History.

Ramal opened on 27 December 1925 as a branch of Line 2 providing service to the Estación del Norte (North Station, today Príncipe Pío station), which was one of the city's major long-distance train stations. Since the Estación del Norte was located on the banks of the Manzanares River, Ramal helped travelers avoid climbing the Cuesta de San Vicente, a hillside between the river and the city center.  Ramal's two stations experienced several name changes over the course of their history. Ópera was originally named Isabel II after the Plaza de Isabel II, which was in turn named after Queen Isabella II. After the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic on 14 April 1931, the new authorities ordered all place names referring to the monarchy to be changed. On 24 June 1931, Isabel II station was renamed Ópera after the nearby Teatro Real opera house. That same year, the plaza was renamed Plaza de Fermín Galán, after Fermín Galán, leader of the failed Jaca uprising of 1930, which sought to overthrow King Alfonso XIII. On 5 June 1937, the station too was renamed Fermín Galán. After the establishment of the Francoist State in 1939, many of the city's place names were changed once again. In 1939, the plaza's name was changed back to Plaza de Isabel II, and the station's name was changed back to Ópera.  In 1995, the Estación del Norte was expanded and remodeled in preparation for the expansion of Line 6, and it was renamed Príncipe Pío after the nearby hill. By this time, Chamartín station, another major long-distance train station located further north, had already been in operation for several decades, so the name Estación del Norte (North Station) was no longer appropriate.

Ramal (Branch) or Línea R (Line R) of the Madrid Metro is a shuttle train connecting the stations of Ópera and Príncipe Pío. It is located in the Centro district of Madrid, Spain. It is currently the only line in the system to be known by a letter instead of a number, and its name refers to its origins as a branch of Line 2. The line consists of of wide-profile tunnels, and its stations have platforms.

马德里地铁支线()是一条马德里地铁的路线,但只有两个车站,全长也只有900米。这条路线也是马德里地铁唯一使用文字而非数字命名的路线。西班牙语的「Ramal」意为「分支」。这一条接驳线于1925年12月27日通车,来往和。当时北站是前往西班牙北部的主要铁路车站,而这一条短短的地铁路线是为了与2号线连接而兴建。


Early life and sumo background.

He was born in Hirosaki, Nakatsugaru District. After a successful start in amateur sumo at Aomori University, Tsushima worked as a member of staff at Aomori Yamada High School after graduating, not joining the professional sport until the age of 24 in July 2000. He was recruited by ex-"komusubi" Ryōgoku, a former amateur champion himself, and joined his Sakaigawa stable (then known as Nakadachi stable). His "shikona" or fighting name came from Mount Iwaki, which is near his home town.

Career.

Iwakiyama had "makushita tsukedashi" (promising amateur) status and so began in "makushita" (the third division), but an injury in his second tournament saw him demoted to "sandanme." (His stablemaster had had a similar experience in his active days, also dropping to "sandanme" after beginning in "makushita".) He recovered by winning the "sandanme" championship in March 2001 and by March 2002 was promoted to "jūryō." He reached the top "makuuchi" division in November 2002. A long-standing lower back problem forced him to withdraw from the March 2003 tournament but in September of that year he produced an 11-4 record, his best score in the top division to date, which earned him promotion to the titled "san'yaku" ranks for the first time in November 2003. He was also the first member of his stable to reach a "san'yaku" rank since it opened in 1998. Iwakiyama was twice ranked as "komusubi" on the "banzuke" and had one "yokozuna" upset and two special prizes to his credit but because of poor results he was demoted to "jūryō" for the 2007 Nagoya basho. However he won the "jūryō" "yūshō" for this tournament so he fought again in the highest division in September 2007. He could only manage a 4-11 record and slipped to the "jūryō" 1 ranking for November, but he produced a strong 11-4 record to earn immediate promotion back to the top division. On this occasion he produced a comfortable 9-6 score. After struggling to a 2-7 start in March 2008, he won five out of his last six matches to preserve his top division status once again. He withdrew from the third day of the September 2008 tournament after suffering an ankle injury, and fell to "jūryō". Upon his return in November he had little difficulty in earning promotion back to "makuuchi", scoring 11 wins at "jūryō" 2.  Following three consecutive "kachi-koshi" scores in the first three tournaments of 2009 he was promoted to "maegashira" 3 in July, his highest rank for nearly three years. He faced all the top ranked wrestlers, and his 5-10 score included a victory over "ōzeki" Chiyotaikai.  He was forced to sit out the May 2010 tournament on medical advice after suffering a cerebral infarction. He stated that he would seek treatment and hoped to return to active competition, but he was also unable to take part in the July 2010 "basho" in which he was ranked in the "jūryō" division. His stablemaster indicated that he did not want his wrestler to fight in the "makushita" division, but in fact Iwakiyama escaped relegation to "makushita", instead being ranked at the very bottom of "jūryō".

Retirement.

After missing the September tournament, Iwakiyama tearfully announced his retirement from competition on September 26, 2010. His illness had caused him to lose so much weight that he would need at least six months to be back to full weight and fitness. Rather than risk long term health issues from training for a return, he retired on his wife's advice. He will stay in sumo as a coach under the "toshiyori" name Sekinoto. His "danpatsu-shiki", or official retirement ceremony, was originally scheduled for May 2011 but was postponed due to the sumo match-fixing scandal. It eventually took place in January 2012.

Fighting style.

Iwakiyama was one of the heaviest men in the top division and so preferred straightforward force-out techniques, using his bulk to his best advantage. Roughly half of all his wins were by either "yori-kiri" (force out) or "oshi-dashi" (push out). His favourite grip on his opponent's "mawashi" was "hidari-yotsu", with his right hand outside and left hand inside his opponent's arms. He never resorted to "henka" (sidestepping) at the "tachi-ai" or initial charge.

Family.

Iwakiyama announced his engagement in December 2007 and was married in April 2008. Former "yokozuna" Wajima was among the guests.

Career record.

Iwakiyama Ryūta (born March 2, 1976 as Ryūta Tsushima in Aomori Prefecture, Japan), is a former sumo wrestler. A former amateur sumo champion, he turned professional in 2000 and reached the top division at the end of 2002. The highest rank he reached was "komusubi." He was a runner-up in one tournament and earned two special prizes in his career. After his retirement in 2010 he became an elder of the Japan Sumo Association under the name Sekinoto.

岩木山龙太,(1976年3月2日-),原名对马竜太,日本青森县中津轻郡岩木町(现弘前市)出身。境川部屋(入门时中立部屋)所属前大相扑力士。身高184cm、体重177kg、血型O型、兴趣是音乐鉴赏与赛马研究。最高位置是东小结(2005年3月场所)。现在是境川部屋年寄、关之户。


History.

NO was first reported by Deville in 1840, who prepared it by treating AgNO with Cl.

Structure and physical properties.

Pure solid NO is a salt, consisting of separated linear nitronium ions NO and planar trigonal nitrate anions NO. Both nitrogen centers have oxidation state +5. It crystallizes in the space group "D" ("C"6/"mmc") with "Z" = 2, with the anions in the "D" sites and the cations in "D" sites.  The vapor pressure "P" (in torr) as a function of temperature "T"(in kelvin), in the range 211 to 305 K, is well approximated by the formula being about 48 torr at 0 °C, 424 torr at 25 °C, and 760 torr at 32 °C (9 degrees below the melting point).  In the gas phase, or when dissolved in a nonpolar solvents such as CCl, the compound exists as covalently bound molecules ON–O–NO. In the gas phase, theoretical calculations for the minimum-energy configuration indicate that the O–N–O angle in each wing is about 134° and the N–O–N angle is about 112°. In that configuration, the two groups are rotated about 35° around the bonds to the central oxygen, away from the N–O–N plane. The molecule thus has a propeller shape, with one axis of 180° rotational symmetry ("C")  When gaseous is cooled rapidly ("quenched"), one can obtain the metastable molecular form, which exothermically converts to the ionic form above −70 °C.  Gaseous absorbs ultraviolet light with dissociation into the radicals nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen trioxide (uncharged nitrate). The absorption spectrum has a broad band with maximum at wavelength 160 nm.

Synthesis.

A recommended laboratory synthesis entails dehydrating nitric acid (HNO) with phosphorus(V) oxide:  Another laboratory process is the reaction of lithium nitrate and bromine pentafluoride, in the ratio exceeding 3:1. The reaction first forms nitryl flouride that reacts further with the lithium nitrate:  The compound can also be created in the gas phase by reacting nitrogen dioxide or with ozone: However, the product catalyzes the rapid decomposition of ozone:  Dinitrogen pentoxide is also formed when a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen is passed through an electric discharge. Another route is the reactions of or with

Reactions.

Dinitrogen pentoxide reacts with water (hydrolyses) to produce nitric acid. Thus, dinitrogen pentoxide is the anhydride of nitric acid:  Solutions of dinitrogen pentoxide in nitric acid can be seen as nitric acid with more than 100% concentration. The phase diagram of the system − shows the well-known negative azeotrope at 60% (that is, 70% ), a positive azeotrope at 85.7% (100% ), and another negative one at 87.5% ("102% ").  The reaction with hydrogen chloride also gives nitric acid and nitrosym chloride:  Dinitrogen pentoxide eventually decomposes at room temperature into NO and O. Decomposition is negligible if the solid is kept at 0 °C, in suitably inert containers.  Dinitrogen pentoxide reacts with ammonia to give several products, including dinitrogen oxide, ammonium nitrate, nitramide and ammonium dinitramide, depending on reaction condiitons.

Applications.

Nitration of organic compounds.

Dinitrogen pentoxide, for example as a solution in chloroform, has been used as a reagent to introduce the NO functionality in organic compounds. This nitration reaction is represented as follows:  where Ar represents an arene moiety. The reactivity of the NO can be further enhanced with strong acids that generate the "super-electrophile" HNO.  In this use, has been largely replaced by nitronium tetrafluoroborate [][]. This salt retains the high reactivity of NO, but it is thermally stable, decomposing at about 180 °C (into NOF and BF).  Dinitrogen pentoxide is relevant to the preparation of explosives.

Atmospheric occurrence.

In the atmosphere, dinitrogen pentoxide is an important reservoir of the NO species that are responsible for ozone depletion: its formation provides a null cycle with which NO and NO are temporarily held in an unreactive state. Mixing ratios of several ppbv have been observed in polluted regions of the night-time troposphere. Dinitrogen pentoxide has also been observed in the stratosphere at similar levels, the reservoir formation having been postulated in considering the puzzling observations of a sudden drop in stratospheric NO levels above 50 °N, the so-called 'Noxon cliff'.  Variations in NO reactivity in aerosols can result in significant losses in tropospheric ozone, hydroxyl radicals, and NOx concentrations. Two important reactions of NO in atmospheric aerosols are: 1) Hydrolysis to form nitric acid and 2) Reaction with halide ions, particularly Cl, to form ClNO molecules which may serve as precursors to reactive chlorine atoms in the atmosphere.

Hazards.

NO is a strong oxidizer that forms explosive mixtures with organic compounds and ammonium salts. The decomposition of dinitrogen pentoxide produces the highly toxic nitrogen dioxide gas.

Dinitrogen pentoxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO, also known as nitrogen pentoxide or nitric anhydride. It is one of the binary nitrogen oxides, a family of compounds that only contain nitrogen and oxygen. It exists as colourless crystals that melt at 41 °C. Its boiling point is 47 °C, and sublimes slightly above room temperature, yielding a colorless gas.

五氧化二氮(化学式:NO),又称硝酐,是硝酸的酸酐。通常状态下呈无色柱状结晶体,易溶于水,水溶液呈酸性。可以用PO将浓HNO脱水得到。


Early life and career.

His father was Henry Langton, a landowner in Langton by Wragby, Lincolnshire. Stephen Langton may have been born in a moated farmhouse in the village, and was probably educated in his local cathedral school.  Stephen studied at the University of Paris and lectured there on theology until 1206, when Pope Innocent III, with whom he had formed a friendship in Paris, called him to Rome and made him cardinal-priest of San Crisogono, Rome. His piety and learning had already won him prebends in Paris and York and he was recognised as the foremost English churchman.  His brother Simon Langton was elected Archbishop of York in 1215, but that election was quashed by Pope Innocent III. Simon served his brother Stephen as Archdeacon of Canterbury in 1227. Simon and Stephen had another brother named Walter, a knight who died childless.

Archbishopric.

On the death of Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1205, the election of a successor proved problematic: some of the younger canons of the cathedral chapter elected Reginald, the subprior of Christ Church, Canterbury, as bishop while another faction under pressure from King John chose John de Grey, Bishop of Norwich. Both elections were quashed on appeal to Rome, and sixteen canons of the chapter, who had gone to Rome empowered to act for the whole chapter, were ordered to proceed to a new election in presence of the Pope. Langton was chosen and was consecrated by the Pope at Viterbo on 17 June 1207.  There followed a hard political struggle between John of England and Pope Innocent III. The King proclaimed as a public enemy anyone who recognised Stephen as Archbishop. On 15 July 1207, John expelled the Canterbury chapter, which was now unanimous in support of Stephen. In March 1208, Pope Innocent III placed England under interdict and at the close of 1212, after repeated negotiations had failed, he passed sentence of deposition against John, committing the execution of the sentence to Philip II of France in January 1213.  In May 1213 King John yielded and thus in July, Stephen (who since his consecration had lived at Pontigny Abbey in Burgundy) and his fellow exiles returned to England. His first episcopal act was to absolve the King, who swore that unjust laws should be repealed and the liberties granted by Henry I should be observed—an oath which he almost immediately violated.  Stephen now became a leader in the struggle against King John. At a council of churchmen at Westminster on 25 August 1213, to which certain barons were invited, he read the text of the charter of Henry I and called for its renewal. In the sequel, Stephen's energetic leadership and the Barons' military strength forced John to grant his seal to "Magna Carta" (15 June 1215). Since King John now held his kingdom as a fief of the Holy See the Pope espoused his cause and excommunicated the barons. For refusing to publish the excommunication Stephen was suspended from all ecclesiastical functions by the papal commissioners and on 4 November this sentence was confirmed by the Pope, although Stephen appealed to him in person. He was released from suspension the following spring on condition that he keep out of England until peace was restored, and he remained abroad till May 1218. Meanwhile, both Pope Innocent and King John died and all parties in England rallied to the support of Henry III.  Stephen Langton continued under Henry's reign to work for the political independence of England. In 1223 he again appeared as the leader and spokesman of the barons, who demanded that King Henry confirm the charter. He went to France on Henry's behalf to call on Louis VIII of France for the restoration of Normandy, and later he supported Henry against rebellious barons. He obtained a promise from the new pope, Honorius III, that during his lifetime no resident legate should be again sent to England, and won other concessions from the same pontiff favourable to the English Church and exalting the see of Canterbury.  Of great importance in the ecclesiastical history of England was a council which Stephen opened at Osney on 17 April 1222; its decrees, known as the "Constitutions of Stephen Langton," are the earliest provincial canons which are still recognised as binding in English church courts.

Death.

He died at Slindon, near Chichester, Sussex, on 9 July 1228. He was buried in some open ground beside the south transept of Canterbury Cathedral. St Michael's Chapel was later built over this ground (now the Buffs Regimental Chapel), and the head of his tomb projects into the east end of this chapel, under its altar, with the foot outside it.

Works.

Stephen was a prolific writer. Glosses, commentaries, expositions, and treatises by him on almost all the books of the Old Testament, and many sermons, are preserved in manuscript at Lambeth Palace, at Oxford and Cambridge, and in France.  According to F. J. E. Raby, "There is little reason to doubt that Stephen Langton... was the author" of the famous sequence "Veni Sancte Spiritus".  The only other of his works which has been printed, besides a few letters (in "The Historical Works of Gervase of Canterbury", ed. W. Stubbs, ii. London, 1880, "Rolls Series," no. 71, appendix to preface) is a "Tractatus de translatione Beati Thomae" (in J. A. Giles's "Thomas of Canterbury", Oxford, 1845), which is probably an expansion of a sermon he preached in 1220, on occasion of the translation of the relics of Thomas Becket; the ceremony was the most splendid that had ever been seen in England. He also wrote a life of Richard I, and other historical works and poems are attributed to him.

Chapters of the Bible.

Classically, scrolls of the books of the Bible have always been divided by blank spaces at the end ("petuhoth") or middle ("setumoth") of the lines. However, Langton is believed to be the one who divided the Bible into the standard modern arrangement of chapters. While Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro is also known to have come up with a systematic division of the Bible (between 1244 and 1248), it is Langton's arrangement of the chapters that remains in use today.

Stephen Langton (c. 1150 – 9 July 1228) was an English Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and Archbishop of Canterbury between 1207 and his death in 1228. The dispute between King John of England and Pope Innocent III over his election was a major factor in the crisis which produced Magna Carta in 1215. Cardinal Langton is also credited with having divided the Bible into the standard modern arrangement of chapters used today.

斯德望·朗顿(英语:Stephen Langton;1150年-1228年-7月9日)为一名英国籍的天主教司铎级枢机及坎特伯里总教区总主教。他有名的事迹包括策划《大宪章》的形成,以及将《圣经》分章,以方便索引。


Rise to popularity.

The rise in power of the Hébertists can be largely attributed to the popularity of Hébert's newspaper, "Le Père Duchesne". This newspaper, which purported to present the frank opinions of Père Duchesne, a fictional working-class furnace-maker, had a large following amongst the sans-culottes. The government-funded distribution of "Le Père Duchesne" to the French armies, a policy arranged by the Hébertist Minister of War Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte in 1793, widened support and sympathy for Hébertist ideas.  On 24 May 1793, the newly appointed Commission of Twelve ordered the arrest of Hébert, who had been using "Le Père Duchesne" to incite violence against members of the Girondin faction. The tremendous public outcry and civil unrest which ensued rapidly resulted in Hébert's release. However, rioting continued, culminating in a series of insurrections. On 31 May 1793, a large crowd of sans-culotte agitators surrounded the National Convention in an attempt to force its accession to their demands, namely the dissolution of the Commission of Twelve, the arrest of a list of Girondin deputies, a tax on the rich and the restriction of suffrage to sans-culottes. The Commission was abolished, but on 2 June 1793 the crowds—now supported by National Guard forces headed by Hébertist and newly appointed Commandant-General François Hanriot—returned. Hanriot threatened to set fire to the Convention if the offending Girondin deputies were not expelled. Ultimately, the arrest of twenty-nine Girondins was decreed, marking the end of the Girondin faction's political power.  Following the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat by a Girondin sympathizer in July 1793, Hébert positioned himself as Marat's natural successor in the affections of those who had shared the dead man's ultra-revolutionary beliefs. The Hébertists' popularity grew. Their evident and increasingly destabilizing influence was disturbing to many less extreme revolutionary politicians, including leading Montagnard figures such as Georges Danton and Maximilien Robespierre—the latter of whom especially disapproved of the Hébertists' atheism.

Accusations and denouncement.

Over the course of October 1793, a number of accusations were leveled against prominent Hébertists by Fabre d'Églantine, a friend and supporter of Danton. Fabre claimed to have discovered a foreign plot in which Stanislas-Marie Maillard and Anacharsis Cloots, among others, were implicated as agents. This succeeded in casting suspicion on the Hébertist faction. However, Fabre himself was rapidly revealed to have been acting in part as part of an elaborate attempt to conceal his own involvement in a scandal surrounding the liquidation of the French East India Company and his credibility was thereby diminished.  In December 1793, the journalist Camille Desmoulins—whose political opinions had long been aligned with those of Danton and Robespierre—began publishing a journal, "Le Vieux Cordelier", aimed in part at the discrediting of the Hébertist faction. The journal's title alluded to the fact that the Cordeliers Club, formerly a moderate revolutionary society dominated by the policies of Danton, had become overrun by sans-culotte Hébertists and their sympathizers. Desmoulins attacked Hébert for bringing the French Republic into disrepute through his writings, claiming that "when the tyrants of Europe wish[ed] to vilify the Republic, to make their slaves believe that France is covered with the darkness of barbarism, that Paris [...] is peopled with Vandals", they reprinted "Le Père Duchesne". He also mocked Hébert for having pretended to be a "man of the people" and a representative of the sans-culottes—when in fact he had profited handsomely from the contracts his follower Bouchotte had secured to distribute "Le Père Duchesne" to the armies. In turn, Hébert accused Desmoulins of hypocrisy, pointing out that his current opposition to violence and extremism (in addition to attacking ultra-revolutionary excesses, Desmoulins had called for an end to the Terror) stood in sharp contrast to his support for such tactics in a 1789 pamphlet, "Discours de la lanterne aux Parisiens," which had advocated the execution of those opposed to revolution. The vitriolic exchange continued throughout the winter of 1793–1794, ultimately contributing to the downfall of both Desmoulins and Hébert.

Fall from power.

Following the February 1794 recall of Hébertist deputy Jean-Baptiste Carrier from Nantes, where he had been engaged in mass executions to suppress the Vendéen revolts, the Hébertists attempted to stage a popular revolt, hoping to mimic that which had led to the downfall of the Girondins. On 4 March 1794, Carrier and Hébert veiled the bust of Liberty at the Cordeliers Club, declaring according to ritual a state of insurrection. They had hoped to demand that the National Convention expel Robespierre and his Montagnard supporters. However, the city of Paris did not rise and the Paris Commune failed to provide military support for the coup.  The Hébertists were denounced by Louis Antoine de Saint-Just and Robespierre and the leaders of the faction were arrested on 13 March 1794. Some twenty of them, including Cloots, Dubuisson, Gobel, de Kock, Momoro, Ronsin, Vincent and Hébert himself were tried before the Revolutionary Tribunal and convicted on 24 March 1794. They went to the guillotine that same evening. Chaumette followed a few days later, followed by Hébert's widow.  Other Hébertists, including Le Bon, Carrier, Chabot and Hanriot, were to also fall victim to the guillotine on various dates in 1794 and 1795.

The Hébertists (), or Exaggerators () were a radical revolutionary political group associated with the populist journalist Jacques Hébert, a member of the Cordeliers club. They came to power during the Reign of Terror and played a significant role in the French Revolution.

埃贝尔派,是法兰西大革命时期与民粹主义新闻记者雅克·勒内·埃贝尔相关联的激进的革命政治团体。他们在恐怖统治期间得到权力并在法兰西大革命期间扮演了显著的角色。


History.

In 1892 Paul Blocq and Gheorghe Marinescu first described the presence of plaque deposits in grey matter. As a result of their similarity to actinomyces druses, they were called "druse necrosis" by Oskar Fischer during the early 20th century. The connection between plaques and dementia was discovered by Alois Alzheimer in 1906. By 1911 Max Bielschowsky proposed the amyloid-nature of plaque deposits. The same year Teofil Simchowicz introduced the term senile plaques. Wisniewski coined the term neuritic plaques in 1973. The second half of the 20th century saw proposed theories of immunological and genetic factors in plaque formation. Statistical investigations were performed by J.A.N. Corsellis and M. Franke in the 1970s. M. Franke showed that a demential disease is likely to occur when the number of senile plaques in the frontal cortex is more than 200/mm. By 1985 beta amyloid formations were successfully identified through biochemical techniques, though many unsolved questions about the importance and formation of senile plaques remained.

Formation and description.

Concentrated in the synapse of neurons is an amyloid precursor protein (APP) that extends across the plasma membrane. A portion of this protein contains an Aβ peptide sequence. This region comprises part of the DNA segment spanning APP that codes for proteins.  In the formation of senile plaques, Aβ is cleaved from the amyloid precursor protein. Although three enzymes can process APP, only β-(beta) and γ-(gamma) secretase are directly involved in the formation of senile plaques. β-secretase (BACE) is a protease enzyme that cleaves proteins and peptides. This protease cleaves APP to further expose the carboxyl terminal fragments of Aβ. After the bulk of APP is released by this process, γ-secretase cleaves the remaining carboxyl fragments on the transmembrane domain. The sequential actions of γ-secretase following BACE activity results in Aβ protein fragments (amyloid beta) that are released into the extracellular space. Eventually, the accumulation of amyloid beta outside of neuronal synapses forms an aggregate mass of plaque that pushes aside fine ramifications and connections of brain cells.  The formation of amyloid beta fragments is a normal occurrence in the human body. However, the accumulation of Aβ leading to the formation of plaque deposits is an unusual phenomenon. Although the cause of this abnormality is largely unknown, research has revealed certain species of amyloid beta that differ by a few amino acids in length that readily aggregate into plaques. These species are more pathogenic.

Identification.

Senile plaques are visible in light microscopy using the staining techniques of silver, Congo red, Thioflavin, cresyl violet, and PAS-reaction. Plaque deposits are also visible through fluorescence and immunofluorescence microscopy. Bielschowsky silver staining was found to be the least efficient means of visualizing senile plaques whereas Campbell and Gallyas silver staining techniques showed improved identification and accuracy. Using Congo red, only one-fourth of senile plaques present were noticeably stained. Senile plaques may also be visualized with an immunostain directed against beta amyloid. The primary problem with the above staining methods is that sections of the neural tissue must be excised from the brain in order to accurately identify senile plaques. This is problematic because removing neural tissue can be as detrimental as the actual plaques themselves.

Disease.

An important criterion of the neuropathological-histological verification of Alzheimer's disease is the formation of senile plaques. Beta amyloid peptides associated with senile plaques have been found to play a central role in the risk, onset, and progression of Alzheimer's disease as well. Of particular importance is the longer species of beta amyloid known as beta amyloid 42. Elevated levels of beta amyloid, as well as an elevation in the ratio of beta amyloid 42 to the shorter major species of beta amyloid 40, has been identified as important in early events in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease.  Other factors in Alzheimer's disease verification include pathological neurofibrillaries, tangles, and atrophic brain with hydrocephalus. The formation and the distribution of the pathological neurofibrillaries have a regularity and allows one to determine the stage of the disease. In combination with the occurrence of a great number of plaques, Alzheimer's disease can be diagnosed with high probability. A correlation between the presence of senile plaques and Down syndrome has also been verified.

Occurrence.

Senile plaques can be found in human and animal brains (e.g. mammals and birds). From an age of 60 years (10%) to an age of 80 years (60%), the proportion of people with senile plaques increases linearly. A small proportion of plaques that form can be due to the physiological process of aging. Women are slightly more likely to have plaques than men. The plaques occur commonly in the amygdaloid nucleus and the sulci of the cortex of brain.

Research.

An increasing variety of compounds that reduce beta amyloid levels are being identified. Several of these compounds have beta amyloid 42 selectivity whereas others attempt to modulate amyloid precursor protein. Such compounds are now reaching clinical evaluation to determine how they may be of benefit in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Senile plaques (also known as neuritic plaques) are extracellular deposits of amyloid beta in the grey matter of the brain. Degenerative neural structures and an abundance of microglia and astrocytes can be associated with senile plaque deposits. These deposits can also be a byproduct of senescence (ageing). However, large numbers of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are characteristic features of Alzheimer's disease. Abnormal neurites in senile plaques are composed primarily of paired helical filaments, a component of neurofibrillary tangles. The plaques are variable in shape and size, but are on average 50 μm in size. In Alzheimer's disease they are primarily composed of amyloid beta peptides. These polypeptides tend to aggregate and are believed to be neurotoxic.

老年斑(也称为 神经炎性斑)是指在大脑灰质中,处在胞外的β-淀粉样沉积物。 。这种老年斑沉积物可能与退化神经结构、过多的小神经胶质和星细胞 有关。 这些沉积物也可能是衰老的副产物。 然而,大量的老年斑和神经纤维缠结,是阿尔茨海默氏病的特异症状. 异常的神经突中的老年斑是主要由配对螺旋丝构成,它是神经纤维缠结的组成部分 。老年斑形状尺寸不定,平均而言其尺度在50 微米 左右。 在阿尔茨海默氏病中,这些斑块主要是由β-淀粉样肽构成。 这些多肽有自动聚集的倾向,而且科学家认为它有神经毒性。


凯克特斯姆维村 (亚利桑那州)

History.

The village was founded after an internal Hopi dispute in Oraibi in 1906 concerning how to interact with missionaries and federal agents and programs. Kykotsmovi is sometimes referred to as Oraibi or New Oraibi.

Geography.

Kykotsmovi Village is located at (35.870755, -110.618340).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of, all of it land.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 776 people, 253 households, and 184 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 46.1 people per square mile (17.8/km2). There were 302 housing units at an average density of 17.9/sq mi (6.9/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 93.43% Native American, 3.87% White, 0.90% Black or African American, 0.26% Asian, 0.26% from other races, and 1.29% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.42% of the population.  There were 253 households out of which 32.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.9% were married couples living together, 23.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.9% were non-families. 25.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.07 and the average family size was 3.69.  In the CDP, the population was spread out with 32.9% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 24.6% from 25 to 44, 22.2% from 45 to 64, and 11.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.4 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $23,750, and the median income for a family was $30,729. Males had a median income of $21,964 versus $20,972 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $9,067. About 24.0% of families and 24.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.7% of those under age 18 and 30.4% of those age 65 or over.

Additional Information.

The village has one store, a post office, a community building, and one school (Hopi Day School). The road through the village is paved route 264.  The name Kykotsmovi means Mound of Ruined Houses. Hopi from Old Oraibi (o-RYE-bee) founded this settlement near a spring at the base of Third Mesa. Kykotsmovi (kee-KEUTS-mo-vee), also known as New Oraibi, has offices of the Hopi Tribal Council.

Kykotsmovi Village (Hopi: Kiqötsmovi, affectionately known as K-Town) is a census-designated place (CDP) in Navajo County, Arizona, and the home of the Hopi tribal government. The Hopi Tribe is a sovereign nation located in northeastern Arizona. The population was 776 at the 2000 census. The Hopi reservation occupies part of Coconino and Navajo counties, encompasses more than 1.5 million acres, and is made up of 12 villages on three mesas. Kykotsmovi is one of the 12 villages located in third mesa. Third Mesa includes Hotvela (Hotevilla), Paaqavi (Bacavi),Munqapi (Moencopi),Kiqotsmovi (Kykotsmovi), and Orayvi (Oraibi).

凯克特斯姆维村(英语:Kykotsmovi Village)是位于美国亚利桑那州纳瓦霍县的一个人口普查指定地区。根据2010年美国人口普查,该地共人口500人,而该地的面积约为43.86平方千米。


Life.

He was the son of a priest (also named Johannes Ciconia) and a woman of high social standing. Since at least three other men around Liège had that name as well, this has created biographical confusion, first solved by David Fallows in 1975. A Johannes Ciconia, probably the composer's father, worked in Avignon in 1350 as a clerk for the wife of Pope Clement VI's nephew. Another Johannes Ciconia is recorded in Liège in 1385 as a "duodenus", generally identifying a person of young age; scholars agree that this is the composer himself.  Papal records suggest that Ciconia was in the service of Pope Boniface IX in Rome in 1391. His whereabouts between the early 1390s and 1401 are unknown. From 1401 until his death in 1412, he was connected to the cathedral of Padua in some capacity. However, it is unclear whether Ciconia arrived in Padua even earlier than 1401. His lament "Con lagrime bagnadome" is described in one source as written for the death of Francesco of Carrara - if this refers to Francesco il Nuovo ("the New"), it would date from after 1406; if, however, it was written for the death of Francesco il Vecchio ("the Old"), as scholars have assumed, this would place him in Padua as early as 1393. There is also the possibility of an intermediate stay in Pavia (as suggested by the scholars John Nádas and Agostino Ziino), on the grounds that this is where he would have connected with the House of Visconti and acquired knowledge of the "ars subtilior" style and the compositions of Philippus de Caserta quoted in his "Sus un fontayne" ("Under a fountain") (see below).

Music.

Ciconia's music is an eclectic blend of styles. Pieces typical of northern Italy, such as his madrigal "Una panthera", appear with pieces steeped in the French "ars nova". The more complex "ars subtilior" style surfaces in "Sus un fontayne". While it remains late medieval in style, his writing increasingly points toward the melodic patterning of the Renaissance, for instance in his setting of "O rosa bella". He wrote music both secular (French virelais, Italian ballate and madrigals) and sacred (motets and Mass movements, some of them isorhythmic) in form. He is also the author of two treatises on music, "Nova Musica" and "De Proportionibus" (which expands on some ideas in "Nova Musica"). His theoretical ideas stem from the more conservative Marchettian tradition in contrast to those of his Paduan contemporary Prosdocimus de Beldemandis.  Although contrafacts and later manuscript sources of his compositions suggest that he was well known in Florence, his music is scarcely represented in major Florentine sources of the period; for instance, the Squarcialupi Codex contains nothing by Ciconia. But on the other hand, many of his motets and Mass movements are included in the manuscript known as “Bologna MS Museo Internazionale e Biblioteca della Musica Q15”.

Johannes Ciconia ( – between 10 June and 13 July 1412) was an important Flemish composer and music theorist of the late Middle Ages. He was born in Liège, but worked most of his adult life in Italy, particularly in the service of the papal chapel(s) in Rome and later and most importantly at Padua Cathedral.

约翰内斯·西科尼亚(英语:Johannes Ciconia,约1370年-1412年)是早期的尼德兰作曲家和中世纪末的音乐理论家。他出生在比利时的列日,但他成年后绝大多数时间在意大利工作,尤其在罗马为教宗博义九世以及在帕多瓦主教座堂工作。


Plot.

Riiko Izawa has never had a boyfriend and she has been rejected by every boy she has ever had a crush on. When she returns a lost cell phone to an oddly dressed salesman, she mentions wanting a boyfriend. To thank her, he directs her to his company's website, Kronos Heaven. When she visits the site, Riiko finds it's a site to create your perfect lover. Thinking it's a game, she customizes and accidentally orders one. The next day, her new lover arrives. Following the instruction manual, she kisses him to wake him up, which configures him to be in love with only her. She names him "Night". Three days later, she is shocked to learn that she only had him for a free trial for 72 hours. The salesman, Gaku Namikiri, tells her that she must now pay for Night, however, they will waive the fee if she helps them to collect data about how women think and feel to help perfect future models.  Riiko must now keep Night's true nature a secret from everyone around her. She also soon finds herself in a love triangle between Night and her childhood friend Soshi, who declares his love for her out of fear he will lose her. As the series progresses, Night begins to develop real human emotions, enabling him to truly love Riiko but also resulting in system malfunctions. When Riiko almost loses Night due to the malfunctions, she realizes that he is the one she really loves. She apologizes to Soshi, who moves to Spain with his brother to live with their dad. Night and Riiko spend a few happy weeks together, during which they go on dates, get their picture taken together, and purchase matching rings as symbols of their undying love.  As the series ends, Night begins to grow sleepier and sleepier. The problems developed by him exceeding his abilities eventually causes his machinery to stop working, resulting in his "death". Before he died, he wrote a letter directed to Soshi telling him what was happening and asking him to take care of Riiko. He also sends his ring, which Riiko noticed he has not been wearing immediately prior to his death. In the letter, he tells Riiko that she doesn't have to cry for him any more but to always smile. So she laughs and forever treasures her rings and memories of Night.

Media.

Manga.

Written by Yuu Watase, "Absolute Boyfriend" premiered in Japan in the March 2003 issue of "Shōjo Comic". It appeared monthly until the thirty-fifth and final chapter was published in the February 2005 issue. The chapters were published in six collected volumes by Shogakukan with the first volume released on October 25, 2003 and the final volume released on February 25, 2005.  "Absolute Boyfriend" is licensed for both English and Chinese releases in Singapore by Chuang Yi, which has released all six volumes of the series. Madman Entertainment subsequently imported and republished the Chuang Yi English translated volumes in Australia from May 17, 2006 through October 11, 2006. In North America, the series was licensed for an English translated release by Viz Media. It was one of the first six manga series Viz included in the June 2005 premiere issue of the company's new manga anthology "Shojo Beat". It continued to be serialized in "Shojo Beat" until it reached its conclusion in the March 2008 issue. Viz simultaneously released the six collected volumes of the series, with the first volume released February 7, 2006 and the final volume released on May 6, 2008.  The series is also licensed for regional language releases in Germany by Egmont Manga & Anime, in France by Kana, and in Brazil by Conrad.

Drama CD.

A drama CD based on this manga was released under the title "Zettai Kareshi - Figure Darling" in Japan by Marine Entertainment on August 25, 2004.

Live-action television series.

Japanese adaptation.

A live-action adaptation of the manga began airing on Fuji TV on April 15, 2008 and ran for eleven episodes until its conclusion on June 24, 2008. In the live-action version, Riiko Izawa is an office lady in search of a boyfriend, and she ends up in possession of a "robot" known as Night Tenjo, who is programmed to be the perfect boyfriend. However, this creates a love triangle with a distinguished young man at her company who also has feelings for her. Riiko is played by Saki Aibu, Night is played by Mokomichi Hayami, and Soshi Asamoto is played by Hiro Mizushima.  On March 24, 2009, a special episode of this series was released and featured 3 years after the last episode of the series, whereas Riiko had become a pâtissier and is engaged to Soshi Asamoto; and Night was suddenly revived by a Kronos Heaven employee, who wanted to use his individual ego to her own gain. At the end of this special episode, Night is last seen telling Namikiri to erase him from this world while shedding tears. Riiko at last, returns to Soshi's side and their marriage goes on, but this is not shown on screen.

Taiwanese adaptation.

It was announced at a press conference on October 5, 2010 that a live-action adaptation of "Absolute Boyfriend" will be filmed starring Taiwanese singer-actor Wu Chun as "Night" and Korean actress Ku Hye-sun as "Riiko." On May 3, 2011, Jiro Wang replaced fellow Fahrenheit band member Wu Chun as the male lead of the drama series, now titled "Absolute Darling". The Taiwanese adaptation premiered on April 1, 2012 on FTV.(絕對達令 "Jue Dui Da Ling").

Korean adaptation.

On October 18, 2011, there were unconfirmed reports of a Korean adaptation titled "Absolutely Him" () starring actress Kim Ha-neul as the female lead opposite singer-actor T.O.P. However, there are no follow-up news on the production. On February 23, 2018, according to the online platform Naver and media news site Newsen, Korean cable network OCN is in talks to adapt the manga with "Romantic Comedy King" as its working title. On March 15, 2018, Song Ji Hyo and Chun Jung Myung were cast as leads. On April 10 2018, Song Ji-hyo reportedly decline the role while Yeo Jin-goo is in talks and is taking consideration. On May 30, 2018, reports confirmed Yeo Jin-goo and Girl's Day Bang Min-ah as leads while Hong Jong-hyun is still in talks. Their first script reading was held on June 22, 2018 and filming began in July. The drama will be written by Yang Hyuk-moon (Secret Healer) and will be directed by Jung Jung-hwa with no confirmed broadcasting station and air date just yet. The drama finished filming in December 2018 and is currently airing on SBS from May 2019.

The manga series was adapted into an 11-episode live-action drama series that aired in Japan in 2008. A 13-episode "Taiwanese adaption" (絕對達令 "Jue Dui Darling") aired in 2012, and a 40-episode South Korean adaptation aired in 2019 under the title "My Absolute Boyfriend".

《绝对达令》(,英语:Absolute Boyfriend),是日本漫画家渡濑悠宇的爱情漫画作品。2003年至2004年间于《Sho-Comi》上连载,单行本全6卷。台湾中文版由长鸿出版社代理。


Taxonomy.

The woolly-necked stork was described by the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in 1780 in his "Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux" from a specimen collected from the Coromandel Coast of India. The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved by François-Nicolas Martinet in the "Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle" which was produced under the supervision of Edme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text. Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert coined the binomial name "Ardea episcopus" in his catalogue of the "Planches Enluminées". The woolly-necked stork is now placed in the genus "Ciconia" that was erected by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. The genus name "Ciconia" is the Latin word for a "stork"; the specific epithet "episcopus" is Latin for "bishop".  Three subspecies are recognised:  The online edition of the "Handbook of the Birds of the World" treats the African race, "C. e. microscelis", as a separate species, the African woolyneck, with the remaining two subspecies becoming the Asian woolyneck.

Description.

The woolly-necked stork is a medium-sized stork at 75–92 cm tall. The iris is deep crimson or wine-red. The stork is glistening black overall with a black "skull cap", a downy white neck which gives it its name. The lower belly and under-tail coverts are white, standing out from the rest of the dark coloured plumage. Feathers on the fore-neck are iridescent with a coppery-purple tinge. These feathers are elongated and can be erected during displays. The tail is deeply forked and is white, usually covered by the black long under tail coverts. It has long red legs and a heavy, blackish bill, though some specimens have largely dark-red bills with only the basal one-third being black. Sexes are alike. Juvenile birds are duller versions of the adult with a feathered forehead that is sometimes streaked black-and-white. The African birds are described as having the edges of the black cap diffused or with a jagged border compared to a sharp and clean border in the Asian birds. Sexes are identical, though males are thought to be larger. When the wings are opened either during displays or for flight, a narrow band of very bright unfeathered skin is visible along the underside of the forearm. This band has been variously described as being "neon, orange-red", "like a red-gold jewel", and "almost glowing" when seen at close range.  Small nestlings are pale grey with buffy down on the neck, and a black crown. At fledging age, the immature bird is identical to the adult except for a feathered forehead, much lesser iridescence on feathers, and much longer and fluffier feathers on the neck.  English common names for this species include Whitenecked Stork, Whiteheaded Stork, Bishop Stork, and the Parson-bird. More recently, the African and Asian populations are considered to be two different species, the African and the Asian Woolly-neck. This is based purely on geographical isolation, but there is no morphological or phylogenetic evidence yet to support this split.

Distribution and habitat.

It is a widespread tropical species which breeds in Asia, from India to Indonesia, and throughout Africa. It is a resident breeder building nests on trees located on agricultural fields or wetlands, on natural cliffs, and on cell phone towers. They use a variety of freshwater wetlands including seasonal and perennial reservoirs and marshes, crop lands, irrigation canals and rivers. They are attracted to fires in grasslands and crop fields where they capture insects trying to escape the fire. They use ponds and marshes inside forests in both Africa and Asia, especially in south-east Asia where they use grassy and marshy areas in clearings in evergreen rainforests. In India, they are an uncommon species in coastal habitats. They use coastal areas in Africa also, with birds in Sulawasi observed to be eating sea snakes, and birds on the Kenya coast foraging in coral reefs and mudflats. In an agricultural landscape in north India, woolly-necked storks preferred fallow fields during the summer and monsoon seasons, and natural freshwater wetlands during the winter. Here, irrigation canals were preferentially used during winters when water levels were low, and birds avoided crop fields in all seasons. Assisted by construction of new irrigation canals, this species is spreading to arid areas like the Thar Desert in Rajasthan, India.  Individuals of this species have been sighted at altitudes of 3,790 m above sea level in China (Napahai wetland), and 3,540 m above sea level in Nepal (Annapurna Conservation Area).

Behavior.

Several calls by adult birds have been described including bisyllabic whistles given along with displays at the nest, and a fierce hissing sound when a bird was attacked by a trained falcon. The woolly-necked stork is a broad winged soaring bird, which relies on moving between thermals of hot air for sustained long distance flight. Like all storks, it flies with its neck outstretched. It has also been observed to 'roll, tumble and dive at steep angles' in the air with the wind through its quills making a loud noise. Adult birds have also been observed diving from nests before flying away abruptly in a 'bat-like flight'.  This species is largely seen as single birds, in pairs, or in small family groups of 4–5, and flocks are uncommon. In agricultural landscapes, the species occurs mostly as very small flocks (< 5 birds), though flocks of over 10 birds occur commonly. Flocking is affected by different factors in different areas. In more arid areas, most of the flocks occur in the summer when few wetlands are remaining, whereas in areas with more water, flocks occur largely in winter after chicks have fledged from nests. They often associate with wintering stork species including the Black and White Storks.

Diet.

The woolly-necked stork walks slowly and steadily on the ground seeking its prey, which like that of most of its relatives, consists of amphibians, reptiles and insects.

Breeding.

Typically, a large stick nest is built on a tree, and two to five eggs form the typical clutch, with five eggs being very rare. Birds commonly use both forest trees and solitary trees in agricultural areas to build nests. In India, nests are increasingly being observed in urban areas on cell phone towers. Riverside cliffs are also used occasionally as nest sites.

Conservation.

The woolly-necked stork is one of the species to which the "Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds" (AEWA) applies.

The woolly-necked stork or whitenecked stork ("Ciconia episcopus") is a large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. It breeds singly, or in small loose colonies. It is distributed in a wide variety of habitats including marshes in forests, agricultural areas, and freshwater wetlands.

白颈鹳(学名:"Ciconia episcopus";英语:woolly-necked stork,英语:whitenecked stork)属鹳形目鹳科鹳属,广泛分布于亚洲和非洲大部分地区。2011年,中国鸟类学家在云南省纳帕海自然保护区也发现了白颈鹳物种。


Uses.

Bounding volumes are most often used to accelerate certain kinds of tests.  In ray tracing, bounding volumes are used in ray-intersection tests, and in many rendering algorithms, they are used for viewing frustum tests. If the ray or viewing frustum does not intersect the bounding volume, it cannot intersect the object contained within, allowing trivial rejection. Similarly if the frustum contains the entirety of the bounding volume, the contents may be trivially accepted without further tests. These intersection tests produce a list of objects that must be 'displayed' (rendered; rasterized).  In collision detection, when two bounding volumes do not intersect, the contained objects cannot collide.  Testing against a bounding volume is typically much faster than testing against the object itself, because of the bounding volume's simpler geometry. This is because an 'object' is typically composed of polygons or data structures that are reduced to polygonal approximations. In either case, it is computationally wasteful to test each polygon against the view volume if the object is not visible. (Onscreen objects must be 'clipped' to the screen, regardless of whether their surfaces are actually visible.)  To obtain bounding volumes of complex objects, a common way is to break the objects/scene down using a scene graph or more specifically a bounding volume hierarchy, like e.g. OBB trees. The basic idea behind this is to organize a scene in a tree-like structure where the root comprises the whole scene and each leaf contains a smaller subpart.

Common types.

The choice of the type of bounding volume for a given application is determined by a variety of factors: the computational cost of computing a bounding volume for an object, the cost of updating it in applications in which the objects can move or change shape or size, the cost of determining intersections, and the desired precision of the intersection test. The precision of the intersection test is related to the amount of space within the bounding volume not associated with the bounded object, called "void space". Sophisticated bounding volumes generally allow for less void space but are more computationally expensive. It is common to use several types in conjunction, such as a cheap one for a quick but rough test in conjunction with a more precise but also more expensive type.  The types treated here all give convex bounding volumes. If the object being bounded is known to be convex, this is not a restriction. If non-convex bounding volumes are required, an approach is to represent them as a union of a number of convex bounding volumes. Unfortunately, intersection tests become quickly more expensive as the bounding boxes become more sophisticated.  A is a cuboid, or in 2-D a rectangle, containing the object. In dynamical simulation, bounding boxes are preferred to other shapes of bounding volume such as bounding spheres or cylinders for objects that are roughly cuboid in shape when the intersection test needs to be fairly accurate. The benefit is obvious, for example, for objects that rest upon other, such as a car resting on the ground: a bounding sphere would show the car as possibly intersecting with the ground, which then would need to be rejected by a more expensive test of the actual model of the car; a bounding box immediately shows the car as not intersecting with the ground, saving the more expensive test.  In many applications the bounding box is aligned with the axes of the co-ordinate system, and it is then known as an axis-aligned bounding box ('). To distinguish the general case from an AABB, an arbitrary bounding box is sometimes called an oriented bounding box ('), or an when an existing object's local coordinate system is used. AABBs are much simpler to test for intersection than OBBs, but have the disadvantage that when the model is rotated they cannot be simply rotated with it, but need to be recomputed.  A is a swept sphere (i.e. the volume that a sphere takes as it moves along a straight line segment) containing the object. Capsules can be represented by the radius of the swept sphere and the segment that the sphere is swept across). It has traits similar to a cylinder, but is easier to use, because the intersection test is simpler. A capsule and another object intersect if the distance between the capsule's defining segment and some feature of the other object is smaller than the capsule's radius. For example, two capsules intersect if the distance between the capsules' segments is smaller than the sum of their radii. This holds for arbitrarily rotated capsules, which is why they're more appealing than cylinders in practice.  A is a cylinder containing the object. In most applications the axis of the cylinder is aligned with the vertical direction of the scene. Cylinders are appropriate for 3-D objects that can only rotate about a vertical axis but not about other axes, and are otherwise constrained to move by translation only. Two vertical-axis-aligned cylinders intersect when, simultaneously, their projections on the vertical axis intersect – which are two line segments – as well their projections on the horizontal plane – two circular disks. Both are easy to test. In video games, bounding cylinders are often used as bounding volumes for people standing upright.  A is an ellipsoid containing the object. Ellipsoids usually provide tighter fitting than a sphere. Intersections with ellipsoids are done by scaling the other object along the principal axes of the ellipsoid by an amount equal to the multiplicative inverse of the radii of the ellipsoid, thus reducing the problem to intersecting the scaled object with a unit sphere. Care should be taken to avoid problems if the applied scaling introduces skew. Skew can make the usage of ellipsoids impractical in certain cases, for example collision between two arbitrary ellipsoids.  A is a sphere containing the object. In 2-D graphics, this is a circle. Bounding spheres are represented by centre and radius. They are very quick to test for collision with each other: two spheres intersect when the distance between their centres does not exceed the sum of their radii. This makes bounding spheres appropriate for objects that can move in any number of dimensions.  A is the volume that projects to an extent on an axis, and can be thought of as the slab bounded between two planes. A bounding box is the intersection of orthogonally oriented bounding slabs. Bounding slabs have been used to speed up ray tracing  A in 2-D is quite useful to speedup the clipping or visibility test of a B-Spline curve. See "Circle and B-Splines clipping algorithms" under the subject Clipping (computer graphics) for an example of use.  A convex hull is the smallest convex volume containing the object. If the object is the union of a finite set of points, its convex hull is a polytope.  A (DOP) generalizes the bounding box. A k-DOP is the Boolean intersection of extents along "k" directions. Thus, a "k"-DOP is the Boolean intersection of "k" bounding slabs and is a convex polytope containing the object (in 2-D a polygon; in 3-D a polyhedron). A 2-D rectangle is a special case of a 2-DOP, and a 3-D box is a special case of a 3-DOP. In general, the axes of a DOP do not have to be orthogonal, and there can be more axes than dimensions of space. For example, a 3-D box that is beveled on all edges and corners can be constructed as a 13-DOP. The actual number of faces can be less than 2 times "k" if some faces become degenerate, shrunk to an edge or a vertex.  A minimum bounding rectangle or MBR – the least AABB in 2-D – is frequently used in the description of geographic (or "geospatial") data items, serving as a simplified proxy for a dataset's spatial extent (see geospatial metadata) for the purpose of data search (including spatial queries as applicable) and display. It is also a basic component of the R-tree method of spatial indexing.

Basic intersection checks.

For some types of bounding volume (OBB and convex polyhedra), an effective check is that of the separating axis theorem. The idea here is that, if there exists an axis by which the objects do not overlap, then the objects do not intersect. Usually the axes checked are those of the basic axes for the volumes (the unit axes in the case of an AABB, or the 3 base axes from each OBB in the case of OBBs). Often, this is followed by also checking the cross-products of the previous axes (one axis from each object).  In the case of an AABB, this tests becomes a simple set of overlap tests in terms of the unit axes. For an "AABB" defined by "M","N" against one defined by "O","P" they do not intersect if ("M" > "P") or ("O" > "N") or ("M" > "P") or ("O" > "N") or ("M" > "P") or ("O" > "N").  An AABB can also be projected along an axis, for example, if it has edges of length L and is centered at "C", and is being projected along the axis N: formula_1, and formula_2 or formula_3, and formula_4 where m and n are the minimum and maximum extents.  An OBB is similar in this respect, but is slightly more complicated. For an OBB with L and C as above, and with "I", "J", and "K" as the OBB's base axes, then:  For the ranges "m","n" and "o","p" it can be said that they do not intersect if "m" > "p" or "o" > "n". Thus, by projecting the ranges of 2 OBBs along the I, J, and K axes of each OBB, and checking for non-intersection, it is possible to detect non-intersection. By additionally checking along the cross products of these axes (I×I, I×J,...) one can be more certain that intersection is impossible.  This concept of determining non-intersection via use of axis projection also extends to convex polyhedra, however with the normals of each polyhedral face being used instead of the base axes, and with the extents being based on the minimum and maximum dot products of each vertex against the axes. Note that this description assumes the checks are being done in world space.  The intersection of two "k"-DOP's can be computed very similarly to AABBs: for each orientation, you just check the two corresponding intervals of the two DOP's. So, just like DOP's being a generalization of AABBs, the intersection test is a generalization of the AABB overlap test. The complexity of the overlap test of two DOP's is in. This assumes, however, that both DOP's are given with respect to the same set of orientations. If one of them is rotated, this is no longer true. In that case, one relatively easy way to check the two DOP's formula_7 for intersection is to enclose the rotated one, formula_8, by another, smallest enclosing DOP formula_9 that is oriented with respect to the orientations of the first DOP formula_10. The procedure for that is a little bit more complex, but eventually amounts to a matrix vector multiplication of complexity as well.

In computer graphics and computational geometry, a bounding volume for a set of objects is a closed volume that completely contains the union of the objects in the set. Bounding volumes are used to improve the efficiency of geometrical operations by using simple volumes to contain more complex objects. Normally, simpler volumes have simpler ways to test for overlap.

在计算机图形学与计算几何领域,一组物体的包围体就是将物体组合完全包容起来的一个封闭空间。将复杂物体封装在简单的包围体中,就可以提高几何运算的效率。通常简单的物体比较容易检查相互之间的重叠。


History.

Mathura has an ancient history and also believed to be the homeland and birthplace of Krishna who was born in Yadu dynasty. According to the Archaeological Survey of India plaque at the Mathura Museum, the city is mentioned in the oldest Indian epic, the "Ramayana". In the epic, the Ikshwaku prince Shatrughna slays a demon called Lavanasura and claims the land. Afterwards, the place came to be known as Madhuvan as it was thickly wooded, then Madhupura and later Mathura.  Archaeological excavations at Mathura show the gradual growth of a village into an important city. The earliest period belonged to the Painted Grey Ware culture (1100-500 BCE), followed by the Northern Black Polished Ware culture (700-200 BCE). Mathura derived its importance as a center of trade due to its location where the northern trade route of the Indo-Gangetic Plain met with the routes to Malwa (central India) and the west coast.  By the 6th century BCE Mathura became the capital of the Surasena Kingdom. The city was later ruled by the Maurya empire (4th to 2nd centuries BCE). Megasthenes, writing in the early 3rd century BCE, mentions Mathura as a great city under the name Μέθορα ("Méthora"). It seems it never was under the direct control of the following Shunga dynasty (2nd century BCE) as not a single archaeological remain of a Shunga presence were ever found in Mathura.  The Indo-Greeks may have taken control, direct or indirect, of Mathura some time between 180 BCE and 100 BCE, and remained so as late as 70 BCE according to the Yavanarajya inscription, which was found in Maghera, a town from Mathura. The opening of the 3 line text of this inscription in Brahmi script translates as: "In the 116th year of the Yavana kingdom..." or '"In the 116th year of Yavana hegemony" (""Yavanarajya"") However, this also corresponds to the presence of the native Mitra dynasty of local rulers in Mathura, in approximately the same time frame (150 BCE—50 BCE), possibly pointing to a vassalage relationship with the Indo-Greeks.  After a period of local rule, Mathura was conquered by the Indo-Scythians during the first 1st century BCE. The Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura are sometimes called the "Northern Satraps", as opposed to the "Western Satraps" ruling in Gujarat and Malwa. However, Indo-Scythian control proved to be short lived, following the reign of the Indo-Scythian "Mahakshatrapa" ("Great Satrap") Rajuvula, –25 CE.  The Kushan Empire took control of Mathura some time after Rajuvula, although several of his successors ruled as Kushans vassals, such as the Indo-Scythian "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara, both of whom paid allegiance to the Kushans in an inscription at Sarnath, dating to the 3rd year of the reign of the Kushan emperor Kanishka CE. Mathuran art and culture reached its zenith under the Kushan dynasty which had Mathura as one of its capitals. The preceding capitals of the Kushans included Kapisa (modern Bagram, Afghanistan), Purushapura (modern Peshawar, Pakistan) and Takshasila/Sirsukh/ (modern Taxila, Pakistan). During 3rd century Nagas ruled Mathura after decline of Kushan Empire.  Chinese Buddhist Monk Faxian mentions the city as a centre of Buddhism about 400 CE. He found the people were very well off, there were no taxes other than for those on farmers who tilled the royal land. He found that people did not kill animals, no one consumed wine, and did not eat onion or garlic. He found that engraved title deeds were issued to land owners. Visiting priests were provided with accommodation, beds, mats, food, drinks and clothes to perform scholarly works. Xuanzang, who visited the city in 634 CE, mentions it as Mot'ulo, recording that it contained twenty Buddhist monasteries and five Hindu temples. Later, he went east to Thanesar, Jalandhar in the eastern Punjab, before climbing up to visit predominantly Theravada monasteries in the Kulu valley and turning southward again to Bairat and then Mathura, on the Yamuna river.  The city was sacked and many of its temples destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018 CE and again by Sikandar Lodhi, who ruled the Sultanate of Delhi from 1489 to 1517 CE. Sikander Lodhi earned the epithet of 'Butt Shikan', the 'Destroyer of Hindu deities'. The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, built the Shahi-Eidgah Mosque during his rule, which is adjacent to Shri Krishna Janmabhoomi believed to be over a Hindu temple. He also changed the city's name to Islamabad.

Religious heritage.

Mathura is a holy city for Hinduism and is considered the heart of Brij Bhoomi, the land of Krishna. The twin-city to Mathura is Vrindavan.  There are many places of historic and religious importance in Mathura and its neighbouring towns.  Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex is an important group of temples built around what is considered to be the birthplace of Krishna. The temple complex contains Keshav Deva temple, Garbha Griha shrine, Bhagavata Bhavan and the Rangabhoomi where the final battle between Krishna and Kamsa took place.  The Dwarkadheesh Temple is one of the largest temple in Mathura. Vishram Ghat at the bank of river Yamuna is said to be the place were Krishna had rested after killing Kamsa.  Other notable Hindu religious sites and heritage locations includes Shri Shweat Varah Temple and the main deity of the temple is siad to dating prior to Ramayan era,the Gita Mandir, Govind Dev temple, Iskcon temple, Kusum Sarovar, Naam yog Sadhna Mandir, Peepleshwar Mahadeo Temple and Yum Yamuna Temple  Jama Mosque, Mathura is a notable site for Islam. It was completed by Abd-un-Nabi, governor of Aurangzeb in 1662.  The Mathura Museum is notable for archaeological artefacts, especially those from the Kushan and Gupta empires. It has sculptures associated with Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

Festivals.

Janmashtami is grandly celebrated every year in Mathura with. Every year 3 to 3.5 million devotees celebrate Janmashtami in Mathura, with most number of people in Keshav Deva temple and Dwarkadheesh temple. People generally observe a fast and break it at midnight when Lord Krishna was believed to have been born. Devotional songs, dance performances, bhog and aartis are observed across Mathura-Vrindavan.

Geography.

Mathura is located at. It has an average elevation of 174 metres (570 feet).

Demographics.

The 2011 census of India estimates the population of Mathura to be 441,894, a decadal growth rate of 22.53 per cent from 2001 census of India. Males account for 54% (268,445) and females for 46% (173,449) of this population. Sex ratio of Mathura is 858 females per 1000 males, which has increased from 840 in 2001. However, national sex ratio is 940. Population density in 2011 has increased from 621 per km in 2001 to 761 per km. Mathura has an average literacy rate of 72.65 per cent which has increased from 61.46 percent in 2001 but still lower than the national average of 74.04 per cent. Male and female literacy rate are 84.39 and 58.93 per cent respectively. 15.61 percent of Mathura's population is under 6 years of age. This figure was 19.56 per cent in 2001 census.

Transportation.

Rail.

Mathura Junction railway station is situated on the major Delhi-Mumbai train route. Both Central Railway and Western Railway routes pass through Mathura. Trains from NCR (north-central railway) to ER (eastern railway) also pass from the Mathura junction railway station. Mathura Cantt railway station is a major route for an eastern and central railway.  Important train that origin/terminate from Mathura: 12177/Howrah - Mathura Chambal Express.

Road.

Mathura is connected by road to the rest of Uttar Pradesh and India. NH-19 (NH-2 as per old numbering system) which is having connectivity from Delhi to Kolkata and diversion for Chennai also passes from Mathura. Yamuna expressway Greater-Noida to Agra(165 km 6 lane access controlled express highway) also passes from here so there is connectivity to Noida and Agra and Lucknow.

Tram.

A tram network has been proposed in the city, which would make Mathura only the second city in India (after Kolkata) to get tram transport. In 2017, the local MLA Shrikant Sharma announced that the trams will be operation in Mathura and Vrindavan by 2018.

Air.

Currently the city has no airport, nearest airport is Agra (about 60 km away) and Delhi Airport (about 160 km away) with major national and international air routes. Under-construction Jewar Airport in Greater Noida will be approximately 75 km away from Mathura and is expected to be country's largest airport when fully operational. Land has been earmarked, and construction is in progress near the Yamuna Expressway, with plans to open in the next five years with regular flights to major national and international air routes in future.  Then civil aviation minister Ajit Singh suggested Mathura's name for the site of a new greenfield international airport to chief minister of Uttar Pradesh Akhilesh Yadav in 2012. Mathura's name came into play when group of ministers terminated the planning of building Taj International Airport at Agra.

Strategic importances.

Mathura is the home for I Corps (Strike Formation) within the Indian Army's Central Command, hosting Strike I Corps headquarters in a large classified area in the outskirts of the city known as Mathura Cantonment (Central Command itself has its headquarters at Lucknow). It hosts Strike Infantry units, air defence units, armoured divisions, engineer brigades, artillery Units and classified units of Strategic Forces Command. The I Corps is primarily responsible for western borders of India. In 2007 during Exercise Ashwamedha, all the armoured, artillery and infantry divisions performed a simulation of an overall NBC (nuclear-chemical-biological) environment. The aim was to show operational ability in high intensity, short duration and'sudden' battles.

Industries.

Mathura Refinery located in the city is one of the biggest oil refineries of Asia with 8.0 million tonnes per year refining capacity. This oil refinery of the Indian Oil Corporation is a highly technologically advanced oil refinery and provides local employment opportunities.

Media and communications.

All India Radio has a local station in Mathura which transmits various programs of interest.

Mathura () is a city in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. It is the administrative centre of Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh. In ancient times, Mathura was an economic hub, located at the junction of important caravan routes. The 2011 Census of India estimated the population of Mathura at 441,894.

马图拉(印地语:,IAST:),又译为马土腊,古译名为秣菟罗、摩偷罗,印度北方邦境内的一座古城,曾经是印度列国时代苏罗娑的首都。位于阿格拉以北50公里,德里以南150公里处。该城是北方邦下辖的马图拉县的行政中心。印度教徒相信马图拉城是广受崇拜的大神黑天的出生地,因此马图拉是印度教的一座圣城。史诗《摩诃婆罗多》的附篇《诃利世系》(以及薄伽梵往世书)中提到,马图拉是残暴的刚沙王统治的城市,而黑天的母亲提婆吉是刚沙王的堂妹。黑天出生后险些被刚沙王杀害,由于被其父秘密交给一对牧民夫妇抚养才幸免于难。