巴格达之战 (1258年)

Background.

Baghdad had for centuries been the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, the third caliphate, whose rulers were descendants of Abbas, an uncle of Muhammad. In 751, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads and moved the Caliph's seat from Damascus to Baghdad. At the city's peak, it was populated by approximately one million people and was defended by an army of 60,000 soldiers. By the middle of the 13th century the power of the Abbasids had declined and Turkic and Mamluk warlords often held power over the Caliphs.  Baghdad still retained much symbolic significance, and it remained a rich and cultured city. The Caliphs of the 12th and 13th centuries had begun to develop links with the expanding Mongol Empire in the east. Caliph an-Nasir li-dini'llah, who reigned from 1180–1225, may have attempted an alliance with Genghis Khan when Muhammad II of Khwarezm threatened to attack the Abbasids. It has been rumored that some Crusader captives were sent as tribute to the Mongol khagan.  According to "The Secret History of the Mongols", Genghis and his successor, Ögedei Khan, ordered their general Chormaqan to attack Baghdad. In 1236, Chormaqan led a division of the Mongol army to Irbil, which remained under Abbasid rule. Further raids on Irbil and other regions of the caliphate became nearly annual occurrences. Some raids were alleged to have reached Baghdad itself, but these Mongol incursions were not always successful, with Abbasid forces defeating the invaders in 1238 and 1245.  Despite their successes, the Abbasids hoped to come to terms with the Mongols and by 1241 had adopted the practice of sending an annual tribute to the court of the khagan. Envoys from the Caliph were present at the coronation of Güyük Khan as khagan in 1246 and that of Möngke Khan in 1251. During his brief reign, Güyük insisted that the Caliph Al-Musta'sim fully submit to Mongol rule and come personally to Karakorum. Blame for the Caliph's refusal and for other resistance offered by the Abbasids to increased attempts by the Mongols to extend their power was placed by the khagans on Chormaqan's lieutenant and successor, Baiju.

Hulagu's expedition.

Planning.

In 1257, Möngke resolved to establish firm authority over Mesopotamia, Syria, and Persia. The khagan gave his brother, Hulagu, authority over a subordinate khanate and army, the Ilkhanate, and instructions to compel the submission of various Muslim states, including the caliphate. Though not seeking the overthrow of Al-Musta'sim, Möngke ordered Hulagu to destroy Baghdad if the Caliph refused his demands of personal submission to Hulagu and the payment of tribute in the form of a military detachment, which would reinforce Hulagu's army during its campaigns against Persian Ismaili states.  In preparation for his invasion, Hulagu raised a large expeditionary force, conscripting one out of every ten military-age males in the entirety of the Mongol Empire, assembling what may have been the most numerous Mongol army to have existed and, by one estimate, 150,000 strong. Generals of the army included the Oirat administrator Arghun Agha, Baiju, Buqa Temür, Guo Kan, and Kitbuqa, as well as Hulagu's brother Sunitai and various other warlords. The force was also supplemented by Christian forces, including the King of Armenia and his army, a Frankish contingent from the Principality of Antioch, and a Georgian force, seeking revenge on the Muslim Abbasids for the sacking of their capital, Tiflis, decades earlier by the Khwarazm-Shahs. About 1,000 Chinese artillery experts accompanied the army, as did Persian and Turkic auxiliaries, according to Ata-Malik Juvayni, a contemporary Persian observer.

Early campaigns.

Hulagu led his army first to Persia, where he successfully campaigned against the Lurs, the Bukhara, and the remnants of the Khwarezm-Shah dynasty. After subduing them, Hulagu directed his attention toward the Nizari Ismailis and their Grand Master, Imam 'Ala al-Din Muhammad, who had attempted the murder of both Möngke and Hulagu's friend and subordinate, Kitbuqa. Though Assassins failed in both attempts, Hulagu marched his army to their stronghold of Alamut, which he captured. The Mongols later executed the Assassins' Grand Master, Imam Rukn al-Dun Khurshah, who had briefly succeeded 'Ala al-Din Muhammad from 1255-1256.

Capture of Baghdad.

Hulagu's march to Baghdad.

After defeating the Assassins, Hulagu sent word to Al-Musta'sim, demanding his acquiescence to the terms imposed by Möngke. Al-Musta'sim refused, in large part due to the influence of his advisor and grand vizier, Ibn al-Alkami. Historians have ascribed various motives to al-Alkami's opposition to submission, including treachery and incompetence, and it appears that he lied to the Caliph about the severity of the invasion, assuring Al-Musta'sim that, if the capital of the caliphate was endangered by a Mongol army, the Islamic world would rush to its aid.  Although he replied to Hulagu's demands in a manner that the Mongol commander found menacing and offensive enough to break off further negotiation, Al-Musta'sim neglected to summon armies to reinforce the troops at his disposal in Baghdad. Nor did he strengthen the city's walls. By January 11 the Mongols were close to the city, establishing themselves on both banks of the Tigris River so as to form a pincer around the city. Al-Musta'sim finally decided to do battle with them and sent out a force of 20,000 cavalry to attack the Mongols. The cavalry were decisively defeated by the Mongols, whose sappers breached dikes along the Tigris River and flooded the ground behind the Abbasid forces, trapping them.

Siege of the city.

The Abbasid caliphate could supposedly call upon 50,000 soldiers for the defense of their capital, including the 20,000 cavalry under al-Musta'sim. However, these troops were assembled hastily, making them poorly equipped and disciplined. Although the caliph technically had the authority to summon soldiers from other Muslim empires to defend his realm, he either neglected to do so or lacked the ability to. His taunting opposition had lost him the loyalty of the Mamluks, and the Syrian emirs, whom he supported, were busy preparing their own defenses.  On January 29, the Mongol army began its siege of Baghdad, constructing a palisade and a ditch around the city. Employing siege engines and catapults, the Mongols attempted to breach the city's walls, and, by February 5, had seized a significant portion of the defenses. Realizing that his forces had little chance of retaking the walls, Al-Musta'sim attempted to open negotiations with Hulagu, who rebuffed the Caliph. Around 3,000 of Baghdad's notables also tried to negotiate with Hulagu but were murdered. Five days later, on February 10, the city surrendered, but the Mongols did not enter the city until the 13th, beginning a week of massacre and destruction.

Destruction.

Many historical accounts detailed the cruelties of the Mongol conquerors. Baghdad was a depopulated, ruined city for several decades and only gradually recovered some of its former glory.  Contemporary accounts state Mongol soldiers looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Priceless books from Baghdad's thirty-six public libraries were torn apart, the looters using their leather covers as sandals. Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the ground. The House of Wisdom (the Grand Library of Baghdad), containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed. Claims have been made that the Tigris ran red from the blood of the scientists and philosophers killed. Tales of the destruction of books - tossed into the Tigris such that the water turned black from the ink - seem to originate from the 14th century.  Citizens attempted to flee, but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed in abundance, sparing neither women nor children. Martin Sicker writes that close to 90,000 people may have died. Other estimates go much higher, but are almost certainly exaggerated.  The caliph Al-Musta'sim was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. According to most accounts, the caliph was killed by trampling. The Mongols rolled the caliph up in a rug, and rode their horses over him, as they believed that the earth would be offended if it were touched by royal blood. All but one of Al-Musta'sim's sons were killed, and the sole surviving son was sent to Mongolia, where Mongolian historians report he married and fathered children, but played no role in Islam thereafter (see The end of the Abbasid dynasty).  Hulagu had to move his camp upwind of the city, due to the stench of decay from the ruined city.  The historian David Morgan has quoted Wassaf describing the destruction: "They swept through the city like hungry falcons attacking a flight of doves, or like raging wolves attacking sheep, with loose reins and shameless faces, murdering and spreading terror...beds and cushions made of gold and encrusted with jewels were cut to pieces with knives and torn to shreds. Those hiding behind the veils of the great Harem were dragged...through the streets and alleys, each of them becoming a plaything...as the population died at the hands of the invaders."  Some modern historians have cast some doubt on the vehemently anti-Mongol medieval sources. George Lane (SOAS), for example, doubts the Grand Library was destroyed as the learned members of the Mongol command such as Nasir al-Din Tusi would not have allowed it, and that disease was the major cause of death. Primary sources state that Tusi saved thousands of volumes and installed them into a building in Marāgheh.

Causes for agricultural decline.

Some historians believe that the Mongol invasion destroyed much of the irrigation infrastructure that had sustained Mesopotamia for many millennia. Canals were cut as a military tactic and never repaired. So many people died or fled that neither the labour nor the organization were sufficient to maintain the canal system. It broke down or silted up. This theory was advanced (not for the first time) by historian Svatopluk Souček in his 2000 book, "A History of Inner Asia."  Other historians point to soil salination as the primary cause for the decline in agriculture.

Aftermath.

Hulagu left 3,000 Mongol soldiers behind to rebuild Baghdad. Ata-Malik Juvayni was later appointed governor of Baghdad, Lower Mesopotamia, and Khuzistan after Guo Kan went back to Yuan dynasty to assist Kublai conquest over the Song dynasty. The Mongol Hulagu's Nestorian Christian wife, Dokuz Khatun successfully interceded to spare the lives of Baghdad's Christian inhabitants. Hulagu offered the royal palace to the Nestorian Catholicos Mar Makikha, and ordered a cathedral to be built for him.  Initially, the fall of Baghdad came as a shock to the whole Muslim world; after many years of utter devastation, the city became an economic center where international trade, the minting of coins and religious affairs flourished under the Ilkhans. The chief Mongol darughachi was thereafter stationed in the city.

The Siege of Baghdad, which lasted from January 29 until February 10, 1258, entailed the investment, capture, and sack of Baghdad, the capital of the later Abbasid Caliphate, by Ilkhanate Mongol forces and allied troops. The Mongols were under the command of Hulagu Khan (or Hulegu Khan), brother of the khagan Möngke Khan, who had intended to further extend his rule into Mesopotamia but not to directly overthrow the Caliphate. Möngke, however, had instructed Hulagu to attack Baghdad if the Caliph Al-Musta'sim refused Mongol demands for his continued submission to the khagan and the payment of tribute in the form of military support for Mongol forces in Persia.

巴格达之战是旭烈兀西征中的战役,发生于1258年1月29日至2月10日,蒙古帝国军队及其盟军包围攻占并洗劫了阿拔斯王朝首都巴格达。蒙古军统帅为旭烈兀,哈里发穆斯台绥木投降后被杀。巴格达的智慧之家被毁,大量宝贵文献被扔进河中。由于蒙古大汗配偶多为基督教徒,在脱古思可敦的说服下,巴格达城中的基督教徒得以幸免,旭烈兀还把王宫送给他们做教堂。


Career.

Kim So-yeon broke into the entertainment industry in 1994 at the age of 14 by entering the Miss Binggrae beauty pageant without her parents' approval. Then in her second year of middle school, she used a marker pen as her eyeliner and ended up winning the top prize. Not long after her acting debut in "Dinosaur Teacher", the teen actress starred in popular TV shows such as "Reporting for Duty" (1996) and "Soonpoong Clinic" (1998), while hosting the music program "Inkigayo" and appearing in numerous commercials (Kim was the first Korean teen star to earn more than from commercial modeling). Because of her preternaturally mature looks and poise, she was often cast in older roles, notably as a manipulative, villainous anchorwoman in "All About Eve", which drew a peak viewership rating of 45.2% when it aired in 2000.  But being typecast as prim, cold-hearted characters had a negative effect on Kim's career, and her fame went downhill in the mid-2000s. Her attempt to crossover to China via Hong Kong director Tsui Hark's wuxia film "Seven Swords" (in which she played a Joseon noblewoman-turned-slave) and the Chinese dramas "Just Like a Beautiful Flying Butterfly" and "" also proved unsuccessful. So Kim took a break for three years to ponder whether she wanted to continue being an actress. She returned to television in 2008 with "Gourmet" (adapted from Huh Young-man's titular manhwa) and found acting fun for the first time.  A year later, Kim's career resurgence began with the 2009 big-budget series "Iris". She cut short her trademark long hair and worked hard on her action scenes to look convincing in her role as a North Korean spy, and she drew praise for her portrayal of a tough woman conflicted about her loyalty to her country and her love for a South Korean agent. Kim later reprised the role in the re-edited cut "Iris the Movie", the series' spin-off "" (2010) and sequel "Iris II" (2013).  Kim was cast in the leading role in romantic comedy "Prosecutor Princess" in 2010, and showcased her versatility by playing a "Legally Blonde"-inspired newbie district attorney who's initially more interested in shopping and dating, yet surprises her colleagues with her intelligence and learns to strive for justice. Kim said that the cheerful, unpredictable character was similar to her own real-life personality. Later in the year, she played a rigid doctor in sports drama "Dr. Champ".  In 2012, Kim appeared on the big screen as a royal barista embroiled in a plot to assassinate Emperor Gojong in "Gabi", adapted from the historical fiction novel by Kim Takhwan. She spent months studying the Russian language and coffee brewing even before shooting began. "Gabi" was Kim's first Korean feature film in 15 years, since "Change" in 1997. This was followed by another period drama "The Great Seer", where she played a healer in Goryeo.  Kim reunited with "Prosecutor Princess" screenwriter So Hyun-kyung in "Two Weeks" (2013), in the role of a prosecutor who teams up with a fugitive to bring down a corrupt politician and her gangster henchman. In 2014, she played a fashion merchandiser who falls for her much younger childhood friend in "I Need Romance 3". Kim then appeared in the "Female Soldier Special" of military boot camp reality show "Real Men".  In 2015, she starred in her second cable series "Beating Again", about a businessman who falls for his secretary after he gets a heart transplant. Kim also joined the fourth season of "We Got Married", pairing up with Kwak Si-yang.  In 2016, Kim starred MBC's weekend drama "Happy Home", playing a mother who has lost her son in an accident.  In March 2018, Kim left her previous agency Namoo Actors and signed an exclusive contract with J Wide Company on April 3, 2018. She was then cast in SBS weekend drama "Secret Mother".  In March 2019, Kim is confirmed to return to small screen with the KBS weekend drama "Mother of Mine".

Personal life.

On September 6, 2016, it was confirmed that Kim and actor Lee Sang-woo were in a relationship. The pair met on the set of MBC's weekend drama "Happy Home". On March 28, 2017, it was announced that Kim and Lee were getting married in June 2017.

Kim So-yeon (born November 2, 1980) is a South Korean actress. She is best known for starring in a number of well-known television series, notably "All About Eve" (2000), "Iris" (2009), "Prosecutor Princess" (2010), and "Happy Home".

金素妍(,1980年-11月2日),韩国女演员。国二时,在演艺学院的说话技巧课程中,被SBS电视台的制作人发掘。2006年2月17日,自东国大学戏剧电影学系毕业(1999-2006),取得学士学位。2016年因主演《家和万事成》而与李尚禹开始交往,两人并于2017年6月9日于首尔举行非公开婚礼。


Biography.

Early life.

Goldberger was born in Girált, Sáros County, Kingdom of Hungary (now Giraltovce, Slovakia) into a Jewish family. The youngest of six children, he immigrated to the U.S. with his parents in 1883, eventually settling in Manhattan's Lower East Side. After completing his secondary education, Goldberger entered the City College of New York intending to pursue an engineering career. After a chance encounter in 1892, however, Goldberger became interested in medicine and transferred to the Bellevue Hospital Medical College (now the New York University School of Medicine), receiving his M.D. degree in 1895. His early work on Ellis Island made him a standout investigator for detecting infectious diseases. He became a well-known epidemiologist.

Professional career.

Setting up a private medical practice in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, Goldberger soon became intellectually restless. He joined the Public Health Service in 1899, serving first post at the Port of New York, where he conducted health inspections of newly arrived immigrants.  From 1902–1906, Goldberger held a number of epidemiology posts—in Mexico, Puerto Rico, Mississippi and Louisiana. He was involved in the Public Health Service's efforts to combat yellow fever, typhus, dengue fever, and typhoid fever. He gave a particularly noted lecture in Boston, Massachusetts on the effects of parasites in disease transmission. In 1909, Goldberger published his research on an acarine mite-based parasitic infection common among poor, inner-city populations. He also worked with John F. Anderson investigating the transmission of measles and typhus.

Pellagra studies.

In 1914, Goldberger was asked by US Surgeon General Rupert Blue to investigate pellagra, then an endemic disease in the Southern US. Previously it had been rather rare in the United States, but an epidemic broke out in 1906, primarily in the South, and continued until the 1940s. By 1912, South Carolina alone had 30,000 cases, and with a death rate of 40% pellagra had devastating effects on the region.  Pellagra was a painful skin disease commonly found in tropical regions. Some physicians at the time believed that the disease arose in consequence of bad genes, airborne germs, or miasma resulting from poor sanitary conditions. Goldberger's theory that pellagra was associated with diet contradicted the most widely accepted medical opinion that pellagra was an infectious disease. The germ theory of disease had recently become popular in not only the medical field but also the public's consciousness. As a result, the germ theory was often generalized to far more ailments than it actually caused. Goldberger, in contrast, suspected that diet was the true cause, which he came to believe through his observation that hospital staff who worked closely with pellagra patients did not fall sick themselves. Furthermore, pellagra cases were overwhelmingly poor Southerners, especially African Americans and sharecroppers. This was a group that often ate filling and starchy but nutrient-poor foods, especially those derived from corn.  His investigation into pellagra led him to conduct two parallel experiments starting in 1914. In one study he investigated two orphanages that were experiencing rampant pellagra. A group of 172 orphans had the disease already, while 168 subjects did not. With federal funding, he switched them to a more varied diet that included fresh meat, vegetables, milk, and eggs. After several weeks, there were no new cases and almost all of the afflicted orphans had recovered. In the two years of the study, there was only one new case.  His next experiment took place at the Georgia State Sanitarium, the largest mental asylum in the South. Like the orphanages, the asylum had high rates of pellagra. However, this experiment included both an experimental and a control group. Also, he studied two categories of human subjects: black women and white women. By assessing their dietary intake, Goldberger aimed to test his hypothesis. The control group continued receiving the same food as before, but the experimental group was given a more balanced diet. Over the two-year span, half of the control group was sick while everyone on the varied diet recovered. In fact, the latter group improved so much that there was a high dropout rate, since many subjects became well enough to leave the institution. Unfortunately, after the study the funding for more nutritious food dried up and the pellagra rates in the orphanages and asylum returned to pre-study levels.  Goldberger's next objective was to confirm the relationship between poor diet and pellagra. To do this, he met with Earl L. Brewer, the governor of Mississippi, in 1915. He requested access to prisoners of the Rankin State Prison Farm to try and induce pellagra in them. He chose this prison in particular because it previously had no cases of pellagra. After negotiation, Earl accepted Goldberger's request in return for pardons for the prisoners (some of whom had connections with the governor).  Goldberger experimented on eleven healthy volunteers from the Rankin State Prison Farm for this nine-month study. The subjects were put on a strict and heavily monitored corn-based diet lacking meat, milk, and vegetables. Goldberger observed that the subjects became weaker and weaker as the days went on. After six months, five of the eleven patients contracted pellagra and the rest had symptoms corresponding to pellagra. The prisoners reported enduring agony once they were afflicted, and some even tried to drop out of the study but were prevented from doing so. Despite his careful experiments, Goldberger's discovery proved socially and politically unacceptable, and he made little progress in gaining support for the treatment of pellagra. Besides the popularity of the germ theory, opposition also came from Southern leaders who resented a Northerner claiming that the pellagra outbreak was a product of the region's widespread poverty. Consequently, Goldberger became extremely frustrated. He conducted one final experiment, referred to as "filth parties", to silence the critics. In 1916 he injected 16 volunteers—including himself, his wife, and his assistant—with pellagric blood over seven trials. Afterwards they experienced diarrhea and nausea but did not contract the disease. However, this effort too was rejected by critics for using almost entirely male subjects when pellagra was supposedly more common in females.  Though Goldberger established a clear link between pellagra and diet, he never discovered the exact nutrient deficiency that caused it. It was not until 1937 that Conrad Elvehjem discovered that pellagra is caused by a dietary lack of the B vitamin niacin, along with reduced levels of the essential amino acid tryptophan. Tom Spies also contributed to this finding.  Goldberger did not live to see this important discovery. He died on January 19, 1929 from renal cell carcinoma.

Death and legacy.

Goldberger died of kidney cancer in Washington, D.C. in 1929, at the age of fifty-four. Upon his death, Goldberger's wife received a $125-a-month pension thanks to a special congressional bill that recognized the value of his work.  Goldberger was nominated five times for the Nobel Prize. In 1940, John Nesbitt produced a short film about Goldberger titled "A Way in the Wilderness", directed by Fred Zinnemann and starring Shepperd Strudwick.  The story of Goldberger's research on pellagra was featured on the Science Channel TV show, "", August 4, 2012.  The radio program "Cavalcade of America" in 1940 had an episode called "The Red Death" about Goldberger's research on pellagra starring Ray Collins and Agnes Moorehead.  His papers are held at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland.

Joseph Goldberger () (July 16, 1874 – January 17, 1929) was an American physician and epidemiologist in the United States Public Health Service (PHS). As a public health official, he was an advocate for scientific and social recognition of the links between poverty and disease. He was nominated five times for the Nobel Prize for his important work on the link between pellagra and poor diet.

约瑟夫·戈德伯格(Joseph Goldberger,1874年-7月16日-1929年-1月17日),匈牙利裔美国医生和传染病学家。任职于美国公共卫生局。约瑟夫·戈德伯格是犹太人,出生于斯洛伐克吉拉尔托夫采(当时属匈牙利王国)。他最初在纽约市立学院就读工程,但后来开始对医学感兴趣,因此转入了医学院。1895年,他在纽约大学医学院获得医学博士学位。他首次提出了糙皮病不是一种传染病,而是营养不良导致的。


Taxonomy.

Dice's cottontail was first described by William P. Harris, Jr., in 1932. It was at one time thought to be a subspecies of the tapeti or forest cottontail ("Sylvilagus brasiliensis") but is now recognised as a separate species. The type locality is El Copey de Dota, in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, at.

Description.

Dice's cottontail is one of the larger cottontail rabbits. Its back is dappled black and brown and its flanks greyish-black. The blackish tail is tiny and the underparts are dull white. It has a brown patch on its throat.

Distribution and habitat.

Dice's cottontail is endemic to the Cordillera de Talamanca which straddles the border between Panama and Costa Rica. Its habitat is Alpine meadows and Páramo grasslands above the tree line. It also occurs in the oak-dominated cloud forests and high elevation shrublands at an altitude of up to in Cerro Chirripó.

Status.

The IUCN lists Dice's cottontail in its Red Book of Endangered Species as "Data Deficient" as the species has been little studied and its population trend is unknown, but in 1996, it was listed as "Endangered". The IUCN has identified a number of threats that it may face. Coyotes have become established in the area and may prey on it, and other predators may also be on the increase. Degradation of the forest land is taking place as trees are cut down and the land turned to pasture. Fire is also a concern because the local inhabitants regularly burn the land for range control and this may result in loss of grass for forage and loss of suitable vegetation cover in which the cottontail can lie up by day. These factors are causing the animal's range to contract upward into the mountains; this area is a national park, which should provide some protection to the species.

Dice's cottontail ("Sylvilagus dicei") is a species of cottontail rabbit in the family Leporidae. It is found in Costa Rica and Panama, in páramo and cloud forest habitats.

戴斯棉尾兔(学名:"Sylvilagus dicei")是棉尾兔属的一个物种,分布于横跨哥斯达黎加与巴拿马的塔拉曼卡山区内的云雾森林与高山稀疏草原中,是当地的特有种,目前对此物种的了解尚少。


弗兰克敦 (科罗拉多州)

History.

Franktown is named for Hon. J. Frank Gardner, an early resident. Franktown was the first county seat of Douglas County, serving in this role from 1861 until 1863.  Pike's Peak Grange No. 163 in Franktown is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.  On August 3, 1933 Castlewood Canyon Dam broke and flooded Cherry Creek which flows north into downtown Denver, approximately 40 miles away. It brought 20,000 gallons of water into the city, homes flooded at basement level and there was a large scale clean-up effort involved following the aftermath.

Geography.

Franktown is located in eastern Douglas County at (39.390378, -104.753961). Colorado State Highways 83 and 86 intersect in the center of town. SH 83 leads north to Parker and south to Colorado Springs, while SH 86 leads east to Elizabeth and west to Castle Rock, the Douglas County seat.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the Franktown CDP has a total area of, of which, or 0.47%, is water. Franktown is in the valley of Cherry Creek, which flows north to join the South Platte River in downtown Denver.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 99 people, 38 households, and 29 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 116.8 people per square mile (45.0/km2). There were 38 housing units at an average density of 44.8 per square mile (17.3/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 97.98% White, 1.01% from other races, and 1.01% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.01% of the population.  There were 38 households out of which 28.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 73.7% were married couples living together, 2.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.1% were non-families. 21.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.00.  In the CDP, the population was spread out with 21.2% under the age of 18, 8.1% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 36.4% from 45 to 64, and 8.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.7 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $60,375, and the median income for a family was $61,500. Males had a median income of $61,528 versus $30,139 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $25,744. None of the population was below the poverty line.

Franktown is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Douglas County, Colorado, in the United States. The population was 395 at the 2010 census. The Franktown Post Office has the ZIP code 80116.

弗兰克敦(英语:Franktown)是位于美国科罗拉多州道格拉斯县的一个人口普查指定地区。


Early life.

Stone was born in Melbourne, Australia. Stone began cooking with his paternal grandmother, Maude, at the age of four. His father, Bryan Stone, is an accountant, and his mother, Lorraine, is a florist; they separated when Stone was 2 years old.

Career.

Stone studied for a Bachelor of Business before deciding to pursue a career as a chef. He worked at some top Australian restaurants before leaving to work at various restaurants in London. In London, he debuted his cooking career at age 18 at the Savoy Hotel. Upon completing his qualifications as a chef, Stone began cooking in London under Marco Pierre White at the Café Royal and Mirabelle, and quickly went on to become head chef at White's Quo Vadis.

Television.

Stone returned briefly to Australia to make the travelling cooking show "Surfing the Menu" (on ABC TV) with another chef, Ben O'Donoghue.  Stone has appeared on a number of cooking programmes in the UK, including "Dinner in a Box", "Good Food Live" and "Saturday Kitchen". He also hosted the first season of "My Restaurant Rules" in Australia. Beginning in May 2006, Stone hosted "Take Home Chef" on TLC in the United States, which went on to become an international hit for TLC.  Stone appears regularly on NBC's "Today". His second appearance in 2007 featured him visiting the home of host Meredith Vieira to teach her how to cook, as her children had complained that she did not know how. On 14 January 2011, Stone co-hosted the fourth hour of "Today" with Hoda Kotb. He has also appeared on Martha Stewart's show "Martha", "Access Hollywood", "Lopez Tonight", "The Nate Berkus Show", "The Talk", "The Chew", and "Rachael Ray". On 7 June 2011, Curtis was a guest on "Conan", where he taught Conan O'Brien how to prepare the perfect date night meal.  Stone has appeared on Food Network's "Iron Chef America" in the episode "Battle Skipjack Tuna," where he lost to Iron Chef Bobby Flay. Stone has also appeared on several episodes of "The Biggest Loser".  Stone was a candidate on "The Celebrity Apprentice 3", which premiered in March 2010 and was the third installment to the celebrity version of "The Apprentice". The show premiered on 14 March 2010, and Stone was fired on 16 May 2010, placing fourth out of 14 contestants. On the same day (May 16, 2010), Stone was co-host of "Miss USA 2010", which was won by "Rima Fakih" from Dearborn, Michigan. Stone has also made appearances on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" and "The Oprah Winfrey Show". Stone appeared on a segment of Oprah's Ultimate Australian Adventure, a four-day television event that aired in January 2011. Stone threw the talk show host a beach barbecue on Whitsunday Island's Whitehaven Beach using Australia's best seafood, meats and produce.  In June 2010 producers of NBC's new series "America's Next Great Restaurant" announced that Stone would join the judging and investment panel on alongside Bobby Flay, Steve Ells and Lorena Garcia. The first season aired in 2011 directly followed by the fourth edition of "The Celebrity Apprentice", where Stone made a guest appearance on the first episode.  In 2011, Stone became host of the third season of Bravo's "Top Chef Masters", replacing Kelly Choi. In January 2012, Bravo announced Stone would co-host a new culinary reality show called "Around the World in 80 Plates" with fellow celebrity chef Cat Cora. The series, which premiered in May 2012, follows 12 chefs competing in a culinary race across 10 countries in 44 days. Stone also hosted and anchored the judges' table for the "Top Chef" franchise's spin-off edition, "Top Chef Duels", in 2014.  Stone has also appeared in ads for Coles Supermarkets, Hy-Vee, Bi-Lo, and Great Grains cereal. In 2011, Stone described to "GQ Australia" his relationship with big supermarkets: "I never even thought about working for a supermarket. But there's that feeling you get when you walk down the street and someone comes up and says, ‘You know what? We never used to cook fish in our house. Since we’ve tried that salmon recipe we have it once a week.’ The feeling that gives you is worth a million other things".  In August 2012, Stone appeared in an episode of "MasterChef Australia All-Stars". He returned to "MasterChef" in May 2015 for a MasterClass alongside Marco Pierre White. Stone began hosting "Kitchen Inferno" in 2014 and mentored Food Network's debut culinary competition, "All Star Academy", in 2015. He appeared on the network again in summer 2015 for two episodes of the show "Guilty Pleasures".  In 2015, Stone also made an appearance on the second season of "Celebrity Family Feud".  In 2017, Stone co-hosted the FOX reality cooking series "My Kitchen Rules". Stone has previously appeared in the original Australian version of the program.

Restaurants.

On 1 February 2014, Stone opened his first restaurant, Maude, in Beverly Hills, California. Maude was awarded a Michelin star in the 2019 Michelin Guide for California.  In 2016 Stone opened a second restaurant, Gwen, in Hollywood, California.

Other projects.

In 2007, Stone hosted the "Great Barrier Feast" Culinary Masterclass event on Hamilton Island featuring other notable Australian chefs, including Geoff Jansz, Shannon Bennett, and Justin North.  In 2008, Stone developed "Kitchen Solutions by Curtis Stone," a line of kitchen utensils, accessories, and glassware. He also has written a series of cookbooks, including "Surfing the Menu: Two Chefs, One Journey: A Fresh Food Adventure", "Cooking With Curtis: Easy, Everyday and Adventurous Recipes for the Home Cook", and "Relaxed Cooking with Curtis Stone: Recipes to Put You in My Favorite Mood". Stone's 2013 cookbook "What's For Dinner?" became a "New York Times" bestseller and was translated into Chinese in December 2014. Stone's most recent book, "Good Food, Good Life", launched in March 2015 in the United States and Canada and May 2015 in Australia.  In 2010, Stone gave a cooking class and demonstration at the Singapore Sun Festival. In October 2010 it was announced that Stone had created recipes for in-flight meals for United Airlines.  In 2011, he was appointed as an ambassador for Cottage by the Sea, alongside big wave surfer Jeff Rowley and Olympian Cathy Freeman. The ambassadors help the Australian charity raise funds to provide short holidays for disadvantaged children. Stone also works with Feeding America, a domestic hunger-relief charity, and Second-Bite, which redistributes nutritional surplus food to those in need.

Personal life.

Stone began dating American actress Lindsay Price in late 2009. Stone and Price got engaged in July 2012, and married on 8 June 2013 in Spain. They have two sons, Hudson and Emerson, and live in Los Angeles.  Stone is a fan of the Geelong Football Club.

Curtis Stone (born 4 November 1975) is an Australian celebrity chef, author and television personality, nicknamed "The Quiet Terminator" by fans following his performance on "The Celebrity Apprentice 3".

科提斯·史东(英语:Curtis Stone,1975年-11月4日) 出生于澳大利亚,是一位厨师、烹饪书籍作者、与电视节目主持人。


History.

CIMA was formed in March 1919, as the Institute of Cost and Works Accountants, by a group of legal professionals and businessmen who wanted to develop an approach to accounting that would meet the demands of a rapidly changing business world. Industrialisation had led to large scale, complex businesses providing unprecedented challenges in management. Employers needed a new form of in-house accountant to provide, in addition to accounts, better analysis of cost and of operations to inform performance management. The new institute soon gained the backing of leading industrialists including, Lord Leverhulme who became its president.  Advances in technology and globalisation made business ever more complex over the 20th century and the role of the accountant in business became more significant. It expanded to include provision of a wider range of information and the emphasis shifted from accounting to management.  The status of management accounting as a distinct branch of the accounting profession was recognised by the granting of a Royal Charter in 1975.

Activities.

CIMA operates a standard scheme of qualifying examinations for prospective members. It promotes local education, training and management development operations, and new techniques through its research foundation and the dissemination of management accounting practices through publications and other media related activities. CIMA has been active in recent educational and vocational initiatives in former Eastern bloc countries. It publishes a monthly journal, supplied free to members and registered students, called 'Financial Management'.  CIMA is recognised as a professional accounting body for various statutory purposes by UK and various overseas governments. The institute regulates the activities of its members by a code of practice, a discipline committee and a continuing professional development education scheme. Its governing body is its council, comprising members elected from regional branches. Each of the branches has a committee and is responsible for much of the 'grass roots' activity. Activity such as qualification development is undertaken from the London head office.  In 2011 CIMA left CCAB.  In 2012, CIMA and the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants created the CGMA designation (Chartered Global Management Accountant). The designation recognises the most talented and committed management accountants. The CGMA is the most widely held management accounting designation in the world with more than 150,000 designees; it is educationally equivalent to a master's degree. The designation is built on extensive global research to maintain the highest relevance with employers and develop the competencies most in demand. CGMA professionals are business strategists who can link the board's objectives with those of organisation's, guiding critical business decisions and creating sustainable business success.  In 2014 CIMA, with the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, launched the Global Management Accounting Principles (Principles). The Principles were endorsed by UK business leaders including: Mr Ian king Chief Executive, BAE Systems and Howard Orme, Director General, Finance & Commercial, Department for Business Innovation & Skills. The CGMA Competency Framework was also launched in 2014. The framework shows the range of technical, accounting and finance skills that management accountants need to do their jobs and consists of four knowledge areas: Technical Skills, Business Skills, People Skills and Leadership Skills all underpinned by Ethics, Integrity and Professionalism.  In 2016 CIMA, sponsored the creation of the world's first management accounting standard: "Guide to management accounting principles". The standard, published by the British Standards Institute codifies a universal framework for best practice in decision making. Organisations including, Sky, The Environment Agency, Fujitsu, the NHS and Siemens had input into its development. It is designed as a best-practice guide to management accounting, allowing organisations to benchmark their finance function and unlock the full contribution that management accountancy can make. The specification is based on the Global Management Accounting Principles, created in 2014 by CIMA and the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants.  In 2017, members of CIMA and the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) formed the Association of International Certified Professional Accountants to unite and strengthen the accounting profession globally.

Membership.

CIMA has two grades of full membership:  A CIMA Associate or Fellow is permitted to use the suffix letters CGMA (Chartered Global Management Accountant) after their name.  To be admitted as an Associate, a candidate must have:  To become a Fellow, a candidate ACMA must, in addition, have appropriate experience at a senior level.  In the past, CIMA has offered forms of association that do not amount to full membership, for example, an "Affiliate" membership class was promoted in the 1970s.

Strategic alliances.

CIMA members have access to a number of strategic alliances, including:

The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) is a UK based professional body offering training and qualification in management accountancy and related subjects. It is focused on accountants working in industry, and provides ongoing support and training for members.

英国会计师,是指属于英国本土会计师专业团体的会员统称。可是,英国的会计师专业团体五花八门,真正拥有英国当地法定地位或属于英国合资格会计师(Qualified Accountant)的其实只有数家而已。


Early life.

Verratti was born in Pescara, and grew up in L'Aquila. As a child, he supported Juventus and idolised Alessandro Del Piero, the team's Italian international offensive playmaker. Verratti's talent was noticed at an early age, and he was made offers to join the youth academies of Atalanta and Internazionale, but joined his local club Pescara for €5,000. After an impressive performance for Pescara's under-16 team against A.C. Milan, the Lombardy club offered €300,000 to sign the midfielder, but Verratti decided to remain at Pescara.

Club career.

Pescara.

The first youth team Verratti was affiliated with was that of Manoppello, a historic team of Pescara, that in 2001 merged with the newly born Manoppello Arabona. He remained there until 2006 when he entered the youth of Pescara.  Verratti made his first team debut in the 2008–09 season at the age of 15 years and 9 months. In the 2009–10 season, he appeared more regularly for Pescara, and since then became a key player in the first team. His performances generated national media coverage as a potential star of the future and Italian international.  With Zdeněk Zeman as manager, Verratti excelled as a deep-lying playmaker in a Pescara team which won the 2011–12 Serie B title playing "the best football in Italy", earning promotion to Serie A the following season. After helping Pescara to promotion to Serie A, Verratti received the 2012 Bravo Award for the best player under the age of 21 in Europe, and was reportedly wanted by Napoli, Roma and Juventus, as well as Carlo Ancelotti's Paris Saint-Germain. At the 2012 AIC Gran Gala del Calcio, he was elected the best player of the 2011–12 Serie B season, along with former Pescara teammates Ciro Immobile and Lorenzo Insigne.

Paris Saint-Germain.

On 18 July 2012, Verratti signed a five-year contract with Paris Saint-Germain in Ligue 1. On 2 September 2012, Verratti made his competitive debut for PSG in an away Ligue 1 match against Lille. Twelve days later, he assisted Javier Pastore's opening goal in his first competitive appearance at the Parc des Princes, a 2–0 Ligue 1 defeat of Toulouse.  On 18 September 2012, he made his UEFA Champions League debut in a 4–1 Group A defeat of Dynamo Kyiv. He ended his first season in the French capital by winning the 2012–13 Ligue 1 title. On 20 August 2013, Verratti signed a one-year extension to his contract with PSG, keeping him at the club until 2018.  Verratti's second season with PSG was even more successful than the first as the team retained its Ligue 1 title and won the Coupe de la Ligue and the 2013 Trophée des Champions. Verratti was named as the Ligue 1 Young Player of the Year and included in the Ligue 1 Team of the Year for 2013–14.  On 30 September 2014, Verratti scored his first competitive goal for PSG, a header in a 3–2 home win over Barcelona in the group stage of the Champions League. On 18 January 2015, Verratti scored his first goal in Ligue 1, in a 4–2 home win over Evian.  In August 2016, Verratti signed a 3-year extension to his contract, keeping him at the club until 2021.  On 6 March 2018, Verratti was sent off after acquiring a second yellow card in the second leg of the Champions League Round of 16 fixture against the eventual champions Real Madrid. Real Madrid went on to win the game 2–1 and eliminated PSG with an aggregate score of 5–2.  On 3 April 2019, Verratti scored the opening goal from a Kylian Mbappé assist in a 3–0 home win over Nantes in the Coupe de France semi-finals, which allowed PSG to advance to the final of the competition; during the same match, he also provided an assist for his team's final goal, which was scored by Dani Alves. This goal was Verratti's first of the 2018–19 season for PSG, and also his first goal ever in the competition.  Following PSG's 2–1 victory over Rennes in the 2019 Trophée des Champions on 3 August, Verratti became the player with the most titles with the club, with 22 trophies in total (six Ligue 1 titles, four Coupe de France titles, five Coupe de la Ligue titles, and seven Trophée des Champions titles). In October, he signed a three–year contract extension with the club, which would tie him to PSG until June 2024. On 12 January 2020, Verratti made his 300th appearance for PSG in a 3–3 home draw against Monaco in Ligue 1. On 18 February, he became the club's all-time appearance holder in the Champions League, when he made his 58th appearance in the competition in a 2–1 away loss in the first leg of their round of 16 draw against Borussia Dortmund, overtaking the previous record holder Paul Le Guen at 57. In April, PSG were assigned the 2019–20 Ligue 1 title after the season was ended prematurely due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic; at the time of the League's suspension, PSG were in first place, with a twelve–point lead over second–placed Marseille. This was Verratti's record seventh Ligue 1 title with the club, which saw him equal the all–time individual record of most Ligue 1 title victories, along with his club teammate Thiago Silva, which was jointly held by Hervé Revelli and Jean-Michel Larqué of Saint-Étienne, as well as Grégory Coupet, Juninho and Sidney Govou of Lyon.

International career.

The uncapped Verratti was included into Cesare Prandelli's preliminary 32-man Italy squad for UEFA Euro 2012, being one of only two Serie B players (the other being Torino's Angelo Ogbonna) to be part of it. He was subsequently cut from the squad on 28 May 2012.  On 15 August 2012, Verratti made his debut with the Italian senior team in a 2–1 friendly loss against England held in Bern. He subsequently made his first competitive appearance in 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification, appearing as a second-half substitute for Emanuele Giaccherini in a 2–2 draw against Bulgaria on 7 September.  On 6 February 2013, Verratti scored his first international goal in a friendly against the Netherlands in Amsterdam, a 91st-minute equalizer that made the final score 1–1.  He took part with the Italy U-21 side at the 2013 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, where the "Azzurrini" finished as runner-up to Spain. His performances saw him included in UEFA's all-star squad for the tournament.  On 1 June 2014, Verratti was selected in Italy's 23-man squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In Italy's opening match of the tournament, he made his first competitive start for the "Azzurri" on the left side of a midfield diamond with Juventus players Andrea Pirlo and Claudio Marchisio and Roma vice-captain Daniele De Rossi in his team's opening game of the tournament, a 2–1 victory over England in Manaus. During the match, he was involved in Marchisio's opening goal; after receiving Antonio Candreva's short corner, he passed the ball out wide towards Pirlo, who drew his marker with him. Pirlo let the ball pass in between his legs to Marchisio, leaving him with space to score with a low drive from outside the area. However, Verratti did not appear in Italy's second group match, a 1–0 defeat against Costa Rica; he started in Italy's final group match against Uruguay, which also ended in a 1–0 loss, and as a result, Italy were eliminated in the first round of the tournament.  On 6 May 2016, it was confirmed Verratti would miss Euro 2016 after a long lasting injury from a sports hernia which would require surgery on 16 May, sidelining him for two months. Upon recovering from his injury, Verratti returned to the team under Italy's new manager Gian Piero Ventura for an international friendly match against France in Bari on 1 September, making a substitute appearance in the "Azzurri"'s 3–1 loss.  On 26 March 2019, Verratti scored his second international goal in a 6–0 home win over Liechtenstein in a UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying match.

Style of play.

A quick, creative, agile, and technically gifted central midfield playmaker, with notable dribbling skills, quick reactions, and close ball control, Verratti is known for his confidence on the ball and ability to retain possession in tight spaces when under pressure, due to his low centre of gravity and resulting balance. His excellent vision and range of passing enable him to create chances for teammates with accurate long passes, or control the tempo of his team's play in midfield through precise, short exchanges. Although naturally right-footed, he is capable of playing with either foot. Due to his attributes and playing style, Verratti has been compared to Italy legend Andrea Pirlo, in particular after making the same transition from "trequartista" to "regista" that the 2006 FIFA World Cup winner had also made earlier on in his career, although he has also been deployed in a new, more advanced role alongside Pirlo on occasion, as a false-attacking midfielder, in particular under Cesare Prandelli's tenure with the Italy national team. Initially regarded as one of the most talented young players of his generation, Verratti quickly developed into one of the best playmaking midfielders in the world. In addition to his playmaking skills, he is also a hard-working, dynamic, and well-rounded midfielder, who is known for his aggression, defensive skills, and ball-winning abilities, despite his small physique and diminutive stature, which also enables him to be deployed in a holding role. Despite his ability, he has also drawn criticism from some in the sport over his disciplinary record, as well as his tendency to commit an excessive number of fouls, argue with officials, and pick up unnecessary bookings.

Honours.

International.

Italy U21

Marco Verratti (; born 5 November 1992) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a central midfielder for French Ligue 1 club Paris Saint-Germain and the Italy national team.

马高·华拉堤(,1992年-11月5日)是一名意大利职业足球员,司职正中场,目前效力于法甲俱乐部巴黎圣日耳曼。


纳什维尔铁路列车相撞事故

Incident.

Departures.

At 7:07 a.m. on the day of the accident, the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis ("NC&StL") train No. 4 departed Union Station in Nashville, bound for Memphis. The train, pulled by locomotive No. 282, a G8a class 4-6-0 ten-wheeler built by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1905, consisted of two mail and baggage cars and six wooden coaches.  Meanwhile, train No. 1, pulled by locomotive No. 281, also a G8a class 4-6-0 ten-wheeler built by Baldwin in 1905, was heading into Nashville from Memphis. Containing one baggage car, six wooden coaches, and two Pullman sleeping cars of steel construction, train No. 1 had departed McKenzie four hours earlier, and passed Bellevue at 7:09 a.m., thirty-five minutes behind schedule.

Approach.

Both trains required the use of a single-track section approximately long in the western portion of Nashville. According to contemporary practices, the inbound train (No. 1) retained the right-of-way. Thus, the railroad dispatch informed the crew of the opposing (No. 4) train that they were to stop in the double-track section if they did not visually identify the passing No. 1 before they reached the interlocking tower known as "Shops Junction", where the single-track section began. The term "Shops" referred to the railroad's massive repair and refueling shops including its largest roundhouse. This was not a passenger stop but rather the junction where the railroad's mainline track to Memphis narrowed down to just one track.  While train No. 4 traversed the double-track section, the conductor delegated the responsibility of identifying No. 1 to the remainder of the crew. While collecting tickets, the conductor mistook the sound of a passing switch engine with empty passenger cars as No. 1. The crew either made the same error or were negligent in properly identifying the train.  As No. 4 approached the interlocking tower at Shops Junction, tower operator J. S. Johnson showed a clear signal from the tower's train order signals, indicating all was clear. As he stopped to record the train in his logs, he noticed that there was no entry showing that the opposing train No. 1 had passed. Johnson reported to the dispatcher who telegraphed back, "He meets No. 1 there, can you stop him?" Johnson sounded the emergency whistle, but there was no one at the rear of No. 4 to hear it. The train passed on the assumption that the clear train order board indicated that the line ahead was clear. Also, the engineman and conductor failed to visually inspect the train register at Shops Junction to ascertain as to whether No. 1 had yet arrived. That was required by operating instructions issued by the railroad's management prior to the wreck.

Collision.

Shortly after 7:20 a.m. the two trains collided at Dutchman's Grade near White Bridge Road. It is estimated that the westbound train was traveling at about, while the Nashville-bound train was running at. Many of the wooden cars were crushed or hurled sideways. The sound of the collision could be heard two miles (3 km) away.  It was to have been the last trip for the engineer of the Nashville-bound train before his retirement.

Aftermath.

The Interstate Commerce Commission listed the dead at 101, though some reports had the death toll as high as 121. At least 171 people were injured. Many of the victims were African American laborers from Arkansas and Memphis who were coming to work at the gunpowder plant in Old Hickory outside of Nashville. As many as 50,000 people came to the track that day to help rescue survivors, search for loved ones, or simply witness the tragic scene.  In its official report, the Interstate Commerce Commission was harsh on the railroad. A combination of poor operating practices, human error and lax enforcement of operating rules led to the worst passenger train wreck in U.S. history. Had the signal tower operator properly left his signal at danger, had the conductor monitored his train's progress rather than entrusting it to a subordinate, and had the crew inspected the train register at Shops Junction as required, the accident would not have happened.  The wreck provided the impetus for most railroads to switch to all-steel passenger cars versus wood and steel.  In the 1970s, songwriters Bobby Braddock and Rafe Van Hoy told the story of the trainwreck in the song "The Great Nashville Railroad Disaster (A True Story)". The song was recorded by Country music singer David Allan Coe on his 1980 album "I've Got Something to Say".  The locomotives involved in the wreck, #281 and #282, were rebuilt in 1919 and continued in service throughout the two World Wars until their retirement in 1947 and 1948 respectively.  After their retirement #281 was sold and scrapped in June 1948 and #282 was also sold and scrapped in April 1949.  None of their sisters, from #280 to #286, survive either.

The Great Train Wreck of 1918 occurred on July 9, 1918, in Nashville, Tennessee. Two passenger trains, operated by the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway ("NC&StL"), collided head-on, costing at least 101 lives and injuring an additional 171. It is considered the worst rail accident in United States history, though estimates of the death toll of this accident overlap with that of the Malbone Street Wreck in Brooklyn the same year.

纳什维尔铁路列车相撞事故,又称为1918年铁路大撞车(Great Train Wreck of 1918)。由纳什维尔,查塔努加和圣路易斯铁路公司(Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway, 简称NC&StL)经营的1次和4次旅客列车在田纳西州纳什维尔以西的单线铁路上正面碰撞,造成101人死亡,171人受伤。是美国历史上伤亡数量最大的铁路事故。也是和美国历史上死亡数量最大的铁路事故之一(根据不同资料来源,1918年纽约市布鲁克林马尔本街捷运脱轨事故死亡人数在93-102人之间)。


2012年夏季奥林匹克运动会中国代表团

Medalists.

Comeback medalists.

Successful defending champions are marked in bold.

Competitors.

The Chinese Olympic Committee selected a team of 396 athletes, 171 men and 225 women, to compete in 23 sports. Equestrian, football, and handball were the only sports in which China had no representation in 2012.  The Chinese team featured 29 defending champions from the Beijing games, including springboard diver Wu Minxia, light flyweight boxer Zou Shiming, gymnasts Zou Kai and Chen Yibing, and badminton player Lin Dan. Pistol shooter and former Olympic medalist Tan Zongliang, the oldest male member of the contingent, aged 41, competed at his fifth Olympic games. Meanwhile, fencer Li Na and basketball player Wang Zhizhi each made their fourth Olympic appearance. Trap shooter Liu Yingzi was the oldest athlete of the team, aged 41, while relay swimmer Qiu Yuhan was the youngest, aged 14. Basketballer Yi Jianlian, who had previously played for the NBA's Dallas Mavericks, was the nation's flag bearer at the opening ceremony.  The following table lists the number of Chinese competitors who participated in each Olympic sport. Note that swimming, synchronized swimming, diving and water polo are technically considered as one sport, aquatics. However, due to their significant practical differences, they are listed separately by tradition.

Archery.

China qualified 3 archers for the men's individual event, 3 archers for the women's individual event, a team for the men's team event and a team for the women's team event.

Athletics.

Prior to the 2012 Olympics, Chinese athletes achieved qualifying standards in the following athletics events (up to a maximum of 3 athletes in each event at the 'A' Standard, and 1 at the 'B' Standard): On 1 May 2013, the IOC stripped Russian discus thrower Darya Pishchalnikova of her silver medal in the women's discus throw after testing positive for Oxandrolone (an anabolic steroid). China's Li Yanfeng was elevated to silver.

Badminton.

China won 12 quotas with 17 athletes for the 2012 Olympics.

Basketball.

China's male and female basketball teams both qualified for the 2012 Olympic Games.

Boxing.

China qualified boxers for the following events in 2012:

Canoeing.

Slalom.

China qualified boats for the following slalom events:

Sprint.

China qualified boats for the following sprint events:

Cycling.

China qualified the following cyclists for the 2012 Games:

Diving.

The Chinese diving team qualified 12 divers across all diving events at the 2012 Olympics through the 2011 World Aquatics Championships.

Fencing.

China qualified 13 fencers for nine events at the 2012 Olympics.

Field hockey.

The Chinese women's hockey team qualified a team of 16 players for the 2012 Olympics, by virtue of winning the 2010 Asian Games hockey title.

Gymnastics.

A total of 15 Chinese gymnasts competed at the 2012 Olympics.

Judo.

Eight Chinese athletes – one man and seven women – competed in the Olympic judo events.

Modern pentathlon.

Based on their results at the 2011 Asian/Oceania Championships, four Chinese pentathletes qualified for the 2012 games. Cao Zhongrong and Wang Guan earnt places in the men's event, while Chen Qian and Miao Yihua earnt places in the women's event.

Sailing.

China qualified one boat for each of the following events:

Shooting.

The following 23 quota places were qualified for the Chinese shooting squad at the 2012 Games:

Swimming.

Chinese swimmers achieved qualifying standards in the following Olympic events (up to a maximum of 2 swimmers in each event at the Olympic Qualifying Time (OQT), and one at the Olympic Selection Time (OST)):

Synchronized swimming.

China qualified a duet and a team. The team consisted of 9 athletes, 8 in action and 1 in reserve.

Table tennis.

China qualified four athletes for the singles table tennis events at the 2012 Olympics. Wang Hao and Zhang Jike qualified for the men's event, while Li Xiaoxia and Ding Ning qualified for the women's event.

Taekwondo.

China ensured berths in the following taekwondo events by reaching the top 3 of the 2011 WTF World Qualification Tournament:

Triathlon.

China qualified the following triathletes for the 2012 Olympics:

Volleyball.

Indoor.

China qualified a 12-person women's team for the indoor volleyball tournament.

Water polo.

China qualified a 13-member women's water polo team.

Weightlifting.

China qualified 6 men and 4 women for the Olympic weightlifting competition.

Wrestling.

China qualified 8 quota places for wrestling at the 2012 games.

The People's Republic of China competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom, between 27 July and 12 August 2012. This was the nation's ninth appearance at the Summer Olympics since its debut in 1952. A total of 396 Chinese athletes, 171 men and 225 women, were selected by the Chinese Olympic Committee to compete in 23 sports. For the fourth time in its Olympic history, China was represented by more female than male athletes.

2012年夏季奥林匹克运动会中国代表团参加2012年7月27日至8月12日在英国伦敦举行的第30届夏季奥林匹克运动会。代表团于2012年7月10日在北京正式成立;成员共621人,其中396名运动员,包括林丹、邹市明、陈颖、陆永、陈一冰、仲满等29位北京奥运的金牌得主。其中男性运动员171名,女性运动员225名。代表团将参加除足球、手球和马术外的23个大项,212个小项。


History.

The Niccolò Cusano University was founded by Stefano Bandecchi. The university is named after the Roman Catholic cardinal, scientist and astronomer, Nicholas of Cusa (in Italian "Niccolò Cusano"). Until 9 July 2012, the university was located in Via Casalmonferrato and Via Don Orione. The university Cusano also has a publishing company the Edizioni Edicusano and a foundation for medical research – scientific Fondazione Niccolò Cusano. In 2013 a Faculty of Engineering and Psychology has been established. It provides e-learning courses, counting 94 centers. The degree courses are delivered also in English.  UNICUSANO has academic partnership with the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (Brazil) and the Foreign Trade University (Vietnam).  The university has purchased in October 2014 the Fondi Calcio football team. In June 2017, the university sold Fondi to buy Serie B side Ternana Calcio.

Edizioni Edicusano.

In 2006 a related publisher has been founded by Bandecchi.

Organization.

Faculties.

These are the 6 faculties in which the university is divided into:

Campus.

University buildings.

The Campus is located in Via don Carlo Gnocchi, 3 – 00166 Rome. In the building there are multimedia classrooms, a theater and sports facilities.

Library.

There is a library, traditional and electronic (to the virtual library, students can access at any time).

Dormitories.

Unicusano University provides off-campus students with about 400 places in dorms.

Research Center.

Inside the campus is also located the research center of the Nicholas of Cusa University.

Radio.

Inside the university il located Radio Cusano Campus.

Presidents and rectors.

Rectors.

The Rector is the highest academic authority.

The Niccolò Cusano University (), often simply abbreviated as UNICUSANO is a private university founded in 2006 in Rome, Italy.

尼可罗库萨诺大学 (),经常被简写为"UNICUSANO",是一所位于意大利罗马的私立大学。学校建于2006年。


Background.

Xian Xinghai wrote the "Yellow River Cantata" at Yan'an in 1939, allegedly in a cave in just six days, during the Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). It is an eight-movement piece in which he used traditional folk-melodies and evoked the image of the Yellow River as a symbol of Chinese defiance against the Japanese invaders. During his stay in Russia, he edited and re-orchestrated the work, which was later modified by Li Huanzhi, Qu Wei, Yan Liangkun. This edition aimed at furthering the energy and momentum of the music, and in this light the rearrangement of the "Yellow River Piano Concerto" thirty years later is merely a continuation of that same practice.  Since the establishment of the People's Republic of China, Xian Xinghai together with Nie Er (who wrote the Chinese national anthem, the "March of the Volunteers") were regarded by Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai as "the people's musicians" and were the most prestigious composers of the PRC. Yet, even the "Yellow River Cantata" was banned from performance during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976); the Central Philharmonic Orchestra was forbidden to perform any Western orchestral pieces and its professional musicians were left with nothing to do. Under such circumstances, the pianist Yin Chengzong loaded his piano onto a truck and drove it to Tiananmen Square to accompany revolutionary songs that were sung at the time. He caught the eye of Jiang Qing (better known in the West as Madame Mao), which resulted in the work "The Legend of the Red Lantern" to be accompanied by the piano. Under orders of Madame Mao, a collective of musicians from the Central Philharmonic Society including Yin Chengzong (殷承宗), Liu Zhuang (刘庄), Chu Wanghua (储望华), Sheng Lihong (盛礼洪), Shi Shucheng (石叔诚), and Xu Feixing (许斐星) rearranged the cantata into a four-movement piano concerto:  However, Madame Mao thought that the work could be improved, thence the standard performing edition (1970) was created, a piece more politically loaded and musically more conventional.  With the official end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976, the "Yellow River Piano Concerto" was banished from the Chinese concert stage, retaining a certain popularity outside China. Nevertheless, by the late 1980s it was filtering back into the Chinese musical mainstream, usually in the form of new performing editions, new recordings, and live performances by Chinese and Western artists. Apart from changes in the orchestration, the main differences between the various editions have been what the editors have done with the anthems integrated in the finale.

Summary.

Prelude: The Song of the Yellow River Boatman.

"The Song of the Yellow River Boatmen" describes the momentum of the terrifying waves of the Yellow River and uses the rapid chromatic crescendo and long rolls of the timpani and cymbals typical of the eight model plays model operas.

Ode to the Yellow River.

The original heroic tenor solo melody of the "Ode to the Yellow River" is sung in praise of the history and presence of the Yellow River, signifying the cultural pride of the Chinese. This broad Chinese recitative is supported by the deep and rich timbre of the cello, and is considered as an example of the nationalistic style. Before the coda, the opening motif from the Chinese National Anthem is included in the trombone part.

The Wrath of the Yellow River.

"The Wrath of the Yellow River", originally sung by a soprano solo, begins with a dizi solo accompanied by the piano. This is obviously inspired by the Jiangnan melody of the Butterfly Lovers' Violin Concerto, but rewritten in the style of northwest Shanbei folk idioms. In the third movement, the piano brings out the melody taken from the "Ballad of the Yellow Rivers", originally a mellow number sung by female chorus. We then hear the "Lament at the Yellow River" taking over for this movement.

Defend the Yellow River.

As the finale of this piano concerto, the theme is arranged into a polyphonic canon. It is also apparent that the tune from "The East is Red" is persistent throughout the entire movement; among the various versions of the "Yellow River Concerto" that are currently in circulation, including Yin Chengzong's film recording, we can hear a recapitulation of the theme of "Defending the Yellow River" played canonically against the strings after the climatic tutti of "The East is Red". Then the first phrase of "The East is Red" is played by the trumpet, and tightly followed by the final phrase of the "Internationale", as an example of thematic writing huan wei (換尾; literally "Changing the end") that is often found in traditional Chinese music.

Orchestration.

The concerto is scored for a solo piano and orchestra of piccolo, dizi (Chinese flute), 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets (in B-flat), 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, timpani, triangle, cymbals (suspended), harp, pipa (though not all editions of the score show this), and strings.

The Yellow River Piano Concerto () is a piano concerto arranged by a collaboration between Chinese composers, including Yin Chengzong and Chu Wanghua, and based on the "Yellow River Cantata" by composer Xian Xinghai. It was originally directed by Jiang Qing, wife of Chairman Mao, and since its highly acclaimed premiere in 1969 during the Cultural Revolution the Concerto has become popular in China and around the globe. It is noted for its revolutionary theme that integrates a classic post-romantic music structure with passion, beauty and power, along with highly skilled solo phases. This piano concerto manifests the very fighting spirit of Chinese people and the determination of a new-born nation towards liberation and prosperity. It's a hymn to a new China and her people in the context of a long, vividly struggling history of the Yellow River.

钢琴协奏曲《黄河》是1968年到1969年间音乐家殷承宗、储望华等改编自冼星海的《黄河大合唱》。


Causes.

The primary factors for migration among southern African Americans were segregation, an increase in the spread of racist ideology, widespread lynching (nearly 3,500 African Americans were lynched between 1882 and 1968), and lack of social and economic opportunities in the South. In the south, Blacks were harshly treated, and were not expected to be anything other than a slave. This theory created by society allowed for Blacks to move full force into the movement. There were also factors that pulled migrants to the north, such as labor shortages in northern factories brought about by World War I, resulting in thousands of jobs in steel mills, railroads, meatpacking plants, and the automobile industry. The pull of jobs in the north was strengthened by the efforts of labor agents sent by northern businessmen to recruit southern workers. Northern companies offered special incentives to encourage black workers to relocate, including free transportation and low-cost housing.

Migration.

First migrations.

When the Emancipation Proclamation was signed in 1863, less than eight percent of the African-American population lived in the Northeastern or Midwestern United States. This began to change over the next decade; by 1880, a migration was underway to Kansas. The U.S. Senate ordered an investigation into it. In 1900, about 90 percent of blacks still lived in Southern states.  African Americans moved as individuals or small family groups. There was no government assistance, but often northern industries, such as the railroads, meatpacking, and stockyards, paid for transportation and relocation.  Between 1910 and 1930, the African-American population increased by about forty percent in Northern states as a result of the migration, mostly in the major cities. The cities of Philadelphia, Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, Baltimore, and New York City had some of the biggest increases in the early part of the twentieth century. Tens of thousands of blacks were recruited for industrial jobs, such as positions related to the expansion of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Because changes were concentrated in cities, which had also attracted millions of new or recent European immigrants, tensions rose as the people competed for jobs and scarce housing. Tensions were often most severe between ethnic Irish, defending their recently gained positions and territory, and recent immigrants and blacks.

Tensions and violence.

In the late summer and autumn of 1919, racial tensions became violent and came to be known as the Red Summer. This period of time was defined by violence and prolonged rioting between blacks and whites in major United States cities. The reasons for this violence vary. Cities that were affected by the violence included Washington D.C., Chicago, Omaha, Knoxville, Tennessee, and Elaine, Arkansas, a small rural town southwest of Memphis.  The race riots peaked in Chicago, for the most violence and death occurred there during the riots. According to "The Negro in Chicago; a study of race relations and a race riot", an official report from 1922 on race relations in Chicago, came to the conclusion that there were many factors that led to the violent outbursts in Chicago. Principally, many blacks were assuming the jobs of white men who went to go fight in World War I. As the war ended in 1918, many men returned home to find out their jobs had been taken by black men who were willing to work for far less. By the time the rioting and violence had subsided in Chicago, 38 people had lost their lives, with 500 more injured. Additionally, $250,000 worth of property was destroyed, and over a thousand persons were left homeless. In other cities across the nation many more had been affected by the violence of the Red Summer. The Red Summer enlightened many to the growing racial tension in America. The violence in these major cities prefaced the soon to follow Harlem Renaissance, an African-American cultural revolution, in the 1920s. Racial violence appeared again in Chicago in the 1940s and in Detroit as well as other cities in the Northeast as racial tensions over housing and employment discrimination grew.

Continued migration.

James Gregory calculates decade-by-decade migration volumes in his book, "The Southern Diaspora." Black migration picked up from the start of the new century, with 204,000 leaving in the first decade. The pace accelerated with the outbreak of World War I and continued through the 1920s. By 1930, there were 1.3 million former southerners living in other regions.  The Great Depression wiped out job opportunities in the northern industrial belt, especially for African Americans, and caused a sharp reduction in migration. In the 1930s and 1940s, increasing mechanization of agriculture virtually brought the institution of sharecropping that had existed since the Civil War to an end in the United States causing many landless black farmers to be forced off of the land.  As a result, approximately 1.4 million black southerners moved north or west in the 1940s, followed by 1.1 million in the 1950s, and another 2.4 million people in the 1960s and early 1970s. By the late 1970s, as deindustrialization and the Rust Belt crisis took hold, the Great Migration came to an end. But, in a reflection of changing economics, as well as the end of Jim Crow laws in the 1960s and improving race relations in the South, in the 1980s and early 1990s, more black Americans were heading South than leaving that region.  African Americans moved from the 14 states of the South, especially Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Georgia. Census figures show the following for these states:

Total statistics.

Based on the total populations in each of the five states, only Georgia showed a net decrease in its African American population in 1950 compared to 1920. The other four states showed net increases in their African American populations in 1950 compared to 1920, with the percentage decreasing due to the white population increasing more. Big cities were the principal destinations of southerners throughout the two phases of the Great Migration. In the first phase, eight major cities attracted two-thirds of the migrants: New York and Chicago, followed in order by Philadelphia, St. Louis, Denver, Detroit, Pittsburgh, and Indianapolis. The Second great black migration increased the populations of these cities while adding others as destinations, including the Western states. Western cities such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Phoenix, Seattle, and Portland attracted African Americans in large numbers.  There were clear migratory patterns that linked particular states and cities in the South to corresponding destinations in the North and West. Almost half of those who migrated from Mississippi during the first Great Migration, for example, ended up in Chicago, while those from Virginia tended to move to Philadelphia. For the most part, these patterns were related to geography, with the closest cities attracting the most migrants (such as Los Angeles and San Francisco receiving a disproportionate number of migrants from Texas and Louisiana). When multiple destinations were equidistant, chain migration played a larger role, with migrants following the path set by those before them.

Cultural changes.

After moving from the racist pressures of the south to the northern states, African Americans were inspired to different kinds of creativity. The Great Migration resulted in the Harlem Renaissance, which was also fired by immigrants from the Caribbean. In her book "The Warmth of Other Suns", Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Isabel Wilkerson discusses the migration of "six million black Southerners [moving] out of the terror of Jim Crow to an uncertain existence in the North and Midwest."  The struggle of African-American migrants to adapt to Northern cities was the subject of Jacob Lawrence's "Migration Series" of paintings, created when he was a young man in New York. Exhibited in 1941 at the Museum of Modern Art, Lawrence's "Series" attracted wide attention; he was quickly perceived as one of the most important African-American artists of the time.  The Great Migration had effects on music as well as other cultural subjects. Many blues singers migrated from the Mississippi Delta to Chicago to escape racial discrimination. Muddy Waters, Chester Burnett, and Buddy Guy are among the most well-known blues artists who migrated to Chicago. Great Delta-born pianist Eddie Boyd told "Living Blues" magazine, "I thought of coming to Chicago where I could get away from some of that racism and where I would have an opportunity to, well, do something with my talent... It wasn't peaches and cream [in Chicago], man, but it was a hell of a lot better than down there where I was born."

Effects.

Demographic changes.

The Great Migration drained off much of the rural black population of the South, and for a time, froze or reduced African-American population growth in parts of the region. In a number of states, there were decades of black population decline, especially across the Deep South "black belt" where cotton had been king. The migration changed the demographics of the South. In 1910, African Americans constituted the majority of the population of South Carolina and Mississippi, and more than 40 percent in Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana and Texas; by 1970, only in Mississippi did the African-American population constitute more than 30 percent of the state's total. "The disappearance of the 'black belt' was one of the striking effects" of the Great Migration, James Gregory wrote.  In Mississippi, blacks decreased from about 56% of the population in 1910 to about 37% by 1970, remaining the majority only in some Delta counties. In Georgia, blacks decreased from about 45% of the population in 1910 to about 26% by 1970. In South Carolina, blacks decreased from about 55% of the population in 1910 to about 30% by 1970.  The growing black presence outside the South changed the dynamics and demographics of numerous cities in the Northeast, Midwest, and West. In 1900, only 740,000 African Americans lived outside the South, just 8 percent of the nation's total black population. By 1970, more than 10.6 million African Americans lived outside the South, 47 percent of the nation's total.  Because the migrants concentrated in the big cities of the north and west, their influence was magnified in those places. Cities that had been virtually all white at the start of the century became centers of black culture and politics by mid-century. Informal residential segregation and the tendency of people to settle with others of their home communities led to concentrations of blacks in certain areas. The northern "Black metropolises" developed an important infrastructure of newspapers, businesses, jazz clubs, churches, and political organizations that provided the staging ground for new forms of racial politics and new forms of black culture.  As a result of the Great Migration, the first large urban black communities developed in northern cities beyond New York, Boston, Baltimore, Washington D.C., and Philadelphia, which had black communities even before the Civil War, and attracted migrants after the war. It is conservatively estimated that 400,000 African Americans left the South in 1916 through 1918 to take advantage of a labor shortage in industrial cities during the First World War.  In 1910, the African-American population of Detroit was 6,000. The Great Migration, along with immigrants from southern and eastern Europe as well as their descendants, rapidly turned the city into the country's fourth-largest. By the start of the Great Depression in 1929, the city's African-American population had increased to 120,000.  In 1900–01, Chicago had a total population of 1,754,473. By 1920, the city had added more than 1 million residents. During the second wave of the Great Migration (1940–60), the African-American population in the city grew from 278,000 to 813,000. The flow of African Americans to Ohio, particularly to Cleveland, changed the demographics of the state and its primary industrial city. Before the Great Migration, an estimated 1.1% to 1.6% of Cleveland's population was African American. By 1920, 4.3% of Cleveland's population was African American. The number of African Americans in Cleveland continued to rise over the next 20 years of the Great Migration.  Other northeastern and midwestern industrial cities, such as Philadelphia, New York City, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, St. Louis, and Omaha, also had dramatic increases in their African-American populations. By the 1920s, New York's Harlem became a center of black cultural life, influenced by the American migrants as well as new immigrants from the Caribbean area.  Second-tier industrial cities that were destinations for numerous black migrants were Buffalo, Rochester, Boston, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Columbus, Cincinnati, Grand Rapids and Indianapolis, and smaller industrial cities such as Chester, Gary, Dayton, Erie, Toledo, Youngstown, Peoria, Muskegon, Newark, Flint, Saginaw, New Haven, and Albany. People tended to take the cheapest rail ticket possible and go to areas where they had relatives and friends. For example, many people from Mississippi moved directly north by train to Chicago, from Alabama to Cleveland and Detroit, from Georgia and South Carolina to New York City, Baltimore, Washington D.C. and Philadelphia, and in the second migration, from Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi to Oakland, Los Angeles, Portland, Phoenix, Denver, and Seattle.

Discrimination and working conditions.

Educated African Americans were better able to obtain jobs after the Great Migration, eventually gaining a measure of class mobility, but the migrants encountered significant forms of discrimination. Because so many people migrated in a short period of time, the African-American migrants were often resented by the urban white working class (often recent immigrants themselves); fearing their ability to negotiate rates of pay or secure employment, the ethnic whites felt threatened by the influx of new labor competition. Sometimes those who were most fearful or resentful were the last immigrants of the 19th and new immigrants of the 20th century.  African Americans made substantial gains in industrial employment, particularly in the steel, automobile, shipbuilding, and meatpacking industries. Between 1910 and 1920, the number of blacks employed in industry nearly doubled from 500,000 to 901,000. After the Great Depression, more advances took place after workers in the steel and meatpacking industries organized into labor unions in the 1930s and 1940s, under the interracial Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). The unions ended the segregation of many jobs, and African Americans began to advance into more skilled jobs and supervisory positions previously informally reserved for whites.  Between 1940 and 1960, the number of blacks in managerial and administrative occupations doubled, along with the number of blacks in white-collar occupations, while the number of black agricultural workers in 1960 fell to one-fourth of what it was in 1940. Also, between 1936 and 1959, black income relative to white income more than doubled in various skilled trades. Encountering very little employment discrimination, blacks had higher labor force participation rates than whites in every U.S. Census from 1890 to 1950. As a result of these advancements, the percentage of black families living below the poverty line declined from 87 percent in 1940 to 47 percent by 1960 and to 30 percent by 1970.  Populations increased so rapidly among both African-American migrants and new European immigrants that there were housing shortages in most major cities. With fewer resources, the newer groups were forced to compete for the oldest, most run-down housing. Ethnic groups created territories which they defended against change. Discrimination often restricted African Americans to crowded neighborhoods. The more established populations of cities tended to move to newer housing as it was developing in the outskirts. Mortgage discrimination and redlining in inner city areas limited the newer African-American migrants' ability to determine their own housing, or obtain a fair price. In the long term, the National Housing Act of 1934 contributed to limiting the availability of loans to urban areas, particularly those areas inhabited by African Americans.  Migrants going to Albany, New York found poor living conditions and employment opportunities, but also higher wages and better schools and social services. Local organizations such as the Albany Inter-Racial Council and churches, helped them, but de facto segregation and discrimination remained well into the late 20th century.  Migrants going to Pittsburgh and surrounding mill towns in western Pennsylvania between 1890 and 1930 faced racial discrimination and limited economic opportunities. The black population in Pittsburgh jumped from 6,000 in 1880 to 27,000 in 1910. Many took highly paid, skilled jobs in the steel mills. Pittsburgh's black population increased to 37,700 in 1920 (6.4% of the total) while the black element in Homestead, Rankin, Braddock, and others nearly doubled. They succeeded in building effective community responses that enabled the survival of new communities. Historian Joe Trotter explains the decision process:

Integration and segregation.

In cities such as Newark, New York and Chicago, African Americans became increasingly integrated into society. As they lived and worked more closely with European Americans, the divide became increasingly indefinite. This period marked the transition for many African Americans from lifestyles as rural farmers to urban industrial workers.  This migration gave birth to a cultural boom in cities such as Chicago and New York. In Chicago for instance, the neighborhood of Bronzeville became known as the "Black Metropolis". From 1924 to 1929, the "Black Metropolis" was at the peak of its golden years. Many of the community's entrepreneurs were black during this period. "The foundation of the first African American YMCA took place in Bronzeville, and worked to help incoming migrants find jobs in the city of Chicago." The "Black Belt" geographical and racial isolation of this community, bordered to the north and east by whites, and to the south and west by industrial sites and ethnic immigrant neighborhoods, made it a site for the study of the development of an urban black community. For urbanized people, eating proper foods in a sanitary, civilized setting such as the home or a restaurant was a social ritual that indicated one's level of respectability. The people native to Chicago had pride in the high level of integration in Chicago restaurants, which they attributed to their unassailable manners and refined tastes.  Since African-American migrants retained many Southern cultural and linguistic traits, such cultural differences created a sense of "otherness" in terms of their reception by others who were already living in the cities. Stereotypes ascribed to black people during this period and ensuing generations often derived from African-American migrants' rural cultural traditions, which were maintained in stark contrast to the urban environments in which the people resided.

Second and New Great Migration.

The Great Depression of the 1930s resulted in reduced migration because of decreased opportunities. With the defense buildup for World War II and with the post-war economic prosperity, migration was revived, with larger numbers of blacks leaving the South through the 1960s. After the political and civil gains of the Civil Rights Movement, in the 1970s migration began to increase again. It moved in a different direction, as blacks traveled to new regions of the South for economic opportunity.

White southern reaction.

The beginning of the Great Migration exposed a paradox in race relations in the American South at that time. Although blacks were treated with extreme hostility and subjected to legal discrimination, the southern economy was deeply dependent on them as an abundant supply of cheap labor, and black workers were seen as the most critical factor in the economic development of the South. One South Carolina politician summed up the dilemma: "Politically speaking, there are far too many negroes, but from an industrial standpoint there is room for many more."  When the Great Migration started in the 1910s, white southern elites seemed to be unconcerned, and industrialists and cotton planters saw it as a positive, as it was siphoning off surplus industrial and agricultural labor. As the migration picked up, however, southern elites began to panic, fearing that a prolonged black exodus would bankrupt the South, and newspaper editorials warned of the danger. White employers eventually took notice and began expressing their fears. White southerners soon began trying to stem the flow in order to prevent the hemorrhaging of their labor supply, and some began attempting to address the poor living standards and racial oppression experienced by Southern blacks in order to induce them to stay.  As a result, southern employers increased their wages to match those on offer in the North, and some individual employers opposed the worst excesses of Jim Crow laws. When the measures failed to stem the tide, white southerners, in concert with federal officials who feared the rise of black nationalism, co-operated in attempting to coerce blacks to stay in the South. The Southern Metal Trades Association urged decisive action to stop black migration, and some employers undertook serious efforts against it. The largest southern steel manufacturer refused to cash checks sent to finance black migration, efforts were made to restrict bus and train access for blacks, agents were stationed in northern cities to report on wage levels, unionization, and the rise of black nationalism, and newspapers were pressured to divert more coverage to negative aspects of black life in the North. A series of local and federal directives were put into place with the goal of restricting black mobility, including local vagrancy ordinances, "work or fight" laws demanding all males either be employed or serve in the army, and conscription orders. Intimidation and beatings were also used to terrorize blacks into staying. These intimidation tactics were described by Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson as interfering with "the natural right of workers to move from place to place at their own discretion".  During the wave of migration that took place in the 1940s, white southerners were less concerned, as mechanization of agriculture in the late 1930s had resulted in another labor surplus so southern planters put up less resistance.

In popular culture.

The Great Migration is a backdrop of the 2013 film "The Butler", as the Forest Whitaker character Cecil Gaines moves from a plantation in Georgia to become a butler at the White House.

The Great Migration, sometimes known as the Great Northward Migration or the Black Migration, was the movement of 6 million African Americans out of the rural Southern United States to the urban Northeast, Midwest, and West that occurred between 1916 and 1970. It was caused primarily by the poor economic conditions as well as the prevalent racial segregation and discrimination in the Southern states where Jim Crow laws were upheld.

非裔美国人大迁徙(英文:The Great Migration of African Americans),又称北上大迁徙(Great Northward Migration)或者黑人大迁徙(Black Migration),是指1916年-1970年间约600万非裔美国人从美国南部各州的乡村地区迁徙至美国东北部、中西部以及西部地区的大规模人口迁徙。造成这次大迁徙的主要原因是南部各州落后的经济条件以及普遍的种族隔离和种族歧视现象,尤其是南部各州的种族隔离法——吉姆·克劳法。