and the "Octeon" electric locomotive. A new diesel locomotive design with engine and electrical traction system provided by General Electric was introduced, named "Blue Tiger". Adtranz intended to consolidate its product range around these families once on-going deliveries are finished.  Adtranz continued to make an operating loss in 1998, attributed to earlier contracts with underestimated costs, as well as technical problems with products. The same year brought an order for 400 locomotives for Deutsche Bahn, as well as the acquisition of Swiss locomotive manufacturer "Schweizerische Lokomotiv- und Maschinenfabrik AG" (SLM).  In January 1999 ABB sold its 50% stake in Adtranz to DaimlerChrysler for $472million, taking up a previous agreement made on the formation of the joint venture whereby DaimlerChrysler was required to purchase ABB's stake.  In 2000 Adtranz finally achieved profitability. In preparation for a sale from DaimlerChrysler buyers for non-core rolling stock manufacturing businesses were sought. In January 2000 The Greenbrier Companies acquired the freight wagon business based in Siegen. The electrical installations business (overhead electrification systems) was sold to Balfour Beatty in late 2000 for €153million. No buyer was found for the railway signalling division.  In August 2000 Bombardier Inc announced that it was to buy Adtranz for $711million, considered to be a low price. The sale was cleared by the European Union in April 2001; amongst the guarantees required to be made by Bombardier was that it would divest and license its product range in the regional and tram sectors to Stadler Rail due to the large German market share of the new group in those areas, making Stadler a viable independent company. The takeover came into legal effect on 1 May 2001 with a final price of $725million and ADtranz was folded into Bombardier. In 2002 Bombardier announced that it was to sue DaimlerChrysler for $867 million due to alleged misleading financial information regarding Adtranz provided by DaimlerChrysler during the takeover, in September 2004 the case was settled with the companies agreeing to a $209million reduction in price.

Brand.

The brand "Adtranz" was created by Landor Associates as part of the corporate identity of "ABB Daimler Benz Transportation". It is an acronym derived from selected letters of the complete name of the first company using it: "A"BB "D"aimler-Benz "Trans"portation, with a "z" in place of an "s" at the end for the name to imply a complete product platform from A to Z. It was capitalised by the companies with a capital "D" as "ADtranz", following the standard English text formatting and capitalisation rules it is spelled with a small "d" as "Adtranz". Above the text "ADtranz", the company logo included a green dot, symbolising a signal set on green, as well as the environmental friendliness of railways. In addition to the company also registered the slogan "ADtranz – we speak railways". Rights on the brand and slogan were deleted in 2008 and 2007 respectively.

Products.

A list of products:

ABB Daimler-Benz Transportation (after 1999 DaimlerChrysler Rail Systems), commonly known under its brand ADtranz, was a multi-national rail transport equipment manufacturer with facilities concentrated in Europe and the US.

ABB 戴姆勒-奔驰运输系统股份公司(ABB Daimler-Benz Transportation GmbH,简称ADtranz),中文译作“安达”,是一家跨国(德国及瑞士)铁路车辆制造商,总部设于德国柏林。成立于1996年,原为戴姆勒克莱斯勒旗下事业,在2001年被庞巴迪运输收购。


Early life.

Russell was born in Southampton, England, on 3 July 1927, the elder of two sons of Ethel (née Smith) and Henry Russell, a shoeshop owner. His father was distant and took out his rage on his family, so Russell spent much of his time at the cinema with his mother, who was mentally ill. He cited the films "Die Nibelungen" and "The Secret of the Loch" as two early influences.  He was educated at private schools in Walthamstow and at Pangbourne College, and studied photography at Walthamstow Technical College (now part of the University of East London).

Military Service.

He harboured a childhood ambition to be a ballet dancer but instead joined the Royal Air Force and the Merchant Navy as a teenager. On one occasion he was made to stand watch in the blazing sun for hours on end while crossing the Pacific. His mentally ill captain feared an attack by Japanese midget submarines despite the war having ended. He moved into television work after short careers in dance and photography.

Photography.

His series of documentary 'Teddy Girl' photographs were published in "Picture Post" magazine in 1955, and he continued to work as a freelance documentary photographer until 1959.  He started directing short films: "Peepshow" (1956), "Knights on Bikes" (1956), and "Lourdes" (1959). He received a lot of acclaim for his short "Amelia and the Angel" (1959), which helped secure him a job at the BBC.

Television.

Documentaries.

Between 1959 and 1970, Russell directed art documentaries for "Monitor" and "Omnibus".  He made "Poet's London" (1959) (about John Betjeman), "Portrait of a Goon" (1959) (about Spike Milligan), "Gordon Jacob" (1959), "The Guitar Craze" (1959), "Variations on a Mechanical Theme" (1959), "Scottish Painters" (1959), "Marie Rambert Remembers" (1960), "The Strange World of Hieronymus Bosch" (1960), "The Miners' Picnic" (1960), "Architecture of Entertainment" (1960), "A House in Bayswater" (1960), "Shelagh Delaney's Salford" (1960), "Cranks at Work" (1960) (about John Cranko), "The Light Fantastic" (1960), "Journey Into a Lost World" (1960), "Lotte Lenya Sings Kurt Weill" (1961), "Old Battersea House" (1961), "Portrait of a Soviet Composer" (1961), "London Moods" (1961), "Antonio Gaudi" (1961), "Preservation Man" (1962), "Mr. Chesher's Traction Engines" (1962), "The Lonely Shore" (1962) and "Watch the Birdie" (1962).  Russell's films began to get longer: "Pop Goes the Easel" (1962) and the much acclaimed "Elgar" (1962) about Sir Edward Elgar. "Elgar" was the first time that a televised arts programme ("Monitor") broadcast a feature-length film about an artistic figure, rather than a series of shorter segments. It was also the first time that re-enactments were used. Russell fought with the BBC over using actors to portray different ages of the same character, instead of the traditional photograph stills and documentary footage.

Early features and rising acclaim.

Russell's first feature film was the low-budget "French Dressing" (1964), a comedy loosely based on Roger Vadim's "And God Created Woman"; its critical and commercial failure sent Russell back to the BBC.  For television he made the 16-minute "Lonely Shore" (1964), the longer "Bartok" (1964) (about Béla Bartók), and "The Dotty World of James Lloyd" (1964).  Russell had a noted critical success with the TV movie "The Debussy Film" (1965) starring Oliver Reed as Claude Debussy based on a script by Melvyn Bragg. Also well received was "Always on Sunday" (1965), written by Bragg, about Henri Rousseau.  Russell made "Don't Shoot the Composer" (1966), a documentary about composer Georges Delerue. He did the highly praised "Isadora Duncan, the Biggest Dancer in the World" (1967), about Isadora Duncan with Vivian Pickles.  Russell's television work prompted producer Harry Saltzman to hire him to direct a feature film, "Billion Dollar Brain" (1967), the third Harry Palmer movie starring Michael Caine. He wanted to follow it with a biopic of Nijinsky but "Brain" was a commercial disappointment.  He returned to television for "Dante's Inferno" (1967) with Reed as Dante Gabriel Rossetti and "Song of Summer" (1968) about Frederick Delius and Eric Fenby. He once said that the best film he ever made was "Song of Summer", and that he would not edit a single shot.

Feature film director.

"Women in Love".

In 1969, Russell directed what is considered his "signature film", "Women In Love", an adaptation of D. H. Lawrence's novel of the same name about two artist sisters living in post-World War I Britain. The film starred Glenda Jackson, Oliver Reed, Jennie Linden and Alan Bates. The film is notable for its nude wrestling scene, which broke the convention at the time that a mainstream movie could not show male genitalia. "Women in Love" connected with the sexual revolution and bohemian politics of the late 1960s. It received several Oscar nominations, including his only nomination for Best Director.  The film was BAFTA-nominated for the costume designs of Russell's first wife, Shirley; they collaborated throughout the 1970s. The colour schemes of Luciana Arrighi's art direction (also BAFTA-nominated) and Billy William's cinematography, which Russell used for metaphorical effect, are also often referred to by film textbooks.  Russell returned to television with "Dance of the Seven Veils" (1970) which sought to portray Richard Strauss as a Nazi: one scene in particular showed a Jewish man being tortured while a group of SS men look on in delight, with Strauss's music as the score. The Strauss family was so outraged by the film that they withdrew all music rights. The film was effectively banned from being screened until Strauss's copyright expired in 2019. It was shown in February 2020 at the Keswick Film Festival.

Three films in 1971.

He followed "Women in Love" with a string of innovative adult-themed films which were often as controversial as they were successful. "The Music Lovers" (1971), a biopic of Tchaikovsky, starred Richard Chamberlain as a flamboyant Tchaikovsky and Glenda Jackson as his wife. The score was conducted by André Previn.  He followed it with "The Devils" (1971), a film so provocative that the producers Warner Bros. refused to release it uncut. Inspired by Aldous Huxley's book "The Devils of Loudun" and using material from John Whiting's play "The Devils", it starred Oliver Reed as a priest who stands in the way of a corrupt church and state. Helped by publicity over the more sensational scenes, featuring sexuality among nuns, the film topped British box office receipts for eight weeks. In the United States, the film, which had already been cut for distribution in Britain, was further edited but never widely released theatrically in anything like its original state; the original, uncut version has only been shown in the U.S. at film festivals and art houses. In 2017, AMC Networks-owned horror film streaming service Shudder premiered the uncut version of the film for the first time on streaming.  British film critic Alexander Walker described the film as "monstrously indecent" in a television confrontation with Russell, leading the director to hit him with a rolled up copy of the "Evening Standard", the newspaper for which Walker worked. The uncut version of the film remains censored.  Russell followed "The Devils" with a reworking of the period musical "The Boy Friend" (1971), for which he cast the model Twiggy, who won two Golden Globe Awards for her performance: one for Best Actress in a musical comedy, and one for the best newcomer. The film was heavily cut and shorn of two musical numbers for its American release; it was not a big success.

Mid 1970s films.

Russell wanted to make "Little Sparrow", a film about Edith Piaf, or a biopic of King Ludwig of Bavaria but neither was made. Instead he himself provided most of the financing for "Savage Messiah" (1972). The film is a biopic of the painter and sculptor Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, who died fighting for France at age 23, in 1915, in the trenches during the First World War. The film stars Dorothy Tutin, Scott Antony, and Helen Mirren.  Russell announced a biopic of Sarah Bernhardt with Barbra Streisand but it was not made.  Russell worked with David Puttnam on "Mahler" (1974) starring Robert Powell as Gustav Mahler.  Despite his dislike for rock music, in 1975, Russell's star-studded film version of The Who's rock opera "Tommy" starring Roger Daltrey, Ann-Margret, Oliver Reed, Elton John, Tina Turner, Eric Clapton and Jack Nicholson, spent a record fourteen weeks at the No.1 spot.  Two months before "Tommy" was released (in March 1975), Russell started work on "Lisztomania" (1975), another vehicle for Roger Daltrey, and for the film scoring of progressive rock keyboardist Rick Wakeman. In the film, the music of Franz Liszt is stolen by Richard Wagner. Wagner's operas then put forward the theme of the Superman. "Tommy" and "Lisztomania" were important in the rise of improved motion picture sound in the 1970s, as they were among the first films to be released with Dolby-encoded soundtracks. "Lisztomania", tagged as "the film that out-Tommys 'Tommy'", topped the British box-office for two weeks in November 1975, when "Tommy" was still in the list of the week's top five box-office hits.  Russell's next film, the biopic "Valentino" (1977), starring Rudolf Nureyev as Rudolph Valentino, also topped the British box-office for two weeks, but was not a hit in America. After this he said "nobody in Hollywood would give me even a B movie to direct."

Return to television and "Altered States".

Russell returned to television with "William and Dorothy" (1978) a look at the life of William Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy, and "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" (1978), about Samuel Taylor Coleridge.  Russell went to Hollywood to make "Altered States" (1980), a departure in both genre and tone, in that it is Russell's only foray into science fiction. Working from Paddy Chayefsky's screenplay (based upon his novel), Russell used his penchant for elaborate visual effects to translate Chayefsky's hallucinatory story to the cinema, and took the opportunity to add his trademark religious and sexual imagery. The film had an innovative Oscar-nominated score by John Corigliano. The film enjoyed moderate financial success, and scored with critics who had otherwise dismissed Russell's work. Roger Ebert, who had given "The Devils" "zero stars", and had panned Russell's early composer portraits (he did, however, give three stars to both "Tommy" and "Lisztomania"), gave it his highest rating for Russell's work (three-and-a-half stars), praising it as "one hell of a movie!"  Although the film was a financial success Russell had difficulty making his next film. One project "Beethoven's Secret" was about to start shooting when financing fell apart at the last minute. He was attached to do the film of "Evita" for over a year, but ultimately left the project when he refused to cast Elaine Paige in the lead. A biopic of Maria Callas with Sophia Loren also failed to get financing. However Russell found himself artistically rejuvenated when offered the chance to direct some opera. He did "The Rake's Progress", "Soldiers" and "Butterfly".  Russell's next film after "Altered States" was "The Planets" (1983), about Gustav Holst's musical suite of the same name. This 53-minute film was made specially for "The South Bank Show", the weekly arts programme of the ITV network in Britain. It is a wordless collage that matches stock footage to each of the seven movements of the Holst suite. John Coulthart wrote "familiar Russell obsessions appear: Nazis, naked women and the inevitable crucifixion." After essentially disappearing for decades, in 2016 the film was re-released on DVD by Arthaus Musik.  Also for "The South Bank Show" he did "" (1984) about Ralph Vaughan Williams.  Russell returned to feature films with a sexual thriller, "Crimes of Passion" (1984), with Anthony Perkins and Kathleen Turner for New World Pictures. It had moderate critical success and did not perform at the box office, but was a big hit on video.

Opera and video clips.

In 1985, he directed Gounod's Faust at the Vienna State Opera, conducted by Erich Binder with Francisco Araiza, Ruggero Raimondi and Gabriela Beňačková in the main roles. He did successful productions of "La Boheme" and "Madame Butterly".  Russell set up a company, Sitting Duck, to make video clips. "Videos are a magic new art form," he said. Among the clips he made were "Nikita" for Elton John and "Phantom of the Opera" for Andrew Lloyd Webber.  Russell had a legal fight with Bob Guccione over an aborted attempt to film "Moll Flanders" which was dramatised in a movie, "Your Honour, I Object!" (1987).

Vestron Pictures.

Russell directed "Gothic" (1986) with Gabriel Byrne, about the night Mary Shelley told the tale of Frankenstein. It was a hit on video for Vestron Pictures who signed him to a three-picture contract.  Russell did one of the segments for "Aria" (1987) and for British TV made "Ken Russell's ABC of British Music" (1988) and "A British Picture" (1989).  For the Vestron deal, he directed "Salome's Last Dance" (1988), a loosely adapted esoteric tribute to Oscar Wilde's controversial play "Salome", which was banned on the 19th century London stage. The cult movie defines Russell's adult themed romance with the "Theatre of The Poor" and was also notable for the screen presence of Imogen Millais-Scott as Salome.  He did two more for Vestron: "The Lair of the White Worm" (1988) with Amanda Donohoe and Hugh Grant, based on a novella by Bram Stoker, and "The Rainbow" (1989), another D. H. Lawrence adaptation, which also happens to be the prequel to "Women in Love". Glenda Jackson played the mother of her character in the previous film.  He directed the opera "Il Mefistofele" (1989).

Later career.

In the 1990 film "The Russia House", starring Sean Connery and Michelle Pfeiffer, Russell made one of his first significant acting appearances, portraying Walter, an ambiguously gay British intelligence officer who discomfits his more strait-laced CIA counterparts. Russell henceforth occasionally acted.  He directed a segment of "" (1990) and for TV did "The Strange Affliction of Anton Bruckner" (1991).  In 1991, Russell directed "Whore". It was highly controversial and branded with an NC-17 rating for its sexual content. The MPAA and the theatre chains also refused to release posters or advertise a film called "Whore", so for this purpose the film was re-titled "If You Can't Say It, Just See It". Russell protested his film being given such a rating when "Pretty Woman" got an R, on the grounds that his film showed the real hardships of being a prostitute, and the other glorified it.  The film "Prisoner of Honor" (1991) allowed Russell a further opportunity to explore his abiding interest in anti-Semitism through a factually-based account of the Dreyfus affair in France. The movie featured Richard Dreyfuss in the central role of Colonel Georges Picquart, the French army investigator who exposed the army establishment's framing of the Jewish officer Captain Alfred Dreyfus.  By the early 1990s, Russell had become a celebrity: his notoriety and persona attracted more attention than his recent work. He became largely reliant on his own finances to continue making films. Much of his work after 1990 was commissioned for television (e.g. his 1993 TV film "The Mystery of Dr Martinu"), and he contributed regularly to "The South Bank Show" including documentaries such as 'Classic Widows' about the widows of four leading British composers; dance sections in these were choreographed by Amir Hosseinpour.  "Prisoner of Honor" (1991) was Russell's final work with Oliver Reed. His final film with Glenda Jackson before she gave up acting for politics was "The Secret Life of Arnold Bax" (1992).  He directed "Lady Chatterley" (1993), "The Mystery of Dr Martinu" (1993), a version of "Treasure Island" (1995), "Alice in Russialand" (1995), "Mindbender" (1995) (about Uri Geller), and an episode of "Tales of Erotica".  In May 1995, he was honoured with a retrospective of his work presented in Hollywood by the American Cinematheque. Titled "Shock Value", it included some of Russell's most successful and controversial films and also several of his early BBC productions. Russell attended the festival and engaged in lengthy post-screening discussions of each film with audiences and moderator Martin Lewis, who had instigated and curated the retrospective.  Later films include "Dogboys" (1998), "The Fall of the Louse of Usher" (2002), and "" (2002).  Russell had a cameo in the 2006 film adaptation of Brian Aldiss's novel "Brothers of the Head" by the directors of "Lost in La Mancha". He also had a cameo in the 2006 "Colour Me Kubrick". He directed a segment for the horror anthology "Trapped Ashes" (2007) which also includes segments directed by Sean S. Cunningham, Monte Hellman, and Joe Dante. Prior to his death in 2011 he was reputed to be in pre-production for two films: "The Pearl of the Orient" and "Kings X". Efforts such as "The Lion's Mouth" (2000) and "The Fall of the Louse of Usher" (2002) have suffered from low production values (for example, being shot in video on Russell's estate, often featuring Russell himself) and limited distribution.  In 2003 he was a member of the jury at the 25th Moscow International Film Festival. He also acted in "Final Cut", an episode of the BBC television series "Waking the Dead", playing the role of an aging director of a notorious 1960s crime drama similar to "Performance".  From 2004, Russell was visiting professor at the University of Wales, Newport Film School. One of his many tasks was to advise students on the making of their graduate films. He also presented the Finest Film Awards (for graduate filmmakers of Newport) in June 2005.  Russell was appointed visiting fellow at the University of Southampton in April 2007, where he acted in a similar capacity to his role at the Newport Film School, until March 2008. His arrival was celebrated with a screening of the rare director's cut of "The Devils" hosted by Mark Kermode.  He began production of his first full-length film in almost 5 years, "Moll Flanders", an adaptation of Daniel Defoe's novel, starring Lucinda Rhodes-Flaherty and Barry Humphries, but a finished film failed to materialise.  Also in 2007 Russell produced "A Kitten for Hitler", a short film hosted by the Comedybox.tv website. Russell commented that "Ten years ago, while working on "The South Bank Show", Melvyn Bragg and I had a heated discussion on the pros and cons of film censorship. Broadly speaking, Melvyn was against it, while I, much to his surprise, was absolutely for it. He then dared me to write a script that I thought should be banned. I accepted the challenge and a month or so later sent him a short subject entitled "A Kitten for Hitler". 'Ken,' he said, 'if ever you make this film and it is shown, you will be lynched.' "  Russell joined "Celebrity Big Brother" in January 2007, at the start of the series, but left voluntarily within a week after an altercation with Jade Goody.  Ken Russell and his wife Elize "Lisi" Tribble were invited by New York film writer Shade Rupe on a six-week journey across North America, beginning with a Lifetime Achievement Award given by Mitch Davis at the Fantasia film festival on 20 July 2010, followed by a screening of Russell's most notorious film, "The Devils". The next day, a near complete 35mm print retrospective of Russell's work at the Cinémathèque québécoise including "Billion Dollar Brain", "Women in Love", "The Music Lovers", "Crimes of Passion", "The Rainbow", "Whore", and many more found projection along with an exhibition of several of Russell's photographs from the 1950s. The next stop was Russellmania! at Lincoln Center, a nine-film overview of Russell's work from "Women in Love" through "Valentino", with Russell present at each evening screening for a nearly sold-out weeklong festival. 30 July 2010, opening night, Russell was joined by Vanessa Redgrave for a 40th anniversary screening of "The Devils" and the next evening saw "The Music Lovers" and "Women in Love" projected with Ken in attendance. Tommy Tune joined Russell the next evening for "The Boy Friend" and followed the screening with a live stage dance number from the film.  The American Cinematheque in Los Angeles next hosted Mr. Russell at the Aero Theatre in Santa Monica with screenings of "The Devils" and "Altered States" with Charles Haid and Stuart Baird in attendance, and "Tommy" and "Lisztomania" at the Egyptian the following evening. Director Mick Garris extended an invitation and Russell, Tribble, and Rupe joined the Masters of Horror for one of their rarified dinners. The tour wrapped up in Toronto at the Rue Morgue Festival of Fear and a packed screening of "The Devils" at the Bloor Cinema hosted by Richard Crouse.  In 2008, he made his New York directorial debut with the Off-Broadway production of "Mindgame" at the SoHo Playhouse produced by Monica Tidwell, a thriller by Anthony Horowitz and starring Keith Carradine, Lee Godart and Kathleen McNenny.  Towards the end of his life, Russell was planning a remake of the 1976 erotic musical comedy "Alice in Wonderland".

Writings.

Besides books on film-making and the British film industry, Russell also wrote "A British Picture: An Autobiography" (1989; published in the US as "Altered States: The Autobiography of Ken Russell", 1991). He also published six novels, including four on the sex lives of composers – "Beethoven Confidential", "Brahms Gets Laid", "Elgar: The Erotic Variations", and "Delius: A Moment with Venus".  "Mike and Gaby's Space Gospel" is a science-fiction rewriting of "Genesis". His last novel, also science-fiction and published in 2006, is called "Violation". It is a very violent future-shock tale of an England where football has become the national religion.  At the time of his death, he had a column for "The Times" in the Film section of "times 2".

Photography.

Before achieving success in the film industry, Russell enjoyed a brief fling with still photography. An exhibition displaying some of Russell's work was on display during the summer of 2007 in central London's Proud Galleries in The Strand, London. The exhibition, entitled "Ken Russell's Lost London Rediscovered: 1951–1957", included photos taken in and around London, with many of the pictures being taken in the Portobello Road area of London. An exhibition "Ken Russell: Filmmaker, Photographer" ran at several galleries in 2010.

Music video.

In the late-1980s, Russell directed the music video for "It's All Coming Back to Me Now", a song written and produced by Jim Steinman for his Pandora's Box project. The production featured a range of erotic imagery, including studded bras and spiked codpieces. He had also directed Elton John's video for "Nikita" which featured a scene of John wearing the same boots he wore as the Pinball Wizard in the film adaptation of The Who's "Tommy".

Personal life.

Russell converted to Roman Catholicism during the 1950s.  He was married four times. His first marriage, to costume designer Shirley Kingdon from 1958 to 1978, produced four sons and a daughter. He was married to Vivian Jolly from 1984 to 1991 (the wedding celebrant being Anthony Perkins, who had been ordained in the Universal Life Church); the couple had a son and daughter. He was married to the actress and former ballerina Hetty Baynes from 1992 to 1997; the couple had a son. His first three marriages ended in divorce. He married American actress and artist Elize "Lisi" Tribble in 2001, and the marriage lasted until his death.

References in culture.

Light-hearted references to Russell often allude to sexual and religious (frequently Catholic) images in his work.  In his 1973 novel "The Honorary Consul", English novelist Graham Greene includes a passage in which a "Conservative Member of Parliament had described the British entry [in the Mar del Plata Film Festival in Argentina] by some man named Russell as pornographic."

Death.

Ken Russell died on 27 November 2011 at the age of 84 having suffered a series of strokes, survived by three wives and eight children. Upon his death he left his entire estate to his fourth wife.

Henry Kenneth Alfred Russell (3 July 1927 – 27 November 2011) was a British film director, known for his pioneering work in television and film and for his flamboyant and controversial style. His films in the main were liberal adaptations of existing texts, or biographies, notably of composers of the Romantic era. Russell began directing for the BBC, where he made creative adaptations of composers' lives which were unusual for the time. He also directed many feature films independently and for studios.

亨利·肯尼·艾佛瑞·罗素(英语:Henry Kenneth Alfred Russell,1927年-7月3日-2011年-11月27日),小名肯·罗素(Ken Russell),生于英格兰南安普敦,著名电视与电影导演,以前卫且富争议性的风格著称。其执导的电影《恋爱中的女人》(Women in Love),曾获金球奖与奥斯卡奖最佳导演奖。


Basic calculation.

If we consider the value of the original payment presently due to be "P", and the debtor wants to delay the payment for "t" years, then a market rate of return denoted "r" on a similar investment asset means the future value of "P" is formula_2, and the discount can be calculated as  We wish to calculate the present value, also known as the "discounted value" of a payment. Note that a payment made in the future is worth less than the same payment made today which could immediately be deposited into a bank account and earn interest, or invest in other assets. Hence we must discount future payments. Consider a payment "F" that is to be made "t" years in the future, we calculate the present value as  Suppose that we wanted to find the present value, denoted "PV" of $100 that will be received in five years time. If the interest rate "r" is 12% per year then

Discount rate.

The discount rate which is used in financial calculations is usually chosen to be equal to the cost of capital. The cost of capital, in a financial market equilibrium, will be the same as the market rate of return on the financial asset mixture the firm uses to finance capital investment. Some adjustment may be made to the discount rate to take account of risks associated with uncertain cash flows, with other developments.  The discount rates typically applied to different types of companies show significant differences:  The higher discount rate for start-ups reflects the various disadvantages they face, compared to established companies:  One method that looks into a correct discount rate is the capital asset pricing model. This model takes into account three variables that make up the discount rate:  1. Risk free rate: The percentage of return generated by investing in risk free securities such as government bonds.  2. Beta: The measurement of how a company's stock price reacts to a change in the market. A beta higher than 1 means that a change in share price is exaggerated compared to the rest of shares in the same market. A beta less than 1 means that the share is stable and not very responsive to changes in the market. Less than 0 means that a share is moving in the opposite direction from the rest of the shares in the same market.  3. Equity market risk premium: The return on investment that investors require above the risk free rate.

Discount factor.

The discount factor, "DF(T)", is the factor by which a future cash flow must be multiplied in order to obtain the present value. For a zero-rate (also called spot rate) "r", taken from a yield curve, and a time to cash flow "T" (in years), the discount factor is:  In the case where the only discount rate one has is not a zero-rate (neither taken from a zero-coupon bond nor converted from a swap rate to a zero-rate through bootstrapping) but an annually-compounded rate (for example if the benchmark is a US Treasury bond with annual coupons) and one only has its yield to maturity, one would use an annually-compounded discount factor:  However, when operating in a bank, where the amount the bank can lend (and therefore get interest) is linked to the value of its assets (including accrued interest), traders usually use daily compounding to discount cash flows. Indeed, even if the interest of the bonds it holds (for example) is paid semi-annually, the value of its book of bond will increase daily, thanks to accrued interest being accounted for, and therefore the bank will be able to re-invest these daily accrued interest (by lending additional money or buying more financial products). In that case, the discount factor is then (if the usual money market day count convention for the currency is ACT/360, in case of currencies such as United States dollar, euro, Japanese yen), with "r" the zero-rate and "T" the time to cash flow in years:  or, in case the market convention for the currency being discounted is ACT/365 (AUD, CAD, GBP):  Sometimes, for manual calculation, the continuously-compounded hypothesis is a close-enough approximation of the daily-compounding hypothesis, and makes calculation easier (even though its application is limited to instruments such as financial derivatives). In that case, the discount factor is:

Other discounts.

For discounts in marketing, see discounts and allowances, sales promotion, and pricing. The article on discounted cash flow provides an example about discounting and risks in real estate investments.

References.

Notes

Discounting is a financial mechanism in which a debtor obtains the right to delay payments to a creditor, for a defined period of time, in exchange for a charge or fee. Essentially, the party that owes money in the present purchases the right to delay the payment until some future date. The discount, or charge, is the difference between the original amount owed in the present and the amount that has to be paid in the future to settle the debt.

贴现(discounting、折现),也叫票据贴现,是指将未来的货币转换成当前货币的实际价值,与累积恰好是相反的概念和过程。贴现也叫折现,也就是折合成现在的价值。