Background and personal life.

Beck was born in Providence, Rhode Island, US, the youngest child of four siblings to Russian Jewish immigrants. Beck was married in 1950 to Phyllis W. Beck, who was the first woman judge on the appellate court of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. They have four adult children: Roy, Judy, Dan, and Alice. Beck's daughter Judith is a prominent cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) educator and clinician, who wrote the basic text in the field. She is President of the non-profit Beck Institute.

Education.

Beck attended Brown University, graduating "magna cum laude" in 1942. At Brown he was elected a member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society, was an associate editor of "The Brown Daily Herald", and received the Francis Wayland Scholarship, William Gaston Prize for Excellence in Oratory, and Philo Sherman Bennett Essay Award. Beck attended Yale Medical School, graduating with an MD in 1946.  He began to specialize in neurology, reportedly liking the precision of its procedures. However, due to a shortage of psychiatry residents he was instructed to do a six-month rotation in that field, and became absorbed in psychoanalysis, despite initial wariness.

Early posts.

After completing his medical internships and residencies from 1946 to 1950, Beck became Fellow in psychiatry at the Austen Riggs Center, a private mental hospital in the mountains of Stockbridge, Massachusetts, until 1952. At that time it was a center of ego psychology with unusually cross-disciplinary work between psychiatrists and psychologists, including David Rapaport.  Beck then completed military service as assistant chief of neuropsychiatry at Valley Forge Army Hospital in the United States Military.

Penn psychiatry.

Beck then joined the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania (Penn) in 1954. The department chair was Kenneth Ellmaker Appel, a psychoanalyst who was president of the American Psychiatric Association, whose efforts to expand the presence and connections of psychiatry had a big influence on Beck's career. At the same time, Beck began formal training in psychoanalysis at the Philadelphia Institute of the American Psychoanalytic Association.  Beck's closest colleague was Marvin Stein, a friend since their army hospital days to whom Beck looked up for his scientific rigor in psychoneuroimmunology. Beck's first research was with Leon Saul, a psychoanalyst known for unusual methods such as therapy by telephone or setting homework, who had developed inventory questionnaires to quantify ego processes in the manifest content of dreams (that which can be directly reported by the dreamer). Beck and a graduate student developed a new inventory they used to assess "masochistic" hostility in manifest dreams, published in 1959. This study found themes of loss and rejection related to depression, rather than inverted hostility as predicted by psychoanalysis. Developing the work with NIMH funding, Beck came up with what he would call the Beck Depression Inventory, which he published in 1961 and soon started to market, unsupported by Appel. In another experiment, he found that depressed patients sought encouragement or improvement following disapproval, rather than seeking out suffering and failure as predicted by the Freudian anger-turned-inwards theory.  Through the 1950s, Beck adhered to the department's psychoanalytic theories while developing his experimentation and harboring some private doubts. In 1961, however, controversy over whom to appoint as the new chair of psychiatry—specifically, fierce psychoanalytic opposition to the favored choice of biomedical researcher Eli Robins—brought matters to a head, an early skirmish in a power shift away from psychoanalysis nationally. Beck tried to remain neutral and, with Albert J. Stunkard, opposed a petition to block Robins. Stunkard, a behaviorist who specialized in obesity and who had dropped out of psychoanalytic training, was eventually appointed department head in the face of sustained opposition which again Beck would not engage in, putting him at bitter odds with his friend Stein.  On top of this, despite having graduated from his Philadelphia training, the American Psychoanalytic Institute rejected (deferred) Beck's membership application in 1960, skeptical of his claims of success from relatively brief therapy and advising he conduct further supervised therapy on the more advanced or termination phases of a case, and again in 1961 when he had not done so but outlined his clinical and research work. Such deferments were a tactic used by the Institute to maintain the orthodoxy in teaching, but Beck did not know this at the time and has described the decision as stupid and dumb.  Beck usually explains his increasing belief in his cognitive model by reference to a patient he had been listening to for a year at the Penn clinic. When he suggested she was anxious due to her ego being confronted by her sexual impulses, and asked her whether she believed this when she did not seem convinced, she said she was actually worried that she was being boring, and that she thought this often and with everyone.

Private practice.

Beck requested a sabbatical and would go into private practice for five years.  In 1962, he was already making notes about patterns of thoughts in depression, emphasizing what can be observed and tested by anyone and treated in the present. He strengthened the new alliance with the psychiatrist Stunkard, and extended his links to psychologist colleagues such as Seymour Feshbach and Irving Sigel, thus keeping abreast of developments in cognitive psychology, as he did also from the new Center for Cognitive Science at Harvard University. He was particularly engaged with George Kelly's personal construct theory and Jean Piaget's schemas. Beck's first articles on the cognitive theory of depression, in 1963 and 1964 in the "Archives of General Psychiatry", maintained the psychiatric context of ego psychology but then turned to concepts of realistic and scientific thinking in the terms of the new cognitive psychology, extended to become a therapeutic need.  Beck's notebooks were also filled with self-analysis, where at least twice a day for several years he wrote out his own "negative" (later "automatic") thoughts, rated with a percentile belief score, classified and restructured.  The psychologist who would become most important for Beck was Albert Ellis, whose own faith in psychoanalysis had crumbled by the 1950s. He had begun presenting his "rational therapy" by the mid 1950s. Beck recalls that Ellis contacted him in the mid 1960s after his two articles in the "Archives of General Psychiatry", and therefore he discovered Ellis had developed a rich theory and pragmatic therapy that he was able to use to some extent as a framework blended with his own, though he disliked Ellis's technique of telling patients what he thought was going on rather than helping the client to learn for themselves empirically. Psychoanalyst Gerald E. Kochansky remarked in 1975 in a review of one of Beck's books that he could no longer tell if Beck was a psychoanalyst or a devotee of Ellis. Beck highlighted the classical philosophical Socratic method as an inspiration, while Ellis highlighted disputation which he stated was not anti-empirical and taught people how to dispute internally. Both Beck and Ellis cited aspects of the ancient philosophical system of stoicism as a forerunner to their ideas, though Ellis wrote more about this; both mistakenly cited Cicero as a stoic.  In 1967, becoming active again at University of Pennsylvania, Beck still described himself and his new therapy (as he always would quietly) as neo-Freudian in the ego psychology school, albeit focused on interactions with the environment rather than internal drives. He offered cognitive therapy work as a relatively "neutral" space and a bridge to psychology. With a monograph on depression that Beck published in 1967, according to historian Rachael Rosner: "Cognitive Therapy entered the marketplace as a corrective experimentalist psychological framework both for himself and his patients and for his fellow psychiatrists."

Cognitive therapy.

Working with depressed patients, Beck found that they experienced streams of negative thoughts that seemed to pop up spontaneously. He termed these cognitions "automatic thoughts", and discovered that their content fell into three categories: negative ideas about oneself, the world, and the future. He stated that such cognitions were interrelated as the cognitive triad. Limited time spent reflecting on automatic thoughts would lead patients to treat them as valid.  Beck began helping patients identify and evaluate these thoughts and found that by doing so, patients were able to think more realistically, which led them to feel better emotionally and behave more functionally. He developed key ideas in CBT, explaining that different disorders were associated with different types of distorted thinking. Distorted thinking has a negative effect on a person's behaviour no matter what type of disorder they had, he found. Beck explained that successful interventions will educate a person to understand and become aware of their distorted thinking, and how to challenge its effects. He discovered that frequent negative automatic thoughts reveal a person's core beliefs. He explained that core beliefs are formed over lifelong experiences; we "feel" these beliefs to be true.  Since that time, Beck and his colleagues worldwide have researched the efficacy of this form of psychotherapy in treating a wide variety of disorders including depression, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, drug abuse, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, and many other medical conditions with psychological components. Cognitive therapy has also been applied with success to individuals with anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and many other medical and psychiatric disorders. Some of Beck's most recent work has focused on cognitive therapy for schizophrenia, borderline personality disorder, and for patients who have had recurrent suicide attempts.  Beck’s recent research on the treatment of schizophrenia has suggested that patients once believed to be non-responsive to treatment are amenable to positive change. Even the most severe presentations of the illness, such as those involving long periods of hospitalization, bizarre behavior, poor personal hygiene, self-injury, and aggressiveness, can respond positively to a modified version of cognitive behavioural treatment. Called recovery-oriented cognitive therapy (CT-R), the approach focused less on the amelioration of symptoms, but instead, on empowering the individual to identify and attain meaningful goals and a desired life.  However, some mental health professionals have opposed Beck's cognitive models and resulting therapies as too mechanistic or too limited in which parts of mental activity they will consider. From within the CBT community itself, one line of research using component analyses (dismantling studies) has found that the addition of cognitive strategies often fails to show superior efficacy over behavioral strategies alone, and that attempts to challenge thoughts can sometimes have a rebound effect. Moreover, although Beck's work was presented as a far more scientific and experimentally-based development than psychoanalysis (while being less reductive than behaviourism), Beck's key principles were not necessarily based on the general findings and models of cognitive psychology or neuroscience developing at that time but were derived from personal clinical observations and interpretations in his therapy office. And although there have been many cognitive models developed for different mental disorders and hundreds of outcome studies on the effectiveness of CBT—relatively easy because of the narrow, time-limited and manual-based nature of the treatment—there has been much less focus on experimentally proving the supposedly active mechanisms; in some cases the predicted causal relationships have not been found, such as between dysfunctional attitudes and outcomes.

Organizations.

Beck is involved in research studies at the University of Pennsylvania, and conducts biweekly Case Conferences at Beck Institute for area psychiatric residents, graduate students, and mental health professionals. He meets every two weeks with conference participants and generally does 2-3 role plays. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2007.  Beck is the founder and President Emeritus of the non-profit Beck Institute for Cognitive Therapy and Research, and the director of the Psychopathology Research Center (PRC), which is the parent organization of the Center for the Treatment and Prevention of Suicide. In 1986, he was a visiting scientist at Oxford University.  He has been professor emeritus at Penn since 1992, and an adjunct professor at both Temple University and University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey.  In recent years, cognitive therapy has been disseminated outside academic settings, including throughout the United Kingdom, and in a program developed by Beck and the City of Philadelphia.

Questionnaires.

As well as the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), he developed the Beck Hopelessness Scale, Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation (BSS), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Beck Youth Inventories, Clark-Beck Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (CBOCI), and BDI–Fast Screen for Medical Patients.  Beck collaborated with psychologist Maria Kovacs in the development of the Children's Depression Inventory, which used the BDI as a model.  Beck has received honorary degrees from Yale University, University of Pennsylvania, Brown University, Assumption College, and Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine.

Selected awards and honors.

In 2017, Medscape named Beck the fourth most influential physician in the past century.

Aaron Temkin Beck (born July 18, 1921) is an American psychiatrist who is professor emeritus in the department of psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania. He is regarded as the father of both cognitive therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy. His pioneering theories are widely used in the treatment of clinical depression and various anxiety disorders. Beck also developed self-report measures of depression and anxiety, notably the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) which became one of the most widely used instruments for measuring depression severity.

亚伦·特姆金·贝克(英语:Aaron Temkin Beck,1921年-7月18日),美国精神病医生,同时也是宾夕法尼亚大学精神病学的名誉教授。他是认知疗法之父,他开创性的理论被广泛应用于临床治疗抑郁症。贝克还开发了抑郁症及焦虑症的自我评估量表,像是贝克抑郁量表(BDI)、贝克绝望量表、贝克自杀意念量表(BSS)、贝克焦虑量表(BAI)以及和贝克儿童及青少年量表。


Architecture.

While designing it after the Vatican Basilica, Lebanese architect Pierre Fakhoury constructed the dome to be slightly lower than the Basilica of Saint Peter, but ornamented with a larger cross on top. The finished height is. The dome is more than twice the diameter of St. Peter's in Rome, 90 metres versus 41 metres (300 ft versus 136 ft). The base of the dome is much lower than St. Peter's, so the overall height is slightly less. The basilica is constructed with marble imported from Italy and is furnished with of contemporary stained glass from France..  Columns are plentiful throughout the basilica but are not uniform in style; the smaller columns are there for structural reasons, while the bigger ones are decorative and contain elevators, rainwater evacuation from the roof and other building mechanical devices. There is enough space to seat 7,000 people in the nave, with standing room for an additional 11,000 people. Apart from the basilica are two identical villas. One of the villas accommodates the clergymen who operate the basilica. A room in the other villa is reserved for papal visits, of which only one has occurred: when the basilica was consecrated.  The wood chosen for the 7000 pews in the Our Lady of Peace Basilica is Iroko wood.

Construction.

The Basilica was built by Dumez, the French construction company.  The cost of the basilica was met with some controversy globally when construction began, especially as the Côte d'Ivoire was going through an economic and fiscal crisis at the time. Pope John Paul II agreed to consecrate the basilica on the condition that a hospital also be built nearby. This hospital, whose construction was frozen during the politico-military crisis from 2002 to 2011, was finally completed in 2014 and opened in January 2015, at a cost of €21.3 million.  It was claimed that the final cost of the Basilica doubled Côte d'Ivoire's national debt, but this actually isn't found in the underlying data.

Memorial.

Côte d'Ivoire President Houphouët-Boigny chose his birthplace of Yamoussoukro to be the future site of the new capital city of his country in 1983. As part of the plan of the city, the president wanted to memorialize himself with the construction of what he called the greatest church in the world. He is even pictured beside Jesus in one stained-glass panel ascending to heaven. Due to the location of the Basilica, it was dubbed by the media as "Basilica in the Bush". Houphouët-Boigny believed it would become a pilgrimage site for African Catholics.

The Basilica of Our Lady of Peace () is a Catholic minor basilica dedicated to Our Lady of Peace in Yamoussoukro, the administrative capital of Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast). The basilica was constructed between 1985 and 1989 with different cost estimates given by various groups. Some stated that it cost US$175 million, US$300 million, or US$400 million, ranging as high as US$600 million. The designs of the dome and encircled plaza are clearly inspired by the Basilica of Saint Peter in Vatican City, although it is not an outright replica. The cornerstone was laid on 10 August 1985, and it was consecrated on 10 September 1990 by Pope John Paul II, who had just formally accepted the basilica as a gift from Félix Houphouët-Boigny on behalf of the Catholic Church.

亚穆苏克罗和平之后大殿()是科特迪瓦行政首都亚穆苏克罗的一座罗马天主教次级圣殿,兴建于1985-1989年,耗资3亿美元。其圆顶和环形广场的设计显然受到了梵蒂冈的圣伯多禄大殿的启发,不过并非完全模仿,圆顶略低于圣伯多禄大殿,而顶部的十字架更大一些。奠基于1985年8月10日,1990年9月10日由教宗若望保禄二世祝圣。


History.

Lee Newman patented a felt-tipped marking pen in 1910. In 1926, Benjamin Paskach patented a "fountain paintbrush", as he called it, which consisted of a sponge-tipped handle containing various paint colors. Markers of this sort began to be popularized with the sale of Sidney Rosenthal's Magic Marker (1953), which consisted of a glass tube of ink with a felt wick. By 1958, use of felt-tipped markers was commonplace for a variety of applications such as lettering, labeling, and creating posters. The year 1962 brought the development of the modern fiber-tipped pen (in contrast to the marker, which generally has a thicker point) by Yukio Horie of the Tokyo Stationery Company (which later became Pentel). In 1993 the Copic Sketch markers were released, popularising markers for professional illustration.

Parts.

The marker reservoir, which holds the ink, is formed from polyester. The "felt" used for the tip is usually made of highly compressed synthetic fibers or porous ceramics. Toluol and xylol were used as solvents for the dye and are still used for the indelible ink in permanent markers. Due to their toxicity, they have often been replaced with less critical substances such as alkyl or cyclic alkylene carbonates (like propylene carbonate) in other types of markers. Water content of the ink can be up to 10%. Besides solvents and the dye itself, the ink may contain additives (e.g. nonylphenylpolyglycol ether, alkylpoly-glycol ether, fatty acid polyglycol ester, or fatty alcohol ethoxalates) and preservatives (e.g. 2-Phenylphenol and its sodium salt, 6-acetoxy-2,4-dimethyl-m-dioxane).

Types.

Permanent marker.

Permanent markers are porous pens that can write on surfaces such as glass, plastic, wood, metal, and stone. The marks made by such pens are however, not permanent on some plastics like Teflon, polypropylene etc., and can be erased easily. The ink is generally resistant to rubbing and water, and can last for many years. Depending on the surface and the marker used, however, the marks can often be removed with either vigorous scrubbing or chemicals such as acetone. They are highly regarded by colorists and artists around the world.

Highlighters.

Highlighters are a form of marker used to highlight and cover over existing writing while still leaving the writing readable. They are generally produced in neon colours to allow for colour coding, as well as attract buyers to them.

Whiteboard markers.

A whiteboard marker, or a dry-erase marker in some locations, uses an erasable ink, made to be used on a slick (or matte-finished), non-porous writing surface, for temporary writing with overhead projectors, whiteboards, and the like. They are designed so that the user is able to easily erase the marks using either a damp cloth, tissue, handkerchief, baby wipe, or other easily cleaned or disposable items. Generally, people use fabrics to do so, but others use items like paper, clothing items, some even use their bare hands to wipe it clear. The erasable ink does not contain the toxic chemical compounds xylene and/or toluene as have been used in permanent markers, being less of a risk to being used as a recreational drug.  Wet-wipe markers are another version that are used on overhead projectors, signboards, whiteboards, and other non-porous surfaces.

Security marker.

Special "security" markers, with fluorescent but otherwise invisible inks, are used for marking valuables in case of burglary. The owner of a stolen, but recovered item can be determined by using ultraviolet light to make the writing visible.

Election marker.

Marker pens with election ink (an indelible dye and often a photosensitive agent such as silver nitrate) used to mark the finger, and especially the cuticle, of voters in elections in order to prevent electoral fraud such as double voting. The stain stays visible for a week or two and may also be used to assist in vaccinations.

Porous point pen.

A "porous point pen" contains a point that is made of some porous material such as felt or ceramic. Draftsman's pens usually have a ceramic tip since this wears well and does not broaden when pressure is applied while writing.

Dialectal Variations.

The use of the terms "marker" and "felt-tipped pen" varies significantly among different parts of the world. This is because most English dialects contain words for particular types of marker, often generic brand names, but there are no such terms in widespread international use.

Asia.

In some parts of India, water-based felt-tip pens are referred to as "sketch pens" because they are mainly used for sketching and writing on paper or cardboard. The permanent ink felt-tip markers are referred to as just "markers". In Malaysia and Singapore, marker pens are simply called markers. In the Philippines, a marker is commonly referred to as a "Pentel pen", regardless of brand. In Indonesia, a marker pen is referred to as "Spidol". In South Korea and Japan, marker pens are referred to as "sign pens", "name pens", or "felt pens". In Japan, permanent pens are also referred to as "Magic" (from a famous pen brand name). In Iran, felt-tip pens are referred to as "Magic" or "Highlight" regardless of its brand.

Australia.

In Australia, the term "marker" usually refers only to large-tip markers, and the terms "felt-tip" and "felt pen" usually refer only to fine-tip markers. Markers in Australia are often generically called "texta", after a brand name of a type of permanent marker. Some variation in naming convention occurs between the states, for example in Queensland the brand name "nikko" has been commonly adopted.

New Zealand.

The generic terms for fine-tipped markers are usually "felt pen" or "felts". Large permanent markers are called 'vivids' after a popular brand sold there, the Bic Stephens Vivid

South Africa.

In South Africa, the term "Koki" is used for both felt pens and markers, by South Africans, as well as the standard "marker".

Canada and United States.

In the United States, the word "marker" is used as well as "magic marker", the latter being a genericized trademark. The word "sharpie" is also now used as a genericized trademark.  In Canada and the US, "Magic Marker" is sometimes used to refer to "reveal markers" for "magic picture books" where the colors of a picture are revealed by a colorless marker. Sharpie is a popular brand of permanent markers used for labeling. Markers are also sometimes referred to as felt-pens or felts in some parts of Canada.

A marker pen, fineliner, marking pen, felt-tip pen, flow marker, texta (in Australia), sketch pen (in South Asia) or koki (in South Africa), is a pen which has its own ink source and a tip made of porous, pressed fibers such as felt. A permanent marker consists of a container (glass, aluminum or plastic) and a core of an absorbent material. This filling serves as a carrier for the ink. The upper part of the marker contains the nib that was made in earlier times of a hard felt material, and a cap to prevent the marker from drying out. Until the early 1990s, the most common solvents that were used for the ink were toluene and xylene. These two substances are both harmful and characterized by a very strong smell. Today, the ink is usually made on the basis of alcohols (e.g. 1-Propanol, 1-butanol, diacetone alcohol and cresols). Markers may be waterproof, dry-erase, wet-erase (e.g. transparency markers), or permanent.

马克笔(英语:Marker pen),又名高级多色型记号笔。文具厂商称之为唛克笔,唛音同马克笔 简体字同马克笔。在中国大陆统称为马克笔,马克笔是一种书写或绘画专用的绘图彩色笔,本身含有墨水,且通常附有笔盖,一般拥有坚硬笔头。


History.

The first simple pipettes were made in glass, such as Pasteur pipettes. Large pipettes continue to be made in glass; others are made in squeezable plastic for situations where an exact volume is not required.  The first micropipette was patented in 1957 by Dr Heinrich Schnitger (Marburg, Germany). The founder of the company Eppendorf, Dr. Heinrich Netheler, inherited the rights and started the commercial production of micropipettes in 1961.  The adjustable micropipette is a Wisconsin invention developed through interactions among several people, primarily inventor Warren Gilson and Henry Lardy, a professor of biochemistry at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.

Nomenclature.

Although specific descriptive names exist for each type of pipette, in practice any type of pipette will merely be referred to as a "pipette" and the desired device will be obvious from context. Sometimes, pipettes that dispense between 1 and 1000 μl are distinguished as micropipettes, while macropipettes dispense greater volumes.

Common pipettes.

Air displacement micropipettes.

Air displacement micropipettes are a type of adjustable micropipette that deliver a measured volume of liquid; depending on size, it could be between about 0.1 μl to 1000 μl (1 ml). These pipettes require disposable tips that come in contact with the fluid. The four standard sizes of micropipettes correspond to four different disposable tip colors: These pipettes operate by piston-driven air displacement. A vacuum is generated by the vertical travel of a metal or ceramic piston within an airtight sleeve. As the piston moves upward, driven by the depression of the plunger, a vacuum is created in the space left vacant by the piston. The liquid around the tip moves into this vacuum (along with the air in the tip) and can then be transported and released as necessary. These pipettes are capable of being very precise and accurate. However, since they rely on air displacement, they are subject to inaccuracies caused by the changing environment, particularly temperature and user technique. For these reasons this equipment must be carefully maintained and calibrated, and users must be trained to exercise correct and consistent technique.  The micropipette was invented and patented in 1960 by Dr. Heinrich Schnitger in Marburg, Germany. Afterwards, the co-founder of the biotechnology company Eppendorf, Dr. Heinrich Netheler, inherited the rights and initiated the global and general use of micropipettes in labs. In 1972, the adjustable micropipette was invented at the University of Wisconsin-Madison by several people, primarily Warren Gilson and Henry Lardy.  Micropipettes brands include Gilson, Starlab, Eppendorf, Hamilton, Rainin, Drummond, BrandTech, Oxford, Hirschmann, Biohit, Labnet, Nichiryo, Socorex, Corning, VistaLab, Thermo, Jencons, Vertex, Handypett, Microlit and Pricisexx. Types of air displacement pipettes include:  Irrespective of brand or expense of pipette, every micropipette manufacturer recommends checking the calibration at least every six months, if used regularly. Companies in the drug or food industries are required to calibrate their pipettes quarterly (every three months). Schools which are conducting chemistry classes can have this process annually. Those studying forensics and research where a great deal of testing is commonplace will perform monthly calibrations.

Electronic pipette.

To minimize the possible development of musculoskeletal disorders due to repetitive pipetting, electronic pipettes commonly replace the mechanical version.

Positive displacement pipette.

These are similar to air displacement pipettes, but are less commonly used and are used to avoid contamination and for volatile or viscous substances at small volumes, such as DNA. The major difference is that the disposable tip is a microsyringe (plastic), composed of a capillary and a piston (movable inner part) which directly displaces the liquid.

Volumetric pipettes.

Volumetric pipettes or bulb pipette allow the user to measure a volume of solution extremely precisely (precision of four significant figures). These pipettes have a large bulb with a long narrow portion above with a single graduation mark as it is calibrated for a single volume (like a volumetric flask). Typical volumes are 10, 25, and 50 mL. Volumetric pipettes are commonly used to make laboratory solutions from a base stock as well as prepare solutions for titration.

Graduated pipettes.

Graduated pipettes are a type of macropipette consisting of a long tube with a series of graduations, as on a graduated cylinder or burette, to indicate different calibrated volumes. They also require a source of vacuum; in the early days of chemistry and biology, the mouth was used. The safety regulations included the statement: "Never pipette by mouth KCN, NH3, strong acids, bases and mercury salts". Some pipettes were manufactured with two bubbles between the mouth piece and the solution level line, to protect the chemist from accidental swallowing of the solution.

Pasteur pipette.

Pasteur pipettes are plastic or glass pipettes used to transfer small amounts of liquids, but are not graduated calibrated for any particular volume. The bulb is separate from the pipette body. Pasteur pipettes are also called teat pipettes, droppers, eye droppers and chemical droppers.

Transfer pipettes.

Transfer pipettes, also known as Beral pipettes, are similar to Pasteur pipettes but are made from a single piece of plastic and their bulb can serve as the liquid-holding chamber.

Specialized pipettes.

Pipetting syringe.

Pipetting syringes are hand-held devices that combine the functions of volumetric (bulb) pipettes, graduated pipettes, and burettes. They are calibrated to ISO volumetric A grade standards. A glass or plastic pipette tube is used with a thumb-operated piston and PTFE seal which slides within the pipette in a positive displacement operation. Such a device can be used on a wide variety of fluids (aqueous, viscous, and volatile fluids; hydrocarbons; essential oils; and mixtures) in volumes between 0.5 mL and 25 mL. This arrangement provides improvements in precision, handling safety, reliability, economy, and versatility. No disposable tips or pipetting aids are needed with the pipetting syringe.

Van Slyke pipette.

A graduated pipette commonly used in medical technology with serologic pipettes for volumetric analysis. Invented by Donald Dexter Van Slyke.

Ostwald–Folin pipette.

A special pipette used in measuring viscous fluid such as whole blood. Common in medical technology laboratory setups together with other pipettes. Invented by Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald, a Baltic German Chemist and later refined by Otto Folin, an American chemist.

Glass micropipette.

These are used to physically interact with microscopic samples, such as in the procedures of microinjection and patch clamping. Most micropipettes are made of borosilicate, aluminosilicate or quartz with many types and sizes of glass tubing being available. Each of these compositions has unique properties which will determine suitable applications.  Glass micropipettes are fabricated in a micropipette puller and are typically used in a micromanipulator.

Microfluidic pipette.

A recent introduction into the micropipette field integrates the versatility of microfluidics into a freely positionable pipette platform. At the tip of the device a localized flow zone is created, allowing for constant control of the nanoliter environment, directly in front of the pipette. The pipettes are made from polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) which is formed using reactive injection molding. Interfacing of these pipettes using pneumatics enables multiple solutions to be loaded and switched on demand, with solution exchanged times of 100ms. Invented by Alar Ainla, currently situated in the Biophysical Technology Lab at Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden.

Extremely low volume pipettes.

A zeptoliter pipette has been developed at Brookhaven National Laboratory. The pipette is made of a carbon shell, within which is an alloy of gold-germanium. The pipette was used to learn about how crystallization takes place.

Robots.

Pipette robots are capable of manipulating the pipettes as humans would do.

Calibration.

Pipette recalibration is an important consideration in laboratories using these devices. It is the act of determining the accuracy of a measuring device by comparison with NIST traceable reference standards. Pipette calibration is essential to ensure that the instrument is working according to expectations and as per the defined regimes or work protocols. Pipette calibration is considered to be a complex affair because it includes many elements of calibration procedure and several calibration protocol options as well as makes and models of pipettes to consider.

Posture and Injuries.

Proper pipetting posture is the most important element in establishing good ergonomic work practices. During repetitive tasks such as pipetting, maintaining body positions that provide a maximum of strength with the least amount of muscular stress is important to minimize the risk of injury. A number of common pipetting techniques have been identified as potentially hazardous due to biomechanical stress factors. Recommendations for corrective pipetting actions, made by various US governmental agencies and ergonomics experts, are presented below.  Unlike traditional axial pipettes, ergonomic pipetting can affect posture and prevent common pipetting injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis and other musculoskeletal disorders. To be "ergonomically correct" significant changes to traditional pipetting postures are essential, like: minimizing forearm and wrist rotations, keeping a low arm and elbow height and relaxing the shoulders and upper arms.

Pipette stand.

Typically the pipettes are vertically stored on holder called pipette stands. In case of electronic pipettes, such stand can recharge their batteries. The most advance pipette stand can directly control electronic pipettes.

Alternatives.

An alternative technology, especially for transferring small volumes (micro and nano litre range) is acoustic droplet ejection.

A pipette (sometimes spelled pipet) is a laboratory tool commonly used in chemistry, biology and medicine to transport a measured volume of liquid, often as a media dispenser. Pipettes come in several designs for various purposes with differing levels of accuracy and precision, from single piece glass pipettes to more complex adjustable or electronic pipettes. Many pipette types work by creating a partial vacuum above the liquid-holding chamber and selectively releasing this vacuum to draw up and dispense liquid. Measurement accuracy varies greatly depending on the style.

移液器(英语:pipette, pipet, pipettor 或 chemical dropper),又称「定量吸管」、「移液管」、「吸量管」,港台口语上常以英语名称来称呼。是一种实验室器材,专门用来量测液体体积,并将其吸取以滴入其他容器。常使用于生物学实验或化学实验。通过多种设计来实现不同的准确与精密度,包括从简单的一片玻璃制作的吸管,到复杂的可调的或电控的吸管。 许多移液管可使液面上方容器形成局部真空,并通过选择性地调节真空体积来吸取或排出液体。其测量的准确度因种类不同而差别巨大。


Participating countries.

Five countries participate in the corps as member nations. The treaty allows for any EU member state to become a Eurocorps member state, subject to the approval of existing Eurocorps members.  Additionally, four states are associated, and have thus pledged to contribute personnel to the staff. Poland was accepted as a member in 2010. This was expected to become effective from 1 January 2016, but was delayed to January 2017. However, a change in government with the 2015 Polish election led to the application for full membership being withdrawn in favour of remaining an associate member. On 25 February 2003, Austria and Finland signed a treaty which allowed them to send staff to the headquarters of the corps. Finland remained an associated nation of the corps until 2005, and Austria until 2011. Romania became an associated nation in April 2016. In addition, the Netherlands and United Kingdom have sent liaison officers to the headquarters of the corps.  Member nations:  Associated nations:  Former associated nations:

Organisation.

The European Corps is not subordinate to any other military organisation. It is deployed on the authority of the Common Committee representing the member nations, the Chief of Defense, and the Political Director of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. This committee considers requests for support from multinational organizations such as the UN, NATO, OSCE or EU. The Corps can also be deployed at the request of the framework nations.

Command structure.

The headquarters of the corps is based in Strasbourg near the Franco-German border, the seat of several European institutions. The headquarters contains the following units:  German and French were the official languages at the corps until August 2002. English is now the working language.

Subordinate units.

Operational Command.

The Franco-German Brigade, with 6,000 troops, is the only military formation permanently under the operational command of corps. The brigade is stationed in Müllheim, Donaueschingen, Immendingen, Sigmaringen, Meßstetten, Stetten am kalten Markt, Villingen-Schwenningen in Germany and Illkirch-Grafenstaden in France. Additional affiliated formations could be placed under command of the corps headquarters for specific operations, for example in support of EU or NATO rapid-response missions. The five framework countries have earmarked the following units and formations to the corps:

Affiliated units and formations.

In addition to the Franco-German Brigade, a number of nations have earmarked units or formations that they have affiliated to the corps HQ. These do not come under the permanent command of corps but rather can be provided to the corps for specific operations. For example,  Except for the Franco-German Brigade and the staff of the Multinational Command Support Brigade (MNCS Bde) who are permanently under operational command of the headquarters, these national contributions remain under national command in peacetime. They can become fully subordinated only after Transfer of Authority has been decided by member states.  The size and type of corps units required in operations depends on the nature and scope of assigned missions, likely deployment and the expected operational outcome. In the case that all earmarked national contributions are committed, the corps would theoretically comprise approximately 60,000 troops.

Operations.

The corps has:

Relationship with EU defence policy.

The European Corps is presently not established at the EU level (referred to as the Common Security and Defence Policy, CSDP); it is for instance not a project of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) of the CSDP. The European Corps and its assets may however contribute in the implementation of the CSDP, when made available as a "multinational force" in accordance with article 42.3 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU).

The European Corps (Eurocorps) is an intergovernmental military corps with its headquarters of approximately 1,000 soldiers stationed in Strasbourg, Alsace, France. The corps had its headquarters established in May 1992, activated in October 1993 and declared operational in 1995. The nucleus of the force is the Franco-German Brigade established in 1987. The Treaty of Strasbourg, signed in 2004, gave the corps its formal legal basis when it entered into force on 26 February 2009.

欧洲军团是欧洲的一个跨国军事组织,其共有约一千名士兵,驻扎于法国斯特拉斯堡。该组织在1992年5月建设总部,1995年开始正式运作。1987年成立的法德混合旅是其关键组成部分。


亚历山大·格里戈里耶维奇·阿鲁秋年

Biography.

Arutiunian was born in Yerevan, Armenia, in the family of Grigor and Eleonora Arutiunian. His father was a military serviceman. In 1927, Arutiunian became a member of the Yerevan State Conservatory’s children group, then, at age 14, he was admitted to the Conservatory to the studios of Olga Babasyan (piano), and Sergei Barkhudaryan and Vardges Talyan (composition). He graduated from the Music Conservatory of Yerevan on the eve of World War II. After the war he moved to Moscow, where between 1946 and 1948 he participated in the workshops of House of Armenian Culture, studied composition with Genrikh Litinsky. After graduation he returned to Yerevan to teach at the local Conservatory and in 1954 he was appointed artistic director of the Armenian State Philharmony. He was also a member of the Board of the USSR Composers' Union, as well as of the Armenian SSR Composers’ Union.  In 1949, Arutiunian was awarded the Stalin Prize for his cantata "Motherland", a graduation piece he wrote as a student at the Moscow Conservatory. The USSR Radio Choir and Orchestra premiered this work in November 1948.  In 1949, Arutiunian composed the "Festive Overture" that was first performed in the Big Hall of the Leningrad Philharmonic in November 1949, with Evgeny Mravinsky conducting. During the Moscow Music Congress Aram Khachaturian considered him as a promising Soviet composer. He continued to win acclaim at home and abroad for his works, many of which are quickened by the folk traditions of Armenian music. Other works of that kind include "The tale of Armenian people" (1960), "Ode to Lenin" (1967) and "Hymn to the brotherhood" (1970).  Some of Arutiunian's works for wind instruments include his 1950 concerto for trumpet, the concerto for tuba, and the brass quintet "Armenian Scenes". In 1988, inspired by the Spitak earthquake, Arutiunian composed his Concerto for Violin and String Orchestra, "Armenia-88" (dedicated to Ruben Aharonyan). The premiere took place in Yerevan in 1989.  In September 2010 Arutiunian's 90th birthday was celebrated by a series of concerts.

Trumpet Concerto in A-flat major (1950).

Arutiunian's "Trumpet Concerto" consists of the following movements:  The melodic and rhythmic characteristics of Armenian folk music are a strong influence in Arutiunian's work. As a composer, he expressed his nationality by incorporating the flavor of ashughner (folk minstrel) improvisations. At the time the concerto was written, his compositional style was similar to Khachaturian's. However, in the 1960s he tended towards classical forms and clearer tonality.  Arutiunian's trumpet concerto was his sixth major composition, written in 1950. Arutiunian originally intended to write it in 1943 for a student of Tabakov, Zsolak Vartasarian, who was the principal trumpet in the Armenian Philharmonic Orchestra. However, Vartasarian died in the war and the concerto was not completed until 1950, so Aykaz Messlayan was the first performer of the Concerto and Timofei Dokschitzer was the first to record this concerto.  The concerto's introduction to the United States is solely due to Dokschitzer, a leading Soviet Russian trumpeter.

Personal life.

In 1950, Arutiunian married Irina (Tamara) Odenova. Their marriage produced two children, a daughter, Narine (born 1951), who is a pianist and lawyer; and a son, Suren (born 1953), who is an artist-designer. His extended family includes 3 granddaughters and a grandson. He died, aged 91, in his home city of Yerevan. Arutiunian is buried at the Komitas Pantheon which is located in the city center of Yerevan.

Works.

Important works include:

Alexander Grigori Arutiunian (), also known as Arutunian, Arutyunyan, Arutjunjan, Harutyunian or Harutiunian (23 September 1920 – 28 March 2012), was a Soviet and Armenian composer and pianist, widely known for his 1950 trumpet concerto. A professor at Yerevan State Conservatory, he was recognized with many awards for his work, including the Stalin Prize in 1949 and People's Artist of the USSR in 1970, as well as numerous honors from his homeland of Armenia.

亚历山大·格里戈里耶维奇·阿鲁秋年(,,拉丁转写:,1920年-9月23日-2012年-3月28日),苏联和亚美尼亚作曲家。早年在埃里温学习,1948年获得苏联国家奖金,并获得哈恰图良的青睐。他一直和苏联当局保持合作关系,并创作一些具有亚美尼亚民族风格的音乐。阿鲁秋年擅长写作管乐作品,他的小号协奏曲非常著名。


Equivalent forms of statement of the law.

An equivalent statement of the Dulong–Petit law in modern terms is that, regardless of the nature of the substance, the specific heat capacity "c" of a solid element (measured in joule per kelvin per kilogram) is equal to 3"R"/"M", where "R" is the gas constant (measured in joule per kelvin per mole) and "M" is the molar mass (measured in kilogram per mole). Thus, the heat capacity per mole of many elements is 3"R".  The initial form of the Dulong–Petit law was:  where "K" is a constant which we know today is about 3"R".  In modern terms the mass "m" of the sample divided by molar mass "M" gives the number of moles "n".  Therefore, using uppercase "C" for the full heat capacity (in joule per kelvin), we have:  or  Therefore, the heat capacity of most solid crystalline substances is 3"R" per mole of substance.  Dulong and Petit did not state their law in terms of the gas constant "R" (which was not then known). Instead, they measured the values of heat capacities (per weight) of substances and found them smaller for substances of greater atomic weight as inferred by Dalton and other early atomists. Dulong and Petit then found that when multiplied by these atomic weights, the value for the heat capacity per mole was nearly constant, and equal to a value which was later recognized to be 3"R".  In other modern terminology, the dimensionless heat capacity ("C"/"NR") is equal to 3.  The law can also be written as a function of the total number of atoms "N" in the sample:  where "k" is Boltzmann constant.

Application limits.

Despite its simplicity, Dulong–Petit law offers fairly good prediction for the heat capacity of many elementary solids with relatively simple crystal structure at high temperatures. This agreement is because in the classical statistical theory of Ludwig Boltzmann, the heat capacity of solids approaches a maximum of 3"R" per mole of atoms because full vibrational-mode degrees of freedom amount to 3 degrees of freedom per atom, each corresponding to a quadratic kinetic energy term and a quadratic potential energy term. By the equipartition theorem, the average of each quadratic term is "k""T", or "RT" per mole (see derivation below). Multiplied by 3 degrees of freedom and the two terms per degree of freedom, this amounts to 3"R" per mole heat capacity.  The Dulong–Petit law fails at room temperatures for light atoms bonded strongly to each other, such as in metallic beryllium and in carbon as diamond. Here, it predicts higher heat capacities than are actually found, with the difference due to higher-energy vibrational modes not being populated at room temperatures in these substances.  In the very low (cryogenic) temperature region, where the quantum mechanical nature of energy storage in all solids manifests itself with larger and larger effect, the law fails for all substances. For crystals under such conditions, the Debye model, an extension of the Einstein theory that accounts for statistical distributions in atomic vibration when there are lower amounts of energy to distribute, works well.

Derivation for an Einstein solid.

A system of vibrations in a crystalline solid lattice can be modelled as an Einstein solid, i.e. by considering "N" quantum harmonic oscillator potentials along each degree of freedom. Then, the free energy of the system can be written as  where the index "α" sums over all the degrees of freedom. In the 1907 Einstein model (as opposed to the later Debye model) we consider only the high-energy limit:  Then  and we have  Define "geometric mean frequency" by  where "g" measures the total number of spatial degrees of freedom of the system.  Thus we have  Using energy  we have  This gives heat capacity at constant volume  which is independent of the temperature.  For another more precise derivation, see Debye model.

The Dulong–Petit law, a thermodynamic law proposed in 1819 by French physicists Pierre Louis Dulong and Alexis Thérèse Petit, states the classical expression for the molar specific heat capacity of certain chemical elements. Experimentally the two scientists had found that the heat capacity per weight (the mass-specific heat capacity) for a number of elements was close to a constant value, "after" it had been multiplied by a number representing the presumed relative atomic weight of the element. These atomic weights had shortly before been suggested by John Dalton and modified by Jacob Berzelius.

杜隆-珀蒂定律(英语:Dulong-Petit law)是物理学中描述结晶态固体由于晶格振动而具有的比热容的经典定律,由法国化学家皮埃尔·路易·杜隆(Pierre Louis Dulong)和阿列克西·泰雷兹·珀蒂(Alexis Thérèse Petit)于1819年提出。


Early development.

On July 18, 1877, Thomas Edison and his team invented the phonograph. His first successful recording and reproduction of intelligible sounds, achieved early in the following December, used a thin sheet of tin foil wrapped around a hand-cranked grooved metal cylinder. Tin foil was not a practical recording medium for either commercial or artistic purposes and the crude hand-cranked phonograph was only marketed as a novelty, to little or no profit. Edison moved on to developing a practical incandescent electric light and the next improvements to sound recording technology were made by others.  Following seven years of research and experimentation at their Volta Laboratory, Charles Sumner Tainter, Alexander Graham Bell, and Chichester Bell introduced wax as the recording medium and engraving, rather than indenting, as the recording method. In 1887, their "Graphophone" system was being put to the test of practical use by official reporters of the US Congress, with commercial units later being produced by the Dictaphone Corporation. After this system was demonstrated to Edison's representatives, Edison quickly resumed work on the phonograph. He settled on a thicker all-wax cylinder, the surface of which could be repeatedly shaved down for reuse. Both the Graphophone and Edison's "Perfected Phonograph" were commercialized in 1888. Eventually, a patent-sharing agreement was signed and the wax-coated cardboard tubes were abandoned in favor of Edison's all-wax cylinders as an interchangeable standard format.  Beginning in 1885, prerecorded wax cylinders were marketed. These have professionally made recordings of songs, instrumental music or humorous monologues in their grooves. At first, the only customers for them were proprietors of nickel-in-the-slot machines—the first juke boxes—installed in arcades and taverns, but within a few years private owners of phonographs were increasingly buying them for home use. Each cylinder can easily be placed on and removed from the mandrel of the machine used to play them. Unlike later, shorter-playing high-speed cylinders, early cylinder recordings were usually cut at a speed of about 120 rpm and can play for as long as 3 minutes. They were made of a relatively soft wax formulation and would wear out after they were played a few dozen times. The buyer could then use a mechanism which left their surfaces shaved smooth so new recordings could be made on them.  Cylinder machines of the late 1880s and the 1890s were usually sold with recording attachments. The ability to record as well as play back sound was an advantage of cylinder phonographs over the competition from cheaper disc record phonographs which began to be mass-marketed at the end of the 1890s, as the disc system machines could be used only to play back prerecorded sound.  In the earliest stages of phonograph manufacturing, various competing incompatible types of cylinder recordings were made. A standard system was decided upon by Edison Records, Columbia Phonograph, and other companies in the late 1880s. The standard cylinders are about long, in diameter, and play about of music or other sound.  Over the years the type of wax used in cylinders was improved and hardened so that cylinders could be played with good quality over 100 times. In 1902 Edison Records launched a line of improved hard wax cylinders marketed as "Edison Gold Molded Records". The major development of this line of cylinders is that Edison had developed a process that allowed a mold to be made from a master cylinder which then permitted the production of several hundred cylinders to be made from the mold. The process was labeled, "Gold Moulded" because of the gold vapor that was given off by gold electrodes used in the process.  Originally all cylinders sold had to be recorded live on the softer brown wax which wore out in as few as twenty playings. Later cylinders were reproduced either mechanically or by linking phonographs together with rubber tubes. Although not completely satisfactory, the result was good enough to be sold.

Commercial packaging.

Cylinders were sold in cardboard tubes with cardboard caps on each end, the upper one a removable lid. Like cylindrical containers for hats, they were simply called "boxes", the word still used by experienced collectors. Within them, the earliest soft wax cylinders came swathed in a separate length of thick cotton batting. Later molded hard-wax cylinders were sold in boxes with a cotton lining. Celluloid cylinders were sold in unlined boxes. These protective boxes were normally kept and used to house the cylinders after purchase. Their general appearance allowed bandleader John Philip Sousa to deride their contents as "canned music", an epithet he borrowed from Mark Twain, but that did not stop Sousa's band from profiting by recording on cylinders.  The earliest cylinder boxes have a plain brown paper exterior, sometimes rubber-stamped with the company name. By the late 1890s, record companies usually pasted a generic printed label around the outside of the box, sometimes with a penciled catalog number but no other indication of the identity of the recording inside. A slip of paper stating the title and performer was placed inside the box with the cylinder. At first this information was handwritten or typed on each slip, but printed versions became more common once cylinders were sold in large enough quantities to justify the printing setup cost. The recording itself usually began with a spoken announcement of the title and performer and also the name of the record company. On a typical Edison record slip from 1903, the consumer is invited to cut off a coupon with the printed information and paste it onto the lid of the box. Alternatively, a circular area within the coupon could be cut out and pasted onto the end of a spindle for that cylinder in one of the specially built cases and cabinets made for storing cylinder records. Only a minority of cylinder record customers purchased such storage units, however. Slightly later, the record number was stamped on the lid, then later still a printed label with the title and artist information was factory-applied to the lid. Shortly after the start of the 20th century, an abbreviated version of this information was impressed into or printed on one edge of the cylinder itself.

Hard plastic cylinders.

In 1900, Thomas B Lambert was granted a patent that described a process for mass-producing cylinders made from celluloid, an early hard plastic (Henri Lioret of France was producing celluloid cylinders as early as 1893, but they were individually recorded rather than molded). That same year, the Lambert Company of Chicago began selling cylinder records made of the material. They would not break if dropped and could be played thousands of times without wearing out, although the choice of the bright pink color of early cylinders was arguably a marketing error. The color was changed to black in 1903, but brown and blue cylinders were also produced. The coloring was purportedly done because the dye reduced surface noise. Unlike wax, the hard inflexible material could not be shaved and recorded over, but it had the advantage of being nearly permanent.  Such "indestructible" style cylinders are one of the most durable forms of sound recording produced in the entire era of analog audio media; they can withstand a greater number of playbacks before wearing out than later media such as the vinyl record or audio tape. Their only serious shortcoming is that the celluloid slowly shrinks over the years, so that if it is on a core of plaster, metal or other very unyielding material, the ever-increasing tension can ultimately cause the celluloid to split lengthwise. A typical Lambert cylinder will have shrunk by approximately 3 mm in length in the 100 years or so since its manufacture (the actual amount is very dependent on storage conditions). Thus the grooves will no longer be 100 per inch, and the cylinder will skip if played on a typical feed-screw-type machine. The diameter will also have shrunk and many such cylinders will no longer fit on the mandrel unless very carefully reamed to fit. Such cylinders can still be played quite satisfactorily on suitable modern equipment. The Lambert company was put out of business in 1906 due to repeated actions from Edison for patent infringement, which Lambert had not actually committed - it was the cost of defending the actions that eventually sank Lambert.  This superior technology was licensed by the Indestructible Record Company in 1906 and Columbia Phonograph Company in 1908. The Edison Bell company in Europe had separately licensed the technology and were able to market Edison's titles in both wax (popular series) and celluloid (indestructible series). Lambert was able to license the process because the patent was not owned by the now defunct Lambert Company, but by Lambert himself.  Edison had introduced wax cylinders that played for nominally 4 minutes (instead of the usual 2) in 1909 under the "Amberol" brand. They were made from a harder (and more easily breakable) form of wax to withstand the smaller stylus used to play them. The longer playing time was achieved by shrinking the groove size and spacing them twice as close together. In 1912, the Edison company eventually acquired Lambert's patents to the celluloid technology, and almost immediately started production under a variation of their existing "Amberol" brand as "Edison Blue Amberol Records". These new celluloid recordings were given a core made from plaster of Paris. The celluloid material itself was blue in color, but purple was introduced in 1919, "... for more sophisticated selections". The use of camphor in Edison's celluloid base rendered it more stable, and the plaster core provided further resistance to possible shrinkage, but the playing surface is still liable to split if stored in less than ideal conditions; however, the groove pitch rarely changes. The plaster core itself can deteriorate in conditions that are too damp or too dry. Nevertheless, most Blue Amberol cylinders are, today, quite playable on antique phonographs or modern equipment alike (although the plaster core may need some reaming).  Edison made several designs of phonographs both with internal and external horns for playing these improved cylinder records. The internal horn models were called "Amberolas". Edison marketed its "Fireside" model phonograph with a gearshift and a'model K' reproducer with two styli that allowed it to play both 2-minute and 4-minute cylinders. Conversion kits were produced for some of the later model 2-minute phonographs adding a gear change and a second'model H' reproducer. These kits were shipped with a set of 12 (wax) Amberol cylinders in distinctive orange boxes. The purchaser had no choice as to the titles.

Disc records.

In the era before World War I, phonograph cylinders and disc records competed with each other for public favor.  The audio fidelity of a sound groove is improved if it is engraved on a cylinder due to better linear tracking. This was not resolved until the advent of RIAA standards in the early 1940s—by which time it had already been rendered academic, as cylinder production stopped with Edison's last efforts in October 1929.

Advantages of cylinders.

The cylinder system had certain advantages. As noted, wax cylinders could be used for home recordings, and "indestructible" types could be played over and over many more times than discs. Cylinders usually rotated twice as fast as contemporary discs, but the linear velocity was comparable to the innermost grooves of the disc. In theory, there would be generally poorer audio fidelity. Furthermore, since constant angular velocity translates into constant linear velocity (the radius of the helical track is constant), cylinders were also free from inner groove problems suffered by disc recordings. Around 1900, cylinders were, on average, indeed of notably higher audio quality than contemporary discs, but as disc makers improved their technology by 1910 the fidelity differences between better discs and cylinders became minimal.  Cylinder phonographs generally used a worm gear to move the stylus in synchronization with the grooves of the recording, whereas most disc machines relied on the grooves to pull the stylus along. This resulted in cylinder records played a number of times having less degradation than discs, but this added mechanism made cylinder machines more expensive.

Advantages of discs.

Both the disc records, and the machines to play them, were cheaper to mass-produce than the products of the cylinder system. Disc records were also easier and cheaper to store in bulk, as they could be stacked, or when in paper sleeves put in rows on shelves like books—packed together more densely than cylinder recordings.  Many cylinder phonographs used a belt to turn the mandrel; slight slippage of this belt could make the mandrel turn unevenly, thus resulting in pitch fluctuations. Disc phonographs using a direct system of gears turned more evenly; the heavy metal turntable of disc machines acted as a flywheel, helping to minimize speed wobble.  Virtually all US disc records were single-sided until 1908, when Columbia Records began mass production of discs with recordings pressed on both sides. Except for premium-priced classical records, that quickly became the industry standard. With their capacity effectively doubled, the storage efficiency advantage of discs over the cylinder format became even more obvious.  The disc companies had superior advertising and promotion, most notably the Victor Talking Machine Company in the United States and the Gramophone Company/HMV in the Commonwealth. Great singers like Enrico Caruso were hired to record exclusively, helping put the idea in the public mind that that company's product was superior. Edison tried to get into the disc market with hill-and-dale discs, Edison Disc Records.

Decline.

Cylinder records continued to compete with the growing disc record market into the 1910s, when discs won the commercial battle. In 1912, Columbia Records, which had been selling both discs and cylinders, dropped the cylinder format, while Edison introduced his unique Diamond Disc format. Beginning in 1915, new Edison cylinder issues were simply dubs of Edison discs and therefore had lower audio quality than the disc originals. Although his cylinders continued to be sold in steadily dwindling and eventually minuscule quantities, Edison continued to support owners of cylinder phonographs by making new titles available in that format until the company ceased manufacturing all records and phonographs in November 1929.

Later applications.

Cylinder phonograph technology continued to be used for Dictaphone and Ediphone recordings for office use for decades.  In 1947, Dictaphone replaced wax cylinders with their Dictabelt technology, which cut a mechanical groove into a plastic belt instead of into a wax cylinder. This was later replaced by magnetic tape recording. However, cylinders for older style dictating machines continued to be available for some years, and it was not unusual to encounter cylinder dictating machines into the 1950s.  In the late 20th and early 21st century, new recordings have been made on cylinders for the novelty effect of using obsolete technology. Probably the most famous of these are by They Might Be Giants, who in 1996 recorded "I Can Hear You" and three other songs, performed without electricity, on an 1898 Edison wax recording studio phonograph at the Edison National Historic Site in West Orange, New Jersey. This song was released on "Factory Showroom" in 1996 and re-released on the 2002 compilation "". The other songs recorded were "James K. Polk", "Maybe I Know", and "The Edison Museum", the last a song about the site of the recording. These recordings were officially released online as MP3 files in 2001.  Small numbers of cylinders have been manufactured in the 21st century out of modern long-lasting materials. Two companies engaged in such enterprise are the Vulcan Cylinder Record Company of Sheffield, England and the Wizard Cylinder Records Company in Baldwin, New York. Both appear to have started in 2002.  In 2010 the British steampunk band The Men That Will Not Be Blamed For Nothing released the track "Sewer", from their debut album, "Now That's What I Call Steampunk! Volume 1" on a wax cylinder in a limited edition of 40, of which only 30 were put on sale. The box set came with instructions on how to make your own cylinder player for less than £20. The BBC covered the release on Television on BBC Click, on BBC Online, and on Radio 5 Live.  In August 2010, Ash International and PARC released the first commercially available glow in the dark phonograph cylinder, a work by Michael Esposito and Carl Michael von Hausswolff, entitled "The Ghosts of Effingham". The cylinder was released in a limited edition of 150 copies, and was produced by Vulcan Records in Sheffield, England.  In April 2019, the popular podcast Hello Internet released 10 limited edition wax cylinder recordings.

Preservation of cylinder recordings.

Because of the nature of the recording medium, playback of many cylinders can cause degradation of the recording. The replay of cylinders diminishes their fidelity and degrades their recorded signals. Additionally, when exposed to humidity, mold can penetrate a cylinder's surface and cause the recording to have surface noise. Currently, the only professional machine manufactured for the playback of cylinder recordings is the Archéophone player, designed by Henri Chamoux. The Archéophone is used by the Edison National Historic Site, Bowling Green State University (Bowling Green, Ohio), The Department of Special Collections, Donald C Davidson Library at The University of California, Santa Barbara, and many other libraries and archives.  Other modern so-called 'plug-in' mounts, each incorporating the use of a Stanton 500AL MK II magnetic cartridge, have been manufactured from time to time. Information on each may be viewed on the Phonograph Makers Pages link. It is possible to use these on the Edison cylinder players.  Also of interest is the cylinder player built by BBC engineers working in "Engineering Operations - Radio" in 1987. It was equipped with a linear-tracking arm borrowed from a contemporary Revox turntable, and a variety of re-tipped Shure SC35 cartridges.  In an attempt to preserve the historic content of the recordings, cylinders can be read with a confocal microscope and converted to a digital audio format. The resulting sound clip in most cases sounds better than stylus playback from the original cylinder. Having an electronic version of the original recordings enables archivists to open access to the recordings to a wider audience. This technique also has the potential to allow for reconstruction of damaged or broken cylinders. This method, developed by physicist Carl Haber, is known as IRENE.  Modern reproductions of cylinder and disc recordings usually give the impression that the introduction of discs was a quantum leap in audio fidelity, but this is on modern playback equipment; played on equipment from around 1900, the cylinders do not have noticeably more rumble and poorer bass reproduction than the discs. Another factor is that many cylinders are amateur recordings, while disc recording equipment was simply too expensive for anyone but professional engineers; many extremely poor recordings were made on cylinder, while the vast majority of disc recordings were competently recorded. All cylinder recordings were acoustically recorded as were early disc recordings. From the mid-1920s onward, discs started to be recorded electrically which provided a much enhanced frequency range of recording.  Also important is the quality of the material: the earliest tinfoil recordings wore out fast. Once the tinfoil was removed from the cylinder it was nearly impossible to re-align in playable condition.  In addition to poor states of preservation, the poor impression modern listeners may get of wax cylinders is from their early date, which can compare unfavorably to recordings made even a dozen years later. Other than a single playable example from 1878 (from an experimental phonograph-clock), the oldest playable preserved cylinders are from the year 1888. These include a severely degraded recording of Johannes Brahms, Handel's Israel in Egypt and a short speech by Sir Arthur Sullivan in fairly listenable condition. Somewhat later are the 1889 amateur recordings of Nina Grieg. The problem with the wax cylinders is that they readily support the growth of mildew which penetrates throughout the cylinder and, if serious enough, renders the recording unplayable. The earliest preserved rubber disc recordings are children's records, featuring animal noises and nursery rhymes. This means that the earliest disc recordings most music lovers will hear are shellac discs made after 1900, after more than ten years of development.

Demonstration.

Audio/video recordings of a recording and playback demonstration at the Thomas Edison National Historical Park in West Orange, New Jersey. The performers are Earl Karlsen on mandolin, Arnie Reisman on banjo, and Drew Uhlmann on fiddle, performing "Jerusalem Ridge", a bluegrass classic attributed to Bill Monroe; the operator is Jerry Fabris, Museum Curator.

Phonograph cylinders are the earliest commercial medium for recording and reproducing sound. Commonly known simply as "records" in their era of greatest popularity (c. 1896–1915), these hollow cylindrical objects have an audio recording engraved on the outside surface, which can be reproduced when they are played on a mechanical cylinder phonograph. In the 1910s, the competing disc record system triumphed in the marketplace to become the dominant commercial audio medium.

留声机圆筒是最早的录音及放音媒介商品,在1896年至1915年最为流行,在当时被普遍称为「唱片」。这些中空圆柱体的外侧表面刻上声频,可以在圆筒留声机上播放。在1910年代,录音磁盘淘汰留声机圆筒在市场上独占鳌头,成为主流的录音媒介商品。


Notation.

And is usually denoted by an infix operator: in mathematics and logic, it is denoted by ','or '; in electronics, '; and in programming languages, codice_1, codice_2, or codice_3. In Jan Łukasiewicz's prefix notation for logic, the operator is K, for Polish "koniunkcja".

Definition.

Logical conjunction is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of "true" if and only if both of its operands are true.  The conjunctive identity is true, which is to say that AND-ing an expression with true will never change the value of the expression. In keeping with the concept of vacuous truth, when conjunction is defined as an operator or function of arbitrary arity, the empty conjunction (AND-ing over an empty set of operands) is often defined as having the result true.

Truth table.

The truth table of formula_1:

Defined by other operators.

In systems where logical conjunction is not a primitive, it may be defined as or

Introduction and elimination rules.

As a rule of inference, conjunction introduction is a classically valid, simple argument form. The argument form has two premises, "A" and "B". Intuitively, it permits the inference of their conjunction.  or in logical operator notation:  Here is an example of an argument that fits the form "conjunction introduction":  Conjunction elimination is another classically valid, simple argument form. Intuitively, it permits the inference from any conjunction of either element of that conjunction. ...or alternatively,  In logical operator notation: ...or alternatively,

Negation.

Definition.

A conjunction formula_14 is be proven false by establishing either formula_15 or formula_16. In terms of the object language, this reads  This formula can be seen as a special case of  when formula_19 is a false proposition.

Other proof strategies.

If formula_2 implies formula_16, then both formula_15 as well as formula_2 prove the conjunction false: In other words, a conjunction can actually be proven false just by knowing about the relation of its conjuncts and not necessary about their truth values.  This formula can be seen as a special case of  when formula_19 is a false proposition.  Either of the above are constructively valid proofs by contradiction.

Properties.

commutativity: yes associativity: yes distributivity: with various operations, especially with "or"  idempotency: yes
 monotonicity: yes truth-preserving: yes
 When all inputs are true, the output is true. falsehood-preserving: yes
 When all inputs are false, the output is false. Walsh spectrum: (1,-1,-1,1)  Nonlinearity: 1 (the function is bent)  If using binary values for true (1) and false (0), then "logical conjunction" works exactly like normal arithmetic multiplication.

Applications in computer engineering.

In high-level computer programming and digital electronics, logical conjunction is commonly represented by an infix operator, usually as a keyword such as "codice_4", an algebraic multiplication, or the ampersand symbol codice_1 (sometimes doubled as in codice_2). Many languages also provide short-circuit control structures corresponding to logical conjunction.  Logical conjunction is often used for bitwise operations, where codice_7 corresponds to false and codice_8 to true:  The operation can also be applied to two binary words viewed as bitstrings of equal length, by taking the bitwise AND of each pair of bits at corresponding positions. For example:  This can be used to select part of a bitstring using a bit mask. For example, codice_19 = codice_20 extracts the fifth bit of an 8-bit bitstring.  In computer networking, bit masks are used to derive the network address of a subnet within an existing network from a given IP address, by ANDing the IP address and the subnet mask.  Logical conjunction "codice_4" is also used in SQL operations to form database queries.  The Curry–Howard correspondence relates logical conjunction to product types.

Set-theoretic correspondence.

The membership of an element of an intersection set in set theory is defined in terms of a logical conjunction: "x" ∈ "A" ∩ "B" if and only if ("x" ∈ "A") ∧ ("x" ∈ "B"). Through this correspondence, set-theoretic intersection shares several properties with logical conjunction, such as associativity, commutativity, and idempotence.

Natural language.

As with other notions formalized in mathematical logic, the logical conjunction "and" is related to, but not the same as, the grammatical conjunction "and" in natural languages.  English "and" has properties not captured by logical conjunction. For example, "and" sometimes implies order having the sense of "then". For example, "They got married and had a child" in common discourse means that the marriage came before the child.  The word "and" can also imply a partition of a thing into parts, as "The American flag is red, white, and blue." Here it is not meant that the flag is "at once" red, white, and blue, but rather that it has a part of each color.

In logic, mathematics and linguistics, And (∧) is the truth-functional operator of logical conjunction; the "and" of a set of operands is true if and only if "all" of its operands are true. The logical connective that represents this operator is typically written as or.

在逻辑和数学中,逻辑合取或逻辑与或且是一个二元逻辑运算符。如果其两个变量的真值都为“真”,其结果为“真”,否则其结果为“假”。


Tests.

Mike.

The first "Ivy" shot, "Mike", was the first successful full-scale test of a multi-megaton thermonuclear weapon ("hydrogen bomb") using the Teller-Ulam design. Unlike later thermonuclear weapons, "Mike" used deuterium as its fusion fuel, maintained as a liquid by an expensive and cumbersome cryogenic system. It was detonated on Elugelab Island yielding 10.4 megatons, almost 500 times the yield of the bomb dropped on Nagasaki. Eight megatons of the yield was from fast fission of the uranium tamper, creating massive amounts of radioactive fallout. The detonation left an underwater crater 6,240 ft (1.9 km) wide and 164 ft (50 m) deep where Elugelab Island had been. Following this successful test, the "Mike" design was weaponized as the EC-16, but it was quickly abandoned for solid-fueled designs after the success of the Castle Bravo shot.  Jimmy Priestly Robinson, age 28, a USAF captain with the 561st Fighter-Day Squadron, was lost near the end of his mission to successfully pilot his F-84G through the mushroom cloud's stem to collect radiochemical air samples. After re-emerging from the cloud, both he and his wingman, pilot Captain Bob Hagan, encountered difficulties picking up rendezvous and runway navigational beacons due to "electromagnetic after effects" of the detonation. By the time they were successful in finding the signal, they were dangerously low on fuel, and before reaching the runway, both had depleted their reserves. While Hagan was able to glide to the runway and achieve a hard landing, Robinson was instead too far out to follow the same path and therefore attempted to land on water. Robinson's plane flipped and his body was never found. Approximately a year after his disappearance, Robinson was awarded a posthumous Distinguished Flying Cross for his service. In 2002, a memorial stone at Virginia’s Arlington National Cemetery was erected. The manned cloud sampling practice had a long history of success, with Robinson being one of a total of four pilots who sampled the "Mike" cloud stem on that day, all of whom were led by their flight leader Lieutenant Colonel Virgil Meroney, who was part of the nascent 1211th Test Squadron.

King.

The second test, "King", fired the largest nuclear weapon to date using only nuclear fission (no fusion nor fusion boosting). This "Super Oralloy Bomb" was intended as a backup if the fusion weapon failed. King yielded 500 kilotons, 25 times more powerful than the "Fat Man" weapon.

Operation Ivy was the eighth series of American nuclear tests, coming after "Tumbler-Snapper" and before "Upshot–Knothole". The two explosions were staged in late 1952 at Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific Proving Ground in the Marshall Islands.

常春藤行动(英语:Operation Ivy)是美国在1952年11月进行的一系列核试验的行动代号。 该行动包含了两次核试验,分别是麦克(Mike)与国王(KING)。麦克是世界上第一颗氢弹,其当量为1040万吨TNT。因为使用了液态氢作为原料,整个装置重量超过5吨,高度超过6米,不具备实战价值。国王的当量超过50万吨TNT,是当时世界上最大的裂变式原子弹。