Geography.

The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica characterises Baltistan as the western extremity of Tibet, whose natural limits are the Indus river from its abrupt southward bend around the map point and the mountains to the north and west. These features separate a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the fiercer Indo-Aryan tribes to the west. Muslim writers around the 16th century speak of Baltistan as the "Little Tibet", and of Ladakh as the "Great Tibet", emphasising their ethnological similarity. According to Ahmad Hassan Dani, Baltistan spreads upwards from the Indus river and is separated from Ladakh by the Siachen glacier. It includes the Indus valley and the lower valley of the Shyok river.  Baltistan is a rocky mass of lofty mountains, the prevailing formation being gneiss. In the north is the Baltoro Glacier, the largest out of the arctic regions, long, contained between two ridges whose highest peaks to the south are and to the north.  The Indus river runs in a narrow gorge, widening after receiving the Shyok river at. It then forms a crescent-shaped plain varying between wide. The main inhabitable valleys of Kharmang Khaplu, Skardu and Roundu are along the routes of these rivers.

Valleys and districts.

°Although under Indian control since 1971, geographically, the Turtuk part of Shyok Valley, is part of Baltistan region.

History.

For centuries, Baltistan consisted of small, independent valley states connected by the blood relationships of its rulers ("rajas"), trade, common beliefs and cultural and linguistic bonds. The states were subjugated by the Dogra rulers of Kashmir during the 19th century. On 29 August 2009 the government of Pakistan announced the creation of Gilgit–Baltistan, a provincial autonomous region with Gilgit as its capital and Skardu its largest city.  Baltistan was known as Little Tibet, and the name was extended to include Ladakh. Ladakh later became known as Great Tibet. Locally, Baltistan is known as "Baltiyul" and Ladakh and Baltistan are known as Maryul ("red country").

Origins.

Today, the people of Kharmang and Western Khaplu have Tibetan features and those in Skardu, Shigar and the eastern villages of Khaplu are Dards. It was believed that the Balti people were in the sphere of influence of Zhangzhung. Baltistan was controlled by the Tibetan king Songtsen Gampo during the seventh century AD. Culturally influenced by Tibet, the Bon and animist Baltis began to adopt Tibetan Buddhism. Religious artifacts such as "gompas" and "stupas" were built, and lamas played an important role in Balti life. During the 14th century, Muslim scholars from Kashmir crossed Baltistan's mountainous terrain to spread Islam. The Noorbakshia Sufi order further propagated the faith in Baltistan and Islam became dominant by the end of the 17th century. With the passage of time a large number also converted to Shia Islam and a few converted to Sunni Islam. The Kharmang came under the control of the Namgyal royal family and developed a close relationship with Ladakh when the "raja" of Ladakh, Jamyang Mangyal, attacked the principalities in Kargil. Mangyal annihilated the Skardu garrison at Kharbu and put to the sword a number of petty Muslim rulers in the principalities of Purik (Kargil). Ali Sher Khan Anchan, "raja" of Khaplu and Shigar, left with a strong army via Marol. Passing the Laddakhi army, he occupied Leh (the capital of Ladakh) and the "raja" of Ladakh was taken prisoner.  Ali Sher Khan Anchan included Gilgit and Chitral in his kingdom of Baltistan, reportedly a flourishing country. The valley from Khepchne to Kachura was flat and fertile, with abundant fruit trees; the sandy desert now extending from Sundus to Skardu Airport was a prosperous town. Skardu had hardly recovered from the shock of the death of Anchan when it was flooded. In 1845, the area was seized by the Dogras.

Tourism.

Skardu has several tourist resorts and many natural features, including plains, mountains and mountain-valley lakes. The Deosai plain, Satpara Lake and Basho also host tourists. North of Skardu, the Shigar Valley offers plains, hiking tracks, peaks and campsites. Other valleys in Baltistan region are Khaplu, Rondu, Kachura Lake and Kharmang.

Glaciers.

Baltistan is a rocky wilderness of around, with the largest cluster of mountains in the world and the biggest glaciers outside the polar regions. The Himalayas advance into this region from India, Tibet and Nepal, and north of them are the Karakoram range. Both ranges run northwest, separated by the Indus River. Along the Indus and its tributaries are many valleys. Glaciers include Baltoro Glacier, Biafo Glacier, Siachen Glacier, Trango Glacier and Godwin-Austen Glacier.

Mountaineering.

Baltistan is home to more than 20 peaks of over, including K2 (the second-highest mountain on earth. Other well-known peaks include Masherbrum (also known as K1), Broad Peak, Hidden Peak, Gasherbrum II, Gasherbrum IV and Chogolisa (in the Khaplu Valley). The following peaks have been scaled:

Demographics.

The region has a population of about 322,000. It is a blend of ethnic groups, predominantly Baltis, Tibetans, and Monpas. A few Kashmiris settled in Skardu, practicing agriculture and woodcraft.

Religion.

Before the arrival of Islam, Tibetan Buddhism and Bön (to a lesser extent) were the main religions in Baltistan. Buddhism can be traced back to before the formation of the Tibetan Empire in the region during the seventh century. The region has a number of surviving Buddhist archaeological sites. These include the Manthal Buddha Rock, a rock relief of the Buddha at the edge of the village (near Skardu) and the Sacred Rock of Hunza. Nearby are former sites of Buddhist shelters.  Islam was brought to Baltistan by Sufi missionaries during the 16th and 17th centuries, and most of the population converted to Noorbakshia Islam. The scholars were followers of the Kubrawiya Sufi order. Most Noorbakhshi Muslims live in Ghanche and Shigar districts, and 30 percent live in the Skardu district.

Fauna.

Baltistan has been called a living museum for wildlife. Deosai National Park, in the southern part of the region, is habitat for predators since it has an abundant prey population. Domestic animals include yaks (including hybrid yaks), cattle, sheep, goats, horses and donkeys. Wild animals include ibex, markhor, musk deer, snow leopards, brown and black bears, jackals, foxes, wolves and marmots.

Culture.

Balti music and art.

According to Balti folklore, Mughal princess Gul Khatoon (known in Baltistan as Mindoq Gialmo—Flower Queen) brought musicians and artisans with her into the region and they propagated Mughal music and art under her patronage. Musical instruments such as the "surnai", "karnai", "dhol" and "chang" were introduced into Baltistan.

Dance.

Classical and other dances are classified as sword dances, "broqchhos" and Yakkha and "ghazal" dances. "Chhogho Prasul" commemorates a victory by the Maqpon "rajas". As a mark of respect, the musician who plays the drum ("dang") plays for a long time. A Maqpon princess would occasionally dance to this tune. "Gasho-Pa", also known as "Ghbus-La-Khorba", is a sword dance associated with the Gasho Dynasty of Purik (Kargil). "Sneopa", the marriage-procession dance by "pachones" (twelve "wazirs" who accompany the bride), is performed at the marriage of a "raja".

Architecture.

Balti architecture has Tibetan and Mughul influences, and its monastic architecture reflects the Buddhist imprint left on the region. Buddhist-style wall paintings can be seen in forts and Noorbakhshi "khanqahs", including Chaqchan Mosque in Khaplu, Amburik Mosque in Shigar, Khanqah e Muallah Shigar, Khaplu Fort, Shigar Fort and Skardu Fort.

Polo.

Polo is popular in Baltistan, and indigenous to the Karakoram region, having been played there since at least the 15th–16th century. The Maqpon ruler Ali Sher Khan Anchan introduced the game to other valleys during his conquests beyond Gilgit and Chitral. The English word polo derives from the Balti word "polo", meaning "the ball used in the game of polo". The game of polo itself is called "shagran" in Balti.

Media.

The Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation has radio and television stations in Khaplu that broadcast local programs, and there are a handful of private news outlets. The "Daily K2" is an Urdu newspaper published in Skardu serving Gilgit-Baltistan for long time, and it is the pioneer of print media in Gilgit Baltisatn. "Bad-e-Shimal" claims the largest daily circulation in Gilgit and Baltistan. "Nawa-e-Sufia" is a monthly magazine covering Baltistan's Nurbakshi sect.

Baltistan (, ), also known as Baltiyul or Little Tibet (), is a mountainous region of Pakistan near the Karakoram mountains just south of K2 (the world's second-highest mountain). Baltistan is bordered by Gilgit to the west, Xinjiang (China) to the north, Ladakh to the southeast, and the Kashmir Valley to the southwest. Its average altitude is over.

巴尔蒂斯坦(Baltistan),唐代称为大勃律,清代称巴勒提,是巴基斯坦控制下克什米尔吉尔吉特-巴尔蒂斯坦的一个地区。地处喜马拉雅山脉、喀喇昆仑山脉、兴都库什山脉的交汇地,印度河上游河谷之中,面积27,400平方千米,包括2个县,Ghanche(面积9,400平方千米,首府Khaplu)和Skardu(面积18,000平方千米,首府Skardu)。主体民族是以藏族与印欧人种混血的巴尔蒂人。


圣兰德堂区 (路易斯安那州)

History.

French and Spanish Territory.

The land that became St. Landry Parish was inhabited since at least 10,500 B.C., as deduced from excavations of three prehistoric dwelling sites. By the 15th century, the Opelousa Indians settled in the area situated between Atchafalaya River and Sabine River (at the border of Texas-Louisiana). The Opelousa were war-like and preyed on neighbors to defend their own territory.  The first European recorded in the Opelousa territory was a French trader named Michel de Birotte. He came in 1690 and negotiated with the Opelousa nation. Nine years later, France named Louisiana as a colony and defined the land occupied by the Opelousa as the Opelousas Territory. The area south of the Opelousas Territory between the Atchafalaya River, the Gulf of Mexico and Bayou Nezpique, occupied by the Attakapas Indians (Eastern Atakapa), was named Attakapas Territory.  In 1764 France established the Opelousas Post slightly north of the contemporary city of Opelousas. It was a major trading organization for the developing area. In addition France established the Attakapas Post (near the present St Martinville) in the Attakapas Territory. France gave land grants to soldiers and settlers to encourage development. Most settlers were French immigrants. Tradition says that Jean Joseph LeKintrek and Joseph Blainpain, who had formed a partnership to trade with the Opelousa Indians, came in the early 1740s. They brought three enslaved Africans, the first to live in the area.  Some Indians sold land to the newcomers. When the Eastern Attakapas Chief Kinemo sold all the land between Vermilion River and Bayou Teche to Frenchman Gabriel Fuselier de la Claire in 1760, however, the angry Opelousa tribe exterminated the Attakapas (Eastern Atakapa).  France ceded Louisiana and its territories to Spain in 1762. Under Spanish rule, Opelousas Post became the center of government for Southwest Louisiana. By 1769 about 100 families were living in Opelousas Post. Between 1780 and 1820, the first settlers were joined by others coming from the Attakapas Territory, from the Pointe Coupée Territory, and east from the Atchafalaya River area. They were joined by immigrants from the French West Indies, who left after Haiti/St. Domingue became independent in a slave revolution. Most of the new settlers were French, Spaniards, French Creoles, Spanish Creoles, Africans and African-Americans.  The group from Attakapas Post included many Acadians. These were French who migrated from Nova Scotia in 1763, after their expulsion by the English in the aftermath of France's defeat in the Seven Years' War (known in North America as the French and Indian War). They were led by Jean-Jacques Blaise d'Abbadie. D'Abbadie was Governor of the territory from 1763 to 1765. The French community built St. Landry Catholic Church in 1767, dedicated to St. Landry (Landericus) of Paris, the Bishop of Paris in the 7th century.  On April 10, 1805, after the United States had acquired the Louisiana Purchase, the post was named the town of Opelousas and became the seat of the County of Opelousas, part of the Territory of Orleans. In 1807, when the territory was reorganized into parishes, Opelousas was designated the seat of St. Landry Parish.

Purchase by the United States.

The United States gained control of the territory in 1803 through the Louisiana Purchase. Americans from the South and other parts of the United States began to migrate to the area, marking the arrival of the first large English-speaking population and the introduction of the need for more general use of English.  St. Landry Parish was officially established on April 10, 1805 by a legislative act, becoming the largest parish in the Louisiana state. The new parish was named after the St. Landry Catholic Church located near the Opelousas Post. The parish's boundaries encompassed about half the land of the Opelousas Territory, between the Atchafalaya River and Sabine River, between Rapides Parish and Vernon Parish, and Lafayette and St. Martin Parishes. Since then, the area of the parish has decreased, as six additional parishes have been created from its territory. These include Calcasieu, Acadia, Evangeline, Jeff Davis, Beauregard, and Allen.  In 1821 the second educational institution west of the Mississippi was founded in Grand Coteau. In this community south of Opelousas is the Academy of the Sacred Heart, a private Catholic school founded by the French Creole community.  The city of Opelousas has been the seat of government for the St. Landry Parish since its formation. After Baton Rouge fell to the Union troops during the Civil War in 1862, Opelousas became the state capital for nine months. The capital was moved again in 1863, this time to Shreveport when Union troops occupied Opelousas.

2019 black church fires.

During 10 days, three black churches, the St. Mary Baptist Church over 100 years old (26 March 2019), Greater Union Baptist Church (2 April 2019), and Mount Pleasant Baptist Church (4 April 2019) set on fire by a vandal and this incident raised officials concern that the fires started by racist and radical group or person. Finally, police arrested the vandal who was the son of a St. Landry Parish sheriff's deputy. Holden Matthews, 21, has been charged with the arson attack on black churches.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the parish has a total area of, of which is land and (0.6%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 83,384 people living in the parish. 55.9% were White, 41.3% Black or African American, 0.4% Asian, 0.3% Native American, 0.8% of some other race and 1.3% of two or more races. 1.6% were Hispanic or Latino (of any race)  As of the census of 2000, there were 87,700 people, 32,328 households, and 23,211 families living in the parish. The population density was 94 people per square mile (36/km2). There were 36,216 housing units at an average density of 39 per square mile (15/km2). The racial makeup of the parish was 56.51% White, 42.13% Black or African American, 0.14% Native American, 0.20% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.31% from other races, and 0.70% from two or more races. 0.91% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 16.7% reported speaking French or Cajun French at home.  There were 32,328 households out of which 36.10% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.30% were married couples living together, 17.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.20% were non-families. 25.40% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21.  In the parish the population was spread out with 29.50% under the age of 18, 9.20% from 18 to 24, 26.50% from 25 to 44, 21.40% from 45 to 64, and 13.40% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 91.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.80 males.  The median income for a household in the parish was $22,855, and the median income for a family was $28,908. Males had a median income of $29,458 versus $18,473 for females. The per capita income for the parish was $12,042. About 24.70% of families and 29.30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37.70% of those under age 18 and 27.50% of those age 65 or over.

National Guard.

D Company 3-156TH Infantry Battalion resides in Opelousas. This unit, as part of 256TH IBCT, deployed twice to Iraq, in 2004-5 and 2010.

Education.

St. Landry Parish is served by the St. Landry Parish School Board  St. Landry Parish is also served by the Diocese of Lafayette with five schools:  Additionally, St. Landry Parish is served by four unaffiliated private school:  St. Landry Parish is served by one institution of higher education:  The author is one of the descendants of "Alexandre of Attakapas", Nezat Alexandre, born 1781 in Attakapas Post and died 1824

Resources.

(Source Hebert).

External links.

Geology

St. Landry Parish () is a parish located in the U.S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 83,384. The parish seat is Opelousas. The parish was created in 1807.

圣兰德堂区(英语:St. Landry Parish)是位于美国路易斯安那州中南部的一个堂区,中间被伊比利亚堂区分成两份。面积2,432平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口87,700人。治所奥珀卢萨斯。


Features.

Isabelle is generic: it provides a meta-logic (a weak type theory), which is used to encode object logics like first-order logic (FOL), higher-order logic (HOL) or Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZFC). The most widely used object logic is Isabelle/HOL, although significant set theory developments were completed in Isabelle/ZF. Isabelle's main proof method is a higher-order version of resolution, based on higher-order unification.  Though interactive, Isabelle features efficient automatic reasoning tools, such as a term rewriting engine and a tableaux prover, various decision procedures, and, through the Sledgehammer proof-automation interface, external satisfiability modulo theories (SMT) solvers (including CVC4) and resolution-based automated theorem provers (ATPs), including E and SPASS (the Metis proof method reconstructs resolution proofs generated by these ATPs). It also features two model finders (counterexample generators): Nitpick and Nunchaku.  Isabelle features locales which are modules that structure large proofs. A locale fixes types, constants, and assumptions within a specified scope so that they do not have to be repeated for every lemma.  Isar ("intelligible semi-automated reasoning") is Isabelle's formal proof language. It is inspired by the Mizar system.  Isabelle has been used to formalize numerous theorems from mathematics and computer science, like Gödel's completeness theorem, Gödel's theorem about the consistency of the axiom of choice, the prime number theorem, correctness of security protocols, and properties of programming language semantics. Many of the formal proofs are maintained in the Archive of Formal Proofs, which contains (as of 2019) at least 500 articles with over 2 million lines of proof in total.  The Isabelle theorem prover is free software, released under the revised BSD license.  Isabelle was named by Lawrence Paulson after Gérard Huet's daughter.

Example proof.

Isabelle allows proofs to be written in two different styles, the procedural and the declarative. Procedural proofs specify a series of tactics (theorem proving functions/procedures) to apply; while reflecting the procedure that a human mathematician might apply to proving a result, they are typically hard to read as they do not describe the outcome of these steps. Declarative proofs (supported by Isabelle's proof language, Isar), on the other hand, specify the actual mathematical operations to be performed, and are therefore more easily read and checked by humans.  The procedural style has been deprecated in recent versions of Isabelle.  For example, a declarative proof by contradiction in Isar that the square root of two is not rational can be written as follows.

Applications.

Isabelle has been used to aid formal methods for the specification, development and verification of software and hardware systems.  Larry Paulson keeps a list of research projects that use Isabelle.

Alternatives.

Several proof assistants provide similar functionality to Isabelle, including:

The Isabelle automated theorem prover is an interactive theorem prover, a higher order logic (HOL) theorem prover. It is an LCF-style theorem prover (written in Standard ML). It is thus based on small logical core (kernel) to increase the trustworthiness of proofs without requiring (yet supporting) explicit proof objects.

Isabelle 是一个基于高阶逻辑(higher-order logic)的通用交互式定理证明器。它是一个 LCF(Logic for Computable Functions)风格的证明辅助工具,使用 Standard ML 语言实现。它拥有一个极小化的逻辑核心;这意味着使用它的证明和形式化验证具有较强的的可信度。


阿奇博尔德·韦维尔,第一代韦维尔伯爵

Early life.

Born the son of Archibald Graham Wavell (who later became a major general in the British Army and military commander of Johannesburg after its capture during the Second Boer War) and Lillie Wavell (née Percival), Wavell attended Eaton House, followed by the leading preparatory boarding school Summer Fields near Oxford, Winchester College, where he was a scholar, and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. His headmaster, Dr. Fearon, had advised his father that there was no need to send him into the Army as he had "sufficient ability to make his way in other walks of life".

Early career.

After graduating from Sandhurst, Wavell was commissioned into the British Army on 8 May 1901 as a second lieutenant in the Black Watch, and joined the 2nd battalion of his regiment in South Africa to fight in the Second Boer War. The battalion stayed in South Africa throughout the war, which formally ended in June 1902 after the Peace of Vereeniging. Wavell was ill, and did not immediately join the battalion as it transferred to British India in October that year; he instead left Cape Town for England on the SS "Simla" at the same time. In 1903 he was transferred to join the battalion in India and, having been promoted to lieutenant on 13 August 1904, he fought in the Bazar Valley Campaign of February 1908. In January 1909 was seconded from his regiment to be a student at the Staff College. He was one of only two in his class to graduate with an A grade. In 1911, he spent a year as a military observer with the Russian Army to learn Russian, returning to his regiment in December of that year. In April 1912 he became a General Staff Officer Grade 3 (GSO3) in the Russian Section of the War Office. In July, he was granted the temporary rank of captain and became GSO3 at the Directorate of Military Training. On 20 March 1913 Wavell was promoted to the substantive rank of captain. After visiting manoeuvres at Kiev in summer 1913, he was arrested at the Russo-Polish border as a suspected spy, following a search of his Moscow hotel room by the secret police, but managed to remove from his papers an incriminating document listing the information wanted by the War Office.  Wavell was working at the War Office during the Curragh incident. His letters to his father record his disgust at the Government's behaviour in giving an ultimatum to officers – he had little doubt that the Government had been planning to crush the Ulster Scots, whatever they later claimed. However, he was also concerned at the Army's effectively intervening in politics, not least as there would be an even greater appearance of bias when the Army was used against industrial unrest.

First World War.

Wavell was working as a staff officer when the First World War began. As a captain, he was sent to France to a posting at General HQ of the British Expeditionary Force as General Staff Officer Grade 2 (GSO2), but shortly afterwards, in November 1914, was appointed brigade major of 9th Infantry Brigade. He was wounded in the Second Battle of Ypres of 1915, losing his left eye and winning the Military Cross. In October 1915 he became a GSO2 in the 64th Highland Division.  In December 1915, after he had recovered, Wavell was returned to General HQ in France as a GSO2. He was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 8 May 1916. In October 1916 Wavell was graded General Staff Officer Grade 1 (GSO1) as an acting lieutenant colonel, and was then assigned as a liaison officer to the Russian Army in the Caucasus. In June 1917, he was promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel and continued to work as a staff officer (GSO1), as liaison officer with the Egyptian Expeditionary Force headquarters.  In January 1918 Wavell received a further staff appointment as Assistant Adjutant & Quartermaster General (AA&QMG) working at the Supreme War Council in Versailles. In March 1918 Wavell was made a temporary brigadier general and returned to Palestine where he served as the brigadier general of the General Staff (BGGS) with XX Corps, part of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force.

Between the world wars.

Wavell was given a number of assignments between the wars, though like many officers he had to accept a reduction in rank. In May 1920 he relinquished the temporary rank of Brigadier-General, reverting to brevet lieutenant colonel. In December 1921, still a brevet lieutenant colonel, he became an Assistant Adjutant General (AAG) at the War Office and, having been promoted to full colonel on 3 June 1921, he became a GSO1 in the Directorate of Military Operations in July 1923.  Apart from a short period unemployed on half pay in 1926, Wavell continued to hold GSO1 appointments, latterly in the 3rd Infantry Division, until July 1930 when he was once again granted the rank of temporary brigadier and was given command of 6th Infantry Brigade. In March 1932, he was appointed ADC to the King, a position he held until October 1933 when he was promoted to Major-General. However, there was a shortage of jobs for Major-Generals at this time and in January 1934, on relinquishing command of his brigade, he found himself unemployed on half pay once again.  By the end of the year, although still on half pay, Wavell had been designated to command 2nd Division and appointed a CB. In March 1935, he took command of his division. In August 1937 he was transferred to Palestine, where there was growing unrest, to be General Officer Commanding (GOC) British Forces in Palestine and Trans-Jordan and was promoted to Lieutenant-General on 21 January 1938.  In April 1938 Wavell became General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) Southern Command in the UK. In July 1939, he was named as General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of Middle East Command with the local rank of full General. Subsequently, on 15 February 1940, to reflect the broadening of his oversight responsibilities to include East Africa, Greece and the Balkans, his title was changed to Commander-in-Chief Middle East.

Second World War military commands.

Middle East Command.

The Middle Eastern theatre was quiet for the first few months of the war until Italy's declaration of war in June 1940. The Italian forces in North and East Africa greatly outnumbered the British and Wavell's policy was therefore one of "flexible containment" to buy time to build up adequate forces to take the offensive. Having fallen back in front of Italian advances from Libya, Eritrea and Ethiopia, Wavell mounted successful offensives into Libya (Operation Compass) in December 1940 and Eritrea and Ethiopia in January 1941. By February 1941, his Western Desert Force under Lieutenant General Richard O'Connor had defeated the Italian Tenth Army at Beda Fomm taking 130,000 prisoners and appeared to be on the verge of overrunning the last Italian forces in Libya, which would have ended all direct Axis control in North Africa. His troops in East Africa also had the Italians under pressure and at the end of March his forces in Eritrea under William Platt won the decisive battle of the campaign at Keren which led to the occupation of the Italian colonies in Ethiopia and Somaliland.  Events in Greece provoked a pro-Axis faction to take over the government of Iraq. Wavell, hard pressed on his other fronts, was unwilling to divert precious resources to Iraq and so it fell to Claude Auchinleck's India Command to send troops to Basra. Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, saw Iraq as vital to Britain's strategic interests and in early May, under heavy pressure from London, Wavell agreed to send a division-sized force across the desert from Palestine to relieve the besieged British air base at Habbaniya and to assume overall control of troops in Iraq. By the end of May Quinan's forces in Iraq had captured Baghdad and the Anglo-Iraqi War had ended with troops in Iraq once more reverting to the overall control of GHQ in Delhi. However, Churchill had been unimpressed by Wavell's reluctance to act.  In early June Wavell sent a force under General Wilson to invade Syria and Lebanon, responding to the help given by the Vichy France authorities there to the Iraq Government during the Anglo-Iraqi War. Initial hopes of a quick victory faded as the French put up a determined defence. Churchill determined to relieve Wavell and after the failure in mid June of Operation Battleaxe, intended to relieve Tobruk, he told Wavell on 20 June that he was to be replaced by Auchinleck, whose attitude during the Iraq crisis had impressed him. Rommel rated Wavell highly, despite Wavell's lack of success against him.  Of Wavell, Auchinleck wrote: "In no sense do I wish to infer that I found an unsatisfactory situation on my arrival – far from it. Not only was I greatly impressed by the solid foundations laid by my predecessor, but I was also able the better to appreciate the vastness of the problems with which he had been confronted and the greatness of his achievements, in a command in which some 40 different languages are spoken by the British and Allied Forces."

India Command.

Wavell in effect swapped jobs with Auchinleck, transferring to India where he became Commander-in-Chief, India and a member of the Governor General's Executive Council. Initially his command covered India and Iraq so that within a month of taking charge he launched Iraqforce to invade Persia in co-operation with the Russians in order to secure the oilfields and the lines of communication to the Soviet Union.  Wavell once again had the misfortune of being placed in charge of an undermanned theatre which became a war zone when the Japanese declared war on the United Kingdom in December 1941. He was made Commander-in-Chief of ABDACOM (American-British-Dutch-Australian Command).  Late at night on 10 February 1942, Wavell prepared to board a flying boat, to fly from Singapore to Java. He stepped out of a staff car, not noticing (because of his blind left eye) that it was parked at the edge of a pier. He broke two bones in his back when he fell, and this injury affected his temperament for some time.  On 23 February 1942, with Malaya lost and the Allied position in Java and Sumatra precarious, ABDACOM was closed down and its headquarters in Java evacuated. Wavell returned to India to resume his position as C-in-C India where his responsibilities now included the defence of Burma. On 23 February British forces in Burma had suffered a serious setback when Major-General Jackie Smyth's decision to destroy the bridge over the Sittang river to prevent the enemy crossing had resulted in most of his division being trapped on the wrong side of the river. The Viceroy Lord Linlithgow sent a signal criticising the conduct of the field commanders to Churchill who forwarded it to Wavell together with an offer to send Harold Alexander, who had commanded the rearguard at Dunkirk. Alexander took command of Allied land forces in Burma in early March with William Slim arriving shortly afterwards from commanding a division in Iraq to take command of its principal formation, Burma Corps. Nevertheless, the pressure from the Japanese Armies was unstoppable and a withdrawal to India was ordered which was completed by the end of May before the start of the monsoon season which brought Japanese progress to a halt.  In order to wrest some of the initiative from the Japanese, Wavell ordered the Eastern Army in India to mount an offensive in the Arakan, which commenced in September. After some initial success the Japanese counter-attacked, and by March 1943 the position was untenable, and the remnants of the attacking force was withdrawn. Wavell relieved the Eastern Army commander, Noel Irwin, of his command and replaced him with George Giffard.  In January 1943, Wavell was promoted to field marshal.  On 22 April Wavell returned to London. On 4 May he had an audience with the King, before departing with Churchill for America, returning on 27 May. He resided with (Sir) Henry 'Chips' Channon MP in Belgrave Square and was reintroduced into Society. Churchill nursed "an uncontrollable and unfortunate disapproval – indeed jealous dislike – of Wavell" and had several spats with him in America. On 15 June Churchill invited him to dinner and offered him the Viceroyalty of India, made public on 19 June (when his pay stopped, except for his field-marshal's emolument) until he assumed the Viceroyalty on 19 October. Lady Wavell joined him in London on 14 July, when they took up a suite at the Dorchester. He addressed an all-party meeting at the House of Commons on 27 July, and on 28 July took his seat in the House of Lords as "the Empire's hero".

Viceroy of India.

When Linlithgow retired as viceroy in the summer of 1943, Wavell was chosen to replace him. He himself was again replaced in his military post in June by Auchinleck, who by this point had also experienced setbacks in North Africa. In 1943, Wavell was created a viscount (taking the style Viscount Wavell of Cyrenaica and of Winchester, in the county of Southampton) and in September, he was formally named Governor-General and Viceroy of India.  One of Wavell's first actions in office was to address the Bengal famine of 1943 by ordering the army to distribute relief supplies to the starving rural Bengalis. He attempted with mixed success to increase the supplies of rice to reduce the prices. During his reign, Gandhi was leading the Quit India campaign, Mohammad Ali Jinnah was working for an independent state for the Muslims and Subhas Chandra Bose befriended Japan "and were pressing forward along India's Eastern border". Although Wavell was initially popular with Indian politicians, pressure mounted concerning the likely structure and timing of an independent India. He attempted to move the debate along but received little support from Churchill (who was against Indian independence), nor from Clement Attlee, Churchill's successor as Prime Minister. He was also hampered by the differences between the various Indian political factions. At the end of the war, rising Indian expectations continued to be unfulfilled, and inter-communal violence increased. Eventually, in 1947, Attlee lost confidence in Wavell and replaced him with Lord Mountbatten of Burma.

Later life.

In 1947 Wavell returned to England and was made High Steward of Colchester. The same year, he was created Earl Wavell and given the additional title of Viscount Keren of Eritrea and Winchester.  Wavell was a great lover of literature, and while Viceroy of India he compiled and annotated an anthology of great poetry, "Other Men's Flowers", which was published in 1944. He wrote the last poem in the anthology himself and described it as a "...little wayside dandelion of my own". He had a great memory for poetry and often quoted it at length. He is depicted in Evelyn Waugh's novel "Officers and Gentlemen", part of the Sword of Honour trilogy, reciting a translation of Callimachus' poetry in public. He was also a member of the Church of England and a deeply religious man.  Wavell died on 24 May 1950 after a relapse following abdominal surgery on 5 May. After his death, his body lay in state at the Tower of London where he had been Constable. A military funeral was held on 7 June 1950 with the funeral procession travelling along the Thames from the Tower to Westminster Pier and then to Westminster Abbey for the funeral service. This was the first military funeral by river since that of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson in 1806. The funeral was attended by the then Prime Minister Clement Attlee as well as Lord Halifax and fellow officers including Field Marshals Alanbrooke and Montgomery. Winston Churchill did not attend the service.  Wavell is buried in the old mediaeval cloister at Winchester College, next to the Chantry Chapel. His tombstone simply bears the inscription "Wavell". A plaque was placed in the north nave aisle of Winchester Cathedral to commemorate both Wavell and his son. St Andrew's Garrison Church, Aldershot, an Army church, contains a large wooden plaque dedicated to Lord Wavell.

Family.

Wavell married Eugenie Marie Quirk, only daughter of Col. J. O. Quirk CB DSO, on 22 April 1915. She survived him and died, as Dowager Countess Wavell, on 11 October 1987, aged 100 years.  Children:

Honours and awards.

Ribbon bar (as it would look today)

Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell, (5 May 1883 – 24 May 1950) was a senior officer of the British Army. He served in the Second Boer War, the Bazar Valley Campaign and World War I, during which he was wounded in the Second Battle of Ypres. He served in the Second World War, initially as Commander-in-Chief Middle East, in which role he led British forces to victory over the Italians in western Egypt and eastern Libya during Operation Compass in December 1940, only to be defeated by the German Army in the Western Desert in April 1941. He served as Commander-in-Chief, India, from July 1941 until June 1943 (apart from a brief tour as Commander of ABDACOM) and then served as Viceroy of India until his retirement in February 1947.

阿奇博尔德·珀西瓦尔·韦维尔,第一代韦维尔伯爵(英语:Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell,1883年-5月5日-1950年-5月24日)GCB, GCSI, GCIE, CMG, MC, PC 英国陆军元帅,二战中任中东英军司令部总司令。曾于第一次世界大战中被打瞎左眼。在非洲用5万的英军大破意大利军队30万,俘虏13万兵而出名。后来丘吉尔插手指挥而败于隆美尔,后转任东南亚战区最高司令,但军备不足而败于日本的寺内寿一部。1943年8月,韦维尔被调职,改以蒙巴顿为东南亚战区最高司令至终战。


Gameplay.

"Phantasy Star" is a traditional Japanese role-playing game. It alters between a top-down perspective when the player is exploring the overworld, and changes to a first-person view when engaged in battle or exploring dungeons. The dungeons are long and twisted, and require the player to map most of them on paper. When exploring the overworld, the player can venture into a town to buy items and weapons. Outside the towns, monsters may randomly engage the player in battle. The player controls the main character Alis, and as the game progresses, other characters are recruited to her party: a wizard named Noah, a warrior Odin, and a talking cat-like creature named Myau. Each character has different strengths, weaknesses, and abilities. The party has a shared inventory of items and equipment.  When encountering enemies, all party members enter into battle. Battles are handled using a menu system which allows the player to fight or attempt to talk and negotiate with an enemy. When an enemy is defeated, party members gain experience points and are rewarded with a treasure chest that may contain money or a booby trap. As the characters gain experience points, they increase in level, gaining access to new magic spells and raising their offensive and defensive statistics.

Plot.

"Phantasy Star" is set in the Algol star system which consists of three planets: the lush and green Palma, the arid and barren Motavia, and the icy and desolate Dezoris. Algol is ruled by King Lassic, who while originally benevolent, becomes a cruel, sociopathic tyrant. After a string of harsh political changes, small pockets of rebellion emerge but are mostly ineffective against Lassic's iron rule. One such rebel named Nero is killed by Lassic's forces, and his sister Alis swears revenge. Alis builds a party of adventurers including a warrior named Odin, a wizard named Noah, and a catlike creature named Myau. Together, they embark on an adventure spanning the three planets, meeting with townspeople, battling enemies, and finding special items that will help in the fight against Lassic. Eventually, the party engages and defeats Lassic, after which an ethereal voice tells them to return to Motavia. There, they encounter a more evil force, Dark Falz, and after destroying him, finally return peace to the Algol system.

Development.

Background.

Role-playing games (RPG) were beginning to gain popularity with console players in Japan in the late 1980s. Many Japanese game designers were inspired by Western RPGs such as "Ultima" and "Wizardry." Enix's "Dragon Quest" series was proving to be very popular on the Famicom, inspiring other developers to design similar games. Falcom began development on "", as Square was doing the same with "Final Fantasy". Around the release of "Dragon Quest II" in January 1987, Sega felt they needed an RPG for their Master System to compete in this emerging market. They believed they could not rely on third-party support because Sega's hardware market share was only one-tenth that of Nintendo's. They looked internally and found designer Kotaro Hayashida and programmer Yuji Naka were interested in creating an RPG. They had previously been recognized for their work within Sega — Hayashida for "Alex Kidd in Miracle World" (1986), and Naka for his 8-bit home console conversions of arcade games like "Out Run" and "Space Harrier". With Sega's approval, Hayashida and Naka began forming a team to develop an RPG.  The team consisted of around ten people. Hayashida was lead designer and Naka was lead programmer. Other staff members from "Miracle World" joined the project including lead graphic designer Rieko Kodama, and composer Tokuhiko Uwabo. There were more women on the development team than was typical at the time. Among them were Kodama, who drew most of the artwork, designer Miki Morimoto, who did much of the playtesting and enemy statistics configuration, and Chieko Aoki, who wrote the game's original story and script. Aoki had already been working on an original story with most of the dialogue already completed, and this became the first draft for the RPG project. The game would be character designer Naoto Ohshima's first project at Sega. Although there was no team director, Hayashida believes he had the largest role in shaping the game as lead designer and scenario writer, although Ohshima recalls Naka leading the project. The name "Phantasy Star" was formed after Naka took the word "Fantasy" from a song he enjoyed titled "Nagisa no Fantasy" by Noriko Sakai. The team shared the same room, so they could see each other's work. They were given the freedom to build the game how they wanted without restrictions, which Hayashida believes led to them enjoying themselves more and producing a higher quality game in the end.

Production.

The team wanted "Phantasy Star" to be different from other RPGs. They took many new approaches to the design of the game and its art to provide a unique experience. One approach was with the setting. The team was strongly influenced by "Star Wars" and how it combined Western culture with Japanese touches, such as how clothing resembled judo uniforms, and lightsabers were used like samurai swords. Kodama took this approach and designed the world of "Phantasy Star" using a science fiction motif mixed with medieval fantasy elements. Rather than use an airship to navigate over mountainous landscape, something common in other games, they added in a vehicle that could mow down impassable terrain. The team also added detailed event scenes, and animated monsters to help set the game apart. Their philosophy was to use extensive animation, so the ocean and walkways on the world map are always moving. Because the Master System could not draw large sprites, some parts of large characters were drawn to the background and only the animated portions were drawn as sprites. Another unique addition to "Phantasy Star" was the 3D dungeons. They became a central concept in the game's early planning stages, in part because the Famicom was incapable of handling them. The team drew inspiration from Western dungeon crawling RPGs like "Wizardry" and wanted to add animated navigation to help the player know their location and orientation more easily. Naka had experimented with creating dungeons inspired by these RPGs. Typically these scenes were rendered in small boxes, so Naka was motivated to engineer a full-screen dungeon that could be used for an action game or an RPG. Originally the artists were drawing full 2D backgrounds using a 3D perspective, but the number of frames necessary to achieve the animated effect used too much space on the cartridge. Naka solved this by programming true wireframe 3D dungeons. The artists then used a program by Naka to superimpose their art on top of the wireframes. They also saved three-quarters of the memory they would normally need by making each quadrant of the screen identical. The new dungeons scrolled faster than expected and needed to be slowed down.  The female heroine, Alis, was a sharp contrast compared with the typical male protagonists of other RPGs. Kodama had designed female characters before but never one in a strong and prominent role. This was an uncommon portrayal when games at the time usually had a damsel in distress. Kodama went through about a dozen designs until she achieved a strong but feminine character, one with whom female gamers could empathize. Noah was also designed by Kodama, as a mysterious and intelligent character. In the original draft, Noah was an androgynous character and would become male or female depending on how the player progressed. Eventually, it was decided the character would be male. Ohshima designed Odin because Kodama did not enjoy drawing muscular men. Kodama envisioned the visual contrast between Noah and Odin as comparable to that between Raistlin Majere and Caramon Majere in the "Dragonlance" book series. Ohshima was also responsible for a third of the monster designs, at most. The lead monster designer enjoyed classic fantasy monsters such as golems and Medusa, so these types of characters appeared in the final game. Myau was designed by Takako Kawaguchi.  At four megabits, the game's data was large for the time. "Phantasy Star" was only the second game for the Master System to use a chip this large. It was one of four games where it would be used. In spite of the chip's capacity, the team made many compromises to save space. The original story featured four planets, but this was reduced to three. The artists had to make compromises with the backgrounds and battle animations. Background scenes were mirrored vertically to save space. This created inconsistencies with shadowing. There were plans for a password system to save progress, but this was cut due to memory limitations; batteries were used instead. The team wanted to have a password feature as a failsafe in case saving the data corrupted it as was often the case in playtests. Instead, Naka programmed a backup of the save data that could be used to restore a corrupted save file.  Composer Uwabo noted that the game was developed during the Japanese economic bubble, which fueled his enthusiasm which he believes is reflected in the music. The game was compatible with the Master System FM synthesis expansion unit which housed a Yamaha YM2413 chip that added nine more mono channels to the console's programmable sound generator (PSG), the SN76489. The expansion gave the soundtrack a wider range and heavier bass. The unit was not released outside Japan.

Release.

"Phantasy Star" was first released in Japan for the Master System on December 20, 1987, two days after "Final Fantasy" was released for the Famicom. The game was released in the West in November 1988, introducing players outside Japan to the emerging JRPG scene, having been localized before "Dragon Quest" or "Final Fantasy". It was the most expensive game for the Master System in every market, its price being driven by the large 4 megabit chip, the save battery, and a concurrent chip shortage across the industry. In Japan, the game was difficult to find in stores. Sega often got requests from fans for a Mega Drive port, so they eventually shipped a limited release for the Mega Drive as part of a contest in 1994. This version was identical to the Master System version but lacked FM sound enhancements. Tectoy translated the Master System version to Portuguese and released it in Brazil in 1991. Since the original Western release retained the text formatting of the Japanese version, it used fewer characters than a proper English translation required. In 2008, fans modified the text engine to fit longer lines of dialogue, and released a newly translated version with the Japanese FM soundtrack as well.  A series of "Phantasy Star" compilations were released for the Sega Saturn, Game Boy Advance, and PlayStation 2. The Saturn version was released in 1998. It includes both hiragana and katakana alphabets, an improvement from the original which had only katakana due to limited memory. The 2008 PlayStation 2 version is based on the Saturn version and has additional features. The Game Boy Advance compilation was a straight emulation and was the only compilation released outside Japan. "Phantasy Star" also appeared in emulated form on "Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection" for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, and on the Wii via the Virtual Console in 2009. In 2018, a port developed by M2 was released through the "Sega Ages" label for the Nintendo Switch. This version includes enhancements such as options to make the game easier and faster, guides for items, spells, and monsters, the FM soundtrack, hiragana support, and a dungeon auto-mapping feature. Naka's tricky programming efficiencies to save memory in the original proved difficult for the programmers handling the port. "Phantasy Star" was remade for the PlayStation 2 as "Phantasy Star Generation: 1" and released on August 28, 2003, in Japan. It was the inaugural release in the "Sega Ages 2500" series, Sega's budget label for re-releasing old games for the PlayStation 2. The remake features new graphics, real-time 3D dungeons, new music, and more cutscenes with extended dialogue. The battles now depict all the characters. Conspiracy Entertainment planned an American release as part of a "Phantasy Star Trilogy" pack, including remakes of "Phantasy Star II" and "" but it never happened. After the remake of "II" was released in Japan, the remake of "IV" was canceled, thus the trilogy set was also canceled. The two remakes were released on the PlayStation Network in Japan as PS2 Classics in 2014. A complete fan translation of "Phantasy Star Generation: 1" was released by fan site Phantasy Star Cave.

Reception.

"Phantasy Star" was well received. "Computer Gaming World" called it "the big shot in the arm for Sega [...] who was, at that time, being buried under a ton of NES titles and aggressive marketing". "Electronic Game Player" felt the game was leading the industry into a new era of console RPGs. "Sega Pro" called it the best RPG on the Master System, and "Zzap!" called it a must-have for RPG fans. "Boys' Life" wrote that along with "The Legend of Zelda" series, ""Phantasy Star" may represent the future of home video games" by combining "the graphic quality of arcade games with the complexity of computer games".  The game was commended for its strategy, puzzles, and challenge. "VideoGames & Computer Entertainment" and "S: The Sega Magazine" praised the game for being easy to play and not relying on quick action reflexes. Critics liked the variety of monsters and the combat system. "Computer Gaming World" wrote that "not since "Dungeon Master" had such a good and explicit graphic combat system been seen". "Computer Entertainer" felt the game's large scope and deep gameplay was more typically seen in computer games than on consoles. This large scope made critics thankful for the cart's battery back-up, an unusual hardware feature at the time. The save battery and complex gameplay led some critics to compare "Phantasy Star" to "The Legend of Zelda" (1986).  Critics praised the game for its presentation, building a grand sense of adventure and atmosphere. "VideoGames & Computer Entertainment" commended the mix of science fiction and fantasy elements, and felt it had a grander scale than other RPGs. "Electronic Game Player" wrote that the atmosphere was "simply breathtaking by current video game standards". The graphics were enjoyed by many reviewers, especially for their vivid colors and animation; the monster animations, in particular, received considerable positive attention. Many reviewers enjoyed the dungeons, thinking the lighting and perspective effects made for a realistic presentation. "Electronic Game Player" called "Phantasy Star" a "visual tour-de-force" and "so technologically superior in graphics, that the Nintendo titles pale by comparison". "Zzap!" called it a technical achievement considering the Master System's hardware limitations. It was awarded Best Graphics for 1988 by "Electronic Gaming Monthly"s Player's Choice Awards.  The game was difficult to recommend for some because of its high price. "Computer Entertainer" found the purchase difficult to justify as it was the highest price they had ever seen for a game on any cartridge-based system or disk-based computer. "Computer and Video Games" felt they could only recommend it for hardcore RPG fans for this reason. "VideoGames & Computer Entertainment", however, called it "such a remarkable video game that it may justify its existence as the most expensive cartridge on the shelf."

Retrospective reviews.

"Phantasy Star" was reviewed again for its re-releases. Most critics continued to hold the graphics in high regard. "GameSpot" and "G-Force" wrote that the graphics pushed the Master System to its limits, and helped set the game apart in its time. "RPGFan" and "Nintendo Life" called the 3D dungeons "revolutionary". "Nintendo Life" felt that the graphics did show their age, but noted that it "looks much better than an 8-bit RPG has any right to and it easily surpasses any NES effort of the era". "1UP.com" and "IGN" agreed, writing that it outclassed both the original "Final Fantasy" and "Dragon Quest". Some critics commented that the game felt too standard compared to modern RPGs. Some also felt it was more difficult and dull than modern offerings due to heavier grinding. The Game Boy Advance version was commended for being a good emulation but criticized for poor sound and missed opportunities for enhancements. "Nintendo World Report" praised the Switch release for adding FM sound and enhancements to make for a more streamlined experience.

Legacy.

"Phantasy Star" is considered a landmark RPG; it has been called "revolutionary", "pioneering", and "ahead of its time". It is credited with helping to define the genre and introduce the West to console RPGs. "IGN" wrote: ""Phantasy Star" was the game that defined an entire generation's early experiences with the RPG genre as a whole, a role-playing adventure without equal at the time of its initial debut [...] a time when competition was virtually non-existent in the category". It has been called one of the best games on the Master System. "Nintendo Life" called it a killer app which "not only tested the hardware but also the boundaries and expectations of the genre". "Retro Gamer" called it "a key release for the genre's popularity in the West and a key reason to own a Master System".  In 1996 "Next Generation", listing the entire series as number 72 on their "Top 100 Games of All Time", opined that "the best game in the series is still the first... There was a lot more variety in the settings, a deeper storyline, and just plain more of everything." The following year it was ranked the 62nd best console video game of all time by "Electronic Gaming Monthly", the only appearance of a Master System game on the list. In 2001, "Game Informer" included it on its own list of greatest video games at #94. The staff praised it for its innovation and graphical superiority (specifically to "Dragon Warrior"). In 2006, "1UP" and "Electronic Gaming Monthly" placed it at #26 on "The Greatest 200 Videogames of Their Time" list, which puts it as the second highest-ranking RPG on the list, behind only "Phantasy Star Online" at #21.  The game introduced many elements that later became staples of the RPG genre. Its fusion of science fiction with medieval fantasy contrasted with the traditional fantasy seen in other RPGs of its era. "Nintendo Power" explained that "Phantasy Star" "was the first RPG to break out of the "Dragon Quest" / "Dungeons & Dragons" mold of generic Arthurian fantasy by introducing sci-fi elements". The inclusion of pre-defined characters with unique personalities and abilities in the game is also considered revolutionary when compared to the customizable characters in other RPGs. The graphics are considered ahead of their time, particularly the 3D dungeons and monster animations. It was also one of the earliest video games to feature a female protagonist, which "Nintendo Life" called "perhaps [its] most revolutionary aspect".  "Phantasy Star" launched the careers of its staff. Some worked on a series of sequels starting on the Mega Drive, known as some of the best RPGs of their era. Both programmer Yuji Naka and artist Rieko Kodama worked on the sequel "Phantasy Star II" (1989),"" and Kodama directed "" (1993), considered by some to be one of the greatest games ever made. She later served as producer on "Skies of Arcadia" (2000), a critically acclaimed RPG for the Dreamcast. Meanwhile, Naka served as producer on "Phantasy Star Online" (2000), the first online RPG for home consoles. Character designer Naoto Ohshima went on to create the character Sonic the Hedgehog and collaborated with Naka on several games including "Sonic the Hedgehog" (1991), "Nights into Dreams" (1996) and "Burning Rangers" (1998)"."

Sega launched the development of "Phantasy Star" so their Master System could compete with the burgeoning popularity of console RPGs, particularly "Dragon Quest" (1986) on the Famicom. Designer Kotaro Hayashida and programmer Yuji Naka formed a team, staffed by a large number of women for the time, including graphic designer Rieko Kodama. The team wanted "Phantasy Star" to be a unique RPG experience, so added elements like 3D dungeon crawling, a female protagonist, and ample animation. The game's setting was a fusion between medieval fantasy and science fiction, an idea inspired by "Star Wars". The team had to use several techniques to fit all their content on a four megabit cartridge, a large game size for the time.

是世嘉《梦幻之星系列》的首部作品。1987年12月20日于日本发行,适用世嘉Master System游戏机。它被认为是角色扮演电子游戏的先驱者之一,不仅图形处理技术在当时领先,还是首部在西方发行的故事类游戏。它还是最早以女性作主角的游戏之一。后来,该游戏还被移植至世嘉土星、PlayStation 2和Wii等平台上。


Architecture.

The Brienner Straße starts at "Odeonsplatz" on the northern fringe of the Old Town close to the Residenz, and runs from east to west passing "Wittelsbacher Platz" and the circular "Karolinenplatz" and finally opens into the impressive "Königsplatz", designed with the "Doric" "Propylaea", the "Ionic" "Glyptothek" and the "Corinthian" "State Museum of Classical Art", behind which St. Boniface's Abbey was erected. In the westernmost part of the Brienner Straße, between Königsplatz and Stiglmeierplatz, the Munich "Volkstheater" (People's Theatre) was founded in 1983.  The area around Königsplatz is home to the Kunstareal, Munich's gallery and museum quarter, also including the "Alte Pinakothek," the "Neue Pinakothek," the "Pinakothek der Moderne" and the "Lenbachhaus".  The Obelisk at "Karolinenplatz" was built in 1833 by Leo von Klenze as a memorial for the 30,000 Bavarian soldiers who lost their lives during the French invasion of Russia. The monument is 29 meters high and constructed out of bronze plates over brick. The metal was obtained from guns of the Turkish battle-ships sunk in the Battle of Navarino on October 20, 1827. The purpose of the "Amerika Haus" at 3 Karolinenplatz is to focus on culture as a center for cultural exchange between Bavaria and the United States. The Börse München is also situated at Karolinenplatz.  The "Wittelsbacherplatz" with its ensemble of Neo-Classical buildings was designed by Leo von Klenze. The square is bounded on the north side by the "Palais Ludwig Ferdinand", built in 1825–26 as a home for von Klenze himself but later acquired by Prince Ludwig Ferdinand of Bavaria. The mansion serves today as the head office of the Siemens Corporation. On the west side stands the "Palais Arco-Zinneberg" (1820), which was also badly damaged in the last war. The former concert hall "Odeon", present home of the Bavarian Ministry of the Interior, bounds the square on its northeast side.  Most of the avenue's mansions were also erected in strict Neo-Classical style, such as the "Almeida Palais" (by Jean Baptist Métivier, 1824). Several buildings were destroyed during World War II. The opening in the middle of the Brienner Strasse for the new circular road "Altstadtring" after World War II severely disturbs the ensemble.

Brienner Straße during the Third Reich.

As a beautiful and monumental place, the Königplatz was used during the Third Reich as a square for the Nazi Party's mass rallies and two "Honor Temples" ("Ehrentempel") were erected at the east side. The "Brown House", the national headquarters of the Nazi Party ("Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei") in Germany was located at 45 Brienner Straße. The former "Wittelsbacher Palais" nearby served as headquarter for the Gestapo.  In December 2005 the government of Bavaria announced that the site would soon become the home of the future "NS-Dokumentationszentrum" ("Documentation Centre for the History of National Socialism"). In March 2009, Munich Mayor Christian Ude announced that a team of architects from Berlin had won a competition to design the new Third Reich documentation center. Construction on the cube-like structure is set to begin in the spring of 2011.

The neoclassical Brienner Straße in Munich is one of four royal avenues next to the Ludwigstraße, the Maximilianstraße and the Prinzregentenstraße. The boulevard was constructed from 1812 onwards, during the reigns of Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and his successor Ludwig I, in accordance with a plan by Karl von Fischer and Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell. The avenue is named after the Battle of Brienne.

布林纳大街(Brienner Straße)是德国城市慕尼黑的4条皇家大道之一,兴建于1812年以后,设计者是马克西米利安一世统治时期的卡尔·冯费舍。


Plot.

In the north of Narnia, a clever and greedy ape named Shift persuades a well-meaning but simple-minded donkey called Puzzle to dress in a lion's skin (an echo from Aesop's story of The Ass in the Lion's Skin) and pretend to be the Great Lion Aslan. Using Puzzle as his pawn, Shift deceives many of the Narnians into serving the Calormenes and cutting down Talking Trees for lumber. The money will be paid into "Aslan's" treasury, held by Shift, on the pretext that it will be used for the good of the Narnians.  Narnia has had peace and prosperity since the reign of King Caspian X, but Roonwit the Centaur warns Tirian, the latest king of Narnia, that strange and evil things are happening to Narnia and that the stars portend ominous developments. Tirian and his friend Jewel the Unicorn hear word of the death of the Talking Trees and rashly set out to confront the danger, giving Roonwit instructions to go and gather a small army to join them. Finding two Calormenes abusing a Narnian Talking Horse, they kill them both in a blind rage; ashamed, they give themselves up to "Aslan". Awaiting judgement, Tirian recognises the farce that Shift has fabricated in league with the talking cat Ginger and the Calormene warlord Rishda Tarkaan: the lie that Aslan and the Calormene god Tash are one and the same. When he accuses the ape of lying, Tirian is tied to a tree for the night and will face judgment the following morning. He is treated by some of the woodland creatures, who are sympathetic to his suffering, but they can't bring themselves to go against "Aslan."  Tirian calls on Aslan for help and receives a vision of the "Friends of Narnia" gathered in our world – Professor Kirke, Polly Plummer, Peter Pevensie, Edmund Pevensie, Lucy Pevensie, Eustace Scrubb, and Jill Pole, though he does not know who they are. They also see Tirian and, though Tirian can't speak to them, they guess he is a messenger from Narnia. A few minutes later by Narnian time – but a week later from their perspective – Jill and Eustace arrive in Narnia. They release the King and rescue Jewel. Puzzle, realising his folly, joins them.  A band of Dwarfs are also rescued, but their faith in Aslan has been shattered and they refuse to help, proclaiming "the dwarfs are for the dwarfs". Only one Dwarf named Poggin is still faithful to Aslan and joins the group. Tirian learns that Shift and Rishda have unintentionally summoned the actual Tash to Narnia when he and the others see him travelling north. Farsight the Eagle arrives bearing grim news: Roonwit and the Narnian army have all been killed in battle and the Calormenes have taken Cair Paravel in Tirian's absence.  Tirian and his small force advance on the stable to expose the truth of Shift's deception. Shift and Rishda plan to weed out the troublemakers by forcing them into the stable to "meet Tashlan." But Ginger, sent in to aid in the deception, runs out in terror, having lost his ability to speak. Emeth, one of Rishda's men and a devout follower of Tash, insists on seeing his god. Rishda tries to dissuade him, but Emeth enters the stable. Angry at the deception in the name of Tash, he kills another soldier who was stationed in the stable to murder the rebellious Narnians, but then disappears.  Outside the stable, Tirian's group engages Shift and the Calormenes, but most of the remaining Narnians are all either killed or captured and sacrificed to Tash, by being thrown into the stable. Tirian throws Shift into the stable, and Tash, who has haunted the stable since Ginger briefly entered it, swallows the ape whole. This event frightens Rishda, who offers the remaining Narnians as sacrifices to Tash to avoid his god's wrath. But Tirian, left alone and fighting for his life, drags Rishda into the stable and finds himself in a vast and beautiful land. Tash appears, seizing Rishda, and advances on Tirian just as the Friends of Narnia appear, all dressed as kings and queens. (Susan does not appear, they explain, because she has stopped believing in Narnia, thinking it only a silly childhood game.) Peter in the name of Aslan orders Tash to return to his realm, and Tash vanishes with Rishda in his clutches. The faithless Dwarfs are present but cannot see they are in Aslan's country; they perceive themselves to be locked in an actual stable. Aslan demonstrates that, without faith, even he cannot help them.  The kings and queens bear witness to the end of the Narnian world. All the inhabitants, living and dead, gather outside the barn to be judged by Aslan; the faithful enter Aslan's Country while those who have opposed or deserted him become ordinary animals and vanish. The vegetation is eaten by dragons and giant lizards, and Father Time calls the stars down from the skies into the sea as it rises to cover Narnia. The land freezes when Father Time puts out the sun and the moon. Peter closes the door, and Aslan leads them to his country, telling them to go further up and further in. Soon they encounter Emeth; Aslan has accepted his faithful service to Tash because it was good and therefore truly done to Aslan, whereas Tash is only served by evil.  They find they are in a new, "real" version of Narnia. (Digory mentions Plato, whose Allegory of the Cave describes multiple levels of reality.) They move up a waterfall to gates where they are greeted by Reepicheep and meet/reunite with other characters from the earlier novels. They find they can see a "real" England, including the Pevensies' parents, parallelling the real Narnia. Aslan tells them that the English friends of Narnia and the Pevensies' parents have all died in a train crash. (Susan, who was not on the train, is the only surviving member of the family.) The series ends with the revelation that this was only the beginning of the true story, "which goes on for ever, and in which every chapter is better than the one before".

Reception.

Floyd C. Gale wrote in "Galaxy Science Fiction" that the book "is a delightful fantastic fable of the type which the English have excelled since—or perhaps because of—Lewis Carroll".

The Last Battle is a high fantasy novel for children by C. S. Lewis, published by The Bodley Head in 1956. It was the seventh and final novel in "The Chronicles of Narnia" (1950–1956). Like the other novels in the series, it was illustrated by Pauline Baynes and her work has been retained in many later editions.

《最后的战役》(英语:The Last Battle)是《纳尼亚传奇》系列小说的最后一本,按故事情节写也是最后一本,由英国作家C·S·路易斯于1950年代所著。


Early life and career.

Cao Pi was the eldest son of Cao Cao and his concubine Lady Bian, but he was the second among all of Cao Cao's sons. (The first was Cao Ang) At the time of Cao Pi's birth, Cao Cao was a mid-level officer in the imperial guards in the capital Luoyang, with no hint that he would go on to the great campaigns he eventually carried out after the collapse of the imperial government in 190. Cao Pi was recorded as excellent swordsman as he studied martial arts from Shi E, a gentleman of the household from the "Rapid as Tigers" () division of the imperial guards. In the period after 190 when Cao Cao was constantly waging war against other rival warlords, it is not known where Cao Pi and Lady Bian were, or what they did. The lone reference to Cao Pi during this period was in 204, when he took Yuan Xi's widow Lady Zhen as his wife.

Succession struggle with Cao Zhi.

The next immediate reference to Cao Pi's activities was in 211, when he was appointed General of the Household for All Purposes () and Vice Imperial Chancellor (). This position placed him second to his father, who was then Imperial Chancellor () and the "de facto" head of government in China. The eldest of all of Cao Cao's sons, Cao Ang, had died early, so Cao Pi was regarded as the eldest among all his father's sons. Besides, Cao Pi's mother had also become Cao Cao's official spouse after Cao Cao's first wife Lady Ding was deposed. Cao Pi thus became the presumptive heir to his father.  However, Cao Pi's status as heir was not immediately made legal, and for years there were lingering doubts on whom Cao Cao intended to make heir. Cao Cao greatly favoured Cao Zhi (his third son with Lady Bian), who was known for his literary talents. Both Cao Pi and Cao Zhi were talented poets, but Cao Zhi was more highly regarded as a poet and speaker. By 215, the brothers appeared to be in harmony with each other, but each had his own group of supporters and close associates engaging the other side in clandestine rivalry. Initially, Cao Zhi's party appeared to be prevailing, and in 216 they were successful in falsely accusing two officials supporting Cao Pi – Cui Yan and Mao Jie. Cui Yan was executed, while Mao Jie was deposed. However, the situation shifted after Cao Cao received advice from his strategist Jia Xu, who concluded that changing the general rules of succession (primogeniture) would be disruptive – using Yuan Shao and Liu Biao as negative examples. Cao Pi was also fostering his image among the people and created the sense that Cao Zhi was wasteful and lacking actual talent in governance. In 217, Cao Cao, who had received the title of a vassal king – King of Wei () – from Emperor Xian (whom he still paid nominal allegiance to), finally declared Cao Pi as his heir apparent (). Cao Pi would remain as such until his father's death in 220.

As King of Wei.

Cao Cao died in the spring of 220 in Luoyang. Even though Cao Pi had been his father's heir apparent for several years, there was initially some confusion as to what would happen next. The apprehension was particularly heightened when, after Cao Cao's death, the Qingzhou Corps under the general Zang Ba suddenly deserted, leaving Luoyang and returning home. Besides, Cao Pi's younger brother Cao Zhang (also born to Lady Bian) had arrived in Luoyang in a hurry, resulting in rumours that he was intending to seize power from his elder brother. Upon hearing these news at Cao Cao's headquarters at Ye (in present-day Handan, Hebei), Cao Pi hastily declared himself the new King of Wei () and issued an edict in the name of his mother Queen Dowager Bian, before receiving an official confirmation from Emperor Xian, to whom he still nominally paid allegiance. After Cao Pi's self-declaration, neither Cao Zhang nor any other individual took action against him. Cao Pi then ordered his brothers, including Cao Zhang and Cao Zhi, to return to their respective fiefs. With the help of Jiang Ji, the political situation soon stabilised.

As emperor of Cao Wei.

Succeeding Emperor Xian.

In the winter of 220, Cao Pi made his move for the imperial throne, strongly suggesting to Emperor Xian that he should yield the throne. Emperor Xian did so, and Cao Pi formally declined three times (a model that would be followed by future usurpers in Chinese history), and then finally accepted, establishing the state of Cao Wei. This event marked the official end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. The dethroned Emperor Xian was granted the title "Duke of Shanyang" (). Cao Pi granted posthumous titles of emperors to his grandfather Cao Song and his father Cao Cao, while his mother Queen Dowager Bian became empress dowager. He also moved the imperial capital from Xuchang to Luoyang.

Military failures against Sun Quan.

After news of Cao Pi's ascension (and an accompanying false rumour that Cao Pi had executed Emperor Xian) arrived in Liu Bei's domain of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), Liu Bei also declared himself emperor in 221, establishing the state of Shu Han. Sun Quan, who controlled the vast majority of southeastern and southern China, did not take any affirmative steps one way or another, leaving his options open.  An armed conflict between Liu Bei and Sun Quan quickly materialised, because in late 219 Sun Quan had sent his general Lü Meng to invade Jing Province and seize the territories from Liu Bei, which resulted in the death of Liu's general Guan Yu. To avoid having to fight on two fronts, Sun Quan formally paid allegiance to Cao Pi, expressing his willingness to become a vassal under Wei. Cao Pi's strategist Liu Ye suggested to reject and instead attack Sun Quan on a second front. This would effectively partition Sun Quan's domain with Shu, and would eventually allow Cao Pi to destroy Shu as well. Cao Pi declined this suggestion, in a fateful choice that most historians believe doomed his empire to ruling only the northern and central China; such an opportunity would not come again. Indeed, against Liu Ye's advice, Cao Pi granted Sun Quan the title "King of Wu" () and the nine bestowments.  Sun Quan's submission did not last long. After Sun Quan's forces, under the command of Lu Xun, defeated Shu forces at the Battle of Xiaoting in 222, Sun Quan began to distance himself from Wei. When Cao Pi demanded that Sun Quan send his heir apparent, Sun Deng, to Luoyang as a hostage, Sun Quan refused and formally broke ties with Wei. Cao Pi personally led an expedition against Sun Quan, and in response, Sun Quan declared independence from Wei, establishing the state of Eastern Wu (but he continued ruling as "King of Wu" and did not declare himself emperor until 229). By this time, having defeated Shu, the Wu forces enjoyed high morale and effective leadership from Sun Quan, Lu Xun and a number of other capable generals. Cao Pi's forces were not able to make significant advances against them despite several large-scale attacks in the next few years. The division of the former Han Empire into three states has become firmly established, particularly after Liu Bei's death in 223. The Shu chancellor Zhuge Liang, serving as regent for Liu Bei's son and successor Liu Shan, re-established the alliance with Wu, resulting in Wei having to defend itself on two fronts and unable to conquer either. Exasperated, Cao Pi made a famous comment in 225 that "Heaven created the Yangtze River to divide the north and the south."

Domestic matters.

Cao Pi was generally viewed as a competent, but unspectacular, administrator of his empire. He commissioned a number of capable officials to be in charge of various affairs of the empire, employing his father's general guidelines of valuing abilities over heritage. However, he was not open to criticism, and officials who dared to criticise him were often demoted and, on rare occasions, put to death.

Treatment of princes.

Since Cao Pi was still fearful and resentful of Cao Zhi, he soon had the latter's fief reduced in size and had a number of his associates executed. Ding Yi, who was chief among Cao Zhi's strategists, had his whole clan exterminated as a result of assisting the latter in the past. Cao Pi's younger brother, Cao Xiong, was also said to have committed suicide out of fears for his brother. In summary, under regulations established by Cao Pi, not only were the Wei princes (unlike princes of the Han dynasty) distanced from central politics, they also had minimal authority even in their own principalities and were restricted in many ways, particularly in the use of military force.

Treatment of officials.

Cao Pi was recorded to frequently ridicule his subordinates. For example, Yu Jin was captured by Liu Bei's general Guan Yu at the Battle of Fancheng in 219, and was later taken back to Wu and detained there after the Wu invasion of Jing Province. Yu Jin was allowed to return to Wei after Wu briefly became a vassal state under Wei in 221. Cao Pi reinstated Yu Jin as General Who Pacifies the Borders () and announced that he would send Yu Jin back to Eastern Wu – where he had been imprisoned – as an envoy. However, before Yu Jin's departure, he was instructed to travel to Ye to pay his respects at Cao Cao's tomb. When Yu Jin arrived, he found that the emperor had commissioned artists to paint, in his father's tomb, scenes of the Battle of Fancheng. These scenes showed Yu Jin begging for his life to be spared and succumbing to the victorious Guan Yu, while his subordinate Pang De was shown dying an honourable death by resisting the invading forces to his last breath. Upon seeing the vivid mural, Yu Jin was so filled with regret and shame that he fell ill and soon died. Cao Pi further gave the deceased Yu Jin a negative-sounding posthumous title, "Marquis Li" (), for people to remember the latter as the "stony marquis (or vicious marquis)". Wang Zhong, a general who followed Cao Cao for many years, was also a subject of ridicule by Cao Pi.

Succession issues and death.

An immediate issue after Cao Pi became emperor in 220 was who the empress would be. Lady Zhen was his wife. Cao Pi summoned Lady Zhen to Luoyang, but Lady Zhen refused because of her poor health. In 221 Lady Zhen died and the position of empress went to Guo Nüwang.  Guo Nüwang did not bear Cao Pi any children. Cao Rui was the eldest of Cao Pi's sons, but because of his mother's death, he was not instated as the crown prince. Instead, Cao Rui was appointed "Prince of Pingyuan" after his father's ascension to the throne. Cao Pi did not appear to have seriously considered any other son as heir. (It might have been because the other sons were all significantly younger, although their ages were not recorded in history.) In the summer of 226, when Cao Pi was seriously ill, he finally named Cao Rui as his crown prince. On his deathbed, he entrusted Cao Rui to the care of Cao Zhen, Chen Qun and Sima Yi. Following his father's death, Cao Rui ascended the throne at the age of 21.

In popular culture.

How Cao Pi became an emperor portrayed in "Secret of the Three Kingdoms" Cao Pi appears as a playable character in Koei's "Dynasty Warriors" and "Warriors Orochi" video game series. He also appears in Koei's "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" series.

References.

Cao Pi () ( – 29 June 226), courtesy name Zihuan, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the second son of Cao Cao, a warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty, but the eldest son among all the children born to Cao Cao by his concubine (later wife), Lady Bian. According to some historical records, he was often in the presence of court officials in order to gain their support. He was mostly in charge of defence at the start of his career. After the defeat of Cao Cao's rival Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu, he took Yuan Xi's widow, Lady Zhen, as a concubine, but in 221 Lady Zhen died and Guo Nüwang became empress.

魏文帝曹丕(187年-226年-6月29日),字子桓,沛国谯县(今属安徽亳州)人。三国时期曹魏开国皇帝,曹操和卞夫人的嫡长子,之后继承父亲的魏王封号与丞相的大权,最终东汉皇帝汉献帝禅让于其,曹丕登基后改国号为魏,史称曹魏,226年驾崩,谥文皇帝。


Three Kingdoms.

"Romance of the Three Kingdoms".

As a romanticized novel based on the history of the Three Kingdoms period, the historical novel "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" refers Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, Huang Zhong, Ma Chao and Zhao Yun as the "Five Tiger Generals" of Shu Han, one of the Three Kingdoms, led by warlord Liu Bei. In the literature, Liu Bei initially appointed Guan Yu as General Who Destroys Rebels and Lord of Hanshou, Zhang Fei as General Who Subdues Rebels and Lord of Xin, Huang Zhong as General Who Conquers the West, Ma Chao as General Who Pacifies the West, and Zhao Yun General Who Guards the West, and promoted them to "Five Tiger Generals" later.

Guan Yu.

Guan Yu is one of Liu Bei's strongest generals in the novel. Together with Zhang Fei, he started following Liu Bei's leadership at a very early stage of Liu Bei's career, at which time the Han dynasty was experiencing the large-scale Yellow Turban Rebellion. He joined a militia that was led by Liu Bei, funded by local business groups in Zhuo County. He impressed Liu Bei at their first meet-up due to his physical strength and outgoing personality, and quickly formed a brotherly relationship with Liu Bei and Zhang Fei. He rose from fighting Yellow Turbans, commanded Liu Bei's navy, conquered Changsha, governed Jing Province, expanded Shu Han's territory to Cao Wei-controlled Fancheng. Throughout his career, Guan Yu participated numerous battles against Cao Wei led by Cao Cao and Eastern Wu led by Sun Quan, and played a critical role in establishment of Shu Han. Due to the might of his arm and his chivalry, Guan Yu is divinized after his death, representing bravery, power, loyalty, righteousness, as well as brotherhood.

Zhang Fei.

Zhang Fei is one of Liu Bei's strongest generals in the novel. Together with Guan Yu, he started following Liu Bei's leadership at a very early stage of Liu Bei's career, at which time Empire Han was experiencing the Yellow Turban Rebellion. He joined a militia that was led by Liu Bei, funded by local business groups in Zhuo County. He impressed Liu Bei at their first meet-up due to his physical strength and outgoing personality, and quickly formed a brotherly relationship with Liu Bei and Guan Yu. He rose from fighting rebels in Yellow Turban Rebellion, conquered Ba Commandery, captured multiple cities cross in the area around present-day Sichuan and Chongqing, built a solid foundation for Liu Bei's establishment of Shu Han.

Huang Zhong.

Prior to joining Liu Bei's force, Huang Zhong served under Han Xuan in the novel as an Associate General in Changsha. When Liu Bei delegated Guan Yu to conquer Changsha, Han Xuan somehow suspected that Huang Zhong was persuaded by Guan Yu to be a traitor despite Huang Zhong's fighting on the battlefield against Guan Yu, and arrested him for execution. Huang Zhong's fellow military comrades organized a revolution to save his life, killed Han Xuan, and surrendered to Guan Yu. After joining Shu Han, Huang Zhong defeated Xiahou Yuan of Cao Wei in the Battle of Mount Dingjun, secured Shu Han's northern border.

Ma Chao.

Ma Chao rose to fame when he led his father Ma Teng's army to fight barbarians in Liang Province. He was nicknamed "Ma Chao the Splendid" for his magnificent armor and grand skill as a warrior. In the novel, shortly after his family was murdered by Cao Cao, Ma Chao and his cousin Ma Dai joined Zhang Lu's force to revenge Cao Cao, and then joined Liu Bei's force following Zhang Lu's surrender to Cao Cao. As Ma Chao had established an extraordinary military achievements when he fought Qiang barbarians since his early years, he continued to be Liu Bei's mightiest general that protected Shu Han's northwestern border from Qiang barbarians.

Zhao Yun.

Zhao Yun, also known as Zhao Zilong, fought together with Liu Bei as an ally during Liu Bei's early career, leaving a very close relationship with each other in the novel. Finally when Zhao Yun and Liu Bei met in Ye, Zhao Yun decided that he would follow Liu Bei's leadership for the rest of his life. During his career with Liu Bei's force, Zhao Yun protected Liu Bei's family, and saved Shu Han's crown prince Liu Shan from numerous battles. Zhao Yun's most legendary battle was to save Liu Shan, who was an infant at the time, from Cao Cao's encirclement. During the Battle of Changban, isolated by Cao Cao's army, Zhao Yun held Liu Shan in his armor, slew more than 70 enemy warriors alone, and escaped the scene without disturbing the infant's sleep. In Shu Han, Zhao Yun led Liu Bei's royal guards, ensured the safety of the royal family, and kept the capital city in peace.

Historicity.

Historically, Liu Bei never assigned any title similar to the "Five Tiger Generals", but instead did appoint them to titles of the same military ranking: Guan Yu as General of Front, Zhang Fei as General of Right, Huang Zhong as General of Rear, Ma Chao as General of Left, and Zhao Yun as General of Center. In the official historical text "Records of the Three Kingdoms", the historian Chen Shou grouped them into one volume due to their similar military titles.

"Five Tiger Generals" grouping as validation of historical accomplishments.

Some historians that study the history of the Three Kingdoms periods argue that while Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, Huang Zhong, Ma Chao and Zhao Yun were appointed to the similar military rankings and were listed in the same volume in the historical texts, their military achievements are significantly differed, and people referring those five generals as "Five Tiger Generals" presume that they share the same accomplishments. Kaiyu Luo of Sichuan University argues that while Guan Yu had led armies of over 200,000 soldiers to expand Shu Han's territory, Zhao Yun had never stepped out of Shu Han's capital city in his military career: it does not make sense to presume Guan Yu and Zhao Yun had the same level of achievements or to group them together under one "Five Tiger Generals" ranking.  Researchers who support this grouping pointed out that Zhao Yun's core responsibility was to ensure the safety of Shu Han's central government, and historically this role could only be assigned to the most reliable commander. It is important to raise the awareness that protecting the kingdom is the same important as expanding territory, and it is reasonable for Chen Shou to list Zhao Yun in the same volume of Guan Yu, and for people to refer both Zhao Yun and Guan Yu as members of "Five Tiger Generals".

In "Water Margin".

In the classical novel "Water Margin", five of the 108 outlaws at Liangshan Marsh – Guan Sheng, Lin Chong, Qin Ming, Huyan Zhuo and Dong Ping – are ranked as the "Five Tiger Generals" of the Liangshan cavalry.

Guan Sheng.

In the literature, Guan Sheng, nicknamed as Great Blade (大刀), first appears in Vol. 63. According to the literature, Guan Sheng is Guan Yu's direct descendant, inheriting the same physical appearance of Guan Yu, and using the same weapon as Guan Yu used. Guan Sheng was initially appointed by Cai Jing to lead government force to attack Liangshan Marsh, but surrendered to Liangshan after defeated by Liangshan's Huyan Zhuo. After he joined Liangshan, Guan Sheng captured Shan Tinggui and Wei Dingguo of the Song government force, and was ranked as #5 out of 108 outlaws. Guan Sheng's official military title in Liangshan Marsh is "General of the Left of the Five Tiger Generals of Cavalry".

In other literature.

In the historical novel "Shuo Tang", the rebellion force of Wagang Army has “Five Tiger Generals”: Qin Shubao, Shan Xiongxin, Cheng Yaojin, Wang Bodang and Luo Cheng.  The Qing dynasty writer Li Yutang named Di Qing, Shi Yu, Zhang Zhong, Li Yi, and Liu Qing as the "Five Tiger Generals" in his works "Romance of Di Qing", "The Five Tigers Conquer the West", and "The Five Tigers Pacify the South".  In "Heroes of the Ming Dynasty", a novel romanticising the events leading to the founding of the Ming dynasty, Xu Da, Tang He, Chang Yuchun, Hu Dahai, and Mu Ying are named the "Five Founding Tiger Generals of Ming".

Cultural impact.

In present-day terminology, "Five Tiger Generals" can refer to any group of five that is particularly outstanding in a certain field.  Hsiao Shou-li, Chiang Wu-tung, Chiao Tsai-pao, Chen Chun-sheng, and Su Teng-wang are called "Five Tiger Generals" of Taiwanese opera.  Taiwanese politicians Kuo Yu-hsin, Li Wan-chu, Kuo Kuo-chi, Li Yuan-chan, and Wu San-lien are called the "Five Tiger Generals" of the Taiwan Provincial Consultative Council. Together with female politician Hsu Shih-hsien, the six of them are called "Five Tigers and the Phoenix".  In the 1980s and 1990s, the five hosts of the Taiwanese television channel Sanlih E-Television, He Yih-hang, Peng Chia-chia, Yang Fan, Yu Tien and Li Teng-tsai are called "Five Tiger Generals".  In the 1980s, Hong Kong television actors Felix Wong, Michael Miu, Kent Tong, Andy Lau and Tony Leung are called the "Five Tiger Generals of TVB". The five of them starred together in the 1991 film "The Tigers".  In 2009, a Taiwanese musical band called Wu Hu Jiang was formed. The five members starred as the Five Tiger Generals of Shu in the television series "K.O.3an Guo", which spoofs "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" in a modern school setting.

The Five Tiger Generals is a popular appellation in Chinese culture for the top five military commanders serving under one lord. Although the term does not appear in Chinese historical records and is not used officially, it has been heavily used in literature texts, folklore, as well as popular culture.

五虎将又称五虎上将、五虎大将,是历史小说《三国演义》中蜀汉将领关羽、张飞、赵云、马超、黄忠五人,但正史中并没有该称号。正史《三国志》中,作者陈寿将蜀汉将领关羽、张飞、马超、黄忠和赵云五人合为一传(《三国志·蜀书·关张马黄赵传》),后来《三国志平话》、《三国演义》合称为五虎上将。


Formulation.

The principle has a variety of expressions, all of which are perhaps best summarized by the following:  A sufficient explanation may be understood either in terms of "reasons" or "causes," for like many philosophers of the period, Leibniz did not carefully distinguish between the two. The resulting principle is very different, however, depending on which interpretation is given.  It is an open question whether the principle of sufficient reason can be applied to axioms within a logic construction like a mathematical or a physical theory, because axioms are propositions accepted as having no justification possible within the system. The principle declares that all propositions considered to be should be deducible from the set axioms at the base of the construction. However, Gödel has shown that for every sufficiently expressive deductive system a proposition exists that can neither be proved nor disproved (see Gödel's incompleteness theorems).

Leibniz's view.

Leibniz identified two kinds of truth, necessary and contingent truths. He believed necessary mathematical truths to be derived from the law of identity (and the principle of non-contradiction): "Necessary truths are those that can be demonstrated through an analysis of terms, so that in the end they become identities, just as in Algebra an equation expressing an identity ultimately results from the substitution of values [for variables]. That is, necessary truths depend upon the principle of contradiction." Leibniz states that the sufficient reason for necessary truths is that their negation is a contradiction.  Leibniz admitted contingent truths on the basis of infinitary reasons, to which God had access but humans did not: In contingent truths, even though the predicate is in the subject, this can never be demonstrated, nor can a proposition ever be reduced to an equality or to an identity, but the resolution proceeds to infinity, God alone seeing, not the end of the resolution, of course, which does not exist, but the connection of the terms or the containment of the predicate in the subject, since he sees whatever is in the series.Without this qualification, the principle can be seen as a description of a certain notion of closed system, in which there is no 'outside' to provide unexplained events with causes. It is also in tension with the paradox of Buridan's ass. Leibniz denied that the paradox of Buridan's ass could ever occur, saying:  Leibniz also used the principle of sufficient reason to refute the idea of absolute space:  I say then, that if space is an absolute being, there would be something for which it would be impossible there should be a sufficient reason. Which is against my axiom. And I prove it thus. Space is something absolutely uniform; and without the things placed in it, one point in space does not absolutely differ in any respect whatsoever from another point of space. Now from hence it follows, (supposing space to be something in itself, beside the order of bodies among themselves,) that 'tis impossible that there should be a reason why God, preserving the same situation of bodies among themselves, should have placed them in space after one particular manner, and not otherwise; why everything was not placed the quite contrary way, for instance, by changing East into West.

As a law of thought.

The principle was one of the four recognised laws of thought, that held a place in European pedagogy of logic and reasoning (and, to some extent, philosophy in general) in the 18th and 19th centuries. It was influential in the thinking of Leo Tolstoy, amongst others, in the elevated form that history could not be accepted as random.  A sufficient reason is sometimes described as the coincidence of every single thing that is needed for the occurrence of an effect (i.e. of the so-called "necessary conditions"). Such view could perhaps be also applied to indeterministic systems, as long as randomness is in a way incorporated in the preconditions.

Hamilton's fourth law: "Infer nothing without ground or reason".

Here is how Hamilton, circa 1837–1838, expressed his "fourth law" in his LECT. V. LOGIC. 60–61:

Schopenhauer's Four Forms.

According to Schopenhauer's "On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason", there are four distinct forms of the principle.  First Form: The Principle of Sufficient Reason of Becoming (principium rationis sufficientis fiendi); appears as the law of causality in the understanding.  Second Form: The Principle of Sufficient Reason of Knowing (principium rationis sufficientis cognoscendi); asserts that if a judgment is to express a piece of knowledge, it must have a sufficient ground or reason, in which case it receives the predicate true.  Third Form: The Principle of Sufficient Reason of Being (principium rationis sufficientis essendi); the law whereby the parts of space and time determine one another as regards those relations. Example in arithmetic: Each number presupposes the preceding numbers as grounds or reasons of its being; "I can reach ten only by going through all the preceding numbers; and only by virtue of this insight into the ground of being, do I know that where there are ten, so are there eight, six, four."  "Now just as the subjective correlative to the first class of representations is the understanding, that to the second the faculty of reason, and that to the third pure sensibility, so is the subjective correlative to this fourth class found to be the inner sense, or generally self-consciousness."  Fourth Form: The Principle of Sufficient Reason of Acting (principium rationis sufficientis agendi); briefly known as the law of motivation. "Any judgment that does not follow its previously existing ground or reason" or any state that cannot be explained away as falling under the three previous headings "must be produced by an act of will which has a motive." As his proposition in 43 states, "Motivation is causality seen from within."

Proposed proofs of universal validity.

Several proofs have been prepared in order to demonstrate that the universe is at bottom causal, i.e. works in accord with the principle in question; perhaps not in every single case (randomness might still play a part here and there), but that causality must be the way it works at least "in general", in most of what we see; and that our minds are aware of the principle even before any experience. The two famous arguments or proofs were proposed by Immanuel Kant (from the form of Time, temporal ordering of events and "directionality" of time) and by Arthur Schopenhauer (by demonstrating how all perception depends on causality and the intellect).  Once it is agreed (e.g. from a kind of an "arrow of time") that causal interconnections, as a form of principle of sufficient reason, indeed must in general exist everywhere in the universe (at least in the large scale), "backwards" causality in general might then be precluded using a form of the paradox of free will (i.e. an event that has a future source might cause us to remove that source quick enough and thus causality would not work).

The principle of sufficient reason states that everything must have a reason or a cause. The modern formulation of the principle is usually attributed to Gottfried Leibniz, although the idea was conceived of and utilized by various philosophers who preceded him, including Anaximander, Parmenides, Archimedes, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero, Avicenna, Thomas Aquinas, and Spinoza. Some philosophers have associated the principle of sufficient reason with ""ex nihilo nihil fit"". Hamilton identified the laws of inference modus ponens with the "law of Sufficient Reason, or of Reason and Consequent" and modus tollens with its contrapositive expression.

充足理由律是逻辑学基本原理之一。由德国哲学家莱布尼茨提出。