Life.

Haldeman was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. His family traveled and he lived in Puerto Rico, New Orleans, Washington, D.C., Bethesda (Maryland), and Anchorage (Alaska) as a child. He had to repeatedly start classes as a new kid in local schools.  In 1965, Haldeman married Mary Gay Potter, known as Gay Haldeman. He received a BS degree in Physics and Astronomy from the University of Maryland in 1967.  He was immediately drafted into the United States Army, where he served as a combat engineer in Vietnam. He was wounded in combat and received a Purple Heart. His wartime experience inspired his first novel "War Year". In addition, in his later books such as "The Hemingway Hoax" and "Old Twentieth", he continued to explore through fiction the experience of combat soldiers in Vietnam and other wars, both during the wars and after return home.  In 1975, he received an MFA degree in Creative Writing from the University of Iowa Writers' Workshop.  Haldeman resides alternately in Gainesville, Florida and Cambridge, Massachusetts. Since 1983, he has been an adjunct professor of writing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. MIT serves as the setting for his 2007 novel, "The Accidental Time Machine". Haldeman is also a painter.  In 2009 and 2010, Haldeman was hospitalized for pancreatitis.

Work.

Haldeman's first book was a 122-page novel, "War Year", published by Holt, Rinehart and Winston in May 1972. The novel was sold with the help of fellow writer Ben Bova. It was based on his letters home from Vietnam, and was marketed as both mainstream and Young Adult. His most famous novel is his second, "The Forever War" (St. Martin's Press, 1974), which was inspired by his Vietnam experiences and originated as his MFA thesis for the Iowa Writers' Workshop. It won the year's "Best Novel" Hugo, Nebula and Locus Awards. He later wrote sequels.  In 1975, two Attar novels were published as Pocket Books paperback originals under the pen name Robert Graham. Haldeman also wrote two of the earliest original novels based on the 1960s "" television series universe, "Planet of Judgment" (August 1977) and "World Without End" (February 1979).  In a college creative writing class in 1967, Haldeman wrote the first two SF stories which he (later) sold. "Out of Phase" was published in the September 1969 "Galaxy" magazine, and "the other worked its way down to a penny-a-word market, "Amazing Stories", and netted me all of $15 – but then years later it was adapted for "The Twilight Zone", for fifty times as much. Not bad for a story banged out overnight to meet a class deadline."  Haldeman has written at least one produced Hollywood movie script. The film, a low-budget science fiction film called "Robot Jox", was released in 1990. He was not entirely happy with the product, saying "to me it's as if I'd had a child who started out well and then sustained brain damage".  In a 2016 interview, Haldeman said, "Jack of all trades, master of none I think. It's a way to go. Not all writers go that way, but many of them do. On a day-to-day basis I wake up in the morning and I can do anything I feel like doing. I don't say, uh oh, I've get back to that damn novel again. I can always write a poem or something.... "

Major awards.

The Science Fiction Writers of America officers and past presidents selected Haldeman as the 27th SFWA Grand Master in 2009, and he received the corresponding Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award for lifetime achievement as a writer during Nebula Awards weekend in 2010. The Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted him in June 2012.  He has also won numerous annual awards for particular works.  He is a lifetime member of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA), and past-president.  His filk song "The Ballad of Stan Long (a sexist epic)" received a Pegasus Award in 2005.

Joe William Haldeman (born June 9, 1943) is an American science fiction author. He is best known for his novel "The Forever War" (1974). That novel, and other of his works, including "The Hemingway Hoax" (1991) and "Forever Peace" (1997), have won major science fiction awards, including the Hugo Award and Nebula Award. He was awarded the SFWA Grand Master for career achievements. In 2012 he was inducted as a member of the Science Fiction Hall of Fame. Many of Haldeman's works, including his debut novel "War Year" and his second novel "The Forever War", were inspired by his experiences related to serving in the Vietnam War. Wounded in combat, he struggled to adjust to civilian life after returning home.

乔·霍尔德曼(英语:Joe Haldeman,1943年-6月9日)是一名美国科幻作家。


奥兰治 (新南威尔士州)

History.

In 1822 Captain Percy Simpson marched into the Wellington District and established a convict settlement which was called "Blackman's Swamp" after James Blackman; Simpson had employed James Blackman as a guide because he had already accompanied an earlier explorer, John Oxley into that region.  In the late 1820s, the surveyor J. B. Richards worked on a survey of the Macquarie River below Bathurst and also of the road to Wellington. On a plan dated 1829, he indicated a village reserve, in the parish of Orange. Sir Thomas Mitchell named the parish Orange, as he had been an associate of the Prince of Orange in the Peninsular War, when both were aides-de-camp to the Duke of Wellington, whose title was bestowed on the valley to the west by Oxley.  Initial occupation by British graziers began in late 1829, and tiny settlements eventually turned into larger towns as properties came into connection with the road. In 1844, the surveyor Davidson was sent to check on encroachments onto the land reserved for a village, and to advise on the location for a township. His choices were Frederick's Valley, Pretty Plains, or Blackman's Swamp.  Blackman's Swamp was chosen, and it was proclaimed a village and named Orange by Major Thomas Mitchell in 1846 in honour of Prince William of Orange. At nearby Ophir, a significant gold find in Australia was made in 1851, resulting in a sporadic population movement which is known as the Australian gold rush. Additional gold finds in nearby areas led to the establishment of Orange as a central trading centre for the gold.  The growth of Orange continued as the conditions were well suited for agriculture, and in 1860 it was proclaimed a municipality. The railway from Sydney reached Orange in 1877. In 1946, 100 years after it was first being established as a village, Orange was proclaimed as a minor city.

Population.

According to the 2016 census of Population, there were 37,182 people in the Orange urban centre.

Geography and climate.

Owing to its altitude, Orange has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen "Cfb"), with warm summers (though with cool mornings) and cool winters with frequent morning frosts and light to moderate, sometimes heavy snowfalls. The city is relatively wet for an inland location owing to orographic effects from Mount Canobolas, especially during the cooler months when snow falls; Orange is amongst the few cities in Australia to receive regular snowfall, and is likewise the snowiest city in Australia (not counting smaller towns such as Oberon). Compared with most population centres in Australia it has colder winters, especially in terms of its daytime maximum temperatures, owing chiefly to its south-westerly exposure. In summer, the average (and absolute) maximum temperatures are also lower than in most inland centres, on account of its elevation. Owing to its inland location, the humidity is low in the summer months with the dewpoint typically around 10 °C. Having 99.8 clear days annually, it is still cloudier than the coastal areas of Sydney and Wollongong (104 and 107 clear days, respectively), with a marked lack of sunshine in winter compared to summer The climate has enabled the area to be a major apple and pear producer, and more recently a centre for cool-weather wine production.

Industries.

Orange is a well-known fruit growing district, and produces apples, pears, and many stone fruits such as cherries, peaches, apricots, and plums; oranges are not grown in the area, since its climate is too cool. In recent years, a large number of vineyards have been planted in the area for rapidly expanding wine production. The growth of this wine industry, coupled with the further development of Orange as a gourmet food capital, has ensured Orange's status as a prominent tourism destination.  Other large industries include: Orange is also the location of the headquarters of the New South Wales Department of Industry (Department of Industry, Skills and Regional Development, the New South Wales Department of Primary Industries).  The following primary schools are not within the city limits of Orange but are located within the rural fringe of Orange:

Suburbs.

The following are listed as the suburbs within Orange City Council, according to the New South Wales Division of Local Government:

Mining.

Cadia-Ridgeway Mine is a large open cut gold and copper mine located about 20 kilometres south of Orange, the mine has been developed throughout the 1990s employing several thousand employees with an expected lifespan of several decades. Cadia is the second largest open cut mine in Australia after the Super Pit at Kalgoorlie. Large mineral deposits are also being uncovered from the more recently developed Ridgeway underground mine which is adjacent to the Cadia Mine.  The mine is operated by Newcrest Mining. Cadia-Ridgeway is one of two gold mines Newcrest currently operates in Australia, the other being Telfer in Western Australia. The company also owns and operates the Gosowong Mine in Indonesia and the Lihir mine in Papua New Guinea (both gold mines) amongst others.

Winemaking.

The Orange wine region is defined as the area above 600m in the local government areas of Orange, Cabonne and Blayney and can be usefully described as a circle around Orange. The Orange region is good for grape growing and winemaking due to a combination of geology, soils, climate and temperature. Together these factors combine to produce grapes and wine of distinct flavours and colour. The climate perhaps plays the biggest part in giving Orange some distinct natural advantages – the cool temperatures during most of the growing season coupled with dry autumn conditions are ideal for grape growing.

Wineries.

Wineries that use Orange region grapes in their wines include Brokenwood Wines (Hunter Valley based), Logan (Mudgee), Tamburlaine (Hunter Valley), Gartelmann (Hunter Valley), Windowrie (Central Ranges), Eloquesta Wines (Mudgee) and Lowe Wines (Mudgee). In 2007, South Australian based Penfolds winery released the 2007 Penfolds Bin 311 Orange Region Chardonnay.

Media.

Orange is served by several radio stations, including 105.1 2GZFM, 105.9 Star FM, FM107.5 Orange Community Radio, 103.5 Rhema FM, HIT Country 88 FM and 2EL 1089AM – a commercial station that gets most of its programming from 2SM in Sydney. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) also broadcasts from four radio stations in Orange including ABC Local Radio (2CR) on 549AM and three national networks – ABC Classic FM on 102.7 FM, ABC Radio National on 104.3 FM, and Triple J on 101.9 FM.  The city receives five network television stations – Prime7 (a Seven Network affiliate), WIN TV (a Ten Network affiliate), Southern Cross Nine (a Nine Network affiliate), ABC TV and SBS One.  Of the three main commercial networks:  Subscription television service Foxtel is available in Orange and the surrounding region via satellite.  The local newspapers are the "Central Western Daily", the "Midstate Observer" and "Orange City Life".

Clubs and entertainment.

Orange has several music clubs which meet regularly. The Orange Blues Club meets at the Victoria Hotel. The Orange Blues Club also hold an annual Blues Music Festival – the Black Stump Blues Festival. The Orange Jazz Club meets 1st Sunday monthly at the Royal Hotel.

Water resources.

Orange has several water sources used for domestic consumption, both currently in use and formerly used. Currently Suma Park Dam and Spring Creek Reservoir are used for domestic water consumption. Two other dams, Lake Canobolas and Gosling Creek Reservoir, were previously used for domestic water consumption; however, they are now used for recreational purposes. The city is currently on Level 5 water restrictions. Orange City Council is undertaking a number of strategies to supplement its supply, including stormwater harvesting.  The first batch of harvested stormwater was released into Suma Park Dam on 21 April 2009. The harvested stormwater was tested by Analytical Laboratory Services, an independent laboratory based in Sydney. ALS tested for 90 potential pollutants. The tests revealed that the water quality met all targets. The first batch contained 14 megalitres. It is believed to be an Australian first for harvesting stormwater for potable use. The hardware is in place, operating rules have been developed and environmental factors and impacts on downstream users have been considered. A three-month trial will ensure all these elements are working together to ensure high water quality and environmental standards are met. There are several phases involved in the commissioning period. The hardware, which includes three separate pumping stations, creek flow monitoring points and advanced electronics including fibre optic cables, will undergo further operating tests. The other elements of the scheme include a weir on Blackmans Swamp Creek, which creates a 3 megalitre pool and the site for the first pump station, a 200 megalitre dam and two 17 megalitre batching ponds. The pumps on the creek transfer stormwater to the 200 megalitre dam at a rate of up to 450 litres per second and are designed to rapidly extract peak storm flows from the creek. The operating rules require that a base flow immediately downstream in the creek must be maintained. The creek flow monitoring points ensure these standards are met. The monitoring station also measures when harvesting can commence. The trigger is flows passing the monitor in Blackmans Swamp Creek exceeding 1000 litres per second.  The local mine, Cadia-Ridgeway Mine, uses the city's treated effluent to supplement its water supply.  Orange is currently planning to implement a pipeline from the Macquarie river to boost the town water supply. This is hotly debated, and researchers believe that it will endanger threatened wetland areas.

Transport.

Roads.

Orange is situated on the Mitchell Highway, linking the city to Molong, Wellington, Dubbo and Bourke to the north west, and to Bathurst to the east and from there to Sydney via the Great Western Highway (). Due west are Parkes () and Forbes (), which is midway along the Newell Highway, running from Brisbane, Queensland to Melbourne, Victoria. In 2007 a bypass road, known as the northern distributor road, was opened for use after decades of planning.

Public transport.

Orange Buslines operate a number of routes within the city and a service to the neighbouring city of Bathurst. Newman's Bus Service operates route two on weekdays to Blayney. Australia Wide Coaches operate a daily coach service to Sydney. NSW TrainLink operate several coach services with connecting train services from Lithgow to Sydney, as well as a less frequent coach service to Cootamundra for connection to Melbourne.

Air.

Orange is also serviced by a regional-class airport, Orange Airport, located approximately 15 km to the south of the city, in an area known as Huntley.

Railways.

Orange has two railway stations. The main station, on the Main Western Line to Bourke, was opened in 1877 and is served by the daily NSW TrainLink "Central West XPT" service between Sydney and Dubbo and the weekly "Outback Xplorer" service between Sydney and Broken Hill. A smaller station, opened in 1970, known as Orange East Fork, lies on the branch line to Broken Hill and is served by the weekly "Indian Pacific" service to Perth.

Sister cities.

Orange is a sister city to:

Notable residents.

Sports.

marianne Murphy Australian netballer #111 diamond Australian team

Attractions.

Orange has many attractions. There are bush walking trails in Orange including; Spring Glade Walking Track, Cook Park Heritage Walk, Summits Walking Tracks, Nangar National Park and Mullion Range State Conservation Area. Borenore Caves is a series of limestone caves. Duntryleague Golf Club and Clubhouse, Mount Canobolas and Federal Falls in the Mount Canobolas State Conservation Area, Lake Canobolas, Gnoo Blas Motor Racing Circuit, the historic centre of Orange and the Orange Botanic Gardens are also near the town.

Heritage listings.

Orange has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:

Orange is a city in the Central Tablelands region of New South Wales, Australia. It is west of the state capital, Sydney [ on a great circle], at an altitude of. Orange had an estimated urban population of 40,493 as of June 2018 making the city a significant regional centre. A significant nearby landmark is Mount Canobolas with a peak elevation of and commanding views of the district.

奥兰治是新南威尔士州的一个小镇,位于雪梨之西250公-{里}-处,人口有39,329;在州内属比较重要的城镇。


In western art music.

In some European art music, polyrhythm periodically contradicts the prevailing meter. For example, in Mozart's opera "Don Giovanni", two orchestras are heard playing together in different metres ( and ):  They are later joined by a third band, playing in time.  Polyrhythm is heard near the opening of Beethoven's Symphony No. 3. (See also syncopation.)  It is a particularly common feature of the music of Brahms. Writing about the Violin Sonata in G major, Op. 78, Jan Swafford (1997, p. 456) says "In the first movement Brahms plays elaborate games with the phrasing, switching the stresses of the meter back and forth between and, or superimposing both in violin and piano. These ideas gather at the climax at measure 235, with the layering of phrases making an effect that perhaps during the 19th century only Brahms could have conceived." In "The Snow is Dancing" from his "Children's Corner" suite, Debussy introduces a melody "on a static, repeated B-flat, cast in triplet-division cross rhythms which offset this stratum independently of the sixteenth notes comprising the two dancing-snowflake lines below it." "In this section great attention to the exactitude of rhythms is demanded by the polyrhythmic superposition of pedals, ostinato, and melody."

Hemiola.

Concerning the use of a two-over-three (2:3) hemiola in Beethoven's String Quartet No. 6, Ernest Walker states, "The vigorously effective Scherzo is in time, but with a curiously persistent cross-rhythm that does its best to persuade us that it is really in."

Polyrhythm, not polymeter.

The illusion of simultaneous and, suggests polymeter: triple meter combined with compound duple meter.  </score> However, the two beat schemes interact within a metric hierarchy (a single meter). The triple beats are primary and the duple beats are secondary; the duple beats are cross-beats within a triple beat scheme.  </score>

Composite hemiola.

The four-note ostinato pattern of Mykola Leontovych's "Carol of the Bells" (the first measure below) is the composite of the two-against-three hemiola (the second measure).  </score>  Another example of polyrhythm can be found in measures 64 and 65 of the first movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 12. Three evenly-spaced sets of three attack-points span two measures.  </score>

Cross-rhythm.

Cross-rhythm refers to systemic polyrhythm. The "New Harvard Dictionary of Music" states that cross-rhythm is: "A rhythm in which the regular pattern of accents of the prevailing meter is contradicted by a conflicting pattern and not merely a momentary displacement that leaves the prevailing meter fundamentally unchallenged" (1986: 216). The physical basis of cross-rhythms can be described in terms of interference of different periodicities.  A simple example of a cross-rhythm is 3 evenly spaced notes against 2 (3:2), also known as a hemiola. Two simple and common ways to express this pattern in standard western musical notation would be 3 quarter notes over 2 dotted quarter notes within one bar of time, quarter note triplets over 2 quarter notes within one bar of time. Other cross-rhythms are 4:3 (with 4 dotted eight notes over 3 quarter notes within a bar of time as an example in standard western musical notation), 5:2, 5:3, 5:4, etc.  There is a parallel between cross rhythms and musical intervals: in an audible frequency range, the 2:3 ratio produces the musical interval of a perfect fifth, the 3:4 ratio produces a perfect fourth, and the 4:5 ratio produces a major third. All these interval ratios are found in the harmonic series. These are called harmonic polyrhythms.

Sub-Saharan African music traditions.

Comparing European and Sub-Saharan African meter.

In traditional European ("Western") rhythms, the most fundamental parts typically emphasize the primary beats. By contrast, in rhythms of sub-Saharan African origin, the most fundamental parts typically emphasize the secondary beats. This often causes the uninitiated ear to misinterpret the secondary beats as the primary beats, and to hear the true primary beats as cross-beats. In other words, the musical "background" and "foreground" may mistakenly be heard and felt in reverse—Peñalosa (2009: 21).

The generating principle.

In non-Saharan African music traditions, cross-rhythm is the generating principle; the meter is in a permanent state of contradiction. Cross-rhythm was first explained as the basis of non-Saharan rhythm in lectures by C.K. Ladzekpo and the writings of David Locke.  From the philosophical perspective of the African musician, cross-beats can symbolize the challenging moments or emotional stress we all encounter. Playing cross-beats while fully grounded in the main beats, prepares one for maintaining a life-purpose while dealing with life's challenges. Many non-Saharan languages do not have a word for "rhythm", or even "music". From the African viewpoint, the rhythms represent the very fabric of life itself; they are an embodiment of the people, symbolizing interdependence in human relationships—Peñalosa (2009: 21).  At the center of a core of rhythmic traditions within which the composer conveys his ideas is the technique of cross-rhythm. The technique of cross-rhythm is a simultaneous use of contrasting rhythmic patterns within the same scheme of accents or meter... By the very nature of the desired resultant rhythm, the main beat scheme cannot be separated from the secondary beat scheme. It is the interplay of the two elements that produces the cross-rhythmic texture—Ladzekpo (1995).  Eugene Novotney observes: "The 3:2 relationship (and [its] permutations) is the foundation of most typical polyrhythmic textures found in West African musics." 3:2 is the "generative" or "theoretic form" of non-Saharan rhythmic principles. Victor Kofi Agawu succinctly states, "[The] resultant [3:2] rhythm holds the key to understanding... there is no independence here, because 2 and 3 belong to a single Gestalt."  </score>  The two beat schemes interact within the hierarchy of a single meter. The duple beats are primary and the triple beats are secondary. The example below shows the African 3:2 cross-rhythm within its proper metric structure.  </score>  The music of African xylophones, such as the balafon and gyil, is often based on cross-rhythm. In the following example, a Ghanaian gyil sounds a 3:2-based ostinato melody. The left hand (lower notes) sounds the two main beats, while the right hand (upper notes) sounds the three cross-beats. The cross-beats are written as quarter-notes for visual emphasis.  </score>  The following notated example is from the kushaura part of the traditional mbira piece "Nhema Mussasa". The mbira is a lamellophone. The left hand plays the ostinato bass line while the right hand plays the upper melody. The composite melody is an embellishment of the 3:2 cross-rhythm.

Adaptive instruments.

Sub-Saharan instruments are constructed in a variety of ways to generate polyrhythmic melodies. Some instruments organize the pitches in a uniquely divided alternate array, not in the straight linear bass to treble structure that is so common to many western instruments such as the piano, harp, or marimba. Lamellophones including mbira, mbila, mbira huru, mbira njari, mbira nyunga, marimba, karimba, kalimba, likembe, and okeme. This family of instruments are found in several forms indigenous to different regions of Africa and most often have equal tonal ranges for right and left hands. The kalimba is a modern version of these instruments originated by the pioneer ethnomusicologist Hugh Tracey in the early 20th century which has over the years gained worldwide popularity. Chordophones, such as the West African kora, and doussn'gouni, part of the harp-lute family of instruments, also have this African separated double tonal array structure.Another instrument, the Marovany from Madagascar is a double sided box zither which also employs this divided tonal structure.  The Gravikord is a new American instrument closely related to both the African kora and the kalimba was created in the latter 20th century to also exploit this adaptive principle in a modern electro-acoustic instrument.  On these instruments, one hand of the musician is not primarily in the bass nor the other primarily in the treble, but both hands can play freely across the entire tonal range of the instrument. Also, the fingers of each hand can play separate independent rhythmic patterns, and these can easily cross over each other from treble to bass and back, either smoothly or with varying amounts of syncopation. This can all be done within the same tight tonal range, without the left and right hand fingers ever physically encountering each other. These simple rhythms will interact musically to produce complex cross rhythms including repeating on beat/off beat pattern shifts that would be very difficult to create by any other means. This characteristically African structure allows often simple playing techniques to combine with each other to produce polyrhythmic music.

Jazz.

3:2 cross-rhythm.

Polyrhythm is a staple of modern jazz. Although not as common, use of systemic cross-rhythm is also found in jazz. In 1959, Mongo Santamaria recorded "Afro Blue", the first jazz standard built upon a typical African 6:4 cross-rhythm (two cycles of 3:2). The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of (6:4). The following example shows the original ostinato "Afro Blue" bass line. The cross noteheads indicate the main beats.  </score>

2:3 cross-rhythm.

The famous jazz drummer Elvin Jones took the opposite approach, superimposing two cross-beats over every measure of a jazz waltz (2:3). This swung is perhaps the most common example of overt cross-rhythm in jazz. In 1963 John Coltrane recorded "Afro Blue" with Elvin Jones on drums. Coltrane reversed the metric hierarchy of Santamaria's composition, performing it instead in swing (2:3).

In popular music.

Nigerian percussion master Babatunde Olatunji arrived on the American music scene in 1959 with his album "Drums of Passion", which was a collection of traditional Nigerian music for percussion and chanting. The album stayed on the charts for two years and had a profound impact on jazz and American popular music. Trained in the Yoruba sakara style of drumming, Olatunji would have a major impact on Western popular music. He went on to teach, collaborate and record with numerous jazz and rock artists, including Airto Moreira, Carlos Santana and Mickey Hart of the Grateful Dead. Olatunji reached his greatest popularity during the height of the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s.  Afro-Cuban music makes extensive use of polyrhythms. Cuban Rumba uses 3-based and 2-based rhythms at the same time, for example, the lead drummer (playing the quinto) might play in, while the rest of the ensemble keeps playing. Afro-Cuban "conguero", or conga player, Mongo Santamaría was another percussionist whose polyrhythmic virtuosity helped transform both jazz and popular music. Santamaria fused Afro-Latin rhythms with R&B and jazz as a bandleader in the 1950s, and was featured in the 1994 album "Buena Vista Social Club", which was the inspiration for the like-titled documentary released five years later.  Another form of polyrhythmic music is south Indian classical Carnatic music. A kind of rhythmic solfege called konnakol is used as a tool to construct highly complex polyrhythms and to divide each beat of a pulse into various subdivisions, with the emphasised beat shifting from beat cycle to beat cycle.  Common polyrhythms found in jazz are 3:2, which manifests as the quarter-note triplet; 2:3, usually in the form of dotted-quarter notes against quarter notes; 4:3, played as dotted-eighth notes against quarter notes (this one demands some technical proficiency to perform accurately, and was not at all common in jazz before Tony Williams used it when playing with Miles Davis); and finally time against, which along with 2:3 was used famously by Elvin Jones and McCoy Tyner playing with John Coltrane.  Frank Zappa, especially towards the end of his career, experimented with complex polyrhythms, such as 11:17, and even nested polyrhythms (see "The Black Page" for an example). The metal bands Mudvayne, Nothingface, Threat Signal, Lamb of God, also use polyrhythms in their music. Contemporary progressive metal bands such as Meshuggah, Periphery, Textures, TesseracT, Tool, Animals as Leaders, Between the Buried and Me and Dream Theater also incorporate polyrhythms in their music, and polyrhythms have also been increasingly heard in technical metal bands such as Ion Dissonance, The Dillinger Escape Plan, Necrophagist, Candiria, The Contortionist and Textures. Much minimalist and totalist music makes extensive use of polyrhythms. Henry Cowell and Conlon Nancarrow created music with yet more complex polytempo and using irrational numbers like :"e".  Peter Magadini's album "Polyrhythm", with musicians Peter Magadini, George Duke, David Young, and Don Menza, features different polyrhythmic themes on each of the six songs.  King Crimson used polyrhythms extensively in their 1981 album "Discipline". Above all Bill Bruford used polyrhythmic drumming throughout his career.  The band Queen used polyrhythm in their 1974 song "The March of the Black Queen" with and time signatures.  Nine Inch Nails front man Trent Reznor uses polyrhythm frequently. One notable appearance is in the song "La Mer" from the album "The Fragile". The piano holds a riff while the drums and bass back it with a standard signature.  Talking Heads' "Remain in Light" used dense polyrhythms throughout the album, most notably on the song "The Great Curve".  Megadeth frequently tends to use polyrhythm in its drumming, notably from songs such as "Sleepwalker" or the ending of "My Last Words", which are both played in 2:3.  Carbon Based Lifeforms have a song named ""Polyrytmi"", Finnish for "polyrhythm", on their album Interloper. This song indeed does use polyrhythms in its melody.  Aphex Twin makes extensive use of polyrhythms in his electronic compositions.  Japanese girl group Perfume made use of the technique in their single, appropriately titled "Polyrhythm", included on their second album Game. The bridge of the song incorporates, in the vocals, common time () and in the drums.  The Britney Spears single "Till the World Ends" (released March 2011) uses a 4:3 cross-rhythm in its hook.  The outro of the song "Animals" from the album "The 2nd Law" by the band Muse uses and time signatures for the guitar and drums respectively.  The Aaliyah song "Quit Hatin" uses against in the chorus.  The Japanese idol group 3776 makes use of polyrhythm in a number of their songs, most notably on their 2014 mini-album "Love Letter", which features five songs that all include several rhythmic references to the number 3776. A secret track on the album has the group's leader, Ide Chiyono, explain some of the uses of polyrhythm to the listener.  The National song "Fake Empire" uses a 4 over 3 polyrhythm.  The Cars' song "Touch and Go" has a rhythm in the drum and bass and a rhythm in the keys and vocals.  Harpist and pop folk musician Joanna Newsom is known for the use of polyrhythms on her albums "The Milk-Eyed Mender" and "Ys".

Examples.

The following is an example of a 3 against 2 polyrhythm, given in time unit box system (TUBS) notation; each box represents a fixed unit of time; time progresses from the left of the diagram to the right. It is in bad form to teach a student to play 3:2 polyrhythms as simply quarter note, eighth note, eighth note, quarter note. The proper way is to establish sound bases for both the quarter-notes, and the triplet-quarters, and then to layer them upon each other, forming multiple rhythms. Beats are indicated with an X; rests are indicated with a blank.  A common memory aid to help with the 3 against 2 polyrhythm is that it has the same rhythm as the phrase "not difficult"; the simultaneous beats occur on the word "not"; the second and third of the triple beat land on "dif" and "cult", respectively. The second 2-beat lands on the "fi" in "difficult". Try saying "not difficult" over and over in time with the sound file above. This will emphasize the "3 side" of the 3 against 2 feel. Now try saying the phrase "not a problem", stressing the syllables "not" and "prob-". This will emphasize the "2 side" of the 3 against 2 feel. More phrases with the same rhythm are "cold cup of tea", "four funny frogs", "come, if you please", and "ring, Christmas bells".  Similar phrases for the 4 against 3 polyrhythm are "pass the golden butter" or "pass the goddamn butter" and "what atrocious weather" (or "what a load of rubbish" in British English); the 4 against 3 polyrhythm is shown below.  As can be seen from above, the counting for polyrhythms is determined by the lowest common multiple, so if one wishes to count 2 against 3, one needs to count a total of 6 beats, as lcm(2,3) = 6 (<samp>123456</samp> and <samp>123456</samp>). However this is only useful for very simple polyrhythms, or for getting a feel for more complex ones, as the total number of beats rises quickly. To count 4 against 5, for example, requires a total of 20 beats, and counting thus slows the tempo considerably. However some players, such as classical Indian musicians, can intuitively play high polyrhythms such as 7 against 8.  Polyrhythms are quite common in late Romantic Music and 20th-century classical music. Works for keyboard often set odd rhythms against one another in separate hands. A good example is in the soloist's cadenza in Grieg's Concerto in A Minor; the left hand plays arpeggios of seven notes to a beat; the right hand plays an ostinato of eight notes per beat while also playing the melody in octaves, which uses whole notes, dotted eighth notes, and triplets. Other instances occur often in Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2. The piano arpeggios that constitute much of the soloist's material in the first movement often have anywhere from four to eleven notes per beat. In the last movement, the piano's opening run, marked 'quasi glissando', fits 52 notes into the space of one measure, making for a glissando-like effect while keeping the mood of the music. Other instances in this movement include a scale that juxtaposes ten notes in the right hand against four in the left, and one of the main themes in the piano, which imposes an eighth-note melody on a triplet harmony.

Polyrhythm is the simultaneous use of two or more rhythms that are not readily perceived as deriving from one another, or as simple manifestations of the same meter. The rhythmic layers may be the basis of an entire piece of music (cross-rhythm), or a momentary section. Polyrhythms can be distinguished from irrational rhythms, which can occur within the context of a single part; polyrhythms require at least two rhythms to be played concurrently, one of which is typically an irrational rhythm. Concurrently in this context means within the same rhythmic cycle. The underlying pulse, whether explicit or implicit can be considered one of the concurrent rhythms. For example, the son clave is poly-rhythmic because its 3 section suggests a different meter from the pulse of the entire pattern.

复节奏(Cross rhythm)也叫交错拍子,在两个以上多个声部的音乐中,不同的声部同时使用不同的对比的节拍,使得各声部的强弱节拍交错进行,整个音乐产生一种连续水流似的进行效果。例如高音使用3/4拍子的节奏,低音部分使用2/4拍子的节奏等。


Description.

Wild types are large shrubs or small trees reaching 8–12 m (25–40 feet) tall, sometimes spiny, with glabrous, ovate deciduous leaves 3–7 cm (1.5–2.5 inches) long. It is one of the first European trees to flower in spring, often starting in mid-February before the leaves have opened. The flowers are white or pale pink and about 2 cm (0.8 inches) across, with five petals and many stamens. The fruit is an edible drupe, 2–3 cm in diameter, ripening to yellow or red from early July to mid-September. They are self-fertile but can also be pollinated by other "Prunus" varieties such as the Victoria plum. The plant propagates by seed or by suckering, and is often used as the rootstock for other "Prunus" species and cultivars.

Cultivation.

The cherry plum is a popular ornamental tree for garden and landscaping use, grown for its very early flowering. Numerous cultivars have been developed, many of them selected for purple foliage, such as "P cerasifera" var "pissardii" ("P." 'Atropurpurea'). The cultivar 'Nigra' with black foliage and pink flowers, has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. "Prunus" × "cistena" (purple leaf sand cherry), a hybrid of "Prunus cerasifera" and "Prunus pumila", the sand cherry, also won the Award of Garden Merit.  Cultivated cherry plums can have fruits, foliage, and flowers in any of several colours. Some varieties have sweet fruits that can be eaten fresh, while others are sour and better for making jam. Cherry plums are a key ingredient in Georgian cuisine where they are used to produce tkemali sauce, as well as a number of popular dishes, such as kharcho soup and chakapuli stew.

Prunus cerasifera is a species of plum known by the common names cherry plum and myrobalan plum. It is native to Southeast Europe and Western Asia, and is naturalised in the British Isles and scattered locations in North America. Also naturalized in parts of SE Australia where it is considered to be a mildly invasive weed of bushland near urban centers.

樱桃李(学名:)为蔷薇科李属的植物。分布在巴尔干兰岛、小亚细亚、天山、中亚、伊朗以及中国大陆的新疆等地,生长于海拔800米至2,000米的地区,见于山坡林中、多石砾的坡地及峡谷水边。为华北庭园习见观赏树木之一。


Origins.

In open channel flows, introduced first the ratio of the flow velocity to the square root of the gravity acceleration times the flow depth. When the ratio was less than unity, the flow behaved like a fluvial motion (i.e., subcritical flow), and like a torrential flow motion when the ratio was greater than unity.  where:  The term was converted into non-dimensional terms and was given Froude's name in recognition of the work he did. In France, it is sometimes called Reech–Froude number after Ferdinand Reech.

Definition and main application.

To show how the Froude number is linked to general continuum mechanics and not only to hydrodynamics we start from the nondimensionalisation of Cauchy momentum equation.

Cauchy momentum equation.

In order to make the equations dimensionless, a characteristic length r, and a characteristic velocity u, need to be defined. These should be chosen such that the dimensionless variables are all of order one. The following dimensionless variables are thus obtained:  Substitution of these inverse relations in the Euler momentum equations, and definition of the Froude number:  and the Euler number:  the equations are finally expressed (with the material derivative and now omitting the indexes):  Cauchy-type equations in the high Froude limit (corresponding to negligible external field) are named free equations. On the other hand, in the low Euler limit (corresponding to negligible stress) general Cauchy momentum equation becomes an inhomogeneous Burgers equation (here we make explicit the material derivative):  This is an inhomogeneous pure advection equation, as much as the Stokes equation is a pure diffusion equation.

Euler momentum equation.

Euler momentum equation is a Cauchy momentum equation with the Pascal law being the stress constitutive relation:  in nondimensional Lagrangian form is:  Free Euler equations are conservative. The limit of high Froude numbers (low external field) is thus notable and can be studied with perturbation theory.

Incompressible Navier–Stokes momentum equation.

Incompressible Navier–Stokes momentum equation is a Cauchy momentum equation with the Pascal law and Stokes's law being the stress constitutive relations:  in nondimensional convective form it is:  where is the Reynolds number. Free Navier–Stokes equations are dissipative (non conservative).

Other applications.

Ship hydrodynamics.

In marine hydrodynamic applications, the Froude number is usually referenced with the notation and is defined as:  where is the relative flow velocity between the sea and ship, is in particular the acceleration due to gravity, and is the length of the ship at the water line level, or in some notations. It is an important parameter with respect to the ship's drag, or resistance, especially in terms of wave making resistance.  In the case of planing crafts, where the waterline length is too speed-dependent to be meaningful, the Froude number is best defined as "displacement Froude number" and the reference length is taken as the cubic root of the volumetric displacement of the hull:

Shallow water waves.

For shallow water waves, such as tsunamis and hydraulic jumps, the characteristic velocity is the average flow velocity, averaged over the cross-section perpendicular to the flow direction. The wave velocity,, is equal to the square root of gravitational acceleration, times cross-sectional area, divided by free-surface width : so the Froude number in shallow water is: For rectangular cross-sections with uniform depth, the Froude number can be simplified to: For the flow is called a subcritical flow, further for the flow is characterised as supercritical flow. When the flow is denoted as critical flow.

Wind engineering.

When considering wind effects on dynamically sensitive structures such as suspension bridges it is sometimes necessary to simulate the combined effect of the vibrating mass of the structure with the fluctuating force of the wind. In such cases, the Froude number should be respected. Similarly, when simulating hot smoke plumes combined with natural wind, Froude number scaling is necessary to maintain the correct balance between buoyancy forces and the momentum of the wind.

Extended Froude number.

Geophysical mass flows such as avalanches and debris flows take place on inclined slopes which then merge into gentle and flat run-out zones.  So, these flows are associated with the elevation of the topographic slopes that induce the gravity potential energy together with the pressure potential energy during the flow. Therefore, the classical Froude number should include this additional effect. For such a situation, Froude number needs to be re-defined. The extended Froude number is defined as the ratio between the kinetic and the potential energy:  where is the mean flow velocity,, ( is the earth pressure coefficient, is the slope),, is the channel downslope position and formula_16 is the distance from the point of the mass release along the channel to the point where the flow hits the horizontal reference datum; and are the pressure potential and gravity potential energies, respectively. In the classical definition of the shallow-water or granular flow Froude number, the potential energy associated with the surface elevation,, is not considered. The extended Froude number differs substantially from the classical Froude number for higher surface elevations. The term emerges from the change of the geometry of the moving mass along the slope. Dimensional analysis suggests that for shallow flows, while and are both of order unity. If the mass is shallow with a virtually bed-parallel free-surface, then can be disregarded. In this situation, if the gravity potential is not taken into account, then is unbounded even though the kinetic energy is bounded. So, formally considering the additional contribution due to the gravitational potential energy, the singularity in Fr is removed.

Stirred tanks.

In the study of stirred tanks, the Froude number governs the formation of surface vortices. Since the impeller tip velocity is (circular motion), where is the impeller frequency (usually in rpm) and is the impeller radius (in engineering the diameter is much more frequently employed), the Froude number then takes the following form:  The Froude number finds also a similar application in powder mixers. It will indeed be used to determine in which mixing regime the blender is working. If Fr<1, the particles are just stirred, but if Fr>1, centrifugal forces applied to the powder overcome gravity and the bed of particles becomes fluidized, at least in some part of the blender, promoting mixing

Densimetric Froude number.

When used in the context of the Boussinesq approximation the densimetric Froude number is defined as where is the reduced gravity: The densimetric Froude number is usually preferred by modellers who wish to nondimensionalize a speed preference to the Richardson number which is more commonly encountered when considering stratified shear layers. For example, the leading edge of a gravity current moves with a front Froude number of about unity.

Walking Froude number.

The Froude number may be used to study trends in animal gait patterns. In analyses of the dynamics of legged locomotion, a walking limb is often modeled as an inverted pendulum, where the center of mass goes through a circular arc centered at the foot. The Froude number is the ratio of the centripetal force around the center of motion, the foot, and the weight of the animal walking:  where is the mass, is the characteristic length, is the acceleration due to gravity and is the velocity. The characteristic length may be chosen to suit the study at hand. For instance, some studies have used the vertical distance of the hip joint from the ground, while others have used total leg length.  The Froude number may also be calculated from the stride frequency as follows:  If total leg length is used as the characteristic length, then the theoretical maximum speed of walking has a Froude number of 1.0 since any higher value would result in takeoff and the foot missing the ground. The typical transition speed from bipedal walking to running occurs with. R. M. Alexander found that animals of different sizes and masses travelling at different speeds, but with the same Froude number, consistently exhibit similar gaits. This study found that animals typically switch from an amble to a symmetric running gait (e.g., a trot or pace) around a Froude number of 1.0. A preference for asymmetric gaits (e.g., a canter, transverse gallop, rotary gallop, bound, or pronk) was observed at Froude numbers between 2.0 and 3.0.

Usage.

The Froude number is used to compare the wave making resistance between bodies of various sizes and shapes.  In free-surface flow, the nature of the flow (supercritical or subcritical) depends upon whether the Froude number is greater than or less than unity.  One can easily see the line of "critical" flow in a kitchen or bathroom sink. Leave it unplugged and let the faucet run. Near the place where the stream of water hits the sink, the flow is supercritical. It 'hugs' the surface and moves quickly. On the outer edge of the flow pattern the flow is subcritical. This flow is thicker and moves more slowly. The boundary between the two areas is called a "hydraulic jump". That's where the flow is just critical and Froude number is equal to 1.0.  The Froude number has been used to study trends in animal locomotion in order to better understand why animals use different gait patterns as well as to form hypotheses about the gaits of extinct species.

In continuum mechanics, the Froude number () is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of the flow inertia to the external field (the latter in many applications simply due to gravity). Named after William Froude (;), the Froude number is based on the speed–length ratio which he defined as:

福禄数(Froude number,Fr)为流体力学中无量纲的纯量,为惯性力和重力效应之比,公式如下: 式中"u"为流体速度,L为物体特征长度,g为重力加速度。


Nature.

Laughter might be thought of as an audible expression or appearance of excitement, an inward feeling of joy and happiness. It may ensue from jokes, tickling, and other stimuli completely unrelated to psychological state, such as nitrous oxide. One group of researchers speculated that noises from infants as early as 16 days old may be vocal laughing sounds or laughter, however the weight of the evidence supports its appearance at 15 weeks to four months of age.  Laughter researcher said: "Laughter is a mechanism everyone has; laughter is part of universal human vocabulary. There are thousands of languages, hundreds of thousands of dialects, but everyone speaks laughter in pretty much the same way." Babies have the ability to laugh before they ever speak. Children who are born blind and deaf still retain the ability to laugh.  Provine argues that "Laughter is primitive, an unconscious vocalization." Provine argues that it probably is genetic. In a study of the "Giggle Twins", two happy twins who were separated at birth and only reunited 43 years later, Provine reports that "until they met each other, neither of these exceptionally happy ladies had known anyone who laughed as much as they did." They reported this even though they had been brought together by their adoptive parents, who they indicated were "undemonstrative and dour". He indicates that the twins "inherited some aspects of their laugh sound and pattern, readiness to laugh, and maybe even taste in humor".  Norman Cousins developed a recovery program incorporating megadoses of Vitamin C, along with a positive attitude, love, faith, hope, and laughter induced by Marx Brothers films. "I made the joyous discovery that ten minutes of genuine belly laughter had an anesthetic effect and would give me at least two hours of pain-free sleep," he reported. "When the pain-killing effect of the laughter wore off, we would switch on the motion picture projector again and not infrequently, it would lead to another pain-free interval."  Scientists have noted the similarity in forms of laughter induced by tickling among various primates, which suggests that laughter derives from a common origin among primate species.  A very rare neurological condition has been observed whereby the sufferer is unable to laugh out loud, a condition known as aphonogelia.

The brain.

Neurophysiology indicates that laughter is linked with the activation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, that produces endorphins. Scientists have shown that parts of the limbic system are involved in laughter. This system is involved in emotions and helps us with functions necessary for humans' survival. The structures in the limbic system that are involved in laughter are the hippocampus and the amygdala.  The December 7, 1984, "Journal of the American Medical Association" describes the neurological causes of laughter as follows:  Some drugs are well known for their laughter-facilitating properties (e. g. ethanol and cannabis), while the others, like salvinorin A (the active ingredient of "Salvia divinorum"), can even induce bursts of uncontrollable laughter.  A research article was published December 1, 2000 on the psycho-evolution of laughter (Panksepp 2000).

Health.

A link between laughter and healthy function of blood vessels was first reported in 2005 by researchers at the University of Maryland Medical Center with the fact that laughter causes the dilatation of the inner lining of blood vessels, the endothelium, and increases blood flow. Drs. Michael Miller (University of Maryland) and William Fry (Stanford) theorize that beta-endorphin like compounds released by the hypothalamus activate receptors on the endothelial surface to release nitric oxide, thereby resulting in dilation of vessels. Other cardioprotective properties of nitric oxide include reduction of inflammation and decreased platelet aggregation.  Laughter has proven beneficial effects on various other aspects of biochemistry. It has been shown to lead to reductions in stress hormones such as cortisol and epinephrine. When laughing the brain also releases endorphins that can relieve some physical pain. Laughter also boosts the number of antibody-producing cells and enhances the effectiveness of T-cells, leading to a stronger immune system. A 2000 study found that people with heart disease were 40 percent less likely to laugh and be able to recognize humor in a variety of situations, compared to people of the same age without heart disease.

In interaction.

A number of studies using methods of conversation analysis and discourse analysis have documented the systematic workings of laughter in a variety of interactions, from casual conversations to interviews, meetings, and therapy sessions. Working with recorded interactions, researchers have created detailed transcripts that indicate not only the presence of laughter but also features of its production and placement. These studies challenge several widely held assumptions about the nature of laughter. Contrary to notions that it is spontaneous and involuntary, research documents that laughter is sequentially organized and precisely placed relative to surrounding talk. Far more than merely a response to humor, laughter often works to manage delicate and serious moments. More than simply an external behavior “caused” by an inner state, laughter is highly communicative and helps accomplish actions and regulate relationships.

Causes.

Common causes for laughter are sensations of joy and humor; however, other situations may cause laughter as well.  A general theory that explains laughter is called the relief theory. Sigmund Freud summarized it in his theory that laughter releases tension and "psychic energy". This theory is one of the justifications of the beliefs that laughter is beneficial for one's health. This theory explains why laughter can be used as a coping mechanism when one is upset, angry or sad.  Philosopher John Morreall theorizes that human laughter may have its biological origins as a kind of shared expression of relief at the passing of danger. Friedrich Nietzsche, by contrast, suggested laughter to be a reaction to the sense of existential loneliness and mortality that only humans feel.  For example: a joke creates an inconsistency and the audience automatically tries to understand what the inconsistency means; if they are successful in solving this 'cognitive riddle' and they realize that the surprise was not dangerous, they laugh with relief. Otherwise, if the inconsistency is not resolved, there is no laugh, as Mack Sennett pointed out: "when the audience is confused, it doesn't laugh." This is one of the basic laws of a comedian, referred to as "exactness". It is important to note that sometimes the inconsistency may be resolved and there may still be no laugh. Because laughter is a social mechanism, an audience may not feel as if they are in danger, and the laugh may not occur. In addition, the extent of the inconsistency (and aspects of its timing and rhythm) has to do with the amount of danger the audience feels, and how hard or long they laugh.  Laughter can also be brought on by tickling. Although most people find it unpleasant, being tickled often causes heavy laughter, thought to be an (often uncontrollable) reflex of the body.

Types.

Laughter can be classified according to:  There are 10 different types of laughter:

Human laugh structure and anatomy.

A normal laugh has the structure of "ha-ha-ha" or "ho-ho-ho". It is unnatural, and one is physically unable, to have a laugh structure of "ha-ho-ha-ho". The usual variations of a laugh most often occur in the first or final note in a sequence- therefore, "ho-ha-ha" or "ha-ha-ho" laughs are possible. Normal note durations with unusually long or short "inter-note intervals" do not happen due to the result of the limitations of our vocal cords. This basic structure allows one to recognize a laugh despite individual variants.  It has also been determined that eyes moisten during laughter as a reflex from the tear glands.

Negative aspects.

Laughter is not always a pleasant experience and is associated with several negative phenomena. Excessive laughter can lead to cataplexy, and unpleasant laughter spells, excessive elation, and fits of laughter can all be considered negative aspects of laughter. Unpleasant laughter spells, or "sham mirth," usually occur in people who have a neurological condition, including patients with pseudobulbar palsy, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease. These patients appear to be laughing out of amusement but report that they are feeling undesirable sensations "at the time of the punch line".  Excessive elation is a common symptom associated with manic-depressive psychoses and mania/hypomania. Those who suffer from schizophrenic psychoses seem to suffer the opposite—they do not understand humor or get any joy out of it. A fit describes an abnormal time when one cannot control the laughter or one's body, sometimes leading to seizures or a brief period of unconsciousness. Some believe that fits of laughter represent a form of epilepsy.

Laughter therapy.

Laughter has been used as a therapeutic tool for many years because it is a natural form of medicine. Laughter is available to everyone and it provides benefits to a person's physical, emotional, and social well being. Some of the benefits of using laughter therapy are that it can relieve stress and relax the whole body. It can also boost the immune system and release endorphins to relieve pain. Additionally, laughter can help prevent heart disease by increasing blood flow and improving the function of blood vessels. Some of the emotional benefits include diminishing anxiety or fear, improving overall mood, and adding joy to one's life. Laughter is also known to reduce allergic reactions in a preliminary study related to dust mite allergy sufferers.  Laughter therapy also has some social benefits, such as strengthening relationships, improving teamwork and reducing conflicts, and making oneself more attractive to others. Therefore, whether a person is trying to cope with a terminal illness or just trying to manage their stress or anxiety levels, laughter therapy can be a significant enhancement to their life.  Ramon Mora-Ripoll in his study on "The Therapeutic Value Of Laughter In Medicine," stated that laughter therapy is an inexpensive and simple tool that can be used in patient care. It is a tool that is only beneficial when experienced and shared. Care givers need to recognize the importance of laughter and possess the right attitude to pass it on. He went on to say that since this type of therapy is not widely practiced, health care providers will have to learn how to effectively use it. In another survey, researchers looked at how Occupational Therapists and other care givers viewed and used humor with patients as a means of therapy. Many agreed that while they believed it was beneficial to the patients, the proper training was lacking in order to effectively use It. Even though laughter and humor has been used therapeutically in medical conditions, according to Mora-Ripoll, there was not enough data to clearly establish that laughter could be used as an overall means of healing. It did suggest that additional research was still needed since "well-designed randomized controlled trials have not been conducted to date validating the therapeutic efficacy of laughter."  In 2017, an institution in Japan conducted an open-label randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effects of laughter therapy on quality of life in patients with cancer. The study used laughter yoga, comedy, clown and jokes. The result showed that laughter therapy was helpful in improving quality of life and cancer symptoms in some areas for cancer survivors. Improvements were seen in the area of depression, anxiety and stress levels. There were limited harmful side effects. Laughter therapy should be used in conjunction with other cancer treatment.

Research.

Laughter in literature, although considered understudied by some, is a subject that has received attention in the written word for millennia. The use of humor and laughter in literary works has been studied and analyzed by many thinkers and writers, from the Ancient Greek philosophers onward. Henri Bergson's "Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic" ("Le rire", 1901) is a notable 20th-century contribution.

Ancient Greece.

Herodotus.

For Herodotus, laughers can be distinguished into three types: According to Donald Lateiner, Herodotus reports about laughter for valid literary and historiological reasons. "Herodotus believes either that both nature (better, the gods' direction of it) and human nature coincide sufficiently, "or" that the latter is but an aspect or analogue of the former, so that to the recipient the outcome is suggested." When reporting laughter, Herodotus does so in the conviction that it tells the reader something about the future and/or the character of the person laughing. It is also in this sense that it is not coincidental that in about 80% of the times when Herodotus speaks about laughter it is followed by a retribution. "Men whose laughter deserves report are marked, because laughter connotes scornful disdain, disdain feeling of superiority, and this feeling and the actions which stem from it attract the wrath of the gods."

Modern laughter and humor.

There is a wide range of experiences with laughter. A 1999 study by two humor researchers asked 80 people to keep a daily laughter record, and found they laughed an average of 18 times per day. However, their study also found a wide range, with some people laughing as many as 89 times per day, and others laughing as few as 0 times per day.

Hobbes.

Thomas Hobbes understood the superiority of the laughter in a much wider sense than the aesthetic and quasi-moral sense of Aristotle, the seeds of the superiority theory are definitely Greek. In Hobbes' own words: "The passion of laughter is nothing else but sudden glory arising from sudden conception of some eminency in ourselves, by comparison with the infirmity of others, or with our own formerly."

Schopenhauer.

Philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer devotes the 13th chapter of the first part of his major work, "The World as Will and Representation", to laughter.

Nietzsche.

Friedrich Nietzsche distinguishes two different purposes for the use of laughter. In a positive sense, "man uses the comical as a therapy against the restraining jacket of logic, morality and reason. He needs from time to time a harmless demotion from reason and hardship and in this sense laughter has a positive character for Nietzsche." Laughter can, however, also have a negative connotation when it is used for the expression of social conflict. This is expressed, for instance, in "The Gay Science": "Laughter -- Laughter means to be schadenfroh, but with clear conscience."  "Possibly Nietzsche's works would have had a totally different effect, if the playful, ironical and joking in his writings would have been factored in better"

Bergson.

In "", French philosopher Henri Bergson, renowned for his philosophical studies on materiality, memory, life and consciousness, tries to determine the laws of the comic and to understand the fundamental causes of comic situations. His method consists in determining the causes of the comic instead of analyzing its effects. He also deals with laughter in relation to human life, collective imagination and art, to have a better knowledge of society. One of the theories of the essay is that laughter, as a collective activity, has a social and moral role, in forcing people to eliminate their vices. It is a factor of uniformity of behaviours, as it condemns ludicrous and eccentric behaviours.

Ludovici.

Anthony Ludovici developed the thoughts of Hobbes and Darwin even further in "The Secret of Laughter". His conviction is that there's something sinister in laughter, and that the modern omnipresence of humour and the idolatry of it are signs of societal weakness, as instinctive resort to humour became a sort of escapism from responsibility and action. Ludovici considered laughter to be an evolutionary trait and he offered many examples of different triggers for laughter with their own distinct explanations.

Laughter is a physical reaction in humans consisting usually of rhythmical, often audible contractions of the diaphragm and other parts of the respiratory system. It is a response to certain external or internal stimuli. Laughter can arise from such activities as being tickled, or from humorous stories or thoughts. Most commonly, it is considered a visual expression of a number of positive emotional states, such as joy, mirth, happiness, relief, etc. On some occasions, however, it may be caused by contrary emotional states such as embarrassment, apology, or confusion such as nervous laughter or courtesy laugh. Age, gender, education, language, and culture are all indicators as to whether a person will experience laughter in a given situation. Some other species of primate (chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans) show laughter-like vocalizations in response to physical contact such as wrestling, play chasing or tickling.

笑是一种心理状态的表达。一般情况下笑更多的用来表达高兴和快乐,由脸部肌肉动作为表现方式。它大都是由于人体感官(尤指眼睛、耳朵)接触外界的事物或语言,转变为信息传入大脑皮层,而后通过大脑对脸部甚至全身的肌肉发出运动的命令而产生的。笑有时不仅会使肌肉发生运动,声带也会随之振动,由此产生笑声。目前心理学家们认为笑是人类之间交流的古老的方式的一种,但之前人们更多地认为笑仅是幽默感的表现。笑也常被当作对他人调情的一种方式。嘲笑则是人的讥讽也可能是调情的一种。


Description.

"D. capensis" produces strap-like leaves, up to long (not including the petiole) and wide, which, as in all sundews, are covered in brightly coloured tentacles which secrete a sticky mucilage that traps arthropods. It is a perennial, herbaceous plant that forms a rosette with a diameter of 18 to 25 cm and is characterized by numerous, reddish glandular erosions on 7 cm long and 5 mm wide, elongated leaves.  The plant flowers in summer (December and January in its native habitat in South Africa) with up to 50 pale-violet, more than 2 cm large flowers sitting on up to 35 cm high racemose inflorescences. The flowers can self-pollinate upon closing and produce copious quantities of very small, spindle-shaped seeds, which are released from the capsules that form when the flowers have died. The plant thrives in full sun locations on nutrient-poor, waterlogged and lime-free soils.

Prey catching.

When insects are first trapped, the leaves roll lengthwise by thigmotropism toward the center. This aids digestion by bringing more digestive glands in contact with the prey. The plant leaf surrounds the prey within an hour while tentacles continue to move to further trap the prey. Digestion takes well over 6 hours after a prey's original ensnarement. The plant has a tendency to retain the dead leaves of previous seasons, and the main stem of the plant can become quite long and woody with time.  The plant captures their prey by luring it through the dazzling digestive secretions produced on the tentacles of the leaves. The secretion acts on the one hand as a visual signal, as it shines in the sun and shines through the red tentacle tip, on the other hand, it is also a chemical attractant that attracts insects.  If a victim has been caught in the secretion of the tentacles, then all the tentacles near the victim align themselves on this, until at some point the whole leaf has wrapped around the animal. With the help of the digestive secret the insect is now decomposed until only the chitin armor remains. The absorption of nutrients takes place via the red tentacle tips, where the secretion itself is produced. If the victim is decomposed enough that the plant can not gain further nutrients, the leaf and the tentacles return to their original position.  The sundew secretes mucin to trap prey items – often insects and arthropods. The mucin is approximately 4% of an acidic polysaccharide in an aqueous solution with a pH of approximately 4. Fresh mucin can be stretched up to a meter in length thread. The mucin secretions of "Drosera capensis" has a high viscosity - this suggests that the mucin contains a predominant composition of acidic polysaccharide that interact extensively and are highly hydrated.  "Drosera capensis" has two color forms; red and white. When fruit flies were introduced to the two differently colored plants, there was no difference between the means of the flies captured. Fruit flies seemed to have no preference over the color of the plant. Increased photosynthesis was observed when fed with fruit flies. Previously, it has been hypothesized that plant coloration has been used to attract prey items along with olfactory signals. This hypothesis has been disproven in "Drosera capensis" white and red forms as coloration is due to anthocyanin - or the lack of – and does not affect the UV coloration of the plant which, along with olfactory signals, attracts prey items.

Reproduction.

In early summer or late spring, "D. capensis" produces multiple, small, five-petaled pink flowers at the end of scapes which can be up to tall. Flowers individually open in the morning and close by mid afternoon, lasting just one day each with the next one up the scape opening the following day; the lower ones on the scape can thus be open or "past" while the ones at the top are still forming.  Under horticultural conditions, carnivorous plant enthusiasts find that these seeds have a tendency to find their way into neighbouring plant pots where they germinate readily, giving "D. capensis" a reputation as a weed.

Cultivation.

"Drosera capensis" has several forms or varieties, including the "typical", "wide-leaved", "narrow-leaved" and "red" forms and the cultivar "Drosera" 'Albino'. The typical form is noted for wider leaves and the gradual production of a scrambling stem as it grows. The "wide-leaved" form is similar to the "typical" variety, but produces leaves at least 50% wider than the typical variety. The narrow-leaved form differs from the typical form in that it rarely produces tall stems; has thinner, longer leaves and less hair on the plant. "Drosera capensis" 'Albino', is also similar in shape to the "typical" form, but lacks most of the red pigmentation of the typical or narrow forms, with clear or pink trichomes and white flowers. There is also the "red" form that turns blood red in full sunlight, and is also similar physically to the narrow-leaved form. These varieties are commercially available.  "Drosera capensis" "narrow-leaved" has won the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.  "Drosera capensis" can be easily propagated through a variety of methods including seed, leaf cuttings, and root cuttings. It is not easily killed by temperature extremes of a short duration, and is generally a forgiving plant to grow. Additionally, "D. capensis" does not undergo dormancy like some sundews. It is among the easiest of carnivorous plants to keep indoors. It grows very well in open air, on a sunny windowsill, as long as it is kept in an inch or two of mineral-free water. It does not require a terrarium although it can benefit from one.  The ideal substrate is composed of 70% of blonde peat and 30% of non-calcareous sand. The ideal temperature varies between 5 and 15 °C in winter and between 20 and 40 °C in summer, for a hygrometry of 40 to 80%. Moist soil must be maintained year-round by the presence of a saucer under the pot, but watering must be reduced and the saucer removed in winter. High ambient humidity allows the preservation of mucilage. An exposure in full sun suits it perfectly, although a place a little less sunny may be suitable.

Invasive species.

"Drosera capensis" is listed on the New Zealand National Pest Plant Accord due to it being classified as an invasive species in that country, where they cannot be bought at plant retailers and should not be traded by carnivorous plant partisans. They have been planted in the wild or unintentionally introduced through soil contaminated by seeds with plantings of pitcher plants and water lilies. They are now beginning to spread on their own, potentially with help from water birds.  "Drosera capensis" have also been found in Australia. Currently it has only been found in New South Wales but understanding the species distribution is essential to managing the species in the future. It has also been found in the state of California and classified as a naturalized weed. Alongside Australia, California and New Zealand, "Drosera capensis" have also been found in peat bogs in South America. It is currently classified as an invasive species.

Drosera capensis, commonly known as the Cape sundew, is a small rosette-forming carnivorous species of perennial sundew native to the Cape in South Africa. Because of its size, easy to grow nature, and the copious amounts of seed it produces, it has become one of the most common sundews in cultivation, and thus, one of the most frequently introduced and naturalised invasive "Drosera" species.

好望角毛毡苔(学名:'),又名南非茅膏菜,是一种细小的多年生植物,产自南非好望角的茅膏菜。由于它细小、容易种植及丰富的种子,故它是普遍栽培的茅膏菜。好望角毛毡苔的叶子呈带状,长达15厘米及阔1厘米。就如所有的茅膏菜般,它有色彩缤纷的触手覆盖,会分泌出黏液捕捉昆虫。当昆虫被困后,叶子会因其向触性而卷曲,提供更多的消化腺接触猎物来协助消化。好望角毛毡苔会保留前年枯萎的叶子,随年日主茎会变得较长及呈木质。 于初夏,好望角毛毡苔会在花茎上开出细小及五瓣的粉红色花朵,花茎可长高达30厘米。花朵收合时会自我授粉,并生产大量细长的种子。种子会当花朵凋谢时被散播。