Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security Between the United States and Japan

Summary.

The earlier Security Treaty of 1951 provided the initial basis for the Japan's security relations with the United States. It was signed after Japan regained full sovereignty at the end of the allied occupation.  Bilateral talks on revising the 1951 security pact began in 1959, and the new Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security was signed in Washington on 19 January 1960. When the pact was submitted to the Diet for ratification on February 5, it became the subject of bitter debate over the Japan-United States relationship and the occasion for violence in an all-out effort by the leftist opposition to prevent its passage. It was finally approved by the House of Representatives on 20 May. Japan Socialist Party deputies boycotted the lower house session and tried to prevent the Liberal Democratic Party deputies from entering the chamber; they were forcibly removed by the police. Massive demonstrations and rioting by students and trade unions followed. These outbursts prevented a scheduled visit to Japan by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and precipitated the resignation of Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi, but not before the treaty was passed by default on June 19, when the House of Councillors failed to vote on the issue within the required thirty days after lower house approval. The negativity toward the treaty was largely based on the argument that article 6 of the treaty threatens the sovereign power of Japan. Article 6, as further explained below, contains a Status of Forces Agreement allowing the US to use military forces and facilities deployed in Japan for combat purposes other than the defense of Japan.  Beginning with Article 1, the treaty established that each country would seek to resolve any international disputes peacefully. The treaty also gave prominence to the United Nations in dealing with aggression. Article 5, which dealt with armed attacks by a third party, required that the United Nations Security Council be involved and that any measures taken by the US and Japan be ceased "when the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security." Further, Article 10 allowed for the abrogation of the treaty if both parties agreed that the United Nations has made satisfactory arrangements to provide for the stability of peace and security in the Japan area, i.e. if and when the United Nations System of Collective Security is in effect.  Under the treaty, both parties assumed an obligation to maintain and develop their capacities to resist armed attack in common and to assist each other in case of armed attack on territories under Japanese administration. It was understood, however, that Japan could not come to the defense of the United States because it was constitutionally forbidden to send armed forces overseas (Article 9). In particular, the constitution forbids the maintenance of "land, sea, and air forces." It also expresses the Japanese people's renunciation of "the threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes". The scope of the new treaty did not extend to the Ryukyu Islands, but an appended minute made clear that in case of an armed attack on the islands, both governments would consult and take appropriate action. Unlike the 1951 security pact, the new treaty provided for a ten-year term, after which it could be revoked upon one year's notice by either party.  Article 6 of the treaty contains a Status of Forces Agreement on the stationing of United States forces in Japan, with specifics on the provision of facilities and areas for their use and on the administration of Japanese citizens employed in the facilities.  The Agreed Minutes to the treaty specified that the Japanese government would be consulted prior to major changes in United States force deployment in Japan or to the use of Japanese bases for combat operations other than in defense of Japan itself. Also covered are the limits of the two countries' jurisdictions over crimes committed in Japan by United States military personnel.  The Mutual Security Assistance Pact of 1954 initially involved a military aid program that provided for Japan's acquisition of funds, materiel, and services for the nation's essential defense. Although Japan no longer received any aid from the United States by the 1960s, the agreement continued to serve as the basis for purchase and licensing agreements ensuring interoperability of the two nations' weapons and for the release of classified data to Japan, including both international intelligence reports and classified technical information.  There were more widescale protests in Japan when the pact was renewed in 1970, but they died down thereafter.  Further, there was a shift in Japanese domestic politics. Nobusuke Kishi had to resign his post as the prime minister, succumbing to widespread demonstrations against the treaty and further the US. Kishi was succeeded by Hayato Ikeda.

Opposition.

Mass Demonstrations against the 1960 Revision  In May and June 1960, mass demonstrations took place outside the Diet building, opposing forced adoption of the revised Treaty in 1960. An organization that formed under the title People's Council to Stop the Revised Security Treaty (安保条約改定阻止国民会議; Anpo Jōyaku Kaitei Soshi Kokumin Kaigi) coordinated the actions of various citizen movements involved in opposing the Treaty's revision. It formed with 134 organizations as members in March 1959, and grew to have 1,633 affiliated organizations by March 1960. These groups included labor unions, farmers' and teachers' unions, poetry circles, theater troupes, student and women's organizations, mothers' groups, and groups affiliated with the Japan Socialist Party and the Japan Communist Party.  A University of Tokyo undergraduate and student activist, Michiko Kanba, died in clashes between protestors and police at the South Gate of the Diet Building in the evening of 15 June 1960.  Okinawa A central issue in the debate over the continued US military presence is the concentration of troops on the small Japanese prefecture of Okinawa. US military bases cover about one-fifth of Okinawa that serve around 75 percent of the US Forces in Japan (Packard, 2010) (Sumida, 2009). This has left many Okinawans feeling that while the security agreement may be beneficial to the United States and Japan as a whole, it is burdensome to the residents of the small subtropical island.  Another contentious issue to many Okinawans is the noise and environmental pollution created by the US Forces in Japan. Excessive noise lawsuits in 2009 filed by Okinawa's residents against Kadena Air Base and MCAS Futenma resulted in awards of $59 million and $1.3 million to residents respectively (Sumida, 2009). The tourist attraction of Okinawa's coral reef has suffered from continuous runoff of live fire exercises from the military bases (JCP, 2000). The most powerful opposition in Okinawa, however, stemmed from criminal acts committed by US service members and their dependents, with the latest example being the 1995 kidnapping and molestation of a 12-year-old Okinawan girl by two Marines and a Navy corpsmen (Packard, 2010). In early 2008, the US secretary of state, Condoleezza Rice, apologized after a series of crimes involving American troops in Japan, including the rape of a girl of 14 by a marine on Okinawa. The U.S. military also imposed a temporary 24-hour curfew on military personnel and their families to ease the anger of local residents. Some cited statistics that the crime rate of military personnel is consistently less than that of the general Okinawan population.  In a 2006 agreement between the Bush administration and the Japanese government, MCAS Futenma was to be relocated to the northern Okinawa city of Nago, and 8,000 Marines and their dependents were to be relocated to Guam (Packard, 2010). This agreement, however, received very little support from Okinawans. After spending several months deliberating over where the base would move to, Hatoyama conceded to allow the original agreement to go forward and immediately resigned after stating he failed to fulfill one of his promises.

Support for agreement.

Despite strong Okinawan opposition to the US military presence on the island, there is also strong support for the agreement. Due to fear of a new imperialistic Japan, Japanese lawmakers forbade itself from maintaining more than a self-defense-sized armed forces when drafting the post-War Constitution. As a result, Japan has never spent more than one percent of its GDP on military expenditures (Englehardt, 2010). In return for allowing the US military presence in Japan, the United States agrees to help defend Japan against any foreign adversaries, such as North Korea. In addition to military support, the military presence in Okinawa contributes to the economy of Japan's poorest prefecture. As of 2004, 8,813 locals worked on bases, in addition to numerous others who work in shops and bars where the main customer base is US service members. Altogether, the US presence accounts for about 5 percent of the Okinawan economy (Fukumura, 2007).  According to a 2007 "Okinawa Times" poll, 73.4% of Japanese citizens appreciated the mutual security treaty with the US and the presence of the USFJ.

Coverage.

In 2012, the United States clarified in a statement over the dispute over the Senkaku Islands that the US-Japan Security Treaty does cover the islands, and obliges the US to defend them.  In April 2014, US President Barack Obama declared unequivocally that the Senkaku islands would be covered by the bilateral Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security in the event of an armed attack on them. This was the first time a sitting president had made America's commitment explicit and was intended to reassure the government of Japan.  On 19 April 2019, Japan and the United States confirmed that cyberattacks are also covered by the bilateral security treaty. Defense cooperation will increase for outer space, cyber and electronic warfare.

The, also known in Japan as or just for short, was first signed in 1951 at the San Francisco Presidio following the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco (commonly known as the Peace Treaty of San Francisco) at the San Francisco War Memorial Opera House. Then, the Security Treaty was later amended further on January 1960 between the US and Japan in Washington.

美利坚合众国与日本国之间互相合作与安全保障条约(英语:Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan,,简称为美日安保条约)是由美国与日本于1960年1月19日在华盛顿签订的安全互助条约,此条约宣示两国将会共同维持与发展武力以联合抵御武装攻击,且同时也将日本国土内一国受到的攻击认定为对另一国的危害,也包括美军驻日的条文。此条约在冷战时期强化了美日关系,也包括了后来进一步的国际合作与经济合作的条款。该条约用以取代1951年的。


塔吉克斯坦苏维埃社会主义共和国国徽

History.

Tajik ASSR.

In accordance with the decree of the Presidium of the CEC of the Tajik ASSR, dated 23 February 1929,  In accordance with article 105 of the 1929 Constitution of the Tajik ASSR,

Tajik SSR.

According to the Constitution of the Tajik SSR, adopted on 24 February 1931 4th Congress of Soviets of the Tajik SSR:  According to the Constitution, adopted by V Congress of Soviets in January 1935, coat of arms remained unchanged, only the name of the Republic became to be abbreviated as "the Tajik SSR". On June 27, 1935, the Presidium of the CEC of the Tajik SSR invited the artist Alexander Yakovlev S. to Refine your project of the emblem (project A. S. Yakovlev took 1st place in the competition, 1934).  In 4 July 1935, a revised draft was approved by the Presidium of the CEC of the Tajik SSR. Later at April 27, 1936, this draft was approved by the Decree of the CEC of the Tajik SSR. Description of this emblem:  April 27, 1936, the Presidium of the CEC of the Tajik SSR adopted the resolution "On approval of the description of the State emblem of the Tajik Soviet socialist Republic". May 26, 1936 fourth session of the CEC of the Tajik SSR of the fifth convocation adopted the images and descriptions of the coat of arms and flag and made these descriptions in article 92 and 93 of the Constitution of the Tajik SSR.  According to the Constitution, adopted during VI Extraordinary Congress of Soviets on March 1, 1937, the emblem has been greatly simplified: in the centre of the coat of arms in the Golden rays of the sun depicted a red five-pointed star, the top of which were placed the Golden hammer and sickle. All framed by a garland of ears of wheat (right) and branches of cotton with opened bolls (left). Wreath twined the red ribbon with inscriptions in Tajik and Russian languages: "Proletarians of all countries, unite!" and "Tajik SSR"(at the base of the wreath).  On the basis of the constitutional descriptions of the preparation of the images of the emblem and flag. May 19, 1937 the Presidium of the CEC of the Tajik SSR has considered the figures of the coat of arms and flag of the Republic and recommended to do the motto on the coat of arms of gold, to make the background of the emblem and leaves of cotton light green, hammer and sickle on the star to represent gold.  May 20, 1937, the Presidium of the CEC of the Tajik SSR had reviewed the draft drawings of the coat of arms and flag, adopted a decree "About the State emblem and flag of the Tajik SSR". This resolution was finally approved with some changes, the Motto "Proletarians of all countries, unite!" was recommended to write in gold, the background and the leaves of cotton to pale green, the sickle and the hammer of gold, the rays of the sun to place on the circumference. On May 23, 1937, the Presidium of the CEC approved the coat of arms. According to established in 1937 as a Commission under the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the translation of the motto "Proletarians of all countries, unite!" in Tajik language was made accurately.  In 1938, the word "Çumhurijat" was replaced by "Respublika", resulting in the inscription on the emblem took the form of "RSS Tocikiston". Later in September 28, 1940, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Tajik SSR issued a decree who changed the spelling of the texts of the inscriptions on the flag and coat of arms from Latin alphabet to Cyrillic. Later, in the 1978 Constitution of the Tajik SSR, description of the coat of arms has not changed. The official description of the coat of arms in the text of the Constitution:  The emblem was changed in 1992 to the present Tajikistan coat of arms, which uses a design similar to the different Soviet symbols.

The State Emblem of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic was adopted on March 1, 1937 by the government of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic. The emblem is based on the State Emblem of the Soviet Union. It shows symbols of agriculture (cotton and wheat). The red star is prominently featured with a small hammer and sickle within it. The rising sun stands for the future of the Tajik nation, and the star as well as the hammer and sickle for the victory of communism and the "world-wide socialist community of states". The emblem was replaced with the new emblem in 1992, which uses a similar design to the Soviet one.

塔吉克斯坦苏维埃社会主义共和国国徽启用于1937年3月1日,参照苏联国徽设计而成。


History.

The station was one of several built on the London and North Western Railway's "New Line" from Camden to Watford Junction which enabled local services from Watford Junction station to reach Euston station and Broad Street station in London. The New Line was mostly alongside main line of the London and Birmingham Railway in 1837.  Kenton station was opened on 15 June 1912. It has only ever had platforms on the New Line; parallel main line services call at Harrow and Wealdstone station, one stop to the north, with some also calling at Wembley Central station, three stops to the south.  Bakerloo line services began on 16 April 1917. On 24 September 1982, Bakerloo line services to Kenton ended when services north of Stonebridge Park were ended. The closure was short-lived, and the Bakerloo line service was reinstated on 4 June 1984.  The station's former coal yard on the east side of the railway, no longer needed for the trains, is now occupied by a Sainsbury's supermarket.

Connections.

London Buses routes 114, 183, 223, H9, H10 and H18 and H19 serve the station.

Access to station.

TfL's "Getting Around" map showing disabled access (dated April 2011) does not indicate that level access is available at this station. The nearest stations shown with step-free access are Harrow and Wealdstone, Kingsbury and Wembley Park; some journeys might be more conveniently made by using one of the local buses to Golders Green Station (via route 183) or Pinner Station (via route 183) and continuing from there.

Kenton is a National Rail suburban rail station on the Watford DC line and the London Underground Bakerloo line, situated on Kenton Road in Kenton, north-west London. The station is served by London Overground (Arriva Rail London) and London Underground Limited services. It has an out of station interchange (OSI) with Northwick Park station on the London Underground's Metropolitan line.

肯顿站(英语:Kenton station)是一个设有伦敦地铁(贝克卢线)和伦敦地上铁(沃特福德直流电铁线)列车服务的铁路车站,位于肯顿路南侧,距离伦敦地铁大都会线的诺斯克公园站只有很短的步行距离。


Early life and communist involvement in Poland.

Deutscher was born in Chrzanów, a town in the Galicia region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (now in southern Poland), into a family of religiously observant Jews. He studied with a Hasidic rebbe and was acclaimed as a prodigy in the study of the Torah and the Talmud. By the time of his bar mitzvah, however, he had lost his faith. He "tested God" by eating non-kosher food at the grave of a tzadik (holy person) on Yom Kippur. When nothing happened, he became an atheist. Deutscher first attracted notice as a poet, when he began publishing poems in Polish literary periodicals at the age of sixteen. His verse, in Yiddish and Polish, concerned Jewish and Polish mysticism, history and mythology, and he attempted to bridge the gulf between the Polish and Yiddish cultures. He also translated poetry from Hebrew, Latin, German, and Yiddish into Polish.  Deutscher studied literature, history, and philosophy as an extramural student at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. Soon he left Kraków for Warsaw, where he studied philosophy, economics and Marxism. Around 1927, he joined the illegal Communist Party of Poland (KPP) and became the editor of the party's underground press. He wrote for the Jewish "Nasz Przegląd" ('Our Review') and for the Marxist "Miesięcznik Literacki" ('The Literary Monthly'). In 1931 he toured the Soviet Union, seeing the economic conditions under the first Five Year Plan. The University of Moscow and the University of Minsk offered him posts as professor of history of socialism and of Marxist theory, but he declined the offers and returned to Poland. Deutscher co-founded the first anti-Stalinist group in the Communist Party of Poland, protesting the party view that Nazism and social democracy were "not antipodes but twins." This contradicted the then official communist line, according to which social democrats were "social fascists", the greatest enemies of the communist party. In an article "The Danger of Barbarism over Europe", Deutscher urged the formation of a united front of socialists and communists against Nazism. He was expelled from the KPP in 1932, officially for "exaggerating the danger of Nazism and spreading panic in the communist ranks."

Move to Britain and journalism (1939–1947).

In April 1939, Deutscher left Poland for London as a correspondent for a Polish-Jewish newspaper for which he had worked as a proof reader for fourteen years. This move saved his life and paved the way for his future career. He never returned to Poland and never saw any of his family again. He became a British subject in 1949, taking his oath of allegiance on 12 May 1949.  Germany invaded Poland in September 1939 and Deutscher's connection with his newspaper was severed. He taught himself English and began writing for English magazines. He was soon a regular correspondent for the leading weekly "The Economist". He joined the Trotskyist Revolutionary Workers League. In 1940, he joined the Polish Army in Scotland, but was interned as a dangerous subversive. Released in 1942, he joined the staff of "The Economist" and became its expert on Soviet affairs and military issues, and its chief European correspondent. He also wrote for "The Observer" as a roving European correspondent under the pen-name "Peregrine".  He left journalism in 1946–47 to write books. Deutscher's name (with the remark "Sympathiser only") subsequently appeared on Orwell's list, a list of people (including many writers and journalists) which George Orwell prepared in March 1949 for the Information Research Department (IRD), a propaganda unit set up at the Foreign Office by the Labour government. Orwell considered the listed people to have pro-communist leanings and therefore to be inappropriate to write for the IRD.

Biographer and academic (1947–1967).

Deutscher published his first major work, "Stalin, A Political Biography" in 1949. Deutscher was still a committed Trotskyist, but in the book he gave Stalin what he saw as his due for building a form of socialism in the Soviet Union, even if it was, in Deutscher's view, a perversion of the vision of Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky.  The Stalin biography made Deutscher a leading authority on Soviet affairs and the Russian Revolution. He followed it up with his most ambitious work, a three-volume biography of Trotsky: "The Prophet Armed" (1954), "The Prophet Unarmed" (1959) and "The Prophet Outcast" (1963). These books were based on detailed research into the Trotsky Archives at Harvard University. Much of the material contained in the third volume was previously unknown, since Trotsky's widow, Natalia Sedova, gave Deutscher access to the closed section of the archives. Deutscher planned to conclude his series with a study of Lenin, but "The Life of Lenin" remained incomplete at the time of Deutscher's death, partly due to a politically motivated denial of a university position to him. As later revealed, Isaiah Berlin, who was asked to evaluate the academic credentials of Deutscher, argued against such a promotion because of the profoundly pro-communist militancy of the candidate.  In the 1960s, the upsurge of left-wing sentiment that accompanied the Vietnam War made Deutscher a popular figure on university campuses in both Britain and the United States. By this time Deutscher had broken with conventional Trotskyism, although he never repudiated Trotsky himself and remained a committed Marxist. In 1965, Deutscher took part in the first "Teach-In" on Vietnam at the University of California, Berkeley, where thousands of students listened to his indictment of the Cold War. He was G. M. Trevelyan Lecturer at the University of Cambridge for 1966–67 and also lectured for six weeks at the State University of New York. In spring 1967, he guest-lectured at New York University, Princeton, Harvard and Columbia. The G. M. Trevelyan Lectures, under the title "The Unfinished Revolution", were published after Deutscher's sudden and unexpected death in Rome in 1967, where he went for an Italian TV broadcast. It was a play about the fall of Trotsky, written and directed by Marco Leto, starring Franco Parenti as Trotsky and Renzo Giovampietro as Stalin. A memorial prize honouring Deutscher, called the Deutscher Memorial Prize, is awarded annually to a book "which exemplifies the best and most innovative new writing in or about the Marxist tradition". In his works Deutscher made the distinction between classical Marxism and vulgar Marxism.

Relation to Judaism and Zionism.

Despite being an atheist, Deutscher emphasised the importance of his Jewish heritage. He coined the expression "non-Jewish Jew", to apply to himself and other Jewish humanists. Deutscher admired Elisha ben Abuyah, a Jewish heretic of the 2nd century CE. But he did not engage in specifically Jewish politics. In Warsaw, he joined the communist party, not the Jewish Bund, whose "Yiddishist" views he opposed.  Deutscher wrote: "Religion? I am an atheist. Jewish nationalism? I am an internationalist. In neither sense am I therefore a Jew. I am, however, a Jew by force of my unconditional solidarity with the persecuted and exterminated. I am a Jew because I feel the pulse of Jewish history; because I should like to do all I can to assure the real, not spurious, security and self-respect of the Jews."  Before World War II, Deutscher opposed Zionism as economically retrograde and harmful to the cause of international socialism. But in the aftermath of the Holocaust he regretted his pre-war views, lamenting that "If, instead of arguing against Zionism in the 1920s and 1930s, I had urged European Jews to go to Palestine, I might have helped to save some of the lives that were to be extinguished in Hitler’s gas chambers." He argued the case for establishing Israel as a "historic necessity", to provide a home for the surviving Jews of Europe; and conceded that his anti-Zionism, which "I have, of course, long since abandoned... was based on a confidence in the European labour movement, or, more broadly, a confidence in European society and civilisation which that society and civilisation have not justified." In the 1960s, he became more critical of Israel for its failure to recognise the dispossession of the Palestinians, and after the Six-Day War of 1967 he demanded that Israel withdraw from the occupied territories. "This "six-day wonder"", he commented, "this latest, all-too-easy triumph of Israeli arms will be seen one day... to have been a disaster... for Israel itself."  Regarding the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, Deutscher wrote the following allegory: "A man once jumped from the top floor of a burning house in which many members of his family had already perished. He managed to save his life; but as he was falling he hit a person standing down below and broke that person’s legs and arms. The jumping man had no choice; yet to the man with the broken limbs he was the cause of his misfortune. If both behaved rationally, they would not become enemies. The man who escaped from the blazing house, having recovered, would have tried to help and console the other sufferer; and the latter might have realized that he was the victim of circumstances over which neither of them had control. But look what happens when these people behave irrationally. The injured man blames the other for his misery and swears to make him pay for it. The other, afraid of the crippled man’s revenge, insults him, kicks him, and beats him up whenever they meet. The kicked man again swears revenge and is again punched and punished. The bitter enmity, so fortuitous at first, hardens and comes to overshadow the whole existence of both men and to poison their minds."  Deutscher wrote the following passages in "The Israeli Arab War, June 1967" (1967):  “Still we must exercise our judgment and must not allow it to be clouded by emotions and memories, however deep or haunting. We should not allow even invocations of Auschwitz to blackmail us into supporting the wrong cause.” (Quoted in "Prophets Outcast", p. 184, Nation Books, 2004.) "To justify or condone Israel’s wars against the Arabs is to render Israel a very bad service indeed and to harm its own long-term interest. Israel’s security, let me repeat, was not enhanced by the wars of 1956 and 1967; it was undermined and compromised by them. The ‘friends of Israel’ have in fact abetted Israel in a ruinous course.” (Quoted in "Prophets Outcast", p. 184, Nation Books, 2004.)

Isaac Deutscher (; 3 April 1907 – 19 August 1967) was a Polish Marxist writer, journalist and political activist who moved to the United Kingdom before the outbreak of World War II. He is best known as a biographer of Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin and as a commentator on Soviet affairs. His three-volume biography of Trotsky was highly influential among the British New Left in the 1960s and 1970s.

艾萨克·多伊彻(Isaac Deutscher;1906年-4月3日-1967年-8月19日)是一位出生在波兰,后在二战爆发时迁居英国的犹太马克思主义作家、新闻工作者和社会活动家。他最为人知的身份便是列昂·托洛茨基和约瑟夫·斯大林的传记作者和苏联时事评论家。他的三卷本托洛茨基传纪《先知三部曲》在英国的新左翼中有着巨大影响,迄今仍是举世公认的研究托洛茨基的最权威著作,已被译成多种文字。


Equations.

If the foci are ("a", 0) and (−"a", 0), then the equation of the curve is When expanded this becomes  The equivalent polar equation is

Shape.

The curve depends, up to similarity, on "e" = "b"/"a". When "e" < 1, the curve consists of two disconnected loops, each of which contains a focus. When "e" = 1, the curve is the lemniscate of Bernoulli having the shape of a sideways figure eight with a double point (specifically, a crunode) at the origin. When "e" > 1, the curve is a single, connected loop enclosing both foci. It is peanut-shaped for formula_10 and convex for formula_11. The limiting case of "a" → 0 (hence "e" → formula_12), in which case the foci coincide with each other, is a circle.  The curve always has "x"-intercepts at ±"c" where "c" = "a" + "b". When "e" < 1 there are two additional real "x"-intercepts and when "e" > 1 there are two real "y"-intercepts, all other "x" and "y"-intercepts being imaginary.  The curve has double points at the circular points at infinity, in other words the curve is bicircular. These points are biflecnodes, meaning that the curve has two distinct tangents at these points and each branch of the curve has a point of inflection there. From this information and Plücker's formulas it is possible to deduce the Plücker numbers for the case "e" ≠ 1: degree = 4, class = 8, number of nodes = 2, number of cusps = 0, number of double tangents = 8, number of points of inflection = 12, genus = 1.  The tangents at the circular points are given by "x" ± "iy" = "±a" which have real points of intersection at ("±a", 0). So the foci are, in fact, foci in the sense defined by Plücker. The circular points are points of inflection so these are triple foci. When "e" ≠ 1 the curve has class eight, which implies that there should be at total of eight real foci. Six of these have been accounted for in the two triple foci and the remaining two are at So the additional foci are on the "x"-axis when the curve has two loops and on the "y"-axis when the curve has a single loop.

Cassini ovals and orthogonal trajectories.

"Orthogonal trajectories" of a given pencil of curves are curves which intersect all given curves orthogonally. For example the orthogonal trajectories of a pencil of confocal ellipses are the confocal hyperbolas with the same foci. For Cassini ovals one has:  Proof:
 For simplicity one chooses formula_17. These conic sections have no points with the y-axis in common and intersect the x-axis at formula_22. Their discriminants show that these curves are hyperbolas. A more detailed investigation reveals that the hyperbolas are rectangular. In order to get normals, which are independent from parameter formula_23 the following implicit representation is more convenient: A simple calculation shows, that formula_25 for all formula_26. Hence the Cassini ovals and the hyperbolas intersect orthogonally.  "Remark:"
 The image depicting the Cassini ovals and the hyperbolas looks like the equipotential curves of two equal point charges together with the lines of the generated electrical field. But for the potential of two equal point charges one has formula_27. (See implicit curve.)

Examples.

The second is a Cassini oval defined by the equation formula_28. Its foci are at the points "c" on the complex plane that have orbits where every second value of "z" is equal to zero, which are the values 0 and -1.

Cassini ovals on tori.

Cassini ovals appear as planar sections of tori, but only when  The intersection of the torus with equation and the plane formula_30 yields After partially resolving the first bracket one gets the equation which is the equation of a Cassini oval with parameters formula_33.

Generalizations.

Cassini's method is easy to generalize to curves and surfaces with an arbitrary set of defining points: describes in the planar case an implicit curve and in 3-space an implicit surface.

A Cassini oval is a quartic plane curve defined as the set (or locus) of points in the plane such that the product of the distances to two fixed points is constant. This may be contrasted with an ellipse, for which the "sum" of the distances is constant, rather than the product. Cassini ovals are the special case of polynomial lemniscates when the polynomial used has degree 2.

卡西尼卵形线,是平面内到两个定点的距离之积为常数的点的轨迹,是环面曲线的一种。也就是说,如果我们定义dist("a","b")为从点"a"到点"b"的距离,则卡西尼卵形线上的所有点都满足以下的方程:


Analogues in other countries.

Analogues exist in historic and contemporary Chinese and Korean administration: "Special wards" are city-independent wards, analogously, "special cities/special cities" "(teukbyeol-si/tokubetsu-shi)" are province-/prefecture-independent cities and were intended to be introduced under SCAP in Japan, too; but in Japan, implementation was stalled, and in 1956 special cities were replaced in the Local Autonomy Law with designated major cities which gain additional autonomy, but remain part of prefectures. In everyday English, Tokyo as a whole is also referred to as a city even though it contains 62 cities, towns, villages and special wards. The closest English equivalents for the special wards would be the London boroughs or New York City boroughs if Greater London and New York City had been abolished in the same way as Tokyo City and they were immediate part of England or New York state, and this can help to understand their structures and functions.

Differences from other municipalities.

Although special wards are autonomous from the Tokyo metropolitan government, they also function as a single urban entity in respect to certain public services, including water supply, sewage disposal, and fire services. These services are handled by the Tokyo metropolitan government, whereas cities would normally provide these services themselves. This situation is identical between the Federal District and its 31 administrative regions in Brazil. To finance the joint public services it provides to the 23 wards, the metropolitan government levies some of the taxes that would normally be levied by city governments, and also makes transfer payments to wards that cannot finance their own local administration.  Waste disposal is handled by each ward under direction of the metropolitan government. For example, plastics were generally handled as non-burnable waste until the metropolitan government announced a plan to halt burying of plastic waste by 2010; as a result, about half of the special wards now treat plastics as burnable waste, while the other half mandate recycling of either all or some plastics.  Unlike other municipalities (including the municipalities of western Tokyo), special wards were initially not considered to be local public entities for purposes of the Constitution of Japan. This means that they had no constitutional right to pass their own legislation, or to hold direct elections for mayors and councilors. While these authorities were granted by statute during the US-led occupation and again from 1975, they could be unilaterally revoked by the National Diet; similar measures against other municipalities would require a constitutional amendment. The denial of elected mayors to the special wards was reaffirmed by the Supreme Court in the 1963 decision "Japan v. Kobayashi et al." (also known as Tokyo Ward Autonomy Case).  In 1998, the National Diet passed a revision of the Local Autonomy Law (effective in the year 2000) that implemented the conclusions of the "Final Report on the Tokyo Ward System Reform" increasing their fiscal autonomy and established the wards as basic local public entities.

History.

The word "special" distinguishes them from the of other major Japanese cities. Before 1943, the wards of Tokyo City were no different from the wards of Osaka or Kyoto. These original wards numbered 15 in 1889. Large areas from five surrounding districts were merged into the city in 1932 and organized in 20 new wards, bringing the total to 35; the expanded city was also referred to as. By this merger, together with smaller ones in 1920 and 1936, Tokyo City came to expand to the current city area.

1943–1947.

On March 15, 1943, as part of wartime authoritarian tightening of controls, Tokyo's local autonomy (elected council and mayor) under the Imperial municipal code was eliminated by the Tōjō cabinet and the Tokyo city government and (Home ministry appointed) prefectural government merged into a single (appointed) prefectural government; the wards were placed under the direct control of the prefecture.

1947–2000.

The 35 wards of the former city were integrated into 22 on March 15, 1947 just before the legal definition of special wards was given by the Local Autonomy Law, enforced on May 3 the same year. The 23rd ward, Nerima, was formed on August 1, 1947 when Itabashi was split again. The postwar reorganization under the US-led occupation authorities democratized the prefectural administrations but did not include the reinstitution of Tokyo City. Seiichirō Yasui, a former Home Ministry bureaucrat and appointed governor, won the first Tokyo gubernatorial election against Daikichirō Tagawa, a former Christian Socialist member of the Imperial Diet, former vice mayor of Tokyo city and advocate of Tokyo city's local autonomy.  Since the 1970s, the special wards of Tokyo have exercised a considerably higher degree of autonomy than the administrative wards of cities (that unlike Tokyo City retained their elected mayors and assemblies) but still less than other municipalities in Tokyo or the rest of the country, making them less independent than cities, towns or villages, but more independent than city subdivisions. Today, each special ward has its own elected and.

2000–present.

In 2000, the National Diet designated the special wards as, giving them a legal status similar to cities.  The wards vary greatly in area (from 10 to 60 km) and population (from less than 40,000 to 830,000), and some are expanding as artificial islands are built. Setagaya has the most people, while neighboring Ōta has the largest area.  The total population census of the 23 special wards had fallen under 8 million as the postwar economic boom moved people out to suburbs, and then rose as Japan's lengthy stagnation took its toll and property values drastically changed, making residential inner areas up to 10 times less costly than during peak values. Its population was 8,949,447 as of October 1, 2010, about two-thirds of the population of Tokyo and a quarter of the population of the Greater Tokyo Area. As of December 2012, the population passed 9 million; the 23 wards have a population density of 14,485 per square kilometre (37,501 per square mile).  The Mori Memorial Foundation put forth a proposal in 1999 to consolidate the 23 wards into six larger cities for efficiency purposes, and an agreement was reached between the metropolitan and special ward governments in 2006 to consider realignment of the wards, but there has been minimal further movement to change the current special ward system.

In other prefectures.

Special wards do not currently exist outside Tokyo; however, several Osaka area politicians, led by Governor Tōru Hashimoto, are backing an Osaka Metropolis plan under which the city of Osaka would be replaced by special wards, consolidating many government functions at the prefectural level and devolving other functions to more localized governments. Under a new 2012 law, – sometimes informally called "Osaka Metropolis plan law", but not specifically referring to Osaka – major cities and their surrounding municipalities in prefectures other than Tokyo may be replaced with special wards with similar functions if approved by the involved municipal and prefectural governments and ultimately the citizens of the dissolving municipalities in a referendum. Prerequisite is a population of at least 2 million in the dissolving municipalities; three cities (Yokohama, Nagoya and Osaka) meet this requirement on their own, seven other major city areas can set up special wards if a designated city is joined by neighboring municipalities. However, where special wards are set up cannot style themselves as the Local Autonomy Law only allows Tokyo with that status. In Osaka, a 2015 referendum to replace the city with five special wards was defeated narrowly.

Notable districts.

Many important districts are located in Tokyo's special wards:

Although the autonomy law today allows for special wards to be established in other prefectures, to date, they only exist in the Tokyo Metropolis which consists of 23 special wards and 39 other, ordinary municipalities (cities, towns and villages). The occupy the land that was Tokyo City in its 1936 borders before it was abolished under the Tōjō Cabinet in 1943 to become directly ruled by the prefectural government, then renamed to "Metropolitan". During the Occupation of Japan, municipal autonomy was restored to former Tokyo City by the establishment of special wards, each with directly elected mayor and assembly, as in any other city, town or village in Tokyo and the rest of the country. Minority, mostly leftist calls for a were not answered. The question of whether special wards actually are municipalities with full local autonomy rights at all remained a political and legal issue for decades.

东京都区部()是指日本东京都辖下的特别区,共23个,为东京都3大构成区块之一(其余为多摩地域与岛屿部),一般习称东京23区、东京特别区、东京都心、东京都内()或迳称为都内,总面积627.57平方公里,与过往的东京市管辖范围相同,人口约964万人(2019年10月);如将东京都区部视为一个都市,则为日本人口第一大城。现今口语中的「东京」或「东京市区」经常是指东京都区部,而非整个东京都。


Early life.

He was born in the home of his parents, Marine (Anderson) and Peter Jackson, in Everett, Washington. Both parents were immigrants from Norway. Peter Jackson was born Peter Gresseth, and changed his name when he immigrated. He met Marine at the Lutheran church in Everett, where they were married in 1897. Henry was the fifth and youngest of the Jackson children. Jackson was nicknamed "Scoop" by his sister in his childhood after a comic strip character that he was said to have resembled.  He went on to graduate with a bachelor's degree from Stanford University and a law degree from the University of Washington, where he joined the Delta Chi fraternity.

Early career.

In 1935, the year of his law school graduation, he was admitted to the bar and began to practice law in Everett. He found immediate success and was elected to become the prosecuting attorney for Snohomish County from 1938 to 1940, where he made a name for himself prosecuting bootleggers and gamblers.  In 1961, Jackson, called by "Time" the Senate's "most eligible bachelor," married Helen Hardin, a 28-year-old Senate receptionist, but Jackson did not move out of his childhood home, where he lived with his unmarried sisters, for several years. The Jacksons had two children, Anna Marie Laurence and Peter Jackson; Peter was most recently a speechwriter for Governor Christine Gregoire.

In Congress.

Jackson successfully ran for Congress as a Democrat in 1940 and took his seat in the House of Representatives with the 77th Congress on January 3, 1941. From then on, Jackson did not lose any congressional elections.  Jackson joined the Army when the United States entered World War II but left when Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered all representatives to return home or resign their seats. He visited the Buchenwald concentration camp a few days after its liberation in 1945. He attended the International Maritime Conference in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1945 with the American delegation, and he was elected president of the same conference in 1946, when it was held in Seattle, Washington. From 1945 to 1947, Jackson was also the chairman of the Committee on Indian Affairs.  In the 1952 election, Jackson relinquished his seat in the House for a run for one of Washington's Senate seats. Jackson soundly defeated Republican Senator Harry P. Cain and remained a senator for over thirty years. He was Washington's first U.S. Senator to be born in the state. Jackson died in office in 1983 after winning re-election for the fifth time in 1982.  Though Jackson opposed the excesses of Joe McCarthy, who had traveled to Washington State to campaign against him, he also criticized Dwight Eisenhower for not spending enough on national defense. Jackson called for more inter-continental ballistic missiles in the national arsenal, and his support for nuclear weapons resulted in a primary challenge from the left in 1958, when he handily defeated Seattle peace activist Alice Franklin Bryant before winning re-election with 67 percent of the vote, which he topped the next four times he ran for re-election.  During the 1960 Democratic presidential primary, Jackson was the first choice of fellow Senator John F. Kennedy for a running mate, though JFK became convinced that a Southerner would better balance the ticket. Lyndon Johnson was later selected.  Jackson boasted one of the strongest records on civil rights during the civil rights movement. He supported the 1957 and the 1964 Civil Rights Acts.  On July 22, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Water Resources Planning Act into law, noting Jackson as one of the Congress members to "have made a very invaluable and very farsighted contribution to America's future."  In April 1968, responding to the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., Jackson gave a speech about the legacy and injustice of inequality.  In 1963, Jackson was made chairman of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, which became the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources in 1977, a position he held until 1981. In the 1970s, Jackson joined with fellow senators Ernest Hollings and Edward Kennedy in a press conference to oppose President Gerald Ford's request for Congress to end Richard Nixon's price controls on domestic oil, which had provoked oil companies into withholding gasoline during the 1973 Oil Crisis.  Kaufman writes that after 1968, Jackson "emerged as an intellectual and political leader in the perennial struggle of U.S. foreign policy to reconcile ideals with self-interest."  Jackson authored the National Environmental Policy Act, which has been called one of the most influential environmental laws in history. It helped to stimulate similar laws and the principle of publicly analyzed environmental impact in other states and in much of the world. Jackson was also a leader of the fight for statehood for Alaska and Hawaii. In 1974, Jackson sponsored the Jackson-Vanik amendment in the Senate (with Charles Vanik sponsoring it in the House), which denied normal trade relations to certain countries with non-market economies that restricted the freedom of emigration. The amendment was intended to help refugees, particularly minorities, specifically Jews, to emigrate from the Soviet Bloc. Jackson and his assistant, Richard Perle, also lobbied personally for some people who were affected by this law such as Anatoly (now Natan) Sharansky.  In March 1975, Jackson released a statement in which he expressed the view that it was paramount the Franklin Peroff case be found out to be either "an aberration or was symptomatic of much greater problem" within the Drug Enforcement Administration.  In June 1975, Jackson stated that if accounts about the conduct of former director of the Drug Enforcement Agency John R. Bartels Jr. were correct then his actions amounted to obstruction of justice and that evidence disclosed "in the last two days would indicate that there was a conscious, premeditated plan involving misconduct at the highest levels of the D.E.A."  In July 1977, the Senate approved a funding for the experimental nuclear reactor compromise proposal by Jackson and Idaho Senator Frank Church. While the initial version by President Carter sought a decrease in funding from 150 million to 33 million, the Jackson and Church measure halved the funding to 75 million.  In October 1979, the Senate voted in favor of President Carter's energy mobilization board plan, Jackson labeling the plan the "centerpiece" of Carter's program that was essential to guaranteeing the effectiveness of the rest of the legislation and was noted for successfully persuading colleagues to reject amendments to the plan. Later that month, after the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee voted in favor of the Alaska public lands legislation, President Jimmy Carter issued a statement thanking Jackson and other members for supporting the legislation. Jackson also led the opposition within the Democratic Party against the SALT II treaty and was one of the leading proponents of increased foreign aid to Israel.  For decades, Democrats who support a strong international presence for the United States have been called "Scoop Jackson Democrats," and the term is still used to describe contemporary Democrats such as Joe Lieberman and R. James Woolsey, Jr.  Jackson served for all but the last three years of his Senate tenure with Democratic colleague Warren G. Magnuson. As a result, he spent 28 years as the state's junior Senator, even though he had more seniority than all but a few of his colleagues. "Scoop" and "Maggie," as they affectionately called each other, gave Washington clout in national politics well beyond its population. They were one of the most effective delegations in the history of the Senate in terms of "bringing home the bacon" for their home state. Washington received nearly a sixth of public works appropriations but ranked only 23rd in population.

Criticism.

Jackson was known as a hawkish Democrat. He was often criticized for his support for the Vietnam War and his close ties to the defense industries of his state. His proposal of Fort Lawton as a site for an anti-ballistic missile system was strongly opposed by local residents, and Jackson was forced to modify his position on the location of the site several times, but continued to support ABM development. American Indian rights activists who protested Jackson's plan to give Fort Lawton to Seattle, instead of returning it to local tribes, staged a sit-in. In the eventual compromise, most of Fort Lawton became Discovery Park, with leased to United Indians of All Tribes, who opened the Daybreak Star Cultural Center there in 1977.  Opponents derided him as "the Senator from Boeing" and a "whore for Boeing" because of his consistent support for additional military spending on weapons systems and accusations of wrongful contributions from the company; in 1965, 80% of Boeing's contracts were military. Jackson and Magnuson's campaigning for an expensive government supersonic transport plane project eventually failed.  After his death, critics pointed to Jackson's support for Japanese American internment camps during World War II as a reason to protest the placement of his bust at the University of Washington. Jackson was both an enthusiastic defender of the evacuation and a staunch proponent of the campaign to keep the Japanese-Americans from returning to the Pacific Coast after the war.

Presidential campaigns.

Jackson not only was successful as a politician in Washington State but also found recognition on the national level, rising to the position of chairman of the Democratic National Committee in 1960 after he was considered for the vice presidential ticket spot that eventually went to fellow Senator Lyndon Johnson.  Jackson ran for president twice, and both campaigns were noted for the hostile reception they received from the left wing of the Democratic Party. Jackson's one-on-one campaigning skills, which were so successful in Washington State, did not translate as well on the national stage. Even his supporters admitted that he suffered from a certain lack of charisma.

1972 presidential campaign.

Jackson was little known nationally when he first ran in 1972. George McGovern, who eventually won the nomination, even accused Jackson of racism for his opposition to busing despite Jackson's longstanding record on civil rights issues. Jackson's high point in the campaign was a distant third in the early Florida primary, but he failed to stand out of the pack of better-known rivals, and he made real news only later in the campaign, as part of the "Stop McGovern" coalition, which raised what would be known as the "Acid, Amnesty and Abortion" questions about McGovern. Jackson suspended active campaigning in May after a weak showing in the Ohio primary and finishing well behind McGovern, Ed Muskie, George Wallace, and Hubert Humphrey in early primaries.  Jackson re-emerged at the August Democratic convention after the runner-up, Humphrey, dropped out of the race. Jackson's name was placed in nomination by Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter, and he finished second in the delegate roll call, well behind nominee McGovern.

1976 presidential campaign.

Jackson raised his national profile by speaking out on Soviet-U.S. relations and Middle East policy regularly, and he was considered a front-runner for the nomination when he announced the start of his campaign in February 1975. Jackson received substantial financial support from Jewish-Americans who admired his pro-Israel views, but his support of the Vietnam War resulted in hostility from the left wing of the Democratic Party.  Jackson chose to run on social issues, emphasizing law and order and his opposition to busing. He was hoping for support from labor, but the possibility that Hubert Humphrey might enter the race caused unions to offer only lukewarm support.  Jackson made the fateful decision not to compete in the early Iowa caucus and New Hampshire primary, which Jimmy Carter won after liberals split their votes among four other candidates. Though Jackson won the Massachusetts and New York primaries, he dropped out on May 1 after losing the critical Pennsylvania primary to Carter by 12% and running out of money.

Death.

Jackson died suddenly at the age of 71 in Everett of an aortic aneurysm, shortly after giving a news conference condemning the Soviet attack on Korean Air Lines Flight 007. News reports showed video of Jackson in which he was seen reflexively massaging the left side of his chest while talking and speculated that it was his reaction to an early symptom of the fatal attack.  He was greatly mourned; Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan stated "Henry Jackson is proof of the old belief in the Judaic tradition that at any moment in history goodness in the world is preserved by the deeds of 36 just men who do not know that this is the role the Lord has given them. Henry Jackson was one of those men." Jackson is buried in Evergreen Cemetery in Everett.

Legacy.

Influence on neoconservatism.

Jackson believed that evil should be confronted with power. His support for civil rights and equality at home, married to his opposition to "détente", his support for human rights and democratic allies, and his firm belief that the United States could be a force for good in the world inspired a legion of loyal aides who went on to propound Jackson's philosophy as part of neoconservatism. In addition to Richard Perle, neoconservatives Paul Wolfowitz, Bill Kristol, Charles Horner, and Douglas Feith were former Democratic aides to Jackson who, disillusioned with the Carter administration, supported Ronald Reagan and joined his administration in 1981, later becoming prominent foreign policy makers in the 21st-century Bush administration. Neoconservative Ben Wattenberg was a prominent political aide to Jackson's 1972 and 1976 presidential campaigns. Wolfowitz has called himself a "Scoop Jackson Republican" on multiple occasions. Many journalists and scholars across the political spectrum have noted links between Senator Jackson and modern neoconservatism.  Jackson's influence on foreign policy has been cited as foundational to the George W. Bush administration's foreign policy, and the Iraq War. Jackson biographer Robert Kaufman says "There is no question in my mind that the people who supported Iraq are supporting Henry Jackson's instincts."  Peter Beinart, author of "", argues that the Democratic Party should return to Jackson's values in its foreign policy, criticizing current-day neoconservatives for failing to adopt Jackson's domestic policy views along with his foreign policy views.

The Henry Jackson Society.

In 2005, the Henry Jackson Society was formed at the University of Cambridge, England. The non-partisan British group is dedicated to "pursuit of a robust foreign policy... based on clear universal principles such as the global promotion of the rule of law, liberal democracy, civil rights, environmental responsibility and the market economy" as part of "Henry Jackson's legacy." The organisation is now based in London and hosts high-profile speaker events in the House of Commons.

Jackson Papers controversy.

Senator Jackson's documents were donated to the University of Washington shortly after his death in 1983, and have been archived there ever since. When the materials were donated in 1983, university staff removed all information considered classified at the time. Additional materials were added to the collection until 1995.  At some point, library staff discovered a classified document in the collection and sent it to the government for declassification. In response, in the summer of 2004, a man who identified himself as an employee of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) called the University of Washington asking to inspect Senator Jackson's archived documents housed there. He found a document labelled as classified and showed this to a librarian. In February 2005, 22 years after Jackson's death, a five-person team including staff of the CIA, Department of Defense, the Department of Energy, and the Information Security Oversight Office came to library to review all of Jackson's papers to remove anything still considered classified, or reclassified since then. The Department of Energy found nothing of concern, but the CIA blanked lines in about 20 papers and pulled 8 documents out of collection., some files in the collection are available only to those regarded by the library as "serious researchers", who must first sign a release not to divulge some of the information contained in the files.

Henry Martin "Scoop" Jackson (May 31, 1912 – September 1, 1983) was an American politician who served as a U.S. Representative (1941–1953) and U.S. Senator (1953–1983) from the state of Washington. A Cold War liberal and anti-Communist Democrat, Jackson supported higher military spending and a hard line against the Soviet Union, while also supporting social welfare programs, civil rights, and labor unions.

亨利·马丁·杰克逊(英语:Henry Martin "Scoop" Jackson;1912年-5月31日-1983年-9月1日)是美国政治家。曾担任华盛顿州议员和美国参议员(1953-1983)。 杰克逊是冷战时期的自由主义者和反共民主党人,支持增加军费开支和对苏联采取强硬路线,同时还支持社会福利计划,民权和工会。杰克逊从1963年至1981年担任参议院能源和自然资源委员会主席。他曾两次在1972年和1976年两次获得民主党总统候选人提名。杰克逊在参议院任职,直到1983年去世。


Legend.

"Vita" and "miracula".

The legend of Bishop Henry's life, or his "Vita", was written 150 years after his time, at the end of the 13th century, and contains little concrete information about him. He is said to have been an English-born bishop in Uppsala at the time of King Eric the Saint of Sweden in the mid-12th century, ruling the peaceful kingdom with the king in heavenly co-existence. To tackle the perceived threat from the non-Christian Finns, Eric and Henry were forced to do battle with them. After they had conquered Finland, baptized the people and built many churches, the victorious king returned to Sweden while Henry ("Henricus") remained with the Finns, more willing to live the life of a preacher than that of a high bishop.  The legend draws to a conclusion as Henry attempted to give

Development of the legend.

Henry and his crusade to Finland were also a part of the legend of King Eric. The appendix of the early 13th century "Västgötalagen", which has a short description of Eric's memorable deeds, also makes no reference to Henry or the crusade. Henry and the crusade do not appear until a version of Eric's legend that dates to 1344. Similarities in the factual content and phraseology regarding the common events indicate that either one of the legends has acted as the model for the other. Henry's legend is commonly considered to have been written during the 1280s or 1290s at the latest, for the consecration of the Cathedral of Turku in 1300, when his alleged remains were translated there from Nousiainen, a parish not far from Turku.

Absence from the historical record.

Yet, even as late as in the 1470s, the crusade legend was ignored in the "Chronica regni Gothorum", a chronicle of the history of Sweden, written by Ericus Olai, the Canon of the Uppsala cathedral.  Noteworthy in the development of the legend is that the first canonically elected Bishop of Turku, Johan (1286–1289) of Polish origin, was elected as the Archbishop of Uppsala in 1289, after three years in office in Turku. The Swedish bishops

Appearance in the historical record.

The first mention of Bishop Henry in historical sources is from 1298, when he is mentioned along with king Eric in a document from a provincial synod of Uppsala in Telge. This document, although mentioned many times as a source over the centuries, was not correctly dated until 1910.  The legend itself is also first referred in a letter by the Archbishop of Uppsala in 1298, where Eric and Henry are mentioned together as martyrs who needed to be prayed to for the sake of the situation in Karelia, associating their alleged crusade to Finland with the new expeditions against Novgorod. The war between Novgorod and Sweden for the control of Karelia had started in 1293. The first certain appearance of Henry's image in the seal of the Bishop of Turku

Veneration.

Despite the high-profile start of Henry's "cultus", it took more than 100 years for the veneration of Saint Henry to gain widespread acceptance throughout Sweden. As of 1344 there were no relics of the bishop in the Cathedral of Uppsala. According to one biographer, Henry's veneration was rare outside the Diocese of Turku throughout the 14th century. Vadstena Abbey near Linköping seems to have played a key role in establishment of Henry's legend elsewhere in Sweden in the early 15th century. Henry never received the highest "totum duplex" veneration in Uppsala nor was he made a "patronus" of the church there, which status he had both in Turku and Nousiainen.  At the end of the Roman Catholic era in Sweden, Henry

Political dimensions.

According to legend, establishment of the church of Finland was entirely the work of the saint-king Eric of Sweden, assisted by the bishop from the most important diocese in the country. The first half of the legend describes how the king and the bishop ruled Sweden like 'two great lights' with feelings of 'internal love' toward each other, emphasizing the peaceful coexistence of the secular and ecclesiastical rule during a happy era when 'predatory wolves' could not hit their 'poisonous teeth against the innocent'. The reality was quite different – Eric's predecessor,

Folk traditions.

Among the many folk traditions about Henry, the most prominent is the folk poem "The Death-lay of Bishop Henry" ("Piispa Henrikin surmavirsi"). The poem almost completely ignores Henry's life and ministry and concentrates on his death.

Henry's origins.

According to the poem, Henry had grown up in "Cabbage Land" ("Kaalimaa"), which has puzzled Finnish historians for centuries. The name might be connected to a coastal area in northern Finland Proper called "Kaland", which is also mentioned in conjunction with an unrelated early preacher in Vesilahti, upper Satakunta, whose local name was "Fish of Kaland" ("Kalannin kala", also known as "Hunnun herra"). Bishop Mikael Agricola wrote in his "Se Wsi Testamenti" in 1548, that the earliest Swedish settlers in Finland had come from Gotland to the islets on the

Death and burial.

The death-lay's version of the bishop's death was different from the vita. The bishop's killer was called Lalli. Lalli's wife Kerttu falsely claimed to him that upon leaving the manor, their ungrateful guest Henry, travelling around on his own in the middle of winter, had without permission or recompense, through violence, taken food, cake from the oven and beer from the cellar, for himself and hay for his horse, and left nothing but ashes. This is supposed to have enraged Lalli so that he immediately grabbed his skis and went in pursuit of the thief, finally chasing Henry down on the ice of Lake Köyliönjärvi in Eura. There he killed him on the spot with an axe. Lalli then proceeded to steal the late holy man's hat, called a mitre, and place it on his own head. When Lalli's mother questioned him about where he found the hat, he attempted to take it off, but

Development of folk traditions.

Basically the death-lay is a simple story of a short-tempered man who falls victim of his "bad-mouthed wife's" sharp tongue. The poem has no pity for Lalli, and he is not depicted as a hero in a story whose true antagonist is Kerttu. The depiction of Henry's death built on an independent tradition that was once in direct competition with that of the legend, which is largely forgotten today. It remains unknown whether the two traditions were built around the same person.  The poem, following the traditional Kalevala metre, has survived as several 17th and 18th century literations from various parts of Finland. Some of its elements appear in earlier works, but it hardly dates older than the "vita". There is debate on whether the original poem was constructed by one or more individuals. The writer has however had superficial understanding of the church legends.  Both Lalli (Laurentius) and Kerttu (Gertrud) are originally German names, which

Historical sources.

Today, the legend of Henry is challenged by some historians to the point of being labelled as pure imagination. Completely invented saints were not exceptional in Europe, and there is no direct evidence of either the crusade or Henry.  The bishop's alleged violent death however, is no reason to doubt his potential existence, as many bishops were murdered during the turmoils of the 12th and 13th centuries, although most were not elevated to sainthood. Saxo Grammaticus said of the Battle of Fotevik in 1134 that never had so many bishops been killed at the same time. Notable bishops that died violently included the Archbishop of Uppsala in 1187, Bishop of Estonia in 1219 and Bishop of Linköping in 1220.

Bishop of Uppsala.

There is no historical record of a Bishop of Uppsala called Henry during the reign of King Eric (about 1156–1160). Early phases of the diocese remain obscure up to the point of Stefan, who was appointed as the archbishop in 1164.  A certain Henry is mentioned in "Incerti scriptoris Sueci chronicon primorum in ecclesia Upsalensi archiepiscoporum", a chronicle of Uppsala archbishops, before Coppmannus and Stefan, but after Sverinius (probably mentioned in German sources in 1141/2 as "Siwardus"), Nicolaus and Sweno. Besides the name, the chronicle knows that he was martyred and

Bishop of Finland.

No historical source remains that would confirm the existence of a bishop named Henry in Finland. However, papal letters mentioning an unidentified Bishop of Finland in 1209, 1221, 1229 and 1232 have survived. Some copies of another papal letter from 1232 call the bishop as "N.", but the letter "N" may originally have also been something resembling it. The first certainly known Bishop of Finland is Thomas, who is first mentioned in 1234. It is however possible, that Fulco, the Bishop of Estonia mentioned in sources from 1165 and 1171, was the same as Folquinus, a legendary Bishop of Finland at the end of the 12th century, but this remains only a theory. No Bishop or Diocese of Finland is mentioned in a papal letter from 1171 (or 1172) by the seemingly well-informed Pope Alexander III, who otherwise addressed the situation of the church in Finland. The Pope mentions that there were preachers, presumably from Sweden, working in Finland and was worried about their

Legacy.

Relics.

Henry was allegedly buried in Nousiainen, from where his bones—or at least something that was thought to be his bones—were transported to Turku in 1300. In addition to traditions, the only source connecting Nousiainen to early bishops is a letter signed by Bishop Thomas in Nousiainen in 1234. Archaeological excavations of pre-Catholic cemeteries in Nousiainen and surrounding parishes show a clear discontinuation of traditions in the early 13th century, but no abrupt changes are apparent in the religious environment among the 12th century finds.  Whatever the case, the bishop's grave seems to have been traced to Nousiainen latest after his elevation to sainthood. A number of medieval documents mention that the bishop's grave continued to be located in the local church, presumably meaning that all the bones had not been translated to Turku. The church was later adorned with a grandiose 15th century cenotaph, whose replica can be found in the

Henry's status today.

Although Henry has never been officially canonized, he has been referred to as a saint since as early as 1296 according to a papal document of the time, and continues to be called as such today as well. On the basis of the traditional accounts of Henry's death, his recognition as saint took place prior to the founding of the Congregation for the Causes of the Saints and the official canonization process of the Roman Catholic Church. Henry is currently commemorated on January 19 on the calendar of commemorations of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada. January 19 is also Henry's

Henry (; ; ; died 20 January 1156) was a medieval English clergyman. He came to Sweden with Cardinal Nicholas Breakspeare in 1153 and was most likely designated to be the new Archbishop of Uppsala, but the independent church province of Sweden could only be established in 1164 after the civil war, and Henry would have been sent to organize the Church in Finland, where Christians had already existed for two centuries.

圣亨利(芬兰语: 或,瑞典语: 或,拉丁文:"Henricus" 等;据称约逝于1150年1月20日)是中世纪的瑞典神职人员。传说他与瑞典国王圣埃里克一同征服了芬兰,后来殉教,因而成了当地罗马天主教会的主要人物。然而,他一生、神职任期及过世的实际情形仍极具争议。


Description.

This hawkfish reaches to a maximum total length of about. The dorsal fin has ten spines and eleven soft rays, while the anal fin has three spines and six soft rays. There is considerable variation in the colouring both among adults and as a result of changes during growth. The main colour is usually yellowish but there is a broad black or dark brown lateral band, mainly on the rear half of the body. The sides of the head and the front of the body are whitish or grey, with red speckles. In Asia, juveniles may be reddish dorsally, while in Oceania they tend to have golden-green upper parts and white underparts.

Distribution.

The species is native to the tropical and sub-tropical Indo-Pacific Ocean. Its range extends from East Africa and the Red Sea to Japan, New Caledonia and Australasia. In Australia its range extends from the northwest of Western Australia round the north of the country to the border of Queensland and New South Wales. It is found on the seaward side of reefs and on soft-bottomed lagoons to depths of and more.

Ecology.

The black-sided hawkfish is an ambush predator; it usually lies in wait on a head of coral, propped up by its stiff pectoral fins, ready to dart out at passing crustaceans or small fish. It is mainly a solitary fish, but may be seen in pairs or may form small harems with one dominant male and several females. Like other members of the family, it is a sequential hermaphrodite; adults start life as females but the largest female in a group changes sex to a male if that position is vacated.

The black-sided hawkfish, freckled hawkfish or Forster's hawkfish ("Paracirrhites forsteri"), is a species of hawkfish from the Indo-Pacific. It is occasionally found in the aquarium trade and is also of minor importance to local commercial fisheries. It grows to a total length of.

福氏副<unk>(学名:),又名雀斑副<unk>、海豹格<unk>、格仔,为辐鳍鱼纲鲈形目鲈亚目<unk>科的其中一种。


History.

Foundation and early years.

Prior to the founding of the company, founder Ermenegildo Zegna's father Angelo – a former watchmaker – owned a wool mill and looms in the Alps of Piedmont, Italy. Ermenegildo, together with his brothers Edoardo and Mario, founded the company in 1910 in Trivero in the Biellese Alps when he was only 18, utilizing his father's looms and assets. In 1915 the company was renamed "Fratelli Zegna di Angelo".

Growth.

Zegna's vision was to create high-quality fabrics, so he began to source wool directly from several countries around the world, such as Mongolia, Australia, South Africa; he also bought modern machinery from England.  During the Interwar period, Zegna's business started to flourish. In the late 1920s, the Lanificio (wool mill) employed more than 700 workers, growing to more than 1,000 in the late 1930s. In 1938 the company began to export fabrics in the US. through its subsidiary Zegna Woollens Corporation established in New York City.  In 1942, Ermenegildo's sons Aldo (born in 1920) and Angelo (born in 1924) entered the company, which was renamed "Ermenegildo Zegna and Sons". In the mid-1950s, the company employed 1,400 workers.

Second generation.

Ermenegildo Zegna's sons, Aldo and Angelo, took over the company in the mid-1960s. Under their guide, the label both expanded its business to ready-made suits and established new plants and distribution network abroad. In 1968, the first factory producing sleeve-units and trousers was opened in Novara, followed by openings in Spain, Greece, and Switzerland. Sales and marketing departments were also established in France, Germany, the U.K., and the U.S. In 1972, Zegna launched its made-to-measure service called "Su Misura."  Zegna's attention to wool quality continued through 1960s and 1970s, as the company established the Wool Awards in Australia (1963) and the Mohair Trophy in South Africa (1970).  The international development strategy run by the Zegna brothers brought to the openings of the first owned boutique in Paris in 1980, followed by Milan in 1985. In 1991 Zegna became the first luxury label to open a store in China.

Third generation.

During the 1990s, the third generation of the Zegna family entered the business. Angelo's son, and namesake of the company's founder, Ermenegildo "Gildo" Zegna, became CEO of the Group in 1997; his cousin Paolo became the chairman. They are still at the helm today.  Under their governance, the company began a strategy of brand extension and full verticalization.  In 1991 Zegna was the first luxury brand to enter the China market, with a flagship store in Beijing; and one of the first to access the Indian market.  In 2008, the Group established its new headquarters in Milan, in a building designed by architects Antonio Citterio and Gianmaria Beretta.  Moreover, a large number of acquisitions and partnerships have been signed since the late 1990s to the present day.

Acquisitions.

In 1999, Zegna launched in womenswear by acquiring the Italian brand Agnona.  In 2014, Zegna acquired the majority of Achill, an Australian wool farm counting about 12,500 sheep in its flock.  In 2016, the Group acquired a majority stake in Bonotto, a high-end textile manufacturer based in Molvena, Vicenza, Italy, giving the Group the possibility to explore new areas such as furnishing and experimental fabrics.  Two years later, Zegna – through its subsidiary ZECA company – took over the historic Cappellificio Cervo hat-maker.  In 2018, Ermenegildo Zegna Group – already present in India with three stores – together with Reliance, acquired a stake into Indian fashion designer Raghavendra Rathore's firm. In the same year Zegna announced that they purchased 85% of the eponymously named Thom Browne, a New York City-based menswear and womenswear brand, founded in 2001.  In 2019, Zegna bought a 65% stake of Italian high-quality jersey fabrics manufacturer Dondi, increasing its control over the textile supply chain.

Partnerships.

Ermenegildo Zegna Group, that entered the fragrances market in 2003, signed a worldwide licensing agreement with Estée Lauder on its fragrance line in 2011. Recent lines include the Essenze Eau de Parfum collection launched in 2019.  Zegna have also been in partnership with famous Italian luxury vehicle manufacturer Maserati since 2013, to produce custom-kitted interior, as well as several collections of leather goods, travel-friendly clothing and personal accessories.  In February 2014, the Ermenegildo Zegna Group signed a ten-year licensing agreement for the manufacture of eyewear with the Marcolin Group.

Creative directors.

Alessandro Sartori oversees creative direction for all departments of the brand. He was appointed as artistic director in June 2016, when he came back to Zegna after serving the label from 2003 to 2011 as creative director.  Previously, Stefano Pilati had served as head of design of Ermenegildo Zegna Couture for three years. From 2011 to 2014, Paul Surridge was creative director of Z Zegna.

Financial data.

Ermenegildo Zegna Group is the largest menswear brand in the world by revenue. As of 2018, Ermenegildo Zegna operated 480 retail stores (267 of which company-owned) across the world. Following the company's strongly export-oriented strategy, exports account for over 90% of total sales.

Corporate governance.

Zegna is now managed by the third generation of the Zegna family and remains in family ownership. Ermenegildo (Gildo) Zegna is currently the CEO; his cousin Paolo Zegna is the company's chairman; Anna Zegna is President of Fondazione Zegna. Ermenegildo's son, Angelo, is the honorary chairman.

Celebrities.

A number of actors and models have advertised Zegna's lines through the years. Celebrities featured in Zegna's advertising campaigns include Oscar-winning actor Adrien Brody, American model Ryan Burns, Irish actor Jamie Dornan, English actor Sam Riley.  In 2017, Ermenegildo Zegna launched a four-chapter campaign called "Defining Moments". The campaign featured Robert De Niro, McCaul Lombardi, Benjamin Millepied, Park Chan-wook, Yoo Ji-tae, Wang Deshun, Sunny Wang, Javier Bardem, Dev Patel. The first three chapters were directed by Craig McDean; the last one was directed by Luca Guadagnino.  In 2019 Zegna launched the new ""What does it mean to be a man today?"," campaign, featuring Mahershala Ali and Nicholas Tse, focused on the definition of modern masculinity.  Zegna also produced a four-part series of short films titled "A Rose Reborn", directed by Park Chan-wook in 2014.

Philanthropy.

During the 1930s, founder Ermenegildo Zegna actively promoted social facilities in his native town Trivero. Before the advent of popular ecology, he also planted thousands of trees and financed the panoramic road which was named after him. In 1993, Ermenegildo Zegna Group created the Oasi Zegna, a protected natural area of 100 km2 in the mountains surrounding Trivero. In 2014 the Oasi was granted the patronage of FAI Fondo Ambiente Italiano, the National Trust of Italy.  In 2000 a charity organization, Fondazione Zegna, was set up with the aim of promoting sustainability and environmental causes, to which the Group puts 5% of its profits.  Since 2014, the Group has been financing the 25-year project called the Ermenegildo Zegna Founder's Scholarship. The program provides €1 million annually to enable talented Italian graduates to pursue international postgraduate studies, while encouraging them to return to Italy upon completion of their programs abroad.

Ermenegildo Zegna () (often abbreviated and known simply as Zegna) is an Italian luxury fashion house. Founded by Ermenegildo Zegna in 1910, in Trivero, Biella Province of the Piedmont Region of Northern Italy, Ermenegildo Zegna remains one of the most renowned businesses in Italy.

杰尼亚(Ermenegildo Zegna,常缩写为Zegna)是意大利的一家家族式公司,主要经营高档男士服饰和配饰服装.杰尼亚由Ermenegildo Zegna于1910年在意大利北部皮埃蒙特大区比耶拉省的Trivero成立,至今仍是意大利最著名的企业之一。


History.

Original construction.

The estate's connection with the Montmorency family began in 1484. The first mansion (no longer in existence, now replaced by the Grand Château) was built, between 1528 and 1531, for Anne de Montmorency by Pierre Chambiges. The Petit Château was also built for him, around 1560, probably by Jean Bullant. In 1632, after the death of Henri II de Montmorency, it passed to his nephew, the Grand Condé, who inherited it through his mother, Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency.  Molière's play, "Les Précieuses ridicules", received its first performance here in 1659. Madame de Sévigné relates in her memoirs that when King Louis XIV of France visited there in 1671, François Vatel, the maître d'hôtel to the Grand Condé, committed suicide when he feared the fish would be served late. The collection includes important works of the cabinetmaker André-Charles Boulle.

Revolution and aftermath.

The original mansion was destroyed in the French Revolution. It was repaired in a modest way by Louis Henri II, Prince of Condé, but the entire property was confiscated from the Orléans family, between 1853 and 1872, during which interval it was owned by Coutts, an English bank. Chantilly was entirely rebuilt, between 1875 and 1882, by Henri d'Orléans, duc d'Aumale (1822–1897) to the designs of Honore Daumet. The new château met with mixed reviews. Boni de Castellane summed up one line of thought: "What is today styled a marvel is one of the saddest specimens of the architecture of our era — one enters at the second floor and descends to the salons". In the end, the Duc d'Aumale bequeathed the property to the Institut de France upon his death in 1897.

21st century restoration.

The World Monuments Fund included the site in the 1998 World Monuments Watch to call attention to water infiltration and high humidity in the "Galerie des Actions de Monsieur le Prince" and again in the 2002 World Monuments Watch due to the precarious condition of the entire estate. Funding for restoration work was provided from various sources, including American Express and the Generali Group.  Subsequently, in response to an appeal for the restoration of the château, The Aga Khan donated €40 million, accounting for more than half of a €70 million needed by the Institut de France to complete the project. In 2008 the World Monuments Fund completed the restoration of the Grande Singerie, a salon with paintings on the walls of monkeys engaged in human activities, once a fashionable salon motif, but with few examples surviving today.

Musée Condé.

Works in the art gallery (many of them are in the Tribune Room) include Sassetta's "Mystic Marriage of St. Francis", Botticelli's "Autumn", Piero di Cosimo's "Portrait of Simonetta Vespucci", Raphael's "Three Graces" and "Madonna of Loreto", Guercino's "Pietà", Pierre Mignard's "Portrait of Molière" as well as four of Antoine Watteau's paintings and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot's "Le concert champêtre". Other paintings in the collection include works by Fra Angelico, Filippino Lippi, Hans Memling, 260 paintings and drawings by François and Jean Clouet, Veronese, Barocci, Annibale Carracci, Domenichino, Salvator Rosa, Nicolas Poussin, Philippe de Champaigne, Van Dyck, Guido Reni, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, Joshua Reynolds, Eugène Delacroix, Ingres, Géricault.  The library of the Petit Château contains over 1,500 manuscripts and 17,500 printed volumes, that is part of the collection of over 700 incunabula, and some 300 medieval manuscripts, including one page of the "Registrum Gregorii" (c. 983), the "Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry", the Ingeborg Psalter and 40 miniatures from Jean Fouquet's "Book of Hours of Etienne Chevalier".

Park and Chantilly racecourse.

The main French formal garden, featuring extensive parterres and water features, was laid out principally by André Le Nôtre for the Grand Condé. The park also contains a French landscape garden with a cascade, pavilions, and a rustic ersatz village, the Hameau de Chantilly. The latter inspired the Hameau de la reine of Marie Antoinette in the Gardens of Versailles.  The estate overlooks the Chantilly Racecourse and the "Grandes Écuries" (Great Stables) which contains the Living Museum of the Horse. According to legend, Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon, Prince of Condé believed that he would be reincarnated as a horse after his death. In 1719, he asked the architect Jean Aubert to build stables suitable to his rank.

Modern uses.

The Château has various modern uses:

The Château de Chantilly () is a historic French château located in the town of Chantilly, Oise, about 50 kilometres (30 miles) north of Paris. The site comprises two attached buildings: the Petit Château built around 1560 for Anne de Montmorency and the Grand Château, which was destroyed during the French Revolution and rebuilt in the 1870s. It is owned by the Institut de France, to which it was bequeathed in the will of Henri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale.

尚蒂伊城堡(Château de Chantilly,)是一座古老的城堡,位于法国尚蒂利。它包括两座附属的建筑:大城堡毁于法国革命期间,1870年代重建,小城堡于大约1560年为蒙莫朗西公爵修建。这座城堡现在由法兰西学会拥有,开设孔代博物馆,因为孔代亲王住在这个地方,这是法国最优秀的美术馆之一,向公众开放。


Youth and college.

Born in Lakewood, Ohio, Friedel grew up in Bay Village, where he attended Westerly Elementary School, Bay Middle School and Bay High School. Growing up, Friedel played several sports, including soccer, basketball and tennis, and excelled at all three. He earned Bay High's Outstanding Athlete of the Year award in 1989. As an All-State basketball player in Ohio, he was invited to try out as a walk-on for UCLA's basketball team in 1990. He began as a forward on his youth soccer team before moving into goalkeeping. Friedel graduated from Bay High in 1989. In 2007, he was inducted into the Bay High Hall of Fame.  Friedel played college soccer at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). In 1990, he kept goal for the Bruins to the NCAA championship. He was selected as the first team All-American goalkeeper in 1991 and 1992, and won the Hermann Trophy in 1993 as the top collegiate soccer player. He played 66 games for the UCLA, all of which he started. "Soccer America" magazine named Friedel to its College Team of the Century.

Playing career.

Professional career.

Early career.

Friedel left UCLA early to pursue a professional career. He began by attempting to sign with Nottingham Forest under Brian Clough, but was denied a work permit, the first in several such failed attempts to move to England. Following a brief trial in Scotland with Celtic,  Friedel was signed by manager Kevin Keegan of Newcastle United, but again was denied a work permit. While awaiting approval from the British authorities, he practiced with Newcastle as an on-loan player from the USSF.  Friedel joined Danish Superliga club Brøndby IF in 1995 and played in 10 games with them. He stayed with that club for several months in 1995, as back-up to Mogens Krogh. Friedel remained with Brøndby until he returned to the U.S. to rejoin the national team, then preparing for the 1995 U.S. Cup and Copa America.  After the two tournaments, Friedel attempted a third time to join an English club, this time Sunderland. While awaiting a decision regarding his latest application for a work permit, Friedel spent time training with League of Ireland side St. Patrick's Athletic, who were managed at the time by Brian Kerr, a friend of Sunderland manager Peter Reid's. When Friedel again failed to receive a British work permit, his agent negotiated a $1.1 million transfer from the USSF to leading Turkish team Galatasaray in 1995. Galatasaray were managed by Friedel's future Blackburn Rovers manager Graeme Souness. In July 1996, following the end of the Turkish season, Friedel moved to the Columbus Crew of Major League Soccer (MLS). In February 1997, he signed a three-year contract with the Crew as he was named the team's starter. That season, he was selected to the MLS Best XI and named the MLS Goalkeeper of the Year.

Liverpool.

Friedel completed a transfer to Liverpool, worth £1.7 million, in 1997. On December 23, 1997, Liverpool gained a work permit for Friedel on appeal after the first request was denied. He made his debut against Aston Villa on February 28, 1998. While Friedel had some initial success with the Reds, he soon had a difficult time, managing just over 30 games in almost three years, including two appearances in the UEFA Cup, as he sat behind first David James and later Sander Westerveld.

Blackburn Rovers.

Friedel was signed to Blackburn Rovers by Graeme Souness on a free transfer in November 2000 after a work permit was secured. Joining during Rovers' promotion-winning 2000–01 season, Friedel's consistently-assured performances helped ensure Blackburn's return to the Premiership and then consolidate their top division status in the following seasons.  Friedel's memorable performances for Blackburn include playing against Tottenham Hotspur in the League Cup Final in early 2002, when he was named Man of the Match. In a 2-1 win over Arsenal at Highbury, Friedel made several immense saves and was only beaten by a deflected free kick. A stunning performance away at Southampton prompted Gordon Strachan to liken him to Superman: "Friedel must have got changed in a telephone box. I wouldn't be surprised if when he takes his shirt off there's a blue jersey with an 'S' on underneath it."  At the end of the 2002–03 season, Friedel's 15 clean sheets earned him Blackburn's Player of the Year award, as well as selection to the Premiership Starting XI. On February 21, 2004, in an away game against Charlton Athletic, Friedel scored a goal from open play in the 90th minute, from a corner kick. Friedel's goal equalized the game at 2–2, but seconds later Charlton scored again through Claus Jensen, and went on to win the match 3–2. He became just the second goalkeeper in Premier League history (excluding own goals) to score, after Peter Schmeichel for Aston Villa in 2001.  Friedel extended his contract with Blackburn Rovers on April 14, 2006, stating his love for the club as a reason. Two years later, on February 5, 2008, he again signed an extension to his Rovers contract, stating that, "I am delighted to have extended the agreement. It was not a difficult decision to make. Blackburn Rovers is home to me. This is my club and I have a special affinity with it." He would, however, leave the club at the end of that season to join Aston Villa, just two league appearances short of Terry Gennoe's club record of 289 for a goalkeeper.  In February 2019 he was one of the first seven players to be inducted into the club's Hall of Fame.

Aston Villa.

Friedel had asked Blackburn Rovers for permission to let him speak with Aston Villa if an offer was accepted, with Manchester City reportedly interested in signing the American. The club accepted a transfer bid for Friedel, thought to be in the region of £2.5 million, subject to Blackburn themselves having a bid accepted for a replacement goalkeeper.  Aston Villa held talks with Brad Friedel on July 25, 2008. Friedel signed a three-year contract with Aston Villa the day after. Friedel was unveiled at half-time during Aston Villa's Intertoto Cup match against Odense.  He made his debut against Reading on August 2 at the Madejski Stadium. Just ten minutes in, the hosts were awarded a penalty, which Friedel then saved. His competitive debut came in the UEFA Cup second qualifying round, first leg, against Hafnarfjorður away from home. Villa won the match 4–1. Friedel played his first Premiership match for Aston Villa on August 17, 2008, the first match for Aston Villa in the 2008–09 season, in which Villa beat Manchester City 4–2 at home.  He broke the record for continuous games played in the Premier League on November 30, 2008, after his 167th finished in a 0–0 draw with Fulham. He was sent off against former club Liverpool at Anfield by referee Martin Atkinson. Liverpool were awarded a penalty that Steven Gerrard converted against Villa's second-choice goalkeeper, Brad Guzan. Friedel's red card, which he received on the Sunday beforehand, was overturned by the FA on March 24, meaning that he was able to continue his streak of consecutive Premiership appearances. On January 16, 2011, he reached the landmark of 250 consecutive league games.  Friedel became the oldest player ever to play for Aston Villa following their 3–1 loss to Manchester United on February 1, 2011.

Tottenham Hotspur.

Friedel's contract with Aston Villa expired after the 2010–11 season. On June 3, 2011, Tottenham Hotspur announced that they had signed Friedel on a two-year deal. On August 22, 2011, Friedel started in goal for Tottenham at Old Trafford against Manchester United, after Tottenham's first home fixture of the season against Everton the previous week was rescheduled due to rioting in North London. This meant that Friedel further extended his run of consecutive games in the Premier League after his transfer from Aston Villa. During the 2011–12 campaign, Friedel also became the oldest player to make an appearance in the Premier League.  The arrival of the French national team's goalkeeper and captain, Hugo Lloris, to the end of the 2012 summer transfer window cast some doubt on Friedel's status as Tottenham's first-choice goalkeeper for the 2012–13 season. However, following an impressive display by Friedel against Norwich on September 1, 2012, manager André Villas-Boas said that Friedel would remain number one. Friedel's run of 310 consecutive Premier League games was ended on October 7, 2012, when he was named on the bench behind Lloris against Aston Villa. Friedel, however, returned in goal for the next match on October 20, 2012, against Chelsea.  On December 26, 2012, it was announced that Friedel had signed a new contract with Spurs, keeping him at the club until 2014.  Following Lloris' failure to fully recover from a head injury, Friedel returned to the starting lineup in a league match on November 10, 2013, but was unable to prevent Tottenham from losing 1–0 to Newcastle United, with the winning goal being scored by Loïc Rémy.  On June 9, 2014, Friedel signed a one-year contract extension with Tottenham, which would keep him at the club until 2015. In addition, Friedel also became a club ambassador, focusing on Tottenham's presence in the United States.  On May 14, 2015, Friedel announced that he would be retiring at the end of the 2014–15 season.  He continues to serve the club as a club ambassador in the United States.

International career.

Friedel is the fourth-most capped goalkeeper in U.S. national team history, and gained his first international cap against Canada in 1992, a game in which he managed to keep a clean sheet. He was the first-choice goalkeeper for the U.S 1992 Olympic team; however, he was unable to beat out Tony Meola as first-choice keeper for the U.S. team at the 1994 World Cup. His chance came, and Friedel made his World Cup debut, in the 1998 World Cup, where he conceded one goal as the U.S. lost to Yugoslavia. He lived up to his growing reputation in the 2002 World Cup as the U.S. went on a surprising run to the quarter-finals, which included a 3–2 victory over Portugal in group play, and a 2–0 second-round win over arch-rival Mexico before a loss to Germany (the eventual runner-up). He also became the first keeper to save two penalty kicks during regular play (as opposed to penalty shootouts) in a World Cup finals tournament since 1974. He was dubbed "The Human Wall" by fans during the spectacular 2002 World Cup run.  Friedel announced his retirement from international soccer on February 7, 2005.

Media career.

Brad Friedel was a studio pundit for BBC's 2014 World Cup coverage in Brazil on both television and BBC Radio Five Live, later appearing on RTÉ's coverage in Ireland after returning home. For the 2014–15 season, he appeared on BBC's "Match of the Day" and "Setanta Sports".

Management career.

United States U19.

On January 5, 2016, Friedel was named the United States under 19s head coach. He won the 2017 CONCACAF U-20 Championship as assistant coach of the U.S. team with Tab Ramos and Omid Namazi.

New England Revolution.

On November 9, 2017, Friedel was named head coach of the New England Revolution, replacing Jay Heaps who was fired by the club in September, 2017.  On May 9, 2019, Friedel was fired by the Revolution after a 12-21-13 career record and a 2-8-2 record to open the 2019 season.

Honors.

Club.

Galatasaray  Blackburn Rovers

Personal life.

Though raised in the midwestern state of Ohio, Friedel developed a slight English accent after having lived in the north of that country for more than a decade. "The English don't think I have an accent at all. They think I sound American. And Americans think I sound English. I think I'm caught in the middle."  Friedel is a fan of the NFL's Cleveland Browns, which former Aston Villa Chairman Randy Lerner owned until August 2012.  Friedel also names former American international goalkeeper Tim Harris as his all-time soccer hero. Friedel credits Harris as "the person who started my journey."  In 2007, Friedel launched a non-profit soccer academy in Lorain, Ohio, at a cost of approximately $10 million, providing coaching on a full-tuition scholarship basis to youths aged 12 and older. Premier Soccer Academy had difficulty retaining and obtaining corporate sponsorship after the 2008 financial crisis, however, and closed in 2011. In January of that year, Friedel filed for bankruptcy protection in the United Kingdom as a result of debts arising from the academy.

Bradley Howard Friedel (born May 18, 1971) is a retired American soccer goalkeeper and the former head coach of Major League Soccer team New England Revolution.

布拉德·弗里德尔(英语:Brad Friedel,1971年-5月18日)是一位美国职业足球员,担任守门员,现已退役。