Non-relativistic propagators.

In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the propagator gives the probability amplitude for a particle to travel from one spatial point at one time to another spatial point at a later time.  Consider a system with Hamiltonian. The Green's function (fundamental solution) for the Schrödinger equation is a function satisfying where denotes the Hamiltonian written in terms of the coordinates, denotes the Dirac delta-function, is the Heaviside step function and is the kernel of the above Schrödinger differential operator in the big parentheses. The term propagator is sometimes used in this context to refer to, and sometimes to. This article will use the term to refer to (cf. Duhamel's principle).  This propagator may also be written as the transition amplitude where is the unitary time-evolution operator for the system taking states at time to states at time. Note the initial condition enforced by formula_4.  The quantum mechanical propagator may also be found by using a path integral, where the boundary conditions of the path integral include. Here denotes the Lagrangian of the system. The paths that are summed over move only forwards in time, and are integrated with the differential formula_6 which follows the path in time.  In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the propagator lets one find the wave function of a system, given an initial wave function and a time interval. The new wave function is specified by the equation  If only depends on the difference, this is a convolution of the initial wave function and the propagator.

Basic examples: propagator of free particle and harmonic oscillator.

For a time-translationally invariant system, the propagator only depends on the time difference, so it may be rewritten as  The propagator of a one-dimensional free particle, with the far-right expression obtained via saddle-point methods, is then =\left(\frac{m}{2\pi i\hbar t}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}e^{-\frac{m(x-x')^2}{2i\hbar t}}.</math>  Similarly, the propagator of a one-dimensional quantum harmonic oscillator is the Mehler kernel, \exp\left(-\frac{m\omega((x^2+x'^2)\cos\omega t-2xx')}{2i\hbar \sin\omega t}\right) ~.</math> The latter may be obtained from the previous free particle result upon making use of van Kortryk's SU(2) Lie-group identity,  valid for operators formula_11 and formula_12 satisfying the Heisenberg relation formula_13.  For the -dimensional case, the propagator can be simply obtained by the product

Relativistic propagators.

In relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum field theory the propagators are Lorentz invariant. They give the amplitude for a particle to travel between two spacetime points.

Scalar propagator.

In quantum field theory, the theory of a free (non-interacting) scalar field is a useful and simple example which serves to illustrate the concepts needed for more complicated theories. It describes spin zero particles. There are a number of possible propagators for free scalar field theory. We now describe the most common ones.

Position space.

The position space propagators are Green's functions for the Klein–Gordon equation. This means they are functions which satisfy  where:  We shall restrict attention to 4-dimensional Minkowski spacetime. We can perform a Fourier transform of the equation for the propagator, obtaining  This equation can be inverted in the sense of distributions noting that the equation has the solution, (see Sokhotski-Plemelj theorem) with implying the limit to zero. Below, we discuss the right choice of the sign arising from causality requirements.  The solution is where is the 4-vector inner product.  The different choices for how to deform the integration contour in the above expression lead to various forms for the propagator. The choice of contour is usually phrased in terms of the formula_20 integral.  The integrand then has two poles at so different choices of how to avoid these lead to different propagators.

Causal propagators.

Retarded propagator.

A contour going clockwise over both poles gives the causal retarded propagator. This is zero if is spacelike or if (i.e. if is to the future of ).  This choice of contour is equivalent to calculating the limit,  Here is the Heaviside step function and is the proper time from to and formula_25 is a Bessel function of the first kind. The expression formula_26 means causally precedes which, for Minkowski spacetime, means  This expression can be related to the vacuum expectation value of the commutator of the free scalar field operator, where is the commutator.

Advanced propagator.

A contour going anti-clockwise under both poles gives the causal advanced propagator. This is zero if is spacelike or if (i.e. if is to the past of ).  This choice of contour is equivalent to calculating the limit  This expression can also be expressed in terms of the vacuum expectation value of the commutator of the free scalar field. In this case,

Feynman propagator.

A contour going under the left pole and over the right pole gives the Feynman propagator.  This choice of contour is equivalent to calculating the limit  Here  where and are two points in Minkowski spacetime, and the dot in the exponent is a four-vector inner product. is a and is a.  This expression can be derived directly from the field theory as the vacuum expectation value of the "time-ordered product" of the free scalar field, that is, the product always taken such that the time ordering of the spacetime points is the same,  This expression is Lorentz invariant, as long as the field operators commute with one another when the points and are separated by a spacelike interval.  The usual derivation is to insert a complete set of single-particle momentum states between the fields with Lorentz covariant normalization, and to then show that the functions providing the causal time ordering may be obtained by a contour integral along the energy axis, if the integrand is as above (hence the infinitesimal imaginary part), to move the pole off the real line.  The propagator may also be derived using the path integral formulation of quantum theory.

Momentum space propagator.

The Fourier transform of the position space propagators can be thought of as propagators in momentum space. These take a much simpler form than the position space propagators.  They are often written with an explicit term although this is understood to be a reminder about which integration contour is appropriate (see above). This term is included to incorporate boundary conditions and causality (see below).  For a 4-momentum the causal and Feynman propagators in momentum space are:  For purposes of Feynman diagram calculations, it is usually convenient to write these with an additional overall factor of (conventions vary).

Faster than light?

The Feynman propagator has some properties that seem baffling at first. In particular, unlike the commutator, the propagator is "nonzero" outside of the light cone, though it falls off rapidly for spacelike intervals. Interpreted as an amplitude for particle motion, this translates to the virtual particle travelling faster than light. It is not immediately obvious how this can be reconciled with causality: can we use faster-than-light virtual particles to send faster-than-light messages?  The answer is no: while in classical mechanics the intervals along which particles and causal effects can travel are the same, this is no longer true in quantum field theory, where it is commutators that determine which operators can affect one another.  So what "does" the spacelike part of the propagator represent? In QFT the vacuum is an active participant, and particle numbers and field values are related by an uncertainty principle; field values are uncertain even for particle number "zero". There is a nonzero probability amplitude to find a significant fluctuation in the vacuum value of the field if one measures it locally (or, to be more precise, if one measures an operator obtained by averaging the field over a small region). Furthermore, the dynamics of the fields tend to favor spatially correlated fluctuations to some extent. The nonzero time-ordered product for spacelike-separated fields then just measures the amplitude for a nonlocal correlation in these vacuum fluctuations, analogous to an EPR correlation. Indeed, the propagator is often called a "two-point correlation function" for the free field.  Since, by the postulates of quantum field theory, all observable operators commute with each other at spacelike separation, messages can no more be sent through these correlations than they can through any other EPR correlations; the correlations are in random variables.  Regarding virtual particles, the propagator at spacelike separation can be thought of as a means of calculating the amplitude for creating a virtual particle-antiparticle pair that eventually disappears into the vacuum, or for detecting a virtual pair emerging from the vacuum. In Feynman's language, such creation and annihilation processes are equivalent to a virtual particle wandering backward and forward through time, which can take it outside of the light cone. However, no signaling back in time is allowed.

Explanation using limits.

This can be made clearer by writing the propagator in the following form for a massless photon,  This is the usual definition but normalised by a factor of formula_40. Then the rule is that one only takes the limit formula_41 at the end of a calculation.  One sees that and Hence this means a single photon will always stay on the light cone. It is also shown that the total probability for a photon at any time must be normalised by the reciprocal of the following factor: We see that the parts outside the light cone usually are zero in the limit and only are important in Feynman diagrams.

Propagators in Feynman diagrams.

The most common use of the propagator is in calculating probability amplitudes for particle interactions using Feynman diagrams. These calculations are usually carried out in momentum space. In general, the amplitude gets a factor of the propagator for every "internal line", that is, every line that does not represent an incoming or outgoing particle in the initial or final state. It will also get a factor proportional to, and similar in form to, an interaction term in the theory's Lagrangian for every internal vertex where lines meet. These prescriptions are known as "Feynman rules".  Internal lines correspond to virtual particles. Since the propagator does not vanish for combinations of energy and momentum disallowed by the classical equations of motion, we say that the virtual particles are allowed to be off shell. In fact, since the propagator is obtained by inverting the wave equation, in general, it will have singularities on the shell.  The energy carried by the particle in the propagator can even be "negative". This can be interpreted simply as the case in which, instead of a particle going one way, its antiparticle is going the "other" way, and therefore carrying an opposing flow of positive energy. The propagator encompasses both possibilities. It does mean that one has to be careful about minus signs for the case of fermions, whose propagators are not even functions in the energy and momentum (see below).  Virtual particles conserve energy and momentum. However, since they can be off the shell, wherever the diagram contains a closed "loop", the energies and momenta of the virtual particles participating in the loop will be partly unconstrained, since a change in a quantity for one particle in the loop can be balanced by an equal and opposite change in another. Therefore, every loop in a Feynman diagram requires an integral over a continuum of possible energies and momenta. In general, these integrals of products of propagators can diverge, a situation that must be handled by the process of renormalization.

Other theories.

Spin.

If the particle possesses spin then its propagator is in general somewhat more complicated, as it will involve the particle's spin or polarization indices. The differential equation satisfied by the propagator for a spin particle is given by  where is the unit matrix in four dimensions, and employing the Feynman slash notation. This is the Dirac equation for a delta function source in spacetime. Using the momentum representation,  the equation becomes  where on the right-hand side an integral representation of the four-dimensional delta function is used. Thus  By multiplying from the left with  (dropping unit matrices from the notation) and using properties of the gamma matrices,  the momentum-space propagator used in Feynman diagrams for a Dirac field representing the electron in quantum electrodynamics is found to have form  The downstairs is a prescription for how to handle the poles in the complex -plane. It automatically yields the Feynman contour of integration by shifting the poles appropriately. It is sometimes written  for short. It should be remembered that this expression is just shorthand notation for. "One over matrix" is otherwise nonsensical. In position space one has  This is related to the Feynman propagator by  where formula_57.

Spin 1.

The propagator for a gauge boson in a gauge theory depends on the choice of convention to fix the gauge. For the gauge used by Feynman and Stueckelberg, the propagator for a photon is  The propagator for a massive vector field can be derived from the Stueckelberg Lagrangian. The general form with gauge parameter reads  With this general form one obtains the propagator in unitary gauge for, the propagator in Feynman or 't Hooft gauge for and in Landau or Lorenz gauge for. There are also other notations where the gauge parameter is the inverse of. The name of the propagator, however, refers to its final form and not necessarily to the value of the gauge parameter.  Unitary gauge:  Feynman ('t Hooft) gauge:  Landau (Lorenz) gauge:

Graviton propagator.

The graviton propagator for Minkowski space in general relativity is where formula_64 is the number of spacetime dimensions, formula_65 is the transverse and traceless spin-2 projection operator and formula_66 is a spin-0 scalar multiplet. The graviton propagator for (Anti) de Sitter space is where formula_68 is the Hubble constant. Note that upon taking the limit formula_69 and formula_70, the AdS propagator reduces to the Minkowski propagator.

Related singular functions.

The scalar propagators are Green's functions for the Klein–Gordon equation. There are related singular functions which are important in quantum field theory. We follow the notation in Bjorken and Drell. See also Bogolyubov and Shirkov (Appendix A). These functions are most simply defined in terms of the vacuum expectation value of products of field operators.

Solutions to the Klein–Gordon equation.

Pauli–Jordan function.

The commutator of two scalar field operators defines the Pauli–Jordan function formula_71 by  with  This satisfies and is zero if formula_75.

Positive and negative frequency parts (cut propagators).

We can define the positive and negative frequency parts of formula_71, sometimes called cut propagators, in a relativistically invariant way.  This allows us to define the positive frequency part:  and the negative frequency part:  These satisfy  and

Auxiliary function.

The anti-commutator of two scalar field operators defines formula_81 function by with  This satisfies formula_84

The retarded, advanced and Feynman propagators defined above are all Green's functions for the Klein–Gordon equation.  They are related to the singular functions by where

In quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, the propagator is a function that specifies the probability amplitude for a particle to travel from one place to another in a given time, or to travel with a certain energy and momentum. In Feynman diagrams, which serve to calculate the rate of collisions in quantum field theory, virtual particles contribute their propagator to the rate of the scattering event described by the respective diagram. These may also be viewed as the inverse of the wave operator appropriate to the particle, and are, therefore, often called "(causal) Green's functions" (called ""causal"" to distinguish it from the elliptic Laplacian Green's function).

在量子力学以及量子场论中的传播子(propagator;核子,kernel),是描述粒子在特定时间由一处移动到另一处的几率幅,或是粒子以特定能量及动量移动的几率幅。传播子也是场的运动方程的格林函数。物理学家使用核子计算费恩曼图以及散射过程的概率。


Biography.

Alain was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye in the western suburbs of Paris, into a family of musicians. His father, Albert Alain (1880–1971) was an organist, composer and organ builder who had studied with Alexandre Guilmant and Louis Vierne. His younger brother was the composer, organist and pianist Olivier Alain (1918–1994), and his youngest sister the organist Marie-Claire Alain (1926–2013). Jehan received his initial training in the piano from Augustin Pierson, the organist of Saint-Louis at Versailles, and in the organ from his father, who had built a four-manual instrument in the family sitting room. By the age of 11, Jehan was substituting at St. Germain-en-Laye.  Between 1927 and 1939, he attended the Paris Conservatoire and achieved First Prize in Harmony under André Bloch and First Prize in Fugue with Georges Caussade. He studied the organ with Marcel Dupré, under whose direction he took first prize for Organ and Improvisation in 1939. His studies in composition with Paul Dukas and Jean Roger-Ducasse won him the "Prix des amis de l'orgue" in 1936 for his "Suite for Organ, Op. 48: Introduction, Variations, Scherzo and Choral".  He was appointed organist of Eglise Saint-Nicolas de Maisons-Laffitte in Paris in 1935, and remained there for four years. He also played regularly at the Rue Notre-Dame-de-Nazareth synagogue. The only known recording of his playing—a six-minute improvisation—was made in 1938 at that synagogue.  His short career as a composer began in 1929, when Alain was 18, and lasted until the outbreak of the Second World War 10 years later. His music was influenced not only by the musical language of the earlier Claude Debussy and his own contemporary Olivier Messiaen (seen in "Le jardin suspendu", 1934), but also by an interest in the music, dance and philosophies of the far east (acquired at the Exposition coloniale internationale of 1931 and seen in "Deux danses à Agni Yavishta", 1932, and "Deuxième fantaisie", 1936), a renaissance of baroque music (seen in "Variations sur un thème de Clément Janequin", 1937), and in jazz (seen in "Trois danses" of 1939). Alain described "Le jardin suspendu" ("The Hanging Garden") as a portrayal of "the ideal, perpetual pursuit and escape of the artist, an inaccessible and inviolable refuge". He wrote choral music, including a Requiem mass, chamber music, songs and three volumes of piano music. But it is his organ music for which he is best known. His most famous work is "Litanies", composed in 1937. That work is prefaced with the text: "Quand l’âme chrétienne ne trouve plus de mots nouveaux dans la détresse pour implorer la miséricorde de Dieu, elle répète sans cesse la même invocation avec une foi véhémente. La raison atteint sa limite. Seule la foi poursuit son ascension." ("When, in its distress, the Christian soul can find no more words to invoke God's mercy, it repeats endlessly the same litany...for reason has reached its limit; only faith can take one further..."). "Deuils" ("mourning"), the second of the "Trois danses", is dedicated to Odile (Alain's deceased sister) as a "Funeral Dance to an Heroic Memory".  Always interested in mechanics, Alain was a skilled motorcyclist and became a dispatch rider in the Eighth Motorised Armour Division of the French Army. On 20 June 1940, he was assigned to reconnoitre the German advance on the eastern side of Saumur, and encountered a group of German soldiers at Le Petit-Puy. Coming around a curve, and hearing the approaching tread of the Germans, he abandoned his motorcycle and engaged the enemy troops with his carbine, killing 16 of them before being killed himself. He was posthumously awarded the Croix de Guerre for his bravery, and was buried by the Germans with full military honours.  He left behind his wife, Madeleine Payan whom he had married in 1935, his three children Denis, Agnès, and Lise, and a body of compositions viewed by many to have been amongst the most original of the 20th century.  Henri Dutilleux's "Les citations" contains a quotation from Jehan Alain's music. Maurice Duruflé wrote a musical tribute to Jehan Alain with his "Prélude et fugue sur le nom d'A.L.A.I.N", Op. 7 for organ.

Chronological catalog.

JA stands for Jehan Alain.

Jehan Ariste Alain (3 February 1911 – 20 June 1940) was a French organist, composer, and soldier. Born into a family of musicians, he learned the organ from his father and a host of other teachers, becoming a composer at 18, and composing until the outbreak of the Second World War 10 years later. His music was influenced by the musical language of the earlier Claude Debussy and his contemporary Olivier Messiaen, as well as his interest in music, dance and philosophies of the far east. At the outbreak of WWII Alain became a dispatch rider in the Eighth Motorised Armour Division of the French Army; he took part in the Battle of Saumur, in which he was killed.

耶罕·阿里斯特·阿兰(,1911年-2月3日-1940年-6月20日),法国作曲家,管风琴家。父亲是一位出色的管风琴师,妹妹是著名管风琴家玛丽-克莱尔·阿兰。阿兰1927年进入巴黎音乐学院师从杜卡斯等人学习作曲和管风琴演奏,学业成绩出色,经常获得各种奖项。二战爆发后,阿兰加入法军,成为一名摩托车手。1940年6月,他所在的部队在索米尔遭遇德军,阿兰在消灭了16名德军之后英勇战死。他传世的作品不多,主要是为键盘乐器而作的。他的音乐在和声运用上十分大胆,常有印象派和东方音乐的情调,大大开拓了管风琴的表现力。


History.

Until the French Revolution, Riom was the capital of the province of Auvergne, and the seat of the dukes of Auvergne. The city was of Gaulish origin, the Roman "Ricomagus". In the intensely feudalized Auvergne of the 10th century, the town grew up around the collegiate Church of Saint Amabilis (Saint Amable), the local saint, who was the object of pilgrimages. Riom was the capital of the dukes of Auvergne. In the 14th century the city benefitted from the patronage of Jean, duc de Berry, who rebuilt the Ducal Palace and the Saint-Chapelle. In 1531, Riom and Auvergne reverted to the Crown of France.  In 1942, Riom was the site of the Vichy government's abortive war-guilt trials, called Riom Trials.

Sights.

In 1985 Riom received the French classification of "Ville d'Art et d'Histoire" recognizing its sixteen classified historical monuments as well as another 57 on the supplementary listings. Several 17th- and 18th-century private houses ("hôtels particuliers") are open to the public with collections of costumes and works of decorative art.  Riom's two major public squares are "Place Jean-Baptiste Laurent" and "Place du pré-Madame" in which stand two large fountains in homage to Desaix.

Public library.

The "Bibliothèque Municipale de Riom" (), is a public library in Riom. Since 1968 it has been located on Avenue Mgr Martrou. The library was established after the French Revolution.  The library collection began after the French Revolution and it has been housed in a number of buildings including a college and at Riom city hall. In 1905 the library was moved to a Carmelite convent building and in 1941 it was housed in a museum. The present home of the collection was opened in 1968.  It contains approximately 90,000 items (books, journals, audio cassette tapes and video). The special part of the collection consists of 15 medieval manuscripts, which came from revolutionary confiscations made in religious communities. The Ministry of Culture and Communication digitized three illuminated manuscripts. Of the illuminated works five volumes are from the 15th - 16th centuries.

Notable people.

Riom was the birthplace of:

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Riom is twinned with:

Riom (; Auvergnat "Riam") is a commune in the Puy-de-Dôme department in Auvergne in central France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department.

里永()是法国多姆山省的一个市镇,位于该省中北部,也是该省的一个副省会,下辖里永区。该市镇总面积31.97平方公里,2009年时的人口为17779人。


Background.

The UCIL factory was built in 1969 to produce the pesticide Sevin (UCC's brand name for carbaryl) using methyl isocyanate (MIC) as an intermediate. An MIC production plant was added to the UCIL site in 1979. The chemical process employed in the Bhopal plant had methylamine reacting with phosgene to form MIC, which was then reacted with 1-naphthol to form the final product, carbaryl. Another manufacturer, Bayer, also used this MIC-intermediate process at the chemical plant once owned by UCC at Institute, West Virginia, in the United States.  After the Bhopal plant was built, other manufacturers (including Bayer) produced carbaryl without MIC, though at a greater manufacturing cost. This "route" differed from the MIC-free routes used elsewhere, in which the same raw materials were combined in a different manufacturing order, with phosgene first reacting with naphthol to form a chloroformate ester, which was, in turn, reacted with methylamine. In the early 1980s, the demand for pesticides had fallen, but production continued regardless, leading to an accumulation of stores of unused MIC where that method was used.

Earlier leaks.

In 1976, two local trade unions complained of pollution within the plant. In 1981, a worker was accidentally splashed with phosgene as he was carrying out a maintenance job of the plant's pipes. In a panic, he removed his gas mask and inhaled a large amount of toxic phosgene gas, leading to his demise 72 hours later. Following these events, journalist Rajkumar Keswani began investigating and published his findings in Bhopal's local paper "Rapat," in which he urged "Wake up, people of

Leakage and its effects.

Liquid MIC storage.

The Bhopal UCIL facility housed three underground 68,000-litre liquid MIC storage tanks: E610, E611, and E619. In the months leading up to the December leak, liquid MIC production was in progress and being used to fill these tanks. UCC safety regulations specified that no one tank should be filled more than 50% (here, 30 tons) with liquid MIC. Each tank was pressurized with inert nitrogen gas. This pressurization allowed liquid MIC to be pumped out of each tank as needed, and also kept impurities out of the tanks.  In late

The release.

By early December 1984, most of the plant's MIC related safety systems were malfunctioning and many valves and lines were in poor condition. In addition, several vent gas scrubbers had been out of service as well as the steam boiler, intended to clean the pipes. During the late evening hours of 2 December 1984, water was believed to have entered a side pipe and into Tank E610 whilst trying to unclog it, which contained 42 tons of MIC that had been there since late October. The introduction of water into the tank subsequently resulted in a runaway exothermic reaction, which was accelerated by contaminants, high ambient temperatures and various other factors, such as the presence of iron from corroding non-stainless steel pipelines. The pressure in tank E610,

Acute effects.

The initial effects of exposure were coughing, severe eye irritation and a feeling of suffocation, burning in the respiratory tract, blepharospasm, breathlessness, stomach pains and vomiting. People awakened by these symptoms fled away from the plant. Those who ran inhaled more than those who had a vehicle to ride. Owing to their height, children and other residents of shorter stature inhaled

Gas cloud composition.

Apart from MIC, based on laboratory simulation conditions, the gas cloud most likely also contained chloroform, dichloromethane, hydrogen chloride, methylamine, dimethylamine, trimethylamine and carbon dioxide, that was either present in the tank or was produced in the storage tank when MIC, chloroform and water reacted. The gas cloud, composed mainly of materials denser than air, stayed close to the ground and spread in the southeasterly direction affecting the nearby communities. The chemical reactions may have produced a liquid or solid aerosol. Laboratory investigations by CSIR and UCC scientists failed to demonstrate the presence of hydrogen cyanide.

Immediate aftermath.

In the immediate aftermath, the plant was closed to outsiders (including UCC) by the Indian government, which subsequently failed to make data public, contributing to the confusion. The initial investigation was conducted entirely by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Central Bureau of Investigation. The UCC chairman and CEO Warren Anderson, together with a technical team, immediately travelled to India. Upon arrival Anderson was placed under house arrest and urged by the Indian government to leave the country within 24 hours. Union Carbide organized a team of international medical experts, as well as supplies and equipment, to work with the local Bhopal medical community, and the UCC technical team began assessing the cause of the gas leak.  The health care system immediately became overloaded. In the severely affected areas, nearly 70 percent were under-qualified doctors. Medical staff were unprepared for the thousands of casualties. Doctors and hospitals were not aware of proper treatment methods for MIC gas inhalation.  There were mass funerals and cremations. Photographer Pablo Bartholemew, on commission with press agency Rapho, took an iconic color photograph of a burial on 4 December, "Bhopal

Subsequent legal action.

Legal proceedings involving UCC, the United States and Indian governments, local Bhopal authorities, and the disaster victims started immediately after the catastrophe. The Indian Government passed the Bhopal Gas Leak Act in March 1985, allowing the Government of India to act as the legal representative for victims of the disaster, leading to the beginning of legal proceedings. Initial lawsuits were generated in the United States federal court system. On 17 April 1985, Federal District court judge John F. Keenan (overseeing one lawsuit) suggested that "'fundamental human decency' required Union Carbide to provide between $5 million and $10 million to immediately help the injured" and suggested the money could be quickly distributed through the International Red Cross. UCC, on the notion that doing so did not constitute an admission of liability and the figure could be credited toward any future settlement or judgement, offered a $5 million relief fund two days later. The Indian government turned down the offer.  In

Post-settlement activity.

In 1991, the local Bhopal authorities charged Anderson, who had retired in 1986, with manslaughter, a crime that carries a maximum penalty of 10 years in prison. He was declared a fugitive from justice by the Chief Judicial Magistrate of Bhopal on 1 February 1992 for failing to appear at the court hearings in a culpable homicide case in which he was named the chief defendant. Orders were passed to the Government of India to press for an extradition from the United States. The U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal of the decision of the lower federal courts in October 1993, meaning that victims of the Bhopal disaster could not seek damages in a U.S. court.  In 2004, the Indian Supreme Court ordered the Indian government to release any remaining settlement funds to victims. And in September 2006, the Welfare Commission for Bhopal Gas Victims announced that all original compensation claims and revised petitions had been "cleared". The Second Circuit Court of Appeals

Long-term effects.

In 2018, "The Atlantic" called it the "world’s worst industrial disaster."

Long-term health effects.

Some data about the health effects are still not available. The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) was forbidden to publish health effect data until 1994.  A total of 36 wards were marked by the authorities as being "gas affected," affecting a population of 520,000. Of these, 200,000 were below 15 years of age, and 3,000 were pregnant women. The official immediate death toll was 2,259, and in 1991, 3,928 deaths had been officially certified. Ingrid Eckerman estimated 8,000 died within two weeks.  The government of Madhya Pradesh confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release.  Later, the affected area was expanded to include 700,000 citizens. A government affidavit in 2006 stated the leak caused 558,125 injuries including 38,478 temporary partial injuries and approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling injuries.  A cohort of 80,021 exposed

Health care.

The Government of India had focused primarily on increasing the hospital-based services for gas victims thus hospitals had been built after the disaster. When UCC wanted to sell its shares in UCIL, it was directed by the Supreme Court to finance a 500-bed hospital for the medical care of the survivors. Thus, Bhopal Memorial Hospital and Research Centre (BMHRC) was inaugurated in 1998

Environmental rehabilitation.

When the factory was closed in 1986, pipes, drums and tanks were sold. The MIC and the Sevin plants are still there, as are storages of different residues. Isolation material is falling down and spreading. The area around the plant was used as a dumping area for hazardous chemicals. In 1982 tubewells in the vicinity of the UCIL factory had to be abandoned and tests in 1989 performed by UCC's laboratory revealed that soil and water samples collected from near the factory and inside the plant were toxic to fish. Several other studies had also shown polluted soil and groundwater in the area. Reported polluting compounds include 1-naphthol, naphthalene, Sevin, tarry residue, mercury, toxic organochlorines, volatile organochlorine compounds, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, hexachloroethane, hexachlorobutadiene, and the pesticide HCH.  In order to

Occupational and habitation rehabilitation.

33 of the 50 planned work-sheds for gas victims started. All except one was closed down by 1992. 1986, the MP government invested in the Special Industrial Area Bhopal. 152 of the planned 200 work sheds were built and in 2000, 16 were partially functioning. It was estimated that

Economic rehabilitation.

Immediate relieves were decided two days after the tragedy. Relief measures commenced in 1985 when food was distributed for a short period along with ration cards. Madhya Pradesh government's finance department allocated for victim relief in July 1985. Widow pension of /per month (later ) were provided. The government also decided to pay to families with monthly income or less. As a result of the interim relief, more children were able to attend school, more money was spent on treatment and food, and housing also eventually improved. From 1990 interim relief of was paid to everyone in the family who was born before the disaster.  The final

Other impacts.

In 1985, Henry Waxman, a California Democrat, called for a U.S. government inquiry

Causes.

There are two main lines of argument involving the disaster. The "Corporate Negligence" point of view argues that the disaster was caused by a potent combination of under-maintained and decaying facilities, a weak attitude towards safety, and an undertrained workforce, culminating in worker actions that inadvertently enabled water to penetrate the MIC tanks in the absence of properly working safeguards.  The "Worker Sabotage" point of view argues that it was not physically possible for the water to enter the tank without concerted human effort, and that extensive testimony and engineering analysis leads to a conclusion that water entered the tank when a rogue individual employee hooked a water hose directly to an empty valve on the side of the tank. This point of view further argues that the Indian government took extensive actions to hide this possibility in order to attach blame to UCC.  Theories differ as to how the water entered the tank. At the time, workers were cleaning out a clogged pipe with water about 400 feet from the tank. They claimed that they were not told to isolate the tank with a pipe slip-blind plate. The operators assumed that owing to bad maintenance and leaking valves, it was possible for the water to leak into the tank.  This water entry route could not be reproduced despite strenuous efforts by motivated parties. UCC claims that a "disgruntled worker" deliberately connecting a hose to a pressure gauge connection was the real cause.  Early the next morning, a UCIL manager asked the instrument engineer to replace the gauge. UCIL's investigation team found no evidence of the necessary connection; the investigation was totally controlled by the government, denying UCC investigators access to the tank or interviews with the operators.

Corporate negligence.

This point of view argues that management (and to some extent, local government) underinvested in safety, which allowed for a dangerous working environment to develop. Factors cited include the filling of the MIC tanks beyond recommended levels, poor maintenance after the plant ceased MIC production at the end of 1984, allowing several safety systems to be inoperable due to poor maintenance, and switching off safety systems to save money— including the MIC tank refrigeration system which could have mitigated the disaster severity, and non-existent catastrophe management plans. Other factors identified by government inquiries included undersized safety devices and the dependence on manual operations. Specific plant management deficiencies that were identified include the lack of skilled operators, reduction of safety management, insufficient maintenance, and inadequate emergency action plans.

Underinvestment.

Underinvestment is cited as contributing to an environment. In attempts to reduce expenses, $1.25 million of cuts were placed upon the plant which affected the factory's employees and their conditions. Kurzman argues that "cuts... meant less stringent quality control and thus looser safety rules. A pipe leaked? Don't replace it, employees said they were told... MIC workers needed more training? They could do with less. Promotions were halted, seriously affecting employee morale and driving some of the most skilled... elsewhere". Workers were forced to use English manuals, even though only a few had a grasp of the language.  Subsequent research highlights a gradual deterioration of safety

Adequacy of equipment and regulations.

The factory was not well equipped to handle the gas created by the sudden addition of water to the MIC tank. The MIC tank alarms had not been working for four years and there was only one manual back-up system, compared to a four-stage system used in the United States. The flare tower and several vent gas scrubbers had been out of service for five months before the disaster. Only one gas scrubber was operating: it could not treat such a large amount of MIC with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), which would have brought the concentration down to a safe level. The flare tower could only handle a quarter of the gas that leaked in 1984, and moreover it was out of order at the time of the incident. To reduce energy costs, the refrigeration system was idle. The MIC was kept at 20 degrees Celsius, not the 4.5 degrees advised by the manual. Even the steam boiler, intended to clean the pipes, was non-operational for unknown reasons. Slip-blind plates that would have prevented

Safety audits.

Safety audits were done every year in the US and European UCC plants, but only every two years in other parts of the world. Before a "Business Confidential" safety audit by UCC in May 1982, the senior officials of the corporation were well aware of "a total of 61 hazards, 30 of them major and 11 minor in the dangerous phosgene/methyl isocyanate units" in Bhopal. In the audit 1982, it was indicated that worker

Impossibility of the "negligence".

According to the "Corporate Negligence" argument, workers had been cleaning out pipes with water nearby. This water was diverted due to a combination of improper maintenance, leaking and clogging, and eventually ended up in the MIC storage tank. Indian scientists also suggested that additional water might have been introduced as a "back-flow" from a defectively designed vent-gas scrubber. None of these theoretical routes of entry were ever successfully demonstrated during tests by the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and UCIL engineers.  A Union Carbide commissioned analysis conducted by Arthur D. Little claims that the Negligence argument was impossible for several tangible reasons:

Employee sabotage.

Now owned by Dow Chemical Company, Union Carbide maintains a website dedicated to the tragedy and claims that the incident was the result of sabotage, stating that sufficient safety systems were in place and operative to prevent the intrusion of water.  The Union Carbide-commissioned Arthur D. Little report concluded that it was likely that a single employee secretly and deliberately introduced a large amount of water into the MIC tank by removing a meter and connecting a water hose directly to the tank through the metering port.  UCC claims the plant staff falsified numerous records to distance themselves from the incident and absolve themselves of blame, and that the Indian government impeded its investigation and declined to prosecute the

Additional Union Carbide actions.

The corporation denied the claim that the valves on the tank were malfunctioning, and claimed that the documented evidence gathered after the incident showed that the valve close to the plant's water-washing operation was closed and was leak-tight. Furthermore, process safety systems had prevented water from entering the tank by accident. Carbide states that the safety concerns identified in 1982 were all allayed before 1984 and had nothing to do with the incident.  The company admitted that the safety systems in place would not have been able to prevent a chemical reaction of that magnitude from causing a leak. According to Carbide, "in designing the plant's safety systems, a chemical reaction of this magnitude was not factored in" because "the tank's gas storage system was designed to automatically prevent such a large amount of water from being inadvertently introduced into the system" and "process safety systems—in place and operational—would have prevented water from entering the tank by accident". Instead, they claim that "employee sabotage—not faulty design or operation—was the cause of the tragedy".  Tactical response  The company stresses the immediate action taken after the disaster and its continued commitment to helping the victims. On 4 December, the day following the leak, Union Carbide sent material aid and several international medical experts to assist the medical facilities in Bhopal.  Financial response  The primary financial restitution paid by UCC was negotiated in 1989, when the Indian Supreme Court approved a settlement of US$470 million (₹1,055 crore; equivalent to $ in ). This amount was immediately paid by UCC to the Indian government. The company states that the restitution paid "was $120 million more than plaintiffs' lawyers had told U.S. courts was fair" and that the Indian Supreme Court stated in its opinion that "compensation levels under the settlement were far greater than would normally be payable under Indian law."  In the immediate aftermath of the disaster, Union Carbide states on its website that it put $2 million into the Indian prime minister's immediate disaster relief fund on 11 December 1984. The corporation established the Employees' Bhopal Relief Fund in February 1985, which raised more than for immediate relief. According to Union Carbide, in August 1987, they made an additional in humanitarian interim relief available.  Union Carbide stated that it also undertook several steps to provide continuing aid to the victims of the Bhopal disaster. The sale of its 50.9 percent interest in UCIL in April 1992 and establishment of a charitable trust to contribute to the building of a local hospital. The sale was finalised in November 1994. The hospital was begun in October 1995 and was opened in 2001. The company provided a fund with around from sale of its UCIL stock. In 1991, the trust had amounted approximately. The hospital catered for the treatment of heart, lung and eye problems. UCC also provided a $2.2 million grant to Arizona State University to establish a vocational-technical center in Bhopal, which was opened, but was later closed by the state government. They also donated $5 million to the Indian Red Cross after the disaster. They also developed a Responsible Care system with other members of the chemical industry as a response to the Bhopal crisis, which was designed to help prevent such an event in the future.

Ongoing contamination.

Chemicals abandoned at the plant continue to leak and pollute the groundwater. Whether the chemicals pose a health hazard is disputed. Contamination at the site and surrounding area was not caused by the gas leakage. The area around the plant was used as a dumping ground for hazardous chemicals and by 1982 water wells in the vicinity of the UCIL factory had to be abandoned. UCC states that "after the incident, UCIL began clean-up work at the site under the direction of Indian central and state government authorities", which was continued after 1994 by the successor to UCIL. The successor, Eveready Industries India, Limited (EIIL), ended cleanup on the site in 1998, when it terminated its 99-year lease and turned over control of the site to the state government of Madhya Pradesh.  UCC's laboratory tests in 1989 revealed that soil and water samples collected from near the factory were toxic to fish. Twenty-one areas inside the plant were reported to be highly polluted. In 1991 the municipal authorities declared that water from over 100 wells was hazardous for health if used for drinking. In 1994 it was reported that 21% of the factory premises were seriously contaminated with chemicals. Beginning in 1999, studies made by Greenpeace and others from soil, groundwater, well water and vegetables from the residential areas around UCIL and from the UCIL factory area show contamination with a range of toxic heavy metals and chemical compounds. Substances found, according to the reports, are naphthol, naphthalene, Sevin, tarry residues, alpha naphthol, mercury, organochlorines, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, hexachlorethane, hexachlorobutadiene, pesticide HCH (BHC),

Popular culture.

Novels.

Amulya Malladi's 2002 novel "A Breath of Fresh Air" relates the story of a mother and son who develop health issues as a result of exposure to gas at Bhopal. The book is based on Malladi's recollections of Bhopal during the incident.  Indra Sinha released "Animal's People" in 2007.

Film.

In 1999, a Hindi film dealing with the tragedy, "Bhopal Express", was released. The film stars Kay Kay Menon and Naseeruddin

Activism.

Since 1984, individual activists have played a role in the aftermath of the tragedy. The best-known is Satinath Sarangi (Sathyu), a metallurgic engineer who arrived at Bhopal the day after the leakage. He founded several activist groups, as well as Sambhavna Trust, the clinic for gas affected patients, where he is the manager. Other activists include Rashida Bee and Champa Devi Shukla, who received the Goldman Prize in 2004, Abdul Jabbar and Rachna Dhingra.

Local activism.

Soon after the accident, representatives from different activist groups arrived. The activists worked on organising the gas victims, which led to violent repression from the police

International activism.

Cooperation with international NGOs including Pesticide Action Network UK and Greenpeace started soon after the tragedy. One of the earliest reports is the Trade Union report from ILO 1985.  In 1992, a session of the Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Industrial Hazards and Human Rights took place in

Activist organisations.

At least 14 different NGOs were immediately engaged. The first disaster reports were published by activist organisations, Eklavya and the Delhi Science Forum.  Around ten local organisations, engaged on long term,

Settlement fund hoax.

On 3 December 2004, the twentieth anniversary of the disaster, a man falsely claiming to be a Dow representative named Jude Finisterra was interviewed on BBC World News. He claimed that the company had agreed to clean up the site and compensate those harmed in the incident, by liquidating Union Carbide for. Dow quickly issued a statement saying

Monitoring of activists.

The release of an email cache related to intelligence research organisation Stratfor was leaked by WikiLeaks on 27 February 2012. It revealed that Dow Chemical had engaged Stratfor to spy on the public and personal lives of activists involved in the Bhopal disaster, including the Yes Men. E-mails to Dow representatives from hired security analysts list the YouTube videos liked, Twitter and Facebook posts

The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak incident on the night of 2–3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. It is considered to be the world's worst industrial disaster. Over 500,000 people were exposed to methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas. The highly toxic substance made its way into and around the small towns located near the plant.

博帕尔事件()发生于1984年12月3日凌晨,印度中央邦的博帕尔市美国联合碳化物属下的联合碳化物(印度)有限公司(UCIL),设于博帕尔贫民区附近的一所农药厂发生异氰酸甲酯(Methyl Isocyanate)泄漏事件。官方公布瞬间死亡人数为2,259人,当地政府确认和气体泄漏有关的死亡人数为3,787人。还有大约8,000人在接下来的两个星期中丧命,另外大约8,000人因为气体泄漏而死亡。根据一份2006年的官方文件显示,这次泄漏共造成558,125人受伤,包括38,478人暂时局部残疾,以及大约3,900人严重和永久残疾。


Biography.

Early life.

Lewis Brian Hopkins Jones was born in the Park Nursing Home in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, on 28 February 1942. An attack of croup at the age of four left Jones with asthma that lasted for the rest of his life. His middle-class parents, Lewis Blount Jones and Louisa Beatrice Jones ("née" Simmonds), were of Welsh descent. Brian had two sisters: Pamela, who was born on 3 October 1943 and died on 14 October 1945 of leukemia; and Barbara, born on 22 August 1946.  Both Jones' parents were interested in music: his father, Lewis, was a piano teacher in addition to his job as an aeronautical engineer, and his mother, Louisa, played piano and organ and led

Forming the Rolling Stones.

Jones left Cheltenham and moved to London, where he became friends with fellow musicians Alexis Korner, future Manfred Mann singer Paul Jones, future Cream bassist Jack Bruce, and others who made up the small London rhythm and blues and jazz scene. Jones became a blues musician, for a brief time calling himself "Elmo Lewis", and playing slide guitar. He also started a group with Paul Jones called the Roosters. In January 1963, after both Brian and Paul left the group, Eric Clapton took over Brian's position as guitarist.  Jones placed an advertisement in "Jazz News" (a Soho

Musical contributions.

Jones was a gifted multi-instrumentalist, seemingly at home on any musical instrument. Prior to his firing in 1969, on any instrument apart from the standard rock set up of drums, guitars, piano, or bass, Jones was the one playing it. His ability to play a wide variety of instruments is particularly evident on the albums "Aftermath" (1966), "Between the Buttons" (1967) and "Their Satanic Majesties Request" (1967). As a guitarist, in the early days he favoured a white teardrop-shaped electric guitar produced by the Vox

Estrangement from bandmates.

Oldham's arrival as manager marked the beginning of Jones' slow estrangement. Oldham recognised the financial advantages of bandmembers' writing their own songs, as exemplified by Lennon–McCartney, and that playing covers would not sustain a band in the limelight for long. Further, he wanted to make Jagger's charisma and flamboyance a focus of live performances. Jones saw his influence over the Stones' direction slide as their repertoire comprised fewer of the blues covers than he preferred; more Jagger/Richards originals developed, and Oldham increased his own managerial control, displacing Jones from yet another role.  According to Oldham in his book "Stoned", Jones was an outsider from the beginning. When the first tours

Legal troubles and departure from the Rolling Stones.

Jones was arrested a second time on 21 May 1968, for possession of cannabis, which he said had been left by previous tenants of the flat. Owing to his being on probation, he was facing a long jail sentence if found guilty. The jury found him guilty, but the judge had sympathy for Jones; instead of jailing him, he fined him £50 () plus £105 in costs () and told him: "For goodness sake, don't get into trouble again or it really "will" be serious".  Jones' legal troubles, estrangement from his bandmates, substance abuse, and mood swings became too much of an obstacle to his active participation in the

Later life and death.

At around midnight on the night of 2–3 July 1969, Jones was discovered motionless at the bottom of his swimming pool at Cotchford Farm. His Swedish girlfriend, Anna Wohlin, was convinced he was alive when he was taken out of the pool, insisting he still had a pulse. However, by the time the doctors arrived, it was too late and he was pronounced dead on arrival at the hospital, at the age of 27. The coroner's report stated "death by misadventure", and noted his liver and heart were heavily enlarged by past drug and alcohol abuse. However, during the autopsy doctors found that the cause of Jones' death was accidental drowning.  Upon Jones' death, the Who's Pete Townshend wrote a poem titled "A Normal Day for Brian, A Man Who Died Every Day" (printed in "The Times"), Jimi Hendrix dedicated a song to him on US television, and Jim Morrison of the Doors published a poem titled "Ode to L.A. While Thinking of Brian Jones, Deceased". Coincidentally, Hendrix and Morrison both died within the following two years at the same age as Jones.  The Rolling Stones performed at a free concert

Songwriting credits.

Unsure and insecure as a composer, Jones was not a prolific songwriter. The 30-second "Rice Krispies" jingle for Kellogg's, co-written with the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency in 1963 and performed by The Rolling Stones incognito, was credited to Jones; this did not sit well with the rest of the band, who felt it was a group effort and all should benefit equally. Jones was also included in the "Nanker/Phelge" songwriting credit, a pseudonym used on fourteen tracks that were composed by the entire band and Andrew Oldham.  According to Oldham, the main reason for Jones' not writing songs was that Jones, being a blues purist, did not love simple pop music enough. Oldham tried to establish a songwriting partnership between Jones and Gene Pitney after "becoming bored senseless by Jones' bleating

Other contributions.

In summer 1968, Jones recorded the Morocco-based ensemble, the Master Musicians of Joujouka (Jajouka), which was later used by the band; the recording was released in 1971 as "Brian Jones Presents the Pipes of Pan at Joujouka". Jagger and Richards visited Jajouka in 1989 after recording "Continental Drift" for the Rolling Stones album "Steel Wheels" with The Master Musicians of Jajouka led by Bachir Attar in Tangier. An homage to Jones entitled "Brian Jones Joujouka very Stoned", painted by Mohamed Hamri, who had brought Jones to Jajouka in 1967, appeared on the cover of "Joujouka Black Eyes" by the Master Musicians of Joujouka in 1995.  "Brian Jones Presents the Pipes of Pan at Jajouka" was rereleased in co-operation with Bachir Attar and Philip Glass in 1995. The executive producers were Jones, Glass, Kurt Munkacsi and Rory Johnston, with notes by Attar, Paul Bowles, William S. Burroughs, Stephen Davis, Brion Gysin and David Silver. and included additional graphics, more extensive notes by Silver and Burroughs, and a second CD, produced by Cliff Mark, with two "full-length remixes". Jones played alto saxophone on the Beatles song "You Know My Name", which was released in March 1970, eight months after his death. Jones also played percussion on the Jimi Hendrix song "All Along the Watchtower": "that's him playing the "thwack" you hear at the end of each bar in the intro, on an instrument called a vibraslap."

Equipment.

Jones' main guitar in the early years was a Harmony Stratotone, which he replaced with a Gretsch Double Anniversary in two-tone green. In 1964 and 1965, he often used a teardrop-shaped

Public image and legacy.

Pallenberg has stated in an interview that Jones wanted to look like Françoise Hardy, loved "dressing up and posing about" and that he would ask her to do his hair and make-up. Bo Diddley described Jones as "a little dude that was trying to pull the group ahead. I saw him as the leader. He didn't take no mess. He was a fantastic cat; he handled the group beautifully."  Jones' death at 27 was the first of the 1960s rock movement, and was followed within two years by the drug-related deaths of Jimi Hendrix, Jim Morrison, and Janis Joplin at the same age (Morrison in fact died two years to the day after Jones). The coincidence of their deaths at that age has been referred to in popular culture as the "27 Club". When Alastair Johns, who owned Cotchford Farm for over 40 years after Jones' death, refurbished the pool, he sold the original tiles to Jones' fans for £100 each, which paid for half of the work. Johns noted that Cotchford Farm remained for decades an attraction for Jones' fans.  The Psychic TV song "Godstar" is about

Discography.

With The Rolling Stones  With The Beatles  With Jimi Hendrix  With Peter and Gordon  With McGough and McGear  With Marianne Faithfull  With The Andrew Oldham Orchestra  With Hapshash and the Coloured Coat  Solo discography

Lewis Brian Hopkins Jones (28 February 1942 – 3 July 1969) was an English musician and composer, best known as the founder and original leader of the Rolling Stones. Initially a slide guitarist, Jones would go on to play a wide variety of instruments on Rolling Stones recordings and in concerts, such as rhythm and lead guitar, sitar, dulcimer, various keyboard instruments such as piano and mellotron, marimba, wind instruments such as harmonica, recorder, saxophone, as well as drums, vocals and numerous others.

布莱恩·琼斯(英语:Brian Jones,1942年-2月28日-1969年-7月3日),全名路易斯·布莱恩·霍普金斯·琼斯,英国音乐家,滚石合唱团创始团员。他所演奏的乐器不胜枚举,但以吉他和口琴为主。他独领乐坛、创先融入西塔琴、马林巴等传统或民族乐器,是滚石乐团曲风转变的重要功臣。琼斯原本是滚石乐团的领导人,但很快地在米克·杰格和凯斯·理查兹成为默契十足的创作搭挡后,锋芒转黯。由于长期沉溺于酒精和毒品中,他在团内的重要性更日趋渺小。1969年6月,琼斯离开滚石乐团,为米克·泰勒所取代。翌月,他在自家游泳池溺毙身亡。


Aromatic nitration.

Typical nitration syntheses apply so-called "mixed acid", a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and sulfuric acids. This mixture produces the nitronium ion (NO), which is the active species in aromatic nitration. This active ingredient, which can be isolated in the case of nitronium tetrafluoroborate, also effects nitration without the need for the mixed acid. In mixed-acid syntheses sulfuric acid is not consumed and hence acts as a catalyst as well as an absorbent for water. In the case of nitration of benzene, the reaction is conducted at a warm temperature, not exceeding 50 °C. The process is one example of electrophilic aromatic substitution, which involves the attack by the electron-rich benzene ring:  Alternative mechanisms have also been proposed, including one involving single electron transfer (SET).

Scope.

Selectivity can be a challenge in nitrations because as a rule more than one compound may result but only one is desired, so alternative products act as contaminants or are simply wasted. Accordingly, it is desirable to design syntheses with suitable selectivity; for example, by controlling the reaction conditions, fluorenone can be selectively trinitrated or tetranitrated.  The substituents on aromatic rings affect the rate of this electrophilic aromatic substitution. Deactivating groups such as other nitro groups have an electron-withdrawing effect. Such groups deactivate (slow) the reaction and directs the electrophilic nitronium ion to attack the aromatic meta position. Deactivating meta-directing substituents include sulfonyl, cyano groups, keto, esters, and carboxylates. Nitration can be accelerated by activating groups such as amino, hydroxy and methyl groups also amides and ethers resulting in para and ortho isomers.  The direct nitration of aniline with nitric acid and sulfuric acid, according to one source, results in a 50/50 mixture of "para"- and "meta"-nitroaniline isomers. In this reaction the fast-reacting and activating aniline (ArNH) exists in equilibrium with the more abundant but less reactive (deactivated) anilinium ion (ArNH), which may explain this reaction product distribution. According to another source, a more controlled nitration of aniline starts with the formation of acetanilide by reaction with acetic anhydride followed by the actual nitration. Because the amide is a regular activating group the products formed are the para and ortho isomers. Heating the reaction mixture is sufficient to hydrolyze the amide back to the nitrated aniline.  In the Wolffenstein–Böters reaction, benzene reacts with nitric acid and mercury(II) nitrate to give picric acid.

Ipso nitration.

With aryl chlorides, triflates and nonaflates ipso substitution can take place as well in so-called ipso nitration. The phrase was first used by Perrin and Skinner in 1971 in an investigation into chloroanisole nitration In one protocol, 4-chloro-"n"-butylbenzene is reacted with sodium nitrite in "t"-butanol in the presence of 0.5 mol% Pd(dba), a biarylphosphine ligand and a phase-transfer catalyst to 4-nitro-"n"-butylbenzene.

In organic chemistry, nitration is a general class of chemical processes for the introduction of a nitro group into an organic compound. The term also is applied incorrectly to the different process of forming nitrate esters between alcohols and nitric acid (as occurs in the synthesis of nitroglycerin). The difference between the resulting molecular structures of nitro compounds and nitrates is that the nitrogen atom in nitro compounds is directly bonded to a non-oxygen atom (typically carbon or another nitrogen atom), whereas in nitrate esters (also called organic nitrates), the nitrogen is bonded to an oxygen atom that in turn usually is bonded to a carbon atom (nitrito group).

硝化是向有机化合物分子中引入硝基(-NO)的过程,硝基就是硝酸失去一个羟基形成的一价的基团。芳香族化合物硝化的反应机理为:硝酸的-OH基被质子化,接着被脱水剂脱去一分子的水形成硝酰正离子(nitronium ion,NO)中间体,最后和苯环行亲电芳香取代反应,并脱去一分子的氢离子。


Personal life.

Manfred Schnelldorfer was born on 2 May 1943 in Munich, Bavaria, the son of two figure skating coaches. His father had skated in an ice revue but saw its milieu as a harmful influence.  Manfred Schnelldorfer studied architecture at TH-München but put his studies on hold for financial reasons. A resident of Munich, he is married and has two children.

Career.

Competitive.

Schnelldorfer won his first competition at age eight. He was coached by his parents and skated for the Munich ERC club. Internationally, he represented the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany).  Schnelldorfer finished second behind Hans-Jürgen Bäumler at the German Junior Championships. The following year, he won the German senior title while Bäumler finished fourth.  At age 20, he won the gold medal at the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, became one of the youngest male figure skating Olympic champions. His victory was a surprise. The favorite was Alain Calmat of France, who won the Europeans between 1962 and 1964 and was silver medalist at the 1963 Worlds.  In all, Schnelldorfer was an eight-time German champion, one-time World champion (1964), three-time bronze and two-time silver medalist at the Europeans.

Post-competitive.

After his Olympic win, the Ice Capades offered Schnelldorfer a $1.5 million three-year contract but he declined because of a promise to his parents. For two years beginning in 1967, he served as the sports director, officially "national coach", of the Deutsche Eislauf Union. After his parents gave their approval, he performed with the Deutsche Eistheater from 1969 to 1973.  Schnelldorfer was also a pop singer (German: "Schlagersänger") and actor before becoming a coach and sport teacher. He was the first West German national coach for figure skating between 1974 and 1981.  Schnelldorfer owns some sport shops.

Manfred Schnelldorfer (born 2 May 1943) is a German former figure skater. He is the 1964 Olympic champion, the 1964 World champion, and an eight-time German national champion.

曼弗雷德·施内尔多费尔(,1943年-5月2日),德国花式滑冰运动员,生于巴伐利亚慕尼黑,曾获奥运与世界锦标赛冠军。


General optics.

In most areas of optics, and especially in microscopy, the numerical aperture of an optical system such as an objective lens is defined by  where is the index of refraction of the medium in which the lens is working (1.00 for air, 1.33 for pure water, and typically 1.52 for immersion oil; see also list of refractive indices), and is the maximal half-angle of the cone of light that can enter or exit the lens. In general, this is the angle of the real marginal ray in the system. Because the index of refraction is included, the NA of a pencil of rays is an invariant as a pencil of rays passes from one material to another through a flat surface. This is easily shown by rearranging Snell's law to find that is constant across an interface.  In air, the angular aperture of the lens is approximately twice this value (within the paraxial approximation). The NA is generally measured with respect to a particular object or image point and will vary as that point is moved. In microscopy, NA generally refers to object-space NA unless otherwise noted.  In microscopy, NA is important because it indicates the resolving power of a lens. The size of the finest detail that can be resolved is proportional to, where is the wavelength of the light. A lens with a larger numerical aperture will be able to visualize finer details than a lens with a smaller numerical aperture. Assuming quality (diffraction-limited) optics, lenses with larger numerical apertures collect more light and will generally provide a brighter image, but will provide shallower depth of field.  Numerical aperture is used to define the "pit size" in optical disc formats.  Increasing the magnification and the numerical aperture of the objective reduces the working distance, i.e. the distance between front lens and specimen.

Numerical aperture versus f-number.

Numerical aperture is not typically used in photography. Instead, the angular aperture of a lens (or an imaging mirror) is expressed by the f-number, written or, which is defined as the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the entrance pupil :  This ratio is related to the image-space numerical aperture when the lens is focused at infinity. Based on the diagram at the right, the image-space numerical aperture of the lens is:  thus, assuming normal use in air ().  The approximation holds when the numerical aperture is small, but it turns out that for well-corrected optical systems such as camera lenses, a more detailed analysis shows that is almost exactly equal to even at large numerical apertures. As Rudolf Kingslake explains, "It is a common error to suppose that the ratio [] is actually equal to, and not... The tangent would, of course, be correct if the principal planes were really plane. However, the complete theory of the Abbe sine condition shows that if a lens is corrected for coma and spherical aberration, as all good photographic objectives must be, the second principal plane becomes a portion of a sphere of radius centered about the focal point". In this sense, the traditional thin-lens definition and illustration of f-number is misleading, and defining it in terms of numerical aperture may be more meaningful.

Working (effective) -number.

The -number describes the light-gathering ability of the lens in the case where the marginal rays on the object side are parallel to the axis of the lens. This case is commonly encountered in photography, where objects being photographed are often far from the camera. When the object is not distant from the lens, however, the image is no longer formed in the lens's focal plane, and the -number no longer accurately describes the light-gathering ability of the lens or the image-side numerical aperture. In this case, the numerical aperture is related to what is sometimes called the "working -number" or "effective -number".  The working -number is defined by modifying the relation above, taking into account the magnification from object to image:  where is the working -number, is the lens's magnification for an object a particular distance away, is the pupil magnification, and the NA is defined in terms of the angle of the marginal ray as before. The magnification here is typically negative, and the pupil magnification is most often assumed to be 1 — as Allen R. Greenleaf explains, "Illuminance varies inversely as the square of the distance between the exit pupil of the lens and the position of the plate or film. Because the position of the exit pupil usually is unknown to the user of a lens, the rear conjugate focal distance is used instead; the resultant theoretical error so introduced is insignificant with most types of photographic lenses."  In photography, the factor is sometimes written as, where represents the absolute value of the magnification; in either case, the correction factor is 1 or greater. The two equalities in the equation above are each taken by various authors as the definition of working -number, as the cited sources illustrate. They are not necessarily both exact, but are often treated as if they are.  Conversely, the object-side numerical aperture is related to the -number by way of the magnification (tending to zero for a distant object):

Laser physics.

In laser physics, numerical aperture is defined slightly differently. Laser beams spread out as they propagate, but slowly. Far away from the narrowest part of the beam, the spread is roughly linear with distance—the laser beam forms a cone of light in the "far field". The relation used to define the NA of the laser beam is the same as that used for an optical system,  but is defined differently. Laser beams typically do not have sharp edges like the cone of light that passes through the aperture of a lens does. Instead, the irradiance falls off gradually away from the center of the beam. It is very common for the beam to have a Gaussian profile. Laser physicists typically choose to make the "divergence" of the beam: the far-field angle between the beam axis and the distance from the axis at which the irradiance drops to times the on-axis irradiance. The NA of a Gaussian laser beam is then related to its minimum spot size ("beam waist") by  where is the vacuum wavelength of the light, and is the diameter of the beam at its narrowest spot, measured between the irradiance points ("Full width at maximum of the intensity"). This means that a laser beam that is focused to a small spot will spread out quickly as it moves away from the focus, while a large-diameter laser beam can stay roughly the same size over a very long distance. See also: Gaussian beam width.

Fiber optics.

A multi-mode optical fiber will only propagate light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles, known as the acceptance cone of the fiber. The half-angle of this cone is called the acceptance angle,. For step-index multimode fiber in a given medium, the acceptance angle is determined only by the indices of refraction of the core, the cladding, and the medium: where is the refractive index of the medium around the fiber, is the refractive index of the fiber core, and is the refractive index of the cladding. While the core will accept light at higher angles, those rays will not totally reflect off the core–cladding interface, and so will not be transmitted to the other end of the fiber. The derivation of this formula is given below.  When a light ray is incident from a medium of refractive index to the core of index at the maximum acceptance angle, Snell's law at the medium–core interface gives  From the geometry of the above figure we have:  where is the critical angle for total internal reflection.  Substituting for in Snell's law we get:  By squaring both sides  Solving, we find the formula stated above:  This has the same form as the numerical aperture (NA) in other optical systems, so it has become common to "define" the NA of any type of fiber to be  where is the refractive index along the central axis of the fiber. Note that when this definition is used, the connection between the NA and the acceptance angle of the fiber becomes only an approximation. In particular, manufacturers often quote "NA" for single-mode fiber based on this formula, even though the acceptance angle for single-mode fiber is quite different and cannot be determined from the indices of refraction alone.  The number of bound modes, the mode volume, is related to the normalized frequency and thus to the NA.  In multimode fibers, the term "equilibrium numerical aperture" is sometimes used. This refers to the numerical aperture with respect to the extreme exit angle of a ray emerging from a fiber in which equilibrium mode distribution has been established.

In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless number that characterizes the range of angles over which the system can accept or emit light. By incorporating index of refraction in its definition, NA has the property that it is constant for a beam as it goes from one material to another, provided there is no refractive power at the interface. The exact definition of the term varies slightly between different areas of optics. Numerical aperture is commonly used in microscopy to describe the acceptance cone of an objective (and hence its light-gathering ability and resolution), and in fiber optics, in which it describes the range of angles within which light that is incident on the fiber will be transmitted along it.

光学系统的数值孔径(NA)是一个无量纲的数,用以衡量该系统能够收集的光的角度范围。在光学的不同领域,数值孔径的精确定义略有不同。在光学显微镜领域,数值孔径描述了物镜收光锥角的大小,而后者决定了显微镜收光能力和空间分辨率;在光纤领域,数值孔径则描述了光进出光纤时的锥角大小。


Structure.

The specialized olfactory receptor neurons of the olfactory nerve are located in the olfactory mucosa of the upper parts of the nasal cavity. The olfactory nerves consist of a collection of many sensory nerve fibers that extend from the olfactory epithelium to the olfactory bulb, passing through the many openings of the cribriform plate, a sieve-like structure of the ethmoid bone.  The sense of smell arises from the stimulation of receptors by small molecules in inspired air of varying spatial, chemical, and electrical properties that reach the nasal epithelium in the nasal cavity during inhalation. These stimulants are transduced into electrical activity in the olfactory neurons, which then transmit these impulses to the olfactory bulb and from there they reach the olfactory areas of the brain via the olfactory tract.  The olfactory nerve is the shortest of the twelve cranial nerves and, similar to the optic nerve, does not emanate from the brainstem.

Function.

The afferent nerve fibers of the olfactory receptor neurons transmit nerve impulses about odors to the central nervous system, where they are perceived as smell (olfaction).  The olfactory nerve is special visceral afferent (SVA).

Clinical significance.

Examination.

Damage to this nerve leads to impairment or total loss anosmia of the sense of smell To simply test the function of the olfactory nerve, each nostril is tested with a pungent odor. If the odor is smelled, the olfactory nerve is likely functioning. On the other hand, the nerve is only one of several reasons that could explain if the odor is not smelled. There are olfactory testing packets in which strong odors are embedded into cards and the responses of the patient to each odor can be determined.

Lesions.

Lesions to the olfactory nerve can occur because of "blunt trauma", such as coup-contrecoup damage, meningitis, and tumors of the frontal lobe of the brain. These injuries often lead to a reduced ability to taste and smell. Lesions of the olfactory nerve do not lead to a reduced ability to sense pain from the nasal epithelium. This is because pain from the nasal epithelium is not carried to the central nervous system by the olfactory nerve - it is carried to the central nervous system by the trigeminal nerve.

Aging and smell.

A decrease in the ability to smell is a normal consequence of human aging, and usually is more pronounced in men than in women. It is often unrecognized in patients except that they may note a decreased ability to taste (much of taste is actually based on reception of food odor). Some of this decrease results from repeated damage to the olfactory nerve receptors due likely to repeated upper respiratory infections. Patients with Alzheimer's disease almost always have an abnormal sense of smell when tested.

Pathway to the brain.

Some nanoparticles entering the nose are transported to the brain via olfactory nerve. This can be useful for nasal administration of medications. It can be harmful when the particles are soot or magnetite in air pollution.  In naegleriasis, "brain-eating" amoeba enter through the olfactory mucosa of the nasal tissues and follow the olfactory nerve fibers into the olfactory bulbs and then the brain.

The olfactory nerve is typically considered the first cranial nerve, or simply CN I, that contains sensory nerve fibers relating to the sense of smell.

嗅神经是第一对脑神经,编号I。 嗅神经由特殊内脏感觉纤维组成,由上鼻甲以上和鼻中隔以上部粘膜内的嗅细胞中枢突聚集而成,包括20多条嗅丝。


Etymology.

The name Omdurman ("Umm Durmān") literally translates as "Mother of Durmān", but who she was or might have been is not known.

History.

After the siege of Khartoum, now the location of the tomb of the Mahdi, the city grew rapidly. However, in the Battle of Omdurman in 1898 (which actually took place in the nearby village of Kerreri), Lord Kitchener decisively defeated the Mahdist forces and killed Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, the Khalifa, ensuring British control over the Sudan.  In September 1898 the British army of twenty thousand well drilled men equipped with the latest arms, Maxim guns and Martini-Henry rifles under the command of General Horatio Herbert Kitchener invaded Sudan. In the battle of Omdurman, the British Army faced Sudanese defenders consisting of over 52,000 poorly armed desert tribesmen dervishes; in the space of five hours the battle was over. The Sudanese defenders suffered many casualties, with at least 10,000 killed. By contrast there were fewer than four hundred casualties on the British side with forty-eight British soldiers losing their lives. Then, General Kitchener proceeded to order the destruction of the Mahdi's tomb and in the words of Winston Churchill, "carried off the Mahdi's head in a kerosene can as a trophy".  Kitchener restored Khartoum as the capital and, from 1899 until 1956 Sudan was jointly governed by Great Britain and Egypt. Although most of the city was destroyed in the battle, the Mahdi's tomb was restored and refurbished.  On 10 May 2008 the Darfur rebel group of the Justice and Equality Movement moved into the city where they engaged in heavy fighting with Sudanese government forces. Their goal was to topple Omar Hassan al-Bashir's government.

Climate.

Omdurman features a hot arid climate, with only the summer months seeing noticeable precipitation. The city averages a little over of precipitation per year. Based on annual mean temperatures, the city is one of the hottest major cities in the world. Temperatures routinely exceeds in mid-summer.  Its average annual high temperature is, with six months of the year seeing an average monthly high temperature of at least. Furthermore, throughout the year, none of its monthly average high temperatures falls below. During the months of January and February, while daytime temperatures are generally very warm, nights are relatively cool, with average low temperatures just above.

Education.

Public universities are:  Private universities are:

Airport.

Khartoum Airport serves Omdurman.  According to Sudanese officials, a new airport facility has been proposed south of Omdurman. Arguably speaking to be within the non-defined boundaries of Omdurman, the project was estimated to be completed by 2012 with an estimated budget of $530 million.

Omdurman (standard "Umm Durmān") is the most populated city in Sudan and Khartoum State, lying on the western banks of the River Nile, opposite the capital, Khartoum.

恩图曼(),又译乌姆杜尔曼,苏丹喀土穆省的一座城市,位于尼罗河西岸,与喀土穆和北喀土穆隔河相望,三地有桥梁相连。


北彭德尔顿营 (加利福尼亚州)

Geography.

Camp Pendleton North is located at (33.304869, −117.306125).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of. of it is land and of it (2.24%) is water.

Demographics.

2010.

At the 2010 census Camp Pendleton North had a population of 5,200. The population density was 574.2 people per square mile (221.7/km2). The racial makeup of Camp Pendleton North was 3,730 (71.7%) White, 501 (9.6%) African American, 83 (1.6%) Native American, 151 (2.9%) Asian, 80 (1.5%) Pacific Islander, 305 (5.9%) from other races, and 350 (6.7%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1,157 persons (22.3%).  The census reported that 3,561 people (68.5% of the population) lived in households, 1,627 (31.3%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 12 (0.2%) were institutionalized.  There were 1,069 households, 817 (76.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 921 (86.2%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 104 (9.7%) had a female householder with no husband present, 13 (1.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 7 (0.7%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 5 (0.5%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 29 households (2.7%) were one person and 1 (0.1%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 3.33. There were 1,038 families (97.1% of households); the average family size was 3.39.  The age distribution was 1,502 people (28.9%) under the age of 18, 2,376 people (45.7%) aged 18 to 24, 1,235 people (23.8%) aged 25 to 44, 76 people (1.5%) aged 45 to 64, and 11 people (0.2%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 21.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 177.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 218.2 males.  There were 1,259 housing units at an average density of 139.0 per square mile, of the occupied units 16 (1.5%) were owner-occupied and 1,053 (98.5%) were rented.The homeowner vacancy rate was 0%; the rental vacancy rate was 15.2%. 49 people (0.9% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 3,512 people (67.5%) lived in rental housing units.

2000.

At the 2000 census there were 8,197 people, 1,408 households, and 1,375 families in the CDP. The population density was 911.7 inhabitants per square mile (352.0/km2). There were 1,502 housing units at an average density of 167.1 per square mile (64.5/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 67.10% White, 10.60% African American, 1.61% Native American, 2.82% Asian, 0.34% Pacific Islander, 12.89% from other races, and 4.64% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 22.62%.  Of the 1,408 households 71.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 90.3% were married couples living together, 5.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 2.3% were non-families. 1.7% of households were one person and none had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 3.15 and the average family size was 3.15.  The age distribution was 20.1% under the age of 18, 60.2% from 18 to 24, 18.5% from 25 to 44, and 1.2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 21 years. For every 100 females, there were 226.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 294.9 males.  The median household income was $28,558 and the median family income was $28,942. Males had a median income of $14,486 versus $16,907 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $13,085. About 8.6% of families and 9.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.4% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.

Government.

In the California State Legislature, Camp Pendleton North is in, and in.  In the United States House of Representatives, Camp Pendleton North is in.

Camp Pendleton North is a census-designated place (CDP) in San Diego County, California, located at the southeast corner of the Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton. It is "relatively" north to the CDP Camp Pendleton South. The population was 5,200 at the 2010 census, down from 8,197 at the 2000 census.

北彭德尔顿营(英语:Camp Pendleton North)是位于美国加利福尼亚州圣地亚哥县的一个人口普查指定地区。


Gameplay.

The "Noctis" galaxy, Feltyrion, is approximately 90 thousand light-years in radius, approximately double the radius of the Milky Way Galaxy. With the exception of landing on some world types (being gas giants, Substellar Objects, and unstable worlds), this galaxy is entirely open to be explored. Billions of worlds can be explored despite the program's relatively small size, due to its content being generated on the fly. The Noctis universe contains several types of planets and 12 types of stars, noted in-game with an S in front of the number of the star.

History.

The Italian programmer Alessandro Ghignola began creating "Noctis" in 1996. "Noctis" versions I-IV were written in C and Assembly. Ghignola worked also on a new version (to be released as "Noctis V") in his original low-level programming language, called Linoleum.  "Noctis I" through "III", still available on the AnywhereBB website, contain features that were abandoned with later releases.

"Noctis IV", "NICE".

"Noctis" was originally based on DOS and uses a fixed display resolution of 320 x 200, and an upper limit imposed on the walking distance from a planetary landing site. (This does not restrict the player's ability to explore the planet, because they can freely take off and land elsewhere.) These limitations do not apply to the Noctis galaxy because it contains over 78 billion stars, most of which host many planets and moons orbiting them.  The current version of the game is called Noctis IV. In the release of "Noctis IV", Ghignola included a facility to have planet names and notes sent back to him and then compiled into a central database of information called the GUIDE. People playing the simulator (also called Stardrifters) could then share their findings with others, and a community of explorers soon developed (on the Noctis forums) around that, vying for a wide range of discoveries, such as the planetary system with the most planets or the biggest tree in the "Noctis" universe. This is the only way to interact with other players, since "Noctis", being a single-player game (not including other Stardrifters summoned in the game, which are NPCs), has a protagonist who does not speak.  For some time Ghignola regularly compiled a new GUIDE based on emailed submissions of players of their "Outbox" and allowed the compilation to be downloaded as an "Inbox". While the GUIDE has not been updated for several years since 2005, since December 2008 the service has been restored again. A more automatic system of "massively single-player" content sharing is used in 2008's Spore.  The source code for "Noctis IV" was released to the public in 2003 under the WTOF Public License, which has led to the creation of a fan-made "mod" to the game called "Noctis IV CE" (commonly abbreviated "NICE"). "NICE" includes bug fixes and additional features which increase the playability compared to Noctis IV. The terrain generation code has also been altered in the "NICE" version, which means that remarks made in the "Noctis IV" GUIDE are largely invalid for "NICE".

Future version ("Noctis V").

A future version of "Noctis" (tentatively named Noctis V or Noctis NoVa) is currently under development. Development of the project began on 11 October 2001. Noctis V (sometimes abbreviated as NoVa) promises to relieve the restrictions of the current Noctis platform, as described above. This is because the new version of Noctis is being developed in Linoleum (which Ghignola has developed himself), a low-level programming language that is currently being shaped to better suit Noctis. To paraphrase the official Noctis webpage: Linoleum and Noctis have evolved together. However, this also results in a slowdown of the program's development.  Screenshots and details have been revealed by the developer and it is thought that the rendering engine has been completely redone from scratch, Ghignola first having attempted to simply translate the Noctis IV engine into Linoleum, before giving up and rewriting it. Ghignola has also mentioned experimenting with weather and particle effects, possibly things like snow and dust storms.  There is no set release date for "Noctis V", but Ghignola has repeatedly assured the game community that he has not given up on the project, and has no intention of doing so. The most recent assurance was in a May 9, 2012 interview with Videogame Porpourri, where Ghignola stated "["Noctis V"] keeps living in a corner of my mind, on a sort of unwritten post-it note. But it's there, ready to strike as soon as it gets an opportunity to incarnate."

Reception.

The game gained popularity in early 2000 after receiving a very favourable review in Home of the Underdogs's list of worthwhile free games. "Noctis" earned a score of 9.43 out of 10 as well as the site's "Top Dog" award. The reviewer noted amongst other things the magnitude of the galaxy to explore and the total size of the simulator, which is less than one megabyte. An in-detail article of The Escapist's Phillip Scuderi noted the philosophical depth of Noctis in 2006.

Noctis (Latin for "of night") is a computer space flight simulator featuring first-person visual exploration of an imaginary galaxy.

Noctis(取自拉丁语 “夜”之意)是一个开源的太空模拟游戏。此游戏最引人注目的特点与其小巧的体积(小于1MB)相比,它可以构造出一个完全虚拟的星系,让玩家在其中畅游。


格伦阿旺 (加利福尼亚州)

Geography.

Glen Avon is located at (34.017313, -117.491855).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of, of which, of it is land and of it (0.43%) is water.

History.

Established as a subdivision of West Riverside by the Riverside Development Company, it received the name Glen Avon Heights in 1909.

Incorporation into the City of Jurupa Valley.

On March 8, 2011, voters passed Measure A by a 54.03% YES vote, incorporating the areas of Mira Loma, Pedley, Rubidoux, Glen Avon, and Sunnyslope into the new city Jurupa Valley. The effective date of incorporation was July 1, 2011.

Demographics.

2010.

The 2010 United States Census reported that Glen Avon had a population of 20,199. The population density was 2,483.4 people per square mile (958.9/km2). The racial makeup of Glen Avon was 10,272 (50.9%) White, 805 (4.0%) African American, 216 (1.1%) Native American, 462 (2.3%) Asian, 34 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 7,567 (37.5%) from other races, and 843 (4.2%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13,766 persons (68.2%).  The Census reported that 20,101 people (99.5% of the population) lived in households, 24 (0.1%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 74 (0.4%) were institutionalized.  There were 5,761 households, out of which 2,614 (45.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 2,917 (50.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 795 (13.8%) had a female householder with no husband present, 505 (8.8%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 406 (7.0%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 39 (0.7%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 1,279 households (22.2%) were made up of individuals and 653 (11.3%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.49. There were 4,217 families (73.2% of all households); the average family size was 4.06.  The population was spread out with 6,055 people (30.0%) under the age of 18, 2,238 people (11.1%) aged 18 to 24, 5,282 people (26.1%) aged 25 to 44, 4,586 people (22.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 2,038 people (10.1%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.5 males.  There were 6,203 housing units at an average density of 762.6 per square mile (294.5/km2), of which 3,101 (53.8%) were owner-occupied, and 2,660 (46.2%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.6%; the rental vacancy rate was 7.4%. 12,244 people (60.6% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 7,857 people (38.9%) lived in rental housing units.

2000.

As of the census of 2000, there were 14,853 people, 4,740 households, and 3,242 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 2,012.0 people per square mile (777.1/km2). There were 4,936 housing units at an average density of 668.6 per square mile (258.2/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 60.8% White, 3.8% Black or African American, 1.5% Native American, 2.2% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 27.1% from other races, and 4.3% from two or more races. 47.2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 4,740 households out of which 36.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.6% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.6% were non-families. 27.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.1 and the average family size was 3.8.  In the CDP the population was spread out with 30.8% under the age of 18, 9.2% from 18 to 24, 27.4% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 11.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $37,152, and the median income for a family was $43,664. Males had a median income of $30,925 versus $23,927 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $14,943. About 13.6% of families and 17.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.9% of those under age 18 and 12.5% of those age 65 or over.

Government.

In the California State Legislature, Glen Avon is in, and in.  In the United States House of Representatives, Glen Avon is in.

Glen Avon was a census-designated place (CDP) in Riverside County, California, United States. The population was 20,199 at the 2010 census, up from 14,853 at the 2000 census. On July 1, 2011, the CDP became part of the City of Jurupa Valley.

格伦阿旺(英语:Glen Avon)是位于美国加利福尼亚州河滨县的一个人口普查指定地区。