History.

Early years.

"Les Grenadiers" led by coach Édouard Baker, played three games against Cuba, all at the Parc Leconte in Port-au-Prince, having lost twice (1–3, 0–6) and one resulting in a 1–1 draw.  Haiti would then reappear on the international scene almost twenty years later, since the Federation did not enter the national team for the World Cup qualifiers of the 1938 and 1950. For the 1954 edition held in Switzerland, the team under Frenchman Baron Paul found themselves in a qualification pool with the United States and Mexico. Haiti finished in last place, losing all of its matches, with a very heavy defeat conceded to Mexico 8–0. They would again withdraw from the qualifiers for the World Cup until 1970. Regionally, Haiti won in 1957 in their first participation in the CCCF Championship including a blowout victory against Cuba 6–1 and debuted in the 1959 Pan American Games. The selection is defeated heavily by the United States 7–2, and Brazil 9–1, and refused to resume play against Argentina after an arbitration decision. Victorious against Cuba 8–2, the team finished fourth in the competition. After a 1960 season without international meetings, Haiti led by Antoine Tassy, made its second appearance in CCCF Cup in 1961. Second in their group stage behind the host country, Costa Rica, the team finished last the final stage with three defeats in three games and twelve goals conceded to zero goals scored and finished fourth. The team suffered a crushing defeat in its last match to Costa Rica 8–0.  In 1961, Haiti joined the CONCACAF, born from the merger of the NAFC and the CCCF. In 1965, Haiti took part in the second edition of the CONCACAF Championship, after being eliminated in qualifying for the inaugural edition (1963 CONCACAF Championship). This continental meeting resulted in a last place finish, losing all five of its matches played; coach Antoine Tassy then resigns. However, he returned the following year again as the team's head coach, and won the "Coupe Duvalier". During the 1967 Qualifiers, Haiti finished first and was undefeated atop of its group, ahead of Trinidad and Tobago. On 16 January 1967, marked its first victory in a competitive match against the Trinidadians, beating them 4–2. However, Haiti in the final round consisting of six teams, finished in fifth place, defeating Nicaragua 2–1 to avoid last place.  As part of the qualifiers for the 1970 World Cup hosted by Mexico, Haiti are engaged in group 2, in the company of Guatemala and Trinidad and Tobago. Directed by Antoine Tassy, Haiti was relevant for the first time in qualifying for the World Cup on 23 November 1968, in Port of Spain against Trinidad and Tobago. Haiti will reach rank at the top of the pool with wins against Trinidad and Tobago 4–0 and Guatemala 2–0, one draw against Guatemala 1–1, and one defeat conceded at home against Trinidad and Tobago 2–4 which enabled them to qualify to the second round. They then eliminated the United States before heading to the final round against El Salvador. Haiti lost the opening match at home 1–2, but managed to rebound and win 3–0 in San Salvador before losing again on neutral ground in Kingston in Jamaica, 1–0 in overtime.  At the CONCACAF Championship in 1969, Haiti was disqualified from the final round, when it had qualified in the field by beating the United States (the qualifying round is coupled with the qualifications for the World Cup 1970). Instead, the Federation was unable to register its team for the final round on time to the CONCACAF and therefore could not participate in the final round.

The Golden Age.

The 1970s could be considered a golden age for Haitian football, and its status in the region remained very strong, being considered the third strongest team in the CONCACAF after Mexico and arguably Costa Rica. With Antoine Tassy as coach for much of this period, Haiti would emerge as one of the strongest teams in the CONCACAF zone, being pooled with other regionally strong football nations such as Mexico and Costa Rica. By 1965, players like Henri Francillon, Philippe Vorbe, Guy Renold Jean François and Guy Saint-Vil were already playing in the team and would be stalwarts of the side in the coming years.  The team developed sufficiently to reach the final round of the qualifiers for the 1970 World Cup, where they faced El Salvador. After losing the first leg 2–1 at home, the team pulled off a 3–0 win at El Salvador. With each team having one win, the rules of the day dictated a play-off on neutral ground which El Salvador won to secure a place in the 1970 World Cup.  In the 1974 World Cup qualifiers, Haiti once again reached the final round in a qualifying tournament completely played at home. This time, with all odds on their favor, they would top the group and qualify for their first appearance at the 1974 World Cup. In West Germany, they drew an extremely tough group consisting of Italy, Argentina and Poland. The first half of their debut game against Italy ended in a scoreless draw, but the team surprised the football world when star forward Emmanuel Sanon scored shortly after the break to give Haiti a 1–0 lead. Although the Italians eventually came back to win the game 3–1, Sanon's goal ended goal keeper Dino Zoff's record run of 1143 minutes without conceding a goal in international matches. The team went on to lose to Poland (0–7) and Argentina (1–4) to finish last in their group.

Post 1970s.

Haiti would reach the final rounds of the 1978 and 1982 qualifiers, but failed to make the cut. The years since have seen Haiti's footballing status decline markedly. In recent years, the political situation in the country has led to numerous defections from members of the football team. The team has rebuilt somewhat through the Haitian diaspora in Miami, Florida, and some Haitian home games have been played in Miami in recent years. Haiti as of recently has been rising once again as a footballing power in the CONCACAF.  In the 2010 Haiti earthquake, at least 30 people with ties to Haitian football perished, including players, coaches, referees and administrative and medical representatives. Twenty others with ties to Haitian football were feared to be buried in the ruins.

Post Earthquake.

In November 2011, Haiti was knocked out of the qualifiers for the 2014 World Cup by Antigua and Barbuda under the leadership of Brazilian coach Edson Tavares. In 2012, Tavares was replaced by Cuban coach Israel Blake Cantero who led the national team through the 2012 Caribbean Championship. Haiti finished third in the Caribbean Championship warranting a spot in the 2013 Gold Cup. The following year, Haiti would have a bad string of defeats against Chile, Bolivia, Oman and the Dominican Republic. In June 2013, Haiti bounced back from these shortcomings with a close 2–1 loss to reigning world champions Spain and an impressive 2–2 draw with footballing powerhouse Italy, with goals in both games scored by Wilde-Donald Guerrier, Olrish Saurel and Jean-Philippe Peguero respectively. The 2018 World Cup qualifiers had Haiti beating Grenada to reach the fourth round, where they fell off with only four points - one for a goalless draw with Panama, three for beating Jamaica in Kingston.

Team image.

Colours.

The Haiti national team utilizes a two-colour system, composed of red and blue. The team's two colors originate from the national flag of Haiti, known as the "bicolore". Although, during the Duvalier administration in Haiti, the country undergone a color change to its flag, swapping out the blue for black and it reflected in its 1974 World Cup kit and federation crest.  Since the team's inception, Haiti's kit has undergone numerous color pattern variations to suit OEMs. The home kit is generally blue, with red shorts and blue socks, while the away kit is usually inversed. Haiti have occasionally had a third kit, which has been traditionally all-white.  Haiti has been provided kits by many OEMs, some of which have been from a few local and less known suppliers, such as "Sport Globe" (2002), "Wanga Neguess" (2008, 2010), "Plus One" (2009), while other more known, such as Uhlsport (1998), Joma (2004), Umbro (2004–2006), Finta (2006; 2007–2008), Diadora (2007), and Adidas (2010–2013). In 2013, a five-year contract was reached with Colombian manufacturer, Saeta for $1 million. Haiti wears the crest of the Federation on its jersey and usually on its shorts as well. In 2018 Saeta renews contract for 5 more years to continue dressing the national team.

Honours.

Friendly competitions

Results and fixtures.

The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.

Players.

Current squad.

The following players were called up for the 2019–20 CONCACAF Nations League A match against Costa Rica on 17 November 2019. <br>"Caps and goals as of 17 November 2019, after the match against Costa Rica."

Recent call-ups.

The following players have been called up within the last twelve months.  "Did not qualify"

The Haiti national football team (, ) represents Haiti in international football. Haiti is administered by the Fédération Haïtienne de Football (FHF), the governing body for football in Haiti. They have been a member of FIFA since 1934, a member of CONCACAF since 1961 and a member of the Caribbean Football Union (CFU) since 1978. Haiti's home ground is Stade Sylvio Cator in Port-au-Prince and their head coach was Patrice Neveu, until December 2016.

海地国家足球队是海地的国家足球代表队,由海地足球协会管理,现时属于国际足协及中北美洲及加勒比海足球协会成员国之一。


Divide and conquer.

The divide-and-conquer paradigm is often used to find an optimal solution of a problem. Its basic idea is to decompose a given problem into two or more similar, but simpler, subproblems, to solve them in turn, and to compose their solutions to solve the given problem. Problems of sufficient simplicity are solved directly. For example, to sort a given list of "n" natural numbers, split it into two lists of about "n"/2 numbers each, sort each of them in turn, and interleave both results appropriately to obtain the sorted version of the given list (see the picture). This approach is known as the merge sort algorithm.  The name "divide and conquer" is sometimes applied to algorithms that reduce each problem to only one sub-problem, such as the binary search algorithm for finding a record in a sorted list (or its analog in numerical computing, the bisection algorithm for root finding). These algorithms can be implemented more efficiently than general divide-and-conquer algorithms; in particular, if they use tail recursion, they can be converted into simple loops. Under this broad definition, however, every algorithm that uses recursion or loops could be regarded as a "divide-and-conquer algorithm". Therefore, some authors consider that the name "divide and conquer" should be used only when each problem may generate two or more subproblems. The name decrease and conquer has been proposed instead for the single-subproblem class.  An important application of divide and conquer is in optimization, where if the search space is reduced ("pruned") by a constant factor at each step, the overall algorithm has the same asymptotic complexity as the pruning step, with the constant depending on the pruning factor (by summing the geometric series); this is known as prune and search.

Early historical examples.

Early examples of these algorithms are primarily decrease and conquer – the original problem is successively broken down into "single" subproblems, and indeed can be solved iteratively.  Binary search, a decrease-and-conquer algorithm where the subproblems are of roughly half the original size, has a long history. While a clear description of the algorithm on computers appeared in 1946 in an article by John Mauchly, the idea of using a sorted list of items to facilitate searching dates back at least as far as Babylonia in 200 BC. Another ancient decrease-and-conquer algorithm is the Euclidean algorithm to compute the greatest common divisor of two numbers by reducing the numbers to smaller and smaller equivalent subproblems, which dates to several centuries BC.  An early example of a divide-and-conquer algorithm with multiple subproblems is Gauss's 1805 description of what is now called the Cooley–Tukey fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm, although he did not analyze its operation count quantitatively, and FFTs did not become widespread until they were rediscovered over a century later.  An early two-subproblem D&C algorithm that was specifically developed for computers and properly analyzed is the merge sort algorithm, invented by John von Neumann in 1945.  Another notable example is the algorithm invented by Anatolii A. Karatsuba in 1960 that could multiply two "n"-digit numbers in formula_1 operations (in Big O notation). This algorithm disproved Andrey Kolmogorov's 1956 conjecture that formula_2 operations would be required for that task.  As another example of a divide-and-conquer algorithm that did not originally involve computers, Donald Knuth gives the method a post office typically uses to route mail: letters are sorted into separate bags for different geographical areas, each of these bags is itself sorted into batches for smaller sub-regions, and so on until they are delivered. This is related to a radix sort, described for punch-card sorting machines as early as 1929.

Advantages.

Solving difficult problems.

Divide and conquer is a powerful tool for solving conceptually difficult problems: all it requires is a way of breaking the problem into sub-problems, of solving the trivial cases and of combining sub-problems to the original problem. Similarly, decrease and conquer only requires reducing the problem to a single smaller problem, such as the classic Tower of Hanoi puzzle, which reduces moving a tower of height "n" to moving a tower of height "n" − 1.

Algorithm efficiency.

The divide-and-conquer paradigm often helps in the discovery of efficient algorithms. It was the key, for example, to Karatsuba's fast multiplication method, the quicksort and mergesort algorithms, the Strassen algorithm for matrix multiplication, and fast Fourier transforms.  In all these examples, the D&C approach led to an improvement in the asymptotic cost of the solution. For example, if (a) the base cases have constant-bounded size, the work of splitting the problem and combining the partial solutions is proportional to the problem's size "n", and (b) there is a bounded number "p" of sub-problems of size ~ "n"/"p" at each stage, then the cost of the divide-and-conquer algorithm will be O("n" log"n").

Parallelism.

Divide-and-conquer algorithms are naturally adapted for execution in multi-processor machines, especially shared-memory systems where the communication of data between processors does not need to be planned in advance, because distinct sub-problems can be executed on different processors.

Memory access.

Divide-and-conquer algorithms naturally tend to make efficient use of memory caches. The reason is that once a sub-problem is small enough, it and all its sub-problems can, in principle, be solved within the cache, without accessing the slower main memory. An algorithm designed to exploit the cache in this way is called "cache-oblivious", because it does not contain the cache size as an explicit parameter. Moreover, D&C algorithms can be designed for important algorithms (e.g., sorting, FFTs, and matrix multiplication) to be "optimal" cache-oblivious algorithms–they use the cache in a probably optimal way, in an asymptotic sense, regardless of the cache size. In contrast, the traditional approach to exploiting the cache is "blocking", as in loop nest optimization, where the problem is explicitly divided into chunks of the appropriate size—this can also use the cache optimally, but only when the algorithm is tuned for the specific cache size(s) of a particular machine.  The same advantage exists with regards to other hierarchical storage systems, such as NUMA or virtual memory, as well as for multiple levels of cache: once a sub-problem is small enough, it can be solved within a given level of the hierarchy, without accessing the higher (slower) levels.

Roundoff control.

In computations with rounded arithmetic, e.g. with floating-point numbers, a divide-and-conquer algorithm may yield more accurate results than a superficially equivalent iterative method. For example, one can add "N" numbers either by a simple loop that adds each datum to a single variable, or by a D&C algorithm called pairwise summation that breaks the data set into two halves, recursively computes the sum of each half, and then adds the two sums. While the second method performs the same number of additions as the first, and pays the overhead of the recursive calls, it is usually more accurate.

Implementation issues.

Recursion.

Divide-and-conquer algorithms are naturally implemented as recursive procedures. In that case, the partial sub-problems leading to the one currently being solved are automatically stored in the procedure call stack. A recursive function is a function that calls itself within its definition.

Explicit stack.

Divide-and-conquer algorithms can also be implemented by a non-recursive program that stores the partial sub-problems in some explicit data structure, such as a stack, queue, or priority queue. This approach allows more freedom in the choice of the sub-problem that is to be solved next, a feature that is important in some applications — e.g. in breadth-first recursion and the branch-and-bound method for function optimization. This approach is also the standard solution in programming languages that do not provide support for recursive procedures.

Stack size.

In recursive implementations of D&C algorithms, one must make sure that there is sufficient memory allocated for the recursion stack, otherwise the execution may fail because of stack overflow. D&C algorithms that are time-efficient often have relatively small recursion depth. For example, the quicksort algorithm can be implemented so that it never requires more than formula_3 nested recursive calls to sort formula_4 items.  Stack overflow may be difficult to avoid when using recursive procedures, since many compilers assume that the recursion stack is a contiguous area of memory, and some allocate a fixed amount of space for it. Compilers may also save more information in the recursion stack than is strictly necessary, such as return address, unchanging parameters, and the internal variables of the procedure. Thus, the risk of stack overflow can be reduced by minimizing the parameters and internal variables of the recursive procedure or by using an explicit stack structure.

Choosing the base cases.

In any recursive algorithm, there is considerable freedom in the choice of the "base cases", the small subproblems that are solved directly in order to terminate the recursion.  Choosing the smallest or simplest possible base cases is more elegant and usually leads to simpler programs, because there are fewer cases to consider and they are easier to solve. For example, an FFT algorithm could stop the recursion when the input is a single sample, and the quicksort list-sorting algorithm could stop when the input is the empty list; in both examples there is only one base case to consider, and it requires no processing.  On the other hand, efficiency often improves if the recursion is stopped at relatively large base cases, and these are solved non-recursively, resulting in a hybrid algorithm. This strategy avoids the overhead of recursive calls that do little or no work, and may also allow the use of specialized non-recursive algorithms that, for those base cases, are more efficient than explicit recursion. A general procedure for a simple hybrid recursive algorithm is "short-circuiting the base case", also known as "arm's-length recursion". In this case whether the next step will result in the base case is checked before the function call, avoiding an unnecessary function call. For example, in a tree, rather than recursing to a child node and then checking whether it is null, checking null before recursing; this avoids half the function calls in some algorithms on binary trees. Since a D&C algorithm eventually reduces each problem or sub-problem instance to a large number of base instances, these often dominate the overall cost of the algorithm, especially when the splitting/joining overhead is low. Note that these considerations do not depend on whether recursion is implemented by the compiler or by an explicit stack.  Thus, for example, many library implementations of quicksort will switch to a simple loop-based insertion sort (or similar) algorithm once the number of items to be sorted is sufficiently small. Note that, if the empty list were the only base case, sorting a list with "n" entries would entail maximally "n" quicksort calls that would do nothing but return immediately. Increasing the base cases to lists of size 2 or less will eliminate most of those do-nothing calls, and more generally a base case larger than 2 is typically used to reduce the fraction of time spent in function-call overhead or stack manipulation.  Alternatively, one can employ large base cases that still use a divide-and-conquer algorithm, but implement the algorithm for predetermined set of fixed sizes where the algorithm can be completely unrolled into code that has no recursion, loops, or conditionals (related to the technique of partial evaluation). For example, this approach is used in some efficient FFT implementations, where the base cases are unrolled implementations of divide-and-conquer FFT algorithms for a set of fixed sizes. Source-code generation methods may be used to produce the large number of separate base cases desirable to implement this strategy efficiently.  The generalized version of this idea is known as recursion "unrolling" or "coarsening", and various techniques have been proposed for automating the procedure of enlarging the base case.

Sharing repeated subproblems.

For some problems, the branched recursion may end up evaluating the same sub-problem many times over. In such cases it may be worth identifying and saving the solutions to these overlapping subproblems, a technique commonly known as memoization. Followed to the limit, it leads to bottom-up divide-and-conquer algorithms such as dynamic programming and chart parsing.

In computer science, divide and conquer is an algorithm design paradigm based on multi-branched recursion. A divide-and-conquer algorithm works by recursively breaking down a problem into two or more sub-problems of the same or related type, until these become simple enough to be solved directly. The solutions to the sub-problems are then combined to give a solution to the original problem.

在计算机科学中,分治法是建基于多项分支递归的一种很重要的算法范式。字面上的解释是“分而治之”,就是把一个复杂的问题分成两个或更多的相同或相似的子问题,直到最后子问题可以简单的直接求解,原问题的解即子问题的解的合并。


Early life.

Julius Russell was born in Atlanta, Georgia. His birthdate and age are unclear; according to one report his birth certificate was lost. At the time of his 2005 death, friends said he was 80, and that was the age reported in his obituaries. That implies a birth year of 1924 or 1925; the "New York Times" obituary gave his birthdate as October 13, 1924. Federal records suggest that he was born in 1918: Census documents record a Julius Russell in Atlanta aged 1 year 4 months in 1920, consistent with a birthdate in late 1918. The Social Security Death Index lists his birthdate as September 15, 1918.  He went to Booker T. Washington High School in Atlanta and attended the University of Cincinnati for one semester in 1936, He served as a medic in the United States Army during World War II, enlisting as a private on June 27, 1941, and returning from Europe in 1945 as a second lieutenant.  He got his start as a comedian in the 1940s as a carhop at the Atlanta drive-in The Varsity, where he increased the tips he earned by making customers laugh. He was discovered after he began performing in nightclubs in the 1950s. He subsequently made many "party albums", which were essentially compilations of his stand-up routines.

Early career.

In 1952, Russell joined with film comedian Mantan Moreland for a stage act, replacing Ben Carter as Moreland's dapper straight man. One of their bits was an old routine that Moreland and Carter had performed in vaudeville and in Charlie Chan films. In the "interruption routine" (or "incomplete sentences") Moreland would engage Russell in conversation, only to be interrupted by Russell, who in turn was interrupted by Moreland:  <poem>Moreland: Guess who I saw? I saw old— Russell: Is he back again? I thought he was— Moreland: He was, but he got out. Russell: Is that so? Moreland: Yeah, he was over— Russell: Is "that" so?</poem>  Soon the entire conversation was conducted in incomplete sentences, with each man anticipating or contradicting the other. Their act can be seen in two all-black-cast compilation films, "Rhythm and Blues Review" and "Rock and Roll Revue"; another variation of the "interruption routine", performed by Tommy Davidson and Savion Glover, was featured in Spike Lee's 2000 film "Bamboozled".  A September 1957 appearance on "The Ed Sullivan Show" led to several guest spots with Jack Paar on "The Tonight Show" and in 1961 a supporting role as a New York policeman in the sitcom "Car 54, Where Are You?". In 1965 he became a co-host of ABC's "Les Crane Show". In 1970 he was a co-star on the ABC sitcom "Barefoot in the Park". From 1973 through 1976 he appeared regularly on "The Dean Martin Show" and "The Dean Martin Comedy World". Scattered appearances on television series followed, as well as occasional guest-host stints on "The Tonight Show" during the Johnny Carson era. Russell also appeared frequently in Las Vegas, including a series of appearances with Sergio Franchi at the Frontier Hotel in 1978 and 1979, and with Franchi in 1979 at the Sands Hotel Copa Room. He performed at Kutsher's Country Club in Monticello, NY on January 1, 1977.

Game shows.

Russell became the first black performer to become a regular panelist on a daily network game show when he joined ABC's "Missing Links" in 1964. Another ABC show, "Rhyme and Reason", had poetry as a premise:  <poem>Host: Conny Van Dyke looks like a girl I once "dated"... Russell: And now, all my dreams are strictly X-rated!  Host: Jack said to Jill when they came down the "hill"... Russell: We didn't go there for water—I hope you take the pill!  Host: Will sex still be great when I'm "ninety-eight"... Russell: It might be, but I won't participate!</poem>  In 1971 he started as a featured panelist on "To Tell the Truth", which led to his being hired for "The Match Game" when Goodson-Todman Productions revived it two years later. He also served as panelist in 1968 on the syndicated version of "What's My Line?". Producer Bob Stewart featured him regularly as a panelist on "Pyramid" throughout its 1970s and 1980s runs. Russell would host two game show pilots: one was "Star Words" for Mark Goodson in 1983 and a revival of "Jackpot" for Bob Stewart in 1984. These pilots were shot for CBS, but neither pilot was picked up by the network. Russell went on to host two revivals of Jack Barry and Dan Enright's "Juvenile Jury" for BET from 1983 to 1984, then again for syndication from 1989 to 1991. In 1985 he hosted the short-lived 1985 NBC game show "Your Number's Up", which was produced by Sande Stewart.  During his appearances on game shows, at some point in the broadcast the host would give the floor to Russell, who would recite a self-penned poem from memory, looking straight into the camera. These poems from game show appearances are typical of his style and wit:  <poem>What is the secret of eternal youth? The answer is easily told; All you gotta do if you wanna look young Is hang out with people who are old.  George Washington threw a silver dollar Across the Potomac one day, And ever since then, politicians in Washington Have been throwing our money away!  The opposite of pro is con. That fact is clearly seen. If "progress" means moving forward, Then what does "Congress" mean?  If you ever go out with a schoolteacher, You're in for a sensational night; She'll make you do it over and over again Until you do it "right".  The young people are very different today; And there's one sure way to know; Kids used to ask where they came from; Now they'll tell you where you can go!  If a baby slept in a water bed, It would be pretty grim; You wouldn't know if he was wetting the bed, Or the bed was wetting him.  Spanking a child to get him to learn Is something I cannot defend, How can you knock any sense in his head When you're whacking him on the wrong end?</poem>  He was a trained dancer, influenced in his youth by Jack Wiggins. Russell put these talents to use in the 1978 musical "The Wiz" as the Tin Man. He also appeared on the big screen in 1994's adaptation of "Car 54, Where Are You?", reprising his role as Anderson, now promoted from sergeant to captain.

Later career and death.

During the 1990s Russell gained popularity with a new generation of television viewers as a regular on "Late Night with Conan O'Brien". Russell often appeared during comedy sketches between scheduled guests and delivered his trademark rhymes.  Russell's final TV appearance was as a panelist on a game show–themed week on the final season of the Tom Bergeron version of "Hollywood Squares" in 2003.  Russell died in 2005 at age 87 in New York City, after suffering from cancer. He was cremated and his ashes scattered in the Atlantic Ocean.

Julius "Nipsey" Russell (September 15, 1918 – October 2, 2005) was an American comedian, poet, and dancer best known for his appearances as a panelist on game shows from the 1960s through the 1990s, including "Match Game", "Password", "Hollywood Squares", "To Tell the Truth", and "Pyramid". His appearances were often distinguished by short, humorous poems he recited during the broadcast, which led to his nickname "the poet laureate of television". He had one of the leading roles in the film version of "The Wiz" as the Tin Man. He was a frequent guest on the "Dean Martin Celebrity Roast" series.

尼普西·拉塞尔(英语:Julius "Nipsey" Russell,1918年-9月15日-2005年-10月2日),是一位美国喜剧演员、诗人和舞蹈家,他以20世纪60年代到90年代在数个电视游戏节目上担任嘉宾而闻名。拉塞尔还常在广播中朗诵短小而幽默的诗歌,因而得到了“电视界的桂冠诗人”这一绰号。他也是电影《新绿野仙踪》中锡人(Tin Man)的扮演者。


Applications.

The first documented evidence of the deliberate use of marketing to address a social issue comes from a 1963 reproductive health program led by K. T. Chandy at the Indian Institute of Management in Calcutta, India. Chandy and colleagues proposed, and subsequently implemented, a national family planning program with high quality, government brand condoms distributed and sold throughout the country at low cost. The program included an integrated consumer marketing campaign run with active point of sale promotion. Retailers were trained to sell the product aggressively, and a new organization was created to implement the program. In developing countries, the use of social marketing expanded to HIV prevention, control of childhood diarrhea (through the use of oral re-hydration therapies), malaria control and treatment, point-of-use water treatment, on-site sanitation methods and the provision of basic health services.  Health promotion campaigns began applying social marketing in practice in the 1980s. In the United States, The National High Blood Pressure Education Program and the community heart disease prevention studies in Pawtucket, Rhode Island and at Stanford University demonstrated the effectiveness of the approach to address population-based risk factor behaviour change. Notable early developments also took place in Australia. These included the Victoria Cancer Council developing its anti-tobacco campaign "Quit" (1988) and "SunSmart" (1988), its campaign against skin cancer which had the slogan "Slip! Slop! Slap!"  Since the 1980s, the field has rapidly expanded around the world to include active living communities, disaster preparedness and response, ecosystem and species conservation, environmental issues, development of volunteer or indigenous workforces, financial literacy, global threats of antibiotic resistance, government corruption, improving the quality of health care, injury prevention, landowner education, marine conservation and ocean sustainability, patient-centered health care, reducing health disparities, sustainable consumption, transportation demand management, water treatment and sanitation systems and youth gambling problems, among other social needs (See).  On a wider front, by 2007, government in the United Kingdom announced the development of its first social marketing strategy for all aspects of health. In 2010, the US national health objectives included increasing the number of state health departments that report using social marketing in health promotion and disease prevention programs and increasing the number of schools of public health that offer courses and workforce development activities in social marketing.  Two other public health applications include the CDC's CDCynergy training and software application and SMART (Social Marketing and Assessment Response Tool) in the U.S.  Social marketing theory and practice has been progressed in several countries such as the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the UK, and in the latter a number of key government policy papers have adopted a strategic social marketing approach. Publications such as "Choosing Health" in 2004, "It's our health!" in 2006 and "Health Challenge England" in 2006, represent steps to achieve a strategic and operational use of social marketing. In India, AIDS controlling programs are largely using social marketing and social workers are largely working for it. Most of the social workers are professionally trained for this task.  A variation of social marketing has emerged as a systematic way to foster more sustainable behavior. Referred to as community-based social marketing (CBSM) by Canadian environmental psychologist Doug McKenzie-Mohr, CBSM strives to change the behavior of communities to reduce their impact on the environment. Realizing that simply providing information is usually not sufficient to initiate behavior change, CBSM uses tools and findings from social psychology to discover the perceived barriers to behavior change and ways of overcoming these barriers. Among the tools and techniques used by CBSM are focus groups and surveys (to discover barriers) and commitments, prompts, social norms, social diffusion, feedback and incentives (to change behavior). The tools of CBSM have been used to foster sustainable behavior in many areas, including energy conservation, environmental regulation, recycling and litter cleanup  In recent years, the concept of strategic social marketing has emerged, which identifies that social change requires action at the individual, community, socio-cultural, political and environmental level, and that social marketing can and should influence policy, strategy and operational tactics to achieve pro-social outcomes.  Other social marketing can be aimed at products deemed, at least by proponents, as socially unacceptable. One of the most notable is People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) which for many years has waged social marketing campaigns against the use of natural fur products. The campaigns' efficacy has been subject to dispute.  Not all social marketing campaigns are effective everywhere. For example, anti-smoking campaigns such as World No Tobacco Day while being successful (in concert with government tobacco controls) in curbing the demand for tobacco products in North America and in parts of Europe, have been less effective in other parts of the world such as China, India and Russia. (See also: Prevalence of tobacco consumption) Social marketing uses the benefits of doing social good to secure and maintain customer engagement. In social marketing the distinguishing feature is therefore its "primary focus on social good, and it is not a secondary outcome. Not all public sector and not-for-profit marketing is social marketing.  Public sector bodies can use standard marketing approaches to improve the promotion of their relevant services and organizational aims. This can be very important but should not be confused with social marketing where the focus is on achieving specific behavioral goals with specific audiences in relation to topics relevant to social good (e.g., health, sustainability, recycling, etc.). For example, a 3-month marketing campaign to encourage people to get an H1N1 vaccine is more tactical in nature and should not be considered social marketing. A campaign that promotes and reminds people to get regular check-ups and all of their vaccinations when they're supposed to encourage a long-term behavior change that benefits society. It can, therefore, be considered social marketing.  Social marketing can be confused with commercial marketing. A commercial marketer may only seek to influence a buyer to purchase a product. Social marketers have more difficult goals. They want to make potentially difficult and long-term behavior changes in target populations, which may or may not involve purchasing a product. For example, reducing cigarette smoking or encouraging the use of condoms have difficult challenges to overcome that go beyond purchasing decisions.  Social marketing is sometimes seen as being restricted to a client base of non-profit organizations, health services groups, the government agency. However, the goal of inducing social change is not restricted to this narrow spectrum of organizations. Corporations, for example, can be clients. Public relations or social responsibility departments may champion social causes such as funding for the arts, which would involve social marketing.  Social marketing should not be confused with the societal marketing concept which was a forerunner of sustainable marketing in integrating issues of social responsibility into commercial marketing strategies. In contrast to that, social marketing uses commercial marketing theories, tools, and techniques to social issues.  Social marketing applies a "customer-oriented" approach and uses the concepts and tools used by commercial marketers in pursuit of social goals like anti-smoking campaigns or fundraising for NGOs.  Social marketers must create a competitive advantage by constantly adapting to and instigating change. With climate change in mind, adaptations to market changes are likely to be more successful if actions are guided by knowledge of the forces shaping market behaviors and insights that enable the development of sustainable competitive advantages.

Confusion.

In 2006, Jupitermedia announced its "Social Marketing" service, with which it aims to enable website owners to profit from social media. Despite protests from the social marketing communities over the perceived hijacking of the term, Jupiter stuck with the name. However, Jupiter's approach is more correctly (and commonly) referred to as social media optimization.

History.

Many scholars ascribe the beginning of the field of social marketing to an article published by G.D. Wiebe in the Winter 1951-1952 edition of "Public Opinion Quarterly". In it, Wiebe posed a rhetorical question: "Why can’t you sell brotherhood and rational thinking like you can sell soap?” He then went on to discuss what he saw as the challenges of attempting to sell a social good as if it were a commodity, thus identifying social marketing (though he did not label it as such) as a discipline unique from c mmodity marketing. Yet, Wilkie & Moore (2003) note that the marketing discipline has been involved with questions about the intersection of marketing and society since its earliest days as a discipline.  A decade later, organizations such as the KfW Entwicklungsbank in Germany, the Canadian International Development Agency, the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in The Netherlands, UK Department for International Development, US Agency for International Development, World Health Organization and the World Bank began sponsoring social marketing interventions to improve family planning and achieve other social goals in Africa, Sri Lanka, and elsewhere.  The next milestone in the evolution of social marketing was the publication of "Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change" in the "Journal of Marketing" by Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaltman. Kotler and Zaltman coined the term'social marketing' and defined it as "the design, implementation, and control of programs calculated to influence the acceptability of social ideas and involving considerations of product planning, pricing, communication, distribution, and marketing research." They conclude that "social marketing appears to represent a bridging mechanism which links the behavior scientist's knowledge of human behavior with the socially useful implementation of what that knowledge allows."  Craig Lefebvre and June Flora introduced social marketing to the public health community in 1988, where it has been most widely used and explored. They noted that there was a need for "large scale, broad-based, behavior change focused programs" to improve public health (the community wide prevention of cardiovascular diseases in their respective projects) and outlined eight essential components of social marketing that still hold today:  Speaking of what they termed "social change campaigns", Kotler and Ned Roberto introduced the subject by writing, "A social change campaign is an organized effort conducted by one group (the change agent) which attempts to persuade others (the target adopters) to accept, modify, or abandon certain ideas, attitudes, practices or behavior." Their 1989 text was updated in 2002 by Philip Kotler, Ned Roberto and Nancy Lee. In 2005, University of Stirling was the first university to open a dedicated research institute to Social Marketing, while in 2007, Middlesex University became the first university to offer a specialized postgraduate programme in Health & Social Marketing.  In recent years there has been an important development to distinguish between "strategic social marketing" and "operational social marketing".  Much of the literature and case examples focus on operational social marketing, using it to achieve specific behavioral goals in relation to different audiences and topics. However, there has been increasing efforts to ensure social marketing goes "upstream" and is used much more strategically to inform policy formulation and strategy development. Here the focus is less on specific audience and topic work but uses strong customer understanding and insight to inform and guide effective policy and strategy development. Social marketing in most cases stands in contrast to business marketing and serves for society wellbeing. The techniques of this marketing are used for change of attitudes and behaviours of different audiences in public life.  Social marketing is also being explored as a method for social innovation, a framework to increase the adoption of evidence-based practices among professionals and organizations, and as a core skill for public sector managers and social entrepreneurs. It is being viewed as an approach to design more effective, efficient, equitable and sustainable approaches to enhance social well-being that extends beyond individual behavior change to include creating positive shifts in social networks and social norms, businesses, markets and public policy.  Many examples exist of social marketing research, with over 120 papers compiled in a six volume set.). For example, research now shows ways to reduce the intentions of people to binge drink or engage in dangerous driving. Martin, Lee, Weeks and Kaya (2013) suggests that understanding consumer personality and how people view others is important. People were shown ads talking of the harmful effects of binge drinking. People who valued close friends as a sense of who they are were less likely to want to binge drink after seeing an ad featuring them and a close friend. People who were loners or who did not see close friends important to their sense of who they were reacted better to ads featuring an individual. A similar pattern was shown for ads showing a person driving at dangerous speeds. This suggests ads showing potential harm to citizens from binge drinking or dangerous driving are less effective than ads highlighting a person's close friends.

Social marketing has the primary goal of achieving "social good". Traditional commercial marketing aims are primarily financial, though they can have positive social effects as well. In the context of public health, social marketing would promote general health, raise awareness and induce changes in behaviour. Social marketing has been a large industry for some time now and was originally done with newspapers and billboards, but similar to commercial marketing has adapted to the modern world. The most common use of social marketing in today's society is through social media.. However, to see social marketing as only the use of standard commercial marketing practices to achieve non-commercial goals is an oversimplified view.

社会营销是基于人具有“经济人”和“社会人”的双重特性,运用类似商业上的营销手段达到社会公益的目的;或者运用社会公益价值推广其商品或商业服务一种手段。


Reaction mechanism.

The reaction is a representative of 1,2-rearrangements. The long-established reaction mechanism was first proposed in its entirety by Christopher Kelk Ingold, and has been updated with in silico data as outlined below. The reaction is second order overall in terms of rate, being first order in diketone and first order in base.  A hydroxide anion attacks one of the ketone groups in 1 in a nucleophilic addition to form the alkoxide 2. The next step requires a bond rotation to conformer 3 which places the migrating group R in position for attack on the second carbonyl group. In a concerted step, the migrating R group attacks the α-carbonyl group forming another alkoxide with concomitant formation of a keto-group at the other carbon. This migration step is rate-determining. This sequence resembles a nucleophilic acyl substitution. Calculations show that when R is methyl the charge build-up on this group in the transition state can be as high as 0.22 and that the methyl group is positioned between the central carbon carbon bond!  The carboxylic acid in intermediate 4 is less basic than the alkoxide and therefore reversible proton transfer takes place favoring intermediate 5 which is protonated on acidic workup to the final α-hydroxy–carboxylic acid 6. Calculations show that an accurate description of the reaction sequence is possible with the participation of 4 water molecules taking responsibility for the stabilization of charge buildup. They also provide a shuttle for the efficient transfer of one proton in the formation of intermediate 5.  The above mechanism is consistent with all available experimental evidence. The equilibrium between species 1 and 2 is supported by O Isotopic labeling experiments. In deuterated water, carbonyl oxygen exchange occurs much faster than the rearrangement, indicating that the first equilibrium is not the rate-determining step. Further experiments showed a larger relative rate in a deuterated solvent system compared to a non-deuterated solvent system of otherwise identical composition. This was explained as being due to the greater relative basicity of the deuterated hydroxide anion compared to the normal hydroxide anion, and was used to indicate that hydrogen migration did not occur in the rate determining step of the reaction. This ruled out a concerted mechanism for the reaction, as hydrogen transfer would occur in the rate determining step.

Variations.

Benzilic ester rearrangement.

This reaction is identical to the normal benzilic acid rearrangement, except that an alkoxide or an amide anion is used in place of a hydroxide ion. The alkoxide used should not be easily oxidizable (such as potassium ethoxide) as this favors the Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction pathway as a side reaction. The reaction is second order overall in terms of rate, being first order in terms of alkoxide and first order in terms of diketone. The product of the reaction is an α-hydroxy–ester or an α-hydroxy-amide.

Alpha-ketol rearrangement.

The alpha-ketol rearrangement is an interconversion of a hydroxyl alpha to a carbonyl to the complementary carbonyl and hydroxyl groups, with migration of a substituent. It is mechanistically equivalent to the benzyllic acid rearrangement at the point after the nucleophile attacks the 1,2-dicarbonyl. This variation of the reaction has been known to occur in many substrates bearing the acyloin functional group. The picture below shows the ring expansion of a cyclopentane to a cyclohexane ring as an example reaction.

The benzilic acid rearrangement is formally the 1,2-rearrangement of 1,2-diketones to form α-hydroxy–carboxylic acids using a base. This reaction receives its name from the reaction of benzil with potassium hydroxide to form benzilic acid. First performed by Justus von Liebig in 1838, it is the first reported example of a rearrangement reaction. It has become a classic reaction in organic synthesis and has been reviewed many times before. It can be viewed as an intramolecular disproportionation reaction, as one carbon center is oxidized while the other is reduced.

二苯乙醇酸重排,是指二苯基乙二酮在氢氧化钾作用下重排成二苯乙醇酸的反应。它由尤斯图斯·冯·李比希于1838年首先发现,广义的这类反应可以发生在1,2-二酮中。该反应的产物是一种α-羟基酸。


Geography.

The island is separated from Gotland by the narrow Fårö-strait, and connected by two car ferries, operated by the Swedish Transport Administration. It has a total area of, of which are water areas or islets.  On the islands of Fårö and Gotland are rock formations called rauk. They are a result of erosion during the Ice age and are unique to Gotland and Fårö.  The medieval Fårö Church is on Fårö., Fårö Church along with Gotska Sandön Chapel on Gotska Sandön belongs to Fårö parish in Norra Gotlands pastorat.  One of the asteroids in the Asteroid belt,, is named after the island.

Etymology.

The name "Fårö" (in Gutnish "Faroy") is derived from the words "ö", meaning island, and probably "far-", which is a word stem associated with travel like in the Swedish verb "fara" (to travel). The word Fårö probably means the island you have to travel to or the traveler's island. Mainland Swedes might misinterpret the name Fårö to be derived from "får", the (standard) Swedish word for sheep, due to the many sheep on the island. That word is absent from Modern Gutnish, which uses the word "lamm" (which in Swedish means "lamb").

Military past.

Until the 1990s, Fårö and the North of Gotland were off-limits to foreigners because of a government military installation there. There were large, multilingual signs at the side of the roads informing visitors of this and the prohibition was strictly enforced. After the Cold War ended, the installation (Swedish Coastal Artillery regiment KA 3) was mostly shut down. A relic of the island's military past is a tall radio mast at Holmudden at.

Cinematic heritage.

Swedish filmmaker Ingmar Bergman lived and died on Fårö and several of his films were filmed there, among them "Through a Glass Darkly" (1961), "Persona" (1966), "Hour of the Wolf" (1968), "Shame" (1968), "The Passion of Anna" (1969), and "Scenes from a Marriage" (1972), as well as Liv Ullmann’s "Faithless" (2000), based on a Bergman screenplay. The Bergman Week is a tribute to the filmmaker held on the island every June. Fårö itself is the subject of Bergman's 1970 documentary film "Fårö Document".  Andrei Tarkovsky wanted to film "The Sacrifice" on Fårö but was denied access by the military. "The Sacrifice" was filmed further south on Gotland at När.

Tourism.

An annual event on Fårö is "Fårönatta" (Fårö Night), held in September, during which restaurants and bars stay open all night, craft stands are set up and the church holds a midnight Mass.

Places of interest.

Digerhuvud.

The Digerhuvud coast with Bjärge nature reserve is the largest stack area in Sweden, with hundreds of stacks along a part of the coast. Close by is the Helgumannen fishing village. The coast is not suited for swimming due to its depth (up to close to the shore), and its strong currents.  An asteroid in the Asteroid belt, 10102 Digerhuvud, is named after the area.

Fårö Lighthouse.

The "Fårö Lighthouse" lies on the island's northeastern point. It is high and was built between 1846 and 1847.

Langhammars.

The Langhammars peninsula and the Langhammars nature reserve on north-western Fårö are rocky beaches with Ice age stone monoliths known as rauks. Langhammars was the setting for Ingmar Bergman's film Shame.

Sudersand.

The long, sandy Sudersand beach on north-eastern Fårö lies next to Sudersands Semesterby which rents cabins to tourists.

Fårö () is a Baltic Sea island just north of the island of Gotland, itself off mainland Sweden's southeastern coast. It is the second-largest island in the province and it is a popular summer resort. It has its own dialect ("Faroymal", a dialect of Gutnish).

法罗岛(瑞典语:)是瑞典大陆东南哥特兰岛以北的一个岛屿,位于波罗的海。它是哥特兰省第二大岛屿,人口少于600,但于夏季时是热门渡假地点。岛上没有银行、邮局、医疗设备和警察局。岛上居民说的方言,据说是瑞典最古老的语言。


Structure.

The claustrum is a small bilateral gray matter structure (comprising roughly 0.25% of the cerebral cortex) located deep to the insular cortex and extreme capsule, and superficial to the external capsule and basal ganglia. As mentioned, its name means “hidden or shut away” and was first identified in 1672, with more detailed descriptions coming later on during the 19th century. Although the regional neuroanatomical boundaries of the claustrum have been defined, there remains a lack of consensus in the literature when defining its precise margins.

Connections.

Despite this long history of reports on the claustrum, descriptions of its overall connectivity have been sparse. However, recent work has suggested that this mysterious structure is present in all mammals, with extensive connections to cortical and subcortical regions. More specifically, electrophysiological studies show extensive connections to thalamic nuclei and the basal ganglia, while isotopological reports have linked the claustrum with the prefrontal, frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital cortices. Additional studies have also looked at the relationship of the claustrum to well-described subcortical white matter tracts. Structures such as the corona radiata, occipital-frontal fasciculus and uncinate fasciculus project to the claustrum from frontal, pericentral, parietal and occipital regions. Reciprocal connections also exist with motor, somatosensory, auditory and visual cortical regions. Altogether, these findings leave the claustrum as the most highly connected structure per regional volume in the brain and suggest that it may serve as a hub to coordinate activity of cerebral circuits. Interestingly, even with this extensive connectivity, most projections to and from the claustrum are ipsilateral (although there are still contralateral projections), and little evidence exists to describe its afferent or efferent connections with the brainstem and spinal cord. In summary, the cortical and subcortical connectivity of the claustrum implies that it is most involved with processing sensory information, as well as the physical and emotional state of an animal.

Microanatomy.

Inputs to the claustrum are organized by modality, which include visual, auditory and somatomotor processing areas. In the same way that the morphology of neurons in the spinal cord is indicative of function (i.e. "rexed laminae"), the visual, auditory and somatomotor regions within the claustrum share similar neurons with specific functional characteristics. For example, the portion of the claustrum that processes visual information ("primarily synthesizing afferent fibers concerned with our peripheral visual field") is comprised by a majority of binocular cells that have “elongated receptive fields and no orientation selectivity. This focus on peripheral sensory system is not an isolated occurrence, as most sensory afferents entering the claustrum bring peripheral sensory information. Moreover, the claustrum possesses a distinct topological organization for each sensory modality. For example, there is a retinotopic organization within the visual processing area of the claustrum that mirrors that of visual association cortices and V1, in a similar (yet less complicated) manner to the retinotopic conservation within the lateral geniculate nucleus.

Neurons.

The claustrum is made up of various cell types that differ in size, shape and neurochemical composition. Five types of cells exist and the majority of these cells are structurally similar to pyramidal neurons found in the cortex. Within the claustrum, the somas of the cells can be found with a pyramidal, fusiform or circular shape. The principal cell type found in the claustrum is Type 1 cells, which are large neurons covered in spiny dendrites. These cells receive inputs from the cortex, and their axons will then leave in a medial or lateral fashion and send reciprocal projections back to the cortex. GABAergic interneurons represent only 10%-15% of the neurons within the claustrum. Finally, many studies show that the claustrum is best distinguished structurally by its prominent plexus of parvalbumin-positive fibers formed by local interneurons.

Function.

The claustrum has been shown to have widespread activity to numerous cortical components, all of which have been associated with having components of consciousness and sustained attention. This is because of widespread connectivity to fronto-parietal areas, cingulate cortex, and thalami. Sustained attention is from the connections to the cingulate cortex, temporal cortex, and thalamus.  Crick and Koch suggest that the claustrum has a role similar to that of a conductor within an orchestra as it attempts to co-ordinate the function of all connections. This “conductor” analogy can also be supported through connections between the claustral, sensory, and frontal regions. The claustrum has been confirmed to be reciprocally connected to the prefrontal cortex, visual, auditory, sensory, and motor regions respectively. Connections to these modalities provide insight into the functionality of the claustrum. Here it is proposed that the claustrum functions in the gating of selective attention. Through this gating process the claustrum can selectively control input from these modalities to facilitate the process of “focusing”. It has also been suggested that it operates in the opposite context; that through divisive normalization the claustrum may implement resistance to certain input modalities to prevent “distraction”.

Potential function.

The claustrum, in order to facilitate consciousness, would need to integrate various sensory and motor modalities from various parts of the cortex. The anatomical connections of the claustrum have been observed using DTI (diffusion tensor imaging). An fMRI scan looks at oxygenated blood levels in the brain as a way of observing the activity of specific cortical areas. fMRI scans show dampened activity when anesthetized versus awake in rats, specifically claustrum connections to the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the mediodorsol thalamus (MD thalamus). The claustrum is connected with the contralateral hemispheres claustrum with strong and functional connections. Connections with MD thalamaus, mPFC, and surrounding and distant cortical areas also exist.  Electrical stimulation in the dorsal claustrum of cats elicits excitatory responses within the visual cortex. The claustrum is situated anatomically at the confluence of a large number of white-matter tracts used to connected different parts of the cortex. This further suggests an integration center role for these different modalities, such as sensory and motor. Gap junctions have been shown to exist between aspiny interneurons of the claustrum – suggesting a role in its ability to synchronize these modalities as input is received.

Attention.

The claustrum has the differential ability to select between task relevant information and task irrelevant information to provide directed attention. It contains the highest density of connecting white matter tracts in the cortex. This supports the notion of networking and coordination among different regions of the brain. The claustrum has regional specificity to it; information coming in from visual centers project to specific areas of grey matter neurons in the structure and the auditory cortex. Unexpected stimuli also activate the claustrum, effecting an immediate focusing or allocation of function. In lower mammals (e.g. rats), claustral regions receive input from somatosensory modalities, such as whiskers' motor control perspective because of its sensory and discriminatory use in these mammals.  Functionally, it is proposed that it segregates attention between these modalities. Attention itself has been considered as top-down processing or bottom-up processing; both fit contextually with what is observed in the claustrum structurally and functionally, supporting the notion that interactions occur with high-order sensory areas involved in encoding objects and features. Input from the prefrontal cortex, for example, will define attention based upon higher-cognitive task driven behaviour. Moreover, induction of electrical stimulation to the claustrum has been shown to cause inhibition reading, a blank stare, and unresponsiveness. It has been reported that the claustrum has a basal frequency firing that is modulated to increase or decrease with directed attention. For example, projections to motor and occulomotor areas would assist with gaze movement to direct attention to new stimuli by increasing the firing frequency of claustral neurons.  Salvinorin A, the active hallucinogenic compound found in Salvia Divinorum, is capable of inducing loss of awareness. Consumption of salvinorin A can induce synesthesia, in which different sensory modalities are interpreted by different sensory cortices. (For example: seeing sounds, tasting colours.) This supports the idea of intrathalamic segregation and conduction (attention). The claustrum has Kappa Opioid Receptors to which Salvinorin A binds, eliciting this effect.

Empirical evidence.

High frequency stimulation (HFS) in cat claustrum(s) has the capability to induce autonomic changes and induce “inactivation syndrome”. This syndrome is described as a decrease in awareness, indicating the relationship between the claustrum and consciousness. In humans this same effect can be observed. Stimulation of the left claustrum in humans has produced 'a complete arrest of volitional behavior, unresponsiveness, and amnesia without negative motor symptoms or mere aphasia' suggesting the involvement in consciousness. Furthermore, MRI studies have shown that increased signal intensity with the claustrum has been associated with status epilepticus – a condition in which epileptic seizures follow one another without recovery of consciousness in-between events. As well, increased signal intensity is associated with Focal dyscognitive seizures, which are seizures that elicit impairment of awareness or consciousness without convulsions. The individual becomes unaware of his or her environment, and the seizure will manifest as a blank or empty stare for a window of time.  Using an operant conditioning task combined with HFS of the claustrum resulted in significant behavioural changes of rats; this included modulated motor responses, inactivity and decreased responsiveness. Beyond this, studies have also shown that the claustrum is active during REM sleep, alongside other structures such as the dentate gyrus. These have associative roles in spatial memory, suggesting that some form of memory consolidation takes place in these areas.

Lesions and consciousness.

Functionally, the claustrum will integrate various cortical inputs through its connections into consciousness. Based upon its structure and connectivity, its function is suggested to do with coordination of different brain function; i.e. the conductor analogy. Consciousness functionally can be divided into two components: (i) wakefulness, which is arousal and alertness; (ii) content of consciousness, which is the processing of content. A study of traumatic brain injuries in war veterans was undertaken to better understand the functional role of the claustrum. Damage to the claustrum was associated with duration of loss of consciousness, but not frequency. Lesion size was correlated with greater duration of LOC events. Interestingly, no consequences were shown to attenuate cognitive processing.  In a single case-study, consciousness was shown to be disrupted when there was stimulation to the extreme capsule of the brain – is in close proximity to the claustrum – such that upon termination of stimulation, consciousness was regained. Another study looking at the symptomology of schizophrenia established that the severity of delusions was associated with decreased grey matter volume of the left claustrum; postulating that correlations exist between the structure and positive symptoms seen in this psychiatric disorder. Further supporting this correlation between schizophrenia and the claustrum is that there is an increase in white matter volume entering the claustrum. Inverse correlations between grey matter volume, and severity of hallucinations in the context of auditory hallucinations of schizophrenia has been supported. As well, to see the total loss of function of the claustrum, lesions to both claustrums on each hemisphere would need to occur.

Clinical significance.

Schizophrenia.

Damage to the claustrum can lead to various common diseases or mental disorders; delayed development of the structure leads to autism. The claustrum may be involved in schizophrenia as findings show an increase in positive symptoms, such as delusions, when the grey matter volume of the left claustrum and right insula is decreased.

Epilepsy.

The claustrum is also seen to play a role in epilepsy; MRIs have found increased claustral signal intensity in those that have been diagnosed with epilepsy. In certain cases, seizures tend to appear to originate from the claustrum when they are involved in early kainic acid induced seizures.

Consciousness.

A single case-study showed that consciousness was disrupted when the area between the insula and claustrum was electrically stimulated; consciousness was regained when stimulation stopped. Patients that had a lesion in their left claustrum were more likely to experience a loss of consciousness compared to those that presented with lesions outside of the claustrum. For example, a patient that was subjected to electrode stimulation at the claustrum stopped reading, stared blankly and was unresponsive. Once the electrode was removed, the patient resumed reading and could not remember the events of being dazed.

Parkinsonism.

A team of investigators led by neuroscientists at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center has identified the claustrum as the likely origin of parkinsonism across different conditions. The team used a novel methodology called lesion network mapping to discover the origins of parkinsonism in 29 patients whose symptoms were not the result of Parkinson’s disease but rather attributed to a brain lesion – an abnormality or injury to the brain visible on brain imaging. The mapping of the 29 lesions – which were located in different regions of the brain – revealed that connectivity to the claustrum was the single most sensitive and specific marker of lesion-induced parkinsonism.

Other animals.

In animals, through tract tracing, findings have shown that the claustrum has extensive connections throughout the cortex with sensory and motor regions along with the hippocampus. A variety of animal models have been used such as cats, rodents and monkeys.

Cats.

In cats, high-frequency stimulation (HFS) of the claustrum can alter motor activity, induce autonomic changes, and precipitate an “inactivation syndrome” described as “decreased awareness". Recordings, primarily in cats and primates, show that claustral neurons respond to sensory stimuli and during voluntary movements. Mapping from visual cortex to claustrum includes just a single map, which includes V1 and three other visual areas. Cells in the V1 are part of layer 6, which different from cells that go to the lateral geniculate nucleus; these cells use glutamate as their neurotransmitter. The cat claustrum has 3 defined zones: (1) the anterior dorsal zone, which connects to the motor and somatosensory cortex, (2) the posterior dorsal zone that has connections to the visual cortex and (3) a third zone that is ventral to visual one and connects to the auditory areas.  Sensory input is segregated based on modalities and there is a high preference for peripheral sensory information. In the cat, input is received from various visual cortical areas and projects back to the area. These loops are retinotopical, meaning that regions getting visual input are responsible for the same region in the visual field as the area of the cortex that projects to the claustrum. The visual claustrum is a single map of contralateral visual hemifield, receiving information based on motion in the visual field's periphery and has no real selectivity. In terms of somatosensation, claustral neurons will receive whisker motor innervations. They then project back to the whisker motor and somatosensory cortex. This cortical-claustral-cortical circuit plays a role in whisker movements for orientation and palpation.

Rodents.

In rats, motor whisker areas receive input from the ipsilateral claustrum but will then project to the contralateral claustrum. The sensory barrel cortex and primary visual cortex also receive input from the ipsilateral claustrum but send very few projection back to the claustrum. Studies therefore indicate distinct patterning of connectivity of claustrum with different cortical areas. These suggest, rather than a diffuse role, they play specialized roles in cortical processing.  In mice, parvalbumin fibres are highly interconnected by chemical and electrical synapses. They are additionally also highly interconnected with claustrocortical neurons – suggesting that these inhibitory interneurons strongly modulate their activity. These local networks suggest to synchronize activity of claustrocortical projections to therefore influence brain rhythms and co-ordinated activity of different cortical brain regions. There are additional classes of inhibitory interneurons with local connections within the claustrocortical neurons.  Recent experiments in mice monitoring claustrocortical axonal activity to changing visual stimuli suggest the claustrum signals stimulus changes. Interestingly although claustrocortical input to visual cortical areas were engaged, the strongest responses measured were in higher-order regions of the cortex, this included the anterior cingulate cortex which is densely innervated by claustral projection.

Monkeys.

In the monkey, there are widespread connections of the claustrum with allocortical and neocortical regions. These connections project towards the frontal lobe, visual cortical regions, temporal cortex, parieto-occipital cortex and somatosensory areas amongst others. The subcortical areas receiving projections are the amygdala, caudate nucleus and hippocampus. It is unknown if there are cortical regions that do not receive input from the claustrum. Additionally, large or small types of aspiny are reported in the monkey brain, which are classified as “local circuit neurons".  The dorsal claustrum has bi-directional connections with motor structures in the cortex. The relationship between animal's movement and how neurons in the dorsocaudal claustrum behaves are as follows: 70% of movement neurons are non-selective and can fire to do any push, pulls or turn movements in the forelimb, the rest were more discerning and did only one of the three movements listed above.

The claustrum (Latin for: to close or shut) is a thin, bilateral structure which connects to cortical (ex. pre-frontal cortex) and subcortical regions (ex. thalamus) of the brain. It is located between the insula laterally and the putamen medially, separated by the extreme and external capsules respectively. The blood supply to the claustrum is fulfilled via the middle cerebral artery. It is considered to be the most densely connected structure in the brain allowing for integration of various cortical inputs (ex. colour, sound and touch) into one experience rather than singular events. The claustrum is difficult to study given the limited number of individuals with claustral lesions and the poor resolution of neuroimaging.

屏状体,又名屏状核,位于大脑的外囊和极外囊之间的一块厚为1-2毫米的扁平形灰质。外囊分隔屏状体和豆状核(壳部分)。极外囊分隔屏状体和岛叶。虽然已知屏状体和大脑皮层有往复连接,但目前对屏状体的功能知之甚少。有些学者认为屏状体是豆状核的一部分,另一些学者认为屏状体应算作岛叶的一部分,更有一部分学者主张屏状体可分为豆状体部和岛叶部两部分。也有一些当代神经解剖学家认为屏状体和杏仁核一同属于基底核。


History.

The legislature of the State of Deseret created a county on January 31, 1850, to govern the civic affairs of Utah Valley, which by the 1850s was bustling with newly arrived settlers. The county name derived from the valley name, which derived from the Spanish name ("Yuta") for the Ute Indians. The State of Deseret was dissolved soon after (April 5, 1851), but the counties it had set in place continued in existence. There is little record of any official activity conducted by the fledgling county until April 18, 1852, when a full slate of county officials was published and recordkeeping began. The first courthouse was built in central Provo in 1866-67. It was soon outgrown, and was replaced by a second courthouse (1872–73). By the 1920s this building was also cramped, and the decision was made to erect a combined city-county building, which was completed in 1926.  The county's boundaries were adjusted in 1852, 1854, 1856, 1862, 1880, and 1884. It has retained its present boundary since 1884.

Geography.

Utah County terrain ranges from stiff mountain ranges in the east (the Wasatch Range, dropping steeply to a large lake-filled valley. Most of the comparatively level ground is dedicated to agriculture or developed uses, while most of the steep terrain is covered with arid-climate forestation. The county generally slopes to the west and north, with its highest point (Mt. Nebo in the southern part of the county), at 11,928' (3636m) ASL. The county has an area of, of which is land and (6.6%) is water.  Utah Valley lies at the center of the county, lined by the mountains of the Wasatch Range on the east. Utah Lake occupies a large part of the valley. The elevation ranges from above sea level at the lake to at the peak of Mount Nebo.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 516,564 people, 140,602 households, and 114,350 families in the county. The population density was 258/sqmi (99.6/km2). There were 148,350 housing units, at an average density of 74.1/sqmi (28.6/km2). The county's racial makeup was 89.4% White, 0.5% Black or African American, 0.6% American Indian or Alaska Native, 1.4% Asian, 0.8% Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, 4.6% some other race, and 2.7% from two or more races. 10.8% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 140,602 households, out of which 47.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.9% were headed by married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.7% were non-families. 11.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.4% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.57, and the average family size was 3.88.  The county's population was spread out with 35.2% under the age of 18, 15.8% from 18 to 24, 28% from 25 to 44, 14.5% from 45 to 64, and 6.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.7 males.  At the 2000 census, the median income for a household in the county was $45,833, and the median income for a family was $50,196. Males had a median income of $37,878 versus $22,656 for females. The per capita income for the county was $15,557. About 6.80% of families and 12.00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.40% of those under age 18 and 4.80% of those age 65 or over.  The five most reported ancestries in Utah County are:

Government.

The government is a three-member elected county commission elected at-large. Other elected officials include the county sheriff, the county clerk, county recorder, county assessor, county surveyor, county treasurer, and the county attorney.

Social issues.

Utah County saw high rates of opioid and other prescription drug addiction from the mid-2000s onwards, foreshadowing the national opioid crisis. The 2008 documentary "Happy Valley" examined the problem.  "Giving USA", which reports on charitable giving in the US, named Utah County as one of the three most generous counties in philanthropic donations, alongside San Juan County, Utah and Madison County, Idaho.  In 2019, one in eight people and one in six children in the county did not have sufficient food.

Infrastructure.

The I-15 CORE project added multiple lanes on Interstate 15 through most of Utah County. This expanded of freeway and was completed in 2012. Other construction projects by UDOT have been done on I-15 since then, including the Technology Corridor project and the Point of the Mountain project.

Politics.

Utah County has been referred to as "the most Republican county in the most Republican state in the United States". It has only supported a Democrat for president nine times since statehood, and has not supported a Democrat for president since 1964.  In the 1992 presidential election, George H. W. Bush received the most votes and Bill Clinton was third in votes received. In the 2004 presidential election, 85.99% voted for George W. Bush. In the 2008 U.S. presidential election, the county voted for John McCain by a 58.9% margin over Barack Obama, compared to McCain winning by 28.1% statewide. Eight other Utah counties voted more strongly in favor of McCain. In the 2012 election, Mitt Romney received 88.32% of the vote. In the 2016 election, it gave a slim majority of the vote to Donald Trump, and nearly 30% of the vote to independent candidate Evan McMullin, who outperformed Hillary Clinton in the county. This was McMullin's largest share of the vote in any county in Utah and his second best nationwide after Madison County, Idaho.  Utah County is split between two congressional districts. Most of the county is in the 3rd District, represented by Republican John Curtis. The northern portion is in the 4th District, represented by Democrat Ben McAdams.  The county's Republican bent runs right through state and local politics. All five state senators representing the county, as well as all 14 state representatives, are Republicans.

Utah County is a county in the U.S. state of Utah. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 516,564, thus making it Utah's second-most populous county. The county seat and largest city is Provo, which is the state's third-largest city.

犹他县(英语:Utah County, Utah)是美国犹他州中部的一个县。面积5,545平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口368,536人 (2005年估计为443,738)。县治普若佛(英语:Provo)。


Science.

Submillimetre astronomy is a relatively unexplored frontier in astronomy and reveals a Universe that cannot be seen in the more familiar visible or infrared light. It is ideal for studying the "cold Universe": light at these wavelengths shines from vast cold clouds in interstellar space, at temperatures only a few tens of degrees above absolute zero. Astronomers use this light to study the chemical and physical conditions in these molecular clouds — the dense regions of gas and cosmic dust where new stars are being born. Seen in visible light, these regions of the Universe are often dark and obscured due to the dust, but they shine brightly in the millimetre and submillimetre part of the spectrum. This wavelength range is also ideal for studying some of the earliest and most distant galaxies in the Universe, whose light has been redshifted into these longer wavelengths.  APEX science goals include studying the formation of stars, planets, and galaxies, including very distant galaxies in the early Universe, and the physical conditions of molecular clouds. Its first results proved the telescope lives up to the ambitions of the scientists by providing access to the "cold Universe" with unprecedented sensitivity and image quality.  No fewer than 26 articles based on early science with APEX were published in July 2006 in a special issue of the research journal "Astronomy and Astrophysics". Among the many new findings published then, most in the field of star formation and astrochemistry, are the discovery of a new interstellar molecule and the detection of light emitted at 0.2 mm from CO molecules, as well as light coming from a charged molecule composed of two forms of hydrogen.  Recent APEX observations lead to the first ever discovery of hydrogen peroxide in space, the first image of a dusty disc closely encircling a massive baby star, providing direct evidence that massive stars form in the same way as their smaller brethren, and the first direct measurements of the size and brightness of regions of star-birth in a very distant galaxy.  APEX is also involved in the Global mm-VLBI Network and in the Event Horizon Telescope (ETH). The ETH project produced the first direct image of a black hole. The detection in May 2012 of the quasar 3C 279 at 1.3 mm wavelength on the 9386 km baseline between APEX and the SMA in Hawaii has set the world-record in angular resolution: 28.6 micro-arcseconds  All ESO and Swedish APEX data are stored in the ESO archive. These data follow the standard ESO archive rules, i.e., they become publicly available one year after they have been delivered to the principal investigator of the project.

Instruments.

APEX, the largest submillimetre-wavelength single-dish telescope operating in the southern hemisphere, has a suite of instruments for astronomers to use in their observations, a major one being LABOCA, the Large APEX Bolometer Camera. LABOCA uses an array of extremely sensitive micro-calorimeters — known as bolometers — to detect submillimetre light. With almost 300 elements, at the time of commissioning in 2007 LABOCA has been the largest bolometer camera in the world. To be able to detect the tiny temperature changes caused by the faint submillimetre radiation, the bolometers are cooled to a fraction of a degree above absolute zero (300 millikelvins — minus 272.85 degrees Celsius). LABOCA's high sensitivity, together with its wide field of view (11 arcminutes, one third of the diameter of the full Moon), make it an invaluable tool for imaging the submillimetre Universe.  APEX first light was achieved in May 2004 using the SEST Imaging Bolometer Array (SIMBA) that had been moved to APEX after the decommissioning of the SEST and the first radio pointing model was compiled. At the time of the inauguration in 2005, APEX was equipped with state-of-the-art sub-millimetre spectrometers developed by MPIfR's Division for Sub-Millimetre Technology and followed by the first facility receiver built at Chalmers University (OSO).  For more information about APEX instruments, consult the instrumentation page.

Technology.

To operate at the shorter sub-millimetre wavelengths, APEX presents a surface of exceedingly high quality. After a series of high precision adjustments, the surface of the primary mirror can be adjusted with remarkable precision. Over the 12 m diameter of the antenna, the rms deviation from the perfect parabola is less than 17 thousandths of a millimetre. This is smaller than one fifth of the average thickness of a human hair.  The APEX telescope is made up of three "receiver" cabins: Cassegrain, Nasmyth A, and Nasmyth B.

The Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX) is a radio telescope 5,064 meters above sea level, at the Llano de Chajnantor Observatory in the Atacama desert in northern Chile, 50 km east of San Pedro de Atacama built and operated by 3 European research institutes. The main dish has a diameter of 12 m and consists of 264 aluminium panels with an average surface accuracy of 17 micrometres (rms). The telescope was officially inaugurated on September 25, 2005.

阿塔卡马探路者实验(英语:Atacama Pathfinder Experiment,缩写:APEX)是位于智利北部,在圣佩德罗德阿塔卡马东方50公里的阿塔卡马沙漠上,拉诺德查南托天文台海拔5,100米高处的电波望远镜。主镜的盘面直径是12米,由264片铝板组成,表面的精度为17微米(均方根值)。这架望远镜于2005年9月25日正式完成。


Education and work.

Han graduated high school in Beijing but did not attend college or university. Despite this, Han was an avid reader of everything from Greek to Chinese classics and worked as an assistant librarian at Beijing Normal University. In 1983, attracted by higher wages, Han began a job at the Fengtai Locomotive Maintenance Section in Beijing. While working there Han's feelings about workers' rights were emboldened, as he saw China's "savage" economic policies had a lack for regard for China's "society and environment." Because of this, Han believed that workers needed to protect and represent their own interests, which most likely served as a key incentive for him to join the BWAF.

Public Security Soldiers Corps.

In 1980, Han decided to join the "Gong An Bing", or Public Security Soldiers Corps. After going through basic training at the Qinghe prison labor camp, Han was given command of a squad consisting of 12 men. During an annual review of the camp, Han claimed that officers were stealing a third of the food rations from his men, and that his men were also being beaten and abused. Han then claimed that these acts were in violation of Chairman Mao's teachings that officers and soldiers should share good and bad fortunes and be treated as equals. Han's application to join the Communist Party was then allegedly destroyed by a battalion commandant the following day.

Tiananmen Square.

On April 17, 1989, Han gave a speech at the Tiananmen Square protests that praised the moral courage of the students at the Square and advocated for the protection and constitutional right for Chinese workers to freely organize. During this speech, Han also focused his attention towards the People’s Liberation Army, claiming that the army and the people "are like fish and water" and should not antagonize or attack one another. While it was considered normal for many workers to hide their identities in the early stages of the protests, Han gave his name freely to those who asked. Han said he did this because he felt like he needed to set an example and encourage others to own their words and be prepared to "face the consequences" for what they said. Han made more impromptu speeches throughout the movement, often accompanied by his wife Chen Jingyun.  Despite Han’s speeches and fervor for the movement, many student protesters at Tiananmen Square were apprehensive and questioned whether or not workers should be welcome or permitted into the Tiananmen protests. Many of the student leaders, particularly the security members, were concerned about the movement being infiltrated by government agents or police who would purposefully provoke violence or "hooliganism." Likewise, many students felt that the movement needed to remain solely run by students to avoid giving the government grounds for accusing them of trying to start a revolution.

Beijing Workers' Autonomous Federation.

Han joined the movement and became a leader within BWAF when its membership numbered just a few hundred. Han and Li Jinjin wrote appeals for workers and students to join together in the Tiananmen protests. The BWAF tried to read some of these documents on the student owned loudspeakers in Tiananmen Square, but were turned down by the students. Undeterred, the BWAF pooled their money together and bought their own hand cranked system to use as a loudspeaker.  Han said that he saw the BWAF as an opportunity to educate workers about China's constitution and how much of their rights were not put into practice. Han did not have much faith that the BWAF or the Tiananmen Protests would survive very long, but he felt that the BWAF was important since its legacy would live on through the workers who would be educated about China's constitution.

Han's arrest after Tiananmen protests.

After finding out he was at the top of the most wanted list, Han wanted to avoid the "humiliation" of being tracked down the police and turned himself in to "straighten out" the police and tell them what really happened at the protests. Han then spent 22 months in prison, where he often debated with interrogators and prison guards about the formation of the Tiananmen protests, particularly about the protests’ spontaneous rather than planned nature. Han was freed in 1992 after an international campaign pressured the Chinese government to release him to the United States for treatment of tuberculosis, which he contracted while imprisoned. Han then attempted to travel back to China but was expelled to Hong Kong, where he founded the "China Labor Bulletin".

Han Dongfang (born 1963) is a Chinese advocate for workers' rights. He won the 1993 Democracy Award from the U.S. National Endowment for Democracy.

韩东方(1963年),当代工人运动领袖,中国持不同政见者。1989年,韩东方在八九学运中参与创建北京工人自治联合会。六四清场后,韩东方成为中国政府头号通缉对象。韩东方在之后不经审判而被监禁了22个月,直到他在1991年4月因为结核病出狱,花了一年时间在美国接受治疗。1993年8月,他在回到中国后,立即在广州被逮捕,并被中华人民共和国政府驱逐出境,至1997年5月获发香港身份证。