Geography.

Erlangen is located on the edge of the Middle Franconian Basin and at the floodplain of the Regnitz river. The river divides the city into two halves of approximately equal sizes. In the western part of the city the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal lies parallel to the Regnitz.

Neighboring municipalities.

The following municipalities or non-municipal areas are adjacent to the city of Erlangen. They are listed clockwise, starting in the north:  The unincorporated area Mark, the municipalities Möhrendorf, Bubenreuth,

City arrangement.

Erlangen officially consists of nine districts and 40 statistical districts, 39 of which are inhabited. In addition, the urban area is subdivided into twelve land registry and land law relevant districts whose boundaries deviate largely from those of the statistical districts. The districts and statistical districts are partly formerly independent municipalities, but also include newer settlements which names have also been coined as district names. The traditional and subjectively perceived boundaries of neighborhoods often deviate from the official ones.

Gemarkungen.

Erlangen is

Historical city districts.

Some still common names of historical districts were not taken into account with the official designations. Examples are:

Climate.

Erlangen is located in a transition zone from maritime to continental climate: the city is relatively low in precipitation (650mm per year), as usual in continental

History.

Overall history.

Early history.

In the prehistory of Bavaria, the Regnitz valley already played an important role as a passageway from north to south. In Spardorf a blade scraper was found in loess deposits, which could be attributed to the Gravettians, which places it at an age of about 25,000 years. Due to the relatively barren soils in the area farming and settlements could only be detected at the end of the Neolithic (2800-2200 BC). The "Erlanger Zeichensteine" "(Erlangen Sign Stones, sandstone plates with petroglyphs)" in the

From Villa Erlangen to the Thirty Years War.

Erlangen is first mentioned by name in a document from 1002. The origin of the name Erlangen is not clear. Attempts of local research to derive the name of alder (tree species) and anger (meadow ground), do not meet toponymical standards.  As early as 976, Emperor Otto II had donated the church of St. Martin in Forchheim with accessories to the diocese of Würzburg. Emperor Henry II confirmed this donation in 1002 and authorized its transfer from the bishopric to the newly founded Haug Abbey. In contrast to the certificate of Otto II, the accessories, which also included the "villa erlangon" located in Radenzgau, were described in more detail here. At that time the Bavarian Nordgau extended to the Regnitz in the west and to the Schwabach in the north. Villa Erlangon must therefore have been located outside of these borders and thus not in the area of today's Erlangen Altstadt. However, as the name Erlangen is unique to today's town in Germany, the certificate could have only referred to it. The document also provides an additional piece of evidence: In 1002, Henry II bestowed further areas west of the Regnitz, including one mile from the Schwabach estuary to the east, one mile from this mouth upstream and downstream. These two squares are described in the document only by their lengths and the two river names. No reference to a specific place is given. They are also unrelated to the accessories of St. Martin, which included the villa erlangon, another reason why it must

Foundation of the new town.

After the Thirty Years' War, the town was rebuilt relatively quickly. On 2 December 1655 the parish church was consecrated to the title of Holy Trinity. The situation changed in 1685 when French king Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had granted Calvinist subjects - called Huguenots by their opponents - religious freedom since 1598. The revocation triggered a wave of refugees of about 180,000 Huguenots who settled mainly in the Dutch Republic, the British Isles, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden and some German principalities. A small number of religious refugees later went to Russia and the Dutch and British colonies.  Margrave Christian Ernst also took advantage of this situation and offered the refugees the right to settle in his principality, which was

Erlangen in the Kingdom of Bavaria.

In 1792 Erlangen and the Principality of Bayreuth became part of the Kingdom of Prussia. As Napoleon won the Battle of Jena and Auerstedt, the two principalities were brought under French rule as a province. In 1810 the principality of Bayreuth was sold to the allied kingdom of Bavaria for 15 million francs. In 1812 the old town and the new town

Weimar Republic.

After their defeat in the First World War, the antidemocratic parties NSDAP, DNVP and KPD also gained strong popularity in Erlangen due to high inflation, reparations payments and the world economic crisis. A two-tier society was established, which was reinforced by industrial settlements. In the city council, state parliament and Reichstag elections, the SPD initially held a relatively stable majority of 40%. On the other hand, there were the parties of the centre and the

During Nazism.

After the seizure of power by the NSDAP, boycotts of Jewish shops, the desecration and destruction of the monument dedicated to the Jewish professor and Erlangen honorary citizen Jakob Herz on Hugenottenplatz and the burning of books also took place in Erlangen. The NSDAP-controlled city council made Chancellor Hitler, President von Hindenburg and Gauleiter Streicher honorary citizens, the main street was renamed Adolf-Hitler-Straße ("Adolf-Hitler-Street"). During the "Reichspogromnacht", the Jewish families from Erlangen (between 42 and 48 persons), Baiersdorf (three persons) and Forth (seven persons) were rounded up and humiliated in the courtyard of the former town hall (Palais Stutterheim), their flats and shops partly destroyed and plundered, then the women and children were taken to the Wöhrmühle (an island in the Regnitz river in Erlangen), the men to the district court

After the Second World War.

During the Second World War, 4.8% of Erlangen was destroyed by bombings; 445 flats were completely destroyed. When the American troops moved in on 16 April 1945, the local commander of the German troops, Lieutenant Werner Lorleberg handed over the city without a fight, thus avoided a battle inside the city area that would have been pointless and costly. Lorleberg himself, who until the end was regarded as a supporter of the National Socialist regime, died at Thalermühle on the same day. Whether he was shot by German soldiers when he tried to persuade a scattered task force to give up, or whether he committed suicide there after the surrender message was delivered, is not conclusively clarified. Lorlebergplatz in Erlangen, named after him, reminds us of him. The note about Lorleberg, which is attached to the place, refers to his death, which had saved Erlangen from destruction. After the handover of the city, American tanks severely damaged the last preserved city gate (the Nuremberg Gate built in 1717), which was blown up shortly afterwards. This probably also happened at the instigation of shopkeepers living in the

History of the Erlangen Garrison.

Until the 18th century, the margrave's soldiers were quartered with private individuals during missions in the Erlangen area. After the city was incorporated into the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1810, it made several attempts to set up a garrison, mainly for economic reasons, but without success at first. When in 1868 the general compulsory military service was introduced with the option to do military service and study at the same time, the garrison became a vital location factor for the city and especially for the university. A renewed application was successful, so that on 12 March 1868 the 6th Hunter Battalion moved into Erlangen. The Bavarian Army was housed in various municipal buildings and used, among other things, today's Theaterplatz square for its exercises.

History of the Erlangen University.

The second decisive event for the development of Erlangen was the foundation of the university, in addition to the foundation of the Neustadt. Plans already existed during the Reformation, but it was not until 1742 that Margrave Frederick of Brandenburg-Bayreuth donated a university for the residence city of Bayreuth, which was moved to Erlangen in 1743. The institution, which was equipped with modest means, wasn't met with much approval at first. Only when Margrave Charles Alexander of Brandenburg-Ansbach put it on a broader economic footing did the number of students slowly increase. Nevertheless, it remained below 200 and dropped to about 80 when the margraviate was incorporated into the kingdom of Bavaria. The threatened closure was only averted because Erlangen had the only Lutheran theological faculty in the

Incorporations into the municipal area.

Formerly independent communities and districts that were incorporated into the city of Erlangen:  Above all, the

Historical population.

In the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times, only a few hundred people lived in Erlangen. Due to numerous wars, epidemics and famines, the increase in population was very slow. In 1634, as a result of the destruction in the Thirty Years' War, the town was completely deserted. In 1655, the population reached 500 again, therefore reaching pre war levels. On 8 March 1708 Erlangen was declared the sixth state capital. By 1760, the population had risen to over 8000. Due to the famines 1770–1772,

Religion.

Denomination statistics.

In 2016, 28.6% of the inhabitants were Protestants and

Protestant Churches.

The population of Erlangen initially belonged to the Diocese of Würzburg, from 1017 to the Archdiocese of Bamberg. In 1528, the first Lutheran priest was appointed by the mayor and the council and the Reformation was introduced, so that Erlangen remained a Protestant town for many years. In the new town founded in 1686 by Margrave Christian Ernst for the French religious refugees, there were only Protestant congregations. The French Reformed community existed from 1686 and after the settlement of Protestant refugees from German-speaking Switzerland and the Palatinate, a German Protestant community was founded in 1693.  In 1802 the Protestant communities of Erlangen were placed under the control of the Royal Prussian Consistory in Ansbach and after the transfer of the city to Bavaria they became part of the Protestant Church of the Kingdom of Bavaria, which initially comprised Lutheran and Reformed communities. At the same time Erlangen became the seat of a deanery which united all congregations.  In 1853 the Reformed congregations of Bavaria received their own synod and in 1919

Catholic Churches.

Before the Reformation.

For a long time, local researchers believed that the oldest church in Erlangen had been built on the Martinsbühl, centuries before the town was first mentioned in a document in 1002. This assumption cannot be proven by any sources. In contrast, the first documented church in today's urban area is the church of the royal court of Büchenbach, which was built as early as 996.  In Erlangen itself, a property deal from the year 1288 gives the first indication of church life, because it was recorded "in cimiterio", i.e. on a cemetery. At that time cemeteries were always built around churches, and, as can be concluded from later sources, this church stood where today the Altstädter Kirche stands at Martin-Luther-Platz. Bone finds during civil engineering work - most recently in 2003 during the redesign of Martin Luther Square - confirm this layout of the medieval churchyard. In the period that followed, numerous foundations for this church were testified to the "salvation and nucz" of souls. Her patrocinium, "frawenkirchen" (Church of Our

From the Thirty Years' War to the first mass celebration.

According to the agreements of the Peace of Westphalia, Erlangen remained Protestant territory after the end of the Thirty Years' War. Only with the foundation of "Christian Erlang", i.e. the Neustadt, were Catholics allowed to move in, provided they contributed to the construction of the new town. In 1711, the Margrave only granted them the minimum confessional rights guaranteed by the Peace of Westphalia: the Freedom of thought. Baptisms, marriages and funerals were to be carried out according to Protestant rites, and children were to be educated in the Protestant religion. As the number increased, Catholics pushed for more religious

From the prayer house to the parish Herz Jesus.

The permission to build a church was subject to heavy conditions: Only a simple prayer house without a tower, bells and organ was permitted. The church services were only allowed to be held with the doors closed, baptisms, weddings and funerals were still reserved for the Protestant clergy. The prayer house was erected far outside the city - at today's "Katholischer Kirchplatz" (Catholic Church Square) - and ceremoniously opened on St. Peter and Paul's Day in 1790.  The Catholic community, which soon grew with the arrival of French emigrants who had fled from the turmoil of the revolution, found itself in an economic emergency due to constantly changing political conditions. The archdiocese of Bamberg belonged to the electorate of Bavaria since 1803. Erlangen was Prussian until 1806, then French for four years. As subjects

Developments in the 20th century.

With the reconstruction of 1895 the extension possibilities of the old prayer house were exhausted. The number of Catholics in Erlangen grew through immigration and incorporation, especially after the Second World War, so that today there is only a slight predominance in favour of Protestants. Beginning in 1928, the number of parishes in Erlangen rose from one to twelve within 70 years.  The following parishes were newly founded:  The following parishes were incorporated into the city area:  Since 1937 Erlangen has been the seat of a dean's office, which was reorganized in the course of the state territorial reform on November 1, 1974. In addition to the Erlangen parishes, it also includes neighbouring congregations from the districts of Erlangen-Höchstadt and Forchheim.

Judaism.

In 1432 Jews were first mentioned in a document in Erlangen, as was a rabbi in 1478. On 26 March 1515, the Margrave's Diet decided to expel the Jews. This probably also ended the existence of the Erlangen Jewish community. In 1711 Margrave Christian Ernst assured the Huguenot inhabitants of the Neustadt that they would not be allowed to settle or trade in the city. Jewish life was therefore restricted to Erlangen's neighbouring communities of Bruck, Baiersdorf and Büchenbach.  In 1861 the Bavarian parliament introduced general freedom of movement for Jews in Bavaria. This made it possible for Jews

Islam.

The "Türkisch-Islamischer Kulturverein Erlangen" (DITIB, Turkish-Islamic Cultural Association Erlangen) has existed in Erlangen since 1981. Since then, other associations such as the "Islamische Studentenverein Erlangen" (Islamic Student Association Erlangen) in 1984 and the "Islamische Glaubensgemeinschaft" (Islamic Religious Community) in 1995 have also emerged. Since December 1999, these three have together formed the "Islamische Religionsgemeinschaft Erlangen e. V."

Seventh-day Adventist Church.

The Seventh-day Adventists have been represented in Erlangen since at least 1903. In 1995 they moved into the new community centre in Bruck. In 2003, another congregation ("ERlebt") was founded, which gathered in Hindenburgstraße; the latter also inaugurated a new congregation hall in Bruck in October 2007. There is good cooperation between the two communities. The

Jehovah's Witnesses.

Jehovah's Witnesses registered their first meeting in Erlangen on March 22, 1923, but the police did not approve it. After the ban in April 1933 there was increased repression, which led to the murder of

Politics.

Since at least the 14th century there has been a city council in Erlangen's old town. The city was headed by two mayors who changed every four weeks. From 1715 there were even four mayors.  The Neustadt, however, was initially administered by the Reformed presbytery. In 1697 there were four mayors who held office for one year each, three of them French and one German. From 1701 there were four mayors and eight councillors who served for two years. Then the administration was reorganized several times.  After the unification of the old town and the new town in 1812, the Bavarian municipal edict was introduced. From 1818, the town was led by a first mayor, who was usually awarded the title of "Oberbürgermeister" from 1918. Since 1952, the First Mayor has always held the title of Lord Mayor in accordance with the Bavarian municipal regulations.  From 1818 there was also a city magistrate with ten, from 1900 twelve magistrate councillors and as a second chamber the municipal representatives with 30, from 1900 36 members. After the Second World War there was only one city council. In 1978, Wolfgang Lederer from the Grüne Liste was the first Green politician to move into a Bavarian city council.  In the districts of Eltersdorf, Frauenaurach, Großdechsendorf, Hüttendorf, Kosbach (with Steudach and Häusling), Kriegenbrunn and Tennenlohe, which were incorporated into Erlangen in 1967 and 1972 respectively, a local advisory board was set up. The number of members of the local advisory board depends on the number of inhabitants of the respective areas and varies between five and seven. The local advisory councils are appointed by the political parties according to the last local election result and elect a chairman from among their members. The local advisory councils are consulted on important matters concerning their districts.  There is also a youth parliament in Erlangen which is elected every two years by the 12-18 year olds. Seniors are represented by a seniors' advisory board (the first in Bavaria), people with a migration background by the foreigners' and integration advisory board. In addition, there are a number of other advisory councils that advise the city council on specific topics.  In addition to the political parties and municipal committees, various organisations in Erlangen are active in local politics. These include initiatives that are founded on the basis of specific topics (see in particular referendums) and then dissolve again. The "Altstadtforum" is a non-party alliance of 19 organisations (including all parties represented in the city council, citizens' initiatives and associations). It advocates an attractive, liveable and sustainable old town in Erlangen.

Economy.

In 2016, Erlangen, within the city limits, achieved a gross domestic product (GDP) of €10.003 billion and thus occupied 36th place in the ranking of German cities according to economic performance. The GDP per capita in the same year was 91,531 € (Bavaria: 44,215 €/ Germany 38,180 €) and was the fourth highest of all independent cities in Germany. In 2016 there were about 113,200 persons employed in the city. The unemployment rate was 3.4% in December 2018 and thus above the Bavarian average of 2.7%.  The economy in Erlangen is essentially shaped by the activities of Siemens AG and its affiliated companies, as well as by the Friedrich-Alexander-University. As a business location, the city is one of the most attractive in Germany. In an analysis of the competitiveness of all 402 German independent cities and districts conducted by the Swiss company Prognos in 2016, the city ranked 6th (2013: 3rd). The city achieved far above-average values, particularly in terms of growth.

The economy before the foundation of the Huguenot city in 1686.

Until the foundation of the Neustadt in 1686 by Margrave Christian Ernst, the economy of Erlangen consisted almost exclusively of agriculture. The floodplains of the rivers Regnitz and Schwabach offered good locations for fields and meadows, which were irrigated by water wheels. The rivers themselves offered opportunities for fishing. The forest east of the Regnitz, including the quarries located there, formed an essential basis of life for the early citizens of Erlangen for centuries.

The development of commerce 1686 to 1812.

After the disastrous consequences of the Thirty Years' War, Margrave Christian Ernst endeavoured to revive the economy, which had been completely devastated. He therefore had wealthy or economically efficient Huguenots recruited (who were not accepted in Neustadt an der Aisch) and settled them in the newly founded Huguenot city (Neustadt) in 1686. This active economic policy initially helped to establish the stocking makers' trade, a technically advanced branch of industry that was virtually unknown in Germany. In addition, hat manufacture,

Industrialization 1812-1945.

The reorganization of Central Europe after the Napoleonic wars and the subsequent protectionist tariff policy led to the loss of traditional sales markets and thus to the decline of Erlangen's industries. By 1887, stocking manufacture had practically ceased. The calico factories and hat factories also disappeared. Only tanners and glove makers were able to survive into the 20th century.  In the middle of the 19th century, the Erlangen economy slowly consolidated at a low level. In addition to agriculture, the remaining commercial enterprises and local crafts, industry

Economic development caused by Siemens after 1945.

The end of the Second World War had far-reaching consequences for the Erlangen economy: The two Berlin-based Siemens companies Siemens & Halske (S&H) and Siemens-Schuckert Werke (SSW) had already taken measures for a new beginning before the foreseeable collapse. Special teams (so-called group management) were to prepare the move to Munich (S&H) and Hof (SSW). Due to the proximity to the Soviet zone, however, the Hof group around Günther Scharowsky soon looked for a new location, which was found after several soundings in undamaged Erlangen.

Bergkirchweih.

The Bergkirchweih is an annual beer festival, similar to the Oktoberfest in Munich but smaller in scale. It takes place during the twelve days before and after Pentecost (that is, 49 days after Easter); this period is called the "fifth season" by the locals. The beer is served at wooden tables in one-litre stoneware jugs under the trees of the "Berg", a small, craggy, and wooded hill with old caves (beer cellars) owned by local breweries. The cellars extend for throughout the

Environmental protection.

Environmental protection and nature conservation have enjoyed a high status in Erlangen since the beginning of the environmental movement in Germany in the early 1970s. A number of national and international awards attest to the success of these efforts. In 1988 the city was awarded the title "Partner of the European Environmental Year 1987/88" and in 1990 and 1991 the title "Federal Capital for Nature and Environmental Protection". The year 2007 was proclaimed the environmental year by the city administration with the motto "Natürlich ERLANGEN" "(German for "natural/organic Erlangen")". One focus is the expansion of photovoltaics. From 2003 to 2011, the installed capacity of photovoltaic systems in Erlangen has increased more than twentyfold to 16,700 kW, covering more than 2.0% of Erlangen's electricity requirements annually. Erlangen participates in the so-called Solarbundesliga "(Federal Solar League)". In the competition between cities, Erlangen reached third place in 2012 and second in the European Solar League.  Since 2007, Erlangen has been the first city in Germany in which every school has its own solar system installed. The data of the solar systems at the schools are presented in the so-called climate protection school atlas on the Internet. In 2011, a solar city map was set up on the Internet in which installed solar systems could be entered.

Traffic.

As early as the 1970s, ground work was being made for today's high share of bicycles in total traffic through a bicycle-friendly transport policy of then mayor Dietmar Hahlweg. He paid particular attention to the introduction of cycling lanes on pedestrian paths. Throughout the entire population the bicycle is a common means of transport. Cyclers wearing suits and carrying briefcases

Nature and landscape conservation.

In the city area, two areas have been declared nature reserves (NSG) and thus enjoy the highest protection for plants and animals in accordance with Article 7 of the Bavarian Nature Conservation Act. These are: In

Notable residents.

Though a small village for much of its history and now only a small city of only 100k inhabitants, Erlangen has made significant contributions to the world, primarily through its many Lutheran theologians, to its University of Erlangen-Nuremberg scholars, and the Siemens AG pioneers in science and technology.  Among its noted residents are:  For a more complete list, visit

Erlangen (; East Franconian: "Erlang") is a Middle Franconian city in Bavaria, Germany. It is the seat of the administrative district Erlangen-Höchstadt (former administrative district Erlangen) and with 113,758 inhabitants (as of 30 June 2019) it is the smallest of the eight major cities in Bavaria. The number of inhabitants exceeded the threshold of 100,000 in 1974, making Erlangen a major city.

埃朗根(Erlangen)为德国无属县城市,位于巴伐利亚州北部弗兰肯地区的大纽伦堡地区。距离纽伦堡只有15分钟火车车程。


Early life, education and private career.

Young was born in Meridian, Sutter County, California. He earned an associate's degree in education from Yuba College in 1952 and a bachelor's degree from Chico State College in 1958. He served in the Army from 1955 to 1957.  Young moved to Alaska in 1959, not long after it became a

Early political career.

Young began his political career in 1964 when he was elected mayor of Fort Yukon, serving from 1964 to 1968. He also ran for the Alaska House of Representatives in 1964, but finished tenth, with the top seven candidates being elected for the multi-member district. He was elected to the State

U.S. House of Representatives.

Elections.

Young first ran for Congress in 1972, but lost to incumbent Democrat Nick Begich, who disappeared in a plane crash days before the election. Begich was declared legally dead in December 1972 and Young won the resulting special election in March 1973. Young has been reelected 21 times, usually without significant opposition, although he did face strong challenges in the 2008 primary election and the 1974, 1990, 1992 and 2008 general elections. He won his 2016 primary with over 70% of the vote and faced Democrat Steve Lindbeck and Libertarian Jim McDermott in the general election, where he captured 50% of the vote to win his 23rd term in office.  Young is the most senior U.S. Representative and, along with Jim Sensenbrenner, one of only two members who have been in office since the 1970s. He is the second-highest ranking Republican on the Natural Resources and Transportation and Infrastructure committees. He chaired the former committee from 1995 to 2001 and the latter from 2001 to 2007. Young has twice faced federal investigations but never been charged with wrongdoing.

1972–1974.

Democratic State Senator Nick Begich was elected to the House of Representatives in 1970, to succeed Republican Howard Wallace Pollock, who ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for Governor of Alaska. Young ran against Begich in 1972 and placed second in the August 22 open primary with 13,958 votes (25.60%) to Begich's 37,873 (69.45%). Begich disappeared in a plane crash

1976–2006.

Young was reelected with at least 55% of the vote in all of the subsequent seven elections. He defeated former State Senator Eben Hopson with 71% of the vote in 1976, State Senator Patrick Rodey with 55.41% of the vote in 1978, Kevin "Pat" Parnell with 73.79% of the vote in 1980 and Dave Carlson with 70.84% of the vote in 1982.  In 1984 and 1986, he defeated Nick Begich's wife, Pegge Begich, by 113,582 votes (55.02%) to 86,052 (41.68%) and by 101,799 votes (56.47%) to 74,053 (41.08%), respectively. He defeated Peter Gruenstein with 62.5% of the vote in 1988 and then faced John Devens, the Mayor of Valdez, in 1990 and 1992. Young defeated him by 99,003 votes (51.66%) to 91,677 (47.84%) in 1990 and then faced a serious challenge in 1992. He was challenged in the Republican primary by State Senator Virginia M. Collins and defeated her by 24,869 votes (52.98%) to

2008.

Young received the endorsement of Mike Huckabee's political action committee, Huck PAC, in June 2008. After a storm of negative reaction, Huckabee explained on the Huck PAC blog that the endorsement was due in part to Young's endorsement and steadfast support of Huckabee during the 2008 Republican presidential primaries.  Final results on September 18th showed Young winning by 304 votes (0.28%), and Parnell announced that he would

2010–2016.

Young ran for a 20th term in 2010. He was challenged in the Republican primary by John R. Cox and Sheldon Fisher, a former telecommunications executive, winning with 74,117 votes (70.36%). He defeated Democratic State Representative Harry Crawford in the general election by 175,384 votes (68.96%) to 77,606 (30.51%).  In 2012, Young drew two challengers in the Republican party, but easily defeated them with 58,789

2017–present.

Young ran for a 24th term in 2018, and defeated Alyse Galvin with 54% of the vote. On January 26, 2019 Young announced he would run for a 25th term in 2020.

Tenure.

At the start of the 116th Congress, Young was the longest-serving current House member. Due to his long tenure in the House and that of former Senator Ted Stevens, Alaska has been considered to have had clout in national politics far beyond its small population (it is the 47th smallest, ahead of only North Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming). He is often called "Alaska's third senator." On March 5, 2019, he became the longest-serving Republican in congressional history.  After the 1995 Republican takeover of the House, Young chaired the Committee on Natural Resources, which he renamed the "Committee on Resources". The name was changed back by Democrats in 2006 and has since been retained by Republican chairmen. He chaired the Committee until 2001, then chairing the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure from 2001 to 2007.  He has a lifetime rating of 77 from the American Conservative Union.  During a 1994 House debate touching on the question of Alaska Natives' right to sell sex organs of endangered animals for the purpose of aphrodisiacs, he pulled out an 18-inch penis bone of a walrus, better known as an "oosik", and brandished it like a sword on the House floor at the face of the head of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.  In March 1998, Young brought a bill to the House floor allowing

Political positions.

Abortion.

Young believes that abortion should be legal only when the pregnancy is a result of incest or rape, or in the case that a woman's life is endangered by

Arctic oil drilling.

When President Trump signed an executive order that rolled back Obama-era restrictions on Arctic oil drilling, Young commended Trump for "recognizing the importance of development in the Arctic OCS."

Support for oil drilling in ANWR.

The Arctic Refuge drilling controversy has repeatedly brought Young into the national spotlight. Young has been a longstanding supporter of opening lands within the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to oil exploration. He has included provisions to that effect in 12 bills that have passed the House of Representatives, but environmentalists concerned with the impact of road-building, pipelines and other development on the Arctic tundra landscape have thus far successfully defeated such legislation in the Senate.  On November 18, 2011, Young got into an argument during a Congressional hearing with Douglas Brinkley, a historian who teaches

Arts funding.

Young questions funding to the arts because it results in "photographs of people doing offensive things." In recent years however, Young has supported legislation increasing funding for the National Endowment for the Arts.  At an assembly at Fairbanks' West Valley High School in 1995, Young

Bridges.

"Bridge to Nowhere".

In 2005, Young and Stevens earmarked $223 million for building the enormous Gravina Island Bridge from Ketchikan to Gravina Island, which also contains Ketchikan's airport. The bridge would be used for access by emergency vehicles, as well as passengers. Currently there is a small car and passenger ferry that travels the 1/4 mile (400 m) crossing in 3

Knik Arm bridge.

The Knik Arm Bridge was earmarked in the bill connects Anchorage to Pt. Mackenzie, a lightly populated area in the Matanuska-Susitna Borough that is situated less than four miles (6 km) across Cook Inlet from downtown Anchorage.  Currently, Anchorage is accessible from Point Mackenzie only by an route around Knik Arm, much of which is an unimproved road. The demise of this second bridge project has been suggested for years.  Part of the concern for the Bridge is that if it were built, it would significantly enhance the value of property in which Young's son-in-law owns an interest.  He was listed as the third-worst congressman by the popular magazine "Rolling Stone", and dubbed "Mr. Pork" due to his involvement in the Gravina Island "Bridge to Nowhere" incident.

Cannabis.

Young supports legalizing cannabis at the federal level, having introduced the Ending Federal Marijuana Prohibition Act in 2019 (and also cosponsoring the 2017 version of the bill). Other legislation that Young has introduced includes the CARERS Act

Climate change.

Young has stated that he does not believe in climate changes and believes the idea of global warming is "the biggest scam since the Teapot Dome." Despite these public statements, Young did however vote in support of the FY 2019 National Defense Authorization Act which identifies climate change as a national security threat.  In a 2019 op-ed in The Hill, Young appeared to take a conciliatory position on climate change, and called for policy changes that

Donald Trump.

During the 2016 Republican presidential primary, Young originally supported Jeb Bush, and later John Kasich. In April 2016 he said, "I'm not supporting Donald Trump," and when asked about Trump's success in the primaries, Young said that Trump's popularity was due to "a bunch of idiots following a pied piper over the edge of the cliff!"

Economy.

Young voted for the

Environmental regulation.

Young has stated he believes the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) should not regulate greenhouse gases, and that the EPA kills jobs. Young has been quoted as saying that "Environmentalists are a self-centered bunch of waffle-stomping, Harvard-graduating, intellectual idiots" who "are not Americans, never have been Americans, never will be Americans." However, Young has supported Omnibus spending bills that maintain current EPA funding levels despite calls from the Trump Administration to cut such funding.  In 2019, Young and Debbie Dingell introduced legislation providing for a long-term reauthorization of the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation.

Comments on the Deepwater Horizon spill.

In late 2010, Obama administration officials stated that the "Deepwater Horizon" spill exceeded the Exxon Valdez spill, as they estimated that the gusher had spewed between and of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Young claimed that the oil pumping into the Gulf was not an "environmental disaster", stating that it was a "natural phenomena" as "oil has seeped into this ocean for centuries, will continue to do it. During World War II there was over ten million barrels of oil spilt from ships, and no natural catastrophe. We will lose some birds, we will lose some fixed sealife, but overall it will recover." According to the Flow Rate Technical Group, the Deepwater Horizon blowout amounted to about of oil, exceeding the 1989 "Exxon Valdez" oil spill as the largest ever to originate in U.S.-controlled waters and the 1979 "Ixtoc I" oil spill as the largest spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

Healthcare legislation.

Young has said he wants to see a clean repeal of the Affordable Care Act, more commonly known as Obamacare.  Although Young supports repealing the ACA, he said in March 2017 he wouldn't vote on an earlier version of the AHCA (a healthcare plan to repeal and revise parts of the ACA) because it would have too much of a negative impact on healthcare costs in Alaska.  According to the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, the AHCA would raise healthcare costs for Alaska more than any other state, and by 2020, on average Alaskans would receive $10,243 less per year under the AHCA compared to Obamacare for the same coverage; almost double the

LGBT issues.

Young believes marriage should be between a man and a woman, but has made no comment or engaged in legislative efforts to overturn the 2015 Obergefell v. Hodges Supreme Court ruling that legalized gay marriage nationwide. He has compared gay relations to bulls having sex. In 2007, he voted against protections for gay and lesbian people in the workplace. He has stated that, "I've hired a person of a different orientation," continuing with, "That's personal.... I do believe in the Bible. Always have and always will. But hiring is different." He has voted for making

Organized Labor.

Don Young has frequently earned the support of organized labor, and in the 116th Congress, voted in support of the pro-union

Suicide rate in Alaska.

When asked about the fact that the state of Alaska has the highest suicide rate in America per capita, Young has stated that he believes the high suicide rates are at least partially the result of government handouts, and that "this suicide problem didn't exist until we got largesse from the government." He believes Alaska needs to cut public assistance programs.  In response to an increase in suicides among active-duty service members at Fort Wainwright in 2019, Young called on the U.S. Army to investigate the cause of the increased suicide rate.

Comments to student assemblies.

On October 21, 2014, Young addressed an assembly of students at Wasilla High School, shortly after a student there committed suicide. During a question and answer session, he said that the student's suicide had been caused by a lack of support from family and friends. During the assembly, Young also recalled a story about drinking alcohol in Paris, and used profanity several times, officials from the school reported.  When Young was criticized by a student for his comments on suicide, Young called him an "asshole." Young apologized for these comments on October 24, stating, "I am profoundly and genuinely sorry for the pain it has caused the Alaskan people."

Missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls.

In the 116th Congress, Young helped introduce the

Town halls.

Young has stated he does not believe in conducting town halls (district meetings for officials to meet and speak with constituents in a town hall setting). When asked for a face-to-face meeting with his constituents in April 2017, in his refusal an aide stated, "The modern town hall has taken an unfortunate turn as a'show' for the media and

Migrant Detention Facilities.

In 2019, Young was the sole Republican to vote in support of the Humanitarian Standards for Individuals in Customs and Border Protection Custody Act.

Net neutrality.

In 2018 Young promised to sign the Congressional

Personal life.

Young was married to the former Lula Fredson, an indigenous Gwich'in. She volunteered her time serving as the manager of her husband's Washington, D.C. congressional office. They had two daughters and were members of the Episcopal Church. Lula died on August 1, 2009, at the age of 67.  On August 17, 2014, Young announced his engagement to Anne Garland Walton, a flight nurse from Fairbanks. On June 9, 2015, Young and Walton married. She was 76 years old at the time.

Donald Edwin Young (born June 9, 1933) is an American politician serving as the U.S. Representative for since 1973. He is the Republican Party's longest-serving member of the U.S. House of Representatives in history, having represented Alaska for 24 terms since statehood in 1959.

唐纳德·埃德温·「唐」·扬(英语:Donald Edwin "Don" Young;1933年-6月9日),是一位美国共和党的政治人物,自1973年3月起担任美国众议院阿拉斯加州单一国会选区代表众议员。扬是阿拉斯加州国会代表团的团长、现任美国众议员列表 (以资历排序)及最资深的共和党籍联邦众议员。


Background.

In 1843 Hong Xiuquan, Feng Yunshan and Hong Rengan founded the God Worshipping Society (拜上帝教), a heterodox Christian sect, in Hua County (花縣; present-day Huadu District, Guangdong). The following year they traveled to Guangxi to spread their teachings to the peasant population. After that, Hong Xiuquan returned to Guangdong to write about his beliefs, while Feng Yunshan remained in the Mount Zijing (紫荊山) area to rally people like Yang Xiuqing and Xiao Chaogui to join their sect.

Preparations.

Around 1849, a famine broke out in Guangxi and the Tiandihui (Heaven and Earth Society) rose in rebellion against the ruling Qing Dynasty.  In February 1850, a local corps passed through a number of God Worshiping villages and threatened to kill the converts. In response, Feng Yunshan began to call for open revolt by the God Worshippers. In July 1850, the God Worshipper's leaders directed their followers to converge in Jintian and quickly amassed a force of 10,000-30,000 people. In preparation for an uprising, Hong organized these men into military formations, each led by commanders with military ranks: a marshal (軍帥) commanded five divisional marshals (師帥); each divisional marshal commanded five brigade marshals (旅帥); each brigade marshal commanded five infantry chiefs (卒長); each infantry chief commanded four majors (兩司馬); each major commanded five company leaders (伍長); each company leader had four soldiers under him. The total number of officers and enlisted personnel reached 13,155 by the end of that month, and civilian ranks were also created to govern the remaining civilian population.  The Qing imperial army in Guangxi was not particularly strong, with only about 30,000 troops, and was occupied with suppressing the Tiandihui's rebellion. Hong Xiuquan and his followers were able to build their forces without being noticed by the government.

Opening moves.

In the 12th lunar month of 1850, Li Dianyuan (李殿元), the Qing army commander at Xunzhou, led his troops to surround one of Hong Xiuquan's residences in Huazhoushanren Village (花洲山人村), Pingnan County (平南縣) in an attempt to eradicate the rebels. However, Hong Xiuquan and Feng Yunshan were saved by reinforcements sent by Yang Xiuqing, and they returned to Jintian. On the 1st day of the 1st lunar month of 1851, an imperial force commanded by Zhou Fengqi (周鳳歧) and his deputies Li Dianyuan and Yiketanbu (伊克坦布) launched an offensive on Jintian. However, the rebels anticipated the attack and had set up an ambush near Siwang Dyke (思旺圩) and Caijiang Village (蔡江村), five kilometers away from Jintian. The government troops were defeated by the rebels and Yiketanbu was killed.

The uprising.

On the 11th day of the first lunar month of 1851, which was also Hong Xiuquan's birthday, the God Worshipping Society proclaimed the uprising at Jintian, declaring the formation of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.  Five rules for its military were stated:  The rebels changed their garments, kept their hair long (the men previously had to wear their hair in a queue in accordance with Qing law), and tied a red cloth around their heads. On the 13th day, they headed to Dahuangjiangkou (大湟江口).

Subsequent clashes.

As the rebels moved southeastward, Tiandihui rebels totaling more than 2,000 led by Gen. Luo Dagang (羅大綱) and Su Sanniang (蘇三娘) joined Hong Xiuquan. In the meantime, Qing official Li Xingyuan (李星沅) ordered Gen. Xiang Rong to lead 2,000 men to attack the rebels, with an additional support force of 1,000 from Guizhou. On the 18th day of the 2nd lunar month of 1851, Xiang Rong was joined by other imperial armies led by Gen. Li Nengchen (李能臣) and Gen. Zhou Fengqi, and they attacked Dahuangjiangkou simultaneously from east to west. However, they entered minefields set up by the rebels and were ambushed, sustaining several hundred casualties. The government forces were forced to stop their offensive and adopt a siege tactic instead.  The rebels withdrew under the cover of darkness on the night of the 10th day of the 3rd lunar month to East Village (東鄉), Wuxuan County. The imperial troops gave chase but were ambushed again. Both sides reached a stalemate near Sanli Dyke (三里圩). On the 23rd day Hong Xiuquan declared himself the "Heavenly King" (天王) in East Village. On the 3rd day of the 4th lunar month Guangxi governor Zhou Tianjue (周天爵) and Xiang Rong rallied over 6,000 troops to attack East Village but were driven back by the rebels. After suffering continual defeats, Li Xingyuan died on the 12th day of the 5th lunar month. Four days later the rebels broke out of the siege and advanced towards Xiangzhou (象州). Qing forces pursued them while the newly deployed 1,000-strong imperial army from Guangzhou led by Gen. Wulantai (烏蘭泰) was stationed at Liangshan Village (梁山村). Xiang Rong's force was deployed to Jie Ridge (界嶺) to block the rebels' route to the north.  At the battle of Du'ao Ridge (獨鰲嶺; located north of Liangshan Village), Wulantai's army was badly mauled by rebel forces. However, as the government troops possessed a geographical advantage, they were able to deflect attempts by the rebels to break out of the encirclement. By the seventh lunar month the rebels were forced to withdraw from Xiangzhou to their original base at Mt. Zijing (紫荊山), Guiping. Although the rebels' northward expedition plan failed to materialize, they did succeed in attracting huge numbers of the lower classes to join them and obtained a large amount of supplies. This marked the beginning of the Taiping Rebellion.

The Jintian Uprising was an armed revolt formally declared by Hong Xiuquan on 11 January 1851 during the late Qing Dynasty. The uprising was named after the rebel base in Jintian, a town in Guangxi within present-day Guiping. It marked the beginning of the Taiping Rebellion.

金田起义是太平天国领袖洪秀全领导的广西桂平武装起事。


Taxonomy.

The modern Italian wolf was first recognised as a distinct subspecies in 1921 by zoologist, who noted that its colour and skull differed from that of the common European wolf. He described the Italian population's skull as being rounder in form than that of the typical European wolf, with smaller teeth closely approaching those of dogs and golden jackals in appearance. Altobello's classification was later rejected by several authors, including Reginald Innes Pocock, who synonymised "C. l. italicus" with "C. l. lupus". In 2002, the noted paleontologist R.M. Nowak reaffirmed the morphological distinctiveness of the Italian wolf in a study on grey wolf skulls from Italy, other Eurasian localities, and dog skulls. The results of this assessment showed no overlap in the skull morphology of Italian wolves and other grey wolves and dogs. Among the discovered characteristics distinguishing the Italian wolf were its relatively narrow palate between the first premolars, a broad frontal shield, and shallow Jugal bone. The study recommended the recognition of "Canis lupus italicus". , it is classed by MSW3 as synonymous with "C. l. lupus". Nevertheless, the National Center for Biotechnology Information does list and publish research papers recognising its distinctiveness.

Lineage.

In Italy, the earliest remains of a wolf ("Canis lupus") have been found in 1984 at the Middle Pleistocene site of La Polledrara di Cecanibbio, 20 km north-west of Rome in deposits dated 340-320 thousand years ago. The genetic analysis of Apennine wolves indicates that they went through a population decline of 100–1,000 fold between the past 4,700–23,800 years, which indicates genetic isolation south of the alps from other wolf populations for many thousands of years.  In 1992, an examination of the mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) of 26 grey wolf populations worldwide revealed that the Italian wolf has a unique mitochondrial haplotype (a mutation) not shared by any other grey wolf population. Further tests on grey wolf mDNA revealed that, unlike several European grey wolf populations, Italian wolves do not share haplotypes with either other grey wolves or domestic dogs. In 2010, a study compared the mDNA haplotypes of 24 ancient wolf specimens from Western Europe dated between 44,000 and 1,200 YBP with those of modern gray wolves. The phylogenetic tree indicated that the haplotypes represented two haplogroups that were separated by five mutational steps. The ancient wolf samples from Western Europe all belonged to haplogroup 2, indicating haplogroup 2 predominance in this region for over 40,000 years before and after the last glacial maximum. A comparison of current and past frequencies indicated that in Europe, haplogroup 2 became outnumbered by haplogroup 1 over the past several thousand years, but in North America, haplogroup 2 became extinct and was replaced by haplogroup 1 after the last glacial maximum. The Italian wolf is the only remaining grey wolf subspecies included in this ancient haplogroup since the extinction of the Honshu wolf.  In 2016, a study of mDNA sequences of both modern and ancient wolves indicated that in Europe, the two most genetically distinct haplotypes form the Iberian wolf and separately the Italian wolf. The phylogenetic tree generated from the sequences showed the Italian wolf positioned close to the ancient wolves of the Late Pleistocene. In 2017, a study found a second mDNA haplotype that belonged to the Italian wolf, and called for the morphologically and genetically distinct Italian wolf to be considered as a subspecies.  In 2019, an mDNA study of 19 Late Pleistocene-Holocene wolf samples from northern Italy found that these fell within mitochondrial haplogroup 2 except for one sample. Four out of the six detected haplotypes matched ancient Beringian wolves, ancient wolves from northern Europe, some modern European and Chinese wolf populations, and are closely related to the two haplotypes currently found in the Italian wolves. The Italian wolf haplotypes were only one or two mutations away from those of the Pleistocene wolves, indicating mutation in their Italian glacial refuge. The Italian wolf population represents genetic uniqueness highlighted in several mitochondrial and nuclear DNA studies. It is the only remaining wolf population in Europe which belongs exclusively to an mDNA haplogroup that was once widespread in central and western Europe for over 40,000 years, and in North America until the Last Glacial Maximum. Additionally, one canid specimen from the archaeological site of San Lazzaro di Savena, Bologna fell within the domestic dog clade A haplotype — it was radio-carbon dated to be 24,700 years old.

"Canis lupus maximus".

"Canis lupus maximus" (Boudadi-Maligne, 2012) was a species larger than all other known fossil and extant wolves from Western Europe. The fossilized remains of this Late Pleistocene subspecies were found across a wide area of south-western France at Jaurens cave, Nespouls, Corrèze dated 31,000 YBP; Maldidier cave, La Roque-Gageac, Dordogne dated 22,500 YBP; and Gral pit-fall, Sauliac-sur-Célé, Lot dated 16,000 YBP. The wolf's long bones are 10% longer than those of extant European wolves and 20% longer than its probable ancestor, "C. l. lunellensis". The teeth are robust, the posterior denticules on the lower premolars p2, p3, p4 and upper P2 and P3 are highly developed, and the diameter of the lower carnassial (m1) were larger than any known European wolf. Wolf body size in Europe has followed a steady increase from their first appearance up to the peak of the last glacial maximum. The size of these wolves is thought to be an adaptation to a cold environment (Bergmann's rule) and plentiful game, as their remains have been found in association with reindeer fossils.  In a 2017 study, the dimensions of the upper and lower carnassial teeth of the Italian wolf are close to those of "C. l. maximus". Fluctuations in the size of "C. lupus" carnassial teeth correlate with the spread of megafauna. The Italian wolf underwent a reduction in body size with the loss of the red deer during the Italian Renaissance only centuries ago.

Range and legal status.

Wolf populations strongly declined across Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries largely due to human persecution, and by the end of the Second World War they had been eradicated from all of Central Europe and almost all of Northern Europe. Their population decline continued until the 1960s, with isolated populations surviving in Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Finland. Wolf populations have commenced recovering naturally since then.

In Italy.

The Italian wolf was widespread in the Italian Peninsula, including Sicily, until the mid-1800s. The extermination of the grey wolf in Italy was not as complete as in Northern Europe, due to greater cultural tolerance of the species. It was largely extirpated in the Alps during the 1920s, and disappeared from Sicily in the 1940s. Its range along the south-central Apennines was still relatively continuous by the 1950s, though this population was reduced in the decades after World War II because of widespread poisoning campaigns. At least 400 wolves were killed between 1960 and 1970, with the population reaching an all-time low in the early 1970s. The last documented wolf in the northern Apennines was killed in Santo Stefano d'Aveto, Genoa, in 1946, though this was an isolated individual, as the local wolf population had long been extinct.  The Italian wolf was first given legal protection on 23 July 1971, with a nationwide population census being taken in 1973. This census was funded by the Italian branch of the World Wide Fund for Nature as part of a conservation plan dubbed "Operazione San Francesco” (Operation Saint Francis, linked to the traditional legend of peace set by the saint between wolf and men of Gubbio in Umbria region). The census revealed that the Italian wolf population consisted of 100–110 individuals distributed throughout a fragmented range in the main mountainous areas of south-central Italy, from the Sibillini to La Sila. In 1983, the population had reached 200–220 individuals inhabiting two unconnected areas in central and southern Italy. By the late 1990s, the Italian wolf population had increased to an estimated 400–500 individuals with a continuous distribution along the entire Apennines, from Aspromonte to the Maritime Alps, with some isolated populations in Tuscany and Lazio. In 2008, a wolf carcass was discovered in the Fiemme Valley in Trentino, and by 2010, 45–55 wolves were estimated to have recolonised Piedmont. A 2016 survey conducted by the Istituto superiore per la protezione e la ricerca ambientale showed that between 1,269 and 1,800 wolves were in Italy in 2009–2013, a figure which is likely to be an underestimation; 57-89 inhabited the Alps, 1,037-1381 were in the north-central Apennines, and 175-330 were in the southern Apennines.

Elsewhere.

The Italian wolf was first sighted in southwestern France in 1992. In the two decades following its initial recolonisation, the wolf has expanded its range at the west of the Rhône, in the Massif Central, the eastern Pyrenees, and the Jura and Vosges Mountains. At least 13 transient Italian wolves (12 males and a female) were counted in Catalonia between 2000 and 2011, a century after the local Iberian wolf ("C. l. signatus") was extirpated from the area. One of these was reported in the media to have been killed on the road and identified in Baix Empordà, Catalonia in 2018. Technicians and veterinarians of the Torreferrussa Wildlife Center identified the body as being of the subspecies "Canis lupus italicus".  The first evidence of grey wolf expansion into Switzerland occurred in 1995–1996 in the southern Canton of Valais, where around 100 sheep were killed. In 1998–1999, 40 sheep were killed and two wolves were found dead from poaching and car collisions. Italian, French and Swiss wolves share the same mtDNA haplotype, a haplotype that has never been found in any other wolf population worldwide, which corroborate the scenario of a natural expansion of wolves from the Italian source population.

In Latin and Italian culture.

The animal features prominently in pre-Roman, Roman, and later Italian cultures. In Roman mythology, the wolf played a role in the founding of Rome by suckling the twins Romulus and Remus. According to Terry Jones, "The Romans did not see [the tale of Romulus, Remus and the she-wolf] as a charming story; they meant to show that they had imbibed wolfish appetites and ferocity with their mother's milk". The wolf was also considered sacred to Mars, and to see a wolf before going into battle was considered a good omen. The origin of the myth can be traced back to a wolf cult among the neighbouring Sabines. The Sabines had two words for wolf: "hirpus" (used in religious contexts) and "lupus", the latter of which was incorporated into Latin.  Although the Romans did not worship wolves, killing them was likely considered taboo; unlike the Etruscans, the Romans very rarely sacrificed wolves in rituals, and no records have been found of wolves being used in the amphitheatres, despite being more numerous and easily accessible compared to other, more exotic animals used. The use of wolves in Roman folk medicine, while attested by Pliny the Elder, was minimal compared to other animals such as snakes or bears and, contrary to popular imagery, Roman standard bearers did not wear wolf skins, with the only units attested to have worn them being the velites, who were the poorest and youngest warriors using the wolf skins to distinguish themselves. Wolves entering cities or temples were usually only killed when the animal had no means of escape, unlike the case with wasps, oxen, and owls, which were quickly eliminated if they entered sacred areas. Negative attitudes towards wolves in Italy largely began with the invasion of the Lombards, who zoomorphically described their raids and invasions as wolf raids, bringing wolves into disrepute. The belief in werewolves was still widespread in Italy during the early 1920s, and covering their faces when resting outside at night was once traditional among rural people, as sleeping whilst facing the full moon was thought to transform the sleeper into a wolf. The wolf also featured prominently in Italian folk medicine. Baby colic was treated by tying a sack filled with a piece of wolf gut around the child's neck, while miscarriages were prevented by tying a wolf's intestine around the mother's abdomen. Rheumatism and tonsillitis were treated with wolf fat, while a tooth or tuft of fur was worn as a talisman against the evil eye. The Romans apparently did not consider wolves overly dangerous to people, with the only references to them attacking people being proverbial or mythological. Although Italy has no records of wolf attacks on humans after World War II and the eradication of rabies in the 1960s, historians examining church and administrative records from northern Italy's central Po Valley region (which includes a part of modern-day Switzerland) found 440 cases of wolves attacking people between the 15th and 19th centuries. The 19th-century records show that from 1801–1825, 112 attacks occurred, 77 of which resulted in death. Of these cases, only five were attributed to rabid animals.

The Italian wolf ("Canis lupus italicus"), also known as the Apennine wolf, is a proposed subspecies of grey wolf native to the Italian Peninsula. It inhabits the Apennine Mountains and the Western Alps, though it is undergoing expansion towards the north and east. As of 2019, the Italian wolf population is estimated to consist of 1500–2000 individuals. It has been strictly protected in Italy since the 1970s, when the population reached a low of 70–100 individuals. The population is increasing in number, though illegal hunting and persecution still constitute a threat. A 2016 survey conducted by the "Istituto superiore per la protezione e la ricerca ambientale" showed that probably between 1,269 and 1,800 wolves remained in Italy in 2009–2013. Since the 1990s, the Italian wolf's range has expanded into southwestern France and Switzerland. Although not universally recognised as a distinct subspecies, it nonetheless possesses a unique mtDNA haplotype and a distinct skull morphology.

意大利狼(Canis lupus italicus)是狼的一个亚种,生存于意大利亚平宁山脉。牠于1921年首次被描述、命名,并于1999年被确认为新的亚种。近来因为群落数量的增加,瑞士南界也出现意大利狼的踪迹。在近几年期间,牠们的生存范围扩大到法国南部,尤其是马尔康杜自然公园里。在上述三个国家中,意大利狼已受到法律的保护。


Overview.

Holland's theories of vocational choice, "The Holland Occupational Themes", "now pervades career counseling research and practice". Its origins "can be traced to an article in the "Journal of Applied Psychology" in 1958 and a subsequent article in 1959 that set out his theory of vocational choices.... The basic premise was that one's occupational preferences were in a sense a veiled expression of underlying character." The 1959 article in particular ("A Theory of Vocational Choice," published in the "Journal of Counseling Psychology") is considered the first major introduction of Holland's "theory of vocational personalities and work environments".  Holland originally labeled his six types as "motoric, intellectual, esthetic, supportive, persuasive, and conforming". He later developed and changed them to: "Realistic (Doers), Investigative (Thinkers), Artistic (Creators), Social (Helpers), Enterprising (Persuaders), and Conventional (Organizers)". Holland's six categories show some correlation with each other. It is called the RIASEC model or the hexagonal model because the initial letter of the region is equal to R-I-A-S-E-C when it is expressed as a circle connecting the regions of high correlation. Professor John Johnson of Penn State suggested that an alternative way of categorizing the six types would be through ancient social roles: "hunters (Realistic), shamans (Investigative), artisans (Artistic), healers (Social), leaders (Enterprising), and lorekeepers (Conventional)".  According to the "Committee on Scientific Awards", Holland's "research shows that personalities seek out and flourish in career environments they fit and that jobs and career environments are classifiable by the personalities that flourish in them". Holland also wrote of his theory that "the choice of a vocation is an expression of personality". Furthermore, while Holland suggested that people can be "categorized as one of six types", he also argued that "a six-category scheme built on the assumption that there are only six kinds of people in the world is unacceptable on the strength of common sense alone. But a six category scheme that allows a simple ordering of a person's resemblance to each of the six models provides the possibility of 720 different personality patterns."

Related model.

Prediger's two-dimensional model.

Prediger constructed the scale of "work task" and "work relevant abilities" based on Holland's model, and carried out factor analysis and multidimensional scale analysis in order to clarify the basic structure. As a result, two axes of Data/Ideas and Things/People were extracted. Although Prediger's inquiry did not start from interest per se, it eventually led to the birth of models other than RIASEC, suggesting that the structure of occupational interest may provide a basic dimension.

Tracey & Rounds's octagonal model.

In the United States, the energetic trial is being made with the aim of the new model which surpasses Holland hexagon model in 1990's. Tracey & Rounds's octagonal model is one such example. Based on the empirical data, they argue that occupational interests can be placed circularly in a two-dimensional plane consisting of People/Things and Data/ldeas axes, and the number of regions can be arbitrarily determined. According to their model, only Holland's hexagonal model does not adequately represent the structure of occupational interest, and it is possible to retain validity as an octagonal or 16 square model if necessary.  Tracey, Watanabe, & Schneider conducted an international comparative study of job interests among Japanese and U.S. university students, and the results suggest that the Tracey & Rounds's octagonal model is more fitted to Japanese students than Holland's hexagonal model.

Tracey & Rounds's spherical model.

Tracey & Rounds criticizes that the conventional models of occupational interest structure do not correctly depict the positional relationship of occupations because they neglect occupational prestige, i.e., "social prestige" or "high socioeconomic status" and proposes a spherical model that assigns occupations to a 3-dimensional space incorporating occupational prestige. In this model, 18 regions of interest are displayed on a spherical space. The left hemisphere has a high status area, with Health Sciences at the top. The right hemisphere has a low status area, with Service Provision as the lowest ground.  Though this model is excellent in the point of more accurately describing the relation between various occupations, it makes the occupation interest structure more complicated, and there is a weak point that it is difficult to be adapted to the data except for U.S.A.

List of types.

R: Realistic (Doers).

People who like to work with "things". They tend to be "assertive and competitive, and are interested in activities requiring motor coordination, skill and strength". They approach problem solving "by doing something, rather than talking about it, or sitting and thinking about it". They also prefer "concrete approaches to problem solving, rather than abstract theory". Finally, their interests tend to focus on "scientific or mechanical rather than cultural and aesthetic areas". Sample majors and careers include:

I: Investigative (Thinkers).

People who prefer to work with "data". They like to "think and observe rather than act, to organize and understand information rather than to persuade". They also prefer "individual rather than people oriented activities". Sample majors and careers include:

A: Artistic (Creators).

People who like to work with "ideas and things". They tend to be "creative, open, inventive, original, perceptive, sensitive, independent and emotional". They rebel against "structure and rules", but enjoy "tasks involving people or physical skills". They tend to be more emotional than the other types. Sample majors and careers include:

S: Social (Helpers).

People who like to work with "people" and who "seem to satisfy their needs in teaching or helping situations". They tend to be "drawn more to seek close relationships with other people and are less apt to want to be really intellectual or physical". Sample majors and careers include:

E: Enterprising (Persuaders).

People who like to work with "people and data". They tend to be "good talkers, and use this skill to lead or persuade others". They "also value reputation, power, money and status". Sample majors and careers include:

C: Conventional (Organizers).

People who prefer to work with "data" and who "like rules and regulations and emphasize self-control... they like structure and order, and dislike unstructured or unclear work and interpersonal situations". They also "place value on reputation, power, or status". Sample majors and careers include:

The Holland Codes or the Holland Occupational Themes (RIASEC) refers to a theory of careers and vocational choice (based upon personality types) that was initially developed by American psychologist John L. Holland.

霍尔兰六边形(英语:Holland Hexagon/Holland Codes),又名霍尔兰职业类型论,是由心理学家约翰·霍尔兰(又译"霍兰德")发明,主要应用于生涯规划及职业辅导,借以协助受测者了解自己人格特质,选择能反映个人人格特质的职业


Taxonomy.

The first formal description of the grey-headed kingfisher was by the German zoologist Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller in 1776. He coined the binomial name "Alcedo leucocephala". The current genus "Halcyon" was introduced by the English naturalist and artist William John Swainson in 1821. The name of the genus is from the classical Greek "alkuōn", a mythical bird, generally associated with the kingfisher. The specific epithet "leucocephala" is from the classical Greek "leukos" meaning "white" and "-kephalos" for "-headed".  Five subspecies are recognised:

Description.

The sexes are similar. The adult of the nominate race "H. l. leucocephala" has a pale grey head, black mantle and back, bright blue rump, wings and tail, and chestnut underparts. Subspecies "H. l. pallidiventris" has a darker grey head and paler chestnut underparts but is otherwise similar. The beak is long, red and sharp. This bird grows to an average length of. The song is a succession of notes, ascending, descending and then ascending again, becoming increasingly strident. The warning call is a series of sharp notes, "tchk, tchk, tchk, tchk".

Distribution and habitat.

The grey-headed kingfisher is found in tropical and semi-tropical Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Its range includes Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Yemen, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Its typical habitat is woodland, scrub and cultivated areas, up to altitudes of about.

Ecology.

A dry-country kingfisher of scrub and woodland, solitary or in pairs, often found near water, but unlike most kingfishers is not aquatic. Perches on a branch, unmoving for long periods while watching the ground for signs of insects or small lizards, bobbing head before diving on prey. In appearance very like the brown-hooded kingfisher but with a red rather than red and black bill and similar to the woodland kingfisher, but the woodland kingfisher lacks the chestnut belly and has greater coverage of cyan feathers on the back. Nests in holes in steep riverbanks and is aggressively protective of its nest by repeated dive-bombing of foraging monitor lizards. It is parasitised by the greater honeyguide. This species migrates at night and is often killed by flying into obstacles such as buildings, towers and powerlines.

The grey-headed kingfisher ("Halcyon leucocephala") has a wide distribution from the Cape Verde Islands off the north-west coast of Africa to Mauritania, Senegal and Gambia, east to Ethiopia, Somalia and southern Arabia and south to South Africa.

灰头翡翠(学名:)是翠鸟科翡翠属的鸟类,广泛分布于非洲佛得角的西北海岸到毛里塔尼亚、塞内加尔和冈比亚,东至埃塞俄比亚、索马里及阿拉伯半岛南部,南至南非。灰头翡翠以昆虫为食,身长约20公分,有着银灰色的头、颈和胸以及特别的栗色腹部。主发翔羽为黑色,次发翔羽为钴蓝色,笔直、匕首状的鸟喙为橘红色。两性外观相似,幼鸟则趋于黯淡,有较黑的鸟喙及深色条纹跨越胸部。


天主教卡瓦德蒂雷尼圣三自治会院区

History.

It was founded in 1011 by Alferius of Pappacarbone, a noble of Salerno who became a Cluniac monk and had lived as a hermit in the vicinity since 1011. Pope Urban II endowed this monastery with many privileges, making it immediately subject to the Holy See, with jurisdiction over the surrounding territory.  The first four abbots were canonized as saints on December 21, 1893, by Pope Leo XIII.  In 1394, Pope Boniface IX elevated it to a diocese, with the abbots functioning as bishops. In 1513, Pope Leo X separated the two offices, detaching the city of Cava from the abbot's jurisdiction. About the same time the Cluniacs were replaced by Cassinese monks.  The monastery was closed under Napoleon but the community remained relatively unscathed, thanks to Abbot Carlo Mazzacane, and was restored after his fall. The abbey still provides the surrounding parishes with clergy.  The church and the greater part of the buildings were entirely modernized in 1796. The old Gothic cloisters are preserved. The church contains a fine organ and several ancient sarcophagi.  The church of the monastery has the tombs of Queen Sibylla of Burgundy (died 1150), second consort of King Roger II of Sicily, and a number of notable ecclesiastics.

Library.

The monastery contains the Biblioteca statale del Monumento Nazionale Badia di Cava with its rich archives of public and private documents, which date back to the 8th century, e.g., the "Codex Legum Longobardorum" of 1004 (the oldest digest of Lombard law), and the La Cava Bible and fine "incunabula". The monastery later became the seat of a national educational establishment, under the care of the Benedictines.

La Trinità della Cava (), commonly known as Badia di Cava, is a Benedictine territorial abbey located near Cava de' Tirreni, in the province of Salerno, southern Italy. It stands in a gorge of the Finestre Hills.

天主教卡瓦德蒂雷尼圣三自治会院区是天主教会在意大利一个自治会院区(本笃会),属萨莱诺-坎帕尼亚-阿切尔诺总教区。此自治会院区是天主教会现存十一个自治会院区之一。会院始于1011年,由阿尔费利乌斯所建。教宗良十三世于1893年12月21日将修院的首四任院长封圣。拿破仑统治期间修道院被关闭,直到他战败。


Plot.

The story begins with Aylward (Ingrid Bergman) being rejected as a potential missionary to China because of her lack of education. Dr. Robinson (Moultrie Kelsall), the senior missionary, feels sorry for her and secures her a position in the home of a veteran explorer with contacts in China. Over the next few months, Aylward saves her money to purchase a ticket on the Trans-Siberian railway, choosing the more dangerous overland route to the East because it is less expensive.  Once in China, she settles in the county of YangCheng, where she secures a post as assistant to a veteran missionary, Jeannie Lawson (Athene Seyler). Lawson has set up an inn for travelling merchants, where they can get a hot meal and hear stories from the Bible. The film follows Aylward's acculturation, culminating in her taking over the inn when Lawson dies in an accident.  The local Mandarin (Robert Donat) appoints Aylward, a stubborn but endearing woman, as his Foot Inspector to ensure that the ancient practice of foot binding is eradicated in the region he governs. She succeeds in this, and manages to put down a prison revolt as well, winning her the esteem of the local population and of the Mandarin. Meanwhile, however, China is being invaded by Japan, and Aylward is encouraged by Lin (Curt Jürgens) to leave. She refuses, and as the county of YangCheng comes under attack, she finds that she has fifty orphans in her care.  As the population prepares to evacuate the county, the Mandarin announces that he is converting to Christianity to honour Aylward and her work. She is now left alone with the children, aided by Li (Burt Kwouk), the former leader of the prison revolt she helped to resolve. Lin tells her that the only hope for safety is to take the children to the next province, where trucks will evacuate them to a safer area, but they must get there within three weeks, or the trucks will leave without them.  Just as they are preparing to leave, another fifty orphans appear from a neighbouring town, so Aylward and Li have no choice but to lead one hundred children on a trek across the countryside. Although it should only take them a week, the roads are captured by Japanese patrols, and the group has to cut across the mountains. After a long, difficult journey, they all arrive safely (except for Li, who died to save them from a Japanese patrol) on the day the trucks are to leave. Aylward is greeted by Dr. Robinson, and she reminds him of how he rejected her as a missionary years before.  The film culminates with the column of children, led by Aylward, marching into the county, singing the song "This Old Man" to keep up their spirits.

Production.

The film was shot in CinemaScope using the DeLuxe Color process.  For the production of "The Inn of the Sixth Happiness", 20th Century Fox rented space at MGM British Studios Borehamwood, where the Chinese villages were built on the backlot, with location scenes filmed in Nantmor, near Beddgelert in North Wales.  A gold-painted statue of Buddha that was used on a set for the film is now located in the Italianate village of Portmeirion, North Wales. Sean Connery was considered for the role of Captain Lin. His screen test can be seen on the DVD.  Since the film's release, the filmmakers have been criticised for casting Ingrid Bergman, a tall woman with a Swedish accent, as Gladys Aylward, who was in fact short and had a cockney accent. Likewise, the two male leads, British actor Robert Donat and Austrian actor Curt Jurgens were not even Chinese (though Jurgens' character is said to be half-Dutch). Singer Bill Elliott sang the hit song "The Inn of the Sixth Happiness" with the Cyril Stapleton Orchestra.

Historical accuracy.

The film was based on the biography "The Small Woman" (1957) by Alan Burgess.  Gladys Aylward (1902-1970) was deeply upset by the inaccuracy of the film. Although she found herself a figure of international interest thanks to the popularity of the film and television and media interviews, Aylward was mortified by her depiction in the film and the many liberties it took. The tall, Swedish Ingrid Bergman was inconsistent with Aylward's small stature, dark hair and cockney accent. The struggles of Aylward and her family to effect her initial trip to China were skipped over in favour of the plot device of her employer "condescending to write to 'his old friend' Jeannie Lawson", and Aylward's dangerous, complicated travels across Russia and China were reduced to "a few rude soldiers", after which "Hollywood's train delivered her neatly to Tsientsin."  The names of many characters and places were changed, even when the names had significant meanings, such as those of Aylward's adopted children and of her inn, named for the Chinese belief that the number eight is auspicious: The Inn of the Eight Happinesses, (八福客栈 bāfú kèzhàn in Chinese). The name was based on the eight virtues: Love, Virtue, Gentleness, Tolerance, Loyalty, Truth, Beauty and Devotion. And in real life she was given the Chinese name 艾偉德 (Ài Wěi Dé- a Chinese approximation to 'Aylward' – meaning 'Virtuous One'), not the name used in the movie.  It is true that in 1938 she led almost 100 children 100 miles to safety from Japanese invaders. But real life was very different from the film. At the end of the journey, “the brown-eyed, modest missionary was virtually unconscious and delirious with typhus and fever.”  Captain Lin Nan was portrayed as half-European, a change which Aylward found insulting to his Chinese lineage. She also felt her reputation damaged by the Hollywood-embellished love scenes in the film; not only had she never kissed any man, but also the film's ending portrayed her character abandoning the orphans in order to join the captain elsewhere, even though in reality she worked with orphans for the rest of her life. In 1958, the year of the film's release, she founded a children's home in Taiwan, which she continued to run until her death in 1970. She continues to be regarded as a national hero.

Reception.

The film was the second most popular film at the British box office in 1959 behind "Carry on Nurse" with a gross of $700,000.  The film is recognised by American Film Institute in these lists:

The Inn of the Sixth Happiness is a 1958 20th Century Fox film based on the true story of Gladys Aylward, a tenacious British woman, who became a missionary in China during the tumultuous years leading up to the Second World War. Directed by Mark Robson, who received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Director, the film stars Ingrid Bergman as Aylward and Curt Jürgens as her love interest, Captain Lin Nan, a Chinese officer with a Dutch father. Robert Donat, who played the mandarin of the town in which Aylward lived, died before the film was released. The musical score was composed and conducted by Malcolm Arnold. The cinematography was by Freddie Young.

《六福客栈》(英语:The Inn of the Sixth Happiness)是二十世纪大众于1958年出品的一部电影,根据第二次世界大战时在中国传教的英国女传教士艾伟德的真实故事改编而成。


Conference.

The majority of the conference took place at the colony's legislative building, Province House, although some social functions were held at Government House, the home of the colony's Lieutenant Governor.  The conference had begun on Thursday September 1 with a banquet for the delegates. Parties and banquets were held each night after the day's discussions had ended, except for Sunday September 4, when they did not meet. The representatives from the Province of Canada dominated the conference, overshadowing the concerns of the Maritimes, and laying out foundations for the union that benefited them the most. Four of the first five days were spent outlining the Canadian position, and the Maritime representatives did not discuss their own plans until September 6 and 7. One Canadian delegate, George Brown, spent two days discussing the details of the proposed constitution, which would keep Canada within the British Empire.  Most of the Maritimes were convinced that a wider union including the Province of Canada would also be beneficial to them; Prince Edward Island was unsure, however, and very much against confederation. The delegates also believed that union could be achieved within a few years, rather than in an undefined period in the future as they had originally planned.  The conference concluded on Wednesday September 7, but the representatives agreed to meet again the next month in Quebec City (see Quebec Conference). A ball was also held on September 8, after which the delegates returned home. In addition to political meetings, The delegates participated in social activities like special lunches, small boating trips, and a ball, which gave delegates the opportunity to bond.  father April  Hewitt Bernard was the recording secretary at the conference, at the request of John A. Macdonald.

The Charlottetown Conference was held in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island for representatives from the colonies to discuss Canadian Confederation. The conference took place between September 1 through 9, 1864. The conference had been planned as a meeting of representatives from the Maritime colonies; Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. Newfoundland agreed with the movement, but was not notified in time to take part in the proceedings. Britain encouraged a Maritime Union between these colonies, hoping that they would then become less economically and politically dependent on the Crown, and provide for greater economic and military power for the region in light of the American Civil War. However, another colony, the Province of Canada, comprising present-day Ontario and Québec, heard news of the planned conference and asked that the agenda be expanded to discuss a union that would also include them. In August 1864 Newfoundland also asked to be allowed to join the conference.

查洛顿会议(英语:Charlottetown Conference),是一个由多个英属北美殖民地的代表讨论组成邦联的会议。这次会议由1864年9月1日-9月9日于爱德华王子岛的查洛顿举行。


History.

Founded in 1851 by Karl Ernst (Karol Ernest) Wedel (1813-1902), the company and its products became known in most of Central and Eastern Europe. The logo of the company is based on Karol Wedel's signature. His son Emil Albert Fryderyk Wedel (1841-1919) apprenticed in candy and chocolate factories in Western Europe before inheriting and expanding his father's business. His descendant Jan Wedel (d. 1960), the last member of the Wedel family to own the company, was considered "the Willy Wonka" of pre-war Poland. In 1894 the company moved its main factory to Szpitalna street in Warsaw. In 1934, during the time of the Great Depression, Jan Wedel opened a second factory in Praga, one of the most modern in the Second Polish Republic. The company was also known for its very generous social welfare policies. As one of the first in Europe, it had its own creche, kindergarten, hospital and cafeteria, and rewarded its best employees with no-interest housing loans; its model was highly acclaimed by the Polish Socialist Party. Hence prior to World War II, Wedel became a successful private company, with shops in London and Paris Jan Wedel made plans for World War II, and the company managed to continue production during the first few years of the war; it also started producing basic foodstuffs such as bread for starving Warsaw, and was the site of the underground teaching. Despite the family's German ancestry Wedel refused to collaborate with the Germans, and did not sign the Volksliste; increasingly this led to him and his employees being persecuted by the Nazis. The war devastated Poland and the company; the buildings at Warsaw were destroyed during the Warsaw Uprising. After the war, Wedel rebuilt the factory, only to have the communist government nationalize the company. The Wedel plant itself was renamed '22 Lipca' (22 July) after the Communist 'Independence Day' (PKWN Manifesto), although even the communists chose to retain the Wedel brand name, with products bearing both the new and old logos (particularly as after 10 years of not using the logo, all attempts at exporting proved futile). The company was reprivatized in 1989 after the fall of communism in Poland. In 1991 it was bought by PepsiCo Foods and Beverages, at which time sales were about $50–$60 million. In 1995 sales exceeded $200 million. About 10% of the products are exported, primarily to the United Kingdom, United States and Canada. The Warsaw facility employed 1,100 workers in 1998.

Cadbury-Wedel Polska.

Cadbury Schweppes made its initial investment in Poland in 1993, constructing a chocolate plant for its own products in Bielany Wrocławskie.  In 1999, Cadbury bought E.Wedel and the factory in Praga, from PepsiCo for US$76.5 million. The Praga factory was modernised in 2007, with investment in both new laboratories and office space, as well as a new production line for the brand's flagship product Ptasie Mleczko, a chocolate candy with a marshmallow like centre.  In 2007, as part of the Wałbrzych Special Economic Zone, Cadbury-Wedel Polska started building a £100m chewing gum plant in Skarbimierz. It presently produces brands such as Trident, Stimorol, V6 and Hollywood. The company also acquired rights to an additional plot which in 2009 it started to develop as a new chocolate facility, which would take over production of brands previously made at the Somerdale Factory in Keynsham, Bristol from 2011. In 2008, Cadbury received the accolade of “Most Significant Investor in Poland” from the Polish Information and Foreign Investment Agency.  In recent years the company has also branched out, opening a series of chocolate shops based on pre-war tradition.

Lotte Ownership.

In March 2010 Kraft Foods Inc acquired Cadbury plc. The European Commission insisted that Wedel be sold in order for the takeover to go ahead as a combined Kraft/Cadbury-Wedel would have too large a share of the Polish confectionery market. To satisfy this demand Wedel was sold to Lotte of South Korea in June 2010. It is Lotte's first investment in Europe although they are the 3rd largest chewing gum maker in the world and are a large player in the Asian confectionery market. Kraft Foods have kept the rights to the Cadbury, Halls and other brands along with 2 plants manufacturing Cadbury products in Skarbimierz.

E. Wedel ( ) is a Polish confectionery company, producing many varieties of chocolates, cakes, and snacks since 1851. Wedel is also a well-recognized brand of candy in Poland, considered to be the "Polish national chocolate brand" in that market, and is the leading candy brand among Polish producers with about 14% of the Polish market in 2005 and 11.7% in 2007.

E·威德尔 (英语:E. Wedel),在1999年至2010年间被称为波兰吉百利威德尔(Cadbury-Wedel Polska),是一家著名的波兰糖果公司,生产多种高品质的巧克力、蛋糕和零食。威德尔同时也是波兰知名的糖果品牌,被认为是该国具代表性的巧克力品牌,并且是波兰当地生产商中领先的糖果品牌,2005年在波兰市场约占14%,2007年则为11.7%。


A-135反弹道导弹系统

History.

A memo from the archives of Vitalii Leonidovich Kataev, written around 1985, had envisaged that the system "will be completed in 1987 to provide protection from a strike of 1–2 modern and prospective ICBMs and up to 35 Pershing 2-type intermediate-range missiles".  The A-135 system attained "alert" (operational) status on February 17, 1995. It is operational although its 51T6 component was deactivated in February 2007. A newer missile (PRS-1M) is expected to replace it. There is an operational test version of the system at the Sary Shagan test site in Kazakhstan.

Testing.

In November 2017, a successful test of the 53T6 interceptor was carried out. Target speed 7 kilometers per second (53T6 speed 3), acceleration overload – 100 G, preload maneuvering – 210 G.

Structure.

A-135 consists of the Don-2N battle management radar and two types of ABM missiles. It gets its data from the wider Russian early-warning radar network, that are sent to the command centre which then forwards tracking data to the Don-2N radar. The Don-2N radar is a large battle-management phased array radar with 360° coverage. Tests were undertaken at the prototype Don-2NP in Sary Shagan in 2007 to upgrade its software.  Russian early-warning radar network consists of:

Deployment.

There is at least 68 active launchers of short-range 53T6 endoatmospheric interceptor nuclear-tipped missiles, 12 or 16 missiles each, deployed at five launch sites. These are tested roughly annually at the Sary Shagan test site. In addition, 16 retired launchers of long-range 51T6 exoatmospheric interceptor nuclear-tipped missiles, 8 missiles each, are located at two launch sites.

Successor.

The successor system, dubbed 'Samolet-M' (and more recently A-235) will employ a new, conventional, variant of the 53T6 missile to be deployed in the former 51T6 silos. The new PRS-1M is a modernized variant of the PRS-1 (53T6) and can use nuclear or conventional warheads. It can hit targets at ranges of 350 km and altitudes of 50 km.

The A-135 (NATO: ABM-3 Gorgon) is a Russian anti-ballistic missile system deployed around Moscow to intercept incoming warheads targeting the city or its surrounding areas. The system was designed in the Soviet Union and entered service in 1995. It is a successor to the previous A-35, and complies with the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.

A-135(又称ABM-3,Anti-Ballistic Missile)反弹道导弹系统,是前苏联/俄罗斯部署在莫斯科附近区域的一套复合反弹道导弹系统,设计目的是保护莫斯科及其附近区域免遭敌方洲际弹道导弹袭击,但不是全国性防御。