History.

World War II.

The European Theater of Operations, United States Army (ETOUSA) was a Theater Army responsible for directing United States Army operations throughout the European Theater of Operations (ETO) from 1942 to 1945. It commanded Army Ground Forces, United States Army Air Forces, and Army Service Forces operations north of Italy and the Mediterranean coast, in the European Theater of World War II. It was bordered to the south by the North African Theater of Operations, US Army (NATOUSA), which later became the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTOUSA).  The term "theater of operations" was defined in the US Army field manuals as "the land and sea areas to be invaded or defended, including areas necessary for administrative activities incident to the military operations". In accordance with the experience of World War I, it was usually conceived of as a large land mass over which continuous operations would take place and was divided into two chief areas-the combat zone, or the area of active fighting, and the Communications Zone, or area required for administration of the theater. As the armies advanced, both these zones and the areas into which they were divided would shift forward to new geographic areas of control.  Seventh United States Army was the first U.S. Field Army to see combat during the Second World War and was activated at sea when the I Armored Corps under the command of Lt. General George Patton was redesignated on 10 July 1943. The Seventh Army landed on several beaches in southern Sicily and captured the city of Palermo on 22 July and along with the Eighth British Army captured Messina on 16 August. During the fighting, the elements of the Seventh Army killed or captured over 113,000 enemy soldiers. The Headquarters elements of the Seventh Army remained relatively inactive at Palermo, Sicily, and Algiers, North Africa, until January 1944 when Lt. General Alexander Patch was assigned as commander and the Army began planning for the invasion of southern France.  The invasion was originally given the code name of Operation ANVIL but was changed to Operation Dragoon before the landing. In March 1944, Lt. General Alexander Patch was assigned to command the Army which moved to Naples, Italy, the following July. On 15 August 1944, Seventh Army units assaulted the beaches of southern France in the St. Tropez and Saint-Raphaël area. Within one month, the Army employing three American Divisions, five French Divisions, and the First Airborne Task Force had advanced 400 miles and had joined with the Normandy forces. In the process, the Seventh Army had liberated Marseilles, Lyon, Toulon, and all of Southern France.  Seventh Army then assaulted the German forces in the Vosges Mountains, broke into the Alsatian Plain, and reached the Rhine River after capturing the city of Strasbourg. During the Battle of the Bulge, the Seventh Army extended its flanks to take over much of the Third Army area which allowed the Third to relieve surrounded U.S. forces at Bastogne. Along with the First French Army, the Seventh went on the offensive in February 1945 and eliminated the enemy pocket in the Colmar area. The Seventh then went into the Saar River valley, crossed the Rhine, captured Nuremberg and Munich, crossed the Brenner Pass, and made contact with the Fifth Army – once again on Italian soil. In less than nine months of continuous fighting, the Seventh had advanced over 1,000 miles and for varying times had commanded 24 American and Allied Divisions, including the 36th, 42nd, 44th, 45th, 63rd,70th, 103rd, and 105th.  When the war ended in Europe on 8 May 1945, the ETOUSA headquarters was located in Versailles, France, just outside Paris. As Eisenhower and his staff began to prepare for the occupation of Germany, the ETOUSA headquarters staff moved to Frankfurt, Germany, and co-located with the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Forces and the Office of Military Government, United States. ETOUSA was redesignated Headquarters, United States Forces European Theater (HQ USFET) on 1 July 1945, with its headquarters remaining at Frankfurt. At the end of the war, the total U.S. Army strength in Europe was 2.4 million: two Army groups (6th and 12th), five field armies (First, Third, Seventh, Sixth and Ninth), 13 corps headquarters, and 62 combat divisions (43 infantry, 16 armor, and 3 airborne) as well as 11,000 tanks and armored fighting vehicles. Within a year rapid redeployments had brought the occupation forces down to fewer than 290,000 personnel, and many of the larger formations had departed or been inactivated. Seventh Army headquarters remained in control of the western portion of the American zone, and Third Army controlled the eastern portion. In November 1945, the two field army commanders organized district "constabularies" based on cavalry groups, and on 1 May 1946, the zone-wide U.S. Constabulary headquarters was activated at Bamberg. From then until the early 1950s, the structure of the American occupation forces consisted of the 1st Infantry Division, a separate infantry regiment, and the U.S. Constabulary of 10 cavalry regiments. Seventh Army was inactivated in March 1946, in Germany, reactivated for a short time at Atlanta, Georgia, and assigned to the Regular Army with headquarters at Vaihingen, Germany, in November 1950.

Cold War.

On 15 March 1947, HQ USFET was formally redesignated Headquarters, European Command (HQ EUCOM) (not to be confused with the present joint command, "USEUCOM", which was formed on 1 August 1952), and between February and June 1948 the headquarters relocated to Campbell Barracks in Heidelberg, where it remained until June 2013. The Army element of the joint European Command headquarters was initially called Headquarters, U.S. Ground and Service Forces, Europe; on 15 November 1947 that designation was changed to Headquarters, United States Army, Europe (USAREUR). On 24 November 1950 EUCOM activated HHC Seventh Army at Stuttgart to take over the command of the ground and service forces from USAREUR, while other USAREUR functions revert to EUCOM. General Eddy became CG of Seventh Army. HQ USAREUR continued to exist, without troops, to fulfilled certain legal requirements in connection with court-martial and other responsibilities.  As noted, on 15 November 1947, U.S. Ground and Service Forces, Europe, was renamed Headquarters, United States Army Europe (HQ USAREUR) to accord with the new Department of the Army nomenclature for such commands. USAREUR was a nonoperational organization that provides the ground and service commander with the command functions required for administrative and logistical support. To it were assigned all ground and service units in the command except those assigned to the Office of Military Government, United States; to the Office of the Commander in Chief of European Command; to U.S. Air Forces Europe; to the U.S. Navy, Germany; and to a few exempted War Department agencies. The offices and personnel of the general and special staff divisions of EUCOM headquarters performed USAREUR's general and special staff duties. The principal function of the commanding general of USAREUR became the establishment and maintenance of high standards of discipline. General Huebner also became Commanding General, USAREUR.  On 1 August 1952 the previous "European Command", with headquarters remaining in Heidelberg under the temporary command of General Thomas T. Handy was redesignated Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Army Europe. Also on 1 August 1952, Headquarters, USEUCOM was established in Frankfurt with Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway as commander and Gen. Handy as deputy commander (Gen. Handy wore two hats for a while). The Berlin Blockade began 24 June 1948 when the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway and road access to the sectors of Berlin under Allied control. Even though Allied forces in the city were outnumbered 50–1, General Lucius D. Clay, in charge of the US Occupation Zone in Germany, gave the order for the Berlin Airlift. Headquartered out of Wiesbaden Army Airfield, the Allies supplied almost 9,000 tons per day of supplies to the beleaguered city until the blockade was lifted on 12 May 1949.  From 1948 to 1950, the Cold War began to warm, and the outbreak of hostilities in Korea heightened East-West tensions in Europe. Seventh Army was reactivated at Stuttgart in late November 1950. The two U.S. Army division sized units in the U.S. Occupation Zone of Germany, the First Infantry Division and the U.S. Constabulary, were assigned to the Seventh Army. Within a few weeks other assignments to Seventh Army included the V and VII Corps. Due to President Truman's 10 December 1950 Declaration of a National Emergency as a result of circumstances in the Korean War (the war began in June 1950), four CONUS based U.S. Army divisions were alerted to move to the U.S. Occupation Zone of Germany (these divisions were known as the augmentation force to the U.S. Army in Europe). A main concern was possible Soviet attempts to "take advantage" due to their numerical superiority in Germany during the Korean War. The first augmentation division to arrive overseas in Germany was the 4th Infantry Division in May 1951, followed by the 2nd Armored Division and the 43rd and 28th Infantry Divisions during summer and fall of 1951.  A new joint United States European Command (USEUCOM) was established in Frankfurt, Germany on 1 August 1952. On that day, the Army headquarters at Heidelberg, formerly known as EUCOM, became Headquarters, United States Army, Europe. As Cold War tensions continued to escalate in 1952, General Williston B. Palmer commanding the 2nd Armored Division authorized the founding of the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra in Vaihingen-Stuttgart under the direction of Samuel Adler in support of America's cultural diplomacy initiatives throughout Europe. In 1953, the Korean War Armistice was signed, and tensions began to ease in Europe. About 13,500 soldiers manned each of the USAREUR divisions. New equipment fielded at the time included the M48 tank, the M59 armored personnel carrier, and tactical nuclear weapons. On 15 July 1958 USAREUR forces were ordered to assist the Lebanese government. Task Force 201, the Army component of Operation Blue Bat rapidly deployed more than 8,000 Soldiers from Europe to Beirut by air and sea. As the situation quickly stabilized, all U.S. forces redeployed from the country within 4 months.  Although the Korean War – open East–West conflict – had ended, political tensions remained high in Europe. Particularly troublesome was the impasse over the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany, the former British, French and U.S. zones of occupation) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany, the former Soviet zone of occupation). East Germany [the DDR] was considered by many countries over the years to be nothing more than the Soviet Zone of Occupation; this changed in 1973 with the UN recognition of both Germanies. Berlin posed an additional problem; it was surrounded by East Germany, but Great Britain, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union all occupied sectors in the city. In the early years, travel between the sectors was unrestricted. At the time Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev announced in June 1961 that the Soviet Union was planning to conclude a peace treaty with the East German government, 3,000 East German refugees flowed daily into Berlin.  Suddenly on the night of 12 August 1961, the Soviets closed the border crossing points and began to construct the Berlin Wall, isolating the three western sectors of the city both from East Germany and the Soviet sector, or East Berlin. In response, the United States deployed an additional armored cavalry regiment to Europe, along with additional support units. USAREUR strength reached a post-World War II high of 277,342 in June 1962 as the crisis deepened. That 1946–1991 Cold War maximum USAREUR troop record gradually reduced over time. The command dispatched a reinforced infantry battle group to Berlin to strengthen the existing garrison. The nuclear armed USAREUR did not go to DEFCON 3 during 22 Oct to 20 November 1962 Cuban Crisis due to political reasons. All other US Forces worldwide were at DEFCON 3 per JFK's 22 October speech and direction to the Pentagon; SAC went to DEFCON 2.  The crisis cooled in Berlin from 1962 to 1963, and augmenting forces returned to the United States. Equipment modernization programs during this period included the M113 armored personnel carrier, the M14 rifle, the M60 machine gun, the OV-1 fixed wing observation aircraft, the UH-1B Huey helicopter, the M151 MUTT truck, and the M60 Patton tank. In late 1963 Operation BIG LIFT tested the use of prepositioned equipment through redeployment of the 2nd Armored Division to Europe via a single airlift.  On 1 December 1966, the separate Seventh Army headquarters was eliminated, and HQ USAREUR became Headquarters and Headquarters Company, U.S. Army Europe and Seventh Army. At the same time, France withdrew from the military structure of NATO, and U.S. forces were withdrawn from France. The communications zone headquarters moved from Orleans, France, to Worms, Germany, (and later to Kaiserslautern, where as 21st Theater Support Command it remains today). USEUCOM moved to Stuttgart.  The first Redeployment of Forces from Germany took place in 1968, with the removal of about 28,000 military personnel from Germany. The units and personnel withdrawn remained committed to NATO and during REFORGER I – Return of Forces to Germany – conducted in January 1969, more than 12,000 soldiers returned to Germany for an exercise using pre-positioned equipment.  In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the needs of the war in Vietnam reduced USAREUR's assigned strength, sometimes drastically. As the war began to wane, forces began to return to Europe, and USAREUR adopted a new system based upon the community commander concept. In 1974, efforts to streamline the headquarters resulted in the termination of the U.S. Theater Army Support Command, and its replacement by a smaller organization, the 21st Theater Army Area Command, now known as 21st TSC.  In the 1970s, USAREUR continued to improve its firepower when it received the new M16A1 rifle, the TOW anti-tank weapon, the OH-58 Kiowa observation helicopter, and the AH-1G Cobra helicopter.  During the 1970s, force protection concerns grew as Palestinian groups brazenly conducted terror operations in Europe, such as the kidnapping of Israeli athletes during the 1972 Munich Olympics, and the Red Army Faction and the Red Brigades targeted U.S. facilities and personnel with bombings, kidnapping and assassinations. In May 1972 bombs exploded at V Corps headquarters in Frankfurt, killing an Army lieutenant colonel, and in Heidelberg at Campbell Barracks, killing three Soldiers. U.S. installations were attacked sporadically throughout the remainder of the decade, including a failed 1977 attack on a U.S. Army post in Giessen. On 15 September 1982, an assassination attempt was made on USAREUR commander Gen. Frederick J. Kroesen and his wife as they were driving through Heidelberg—the automobile trunk lid deflected the RPG-7 anti-tank projectile. In 1985 Army Specialist Edward Pimental was lured out of a Wiesbaden nightclub and killed for his ID card which was then used to enter Rhein-Main Air Base the next day to plant a bomb that killed two. And in 1986 a bombing at a Berlin disco frequented by service members killed two Soldiers.  With increased combat and support components in place, the command undertook a wide-ranging modernization in the decade of the 1980s. More than 400 new systems were introduced, including individual weapons, field rations, the M1A1 Abrams tank, the M2 and M3 Bradley series of infantry and cavalry fighting vehicles, the MLRS M270 multiple launch rocket system, the MIM-104 Patriot air defense system, the UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter and the AH-64A Apache helicopter.  In January 1967, in accordance with Headquarters Department of the Army Msg NR DA796059 dated 9 January 1967, the USAREUR and Seventh Army staffs were merged to become Headquarters and Headquarters Company, United States Army Europe and Seventh Army (HHC USAREUR 7A).

Changes of the 1990s.

The dramatic events of the late 1980s – the opening of the Berlin Wall, German reunification, and the collapse of the Soviet Union – combined to change USAREUR again. Intermediate nuclear weapons of the 56th Field Artillery Command were withdrawn, chemical weapons were moved out of Europe, and units began to depart the European continent while others were inactivated.  When Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, USAREUR began deploying units to the region. The first deployments from USAREUR to Saudi Arabia in August 1990 included the 45th Medical Company, an element of the 421st Medical Battalion (AA), and advance elements of 12th Aviation Brigade, which by September had deployed two Apache attack helicopter battalions, a Kiowa scout helicopter company, a Black Hawk utility helicopter company, a Chinook platoon, and associated support and maintenance units. These were quickly followed by intelligence specialists, chemical warfare experts, logistical personnel, many individual replacements, and finally almost the entire VII Corps.  The command eventually deployed more than 75,000 personnel plus 1,200 tanks, 1,700 armored combat vehicles, more than 650 pieces of artillery, and more than 325 aircraft. When the war ended, many USAREUR soldiers remained to complete the logistical cleanup; others were deployed to northern Iraq or Turkey as part of Operation Provide Comfort to aid refugees. Upon their return to Europe, many also found that their units were in the process of either relocating to the Continental United States or inactivating. In 1992 alone, about 70,000 soldiers redeployed to CONUS with about 90,000 family members. The command shrank from 213,000 soldiers in 1990 to 122,000 in 1992. VII Corps was inactivated. From 858 installations in 1990, USAREUR went down to only 415 in 1993 with more scheduled to close in the years ahead.  After the Gulf War and the subsequent drawdowns, USAREUR faced a wholly different challenge in Europe. The command was engaged in humanitarian support operations, to include disaster relief and rescue and recovery, peacekeeping and non-combatant evacuations. Between 1990 and 1993 the command supported 42 deployments, which involved a total of 95,579 personnel.  Conflict in the Balkans quickly became one of the United States Department of Defense's primary areas of focus, and peace enforcement in Bosnia was a harbinger of future military operations. From 1990 to 1995 USAREUR conducted mostly humanitarian operations in the area. In October 1992, USAREUR sent the 212th Mobile Army Surgical Hospital and personnel from the 7th Medical Command to Zagreb, Croatia to provide medical support for United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) casualties. Throughout 1993–1995, USAREUR's 5th Quartermaster Company, in conjunction with U.S. Air Forces in Europe, delivered humanitarian aid to the region.  In June 1993, the command formed Task Force Able Sentry in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia with the headquarters at Camp Able Sentry near the capital Skopje. These forces, along with personnel from 26 other countries, were originally part of the UNPROFOR which in 1995 became the U.N. Preventative Deployment force (UNPREDEP) deterring the spread of armed conflict. Upon expiration of the initial UN mandate in February 1999, USAREUR renamed the U.S. Army organization Task Force Sabre, with the task to protect U.S. facilities and equipment. They were relieved in June 1999 by the U.S. national support element to KFOR-Task Force Falcon (Rear). U.S. Soldiers left Camp Able Sentry in 2002, but it remained as a contractor operated logistics base until Aug. 2004 when all U.S. personnel departed and NATO assumed control of the camp.  In Bosnia-Herzegovina, after the Dayton Peace Accords were reached in Nov. 1995, USAREUR's 1st Armored Division began deploying there in December, with the first C-130 landing in Tuzla, Bosnia, 2 Dec, and the first trains departing Germany 8 Dec.. One major barrier to the deployment of the 1st Armored Division was the bridge over the Sava River, which was destroyed during the four-year civil war. Construction of the longest assault float bridge in military history, 620 meters long, ribbon float (pontoon) bridge between Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina began on 22 Dec.. Despite melting snow that flooded the river and later, freezing temperatures, the bridge was completed on 31 Dec and the first M1A1 Abrams tank crossed the bridge at 10 am. The division, along with many reserve component support troops, formed Task Force Eagle as part of the NATO-led Implementation Force (IFOR) (also known as Operation Joint Endeavor) with the mission to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement, enforce the cease-fire, supervise the marking of boundaries and the zone of separation between the former warring factions, and enforce the withdrawal of the combatants to their barracks and the movement of heavy weapons to storage sites. It was the first time a NATO sponsored force had deployed operationally outside the NATO boundaries. IFOR was succeeded in Dec. 1996 by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) (Operation Joint Guard) whose mission was to deter renewed hostilities. On 20 June 1998 the mission was renamed Operation Joint Forge, and USAREUR continued to serve as the ASCC providing oversight for the mission. On 24 November 2004, Task Force Eagle officially disestablished and closed its base in Tuzla, with European Union forces assuming responsibility for the Bosnia mission.  In early 1999, in response to growing ethnic tensions in Kosovo and military and paramilitary forces in daily conflict resulting in the more than 1,500 Kosovar Albanian deaths and 400,000 refugees, USAREUR formed Task Force Falcon, with the 1st Infantry Division as the core element. On 9 June 1999, after an inconclusive air campaign, Task Force Falcon deployed forces in the largest combined air-rail-sea-road movement since Operation Desert Storm, entering Kosovo on 12 June 1999, as part of Operation Joint Guardian, a NATO-led peacekeeping force with a UN mandate to separate warring factions, oversee the withdrawal of Serb forces and interdict the flow of arms to insurgents. On 17 February 2008, the Kosovo Assembly declared Kosovo independent. Currently, the U.S. Army, with approx. 800 Soldiers, has the lead for Multinational Battle Group East (MNBG-E) in the eastern region, headquartered near Uroševac at Camp Bondsteel as part of KFOR. Contributing nations include Greece, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, and Ukraine. The majority of U.S. Soldiers come from U.S. Army National Guard units, with a different state taking over the lead for each rotation of approximately nine months.

War on Terror.

The 11 September 2001 attacks did not directly affect the Seventh Army. However, the campaign in Iraq in 2003 did. The headquarters of V Corps was deployed to Iraq, as did 173rd Airborne Brigade, and after the campaign, 1st Armored Division followed for occupation duties. With parts of 1st Infantry Division also deployed in Iraq, and others on peacekeeping duties in the Balkans, Seventh Army was virtually stripped of combat formations. The return of 173rd Brigade, V Corps and 1st Armored Division in early 2004 was followed by the deployment of the rest of 1st Infantry Division for occupation duties. V Corps began a rotational deployment in 2009 in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom.  The U.S. Army's reorganization plans from 2005 called for the formation's major subordinate units – 1st Armored Division and 1st Infantry Division – to be relocated to the continental United States – Fort Bliss, Texas, and Fort Riley, Kansas, respectively. The 2nd Stryker Cavalry Regiment, converted to a Stryker Brigade, and the 12th Aviation Brigade, replaced them. Seventh Army, having been merged with US Army Europe since 1967, remained merged, as was confirmed with the release of unit designations for the modular force in mid 1996. HQ USAREUR and V Corps were slated to merge and the process started until the decision was made to retain a Corps Headquarters within USAREUR, and V Corps was once again separated from HQ USAREUR. Since that time it was decided that V Corps would deactivate after a final deployment to Afghanistan which is ongoing.  In September 2005, it was expected that the finalised force in Europe would consist of USAREUR HQ, V Corps, aviation and combat service support, and two maneuver brigades: the 2nd Cavalry Regiment in Vilseck, Germany, the 173rd Airborne Brigade, which will eventually expand to three airborne battalions, in Italy. Joint Task Force East provided from forces rotating from continental United States though bases in Bulgaria and Romania, was initially intended to be provided by a rotating US-based brigade. Two bases at Constanța, Romania were developed, apparently with the main facility at Mihail Kogălniceanu Airfield. Initially however, Joint Task Force East was to have been provided by a rotational 2nd Cavalry Regiment Stryker squadron. The Task Force was originally planned to be called the Eastern Europe Task Force. However, since the stresses of the Iraq and Afghan deployments, the army provision of Joint Task Force East has been replaced by a Marine force known as the Black Sea Rotational Force.  From 2008 to 2012–13, the two to three brigades listed above were augmented by the 170th Infantry Brigade and the 172nd Infantry Brigade,'reflagged' former V Corps/1st Armored Division formations. Thus from 2008 to 2013, the force will consist of two heavy brigades combat teams, the 2nd Stryker Cavalry Regiment, and the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team.  Nearly forty years later, Army Campaign Plan DP 58 (circa 2006) effectively dropped the Seventh Army title. Decisions that took effect in 2006 stated that the official designation would be Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion, United States Army Europe. The organization perpetuates the lineage and honors of the Seventh Army and authorized the display and wear of appropriate Seventh Army heraldic items.  On 25 October 2009, in a ceremony at the Parade Field on Daenner Kaserne, the 7th US Army Reserve Command, United States Army Reserve, was inactivated and redesignated the 7th Civil Support Command. In September 2015 the 7th CSC became the 7th Mission Support Command.  On 26 January 2012, Chief of Staff of the United States Army General Raymond Odierno announced that two Army heavy infantry brigades would be withdrawn from Europe and inactivated. As the 170th Brigade was one of only two such heavy infantry brigades in Europe at the time, it was believed that it was one of the units slated to be inactivated in the wake of large cuts in the U.S. defense budget The 170th Infantry Brigade at Baumholder was deactivated on 9 October 2012.  In 2013, further reductions of U.S. forces in Europe were announced, that would reduce U.S. Army Europe to 30,000 soldiers in two brigade combat teams. These reductions include unit deactivations and facilities closures at Warner Barracks, Bamberg and Schweinfurt. Military police units were reduced: 202nd MP Group and the 1002nd MP Battalion were disbanded on 24 June 2013. In February 2013, it was announced that V Corps would be inactivated in June 2013. In a ceremony on 12 June 2013, V Corps was awarded the Army Superior Unit Award and Meritorious Unit Citation and formally inactivated. In April 2013, the last of U.S. Army's main battle tanks left Europe due to the departure of the U.S. Army's last two Germany-based heavy brigades: the 170th Infantry out of Baumholder and the 172nd Infantry Brigade at Grafenwöhr.

Subordinate units.

All units, except when noted otherwise, are based in Germany.

United States Army Europe (USAREUR) is an Army Service Component Command (ASCC)/Theater Army responsible for directing United States Army operations throughout the U.S. European Command (EUCOM) Area of Responsibility (AOR). During the Cold War, it supervised ground formations primarily focused upon the Warsaw Pact to the east as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation's (NATO) Central Army Group (CENTAG). Since 1989, it has greatly reduced its size, dispatched U.S. forces to Southwest Asia, Kosovo, the and increased security cooperation with other NATO land forces.

美国欧洲陆军(英语:United States Army Europe,USAREUR),又称美国欧洲陆军暨第七军团(英语:United States Army Europe and Seventh Army),又译为美国驻欧陆军,是美国陆军的陆军服务组成司令部,美国欧洲司令部的组成部分。负责指挥美国陆军在欧洲、俄罗斯、格陵兰等地的行动。


Kino (影视编辑软件)

Features.

Kino can import raw DV-AVI and DV files, as well as capture footage from digital camcorders using the raw1394 and dv1394 libraries. It can also import (as well as export) multiple still frames as JPEG, PNG, TIFF, PPM, and others image file types. Kino has the ability to export to camcorders using the ieee1394 or video1394 libraries. Kino can also export audio as WAV, Ogg Vorbis, MP3 using LAME, or MP2. Using FFmpeg, Kino can export audio/video as MPEG-1, MPEG-2, and MPEG-4 and is integrated with DVD Video authoring utilities.  Some features included in version 1.3.4 include: capture from FireWire cameras, fast and frame-accurate navigation/scrubbing, vi keybindings, storyboard view with drag-n-drop, trimmer with 3 point insert editing, fine-grain thumbnail viewer, support for jog shuttle USB devices, drag-n-drop from file manage, Undo/Redo up to 99X.  Kino provides a range of audio and video effects and transitions. Audio effects include silence, fade in/out, gain envelope, dub (from file), mix (from file), and crossfading support. Video effects include black/white, sepia tone, multiple color balance and masking tools, reverse (i.e. inverse or negative), mirror, kaleidescope, swap (flip), fade to/from black, blur (triangle), soft focus, titler and pixelate. Transitions include fade to/from color dissolve, push wipe, barn door wipe, color differences, and extensible wipes with numerous common SMPTE wipes (box, bar, diagonal, barn door, clock, matrix, four box, iris, and checkerboard).

Reception.

In reviewing Kino 1.3.4 in January 2012 Terry Hancock of Free Software Magazine found that the application was only suitable for simple or very limited video editing tasks. He praised its simplicity and ease-of-learning even for users new to video editing, but criticized its lack of multi-track capabilities and described the process of adding background music or synchronizing new sounds as "laborious". He concluded: "I'd say it was basically up to editing home movies to get rid of the boring parts. I've also found it useful for mining old public-domain videos from the Internet Archive to extract useful snippets of video. This, plus its ease of use, make it a valuable niche application, but certainly not for any serious video project."

Kino was a free software GTK+-based video editing software application for Linux and other Unix-like operating systems. The development of Kino was started at the end of 2000 by Dan Dennedy and Arne Schirmacher. The project's aim was: ""Easy and reliable DV editing for the Linux desktop with export to many usable formats."" The program supported many basic and detailed audio/video editing and assembling tasks.


History.

HBOS was formed by a merger of Halifax and Bank of Scotland in 2001, Halifax having demutualised and floated four years prior.

HBOS Group Reorganisation Act 2006.

In 2006, HBOS secured the passing of the HBOS Group Reorganisation Act 2006, a private Act of Parliament that rationalised the bank's corporate structure. The act allowed HBOS to make the Governor and Company of the Bank of Scotland a public limited company, Bank of Scotland plc, which became the principal banking subsidiary of HBOS. Halifax plc transferred its undertakings to Bank of Scotland plc, and although the brand name was retained, Halifax then began to operate under the latter's UK banking licence.  The provisions in the Act were implemented on 17 September 2007.  The share price peaked at over 1150p in February 2007.

2008 short selling and credit crunch.

In 2004, Paul Moore, HBOS head of Group Regulatory Risk, warned senior directors at HBOS about excessive risk-taking. He was dismissed, and his concerns not acted on.  In March 2008, HBOS shares fell 17 percent amid false rumours that it had asked the Bank of England for emergency funding. The Financial Services Authority conducted an investigation as to whether short selling had any links with the rumours. It concluded that there was no deliberate attempt to drive the share price down.  On 17 September 2008, very shortly after the demise of Lehman Brothers, HBOS's share price suffered wild fluctuations between 88p and 220p per share, despite the FSA's assurances as to its liquidity and exposure to the wider credit crunch.  However, later that day, the BBC reported that HBOS was in advanced takeover talks with Lloyds TSB to create a "superbank" with 38 million customers. That was later confirmed by HBOS. The BBC suggested that shareholders would be offered up to £3.00 per share, causing the share price to rise, but later retracted that comment. Later that day, the price was set at 0.83 Lloyds shares for each HBOS share, equivalent to 232p per share, which was less than the 275p price at which HBOS had raised funds earlier in 2008. The price was later altered to 0.605 Lloyds shares per HBOS share.  To avoid another Northern Rock-style collapse, the UK government announced that should the takeover go ahead, it would be allowed to bypass competition law.  Alex Salmond, Scotland's First Minister, previously an economist, said of the takeover: "I am very angry that we can have a situation where a bank can be forced into a merger by basically a bunch of short-selling spivs and speculators in the financial markets." Vince Cable, the Liberal Democrats' economic spokesman mocked so-called "masters of the universe," whose hedge funds profited from short-selling.

Acquisition by Lloyds TSB.

On 18 September 2008, the terms of the recommended offer for HBOS by Lloyds TSB were announced. The deal was concluded on 19 January 2009. The three main conditions for the acquisition were:  A group of Scottish businessmen challenged the right of the UK government to approve the deal by over-ruling UK competition law, but this was rejected. The takeover was approved by HBOS shareholders on 12 December.  Prime Minister Gordon Brown personally brokered the deal with Lloyds TSB. An official said: "It is not the role of a Prime Minister to tell a City institution what to do". The Lloyds TSB board stated that merchant banks Merrill Lynch and Morgan Stanley were among the advisers recommending the takeover.  Lloyds Banking Group said Edinburgh-based HBOS, which it had absorbed in January, made a pre-tax loss of £10.8bn in 2008. Andy Hornby, the former chief executive of HBOS, and Lord Stevenson of Coddenham, its former chairman, appeared before the Commons Treasury Committee to answer questions about the near-collapse of the bank. Hornby said: "I'm very sorry what happened at HBOS. It has affected shareholders, many of whom are colleagues, it's affected the communities in which we live and serve, it's clearly affected taxpayers, and we are extremely sorry for the turn of events that has brought it about."

Bailout.

On 13 October 2008, Gordon Brown's announcement that government must be a "rock of stability" resulted to an "unprecedented but essential" government action: the Treasury would infuse £37 billion ($64 billion, €47 billion) of new capital into Royal Bank of Scotland Group Plc, Lloyds TSB and HBOS Plc, to avert financial sector collapse or UK "banking meltdown". He stressed that it was not "standard public ownership", as the banks would return to private investors "at the right time". The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Alistair Darling, claimed that the British public would benefit from the rescue plan, because the government would have some control over RBS in exchange for about £20 billion of funding. Total State ownership in RBS would be 60%, and 40% for HBOS. Royal Bank of Scotland said it intended to raise £20 billion ($34 billion) capital with the government's aid; its chief executive Fred Goodwin resigned. The government acquired $8.6 billion of preference shares and underwrote $25.7 billion of ordinary shares. Thus, it intended to raise £15 billion (€18.9 billion, $25.8 billion) from investors, to be underwritten by the government. The State would pay £5 billion for RBS, while Barclays Bank raised £6.5 billion from private sector investors, with no government help. Reuters reported that Britain could inject £40 billion ($69 billion) into the three banks including Barclays.

Investigation.

In 2015, an investigation by the Prudential Regulation Authority and Financial Conduct Authority blamed the failure requiring the bailout on the bank's executives, as well as being critical of the Financial Services Authority (FSA), the then-regulator. A parallel investigation into the FSA's enforcement process concluded it was too late to fine responsible executives, but up to 10 former HBOS executives could be banned from the financial services industry.  Causes of failure were identified as follows:  After putting the investigation on hold in 2013, in April 2017, the Financial Conduct Authority resumed its probe of "the way HBOS handled fraud allegations at its Reading branch".  On 21 June 2019, the Financial Conduct Authority fined the Bank of Scotland £45.5 million over its failure to report suspicions of fraud at its Reading branch which led to the jailing of six people. The authority said that the bank "risked substantial prejudice to the interests of justice" by withholding information. The fine was reduced by almost £20m because the bank agreed to settle.

Controversy.

Links to the arms trade.

In December 2008, the British anti-poverty charity, War on Want, released a report documenting the extent to which HBOS and other UK commercial banks invested in, provided banking services for, and made loans to arms companies. The charity wrote that HBOS held shares in the UK arms sector totalling £483.4 million, and served as principal banker for Babcock International and Chemring.

Mortgage fraud.

During 2003, The Money Programme uncovered systemic mortgage fraud throughout HBOS. The Money Programme found that during the investigation, brokers advised the undercover researchers to lie on applications for self-certified mortgages from, among others, the Bank of Scotland, the Mortgage Business and Birmingham Midshires. All three were part of the Halifax Bank of Scotland Group, Britain's biggest mortgage lender. James Crosby, head of HBOS at the time, refused to be interviewed in relation to the exposed mortgage fraud. Further examples of mortgage fraud have come to light, which has seen mortgage brokers take advantage of fast track processing systems, as seen at HBOS, by entering false details, often without the applicant's knowledge.

Bank of Wales.

In 2002, HBOS dropped the Bank of Wales brand and absorbed the operations into Bank of Scotland Business Banking.

HBOS bad loans.

On 13 February 2009, Lloyds Banking Group revealed losses of £10bn at HBOS, £1.6bn higher than Lloyds had anticipated in November because of deterioration in the housing market and weakening company profits. The share price of Lloyds Banking Group plunged 32% on the London Stock Exchange, carrying other bank shares with it.  In September 2012, Peter Cummings, the head of HBOS corporate banking from 2006 to 2008, was fined £500,000 by the UK financial regulator over his role in the bank's collapse. The Financial Services Authority (FSA) also banned Cummings from working in the banking industry. The losses in his division exceeded the initial taxpayer bailout for the bank in October 2008.

Reading branch fraud and Operation Hornet.

On 3 October 2010, Lyndon Scourfield, former director of mid-market high-risk at Bank of Scotland Corporate, his wife Jacquie Scourfield, ex-director of Remnant Media Tony Cartwright, and ex-NatWest banker David Mills, were arrested on suspicion of fraud by the Serious Organised Crime Agency. The scandal centred around Lyndon Scourfield's use of his position to refer companies to Quayside Corporate Services, owned and operated by David Mills, for "turnaround" services which Quayside was unqualified to provide. Several members of Quayside's staff had criminal records for embezzlement. Customers were allegedly inappropriately pressured to take on excessive debt burdens and to make acquisitions benefiting Quayside.  On 30 January 2017, following a four-month trial, former HBOS employees Scourfield and Mark Dobson were convicted of corruption and fraud involving a scheme that cost the bank £245m; Scourfield pleaded guilty to six counts including corruption, and Dobson was found guilty of counts including bribery, fraud and money laundering. The court also convicted David Mills, Michael Bancroft, Alison Mills, and John Cartwright for their parts in the conspiracy. On 2 February 2017, David Mills was jailed for 15 years, Scourfield for 11 years and three months, and Bancroft for 10 years. Dobson was sentenced to four and a half years, and Alison Mills and Cartwright were given three-and-a-half-year sentences for money laundering. Following the convictions, the BBC reported:"Businessmen Bancroft and Mills arranged sex parties, exotic foreign holidays, cash in brown envelopes and other favours for Scourfield between 2003 and 2007. In exchange for the bribes, Scourfield would require the bank's small business customers to use Quayside Corporate Services, the firm of consultants run by Mills and his wife Alison. Quayside purported to be turnaround consultants, offering business experience and expertise to help small business customers improve their fortunes, but far from helping turn businesses around, Mills and his associates were milking them for huge fees and using their relationship with the bank to bully business owners and strip them of their assets. In cash fees alone, according to prosecutors in the trial, £28m went through the accounts of Mills, his wife and their associated companies. [...] Mills and his associates used the bank's customers and the bank's money dishonestly to enrich themselves."  The BBC added: "A decade on, HBOS's owner Lloyds Banking Group still has not acknowledged the full scale of the fraud - or offered to compensate its victims"; the broadcaster noted that the fraud was first discovered in 2007 by the bank's customers Nikki and Paul Turner, who used publicly available records to uncover it, but that after the Turners submitted their evidence to the bank it dismissed their claims and tried to repossess their home. Following the convictions, the background to the case was reported on BBC Radio Four's "File on Four" programme on 31 January 2017. Lloyds is taking a £100m hit paying compensation to the victims.  Noel Edmonds, a celebrity victim of the scam, reached a settlement with the bank in July 2019. Dame Linda Dobbs is chairing an independent inquiry into the investigation and reporting of the fraud.

Operations.

HBOS conducted all its operations through three main businesses:

Bank of Scotland plc.

Bank of Scotland plc was the banking division of the HBOS group, and operated the following brands:

HBOS Australia.

HBOS Australia was formed in 2004 to consolidate the group's holdings in Australia. It consisted of the following subsidiaries:  On 8 October 2008, HBOS Australia sold its Bank of Western Australia and St Andrew's Australia Pty Ltd subsidiaries for approximately A$2bn to Commonwealth Bank of Australia.  The group's businesses in Australia were sold to Westpac in October 2013.

HBOS Insurance and Investment Group Limited.

HBOS Insurance & Investment Group Limited manages the group's insurance and investment brands in the UK and Europe. It consisted of the following:  It also used to own UK investment manager Insight Investment Management Limited. The Bank of New York Mellon acquired Insight in 2009.

HBOS plc was a banking and insurance company in the United Kingdom, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Lloyds Banking Group, having been taken over in January 2009. It was the holding company for Bank of Scotland plc, which operated the Bank of Scotland and Halifax brands in the UK, as well as HBOS Australia and HBOS Insurance & Investment Group Limited, the group's insurance division.

HBOS公司,是英国一家从事银行及保险业务的公司,在2009年1月被莱斯银行集团接管。HBOS公司是苏格兰银行的控股公司,在英国经营苏格兰银行与哈利法克斯 (英国银行)品牌,以及HBOS澳洲与HBOS保险与投资集团有限公司。


Usage.

codice_1 is read upon startup by all versions of DOS, including MS-DOS version 7.x as used in Windows 95 and Windows 98. Windows ME only parses environment variables as part of its attempts to reduce legacy dependencies, but this can be worked around.  The filename was also used by (DCP), an MS-DOS derivative by the former East-German VEB Robotron.  In Korean versions of MS-DOS/PC DOS 4.01 and higher (except for PC DOS 7 and 2000), if the current country code is set to 82 (for Korea) and no codice_3 is given and no default codice_1 is found, codice_5 will look for a file named codice_6 instead in order to ensure that the DBCS frontend drivers will be loaded even without properly set up codice_7 and codice_1 files.  Under DOS, the file is executed by the primary copy of the command-line processor (typically codice_5) once the operating system has booted and the codice_7 file processing has finished. While DOS by itself provides no means to pass batch file parameters to codice_5 for codice_1 processing, the alternative command-line processor 4DOS supports a codice_13 "codice_14" directive and codice_15 startup option to define such parameters. Under Concurrent DOS, Multiuser DOS and REAL/32, three initial parameters will be passed to either the corresponding codice_16 (if it exists) or the generic codice_1 startup file, codice_18 holds the virtual console number, codice_19 the 2-digit terminal number (xx) (with 00 being the main console) and codice_20 the 1-digit session number (y).  Windows NT and its descendants Windows XP and Windows Vista parse codice_1 when a user logs on. As with Windows ME, anything other than setting environment variables is ignored. Unlike codice_7, the commands in codice_1 can be entered at the interactive command line interpreter. They are just standard commands that the computer operator wants to be executed automatically whenever the computer is started, and can include other batch files.  codice_1 is most often used to set environment variables such as keyboard, soundcard, printer, and temporary file locations. It is also used to initiate low level system utilities, such as the following:

Example.

In early versions of DOS, codice_1 was by default very simple. The codice_26 and codice_27 commands were necessary as early PC and XT class machines did not have a battery backed-up real-time clock as default. @ECHO OFF CLS DATE TIME VER In non-US environments, the keyboard driver (like codice_28 for the French keyboard) was also included. Later versions were often much expanded with numerous third-party device drivers. The following is a basic DOS 5 type codice_1 configuration, consisting only of essential commands: @ECHO OFF PROMPT $P$G PATH C:\DOS;C:\WINDOWS SET TEMP=C:\TEMP SET BLASTER=A220 I7 D1 T2 LH SMARTDRV.EXE LH DOSKEY LH MOUSE.COM /Y This configuration sets common environment variables, loads a disk cache, places common directories into the default PATH, and initializes the DOS mouse / keyboard drivers. The codice_30 command sets the prompt to "C:\>" (when the working directory is the root of the C drive) instead of simply "C>" (the default prompt, indicating only the working drive and not the directory therein).  In general, device drivers were loaded in codice_7, and programs were loaded in the codice_1 file. Some devices, such as mice, could be loaded either as a device driver in codice_7, or as a TSR in codice_1, depending upon the manufacturer.  In MS-DOS 6.0 and higher, a DOS boot menu is configurable. This can be of great help to users who wish to have optimized boot configurations for various programs, such as DOS games and Windows. @ECHO OFF PROMPT $P$G PATH C:\DOS;C:\WINDOWS SET TEMP=C:\TEMP SET BLASTER=A220 I7 D1 T2 GOTO %CONFIG% LH SMARTDRV.EXE LH MOUSE.COM /Y WIN GOTO END LH SMARTDRV.EXE LH DOSKEY GOTO END The codice_35 line informs DOS to look up menu entries that were defined within codice_7. Then, these profiles are named here and configured with the desired specific drivers and utilities. At the desired end of each specific configuration, a codice_37 command redirects DOS to the codice_38 section. Lines after codice_38 will be used by all profiles.

Dual-booting DOS and Windows 9x.

When installing Windows 95 over a preexisting DOS/Windows install, codice_7 and codice_1 are renamed to codice_42 and codice_43. This is intended to ease dual booting between Windows 9x and DOS. When booting into DOS, they are temporarily renamed codice_7 and codice_1. Backups of the Windows 9x versions are made as codice_46 files.  Windows 9x also installs codice_47, a configuration file, which will not boot Windows 95/98 if parametercodice_48 is loaded, and instead a DOS prompt will appear on the screen (Windows can still be loaded by calling the codice_49 command (file WIN.COM). This file contains some switches that designate how the system will boot, one of which controls whether or not the system automatically goes into Windows. This "BootGUI" option must be set to "0" in order to boot to a DOS prompt. By doing this, the system's operation essentially becomes that of a DOS/Windows pairing like with earlier Windows versions. Windows can be started as desired by typing codice_49 at the DOS prompt.  When installing Caldera DR-DOS 7.02 and higher, the Windows version retains the name codice_1, while the file used by the DR-DOS codice_5 is named codice_53, referred to by the startup parameter codice_54 in the SHELL directive. It also differentiates the codice_7 file by using the name codice_56.

OS/2.

The equivalent to codice_1 under OS/2 is the OS/2 codice_58 file, however, genuine DOS sessions booted under OS/2 continue to use codice_1.

Windows NT.

On Windows NT and its derivatives, Windows 2000, Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP, the equivalent file is called codice_60 and is located in the codice_61 directory. The file is not used during the operating system boot process; it is executed when the MS-DOS environment is started, which occurs when a DOS application is loaded.  The codice_1 file may often be found on Windows NT in the root directory of the boot drive. Windows only considers the codice_63 and codice_64 statements which it contains, in order to define environment variables global to all users. Setting environment variables through this file may be interesting if for example MS-DOS is also booted from this drive (this requires that the drive be FAT-formatted) or to keep the variables across a reinstall. This is an exotic usage today so the file usually remains empty. The Tweak UI applet from the Microsoft PowerToys collection allows to control this feature ("Parse AUTOEXEC.BAT at logon").

codice_1 is a system file that was originally on DOS-type operating systems. It is a plain-text batch file in the root directory of the boot device. The name of the file is an abbreviation of "automatic execution", which describes its function in automatically executing commands on system startup; the filename was coined in response to the 8.3 filename limitations of the FAT file system family.

AUTOEXEC.BAT,又常被称为开机执行档,是个人电脑上的一个系统指令档,始源于MS-DOS。AUTOEXEC.BAT 的名称来自英文字「AUTOmatic」和「EXECution」的结合,即「自动执行」之意;副档名「BAT」则解释了它是一个批次档。


Plot.

As three US servicemen – Marine Private First Class Ira Hayes, Private First Class Rene Gagnon, and Navy Corpsman John "Doc" Bradley – are feted as heroes in a war bond drive, they reflect on their experiences via flashback.  After training at Camp Tarawa in Hawaii, the 28th Marine Regiment 5th Marine Division sails to invade Iwo Jima. The Navy bombards suspected Japanese positions for three days. Sergeant Mike Strank is put in charge of Second Platoon.  The next day, February 19, 1945, the Marines land in Higgins boats and LVTs. The beaches are silent and Private First Class Ralph "Iggy" Ignatowski wonders if the defenders are all dead before Japanese heavy artillery and machine guns open fire on the advancing Marines and the Navy ships. Casualties are heavy, but the beaches are secured.  Two days later, the Marines attack Mount Suribachi under a rain of Japanese artillery and machine gun fire, as the Navy bombards the mountain. Doc saves the lives of several Marines under fire, which later earns him the Navy Cross. The mountain is eventually secured.  On February 23, the platoon under command of Sergeant Hank Hansen reaches the top of Mount Suribachi and hoists the United States flag to cheers from the beaches and the ships. Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, who witnesses the flag raising as he lands on the beach, requests the flag for himself. Colonel Chandler Johnson decides his 2nd Battalion deserves the flag more. Rene is sent up with Second Platoon to replace the first flag with a second one for Forrestal to take. Mike, Doc, Ira, Rene, and two other Marines (Corporal Harlon Block and Private First Class Franklin Sousley) are photographed by Joe Rosenthal as they raise the second flag.  On March 1, the Second Platoon is ambushed from a Japanese machine gun nest. During the fight over the nest, Mike is hit by a U.S. Navy shell and dies from his wounds. Later that day, Hank is shot in the chest and dies, and Harlon is killed by machine gun fire.  Two nights later, while Doc is helping a wounded Marine, Iggy is abducted by Japanese troops and dragged into a tunnel. Doc finds his viciously mangled body a few days later. On March 21, Franklin is killed by machine gun fire and dies in Ira's arms. Of the eight men in the squad, only three are left: Doc, Ira, and Rene. A few days after Franklin's death, Doc is wounded by artillery fire while trying to save a fellow corpsman. He survives and is sent back home. On March 26, the battle ends and the U.S. Marines are victorious.  After the battle, the press gets hold of Rosenthal's photograph. It is a huge morale booster and becomes famous. Rene is asked to name the six men in the photo; he identifies himself, Mike, Doc, and Franklin, but misidentifies Harlon as Hank. Rene eventually names Ira as the sixth man, even after Ira threatens to kill him for doing so.  Doc, Ira, and Rene are sent home as part of the seventh bond tour. When they arrive to a hero's welcome in Washington, DC, Doc notices that Hank's mother is on the list of mothers of the dead flag raisers. Ira angrily denounces the bond drive as a farce. The men are reprimanded by Bud Gerber of the Treasury Department, who tells them that the country cannot afford the war and if the bond drive fails, the U.S. will abandon the Pacific and their sacrifices will be for nothing. The three agree not to tell anyone that Hank was not in the photograph.  As the three are sent around the country to raise money and make speeches, Ira is guilt-ridden, faces discrimination as a Native American, and descends into alcoholism. After he throws up one night in front of General Alexander Vandegrift, commandant of the Marine Corps, he is sent back to his unit and the bond drive continues without him.  After the war, the three survivors return to their homes. Ira still struggles with alcoholism and is never able to escape his unwanted fame. One day after being released from jail, he hitchhikes over 1,300 miles to Texas to see Harlon Block's family. He tells Harlon's father that his son was indeed at the base of the flag in the photograph. In 1954, the USMC War Memorial is dedicated and the three flag raisers see each other one last time. In 1955, Ira dies of exposure after a night of drinking. That same year, Doc drives to the town where Iggy's mother lives to tell her how Iggy died, though it is implied that he does not tell her the truth. Rene attempts a business career, but finds that the opportunities and offers he received during the bond drive are rescinded. He spends the rest of his life as a janitor. Doc, by contrast, is successful, buying a funeral home. In 1994, on his deathbed, he tells his story to his son, James, and in a final flashback to 1945, the men swim in the ocean after raising the flags.

Production.

The film rights to the book were purchased by DreamWorks in June 2000. Producer Steven Spielberg brought William Broyles to write the first drafts of the script, before director Clint Eastwood brought Paul Haggis to rewrite. In the process of reading about the Japanese perspective of the war, in particular General Tadamichi Kuribayashi, Eastwood decided to film a companion piece with "Letters from Iwo Jima", which was shot entirely in Japanese. Bradley Cooper auditioned for one of the leading roles. "Flags of Our Fathers" was shot in the course of 58 days. Jared Leto was originally cast as Rene Gagnon but had to back out due to a tour commitment with his band, Thirty Seconds to Mars.  "Flags of Our Fathers" cost $55 million, although it was originally budgeted at $80 million. "Variety" subsequently downgraded the price tag to $55 million. Although the film is taken from the American viewpoint of the battle, it was filmed almost entirely in Iceland and Southern California, with a few scenes shot in Chicago. Shooting ended early 2006, before production for "Letters from Iwo Jima" began in March 2006.

Release.

Critical reception.

On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 73% based on 196 reviews, with an average rating of 7.01/10. The site's consensus states: ""Flags of Our Fathers" is both a fascinating look at heroism, both earned and manufactured, and a well-filmed salute to the men who fought at the battle of Iwo Jima." On Metacritic, the film scored a 79 out of 100 based on 39 reviews, indicating "Generally favorable reviews."  The film made the top-10 list of the National Board of Review. Eastwood also earned a Golden Globe nomination for directing. The film was nominated for two Academy Awards — for Best Sound (John T. Reitz, David E. Campbell, Gregg Rudloff, and Walt Martin) and Sound Editing. Film critic Richard Roeper said, "Clint Eastwood's "Flags of Our Fathers" stands with the Oscar-winning "Unforgiven" and "Million Dollar Baby" as an American masterpiece. It is a searing and powerful work from a 76-year-old artist who remains at the top of his game... [and] "Flags of Our Fathers" is a patriotic film in that it honors those who fought in the Pacific, but it is also patriotic because it questions the official version of the truth, and reminds us that superheroes exist only in comic books and cartoon movies."

Top ten lists.

"Flags of Our Fathers" was listed on numerous critics' top ten lists for 2006.

Box office.

Despite critical acclaim, the film under-performed at the box office, earning just $65,900,249 worldwide on an estimated $90 million production budget. Its companion film "Letters From Iwo Jima" was more profitable with a box office run of $71 million on a budget of $19 million.

Spike Lee controversy.

At the 2008 Cannes Film Festival, director Spike Lee, who was making "Miracle at St. Anna", about an all-black U.S. division fighting in Italy during World War II, criticized director Clint Eastwood for not depicting black Marines in "Flags of Our Fathers". Citing historical accuracy, Eastwood responded that his film was specifically about the Marines who raised the flag on Mount Suribachi at Iwo Jima, pointing out that while black Marines did fight at Iwo Jima, the U.S. military was segregated during World War II, and none of the men who raised the flag were black. Eastwood believed Lee was using the comments to promote "Miracle at St. Anna" and angrily said that Lee should "shut his face". Lee responded that Eastwood was acting like an "angry old man", and argued that despite making two Iwo Jima films back to back, "Letters from Iwo Jima" and "Flags of Our Fathers", "there was not one black Marine in both of those films".  Contrary to Lee's claims, however, black Marines (including an all-black unit) are seen in several scenes during which the mission is outlined, as well as during the initial landings, when a wounded black Marine is carried away. During the end credits, historical photographs taken during the Battle of Iwo Jima show black Marines. Although black Marines fought in the battle, they were restricted to auxiliary roles, such as ammunition supply, and were not involved in the battle's major assaults; they did, however, take part in defensive actions. According to Alexander M. Bielakowski and Raffaele Ruggeri, "Half a million African Americans served overseas during World War II, almost all in segregated second-line units." The number of African Americans killed in action was 708.  Spielberg later intervened between the two directors, after which Lee sent a copy of a film on which he was working to Eastwood for a private screening as a seeming token of apology.

Home media.

The DVD was released in the United States by DreamWorks Home Entertainment and internationally by Warner Home Video on February 6, 2007. It is devoid of any special features.  A two-disc Special Collector's Edition DVD (with special features) was released on May 22, 2007. It was also released on HD DVD and Blu-ray formats.  The Two-Disc Special Collector's Edition DVD is also available in a five-disc commemorative set that also includes the two-disc Special Collector's Edition of "Letters from Iwo Jima" and a bonus fifth disc containing History Channel's "Heroes of Iwo Jima" documentary and "To the Shores of Iwo Jima", a documentary produced by the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps, released by Warner Home Video.

Flags of Our Fathers is a 2006 American war film directed, co-produced, and scored by Clint Eastwood and written by William Broyles Jr. and Paul Haggis. It is based on the 2000 book of the same name written by James Bradley and Ron Powers about the 1945 Battle of Iwo Jima, the five Marines and one Navy corpsman who were involved in raising the flag on Iwo Jima, and the aftereffects of that event on their lives.

是一部2006年公映的美国战争电影,由克林特·伊斯特伍德执导,斯蒂芬·斯皮尔伯格监制,内容以自詹姆斯·布拉得利(James Bradley)和朗·鲍威斯(Ron Powers)撰写的同名畅销书为基础,故事主题是叙述代表硫磺岛战役的知名摄影作品《硫磺岛升旗》的背景始末。


Overview.

The initial publication of the book was arranged in six thematically segregated sections:  Baudelaire dedicated the book to the poet Théophile Gautier, describing him as a "parfait magicien des lettres françaises" ("a perfect magician of French letters").

Foreword.

The foreword to the volume, "Au Lecteur" ("To the Reader"), identifying Satan with the pseudonymous alchemist Hermes Trismegistus and calling boredom the worst of miseries, sets the general tone of what is to follow:  <poem>"Si le viol, le poison, le poignard, l'incendie," "N'ont pas encore brodé de leurs plaisants dessins" "Le canevas banal de nos piteux destins," "C'est que notre âme, hélas! n'est pas assez hardie."  The preface concludes with the following malediction:  <poem>"C'est l'Ennui!—l'œil chargé d'un pleur involontaire," "Il rêve d'échafauds en fumant son houka." "Tu le connais, lecteur, ce monstre délicat," "Hypocrite lecteur,—mon semblable,—mon frère!"

"Tableaux Parisiens" (Parisian Scenes).

Baudelaire's section "Tableaux Parisiens", added in the second edition (1861), is considered one of the most formidable criticisms of 19th-century French modernity. This section contains 18 poems, most of which were written during Haussmann's renovation of Paris. Together, the poems in "Tableaux Parisiens" act as 24-hour cycle of Paris, starting with the second poem Le Soleil (The Sun) and ending with the second to last poem Le Crépuscule du Matin (Morning Twilight). The poems featured in this cycle of Paris all deal with the feelings of anonymity and estrangement from a newly modernized city. Baudelaire is critical of the clean and geometrically laid out streets of Paris which alienate the unsung anti-heroes of Paris who serve as inspiration for the poet: the beggars, the blind, the industrial worker, the gambler, the prostitute, the old and the victim of imperialism. These characters whom Baudelaire once praised as the backbone of Paris are now eulogized in his nostalgic poems. For Baudelaire, the city has been transformed into an anthill of identical bourgeois that reflect the new identical structures that litter a Paris he once called home but can now no longer recognize.

Literary significance and criticism.

The author and the publisher were prosecuted under the regime of the Second Empire as an "outrage aux bonnes mœurs" ("an insult to public decency"). As a consequence of this prosecution, Baudelaire was fined 300 francs. Six poems from the work were suppressed and the ban on their publication was not lifted in France until 1949. These poems were "Lesbos"; "Femmes damnées (À la pâle clarté)" (or "Women Doomed (In the pale glimmer...)"); "Le Léthé" (or "Lethe"); "À celle qui est trop gaie" (or "To Her Who Is Too Joyful"); "Les Bijoux" (or "The Jewels"); and " Les "Métamorphoses du Vampire" (or "The Vampire's Metamorphoses"). These were later published in Brussels in a small volume entitled "Les Épaves" ("Scraps" or "Jetsam").  On the other hand, upon reading "The Swan" (or ""Le Cygne"") from "Les Fleurs du mal", Victor Hugo announced that Baudelaire had created ""un nouveau frisson"" (a new shudder, a new thrill) in literature.  In the wake of the prosecution, a second edition was issued in 1861 which added 35 new poems, removed the six suppressed poems, and added a new section entitled "Tableaux Parisiens."  A posthumous third edition, with a preface by Théophile Gautier and including 14 previously unpublished poems, was issued in 1868.

Legacy.

The book monger character, Wren, refers to Special Agent Aloysius Pendergast as ‘hypocrite lecteur’ in the Pendergast Book Series authored by Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child in many of their interactions.  T.S. Eliot's poem "The Waste Land" (1922) references "Au Lecteur" with the line: "You! hypocrite lecteur!—mon semblable,—mon frère!"  Alban Berg's "Der Wein" (1929) is a concert aria setting Stefan George's translation of three poems from "Le Vin".  "Baudelaire's Flowers Of Evil (Les Fleurs Du Mal)" is a 1968 recording by Yvette Mimieux and Ali Akbar Khan originally issued on LP by Connoisseur Society. Mimeux reads excerpts of Cyril Scott's 1909 translation with original music by Khan.  In 1969, American composer Ruth White released the album "Flowers of Evil". It features electroacoustic composition with Baudelaire's poetry recited over it. The album was published by Limelight Records.  Henri Dutilleux's "Tout un monde lointain..." for cello and orchestra (1970) is strongly influenced by "Les Fleurs du Mal". Each of its five movements is prefaced by a quotation from the volume and the title itself comes from one of its poems, "XXIII. La Chevelure".  In Roger Zelazny's book "Roadmarks" the protagonist Red Dorakeen travels with a sentient speaking computer disguised as a cybernetic extension of the book "Les Fleurs du mal" named "Flowers of Evil". It befriends another computer which has disguised itself as "Leaves of Grass" by Walt Whitman.  "Flor De Mal" (Larriva, Hufsteter) is a song in the 1985 eponymous album by the Cruzados.  Rock band Buck-Tick named their 1990 album "Aku no Hana", as well as its title track, after "Les Fleurs du mal".  The movie "Immortal" (2004, Dominique Brunner); In the scene on the Eiffel Tower, Jill (Linda Hardy) is reading from the book "Les Fleurs Du Mal". She recites the third stanza from the poem "XLIX. Le Poison".  In a January 1997 episode of the hit sitcom "Friends", Monica (Courtney Cox) asks her coworker Julio about his book. He says it's ""Flowers of Evil" by Baudelaire" and when Monica asks if he enjoyed it he replies "I thought I would, but the translation's no good." It is the twelfth episode of the third season and is titled: "The One with All the Jealousy".  An episode of the television show "The Batman" was named "Fleurs du Mal" in homage to the poem. In addition to this, a florist's shop in the episode is named Baudelaire's, in honor of the author.  Sopor Aeternus & the Ensemble of Shadows released an album named "Les Fleurs du Mal and also an 8 and half minute song too.  "The Funeral of Hearts" is a song by the Finnish band HIM, released in 2003. It is the second track and first single from the album "Love Metal". The opening verse contains the lyric "When angels cry blood on "Flowers of Evil" in bloom."  The 2009 manga "Aku no Hana" is named after "Les Fleurs du mal". The main character, Takao Kasuga, is enamored with the book and the adult depravity that it represents. He steals the gym clothes of his crush, Nanako Saeki, after being inspired by the book. The manga was later adapted into an animated series.  Industrial metal band Marilyn Manson released a song entitled "The Flowers of Evil" on their 2012 album "Born Villain".  Symphonic metal band Therion released an album named "Les Fleurs du Mal" in 2012.  In episode 13 of "Saving Hope"s first season (2012), a copy of "The Flowers of Evil" is among the personal effects of a patient. Later in the episode a doctor briefly discusses Baudelaire and a phrase from the book with that patient.  Chicago-based artistic collective Theater Oobleck produced a series of cantastoria using Baudelaire's "Les Fleurs du Mal" as text. The music is written by a series of different artists, and the shows are presented across the United States, though primarily in Chicago. The collective is scheduled to present Episode 8 in its series on October 1, 2015. The intention is to convert the entirety of "Les Fleurs du Mal" to cantastoria in seven years.  The Swedish folk singer Sofia Karlsson sang versions of "Le vin des amants" and "Moesta et errabunda", translated by the poet Dan Andersson, on her 2007 album "Visor från vinden" (Songs from the wind).

References.

Notes Further reading

Les Fleurs du mal (; ) is a volume of French poetry by Charles Baudelaire. First published in 1857 (see 1857 in poetry), it was important in the symbolist and modernist movements. The poems deal with themes relating to decadence and eroticism.

《-{zh-hans:恶之花;zh-hant:恶之华;}-》(),又译《-{zh-hans:恶之华;zh-hant:恶之花;}-》,是法国诗人夏尔·波德莱尔于1857年发表的诗集作品,内容以颓废与性为材,并对象征主义与现代主义文学发展有着重大影响。


History.

The repeating clock was invented by the English cleric and inventor, the Reverend Edward Barlow in 1676. His innovation was the "rack and snail" striking mechanism, which could be made to repeat easily and became the standard mechanism used in both clock and watch repeaters ever since. The best kind of repeating clocks were expensive to make; a separate train of wheels had to be added to the striking mechanism, and to activate it one pulled a cord whereupon it would strike the hours and quarters, or even the hours and five-minute divisions (five minutes repeating). During the nineteenth century such clocks gradually went out of use. Due to cheap imports from France, Germany and America English clockmaking went into decline and with the advent of gas lighting repeating clocks became an unnecessary luxury.  Both Edward Barlow and Daniel Quare claimed the invention of the repeating watch, just before 1700. Both applied for a patent on it, which was decided in favor of Quare in 1687. Repeater watches were much harder to make than repeater clocks; fitting the bells, wire gongs and complicated striking works into a pocketwatch movement was a feat of fine watchmaking. So repeating watches were expensive luxuries and status symbols; as such they survived the introduction of artificial illumination and a few are still made today.  Whereas repeating watches made in the eighteenth century struck a bell mounted in the back of the case, during the nineteenth century wire gongs were invariably employed as they took up less space. These appear to have been invented by the Swiss around 1800. Another type of repeating watch made during the period 1750–1820 was the dumb repeating watch. These had two hammers for hours and quarters, striking blocks within the case which made a dull sounding thud which could be felt in the hand.  Generally, repeating watches strike the hours and quarters, although the best London made eighteenth century repeating mechanisms (motions) were made using the Stockten system, named after the original inventor Matthew Stockten (known also as Stockton, Stockdon or Stogden) who worked for the famous makers Daniel Quare and George Graham.  These were made to strike the hours, quarters and half quarters ( minutes). From around 1750 watches this system was modified to repeat the hours, quarters and minutes (the minute repeater), the famous London maker John Ellicott appears to have been the first to produce these in numbers. During the nineteenth century following the improvements made by A.L. Breguet, the minute repeating mechanism became much more common but still to be found only in the best watches as it was expensive to make.

How they work.

The rack and snail striking mechanism used in repeaters is described in detail in the striking clock article. Repeater clocks often had a cord with a button on the end protruding from the side of the clock. Pulling the cord actuated the repeater mechanism. This was called a "pull repeater". Repeating carriage clocks have a button on the top to activate them.  Early watch repeater mechanisms were actuated by pushing and depressing the pendant (the top) of the watch. Later ones are activated by pushing a slide along the side of the case. This winds a separate spring to power the repeater. Releasing the slide releases the spring, and its force as it unwinds moves the repeater mechanism through its chiming sequence.  A problem with very early repeaters was that the slide could be released before it was fully cocked, causing the repeater to only chime part of its sequence. Around 1820 French watchmaker Abraham Breguet invented a reliable 'all-or-nothing' mechanism that prevented this, making watch repeaters considerably more reliable and popular. The first repeaters had a single bell mounted in the back of the case, on which 2 hammers would strike. This bell was made of "Bell metal", a mixture of copper and tin. Later repeating watches use gongs made of long hardened steel wires that are coiled inside the watch case. Tiny hammers actuated by the repeater mechanism strike them to make the chiming sounds. Some of the complex repeaters, such as the minute repeater, need to produce three different sounds, to distinguish hours, quarter hours, and minutes in the striking sequence. Since it is difficult to fit three bulky wire gongs into a watch movement, virtually all repeaters use two gongs, made from the two ends of a single length of wire supported in the middle, and if a third sound is needed it is made by striking the two gongs rapidly in sequence, first the high tone and then the low: "ding-dong".  The repeaters have a mechanism that allows the pace of the repeater strikes to be changed. The owner of a repeater watch can ask a watchmaker to change the pace, making it faster or slower. According to the book ""Etablissage et Repassage des Montres à Répétition"" by John Huguenin (page 39 of the original edition), "a minute repeater with an average speed takes about twenty seconds to strike 12 hours, three quarters and fourteen minutes".

Types.

Quarter repeater.

The quarter repeater strikes the number of hours, and then the number of quarter hours since the last hour. The mechanism uses 2 chimes of different tones. The low tone usually signals the hours, and the high tone the quarter hours. As an example, if the time is 2:45, the quarter repeater sounds 2 low tones and after a short pause 3 high ones: "dong, dong, ding, ding, ding". Alternatively, some use a pair of tones to distinguish the quarter hours: "dong, dong, ding-dong, ding-dong, ding-dong"

Half-quarter repeater.

The half-quarter repeater can sound the time to half a quarter hour, or minutes. It strikes hours and then quarter hours, like the quarter repeater, then it uses a single tone in order to signal if more than half of the current quarter hour has passed. For example, if the time is 3:41 the mechanism will strike 3 low tones ("dong") to represent 3 hours, then 2 sequence tones ("ding-dong") to represent 2 quarter hours, then one high tone ("ding") to indicate that more than half of the third quarter hour has passed.

Five-minute repeater.

First made in 1710 by Samuel Watson, the five-minute repeater strikes the hours and then the number of five-minute periods since the hour. The mechanism uses a low tone for the hours and a high tone for the minutes. For example, 2:25 would be struck as: "dong, dong, ding, ding, ding, ding, ding".

Minute repeater.

The minute repeater works like the quarter repeater, with the addition that, after the hours and quarter hours are sounded, the number of minutes since the last quarter hour are sounded. This requires three different sounds to distinguish hours, quarters, and minutes. Often the hours are signaled by a low tone, the quarters are signaled by a sequence of two tones ("ding-dong"), and the minutes by a high tone. For example, if the time is 2:49 then the minute repeater will sound 2 low tones representing 2 hours, 3 sequence tones representing 45 minutes, and 4 high tones representing 4 minutes: "dong, dong, ding-dong, ding-dong, ding-dong, ding, ding, ding, ding".

Decimal repeater.

The decimal repeater works like the minute repeater, but instead of chiming the quarter hours followed by minutes, it sounds the number of ten-minute intervals after the last hour and then the minutes. For example, if the time is 2:49 then the decimal repeater will sound 2 low tones representing 2 hours, 4 sequence tones representing 40 minutes, and 9 high tones representing 9 minutes: "dong, dong, ding-dong, ding-dong, ding-dong, ding-dong, ding, ding, ding, ding, ding, ding, ding, ding, ding". These repeaters, although first made more than 250 years ago, are very rare.

Grande sonnerie.

A grande sonnerie (French, meaning 'grand strike') is a quarter (or minute) striking mechanism combined with a repeater. On each quarter hour, it sounds the hours and then the quarters on two gongs.  On every quarter-hour it strikes the number of quarter hours audibly on a gong, and then the number of hours since the last hour on a second gong. For instance, in a 3 weight Vienna regulator wall clock, at 6:15 it would strike once on a high pitched gong, then strike six times on a lower pitched gong. At 6:30 it would strike twice on the high pitched gong, then six times on the lower pitched gong. At 6:45 three times on the high pitched gong, then six times on the lower pitched gong, and at 7:00 it would strike four times on the high pitched gong, then seven times on the lower pitched gong. You will always know the exact time every fifteen minutes just by listening to the striking. These types of striking clocks are mostly found as French Carriage Clocks, or German three weight Vienna regulators. In addition they can strike the quarters and hours on demand, by activating a repeating mechanism at the push of a button, or the pull of a string. The term is sometimes used erroneously for a mere quarter striking mechanism.  It is more complex than the "petite sonnerie", which merely strikes the hours on the hour and the quarter hours on the quarter, with no repeater function. In some examples it can strike the hours at the push of a button.

Dumb repeater.

Used by the visually impaired and to tell the time quietly in meetings and concerts, 'dumb' repeater watches did not chime audibly, but instead produced vibrations. Instead of a gong, the hammer struck the hours on a solid metal block attached to the case, producing a dull 'thud' that could be felt in the hand.

Audocron.

A student of the Ecole Technique de la Vallée de Joux created a mechanical ten minute repeater in the 1930s. Conceived of as a clock for the blind—before talking clocks, and patented (3,925,777) in 1974, this electronic repeater called the Audocron was manufactured in the U.S. When touched it chimed out the hour, then in a higher tone—the tens of minutes, followed by the minutes in the original tone. There was a -second space between the groups. About 18,000 were made in the U.S. and sold worldwide.

A repeater is a complication in a mechanical watch or clock that chimes the hours and often minutes at the press of a button. There are many types of repeater, from the simple repeater which merely strikes the number of hours, to the minute repeater which chimes the time down to the minute, using separate tones for hours, quarter hours, and minutes. They originated before widespread artificial illumination, to allow the time to be determined in the dark, and were also used by the visually impaired. Now they are mostly valued as expensive novelties by watch and clock enthusiasts. Repeaters should not be confused with striking clocks or watches, which do not strike on demand, but merely at regular intervals.

语音报时(Repeater) 原是为盲人或无光源而设计的时钟或手表。在机械表方面,主要为二问和三问或者其他较为特殊的多种报时方式,为其报时方式为按下问时掣,表便可针对时、刻及分(二问表只报时刻)发出不同音阶声响报时。