Background.

Honda, after establishing itself as a leading manufacturer of motorcycles during the 1950s, began production of automobiles in 1963.<ref name="S360/T360"></ref> Honda introduced its N360 minicar, compliant with Kei car specifications for the Japanese market, for the 1967 model year. The car had a transverse-mounted front engine, front-wheel drive (FF) layout, which would be adopted for the later N600 (1969), H1300 (1970) and Civic (1972) models. Occupying a size niche between minicars and compact sedans, the Civic offered a combination of economy and practicality with its space-efficient design that had immediate appeal. The Civic gave Honda their first market success competing with manufacturers of standard compact cars, which were the growth segment as sales of minicars plateaued and waned in the early 1970s, and their first major impact in the export market. Honda's CVCC engine technology, which had been under development since 1970, was added to the Civic in December 1973. It had the advantages of not requiring a catalytic converter or unleaded fuel to meet the emissions requirements of the 1970s and early 1980s.  After the well-received launch of the Civic, Honda started on development of a larger companion model. Honda's original concept for a larger, quieter, more powerful and comfortable car was a four-door sedan powered by a 2000cc inline six engine, designated Project 653. Information on

First generation (1976–1981).

The first-generation Honda Accord was launched on 7 May 1976, as a three-door hatchback with, a wheelbase, and a weight of about 2,000 pounds. Japanese market cars claimed JIS (similar to SAE Gross), while European and other export markets received a model without emissions control equipment; it claimed 80 PS as well but according to the stricter DIN norm. It was a platform expansion of the earlier Honda Civic at long. To comply with gradually tightening emission regulations enacted in Japan, the engine was fitted with Honda's CVCC technology. The Accord sold well due to its moderate size and great fuel economy. It was one of the first Japanese sedans with features like cloth seats, a tachometer, intermittent wipers, and an AM/FM radio as standard equipment. In 1978 an LX version of the hatchback was added which came with air conditioning, a digital clock, and power steering. Until the Accord, and the closely related Prelude, power steering had not been available to cars under two liters. Japanese buyers were liable for slightly more annual road tax over the smaller Civic, which had a smaller engine.  On 14 October 1977 (a year later in the U.S. market), a four-door sedan was added to the lineup, and power went to when the EF1

Second generation (1981–1985).

Debuted on 22 September 1981, in Japan, Europe and North America, this generation of the Accord being produced in Japan, also became the first to be built in the United States, at Honda's plant in Marysville, Ohio. Since its first year in the American market, it also became the best-selling Japanese nameplate in the United States, retaining that position for about 15 years. In Japan, a sister model called the Honda Vigor was launched simultaneously with the new Accord. This allowed Honda to sell the product at different sales channels called "Honda Clio", which sold the Accord, and "Honda Verno", that sold the Vigor.  Modernizing the interior and exterior, the second-generation Accord was mechanically very similar to the original, using the same EK-1 CVCC engine in the Japanese market. Vehicles with a manual transmission and the CVCC carburetor earned based on Japanese Government emissions tests using 10 different modes of scenario standards, and, and with consistently maintained speeds at 60 km/h. European market cars received the tested 1.6-liter EL1 engine with at 5000 rpm.  This automobile included popular features of the time such as shag carpet, velour cabin trim, and chrome accents. An optional extra on the 1981 Accord was an Electro Gyrocator, the world's first automatic in-car navigation system. Models were available in Silver, Sky Blue, and Beige. The LX hatchback offered a digital clock and slightly higher fuel economy (due to its lighter weight). In Europe, the Accord was available as a fairly well equipped (for the time) standard version, as well as a very luxurious EX model at a modest upcharge.  In the United States, Federal lighting regulations required headlamps of sealed beam construction and standard size and shape on all vehicles, so Accords in North America were equipped with four rectangular headlamp units rather than the aerodynamic composite replaceable-bulb units used on Accords sold outside North America (note European specification imagery). Other Automotive lighting variations included amber front and red rear side marker lights and reflectors in North America, and headlamp washers and a red rear fog lamp for European markets. Japanese-market Accords were unique from all other markets in that they offered adjustable ride height control and side view mirrors installed on the mid-forward fenders.  In November 1982, Honda made a fully four-speed automatic available with the 1.8-liter engine, a major improvement over the earlier, three-speed semi-automatic "Hondamatic" transmission. This quickly filtered through to export markets, where the outdated Hondamatic was soon superseded entirely. The manual five-speed transmission remained unchanged. A new 120 mph speedometer replaced the earlier 88 mph unit. The Special Edition (SE) featured Novillo leather seating, power windows, power sunroof and door locks. Gray was added as a color option. A slightly modified EK-2 engine was introduced, replacing the earlier EK-1, albeit still carbureted.

Third generation (1985–1989).

The third-generation Accord was introduced in Japan on 4 June 1985, and in Europe and North America later that year. It had a very striking exterior design styled by Toshi Oshika in 1983, that resonated well with buyers internationally. One notable feature was the hidden headlamps. Because this generation was also sold as the Honda Vigor, the Accord received the hidden headlamps. Honda's Japanese dealership channel called "Honda Verno" all had styling elements that helped identify products only available at "Honda Verno". As a result, Japanese market Accords had a "Honda Verno" styling feature, but were sold at newly established Japanese dealerships "Honda Clio" with the all-new, luxury Honda Legend sedan, and international Accords were now visually aligned with the Prelude, the CR-X, and the new Integra.  The retractable headlamps of the third generation Accord sedan were in Japan, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, KY region (Arabian countries) and on cars in Taiwan that were imported from the United States. In other countries, the Accord sedan had conventional headlamps, including in Japan from July 1987, on "Accord CA", with CA standing for "Continental Accord". Accords in all other bodies (hatchback, AeroDeck, coupe) had only retractable headlamps worldwide.  At its introduction in 1985, it won the Car of the Year Japan Award.  The third-generation Accord became the first Honda to employ double wishbones at both the front and rear ends. While more expensive than competitors' MacPherson strut systems, this setup provided better stability and sharper handling for the vehicle. All had front sway bars and upper models had rear sway bars as well. Brakes were either small all-wheel discs with twin-piston calipers (only available on the Japanese-market 2.0-Si model), larger all-wheel discs with single piston calipers, or a front disc/rear drum system. ABS was available as an option on the 4-wheel disc brake models, though not in North America. Base model Accords rode on 13-inch steel wheels with hubcaps with more expensive models having the option of 14-inch alloy wheels.  The Accord's available engines varied depending on its market: Japan received the A18A, A20A, B18A, B20A and A20A3 (US imported cars); Europe received the A16A1, A20A1, A20A2, A20A3, A20A4, B20A2, and B20A8; Australia and New Zealand received A20A2 and A20A4; other regions received A20A2 and/or A16A1; while United States, Canada and Taiwan (US imported cars) received the A20A1 and A20A3. On Accord 1986 model year engine block was marked as BS and BT in the United States, BS1 and BT1 in Canada, this cars had chassis code BA. Since 1987 the engine block in Indonesia was marked as NA instead of A20A2. The engine block in Thailand was marked as A.  In Japan, the introduction of a 2.0 liter engine obligated Japanese drivers to pay a higher amount of annual road tax compared to the last two previous generations, pushing the Accord into the luxury category in Japan.  The Accord's trim levels ranged from spartan to luxurious. In the Japanese home market, the Accord was available with a full power package, heated mirrors (optional), a digital instrument cluster (optional), sunroof (optional), cruise control, and climate control (which was also optional). Some North European export models also had heated front seats and head light washers. North American and Australian Accords were not available with most of these options, presumably (and in the U.S. in particular) because Honda was seen as a builder of economy cars, and not to cannibalize sales from the recently introduced Acura line.  Throughout the different markets, in addition to the sedan model the Accord was available with different bodystyles which included a three-door hatchback, a three-door shooting-brake called, and a two-door coupe which was added in 1987 for the 1988 model year. The coupe, which was built exclusively in Honda's Marysville, Ohio factory, was "reverse exported" back to Japan where it was known as the US-coupe CA6.

Fourth generation (1989–1993).

The fourth-generation Accord, introduced on the "CB" chassis, was unveiled in 1989 for the 1990 model year. Although much larger than its predecessor the sedan's styling was evolutionary, featuring the same low slung design and wraparound rear window as the third-generation Accord. For the first time a 3-door hatchback was no longer available internationally.  This was one of the first U.S. production cars to feature optic reflectors with completely clear lenses on the headlamps. The styling reflected influences from the flagship Honda Legend (sold in North America as an Acura), as Japanese Accords were now sold at "Honda Clio" dealerships, where the Legend, and the Honda Inspire, were sold. The growing popularity of the Accord internationally was evident in the ever-increasing dimensions, which now matched almost exactly with the first-generation Legend introduced in 1985.  For this fourth-generation Accord, Honda made significant engineering design improvements. All Accords sold in North America came with a completely new all aluminum 2.2-liter 16-valve electronic fuel-injected engine standard, replacing the previous 2.0-liter 12-valve model from the past generation. Also noteworthy, all Accords equipped with automatic transmissions used an electronically controlled rear engine mount to reduce low frequency noise and vibration. The mount contained two fluid filled chambers separated by a computer controlled valve. At low engine speeds, fluid is routed through the valve damping vibration. Above 850 rpm, fluid is routed around the valve making the engine mount stiffer.  In the U.S., the LX-i and SE-i designations were dropped, being replaced with the DX, LX and EX trim levels. The Canadian Accord trim levels varied slightly from the U.S. models with LX, EX and EX-R roughly corresponding to the American DX, LX and EX, respectively. Fourth-generation Japanese-assembled EXi Accords sold in Australia offered the same 4-wheel steering technology as was available optionally on the U.S. Honda Prelude, but was not included on the New Zealand-assembled versions. The four-wheel steering system was also available on the Accord's Japanese platform mate, called the Honda Ascot FTBi. U.S. Accord Coupes were available in the same DX, LX and EX trims as the U.S. Accord Sedan (LX, EX and EX-R in Canada).  A 125-horsepower (93 kW) 4-cylinder engine was offered in the DX and LX models (F22A1), while the 1990 and 1991 model year EX received a 130 hp (97 kW) version (F22A4). Cruise control was dropped from the DX sedan, with air conditioning remaining a dealer-installed option. The LX kept the same features as the previous generation including air conditioning, power windows, door locks, and mirrors. The 90–91 EX added 5 horsepower due to a different exhaust manifold design, slightly larger exhaust piping and a twin outlet muffler. 15-inch machined aluminum-alloy wheels, sunroof, upgraded upholstery, rear stabilizer bar and a high-power 4-speaker stereo cassette were standard on all EX models. Some models though rare were special ordered with an anti-lock braking system (at that time abbreviated as ALB, now all automakers refer to it as ABS). A redesigned manual transmission with a hydraulic clutch was standard equipment in all trims while an all-new electronically controlled 4-speed automatic transmission was optional for all models.  Some new dealer-installed accessories were now offered including a single-disc in-dash CD player or trunk mounted 6-disc CD changer, stereo equalizer, fog lights, security system, rear wing spoiler, trunk lip spoiler, luggage rack, full and half nose mask, center armrest, window visors, sunroof visor, car cover, and a cockpit cover.  Because of tightening auto safety regulations from the NHTSA, all 1990 and 1991 model year Accords sold in the United States came equipped with motorized shoulder belts for front passengers to comply with passive restraint mandates. These semi-automatic restraints were a two component system; a motorized shoulder belt along with a non-integrated and manually operated seatbelt. The shoulder belts automatically raced around each window frame encircling both the driver and front seat passenger whenever the front door closed. The process reversed to release them when opened. The lap belts however, still required manual fastening.  In early 1990 for the 1991 model year, Honda unveiled the Accord wagon, manufactured at the Marysville, Ohio plant. The Ohio plant exported right-hand drive wagons and coupes to Europe and Japan, and in Europe the station wagon (station wagon) was called the "Aerodeck" (in reference to the 1985–1989 2-door vehicle). All station wagons sold outside the United States were affixed with a small badge on the "C" pillar denoting the vehicle was built at the Ohio facility. European and Japanese vehicles had options not available within the U.S. including automatic climate control systems, power seats and several other minor features. The Accord Wagons were available from November 1990, only in LX and EX trim in North America or just 2.2i in Japan. They had larger front brakes to compensate for the added weight and unlike other U.S. Accords, included a driver's side airbag as standard equipment. Other than a retractable tonneau cover in the rear cargo area and keyless entry on EX models, the wagons were equipped the same as their coupe and sedan counterparts.

Fifth generation (1993–1997).

For the first time in the model's history, Honda developed two distinct versions of the Accord when the fifth-generation model was launched in fall of 1993; one version for the European market and one for the North American and Japanese market. Honda and the Rover Group created the European Accord and the Rover 600, a reflection of the past success they had with the Honda Legend and the Rover 800. This generation Accord was also sold in Japan as the Isuzu Aska, while some Isuzu products were sold as Honda products there also.  At its introduction in 1993, it won the Car of the Year Japan Award for the second time.

North America, Japan and Asia Pacific.

The fifth-generation North American Accord was launched on 9 September 1993, for the 1994 model year and was based on the new 'CD' chassis. Larger than its predecessor, primarily to better suit the requirements of the North American market, the new model grew in width but shrunk in length, leaving it classified as a mid-size car in North America. It thus became too wide to fit within the favorable tax bracket in Japan, where its role was to be partially taken over by the slightly narrower second-generation Honda Ascot (sold at "Honda Primo" Japanese dealerships) and Honda Rafaga (sold at "Honda Verno"). Previous generations of the Accord sold in Japan were limited to a width dimension of while international models were slightly wider, however this generation no longer complied. The engines offered with the Accord also exceeded the maximum limit of 2000cc to remain in the favorable "compact" tax bracket. The installation of a 2.0 liter engine in Japanese models made buyers liable for more annual road tax over the smaller 1.8-liter engine, which affected sales.  Development began in September 1989, along with the design process in June 1990. The final design was selected by an early date of 18 December 1990 and frozen by mid-1991. Design inconsistencies in early 1992, caused several alterations to be made until April 1992, when a secondary design freeze took place, ahead of scheduled 1993 production. Design patents were later filed in the United States on 16 December 1992 for the "CD". Production later began at Marysville assembly on 24 August 1993.  Honda of Japan marketed four different size engines in the Japanese-spec Accord sedan: 1.8, 2.0, 2.2 VTEC and 2.2 DOHC VTEC. The Japanese-spec Accord models were marketed as the following: EF, EX, 2.0EX, 2.0EXL, 2.2VTE, 2.2VTL, 2.2VTS and SiR. All Accord versions were sold at "Honda Clio" locations in Japan.  The fifth-generation Accord became the first Accord to be built and sold in the Philippines.  The DX, LX and EX models remained the American trim lines while Canada retained the LX, EX and EX-R. The 5-speed manual transmission remained mostly unchanged, while the 4-speed automatic noted for its hard shifts, now included Honda's "Grade-Logic" shift program, which would prevent "gear-hunting" by holding the current gear while driving on a sloped incline. All Accord models received a more ergonomic interior with standard safety features such as dual airbags and reinforced side-impact beams. Exclusive to the EX was the F22B1 SOHC VTEC version of previous generation 2.2-liter 4-cylinder (making up from on the previous generation EX), anti-lock brakes (now an option for the LX), 4-wheel disc

European model.

The fifth-generation Accord for the European market was unveiled in 1993 and was not related directly to the North American 'CD' Accord. It was in fact the Japanese-market Honda Ascot Innova which was based on the previous fourth-generation 'CB' Accord. It was the result of a joint effort with the Rover Group that provided Rover with the 600 series. The exterior was designed by Shigeo Ueno in 1989.  In 1996, the European Accord received a minor facelift and was given a new front end (new headlamps, bumper, hood and grill) and slightly different

Rover 600.

As part of the tie-up with the Rover Group the European Accord spawned Rover's replacement for the Austin Montego in 1993. Called the 600, the car shared its platform with the European Accord and, with the exception of the front doors, lower rear doors and windscreen, sported unique styling which dispensed with the rear quarter windows. The interior design of the 600 was very similar to the Accord's however, while the dashboard design was identical.

Sixth generation (1997–2002).

For the sixth generation, Honda split the Accord into three separate models, designed for the Japanese, North American, and European markets. However, the

Seventh generation (2002–2008).

The seventh generation of the Accord was launched in 2002 (2003 model year in North America), and consists of two separate models; one for the Japanese and European markets, and the other for North America, with the Japanese and European model being sold in North America as the Acura TSX. However, both were in fact sold in many other markets, fueled by the popular Cog advertisement for the Accord. Euro R trim continued into this generation as performance model for Japanese market, making use of K20 engine producing, however, European performance model was renamed Type S and used a larger K24 engine tuned to produce.

Japan and Europe.

The European and Japanese Accords were integrated on the previous Japanese Accord's chassis, but with a new body. No longer made in Swindon, those Accords were made in Japan, and came in both sedan and station wagon form.  At its introduction in 2003, it won the Car of the Year Japan Award for a record third time. In Europe, the car featured a 2.0 i-VTEC with, a 2.4 i-VTEC with, and an "exceptional" 2.2 i-CDTi turbo diesel engine with initially and of torque, while doing 51 mpg on the EU combined cycle.  This model was sold in certain markets such as Fiji, Australia and New Zealand as the "Accord Euro" and in North America as the Acura TSX, with a significant distinction being that the TSX featured the interior of the contemporary Honda Inspire instead.

Accord Euro R (CL7).

The Honda Accord Euro R (CL7) was launched in October 2002, succeeding the previous Euro R (CL1). A lightened and more sports focused variant of the Japanese car the Accord Euro R was powered by the K20A 2.0L DOHC i-VTEC engine producing at 8000 rpm and at 7000 rpm of torque through the only option of a lightweight 6-speed manual transmission. The same engine can be found in the JDM Integra Type R (DC5). The Accord Euro-R was available to the Japanese Domestic Market and Europe. Some features that distinguish it are the Recaro seats, the body kit, a MOMO steering wheel, lightweight 17-inch alloys and a special aluminum gear knob found only in Honda's Type R variants.

North America and Asia Pacific.

The North American Accord grew in size yet again, becoming a vastly different car than its Japanese and European counterpart. This generation was available in both coupe and sedan forms, while a hybrid model was introduced in early 2005. For 2006, it was significantly updated.  This Accord was the first to use wheels with five lug nuts instead of the traditional four on 4-cylinder models. The 4-cylinder version came with and ( and for 2005–2007 models) K24A1 2397 cc 4-cylinder engine mated to a 5-speed automatic or 5-speed manual. The 4-cylinder engine also used a timing chain instead of a timing belt.  For 2003, Honda began to offer a more aggressive Accord Coupe, equipped

Eighth generation (2008–2012).

Accord in Japan and Europe and Spirior in China.

The updated Accord for the Japanese and European markets went on sale in mid-2008. It is also sold as the Accord Euro in the Australia and New Zealand markets, and as the Acura TSX in North America. It is available as both a sedan and a station wagon. In the People's Republic of China, a version of the sedan is sold as the Honda Spirior which later

Accord in North America and China and Inspire in Japan.

The North American version of the Accord has a different body from its Japanese counterpart. This shape is sold as the Honda Inspire in Japan, and is not sold in Europe. It was discontinued in Japan in September 2012. Larger than the previous model, the sedan is now classified as a full-size car by EPA standards. A coupe version is available, as well as a Crosstour fastback model, which was introduced in the U.S. for the 2010 model year. Engines include a 2.4 L 4-cylinder rated at 177 bhp (132 kW) with for LX and SE sedans and 190

Ninth generation (2013–2017).

For the ninth generation Accord, Honda appointed Shoji Matsui, who served as an engineer on the Accord platform from 1985 to 1996, as lead project manager. It is the first Honda vehicle to be completely developed under the administration of Honda CEO Takanobu Ito.  Honda revealed the Accord Coupe Concept at the 2012 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. In August 2012, the company released initial details pertaining to the 2013 Accord sedan, and production versions of both the sedan and coupe were fully unveiled in early September 2012.

Tenth generation (2018–present).

The tenth generation Accord was unveiled on July 14, 2017. Production began on September 18, 2017 and sales began on October 18, 2017 in the United States as a 2018 model. The Accord is now exclusively offered as a four-door sedan, the coupe variant being discontinued.  New features include front and rear parking sensors, magnetorheological dampers, acoustic PVB laminated front door glass, 6" automotive head-up display (HUD), and 4-way height-adjustable power lumbar driver's seat. The vehicle is equipped with standard Honda Sensing (adding traffic sign recognition) on all models.  A base 1.5-liter VTEC turbo four-cylinder engine with available active grille shutters produces and of torque, mated to a 6-speed manual or continuously variable transmission (CVT). The optional 2.0-liter VTEC turbo four-cylinder engine, which replaced the V6 engine option, was available beginning December 2017. This engine is based on the engine in the Civic Type R, but with a smaller turbocharger, different pistons and camshafts, and the addition of a pair of balance shafts. The engine, which produced and of torque is mated to a 6-speed manual or 10-speed automatic transmission. The 10-speed automatic is lighter than the previous 6-speed.  The Accord hybrid went on sale in March 2018. The lithium-ion battery is more compact and mounted under the rear seat. The generator and propulsion motor permanent magnets no longer contain rare-earth heavy metals.  To save weight the front subframe is entirely constructed from aluminum, which was previously reserved for hybrid models. All Accords use an aluminum hood like the 2017-18 Accord sedan and past hybrid models. The front and rear bumper beams and to reduce unsprung mass the front suspension lower control arms are now aluminum. Approximately 57% of the body is made from high strength steel including 29% ultra-high-strength hot stamped 980-1500 MPa grades. Structural adhesives are employed for the first time on the Accord with 115 ft of adhesive bonding applied to the body. The body in white (BIW) is 42 lbs lighter with improved structural rigidty.  At Virginia International Raceway, "Car and Driver" tested the 2.0-liter, 6-speed manual Accord with 19" touring all-season tires, it covered the 4.1 mile course in 3:18.4 minutes.  In China, the Accord Sport Hybrid debuted in April 2018 at the Beijing Auto Show. The ASEAN (Southeast Asian) market tenth generation Accord debuted on November 28, 2018 at the Thailand International Motor Expo. It was launched in Thailand on March 19, 2019, in Indonesia on July 18, 2019 at the 27th Gaikindo Indonesia International Auto Show, in Australia on November 28, 2019 and in Malaysia on February 26, 2020. The tenth generation Accord debuted for the Japanese domestic market at the 46th Tokyo Motor Show through October to November 2019 and went on sale in Japan on February 21, 2020.

Motorsport.

The Accord has been raced in multiple different motorsport series through the years. In the British Touring Car Championship, it achieved 21 race victories, finished runner-up in the manufacturers' championship in 1999 and 2000, and also won the independents' championship in 1997. In the Japanese Touring Car Championship, the Accord won the championship in 1996 and 1997. It also won the North American Touring Car Championship in 1996 and 1997. With 15 race victories in the European Super Touring Cup/Championship, the Accord has more wins than any other car in the series. In the World Touring Car Championship, the Accord Euro R won the Race of Europe at Imola in 2008, despite being only entered by privateer teams in the series. The Accord Euro R won the European Touring Car Cup three times; in 2009, 2010 and 2011.

The is a series of automobiles manufactured by Honda since 1976, best known for its four-door sedan variant, which has been one of the best-selling cars in the United States since 1989. The Accord nameplate has been applied to a variety of vehicles worldwide, including coupes, station wagons, hatchbacks and a Honda Crosstour crossover.

本田雅哥(英语:Honda -{Accord}-、日语:アコード)是一款由本田技研工业株式会社于1976年推出的中型房车,台湾早期由南阳实业代理时称-{雅哥}-,中国称为-{雅阁}-,港澳称为-{雅廓}-。在第四代分开为欧洲及北美-日本两种车体、第五代分开为北美及日本-欧洲车体后,随着2015年日本-欧洲较小车体Accord的停产,北美较大车体的Accord成为世界唯一销售的Accord车型至今。


Etymology.

Soju () means "burned liquor", with the first syllable "so" (; 燒; "burn") referring to the heat of distillation, and the second syllable "ju" (; 酒) referring to "alcoholic drink". In 2008, "soju" was included in the "Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-Webster dated the word's appearance in the American English lexicon at 1951. In 2016, the word was included in the "Oxford Dictionary of English". Chinese "shāojiǔ" (), more commonly known as "báijiǔ" (), and Japanese "shōchū" (), with the altered second character, are the words with the same origin with soju.  Another name for soju is "noju" (; "dew liquor"), with its first letter "ro" (; 露; "dew") likening the droplets of the collected alcohol during the distilling process to dew-drops. Some soju brand names include "iseul" (), the native-Korean word for "dew", or "ro" (), the Sino-Korean word for "dew".

History and production.

The origin of soju dates back to the 13th century Goryeo, when the Levantine distilling technique was introduced to the Korean Peninsula during the Mongol invasions of Korea (1231–1259), by the Yuan Mongols who had acquired the technique of distilling "arak" from the Persians during their invasions of the Levant, Anatolia, and Persia. The distilleries were set up around the city of Gaegyeong, the then capital (current Kaesong). In the surrounding areas of Kaesong, soju is still called "arak-ju" (). Andong soju, the direct root of modern South Korean soju varieties, started as the home-brewed liquor developed in the city of Andong, where the Yuan Mongol's logistics base was located during this era.  Soju is traditionally made by distilling alcohol from fermented grains. The rice wine for distilled soju is usually fermented for about 15 days, and the distillation process involves boiling the filtered, mature rice wine in a "sot" (cauldron) topped with "soju gori" (two-storied distilling appliance with a pipe). In the 1920s, over 3,200 soju breweries existed throughout the Korean Peninsula.  Soju referred to a distilled beverage with 35% ABV until 1965, when diluted soju with 30% ABV appeared with South Korean government's prohibition of the traditional distillation of soju from rice, in order to alleviate rice shortages. Instead, soju was created using highly distilled ethanol (95% ABV) from sweet potatoes and tapioca, which was mixed with flavorings, and sweeteners, and water. The end products are marketed under a variety of soju brand names. A single supplier (Korea Ethanol Supplies Company) sells ethanol to all soju producers in South Korea. Until the late 1980s, saccharin was the most popular sweetener used by the industry, but it has since been replaced by stevioside.  Although the prohibition was lifted in 1999, cheap soju continues to be made this way. Diluted soju has showed a trend towards lower alcohol content. The ABV of 30% fell to 25% by 1973, and 23% by 1998. Currently, soju with less than 17% ABV are widely available. In 2017, a typical bottle of diluted soju retails at ₩1,700 (approximately $) in supermarkets and convenience stores, and for ₩4,000–5,000 (approximately $–) in restaurants.  Several regions have resumed distilling soju from grains since 1999. Traditional hand-crafted Andong soju has about 45% ABV. Hwayo () is a brand with five different mixes constituting an ABV range from 17% to 53%.  In 2000s, soju started to dominate the world's spirit market. Jinro soju has been the largest selling spirit in the world for more than a decade. Two other soju brands, Chum Churum and Good Day, featured in the top 10, and three other soju brands are present in the top 100 global spirits brands of 2016.  Fruit sojus have been produced since 2015. When cocktail was first introduced into Korea, it was first made to taste the fruit extract or juice by adding soju. As it was for the first time, soju, which is not even soju, began to be a big trend.

Soju outside Korea.

Korea.

There are a number of soju brands directly outside the Korean Peninsula for the ethnic Korean population, and most use rice as the foundation since the price is significantly cheaper than in South Korea. Soju from North and South Korea, from firms like Jinro, is also imported.

Canada.

Liquors in Canada are subject to regulations that vary from province to province. In Ontario, the provincially run Liquor Control Board of Ontario (LCBO) sells soju, but not all outlets carry it. The LCBO sells a variable number of different kinds of soju, there are usually three or four different brands carried in the system at all times. Not all LCBO locations have soju, since the LCBO introduced online ordering it can be ordered for home delivery anywhere in the province. Almost all Korean restaurants with an AGCO liquor license sell it.  In British Columbia, the BC Liquor Store sells over a dozen types of soju.  In other Canadian provinces liquor sales may be privatized or semi-privatized. In Alberta, for example, a liquor store may carry dozens of brands of Soju.

United States.

The liquor licensing laws in the states of California and New York specifically exempt the sale of soju from regulation relating to the sale of other distilled spirits, allowing businesses with a beer/wine license to sell it without requiring the more expensive license required for other distilled spirits. The only stipulation is that the soju must be clearly labeled as such and contain less than 25% alcohol.  This has led to the appearance in the United States of many soju-based equivalents of traditional Western mixed drinks normally based on vodka or similar spirits, such as the soju martini and the soju cosmopolitan. Another consequence is that the manufacturers of similar distilled spirits from other parts of Asia, such as Japanese shōchū, have begun to re-label their products as soju for sale in those regions.  Jinro's American division has partnered with Korean pop star PSY to promote Soju in the U.S., and in 2013 partnered with the Los Angeles Dodgers to sell Soju at its games.

Brands.

Jinro is the largest manufacturer of soju accounting for half of all white spirits sold in South Korea. Soju accounts for 97% of the category. Global sales in 2013 were 750 million bottles. The most popular variety of soju is currently Chamisul (참이슬 - literally meaning "real dew"), a quadruple-filtered soju produced by Jinro, but recently "Cheoeum-Cheoreom" (처음처럼, lit. "like the first time") of Lotte Chilsung (롯데칠성) and Good Day (좋은데이) of Muhak (무학) are increasing their market share. However, the popularity of brands varies by region. In Busan, C1 Soju (시원 소주) is the local and most popular brand. Ipsaeju (잎새주 - "leaf alcohol") is popular in the Jeollanam-do region. The Daegu Metropolitan Area has its own soju manufacturer, Kumbokju, with the popular brand Cham (참). Further north in the same province, Andong Soju is one of Korea's few remaining traditionally distilled brands of soju. On the Special Self-Governing Province of Jeju-do, Hallasan Soju is the most common brand, being named after the island's main mountain Mt. Halla. Also, there is pureun-bam(푸른 밤/meaning: blue night) made by Jeju-soju. In Gyeongsangnam-do and Ulsan, the most popular is Good Day (Hangul: 좋은데이), produced by Muhak in Changwon. However, as soon as one crosses the border from Ulsan north to Gyeongju in Gyeongsangbuk-do, it is almost impossible to buy White Soju, and the most popular brands are Chamisul and Cham. Since 2015, the new trends of soju include fruit soju and sparkling soju, which have become increasingly popular in Korea.  New American producers are entering the market. Some, like West 32 Soju, with initial market penetration in major markets like New York, are finding critical success, with West 32 Soju winning a gold medal at the 2017 New York International Spirits Competition.  A new all natural soju distilled in Germany called ISAE is also entering the premium soju market. It is distilled according to the German Purity Law (Reinheitsgebot) for grain spirits of 1789 and uses 100% regional winter wheat and organic rice.

Consumption.

Although beer, whiskey, and wine have been gaining popularity in recent years, soju remains one of the most popular alcoholic beverages in Korea because of its ready availability and relatively low price. More than 3 billion bottles were consumed in South Korea in 2004. In 2006, it was estimated that the average adult Korean (older than 20) had consumed 90 bottles of soju during that year. In 2014, it was reported that South Koreans of drinking age consumed an average of 13.7 shots of spirit per week; the figure for Russia, in second place, was 6.3. By contrast consumption in the U.S. was 3.3 shots, Canada was 2.5, and the U.K. 2.3 shots.

Cocktails.

While soju is traditionally consumed straight, a few cocktails and mixed drinks use soju as a base spirit. Beer and soju can be mixed to create "somaek" (소맥), a portmanteau of the words soju and maekju (맥주 beer). Flavored soju is also available. It is also popular to blend fruits with soju and to drink it in "slushy" form. Another very popular flavored soju is yogurt soju (요구르트 소주), which is a combination of soju, yogurt, and lemon lime soda.  A "poktan-ju" (폭탄주) ("bomb drink") consists of a shot glass of soju dropped into a pint of beer (similar to a boilermaker); it is drunk quickly. This is similar to the Japanese sake bomb.  Soju is sometimes mistakenly referred to as "cheongju" (청주), a Korean rice wine. Mass-produced soju is also mistaken for Chinese "baijiu", a grain liquor, and "shōchū", a Japanese liquor.

Soju (; ) is a clear, colorless distilled beverage of Korean origin. It is usually consumed neat, and its alcohol content varies from about 16.8% to 53% alcohol by volume (ABV). Most brands of soju are made in South Korea. While soju is traditionally made from rice, wheat, or barley, modern producers often replace rice with other starches such as potatoes and sweet potatoes.

韩国烧酒(),或称韩国烧酎、朝鲜烧酒,是一种源于朝鲜半岛的烧酒。颜色透明,主要原料是大米,也会以小麦、大麦或者甘薯等酿制。


History.

The Volksgarten area was originally used for fortifications. Between 1596 and 1597, a fortress wall was built on the eastern side of park. In 1639, additional fortifications were built on the southern side. In 1809, these fortifications were destroyed by Napoleon's French troops.  Between 1817 and 1821, the area near Ballhausplatz square was converted to gardens originally intended for a private garden for the archdukes. These plans were changed through a proposal by the court garden administration to turn the area into the first public park in the city. On 1 March 1823, the park was officially opened. Starting in 1825, the name "Volksgarten" was commonly used. In 1862, the gardens were extended toward Ringstraße after the city moat had been filled in.

Buildings.

At the center of the park stands the neoclassical Theseus Temple by Pietro di Nobile, completed in 1821. This small-scale replica of the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens was originally designed to house Antonio Canova's "Theseus" sculpture. Canova was also involved in the construction of the temple. In 1890, Canova's sculpture was moved to the Museum of Fine Arts.  The Cortisches coffee house was built between 1820 and 1823, also by Peter Nobile. Austrian Romantic composers Johann Strauss I and Joseph Lanner performed here.  The Cafè Meierei was built in 1890, originally as a water reservoir. In 1924, it was converted to the "Milchtrinkhalle". The "Milchpavillon" was built in 1951 by Oswald Haerdtl.

Monuments.

At the northern end of the park stands the "Empress Elizabeth Monument" by Hans Bitterlich and Friedrich Ohmann, completed in 1907. At the center of the monument is a statue of a seated Empress Elisabeth by Hans Bitterlich. The statue of the empress, which was sculpted from an 8000–kg block of Laaser marble, measures 2.5 m in height. The dedication of the monument took place on 4 June 1907 in the presence of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria.  At the southern end of the park stands the "Franz Grillparzer Monument" by Carl Kundmann, completed in 1875. The seated figure of Austrian writer Franz Grillparzer is shown in contemplation holding a book in his left hand.

Fountains.

The Volksgarten contains two fountains. The "Triton and Nymph Fountain" was built in 1880 by Viktor Tilgner. "People's Garten Fountain" was erected in 1866 by Anton Dominik Fernkorn.

Rose Garden.

The park is famous for its beautiful rose gardens with over 3,000 rose bushes of about 400 different cultivars of roses.

The Volksgarten () is a public park in the Innere Stadt first district of Vienna, Austria. The garden, which is part of the Hofburg Palace, was laid out by Ludwig Remy in 1821. The park was built over the city fortifications that were destroyed by Napoleon in 1809. The Volksgarten was opened to the public in 1823.

人民公园 ()是奥地利首都维也纳的一座公园,位于内城区(第一区),是霍夫堡皇宫的一部分。


Etymology.

According to Movses Khorenatsi, the area of Vagharshapat was known as "Artimed" (Արտիմէդ), derived from the ancient Greek deity Artemis. Later, it was renamed "Avan Vardgesi" (Աւան Վարդգէսի, "Town of Vardges") or "Vardgesavan" (Վարդգէսաւան) by Prince Vardges Manouk who rebuilt the settlement near the shores of Kasagh River, during the reign of King Orontes I Sakavakyats of Armenia (570–560 BC). However, in his first book, "Wars of Justinian", the Byzantine historian Procopius refers to the city as "Valashabad" (Balashabad), named after King Valash (Balash) of Armenia. The name evolved into its later form by the shift of the medial "l" into a "gh", which is common in the Armenian language. Movses Khorenatsi mentioned that the town of Vardges was entirely rebuilt and fenced by King Vagharsh I to become known as "Norakaghak" (Նորաքաղաք, "New City") and later "Vagharshapat".

History.

Early history.

The territory of ancient Vagharshapat was inhabited since the 3rd millennium BC. Many sites, such as Metsamor Castle, Shresh hill and Mokhrablur hill date back to the neolithic period. The first written records about Vagharshapat were found in the inscriptions left by the Urartian king Rusa II (685–645 BC), where it was mentioned as "Kuarlini" (Կուարլինի). The inscription found in the archaeological site of ancient Vagharshapat cites to a water canal opened by king Rusa II, between Ildaruni river (Hrazdan River) and the valley of Kuarlini.  According to 5th-century writer Movses Khorenatsi, the oldest name of Vagharshapat was "Artimed" (Արտիմէդ), derived from the ancient Greek deity Artemis. Later, it was renamed "Avan Vardgesi" (Աւան Վարդգէսի, "Town of Vardges") or "Vardgesavan" (Վարդգէսաւան) after being rebuilt by prince "Vardges Manouk" near the shores of Kasagh River, during the reign of king Orontes I Sakavakyats of Armenia (570–560 BC).  Under the reign of king Tigranes the Great (95–55 BC), the town was partly inhabited by Jewish captives.  In the first half of the 1st century AD, under the reign of the Armenian Arsacid king Vagharsh I of Armenia (117–144), the old town of Vardgesavan was renovated and renamed "Vagharshapat" (Վաղարշապատ). In his first book "Wars of Justinian", the Byzantine historian Procopius has cited to the city as "Valashabad" (Balashabad), named after king "Valash" (Balash) of Armenia. The name evolved into its later form by the shift in the medial "L" into a "Gh", which is common in the Armenian language. Movses Khorenatsi mentioned that the Town of Vardges was entirely rebuilt and fenced by king Vagharsh I to become known as "Noarakaghak" (Նորաքաղաք, "New City") and later Vagharshapat.  Vagharshapat has served as the capital of the Arsacid Kingdom of Armenia between 120 AD and 330 AD. After embracing Christianity as a state religion in Armenia in 301, Vagharshapat was gradually called "Ejmiatsin" (), after the name of the Mother Cathedral; the seat of the Armenian Catholicosate, which is considered as one of the oldest religious organizations in the world. As a spiritual centre of the entire Armenian nation, Vagharshapat has grown up rapidly and developed as an important centre of education and culture. The city was home to one of the oldest educational institutions in Armenia founded by Mesrop Mashtots.  The political capital of the Armenian kingdom was transferred to the city of Dvin in 336.

Middle Ages.

Vagharshapat maintained its status as the country's most important city until the fall of the Arsacid Kingdom in 428. The city has gradually lost its importance under the Persian rule, specifically when the seat of the Catholicosate was transferred to Dvin in 452. However, the first manuscript library in Armenia was founded in 480 in Vagharshapat.  The Armenian Church rejected the Council of Chalcedon (451) because they believed the Chalcedonian christology was too similar to Nestorianism; however, some Armenian bishops who were present in the territories of Roman Armenia signed the Council's documents and also accepted Pope Leo I's 458 encyclical mandating adherence to the Chalcedonian Definition. In Persarmenia, the Persian Nestorian Church supported the spread of Nestorianism, which the Armenian Church had previously declared heretical and saw as a threat to the independence of their Church. Peter the Iberian, a Georgian prince, also strongly opposed the Chalcedonian Creed. Thus, in 491, Catholicos Babken I of Armenia, along with the Albanian and Iberian bishops met in Vagharshapat and issued a condemnation of the Chalcedonian Definition.  In 658 AD, Vagharshapat, along with the rest of the Armenian highland, was conquered by the Arabs. The city was briefly revived between the 9th and 11th centuries under the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia, before being overrun by the Byzantines in 1045 and later by the Seljuks in 1064.  In the middle of the 13th century, Vagharshapat became part of the Ilkhanate of the Mongol Empire. During the last quarter of the 14th century the Aq Qoyunlu Sunni Oghuz Turkic tribe took over Armenia, including Vagharshapat.  In 1400, when Timur invaded Armenia and Georgia many districts including Vagharshapat were depopulated under the rule of the Timurid Empire. In 1410, Armenia fell under the control of the Kara Koyunlu Shia Oghuz Turkic tribe. Under the Turkic-Mongol rule, Vagharshapat was known to the Turks as "Uchkilisa" (Üçkilise, "three churches" in Turkic).  The influence of Vagharshapat waned between 1045 and 1441, when the seat of the Armenian Catholicosate was transferred from the Cilician city of Sis back to Etchmiadzin.

Early modern period.

Between 1502 and 1828, Armenia became part of the Persian state under the rule of Safaavid, Afsharid and Qajar dynasties, with short periods of Ottoman rule between 1578 and 1603 and later between 1722 and 1736.  In 1828, after the Russo-Persian War, Vagharshapat —as a part of the Erivan Khanate— was handed over to the Russian Empire as a result of the Treaty of Turkmenchay signed on 21 February 1828.  In their 1833 book Eli Smith and H. G. O. Dwight described Vagharshapat, then a village, as follows: "It presents nothing but a crowded collection of mud cabins, perhaps 500 in number."  With the establishment of the Erivan Governorate in 1850, Vagharshapat became the centre of the newly formed Echmiadzinsky Uyezd.

Present day.

Armenia enjoyed a short period of independence between 1918 and 1920 before falling to the Bolshevik 11th Red Army and becoming part of the Soviet Union. In 1925, the new plan of rebuilding the modern town was introduced by architect Alexander Tamanian. It was finally completed between 1939 and 1943. In 1945, the town of Vagharshapat was officially renamed "Etchmiadzin" by the Soviet government.  During the 1950s and 1960s, the town has witnessed a massive wave of construction, including residential buildings and industrial plants. By the end of the 1960s, the historical monuments of the town; including the religious complex of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, Saint Hripsime Church, Saint Gayane Church and the surrounding area of Zvartnots Cathedral, were entirely rehabilitated.  After the independence of Armenia, the town was officially renamed Vagharshapat in 1995. However, the town is still popularly known as Ejmiatsin.  In October 2018, Diana Gasparyan, who was nominated by the Civil Contract Party, was elected mayor of the city and the country's first ever female mayor.

Geography and climate.

Vagharshapat is the largest satellite-city of Yerevan and the 4th largest in Armenia by population. It is located to the west of Yerevan in the basin of the Kasagh River, in the northeastern extremity of Ararat plain, and very close to Zvartnots International Airport.  According to Moses of Chorene's "History of Armenia" and as a result of several archaeological researches conducted in the area, the most probable location of the ancient city of Vagharshapat is the area of "Shresh Hill" near Kasagh River.  "Shresh Hill" or the "Kond of Ghugo", as it was called by the local population, is only away to the northeast of modern-day Vagharshapat, on the way to Oshakan. It is an artificial hill and has a diameter of long. It was first excavated in 1870. In 1913 and 1928, the area was excavated by archaeologist Yervand Lalayan. Large-scale excavations were conducted around the hill and the nearby sites of Metsamor and Mokhrablur between 1945 and 1950.  Historically, Vagharshapat is at the heart of the Armenian Highland, in Aragatsotn canton (Armenian: Արագածոտն գաւառ "Aragatsotn gavar", not to be confused with the current Aragatsotn Province) of Ayrarat province, within Armenia Major.  The city has an average elevation of above sea level. The climate is cold semi-arid (Köppen climate classification "BSk").

Demographics.

Vagharshapat is the largest urban community of Armavir Province. However, the population of the town has gradually declined since the collapse of the Soviet Union.  The majority of the town's population are ethnic Armenians who belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church. The regulating body of the church is the Diocese of Armavir based in the nearby town of Armavir. Between 1996 and 2014, the Holy Mother of God Church of Vagharshapat has served as the seat of the diocese. Opened in 1767 by Catholicos Simeon I, the church is located at the centre of Vagharshapat, north of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin.  Here is a population timeline of Vagharshapat since 1830:

Landmarks.

The religious complex of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin () is the spiritual and administrative headquarters of the worldwide Armenian Apostolic Church and the Pontifical Residence of the Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians.  The Mother Cathedral of Holy Etchmiadzin is found in the complex surrounded with many other structures built throughout the centuries. Most buildings are of great architectural significance, such as the old and new Pontifical Residences, the Chancellery or the "Divanatoon", the Gate of King Trdat, Alex and Marie Manoogian Treasury Museum (1982), Khrimian Museum, Yeremian Monastic cells, the old Seminary building, the Clock Tower, the Bookstore, etc.  Gevorgian Seminary is a theological college of the Armenian Apostolic Church founded by Catholicos Gevork IV in 1874 within the complex of the Mother See. Apart from the Mother Cathedral, Vagharshapat is home to many other important Armenian churches and cathedrals. The Cathedral of Etchmiadzin, the Churches of Saint Hripsimé, Saint Gayane and Saint Shoghakat, and the archaeological site of Zvartnots are listed among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Etchmiadzin Cathedral.

Historically, the focal point of the town is the Mother Cathedral of Holy Etchmiadzin, ( "Mayr Tachar Surp Ejmiatsin") which is one of the oldest churches in the world. It was first built by Saint Gregory the Illuminator as a vaulted basilica in 301–303, when Armenia had just adopted Christianity as a state religion (the first such in world history). The church was enlarged in many occasions, notably in 480, 618 and 1658.  Saints Vartan and Hovhannes Baptistery is a three-domed chapel located north of the Mother Cathedral and designated for baptism ceremonies. It was designed by architects Jim Torosyan and Romeo Julhakyan and consecrated on 26 September 2008, while the construction was funded by the British-Armenian philanthropist Armen Sarkissian.  The Church of the Holy Archangels was built between 2009 and 2011 and located in the yard of Gevorkian Seminary building. The single-domed church was consecrated on 5 November 2011. It was designed by architect Jim Torosyan. The construction work was funded by the Armenian philanthropist Gagik Galstyan.

Saint Hripsime Church.

Built in 618, the Church of Saint Hripsimé has basically survived almost unchanged. It is considered one of the oldest surviving churches in Armenia, known for its fine architecture of the classical period, which influenced many other Armenian churches. It was erected in 618 by Catholicos Gomidas atop the original mausoleum, built by Catholicos Sahak the Great in 395, which contained the remains of the martyred Saint Hripsimé. According to the 17th century Armenian historian Arakel of Tabriz, the church was renovated during 1651–1653 by Catholicos Philip I. Repairs were made on the roof, top of the dome, the walls and bases. A cross was placed on top of the roof, and a small portico was added to the western side. It is one of the few churches in Armenian that remained active during the Soviet period.

Saint Gayane Church.

Built in 630 by Catholicos Ezra I, Saint Gayane Church is distinguished by its harmonious proportions. It is a three-nave domed basilica with an octagonal drum resting on four internal pillars that divide the interior of the church into three. Its design remained unchanged despite partial renovations of the dome and some ceilings in 1652.

Shoghakat Church.

Meaning "drop of light", Shoghakat Church is a single-nave domed basilica, built and completed in 1694 by prince Aghamal Sorotetsi during the period of Catholicos Nahabed I. It is built with red and black tufa stones, erected on the remains of a 6th-century basilica. The remains of a 4th-century small chapel could be seen at the southwestern end of Saint Shoghakat Church.

Zvartnots Cathedral.

Zvartnots is a 7th-century ruined circular church built upon the order of Catholicos Nerses III the Builder between 641 and 653. It is at the eastern edge of modern-day Vagharshapat. Zvartnots was a majestic cathedral famous for its unique design, dedicated to Saint George, built at the place where a meeting between king Tiridates III and Saint Gregory the Illuminator was supposed to have taken place. In 930, the church was ruined by an earthquake and remained buried until it was rediscovered in the early 20th century by architect Toros Toramanian. The site was excavated between 1900 and 1907, uncovering the foundations of the cathedral as well as the remains of the Pontifical palace and a winery.

Culture.

Vagharshapat is the cultural center of Armavir and one of the important centers of the entire republic. The Komitas Palace of Culture is operating in the town since 1957, while the Ejmiatsin National Gallery is operating since 1970.  The town is also home to a number of museums including the Vagharshapat Ethnographic Museum, Khoren Ter-Harutyunyan Museum and Gallery, Mher Abeghian Museum and Gallery, and Hovhannes Hovhannisyan House-museum. However, the most prominent museums of Vagharshapat are located within the Mother See complex, including:  The Mother See is also home to the Pontifical Bookstore operating since 1962, and the *Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Manuscript Depository opened in 2012.  The town celebrates the "Ejmiatsin Day" annually since 2008 in Vagharshapat on 8 October. According to the old Armenian tradition, Mesrop Mashtots brought the newly created Armenian alphabet to Vagharshapat on 8 October 405.

Transportation.

Vagharshapat is connected with Yerevan and southern Armenia through the M-5 Motorway, while the M-3 Motorway connects the town with northern Armenia.  The Zvartnots International Airport of Yerevan is located only east of Vagharshapat.  Being located 20 km west of the capital Yerevan, Vagharshapat is connected with the capital city with public vans, locally-known as "marshrutka". These vehicles are mainly Russian-made GAZelle vans with 13 seats, having regular trips between the two cities throughout the day. Since 2018, some new buses are also having regular trips to Yerevan. There are also 2 smart stops in the city that will soon be eight.

Economy.

Industry.

Vagharshapat was home to the 1st paper factory in the history of Armenia. In 1780, Catholicos Simeon I of Yerevan founded the Etchmiadzin Paper Factory which served for 6 years.  Under the Soviet rule, the town was turned into an important industrial centre. It was home to 4 major industrial firms specialized in the production of military technology. However, the productivity of the plants declined after the fall of the Soviet Union.  Currently, the industry of the town is mainly based on food-processing. The largest industrial firms of the town are the Ejmiatsin Instrument Making Factory founded in 1966, the E.P.G. Ejmiatsin Cannery founded in 1969, the Ejmiatsin Kat dairy factory founded in 1997, the Sonimol plant for grains founded in 2001, the Ejmiatsin wine brandy and vodka factory founded in 2005, and the Ekologia V.K.H. biological waste destruction plant founded in 2009.

Tourism.

Being the spiritual centre of the Armenian nation worldwide, Vagharshapat is a major tourist destination for Armenians as well as foreign visitors. It is home to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Etchmiadzin Cathedral, Zvartnots Cathedral, Saint Hripsime Church, Saint Gayane Church and Shoghakat Church, grouped overall as the Cathedral and Churches of Echmiatsin and the Archaeological Site of Zvartnots.  The "Machanents Touristic Centre" of Vagharshapat provides a unique facility for the visitors of the town. The complex houses a cultural centre with small theatre, pub and jazz club, traditional cuisine, and a boutique hotel. The "Zvartnots" hotel and casino complex is located at the eastern entrance of the town.

Education.

Gevorkian Theological Seminary is one of the most significant educational institutions of Armenia. Other educational institutions include the "Grigor Lusavorich University" and the intermediate college of vocational education.  The Karekin I Centre of Theology and Armenology is also functioning in the town since 2000. , Vagharshapat is home to 14 public secondary schools, 8 kindergartens and 2 musical academies.  The new complex of Eurnekian School of the Mother See was opened in September 2017.

Sport.

FC Vagharshapat was the town's only football club, made its debut in the Armenian Premier League as Zvartnots Echmiadzin in 1992. However, it was dissolved in early 2006 and is currently inactive from professional football. The Etchmiadzin Stadium located immediately to the south of the Mother See complex, is able to hold up to 3,000 spectators.  In October 2016, the Football Federation of Armenia has launched the construction of a football academy at the southern suburb of the town, on the Vagharshapat-Margara motorway. The groundbreaking ceremony took place on 12 April 2017, was attended by President Serzh Sargsyan, UEFA President Aleksander Čeferin and FFA President Ruben Hayrapetyan. With an approximate cost of US$2 million, the complex will occupy an area of and is expected to be completed by October 2017. The project is being jointly financed by the FFA, UEFA and FIFA.  A new sport school is currently under construction in Vagharshapat since 2015, with a cost of more than US$1 million. The project is due to be completed in 2019.  The nearby village of Aknalich (10 km south of Vagharshapat) is famous for the "Ara and Aytsemnik" equestrian centre.

International relations.

Vagharshapat (Etchmiadzin) has been a member of the Organization of World Heritage Cities (OWHC) since 2007.

Twin towns—sister cities.

Vagharshapat-Ejmiatsin has eight sister cities:

Vagharshapat ( ), is the 4th-largest city in Armenia and the most populous municipal community of Armavir Province, located about west of the capital Yerevan, and north of the closed Turkish-Armenian border. It is commonly known as Ejmiatsin (also spelled Echmiadzin or Etchmiadzin,, ), which was its official name between 1945 and 1995. It is still commonly used colloquially and in official bureaucracy.

瓦加尔沙帕特(),亦称埃奇米阿津(),亚美尼亚亚马维尔省城市,位于埃里温以西18公里。该城是亚美尼亚第4大城市,也是亚马维尔省最大的城市。总人口57,300(2009年估计)。瓦加尔沙帕特历史悠久,是亚美尼亚旧都之一。


Material culture.

Some scholars assert that the Hemudu culture co-existed with the Majiabang culture as two separate and distinct cultures, with cultural transmissions between the two. Other scholars group Hemudu in with Majiabang subtraditions. Two major floods caused the nearby Yaojiang River to change its course and inundated the soil with salt, forcing the people of Hemudu to abandon its settlements. The Hemudu people lived in long, stilt houses. Communal longhouses were also common in Hemudu sites, much like the ones found in modern-day Borneo.  The Hemudu culture was one of the earliest cultures to cultivate rice. Recent excavations at the Hemudu period site of Tianluoshan has demonstrated rice was undergoing evolutionary changes recognized as domestication. Most of the artifacts discovered at Hemudu consist of animal bones, exemplified by hoes made of shoulder bones used for cultivating rice.  The culture also produced lacquer wood. A red lacquer wood bowl at the Zhejiang Museum is dated to: 4000~5000 BC. It is believed to be the earliest such object in the world.  The remains of various plants, including water caltrop, "Nelumbo nucifera", acorns, melon, wild kiwifruit, blackberries, peach, the foxnut or "Gorgon euryale" and bottle gourd, were found at Hemudu and Tianluoshan. The Hemudu people likely domesticated pigs but practiced extensive hunting of deer and some wild water buffalo. Fishing was also carried out on a large scale, with a particular focus on crucian carp. The practices of fishing and hunting are evidenced by the remains of bone harpoons and bows and arrowheads. Music instruments, such as bone whistles and wooden drums, were also found at Hemudu. Artifact design by Hemudu inhabitants bears many resemblances to those of Insular Southeast Asia.  The culture produced a thick, porous pottery. The distinct pottery was typically black and made with charcoal powder. Plant and geometric designs were commonly painted onto the pottery; the pottery was sometimes also cord-marked. The culture also produced carved jade ornaments, carved ivory artifacts and small, clay figurines.

Sociopolitical organization.

In the early Hemudu period is the maternal clan phase. Descent is said to be matrilineal and the social status of children and women is comparatively high. In the later periods, they gradually transitioned into patrilineal clans. During this period, the social status of men rose and descent is passed through the male line.

Religion.

Hemudu's inhabitants worshiped a sun spirit as well as a fertility spirit. They also enacted shamanistic rituals to the sun and believed in bird totems. A belief in an afterlife and ghosts is believed to have taken place as well. People were buried with their heads facing east or northeast and most had no burial objects. Infants were buried in urn-casket style burials, while children and adults received earth level burials. They did not have a definite communal burial ground, for the most part, but a clan communal burial ground has been found in the later period. Two groups in separate parts of this burial ground are thought to be two intermarrying clans. There were noticeably more burial goods in this communal burial ground.

Environment.

Fossilized amoeboids and pollen suggests Hemudu culture emerged and developed in the middle of the Holocene Climatic Optimum. A study of a sea-level highstand in the Ningshao Plain from 7000 to 5000 BP shows that there may have been stabilized lower sea levels at this time, followed by frequent flooding from 5000 to 3900 BP. The climate was said to be tropical to subtropical with high temperatures and much precipitation throughout the year.

The Hemudu culture (5500 BC to 3300 BC) was a Neolithic culture that flourished just south of the Hangzhou Bay in Jiangnan in modern Yuyao, Zhejiang, China. The culture may be divided into an early and late phases, before and after 4000 BC respectively. The site at Hemudu, 22 km north-west of Ningbo, was discovered in 1973. Hemudu sites were also discovered at Tianluoshan in Yuyao city, and on the islands of Zhoushan. Hemudu are said to have differed physically from inhabitants of the Yellow River sites to the north. Some authors propose that the Hemudu Culture was a source of the pre-Austronesian cultures.

河姆渡文化是分布于中国浙江杭州湾南岸平原地区至舟山群岛的新石器时代文化,其年代大约在距今6000年到7000年之前,因以浙江余姚河姆渡遗址发掘最早,故称作河姆渡文化。


哈斯德鲁巴 (哈米尔卡之婿)

Family.

Livy's "History of Rome" records he was the brother-in-law of the Carthaginian leader Hannibal and son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca.

Career.

Hasdrubal followed Hamilcar in his campaign against the governing aristocracy at Carthage at the close of the First Punic War, and in his subsequent career of conquest in Hispania. In 237 BC, they parted towards the Peninsula, but around 231–230 BC Hasdrubal allegedly interceded in Hamilcar's name making the Numidian tribes from Northern Africa submit to the Barcid family; from there, Numidia fell into Carthage's sphere of influence.  After Hamilcar's death in 228 BC while fighting Iberian tribes, Hasdrubal succeeded him in the command, following Carthage's instructions, Hamilcar's sons being too young – Hannibal, the elder, was nineteen. He largely preferred diplomacy to war campaigns. According to the diplomatic customs of the time, Hasdrubal demanded the handing over of hostages to make himself sure of the submission of their places of origin.  Thus, he extended the newly acquired empire by skillful diplomacy, consolidating it by founding the important city and naval base of Qart Hadasht, which the Romans later called Carthago Nova (Cartagena) as the capital of the new province, and by establishing a treaty with the Roman Republic which fixed the River Ebro (the classical Iberus) as the boundary between the two powers. This treaty was caused because a Greek colony, Ampurias, and also Iberian Sagunto, fearful of the continuous growth of Punic power in Iberia, asked Rome for help. Hasdrubal accepted reluctantly, as Punic dominion in Iberia was not yet sufficiently established to jeopardise its future expansion in a premature conflict.

Death.

Seven years after Hamilcar's death, Hasdrubal the Fair was assassinated in 221 BC by a slave of the Celtic king Tagus, who thus avenged the death of his own master.  Hasdrubal's successor was his brother-in-law and the son of Hamilcar, Hannibal Barca.

Hasdrubal the Fair (, "ʿAzrubaʿal"; –221BC) was a Carthaginian military leader and politician, governor in Iberia after Hamilcar Barca's death, and founder of Cartagena.

哈斯德鲁巴(公正者)(;布匿语: "";前270年-前221年),迦太基军事将领,哈米尔卡·巴卡之婿、汉尼拔之姐夫。


History.

Formative years (1972–1986).

Air Botswana (Pty.) Limited was founded on 2 July 1972 to succeed two failed former national airlines: Botswana National Airways (1966–1969) and Botswana Airways Corporation (1970–1971). Air Botswana Holdings was responsible for the ownership and leasing of aircraft, and served as the holding company for Air Botswana. During the early formative years, Air Botswana (Pty.) Limited acted as a contractor for numerous flight services, which were contracted to South African Protea Airways, via a local subsidiary, Air Services Botswana.  Flight operations began on 1 August 1972 utilising the only aircraft of the company: a Fokker F-27 Friendship. Throughout the 1970s, Air Botswana operated a round-trip route from Gaborone-Manzini-Johannesburg-Harare-Gaborone, in addition to domestic services to Francistown, Maun and Selebi-Phikwe. By the late 1970s, Air Botswana operated one HS 748, one Douglas DC-3 and one Vickers Viscount 754, the latter on lease from Protea Airways.  The contract with Air Services Botswana for operation of the airline was not renewed, and in 1981 British Airways was awarded a contract for the operation of the airline for a six-year period. Also in 1981, Botswana Development Corporation was formed as a part of Air Botswana Holdings, with the corporation being tasked to acquire an aircraft for the airline to lease. The Fokker F27 was again chosen, and because of a lack of their own trained crews, the airline seconded crews from Comair and contracted maintenance out to Safair Freighters. In 1983 a Lockheed L-100-30 Hercules was leased and Air Botswana Cargo was formed to operate cargo charters, and when South African Airways ended services to Lesotho and Swaziland, a second F27 was acquired and services to Maseru and Manzini were inaugurated. A sixteen-seat Dornier Do 228-200 was leased in December 1984 from Kalahari Air Service, with the latter flying and maintaining the aircraft for Air Botswana. The 57 million pula Sir Seretse Khama International Airport opened on 10 December 1984, seeing Air Botswana operating from the airport. By the end of 1986, the route network included Gaborone, Francistown, Johannesburg, Harare, Lusaka, Manzini, Maseru, Maun, Selebi-Phikwe and Victoria Falls.

Government corporation.

On 1 April 1988, Air Botswana was absorbed by the Botswana government as a parastatal corporation under the Ministry of Works, Transport and Communications as a result of the "Air Botswana Act (1988)", and became the nation's flag carrier. Also in April 1988, Air Botswana became the first airline from the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) to establish air links with Namibia. Air Botswana operations are regulated by the Department of Civil Aviation under the "Civil Aviation Act (1977)".  Two ATR 42–230 arrived in 1988, leading to the sale of the Fokkers, and the first BAe 146 arrived in November 1989. The BAe 146 entered service on 12 November on the Gaborone-Harare route, operated five times per week in conjunction with Air Zimbabwe, along with other destinations of the network of the airline in southern Africa. The airline also entered into block-seat arrangements with international airlines, including an agreement with British Caledonian which provided seats on the Lusaka-Gaborone sector of the London-Lusaka-Gaborone service.  In December 1992, the government enacted the "Control of Smoking Act (1992)", and Air Botswana became the first company in Botswana to respond to the act by banning smoking on all domestic flights in 1993, which was later extended to all flights in the Southern African Development Community region in 1995. Whilst the years 1988 to 1993 saw Air Botswana incurring financial losses, in 1994 the government wrote off P74 million of the airline's losses and converted them into equity.

Destruction of fleet (1999).

On 11 October 1999, the airline was crippled when one of its pilots, Chris Phatswe, crashed an empty ATR 42 aircraft into Sir Seretse Khama International Airport, destroying the aircraft and two more Air Botswana ATR 42s. Phatswe had stolen the aircraft in the early morning, and once in the air had informed the air traffic control tower that he intended to kill himself; and requested by radio to speak to several people, including President Festus Mogae and the airline's general manager. As Mogae was out of the country, arrangements were made for Phatswe to speak to Vice President Seretse Ian Khama, who expressed willingness to speak to Phatswe.  After the aircraft circled Gaborone for two hours, Phatswe crashed it at a speed of into the airline's two other ATR 42s, which were parked on the apron, destroying all three aircraft. The incident left the company with only a single BAe 146, which had been non-operational for a year because of technical problems, forcing the airline to lease an aircraft to operate scheduled flights. It was revealed that Phatswe had been grounded for medical reasons, was refused reinstatement, and was regrounded until February 2000.

Privatisation attempts.

Because the airline had been regularly posting financial losses, which in part is due to overstaffing, the operation of an ageing, fuel-inefficient fleet, increasing operational costs, inadequate management expertise and an inability to retain and attract qualified pilots, the government earmarked Air Botswana to be the first of the parastatals to be privatised. The costs which the airline incurs, in conjunction with low quality of service, poor marketing, high insurance premiums and a slow uptake on new technology, has restricted growth potential for the airline. However, in the five years to 2003, the government had not had to subsidise Air Botswana, and in the previous six years had made a profit.  The privatisation process began on 19 April 2000, when the government signed a consultancy agreement with World Bank-affiliated International Finance Corporation, which saw IFC being appointed as the government's main adviser in the privatisation process.  In 2003, the government attempted to privatise the airline, with Air Mauritius and Comair put forward as strategic partners. The process would have seen the winning bidder receiving a 45% stake in Air Botswana, with the government holding a further 45%, and employees holding the remaining 10%. It was planned that once the airline has firmed its position under new ownership, it would be listed on the Botswana Stock Exchange. Air Mauritius withdrew from the process in September 2003, citing the downturn in global air travel markets since the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in New York City. Comair withdrew in December 2003, due in part to increased competition by low-cost airlines in the South African market. The government suspended the search for a strategic partner in February 2004.  Following a P300 million loss in the first quarter of 2006, the "Sunday Standard" reported that the government hurriedly began efforts to privatise the airline before it became insolvent. The newspaper also revealed that the airline defaulted on its US$42,000 – 45,000 payments for the lease of the BAe 146 from April — July 2006, and that the arrears were paid once the airline's Secretary and Corporate Counsel warned that non-compliance with the contracts could lead to the termination of the lease of the aircraft and expose the corporation to claims for damages, which would affect its image during the privatisation process. In September 2006 it was announced that three potential investors had placed bids for the tender to take over the airline: Airlink of South Africa, African World Airways Ltd, and Lobtrans (Ltd), a local truck fuel transporter. Shortlisted companies which did not submit bids included Ethiopian Airlines, Comair, Tourism Empowerment Group, ExecuJet, and Interair South Africa. In November 2006, the Public Enterprises Evaluation and Privatisation Agency announced that Airlink has been put forward by the Ministry of Works and Transport as the preferred bidder for Air Botswana.  It was revealed by the press that Nico Czypionka, the man responsible for leading negotiations between the government and Airlink, had convinced the government as early as April 2006 to go into partnership with the South African airline. It was alleged that the deal with Airlink was a foregone conclusion from the beginning of the process, and that other airlines had been invited to submit bids to create and illusion of fair and equitable processes. The "Sunday Standard" also revealed that the blueprint for the privatisation of the airline was written by Airlink CEO Roger Foster, and was used by Botswana in its negotiations with the airline, in contravention of the "Botswana Privatisation Policy of 2003".  As part of the proposed deal with Airlink, it announced that Air Botswana would be wound up, and a new airline to be known as "Botswana Airlink" would be formed, with the government holding a controlling 50.1% share and the South African airline holding the remaining 49.9%. The new airline would have disposed of the 46-seat ATR 42s, and would instead operate 29-seat BAe Jetstream 41s, which are more suited to low traffic domestic routes. The deal would also have seen the retrenchment of all 300 employees of Air Botswana, with approximately 180 being rehired by the new airline.  The Government ceased negotiations with Airlink in October 2007, when the Cabinet reached a decision that the deal was no longer viable. A major sticking point, according to Mmegi, was that Airlink was adamant in replacing the national colours of blue, black and white, with those of South Africa. The Cabinet also believed the proposal didn't meet requirements for air transport for the country, and didn't address government objectives for the further development of transport and tourism sectors in Botswana, although the tourism industry regards Air Botswana's monopoly of air transport in Botswana, and the resultant high fares and limited schedules, to be a major constraint for the development of tourism in Botswana.  The government then began the search for a management company to operate the company for a three-year period, and also announced that the government would recapitalise the airline by injecting P100 million to improve performance and to make it more attractive for privatisation. The government entered into negotiations with Comair, but following disagreements over terms, negotiations continued with reserve bidder International Development Ireland, in conjunction with Aer Arann.  According to press reports in August 2008, Alexander Lebedev, a Russian oligarch, expressed interest in investing in the airline, and the Ministry of Works and Transport confirmed that Lebedev was invited to travel to Gaborone to present his bid to the government. Part of the bid reportedly included extending Air Botswana's route network to Düsseldorf Airport; the base of Blue Wings which is 48% owned by Lebedev's National Reserve Corporation. At the end of 2008, it was reported that Lebedev had abandoned plans for investment in Air Botswana.

Recent history.

In December 2008, Air Botswana signed a deal with ATR for two 68-seat ATR 72–500 regional airliners worth US$37 million. The aircraft were delivered in March 2009, and it was announced that routes linking Kasane and Francistown with Johannesburg would be restarted. The aircraft were delivered at the time of Air Botswana facing increased competition from South African Airways which had re-entered the Johannesburg-Gaborone market. In July 2009, Air Botswana signed a codeshare agreement with Kenya Airways, which began flights to Gaborone on 6 September with three flights per week.  The airline left the International Air Transport Association because of its inability to meet the December 2008 deadline of the IATA Operational Safety Audit, but has since been re-admitted as a full member in 2012, under the leadership of the General Manager, Sakhile Nyoni-Reiling.  In December 2012, Nyoni-Reiling resigned, and press reports in May 2013 indicated internal conflicts and that two directors had been suspended for gross mismanagement pending investigations.  In late 2015, Tshenolo Mabeo the, Minister responsible for Transport, sacked the then General Manager Ben Dahwa together with his entire board of directors, following allegations of corruption. General Tebogo Carter Masire, former Botswana Defence Force (BDF) Commander, was appointed in February 2016 to lead Air Botswana as board chairman, replacing Nigel Dixon-Warren.  In November 2019, the EastAfrican newspaper reported that Air Botswana was in the process of cutting its staff numbers from 450 to 210 people. The airline has been running at a loss for more than a decade, reportedly due to high maintenance costs for its planes. The plans also include outsourcing ground handling services to a new company, yet to be formed. It is expected that the majority of the retrenched workers will be hired by the new ground handling outfit.

Corporate affairs.

Ownership.

Despite various initiatives to privatise the airline, in whole or in part, Air Botswana remains 100% owned by the Government of Botswana.

Business trends.

Air Botswana has been consistently loss-making for many years. Although the airline is government owned, full annual reports do not appear to be published. Financial results (for years ending 31 March) are published by the Auditor General, and other data in AFRAA reports, as below:

Destinations.

As of June 2019, Air Botswana operated scheduled passenger flights to the following destinations:

Codeshare agreement.

Air Botswana has codeshares with the following airlines:

Fleet.

Current fleet.

, the Air Botswana fleet consisted of the following aircraft:

Air Botswana Corporation is Botswana's state-owned national flag carrier, with its headquarters located in Gaborone. It operates scheduled domestic and regional flights from its main base at Sir Seretse Khama International Airport. Air Botswana has been loss-making for several years, and there have been various attempts to privatise the company, and frequent changes to the corporation's management and board, so far without reducing the losses.

博茨瓦纳航空(Air Botswana,IATA:BP,ICAO:BOT)是非洲国家博茨瓦纳的国营航空公司,总部设于首都嘉柏隆里,以塞雷茨·卡马爵士国际机场为基地。


Name.

"Tshwa'i 'Dam" is the Wylie romanization of the Tibetan name, meaning "Salt Marsh"; the Tibetan Pinyin romanization of the same name is "Caidam". "Qaidam" is the GNC romanization of its transcription into Mongolian; "Tsaidam" is a variant romanization of the same name. "Chaidamu" is the pinyin romanization of its transcription into Chinese characters; the same name was formerly romanized as the for the Chinese Postal Map.

Geography.

Orographically, the Qaidam Basin is a comparatively low area in the northeastern part of the Tibetan Plateau. With an elevation of around, Qaidam forms a kind of shelf between Tibet to the south (around ) and Gansu to the north (around ). A low water divide separates the Qaidam Basin proper from that of Qinghai Lake to the east. Despite this lower elevation, Qaidam is still high enough that its mean annual temperature is despite lying on the same latitude as Algeria, Greece, and Virginia in the United States.  The crescent-shaped basin covers an area of approximately. Its substrate is broadly divided into three blocks: the Mangya Depression, a northern fault zone, and the Sanhu Depression. Qaidam is an intermontane basin, surrounded on all sides by mountain ranges. In the south, the Kunlun Mountains separate it from the higher central section of the Tibetan Plateau. In the north, a number of smaller ridges like the Shulenanshan separate it from another higher plateau, which usually referenced by the name of its northern escarpment, the Qilian or Nanshan. In the northwest, the Altyn-Tagh separates it from the Kumtagh Desert of southeastern Xinjiang. Because of this position, Qaidam forms an endorheic basin accumulating lakes with no outlet to the sea. The area is among the most arid non-polar locations on earth, with some places reporting an aridity index of 0.008–0.04. Across the entire basin, the mean annual rainfall is but the mean annual evaporation is. Because of the low rainfall, these lakes have become saline or dried up completely. Presently, there are four main playas in the basin: Qarhan in the southeast and (from north to south) Kunteyi, Chahanshilatu, and Dalangtan in the northwest. These playas and a few other saline lakes occupy over one-fourth of the basin, with the sediments deposited since the Jurassic as deep as 10 to 14 km (6–9mi) in places despite tectonic activity having repeatedly shifted the center of the region's sedimentation. The seasonal nature and commercial exploitation of some of the lakes makes an exact count problematic: one count reckoned there were 27 lakes in the basin, another reckoned 43 with a total area of.  The aridity, salinity, wide diurnal and seasonal temperature swings, and relatively high ultraviolet radiation has led to Qaidam being studied by the China Geological Survey as a Mars analogue for use in testing spectroscopy and equipment for China's 2020 Mars rover program.

Geological history.

Qaidam was part of the North China Craton from at least 1 billion years ago, before breaking off million years ago at the end of the Neoproterozoic. It was an island in a shallow sea until uplift beginning around 400Ma finally rejoined it to the mainland by 200Ma.  Three-dimensional modeling shows that the present basin has been squeezed to an irregular diamond shape since the beginning of the Cenozoic, with the Indian Plate beginning to impact the ancient Tibetan shoreline somewhere between 55–35Ma. At first, Qaidam was at a far lower elevation. Pollen found in core samples shows that the Oligocene (34–23Ma) was relatively humid. A great lake slowly formed in the western basin, which two major tectonic movements raised and cut off from its original sources of sediment. At its greatest extent during the Miocene (23–5Ma), this lake spread at the present elevation contour over and was among the largest lakes in the world. Nutrient-rich inflows contributed to plankton blooms, which supported an ecosystem that built up reserves of organic carbon. The Tibetan plateau's uplift, however, eventually cut it off from the warm and humid Indian monsoon. It went from a forest steppe to a desert. By 12Ma, the climate had dried enough to break Qaidam's single lake into separate basins, which frequently became saline. During the Pliocene (5–2.5Ma), the focus of most sedimentation was at what is now Kunteyi but, during the Pleistocene (after 2.5Ma), tectonic activity shifted the basin's tributaries and floor, moving the focus of sedimentation from the Dalangtan to Qarhan area. During this time, the record's glacial intervals suggest a low-temperature climate and its sandstone yardangs attest to strong winds.  From 770,000 and 30,000 years ago, the enormous lake which filled much of the southeastern basin alternated nine times between being a fresh- and saltwater lake. Pollen studies suggest the bed of Dabusun Lake in the Qarhan Playanearly the lowest point of the basinwas elevated about within the last 500,000 years. At around 30 kya, this greatat the time, freshwaterlake spread over at least with a surface above the present levels of its successors. At the same time, a river from the "Kunlun" paleolake to its south was enriching the Sanhu region with enormous reserves of lithium derived from hot springs near Mount Buka Daban which now feed into the Narin Gol that flows into East Taijinar Lake.  Around 30 kya, the lake in the Kunluns dried up and the Qarhan was cut off from sufficient inflows of fresh water. It became saline again, beginning to precipitate salts about 25,000 years ago. The basin's continuing formation and evolution is controlled by the Altyn Tagh fault constituting the northern basin boundary.

Resources.

The basin's large mineral deposits caused a great deal of investment interest from 2005. Qarhan Playa, a salt flat including about ten of the lakes, contains over 50 billion metric tons (55 billion short tons) of salt.  Beneath the salt, Qaidam is one of China's nine most important petroliferous basins and its largest center of onshore production. The Qinghai Oilfield, exploited since 1954, includes the Lenghu, Gasikule, Yuejin-2, and Huatugou oil fields and the Sebei-1, Sebei-2, and Tainan gas fields. All together, it has proven reserves of 347.65 million metric tons (more than 2 billion barrels) of petroleum and 306.6 billion cubic meters (10.83 trillion cubic feet) of natural gas. Annual production capacity is about 2 million metric tons of petroleum and 8.5 billion cubic meters of natural gas. A pipeline connects the Huatugou field with the major refinery at Golmud, and the Sebei gas fields are connected to Xining, Lanzhou, and Yinchuan.  Qaidam has reserves of asbestos, borax, gypsum, and several metals, with the greatest reserves of lithium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium of anywhere in China.

Transportation.

The Xining-Golmud rail line (the first stage of the Qinghai–Tibet Railway), which crossed the eastern part of the Qaidam Basin in the early 1980s, is an essential transportation link for accessing the region's mineral resources. As of 2012, additional rail lines are under construction. The construction of the Golmud–Dunhuang Railway started in October 2012; it is expected to be completed within 5 years. In the early 2012, Zangge Potash Co Ltd started the construction of a 25-km private railway from the Qarhan station on the Qinghai–Tibet Railway (near the eponymous salt lake) to their facilities nearby.  As of the late 2013, preliminary planning is conducted for the Golmud-Korla Railway, which will stretch along the entire western part of the Qaidam Basin as well.

The Qaidam, Tsaidam, or Chaidamu Basin is a hyperarid basin that occupies a large part of Haixi Prefecture in Qinghai Province, China. The basin covers an area of approximately, one-fourth of which is covered by saline lakes and playas. Around one third of the basin, about, is desert.

柴达木盆地()地处青海省西北部,阿尔金山、祁连山和昆仑山之间,东西长约800公里,南北最宽处约350公里,面积约20万平方公里,地势自西北向东南缓倾,海拔在2600至3000米之间,是中国地势最高的内陆盆地。柴达木盆地海拔高,云量少,日照时间长,常年干旱少雨,区内时常刮大风,茶卡地区的刮大风的天气最多时一年有180多天,风能十分丰富。盆地内地势平坦,有较充足的地表水和地下水可用,昼夜的温差较大,利于农作物积累养料,因而那里的农作物的产量较高。


Geography.

Tartu County lies in South Estonia, between Lake Võrtsjärv and Lake Peipsi. Estonia's only navigable river, River Emajõgi (100 km long), flows through the county, connecting Lake Peipsi and Lake Võrtsjärv. Wavy plains are typical landscapes of Tartu County. One third of the county is covered with forests, a third is cultivated. A quarter is made up of wetlands at the headwaters and lower course of the Emajõgi. In the northern part of the county, there are drumlin fields with lakes between them. Nature preserves take up about 10% of the county's territory, the biggest of them being Emajõe Suursoo and Alam-Pedja.

History.

Archaeological findings suggest that people first inhabited the territory of the current Tartu County about 5000 years ago. City of Tartu was first mentioned in historical records in 1030, when Yaroslav I the Wise organized a military campaign against Chuds, defeated them and established fort Yuryev in what is modern day Tartu. In 1224, after the conquest of the stronghold by the German invaders, Tartu became the capital of a diocese, stretching from Northern Estonia to Latvia. Since the 13th century, Tartu belonged to the Hanseatic League, and the town became a well-known trade centre in the Baltic Sea region. In 1569, together with Duchy of Livonia, Tartu became part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1598 Tartu became capital of the Dorpat Voivodeship, which remained part of the PLC until the 1620s, when the city was conquered by the Swedes.  King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden established the University of Tartu in 1632. Estonia's first teachers' training school was established in Tartu County in 1684, as well as the first Estonian schools for the children of peasants. Closed during and after the Great Northern War, Tartu University was re-opened in 1802 as the only university operating in German language in the Russian Empire. Economic development of the region was further encouraged by the construction of the railway connecting Tartu with Tallinn, Riga and St. Petersburg. In the second half of the 19th century, the national awakening of Estonians began from Tartu region. After Estonia gained independence in 1918, Tartu, along with Tallinn, became one of the two main cultural centres of Estonia, where most of the Estonian intelligentsia of the time lived and worked. In 1987–1989, the students' environmental and cultural heritage movement in Tartu initiated Estonia's Singing Revolution and restoration of the country's independence.

Economy.

Tartu County is an integrated economic system and labour area with its centre in the City of Tartu.  There are 6000 companies and 2000 self-employed persons registered in Tartu County. More than 80% of the companies employ 10 or fewer people, only 5 companies in the whole region have more than 250 employees.  Service sector provides 2/3 of the employment in the county. The City of Tartu is the service and logistics centre for the whole of South Estonia. A significant part of these jobs are in the public sector – especially education and medicine – and the biggest employer in the county is Tartu University Clinics with around 3000 employees, incl 455 doctors. The biggest private sector employer is Tarmeko, producing furniture and components, with 900 employees. Unemployment rate in the county has been 2–3% in the recent years.  Typical products of Tartu County are furniture, foodstuffs, clothes, building materials, glass and plastics. The main export target countries are Finland, Germany, Latvia and Russia. 40% of the exports is wood and furniture, other export production includes machinery and appliances, building materials, glass and clothing. Thanks to the fertile lands, there are many big agricultural enterprises in the West of the county. Fishery is an important activity on the coast of Lake Peipsi.  There is development potential for knowledge intensive production in the region due to its universities. Some successful spin-offs of Tartu University are operating in the field of biotechnology and biomedicine. Since 2004, several ICT companies, orientated on the international markets, have been growing fast.  In order to facilitate innovation and technology transfer, Tartu Science Park is offering incubation and consultation services to research-based and high-tech oriented companies, and promoting cooperation between research institutions. Tartu University Institute of Technology is a research and development institution, which aims to facilitate the generation of new technological solutions. The R&D centres have been established in the areas of material and chemical technology, biomedical technology, environmental technology and information technology.  The key actors of the region have signed an agreement about the county's development strategy, which is economic and social development through increase of the knowledge input into production and services.  Economic development priorities:

Education and culture.

Tartu County has 69 schools with approximately 23,000 pupils. 11 vocational schools provide practical training in 50 specialities. 40% of Estonia's students live and study in Tartu. In addition to the University of Tartu and the Estonian University of Life Sciences there are 9 other institutions of higher education, the most recent of them the Baltic Defence College.  In the City of Tartu, Estonia's oldest professional theatre, Vanemuine, stages drama, opera and ballet. In 1869 the first Estonian Song Festival was held in Tartu, starting a tradition of choral song festivals which are now held in Tallinn every 4 years with 15,000–30,000 participants. Today Tartu Song Festival arena hosts various open-air concerts in summer. There are over 30 museums and art galleries in Tartu County, including Tartu City Museum, Tartu Art Museum, Toy Museum, Estonian Sports Museum, Estonian Postal Museum, Estonian Aviation Museum, Estonian Museum of Agriculture, Old-Believers' Museum of Living History, and others. Biggest and most important of them is Estonian National Museum, that was founded in 1909. Student festivals and Hanseatic festivals take place in Tartu regularly. The best known sports event hosted by Tartu County is the Tartu Ski Marathon, which is a member of the Worldloppet series.

Government.

In Estonia, there is no regional self-government on county level. The County Governments () are led by County Governors (), who are appointed by the National Government.  In accordance with the Government of the Republic Act, the County Governor represents interests of the state in the county and provides for integral and balanced development of the county. The County Governor co-ordinates co-operation of ministries and other organs of executive power located in a county with its local governments and performs supervision over the activities of the local governments. The County Governor is appointed for a five-year term by the Government of the Republic, on the basis of the Prime Minister's proposal and in co-ordination with the representatives of the local governments.  On February 2, 2006, Esta Tamm was appointed Tartu County Governor. She assumed office February 15, 2006.  The County Government manages the operations of and provides support services to the County Governor; prepares draft documents required by the County Governor; manages and controls the execution of orders of the County Governor; manages the preparation of draft budgets of state agencies administered by the County Government, and controls adherence to the budgets; manages relations of the County Governor with government agencies and local government agencies.

Municipalities.

The county is subdivided into municipalities. As of 2017, there is 1 urban municipality ( – "town") and 7 rural municipalities () in Tartu County.

Tartu County (), or Tartumaa (), is one of 15 counties of Estonia.

塔尔图县 (,或称)是爱沙尼亚东南部的一个县,东隔楚德湖与俄罗斯相望,相邻县包括珀尔瓦县、瓦尔加县、维尔扬迪县和约格瓦县。塔尔图县于2011年时的面积为2,993平方公里,占整个爱沙尼亚领土6.9%。2011年人口为150,535人,占全国人口11.2%。首府塔尔图。