Redirecting standard input and standard output.

Redirection is usually implemented by placing certain characters between commands.

Basic.

Typically, the syntax of these characters is as follows, using codice_1 to redirect input, and codice_2 to redirect output. command1 > file1 executes command1, placing the output in file1, as opposed to displaying it at the terminal, which is the usual destination for standard output. This will clobber any existing data in file1.  Using command1 < file1 executes command1, with file1 as the source of input, as opposed to the keyboard, which is the usual source for standard input.  command1 < infile > outfile combines the two capabilities: command1 reads from infile and writes to outfile

Variants.

To append output to the end of the file, rather than clobbering it, the codice_3 operator is used: command1 » file1.  To read from a stream literal (an inline file, passed to the standard input), one can use a here document, using the codice_4 operator:  tr a-z A-Z « END_TEXT one two three uno dos tres END_TEXT To read from a string, one can use a here string, using the codice_5 operator: tr a-z A-Z «< "one two three", or: NUMBERS="one two three" tr a-z A-Z «< "$NUMBERS"

Piping.

Programs can be run together such that one program reads the output from another with no need for an explicit intermediate file. command1 | command2 executes command1, using its output as the input for command2 (commonly called piping, with the "|" character being known as "pipe").  The two programs performing the commands may run in parallel with the only storage space being working buffers (Linux allows up to 64K for each buffer) plus whatever work space each command's processing requires. For example, a "sort" command is unable to produce any output until all input records have been read, as the very last record received just might turn out to be first in sorted order. Dr. Alexia Massalin's experimental operating system, Synthesis, would adjust the priority of each task as they ran according to the fullness of their input and output buffers.  This produces the same end result as using two redirects and a temporary file, as in: command1 > tempfile command2 < tempfile rm tempfile But here, command2 does not start executing until command1 has finished, and a sufficiently large scratch file is required to hold the intermediate results as well as whatever work space each task required. As an example, although DOS allows the "pipe" syntax, it employs this second approach. Thus, suppose some long-running program "Worker" produces various messages as it works, and that a second program, TimeStamp copies each record from "stdin" to "stdout", prefixed by the system's date and time when the record is received. A sequence such as Worker | TimeStamp > LogFile.txt would produce timestamps only when Worker had finished, merely showing how swiftly its output file could be read and written.  A good example for command piping is combining codice_6 with another command to achieve something interactive in a non-interactive shell, e.g. echo -e 'user\npass' | ftp localhost. This runs the ftp client with input user, press return, then pass.  In casual use, the initial step of a pipeline is often codice_7 or codice_6, reading from a file or string. This can often be replaced by input indirection or a here string, and use of cat and piping rather than input redirection is known as useless use of cat. For example, the following commands:  cat infile | cmd echo $string | cmd echo -e 'user\npass' | ftp localhost  can be replaced by:  cmd < infile cmd «< $string ftp localhost «< $'user\npass'  As codice_6 is often a shell-internal command, its use is not as criticized as cat, which is an external command.

Redirecting to and from the standard file handles.

In Unix shells derived from the original Bourne shell, the first two actions can be further modified by placing a number (the file descriptor) immediately before the character; this will affect which stream is used for the redirection. The Unix standard I/O streams are:  For example, command1 2> file1 executes command1, directing the standard error stream to file1.  In shells derived from csh (the C shell), the syntax instead appends the & (ampersand) character to the redirect characters, thus achieving a similar result. The reason for this is to distinguish between a file named '1' and stdout, i.e. 'cat file 2>1' vs 'cat file 2>&1'. In the first case, stderr is redirected to a file named '1' and in the second, stderr is redirected to stdout.  Another useful capability is to redirect one standard file handle to another. The most popular variation is to merge standard error into standard output so error messages can be processed together with (or alternately to) the usual output. For example, find / -name.profile > results 2>&1 will try to find all files named.profile. Executed without redirection, it will output hits to stdout and errors (e.g. for lack of privilege to traverse protected directories) to stderr. If standard output is directed to file results, error messages appear on the console. To see both hits and error messages in file results, merge stderr (handle 2) into stdout (handle 1) using 2>&1.  If the merged output is to be piped into another program, the file merge sequence 2>&1 must precede the pipe symbol, thus, find / -name.profile 2>&1 | less  A simplified but non-POSIX conforming form of the command, command > file 2>&1 is (not available in Bourne Shell prior to version 4, final release, or in the standard shell Debian Almquist shell used in Debian/Ubuntu): command &>file or command >&file.  It is possible to use codice_10 before "codice_2" but the result is commonly misunderstood. The rule is that any redirection sets the handle to the output stream independently. So "codice_10" sets handle codice_13 to whatever handle codice_14 points to, which at that point usually is "stdout". Then "codice_2" redirects handle codice_14 to something else, e.g. a file, but it does not change handle codice_13, which still points to "stdout".  In the following example, standard output is written to "file", but errors are redirected from stderr to stdout, i.e. sent to the screen: command 2>&1 > file.  To write both errors and standard output to "file", the order should be reversed. Standard output would first be redirected to the file, then stderr would additionally be redirected to the stdout handle that has already been changed to point at the file: command > file 2>&1.

Chained pipelines.

The redirection and piping tokens can be chained together to create complex commands. For example, sort infile | uniq -c | sort -n > outfile sorts the lines of infile in lexicographical order, writes unique lines prefixed by the number of occurrences, sorts the resultant output numerically, and places the final output in outfile. This type of construction is used very commonly in shell scripts and batch files.

Redirect to multiple outputs.

The standard command tee can redirect output from a command to several destinations:ls -lrt | tee xyz. This directs the file list output to both standard output and the file xyz.

In computing, redirection is a form of interprocess communication, and is a function common to most command-line interpreters, including the various Unix shells that can redirect standard streams to user-specified locations.

在计算机领域,重定向是大多数命令行解释器所具有的功能,包括各种可以将标准流重定向用户规定地点的Unix shells。类Unix操作系统的程序可以透过dup2(2)系统调用完成重定向,或者透过缺少一些灵活性但是更高一级层次的freopen(3)和popen(3)来完成。


Club career.

Early career.

Born in Ostrava, Sionko started playing for TJ Vítkovice and Baník Ostrava as a youth.  In 1999, he signed with Sparta Prague. He played successfully for Sparta in the Czech First League and the UEFA Champions League, progressing from twice (1999–00 and 2003–04) from the Champions League group stage.  Sionko left Prague, due to contract problems, to join Austrian club Grazer AK in February 2004, helping to achieve the first ever Austrian championship for the Styrians. He also was in the team winning the Austrian Cup for the 4th time. After that remarkable success and change to Austria Vienna, he was a principal for a very successful challenge in the 2004–05 UEFA Cup, when the Viennese side reached the quarter-final. In 2005–06 the Czech player was an Austrian double winner a second time.

Rangers & Copenhagen.

Sionko completed a Bosman transfer to Rangers on 16 May 2006 on a three-year contract.  He scored on his Scottish Premiership debut against Motherwell on 30 July 2006 in the Gers' 2–1 win. Frequent injury, however, meant that he was used intermittently by Paul Le Guen. He re-established himself in the team in December 2006 where he scored against Hibernian and Aberdeen, as Rangers' form improved after a poor start to the season.  On 27 July 2007, it was announced Rangers had agreed a deal for the transfer of Sionko to the Danish champions F.C. Copenhagen, and the next day he was presented in the club after signing a two-year deal.  On 4 August came Sionko's debut for the club, where he assisted in the single goal at the 1–0 victory away against AGF. His first goal for the club came in his second match, and his home debut at Parken Stadium, against Esbjerg fB notching a 5–2 victory. Afterwards he started the next six matches at the bench, but on 23 September he was back in the lineup in his first New Firm Derby against Brøndby IF. This match ended 1–0 for FCK, the goal assisted by Sionko. Afterwards he has scored twice in a cup match against FC Fredericia and once against Lyngby Boldklub – in both matches he was named man of match.  Following the Lyngby-match, Sionko told "fck.dk" that his family had settled down well in Copenhagen and that he called Copenhagen his second home.

Sparta Prague.

Sionko was rarely used in the first team in the autumn of 2009, and in January 2010 he was released from his contract and subsequently signed with Sparta Prague. The midfielder has signed with the Czech club a contract until June 2012, after being released by the Danish club.  He retired on 27 August 2012 after failing to find a new club after his Sparta Prague contract ran out.

International career.

Sionko has represented his country at Under 17, Under 18, Under 20 and Under 21 level as well as playing twice in an unofficial friendly tournament in May 1998. He earned his first full cap in a friendly against Poland on 24 April 1999 and has been capped 41 times by the Czech Republic national team, scoring 8 goals. He had been only a substitute for a long time, because his position of right winger was occupied by Karel Poborský.

2000 Olympics.

Sionko played in all three games at the 2000 Olympics as the Czechs drew with the United States and Cameroon and lost to Kuwait, meaning they were eliminated at the group stage and finished bottom of their group.

2006 World Cup.

He was called up to the Czech team for the 2006 World Cup due to Vladimír Šmicer being injured; however he only featured as a late substitute role in some games as the Czechs were knocked out in the group stage of the competition. Sionko's World Cup debut came against Ghana on 17 June 2006. Ghana won the game 2–0.

Euro 2008.

On 11 June, Sionko scored for the Czech Republic in their second game of Euro 2008, a 1–3 defeat to Portugal which sent the Portuguese through to the quarter-finals of the tournament. Sionko equalised in the 17th minute after Deco had opened the scoring in the 8th minute. However, Cristiano Ronaldo and Ricardo Quaresma added two further goals for their team in the second half to leave the Czechs to battle it out with Turkey in the final game of Group A.

Libor Sionko (born 1 February 1977) is a Czech former professional footballer who played as a midfielder. At club level he started in his home town of Ostrava, playing for the youth teams of TJ Vítkovice and Baník Ostrava. Professionally, he played in his native country until 2004, featuring for clubs including Ostrava and Sparta Prague. He then went abroad, playing in Austria for Grazer AK and Austria Wien before heading to Scotland where he played for Rangers. He subsequently had a spell in Denmark with F.C. Copenhagen before returning to the Czech Republic to finish his career with Sparta, where he last played before retiring in 2012.

利博尔·西昂科(捷克语:,1977年-2月1日),出生于捷克俄斯特拉发,捷克足球运动员,司职中场,现效力于捷克联赛球会布拉格斯巴达。


History.

The eclectic collection was acquired over many years by Sir William Burrell, a wealthy Glaswegian shipping magnate and art collector, who then gave it to the city of Glasgow Corporation in 1944. The gift was made on the condition that the collection was to be housed in a building 16 miles (26 km) from the centre of Glasgow, to show the works to their greatest advantage, and to avoid the damaging effects of air pollution at the time. The trustees spent over 20 years trying to find a suitable 'home' for the collection, one which met all the criteria set out in the Trust Deed, without success. Eventually, when the Pollok Estate was given to the city in 1967, the Trustees had certain terms of the deed waived, which allowed the current site, 3 miles (5 km) from the city centre and within the city boundaries, to be chosen for the collection.

Building.

A design competition for the museum building in 1971 was delayed by a postal strike, allowing time for the eventual winning architect Barry Gasson to complete his entry, designed in collaboration with John Meunier and Brit Andresen.  The building is L-shaped in plan and is specifically tailored to house and display the diverse collection, with larger pieces such as Romanesque doorways built into the structure, at the same time giving views out into the park over formal grassed areas to the south, and into adjacent woodland to the north.  The entrance, through a 16th-century stone archway built into a modern red sandstone gable, leads to a shop and other facilities, then on to a central courtyard under a glazed roof, adjacent to the reconstructions of three rooms from the Burrell's home, Hutton Castle near Berwick-on-Tweed: the wood panelled drawing room, hall, and dining room complete with their furnishings. Galleries on two levels house various smaller artefacts, over a basement storage level, and at the lower level a restaurant gives views over the lawn to the south.  The museum was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1983, and was named as Scotland's second greatest post-war building (after Gillespie, Kidd & Coia's St Peter's Seminary) in a poll of architects by Prospect magazine in 2005.  The building was awarded A-listed status by Historic Scotland in February 2013 in recognition of its position as one of the country’s finest examples of 1970s architectural design.

The collection.

The Burrell contains an important collection of medieval art including stained glass and tapestries, oak furniture, medieval weapons and armour, Islamic art, artefacts from ancient Egypt and China, Impressionist works by Degas and Cézanne, modern sculpture and a host of other artefacts from around the world, all collected by one man. There are over 8,000 objects in the collection. Artworks from five centuries are found in the collection.

Chinese art.

Burrell started collecting Chinese antiques around 1910. He acquired items from all periods of Chinese history; including Neolithic burial urns, carved jades, porcelain from the T'ang Dynasty, bronze ritual vessels, earthenware figures, and antique furniture.

Islamic art.

Islamic antiques donated by Burrell to the museum include: Hispano-Moresque lustreware, ceramics and carpets from Iran and the Mughal Empire, as well as embroideries and textiles from Turkey and Uzbekistan.

Stained glass.

The museum is home to one of the greatest assemblies of medieval stained glass in the world. There are more than 700 stained glass panels from across Europe in the collection, including many examples of Gothic, Renaissance, and Romanesque styles. Much of the glass has heraldic motifs.  In 2013, a project was commenced to conserve and research the museum's collection of stained glass from the Carmelite church at Boppard-am-Rhein, Germany. The 34 panels that make up the Burrell collection of Boppard windows have a combined surface area of 14 square metres.

Gothic art.

The museum has a collection of religious art from the medieval period. This includes wood and stone sculptures, wooden church furnishings and architectural fragments. One of these items is the Temple Pyx.

Transport links.

The nearest railway station to the Burrell Collection is Pollokshaws West (approximately 10 minutes walk), with trains to Glasgow Central normally operating four times per hour (three times per hour on Sundays).  Pollok House, administered by the National Trust for Scotland, is also situated in Pollok Country Park.

The Burrell Collection is an art collection in the city of Glasgow, Scotland. It is situated in Pollok Country Park on the south side of the city. The museum closed for refurbishment on 23 October 2016 and was due to reopen in 2020. However, Glasgow Life confirmed in July 2019 that it would be spring 2021 before the re-opening takes place

巴勒珍藏馆(The Burrell Collection)是苏格兰格拉斯哥的一个艺术馆,展出威连姆·巴勒爵士(Sir William Burrell)在1944年捐献于格拉斯哥市的收藏品。巴勒珍藏馆位于格拉斯哥市南部的Pollok Country Park。


Intuitive discussion.

As with other radicals of rings, the Jacobson radical can be thought of as a collection of "bad" elements. In this case the "bad" property is that these elements annihilate all simple left and right modules of the ring. For purposes of comparison, consider the nilradical of a commutative ring, which consists of all elements that are nilpotent. In fact for any ring, the nilpotent elements in the center of the ring are also in the Jacobson radical. So, for commutative rings, the nilradical is contained in the Jacobson radical.  The Jacobson radical is very similar to the nilradical in an intuitive sense. A weaker notion of being bad, weaker than being a zero divisor, is being a non-unit (not invertible under multiplication). The Jacobson radical of a ring consists of elements that satisfy a stronger property than being merely a non-unit – in some sense, a member of the Jacobson radical must not "act as a unit" in "any" module "internal to the ring". More precisely, a member of the Jacobson radical must project under the canonical homomorphism to the zero of every "right division ring" (each non-zero element of which has a right inverse) internal to the ring in question. Concisely, it must belong to every maximal right ideal of the ring. These notions are of course imprecise, but at least explain why the nilradical of a commutative ring is contained in the ring's Jacobson radical.  In yet a simpler way, we may think of the Jacobson radical of a ring as a method to "mod out bad elements of the ring" – that is, members of the Jacobson radical act as 0 in the quotient ring, "R"/J("R"). If "N" is the nilradical of commutative ring "R", then the quotient ring "R"/"N" has no nilpotent elements. Similarly for any ring "R", the quotient ring has J("R"/J("R"))={0} and so all of the "bad" elements in the Jacobson radical have been removed by modding out J("R"). Elements of the Jacobson radical and nilradical can be therefore seen as generalizations of 0.

Equivalent characterizations.

The Jacobson radical of a ring has various internal and external characterizations. The following equivalences appear in many noncommutative algebra texts such as,, and.  The following are equivalent characterizations of the Jacobson radical in rings with unity (characterizations for rings without unity are given immediately afterward):  For rings without unity it is possible for "R" = J("R"); however, the equation J("R"/J("R")) = {0} still holds. The following are equivalent characterizations of J("R") for rings without unity :

In mathematics, more specifically ring theory, the Jacobson radical of a ring "R" is the ideal consisting of those elements in "R" that annihilate all simple right "R"-modules. It happens that substituting "left" in place of "right" in the definition yields the same ideal, and so the notion is left-right symmetric. The Jacobson radical of a ring is frequently denoted by J("R") or rad("R"); the former notation will be preferred in this article, because it avoids confusion with other radicals of a ring. The Jacobson radical is named after Nathan Jacobson, who was the first to study it for arbitrary rings in.

在抽象代数之分支环理论中,一个环 "R" 的雅各布森根(英语:Jacobson radical)是 "R" 的一个理想,包含在某种意义上“与零接近”的那些元素。


Classification.

Hausa belongs to the West Chadic languages subgroup of the Chadic languages group, which in turn is part of the Afroasiatic language family. Other Afroasiatic languages are Semitic languages including Arabic, Aramaic languages, Hebrew, extinct Phoenician, the extinct Akkadian, as well as the Ethio-Semitic Amharic, Tigre, Tigrinya, and Gurage; Berber languages; Cushitic languages including Somali and Oromo; other Chadic languages including Glavda, Babur, Mwaghavul, Tera, Tangale, Karekare, Bole, Sayawa, Bwatiye, Ngas, Bade, Gwandara, Galambu, Pali, Higi, Ron, Duhwa, Margi, Kilba, Duwai and many others.

Non-Afroasiatic influences.

Roger Blench (2011) has found that Hausa in fact has many words that are not found in other Chadic languages. Because of this, Hausa is not actually representative of the Chadic group. This is because Hausa had borrowed from Adamawa, Plateau, Kainji, Nupoid, and other Benue-Congo languages during its expansion across the Nigerian Middle Belt. While those languages became assimilated, many of their words had changed the lexicon of Hausa. Some likely influence from vanished Nilo-Saharan languages on Hausa was also proposed by Blench. Blench (2011) lists these Hausa words of likely Benue-Congo origin:

Geographic distribution.

Native speakers of Hausa, the Hausa people, are mostly found in Niger, in Northern Nigeria, and in Chad. Furthermore, the language is used as a "lingua franca" by non-native speakers in most of Northern Nigeria and Southern Niger, and as a trade language across a much larger swathe of West Africa (Benin, Ghana, Cameroon, Togo, Ivory Coast) and parts of Sudan.

Dialects.

Traditional dialects.

Eastern Hausa dialects include "Dauranci" in Daura, "Kananci" in Kano, "Bausanci" in Bauchi, "Gudduranci" in Katagum Misau and part of Borno, and "Hadejanci" in Hadejiya.  Western Hausa dialects include "Sakkwatanci" in Sokoto, "Katsinanci" in Katsina, "Arewanci" in Gobir, Adar, Kebbi, and Zamfara, and "Kurhwayanci" in Kurfey in Niger. Katsina is transitional between Eastern and Western dialects. Sokoto is used in a variety of classical Hausa literature, and is often known as "Classical Hausa".  Northern Hausa dialects include "Arewa" (meaning 'North') and "Arewaci".  "Zazzaganci" in Zazzau is the major Southern dialect.  The Daura ("Dauranchi") and Kano ("Kananci") dialect are the standard. The BBC, Deutsche Welle, Radio France Internationale and Voice of America offer Hausa services on their international news web sites using Dauranci and Kananci. In recent language development Zazzaganci took over the innovation of writing and speaking the current Hausa language use.

Northernmost dialects and loss of tonality.

The western to eastern Hausa dialects of "Kurhwayanci", "Daragaram" and "Aderawa", represent the traditional northernmost limit of native Hausa communities. These are spoken in the northernmost sahel and mid-Saharan regions in west and central Niger in the Tillaberi, Tahoua, Dosso, Maradi, Agadez and Zinder regions. While mutually comprehensible with other dialects (especially "Sakkwatanci", and to a lesser extent "Gaananci"), the northernmost dialects have slight grammatical and lexical differences owing to frequent contact with the Zarma, Fula, and Tuareg groups and cultural changes owing to the geographical differences between the grassland and desert zones. These dialects also have the quality of bordering on non-tonal pitch accent dialects.  This link between non-tonality and geographic location is not limited to Hausa alone, but is exhibited in other northern dialects of neighbouring languages; such as differences within the Songhay language (between the non-tonal northernmost dialects of Koyra Chiini in Timbuktu and Koyraboro Senni in Gao; and the tonal southern Zarma dialect, spoken from western Niger to northern Ghana), and within the Soninke language (between the non-tonal northernmost dialects of Imraguen and Nemadi spoken in east-central Mauritania; and the tonal southern dialects of Senegal, Mali and the Sahel).

Ghanaian Hausa dialect.

The Ghanaian Hausa dialect ("Gaananci"), spoken in Ghana, Togo, and western Ivory Coast, is a distinct western native Hausa dialect-bloc with adequate linguistic and media resources available. Separate smaller Hausa dialects are spoken by an unknown number of Hausa further west in parts of Burkina Faso, and in the Haoussa Foulane, Badji Haoussa, Guezou Haoussa, and Ansongo districts of northeastern Mali (where it is designated as a minority language by the Malian government), but there are very little linguistic resources and research done on these particular dialects at this time.  Gaananci forms a separate group from other Western Hausa dialects, as it now falls outside the contiguous Hausa-dominant area, and is usually identified by the use of "c" for "ky", and "j" for "gy". This is attributed to the fact that Ghana's Hausa population descend from Hausa-Fulani traders settled in the zongo districts of major trade-towns up and down the previous Asante, Gonja and Dagomba kingdoms stretching from the sahel to coastal regions, in particular the cities of Tamale, Salaga, Bawku, Bolgatanga, Achimota, Nima and Kumasi.  Gaananci exhibits noted inflected influences from Zarma, Gur, Jula-Bambara, Akan, and Soninke, as Ghana is the westernmost area in which the Hausa language is a major lingua-franca among sahelian/Muslim West Africans, including both Ghanaian and non-Ghanaian zango migrants primarily from the northern regions, or Mali and Burkina Faso. Ghana also marks the westernmost boundary in which the Hausa people inhabit in any considerable number. Immediately west and north of Ghana (in Cote d'Ivoire, and Burkina Faso), Hausa is abruptly replaced with Dioula–Bambara as the main sahelian/Muslim lingua-franca of what become predominantly Manding areas, and native Hausa-speakers plummet to a very small urban minority.  Because of this, and the presence of surrounding Akan, Gbe, Gur and Mande languages, Gaananci was historically isolated from the other Hausa dialects. Despite this difference, grammatical similarities between "Sakkwatanci" and Ghanaian Hausa determine that the dialect, and the origin of the Ghanaian Hausa people themselves, are derived from the northwestern Hausa area surrounding Sokoto.  Hausa is also widely spoken by non-native Gur, and Mandé Ghanaian Muslims, but differs from Gaananci, and rather has features consistent with non-native Hausa dialects.

Other native dialects.

Hausa is also spoken in various parts of Cameroon and Chad, which combined the mixed dialects of Northern Nigeria and Niger. In addition, Arabic has had a great influence in the way Hausa is spoken by the native Hausa speakers in these areas.

Non-native Hausa.

In West Africa, Hausa's use as a lingua franca has given rise to a non-native pronunciation that differs vastly from native pronunciation by way of key omissions of implosive and ejective consonants present in native Hausa dialects, such as "ɗ", "ɓ" and "kʼ/ƙ", which are pronounced by non-native speakers as "d", "b" and "k" respectively. This creates confusion among non-native and native Hausa speakers, as non-native pronunciation does not distinguish words like'("correct") and'("one-by-one"). Another difference between native and non-native Hausa is the omission of vowel length in words and change in the standard tone of native Hausa dialects (ranging from native Fulani and Tuareg Hausa-speakers omitting tone altogether, to Hausa speakers with Gur or Yoruba mother tongues using additional tonal structures similar to those used in their native languages). Use of masculine and feminine gender nouns and sentence structure are usually omitted or interchanged, and many native Hausa nouns and verbs are substituted with non-native terms from local languages.  Non-native speakers of Hausa numbered more than 25 million and, in some areas, live close to native Hausa. It has replaced many other languages especially in the north-central and north-eastern part of Nigeria and continues to gain popularity in other parts of Africa as a result of Hausa movies and music which spread out throughout the region.

Hausa-based pidgins.

There are several pidgin forms of Hausa. Barikanchi was formerly used in the colonial army of Nigeria. Gibanawa is currently in widespread use in Jega in northwestern Nigeria, south of the native Hausa area.

Phonology.

Consonants.

Hausa has between 23 and 25 consonant phonemes depending on the speaker.  The three-way contrast between palatalized velars, plain velars, and labialized velars is found only before long and short, e.g. ('grass'), ('to increase'), ('shea-nuts'). Before front vowels, only palatalized and labialized velars occur, e.g. ('jealousy') vs. ('side of body'). Before rounded vowels, only labialized velars occur, e.g. ('ringworm'). Other analysis suggest the presence of the three additional phonemes.

Glottalic consonants.

Hausa has glottalic consonants (implosives and ejectives) at four or five places of articulation (depending on the dialect). They require movement of the glottis during pronunciation and have a staccato sound.  They are written with modified versions of Latin letters. They can also be denoted with an apostrophe, either before or after depending on the letter, as shown below.

Vowels.

Hausa has five phonetic vowel sounds, which can be either short or long, giving a total of 10 monophthongs. In addition, there are four joint vowels (diphthongs), giving a total number of 14 vowel phonemes.  In comparison with the long vowels, the short can be similar in quality to the long vowels, mid-centralized to or centralized to.  Medial can be neutralized to, with the rounding depending on the environment.  Medial are neutralized with.  The short can be either similar in quality to the long, or it can be as high as, with possible intermediate pronunciations ().

Tones.

Hausa is a tonal language. Each of its five vowels may have low tone, high tone or falling tone. In standard written Hausa, tone is not marked. In recent linguistic and pedagogical materials, tone is marked by means of diacritics.  An acute accent () may be used for high tone, but the usual practice is to leave high tone unmarked.

Morphology.

Except for the Zaria and Bauchi dialects spoken south of Kano, Hausa distinguishes between masculine and feminine genders.  Hausa, like the rest of the Chadic languages, is known for its complex, irregular pluralization of nouns. Noun plurals in Hausa are derived using a variety of morphological processes, such as suffixation, infixation, reduplication, or a combination of any of these processes. There are 20 plural classes proposed by Newman (2000).

Writing systems.

"Boko" (Latin).

Hausa's modern official orthography is a Latin-based alphabet called "boko", which was introduced in the 1930s by the British colonial administration. The letter "ƴ" (y with a right hook) is used only in Niger; in Nigeria it is written "ʼy".  Tone and vowel length are not marked in writing. So, for example, "from" and "battle" are both written "daga". The distinction between and (which does not exist for all speakers) is not always marked.

"Ajami" (Arabic).

Hausa has also been written in "ajami", an Arabic alphabet, since the early 17th century. The first known work to be written in Hausa is Riwayar Nabi Musa by Abdullahi Suka in the 17th century. There is no standard system of using "ajami", and different writers may use letters with different values. Short vowels are written regularly with the help of vowel marks, which are seldom used in Arabic texts other than the Quran. Many medieval Hausa manuscripts in "ajami", similar to the Timbuktu Manuscripts, have been discovered recently; some of them even describe constellations and calendars.  In the following table, short and long "e" are shown along with the Arabic letter for "t" ().

Other systems.

Hausa is one of three indigenous languages of Nigeria which has been rendered in braille.  At least three other writing systems for Hausa have been proposed or "discovered". None of these are in active use beyond perhaps some individuals.

Hausa (; /) is a Chadic language spoken by the Hausa people, the largest ethnic group in Sub-Saharan Africa, mainly within the territories of Southern Niger and Northern Nigeria. Historically, it has also developed into a lingua franca across much of Western Africa for purposes of trade.

豪萨语()属于亚非语系乍得语族,是非洲最重要的三大语言之一(另外两大语言是阿拉伯语和斯瓦希里语)。它是亚非语系的一个语种,在尼日尔利亚北部、尼日尔尔南部、乍得湖沿岸、喀麦隆北部、加纳北部以及非洲萨赫勒地带的西非其它各国被广泛使用。目前世界上能够使用这种语言的人约有5000万。它不是任何一个国家的官方语言,但它历来是西非地区公认的一种商业交际语。


History.

The Luo of Kenya and Tanzania, even though related to other Luo groups linguistically, are classified as the only 'river lake Nilotes' having migrated and lived along the Nile river. They are indigenous to the Nile Valley and have been for thousands of years. They entered Kenya and Tanzania via Uganda from the Bahr el-Ghazal region in South Sudan. The Luo clans of Kenya and Tanzania were called 'Ororo', while among the Nuer they were called 'Liel'. In the Dinka tribe the Luo are called the 'Jur-Chol'.

Pre-colonial times.

The present-day Kenya Luo traditionally consist of 27 tribes, each in turn composed of various clans and sub-clans ("Jo-" indicates "people of").

Colonial times.

Early British contact with the Luo was indirect and sporadic. Relations intensified only when the completion of the Uganda Railway had confirmed British intentions and largely removed the need for local alliances. In 1896 a punitive expedition was mounted in support of the Wanga ruler Mumia in Ugenya against the Kager clan led by Ochieng Ger III Otherwise known as Gero. Over 200 were quickly killed by a Maxim gun. 300 people in Uyoma resistance were killed by an expedition led by Sir Charles Horbley (Bwana Obila Muruayi) when they were confiscating Luo cattle to help feed the Coolies who were building the Uganda railway.  By 1900, the Luo chief Odera was providing 1,500 porters for a British expedition against the Nandi.  In 1915, the Colonial Government sent "Odera Akang'o", the "ruoth" of Gem, to Kampala, Uganda. He was impressed by the British settlement there and upon his return home he initiated a forced process of adopting western styles of "schooling, dress and hygiene". This resulted in the rapid education of the Luo in the English language and English ways.  The Luo generally were not dispossessed of their land by the British, avoiding the fate that befell the pastoral ethnic groups inhabiting the Kenyan "White Highlands". Many Luo played significant roles in the struggle for Kenyan independence, but the people were relatively uninvolved in the Mau Mau Uprising (1952–60). Instead, some Luo used their education to advance the cause of independence peacefully. The lawyer C.M.G. Argwings-Kodhek, for example, used his expertise to defend Mau Mau suspects in court, although they had attacked not only whites, but also the men of other ethnic groups.

Independent Kenya.

After Kenya became independent on 12 December 1963, the prominent Luo leader Oginga Odinga declined the presidency of Kenya and agreed to assume the vice presidency with Jomo Kenyatta as the head of government. Their administration represented the Kenya African National Union (KANU) party. However, differences with Kenyatta caused Odinga to defect from the party and abandon the vice presidency in 1966. His departure caused the Luo to become politically marginalized under the Kenyatta and subsequently the Moi administrations.  In Tanzania, Mwalimu J.K. Nyerere had personally sought to work with Hellon Ang'iela Owino of Shirati, Tanzania, as a trusted and vibrant political aide who was never ashamed of eloquently speaking his mind whenever needed. Mr. Owino was well known among the front bench politicians who exchanged fists with the then Oscar Kambona and Bhoke Munanka, whom he claimed were betraying Nyerere behind his agreed official prayers. Owino (1930s – 1988) was frequently sent many times by Nyerere (through Oginga Odinga) to mend relations with Kenya and was in particular the one who passed information (from Odinga, who was his African strategic security hub so as to calm down their badly torn relations caused by the Mau Mau war.  Many years of marginalization and disastrous economic management in Kenya, particularly under the KANU party's administration of the nascent state, had tragic consequences for the people of Kenya. Despite the economic potential of nearby Lake Victoria, Kenya continues to struggle with poverty and AIDS today.  More than 1,000 people were killed in Kenya's election violence amongst the Kikuyu, Luo, and several other ethnic groups following the controversial December 2007 presidential election.  The most prominent Luo politician today is Raila Odinga, the son of Oginga Odinga and former Prime Minister of the republic of Kenya. He is widely credited with enabling Mwai Kibaki to win the 2002 presidential election through the support of his Liberal Democratic Party. Other prominent politicians include James Orengo, Professor Anyang' Nyong'o (father of the actress and film director Lupita Nyong'o), Peter Oloo-Aringo, Dalmas Otieno and Peter Ombija. Dr. PLO Lumumba who is the former Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission director is also a Luo. Prominent Luo doctors and scientists include the late Prof. David Peter Simon Wasawo, the first science professor in East and Central Africa and first black East African to study and lecture science courses at Makerere university; Prof. Henry Odera Oruka, philosopher; Dr. Joseph Aluoch, a chest physician; Professor Walter Jaoko, a Tropical Diseases Specialist and leading HIV researcher; Professor George Magoha, a consultant urologist and former Vice-Chancellor of University of Nairobi; Dr. Job Bodo, an orthopaedic surgeon; Brian Jaoko Odongo, a prominent environmental scientist; Nixon Ojijo a prominent sales and marketing practitioner in the East African Region, and Prof Richard Samson Odingo, vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) which received the 2007 Nobel peace prize.  Another prominent member was the economist Barack Obama Sr., whose son, Barack Obama II, was the 44th President of the United States.

Culture and customs.

Traditional system of government.

Traditionally, the Luo people were a patriarchal society with a decentralized government system. The family was headed by the father or the first wife "mikayi" or son in the absence of the father. Many families came together through a traced relations by blood to form a clan, "anyuola", which mostly brought together the heads of different families together as people of the same descent, "jokang'ato". Many clans came together to form a village called "gweng"which was headed by a village elder titled "dodo" or "jaduong' gweng"' who ruled with the assitance of elders who were traditionally men of status gained through commerce, wealth, war, or eloquence. Many villages came together to form a sub-tribe which was headed by a hereditary chieftaincy by the eldest son "Ruoth". The Luo government structure was stronger at the sub-tribe level under "Ruoth" who had a council of elders, "galamoro mar jodongo" or "jodong gweng"', from all the villages in their territory. The Luos organized their defense and security at the sub-tribe level which was headed by a commander, "Osumba Mrwayi", who was part of the council of eldders. The council also had a spokesperson who talked on behalf of the council in official matters in village market meetings, religious, and cultural ceremonies that "Ruoth" presided over. Sub-tribe relations with each other was ad-hoc as there was no single ruler of the Luo people. Sub-tribes came together during calamities, war, and natural disasters like drought, famines, and floods to help each other. "Sumo", the act of sharing produce with people who were struck by famine was a common tradition with Kisumo being one of the renowned marketplaces where those who were struck by famine never missed the generosity of their Luo counterparts. The concept of a Luo ruler "ker" was coined by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga during the formation of the Luo Union in 1947 that was aimed at uniting all people of Luo descent in East Africa. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga was the first Luo "Ker". As part of distinguishing a tribal leader from a national leader, part of the conditions was that a Luo "Ker" would not go into national politics and when Jaramogi Oginga Odinga went into national politics in 1957, he had to quit being a "Ker".  In recent years, the Luo "Ker" seat has been claimed by different factions of Luo council of elders that started with the appointment of Willis Opiyo Otondi by Raila Odinga in 2010 to replace Ker Riaga Ogalo. Traditionally, the Ker was elected by a Council of Elders and was not appointed as it happened with Opondo Otondi, and a Luo "Ker" could only leave office under two conditions, resignation or death. Ker Riaga Ogalo argued that he had not resigned nor died to warrant the appointment of another Ker while Opiyo Otondi argued that he was the duly elected Ker of the Luo people. Ker Riaga Ogalo represented Raila in numerous political forums and helped build Raila Odinga's political career contrary to the requirements of the council during the days they were in good talking terms.  Ker Riaga Ogalo is credited for having progressive ideas of all modern Luo Kers by championing for circumcision of the Luo men to help in the fight against HIV/AIDS. Circumcision was alien to the Luo tradition but his leadership made many hearts to accept the new changes. Ker Riaga Ogalo also served as the Vice-Chairman of the National Council of Elders. During the last years of his reign, he argued that Raila was deterring the Luo People to grow democratically and economically with his style of polictics.Ker Riaga Ogalo died in 2015 after a kidney infection at the Kenyatta National Hospital. The Council's wrangles continued after his demise with today Willis Opiyo Otondi still claiming to be the legitimate ker rivalled by Ker Nyandiko Ong'adi who was elected by the Luo Council of Elders in 2015 to replace ker Riaga Ogalo. The attempt to centralize the Luo people under one authority have not been easy given their history with a decentralized government structure.

Rites of passage.

Traditionally, the names given to children often reflected the conditions of the mother's pregnancy or delivery (including, for example, the time or season).  Further, the Luos have traditionally practiced the removal of six lower teeth between the ages of twelve and sixteen. This practice has now fallen largely out of use.

Cuisine.

A popular Luo meal includes fish (rech) especially tilapia (ngege) and omena, usually accompanied with ugali (called "kuon" in Dholuo) and traditional vegetables like osuga and apoth. Many of the vegetables eaten by the Luo were shared after years of association with their Bantu neighbours, the Abaluhya and the Abagusii. Traditional Luo diet consisted of kuon made of sorghum or millet accompanied by fish, meat, or vegetable stews.

Religious customs.

Like many ethnic communities in Uganda, including the Langi, Acholi, and Alur, the Luo do not practice the ritual circumcision of males as initiation.  Local churches include "Legio Maria", "Roho", "Nomiya" and "Fweny" among others.

Marriage customs.

Historically, couples were introduced to each other by matchmakers, but this is not common now. Like many other communities in Kenya, marriage practices among the Luo have been changing and some people are moving away from the traditional way of doing things.  The Luo successfully expanded their culture through intermarriage with other groups in the region, and many Luo today continue to marry outside the Luo community. The traditional marriage ceremony takes place in two parts, both involving the payment of a bride price by the groom. The first ceremony, the Ayie, involves a payment of money to the mother of the bride; the second stage involves giving cattle to her father. Often these two steps are carried out at the same time, and, as many modern Luos are Christians, a church ceremony often follows.

Music.

Traditionally, music was the most widely practiced art in the Luo community. At any time of day or night, music would be made. Music was not played for its own sake. Music was functional, being used for ceremonial, religious, political, or incidental purposes. Music was performed during funerals ("Tero buru"), to praise the departed, to console the bereaved, to keep people awake at night, and to express pain and agony. It was also used during cleansing and chasing away of spirits. Music was also played during ceremonies like beer parties ("Dudu, ohangla dance"), welcoming back the warriors from a war, during a wrestling match ("Olengo"), during courtship, etc. Work songs also existed. These were performed both during communal work like building, weeding, etc. and individual work like pounding of cereals, or winnowing. Music was also used for ritual purposes like chasing away evil spirits "(nyawawa)", who visit the village at night, in rain making, and during divination and healing.  The Luo music was shaped by the total way of life, lifestyles, and life patterns of individuals of this community. Because of that, the music had characteristics which distinguished it from that of other communities. This can be seen, heard, and felt in their melodies, rhythms, mode of presentation and dancing styles, movements, and formations.  The melodies in Luo music were lyrical, with a lot of vocal ornamentations. These ornaments came out clearly, especially when the music carried an important message. Their rhythms were characterized by a lot of syncopation and acrusic beginning. These songs were usually presented in solo-response style, although some were solo performances. The most common forms of solo performances were chants. These chants were recitatives with irregular rhythms and phrases, which carried serious messages. Most of the Luo dances were introduced by these chants. One example is the dudu dance.  Another unique characteristic in the Luo music is the introduction of yet another chant at the middle of a musical performance. The singing stops, the pitch of the musical instruments go down and the dance becomes less vigorous as an individual takes up the performance is self-praise. This is referred to as Pakruok. There was also a unique kind of ululation, Sigalagala, that marked the climax of the musical performance. Sigalagala was mainly done by women.  The dance styles in the Luo folk music were elegant and graceful. They involved either the movement of one leg in the opposite direction with the waist in step with the syncopated beats of the music or the shaking of the shoulders vigorously, usually to the tune of the nyatiti, an eight-stringed instrument.  Adamson (1967) commented that Luos clad in their traditional costumes and ornaments deserve their reputation as the most picturesque people in Kenya. During most of their performances, the Luo wore costumes and decorated themselves not only to appear beautiful, but also to enhance their movements. These costumes included sisal skirts (owalo), beads (Ombulu / tigo) worn around the neck and waist, and red or white clay worn by the ladies. The men's costumes included kuodi or chieno, a skin worn from the shoulders or from the waist respectively to cover their nakedness, Ligisa, the headgear, shield and spear, reed hats, and clubs, among others. All these costumes and ornaments were made from locally available materials.  The Luo were also rich in musical instruments which ranged from percussion (drums, clappers, metal rings, ongeng'o or gara, shakers), strings (e.g., nyatiti, a type of lyre; orutu, a type of fiddle), wind (tung (instrument)|tung' a horn,Asili, a flute, A bu-!, to a specific type of trumpet).  Currently the Luo are associated with the "benga" style of music. It is a lively style in which songs in Dholuo, Swahili, or English are sung to a lively guitar riff. It originated in the 1950s with Luo musicians like George Ramogi and Ochieng' Kabaselle trying to adapt their traditional dance rhythms to western instruments. The guitar (acoustic, later electric) replaced the nyatiti as the string instrument. "Benga" has become so popular that it is played by musicians of all ethnicities like mugithi among the Kikuyu, and it is no longer considered a purely Luo style. It has become Kenya's characteristic pop sound.  Luo singer and nyatiti player Ayub Ogada received widespread exposure in 2005 when two of his songs were featured in Alberto Iglesias' Academy Award-nominated score for Fernando Mereilles' film adaptation of "The Constant Gardener".  Other Luo musical greats in various genres are Akothee, Suzanna Owiyo, Daniel Owino Misiani, Achieng' Abura, George Ramogi, Musa Juma, Tony Nyadundo, and Onyi Papa Jey.

Kinship, Family, and Inheritance.

Ocholla Ayayo writes in "Traditional Ideology and Ethics among the southern Luo":  "When the time of the inheritance comes the ideology of seniority is respected: the elder son receives the largest share, followed in the order of seniority. If it is the land to be divided, for instance, the land of the old grandfather's homestead, the senior son gets the middle piece, the second the land to the right hand side of the homestead, and the third son takes the land on the left hand side. After the father's death the senior son takes over the responsibilities of leadership. These groups when considered in terms of genealogy, are people of the same grandfather, and are known in Dholuo as Jokakwaro. They share sacrifices under the leadership of the senior brother. If the brother is dead the next brother in seniority takes the leadership of senior brother. The responsibility and prestige position of leadership is that it puts one into the primary position in harvesting, cultivation, as well as in eating specified parts of the animal killed, usually the best parts. It is the senior brother, who is leading in the group, who can first own the fishing boat. Since it is he who will be communicating with the ancestors of their father or grandfather, it is he who will conduct or lead the sacrifices of religiousity of the boat, as we have noted earlier. [...] The system of the allocation of land by the father while he is still alive is important since it will coincide with the system of inheritance of land. The principle of the division of the land in monogamous families is rather simple and straightforward. [...] The senior son takes the centre portion of all the land of the homestead up to and beyond the gate or to the buffer zone; the second son then has the remainder of the land to divide with the other brothers. If the land is divided among the elder sons after they are married, and take to live in their lands, it often happens that a youngest son remains in the village of the father to care for him in his old age. His inheritance is the last property, called Mondo and the remaining gardens of his mother. [...] In the case of a polygamous village, the land is divided along the same lines, except that within the village, the sons claim the area contiguous to the houses of their mother. Each wife and her children are regarded as if the group constituted was the son of a single woman.By that I mean the children of the senior wife, Mikayi, are given that portion of the total area which could have been given to the senior son in a monogamous family. The sons of Nyachira, the second wife, and the sons of Reru, the third wife, lay claim to those portions which would have fallen to the second and third sons of Mikayi in a monogamous village".  Paul Hebinck and Nelson Mango explain in detail the family and inheritance system of the Luo in their article "Land and embedded rights: An analysis of land conflicts in Luoland, Western Kenya." Parker MacDonald Shipton also writes extensively about kinship, family and inheritance among the Luo in his book "Mortgaging the Ancestors: Ideologies of Attachment in Africa":  "Outside the homestead enclosure, or (where there is no more enclosure) beyond and before its houses, Luo people have favored a layout of fields that in some ways reflects placements of houses within. The following pattern, as described in Gordon Wilson’s work from the 1950s, is still discernable in our times—not just in informants’ sketches of their ideals, but also in the allocations of real lands where space has allowed following suit. If there is more than one son in a monogamous homestead, the eldest takes land in front of or to the right of the entrance, and the second son takes land on the left. The third receives land to the right and center again, but farther from the father's homestead. The fourth son, if there is one, goes to the left but farther from the paternal homestead than the second. Further sons alternate right and left. While elder sons might thus receive larger shares than the younger ones, the youngest takes over the personal garden (mondo) kept by the father for his own use—as if as a consolation prize".

The Luo (also called Joluo or Jonagi/Onagi, singular Jaluo, Jaonagi or Joramogi/Nyikwaramogi, meaning "Ramogi's heirs") are a Nilotic ethnic group in western Kenya and the Mara Region of northern Tanzania. They are part of a larger group of ethno-linguistically related Luo peoples who inhabit an area ranging from South Sudan, South-Western Ethiopia, Northern and Eastern Uganda, Northeastern DRC, South-Western Kenya and Northern Tanzania.

卢奥族(Luo people)属东非一个民族,主要分布于肯尼亚西部,是肯尼亚境内第三大民族(占境内人口比例13%),使用卢欧下语支,以农业、渔业、畜牧业为主,喜爱音乐,是许多音乐风格的发源地,文化背景深受班图文化影响。


Playing career.

Club.

Costinha was born in Lisbon to an Angolan father, who had emigrated to the Portuguese capital in the 1960s. In the summer of 1997, after years of playing in the lower leagues, he caught the interest of French club AS Monaco FC while playing with C.D. Nacional in the second division. After a tentative first season he became an important first-team member, helping with 28 matches and one goal to the 1999–2000 conquest of the Ligue 1 championship; he was part of a talented side which ousted Manchester United from the UEFA Champions League in 1998, on the away goals rule.  Aged almost 27, Costinha made his Primeira Liga debut when he signed with FC Porto in 2001, going on to be an instrumental midfield element in the northerners' two consecutive national championships. On 9 March 2004, he scored against and effectively knocked out Manchester United in the Champions League first knockout round; Porto went on to win the title, beating his former side Monaco 3–0 in the final.  Again a starter throughout most of the 2004–05 campaign, Costinha was sold to FC Dynamo Moscow in May 2005 for €4 million, alongside teammates Maniche and Giourkas Seitaridis, following Derlei (left in January). Unsettled, he left for Atlético Madrid, where he would play in 2006–07.  Costinha would be released by the "Colchoneros" in August 2007, joining Serie A's Atalanta BC, where he would appear very rarely throughout his spell (only one match, in his first season) due to serious injuries and, later, technical choices from his club, who considered the player unfit to play competitively, despite him having the highest salary in the first team (€700,000 per year, in a contract due to expire in June 2010). The club tried to agree a mutual termination of the contract with the player, and also attempted unsuccessfully to obtain rescision of his contract through the Italian Football League.

International.

Costinha made his debut for Portugal on 14 October 1998, during a 1–0 home win against Slovakia for the UEFA Euro 2000 qualifiers, going on to appear in the tournament's final stage where he scored an injury time header against Romania (same score).  He also played at Euro 2004 and the 2006 FIFA World Cup. During the latter, on 25 June, he took part in the Battle of Nuremberg, being one of four players sent off in the 1–0 round-of-16 victory over the Netherlands after two bookable offences, the second being a handball.  Costinha finished his international career with 53 caps and two goals, having been rarely called during the Euro 2008 qualifying stage.

Coaching career.

On 23 February 2010, 35-year-old Costinha left Atalanta by mutual consent. He immediately retired, being named shortly afterwards as Sporting CP's director of football, succeeding the sacked Ricardo Sá Pinto, his former international teammate. On 9 February 2011, the day after an interview to Sport TV in which he criticised the club's board of directors, he was dismissed.  In June 2011, in the same capacity, Costinha joined Servette FC, with the Swiss team being managed by countryman João Alves. It was reported that the pair did not see eye to eye on certain issues, and in November 2011, Alves was fired and replaced by João Carlos Pereira. The team's results worsened under Peireira and in April 2012, both Pereira and Costinha were fired, with Alves being reinstated as manager; Costinha reportedly contested the terms of his removal, claiming that his contract extended until June 2013.  Costinha was hired as manager of S.C. Beira-Mar on 18 February 2013, replacing Ulisses Morais. He left the club on 22 May, after its top flight relegation.  On 12 June 2013, Costinha was appointed at fellow league team F.C. Paços de Ferreira, who had made the qualifying rounds of the Champions League for the first time in its history. His midfield partner for Portugal and three clubs, Maniche, was hired as assistant; but Costinha was sacked after only four months, however, due to poor results.  On 20 June 2016, Costinha took over at Académica de Coimbra, recently relegated from the top division. Maniche again assisted him, until leaving for personal reasons in October.  On 30 May 2017, Costinha was appointed as manager of C.D. Nacional. In his first year, they were promoted back to the top tier as champions.  Costinha left a year later by mutual consent, due to the Madeira team's relegation as second from the bottom. Negative highlights included a 10–0 loss against eventual champions S.L. Benfica, on 10 February 2019.

Honours.

Player.

Monaco  Porto  Portugal

Manager.

Nacional

Francisco José Rodrigues da Costa, (born 1 December 1974), known as Costinha (), is a Portuguese former footballer who played as a defensive midfielder, and a current manager.

法兰西斯高·荷西·洛迪古斯·达哥斯达·祖利亚(Francisco José Rodrigues da Costa Júnior,,1974年-12月1日),通常称哥斯甸亚(Costinha),葡萄牙前足球运动员,担任防守中场,曾多次代表葡萄牙国家足球队参加国际大赛。


Club career.

Porto.

Born in Vila do Conde, Postiga began his career at nearby Varzim SC. In 1995, he joined FC Porto's youth teams and continued to progress until he reached the reserve squad. At the time, coach Octávio Machado picked him for the first team on some occasions and the player performed well.  After José Mourinho was hired as Porto manager, Postiga became a first-team regular. The 20-year-old scored 19 times in 2002–03 playing alongside Derlei, as Porto won the treble. This included 13 in a victorious league campaign as well as five in an eventual conquest of the UEFA Cup, although he missed the final due to suspension. Following his successful season, he made his senior international debut for Portugal.

Tottenham.

After the treble-winning season in 2003, Postiga moved to Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur for £6.25 million (€9 million), a fee that could have risen to £8.36 million (€12 million). He signed a five-year contract, with manager Glenn Hoddle remarking "He is a player who will add definite striking quality to our squad and is a young player of proven ability. I'm sure our supporters will enjoy watching him over the coming seasons."  Postiga made his debut on 16 August in a 0–1 defeat at Birmingham City, starting but being replaced by fellow new signing Bobby Zamora after 57 minutes. His first goal came on 3 December, the second of a 3–1 home win over Manchester City which put his team into the quarter-finals of the League Cup, while his only goal in 19 league games contributed to a 2–1 success against Liverpool on 17 January 2004, also at White Hart Lane.

Porto return.

Postiga then returned to Porto in a deal that sent Pedro Mendes to Tottenham in exchange, with the striker being valued at €7.5 million. New coach Víctor Fernández included him in the team for the 2004–05 campaign, but he had another disappointing season; however, following José Couceiro's appointment as manager, he managed to score three goals before the end of the season.  In 2005, after a promising pre-season, Postiga was demoted to the club's B-team, because new coach Co Adriaanse was not happy with his performances. In January of the following year, trying to confirm his position in the Portuguese team for the 2006 World Cup, he moved, on loan, to AS Saint-Étienne, where he netted two Ligue 1 goals against FC Metz and Le Mans Union Club 72, both resulting in 1–0 away victories.  Postiga then returned to Porto for 2006–07 where, due to the managerial changes at the club, he found himself back in the first team. A regular starter in the beginning, he nonetheless fell out of favour towards the end of the season, losing his place to Brazilian Adriano though he still managed to score ten league goals; in his two spells, he appeared in 164 games all competitions comprised and netted 64 times.  In mid-January 2008, after having again fallen out of favour, Postiga moved to Panathinaikos F.C. for a six-month loan period. His first goal for the club came in the Athens derby against AEK Athens FC, in which he equalised (1–1).

Sporting.

On 1 June 2008, it was announced that Postiga had made a shock move to Portuguese rivals Sporting CP, signing a three-year contract for a reported transfer fee of €2.5 million, with the Lisbon side acquiring 50% of the player's rights. On 1 September he scored his first official goal for his new club, the only in a victory at S.C. Braga.  Postiga's second season as a "Lion" was disastrous, both collectively – Sporting finished fourth – and individually (he failed to score in any official competition until 19 April 2010, when he netted the 2–1 home winner against Vitória de Setúbal after just one minute on the pitch); although he began as a starter, he soon lost his job to youth graduate Carlos Saleiro.

Zaragoza.

On 31 August 2011, the very last day of the summer transfer window, Postiga left Sporting, signing for Real Zaragoza in La Liga for €1 million. At the Spanish side, he reunited with countrymen Fernando Meira and Rúben Micael.  After three disallowed goals in as many matches, Postiga opened his scoring account for Zaragoza on 16 October 2011, netting twice in a 2–0 home win against Real Sociedad – this included a bicycle kick in the 11th minute of the game. He finished the season as club top scorer, in an eventual narrow escape from relegation.  On 10 November 2012, Postiga scored a brace to help the Aragonese to a 5–3 defeat of ten-men Deportivo de La Coruña. He netted a career-best 14 goals during the campaign, but his team was relegated.

Valencia.

On 8 August 2013, Postiga joined Valencia CF for a fee of £2.6 million, replacing Tottenham-bound Roberto Soldado. On 1 September, in only the third match of the season, he netted twice late into the first half of the game against FC Barcelona at the Mestalla Stadium, but in an eventual 2–3 home loss.  Postiga was loaned to S.S. Lazio for the remainder of the campaign on 30 January 2014, with the option of a permanent move afterwards. He made his debut in Serie A on 26 March, playing 20 minutes in a 0–2 away loss to Genoa CFC.

Deportivo.

On 1 September 2014, Postiga terminated his link with the "Che", and subsequently signed a one-year deal with fellow league team Deportivo. He made his debut with his new club two weeks later, featuring the full 90 minutes in a 1–0 win at SD Eibar. His first goal for the Galicians came in his fifth match on 31 October: coming on at half time for Luis Fariña, he scored a consolation in a 1–2 home loss to Getafe CF. A week later, he was sent off in the 29th minute of a goalless draw at Córdoba CF, earning a second yellow card for a reaction when fouled by Íñigo López.  Postiga spent the better part of the season injured, as "Depor" went on to narrowly avoid relegation.

Atlético Kolkata.

On 29 July 2015, Postiga signed as the marquee player of Indian Super League franchise Atlético de Kolkata; at 32, he was the youngest such player in the competition, and was deemed by the management to be less injury-prone than his predecessor Luis García. He made his debut on 3 October in the opening game of the season, scoring twice in a 3–2 win at Chennaiyin FC but leaving the game with an injury; he made no further appearances, as his team went on to be eliminated by precisely that opponent in the play-off semi-finals.

Rio Ave.

On 1 February 2016, Postiga returned to his homeland, signing for top flight team Rio Ave F.C. until the end of the season. In his second match, 26 days later, he opened a 2–1 win at Boavista FC; it was his 50th goal in the division.  On 14 May 2016, in the last matchday, Postiga scored the winning goal as his team won 2–1 at C.F. União, qualifying themselves for the Europa League and relegating the opponents.

Return to Kolkata.

On 12 August 2016, Postiga returned to Atlético Kolkata as their marquee player. Early in his second match of the season, away to Kerala Blasters FC on 5 October, he suffered another long-term injury; the club's ownership admitted that due to such concerns they had wanted a different figurehead.  Postiga returned to the team as they went on to win the championship, although he was substituted in the final.

International career.

Postiga made his debut for the Portugal national team on 12 February 2003 in a friendly match with Italy, where he came on as a substitute for Tiago Mendes in the 70th minute – this game was also Luiz Felipe Scolari's first as manager. He was handed his first start on 10 June in a 4–0 win over Bolivia, where he scored his first two international goals. Even though he had arguably a poor year with Tottenham, Postiga was selected for UEFA Euro 2004. In the tournament he managed to save his team from defeat against England during the quarter-finals, netting an 83rd-minute equaliser to level the score at 1–1 as Portugal would prevail in the penalty shootout 6–5 after a 2–2 draw. He converted his attempt with a "Panenka-style" shot, but did not feature in the final, lost 0–1 to outsiders Greece.  Postiga was subsequently summoned for the 2006 FIFA World Cup side, starting against Mexico in a 2–1 win at the end of the group stage. In the quarter-finals, after replacing captain Luís Figo, he again scored to eliminate England on penalties, as the nation eventually finished fourth.  In Euro 2008, Postiga was also mainly used from the bench. In the quarter-finals against Germany, he scored a late goal by heading in a cross from fellow substitute Nani, although Portugal lost 2–3.  After more than two years of absence from the national team setup, Postiga was called up for two Euro 2012 qualifiers against Denmark and Iceland, in October 2010. On 12 October, against the latter, he netted in a 3–1 away win; on 17 November, he put two past world champions Spain in a 4–0 friendly win in Lisbon.  On 4 June 2011, Postiga scored the only goal in a Euro 2012 qualifier against Norway played at Estádio da Luz, which made him the tenth highest scorer in Portugal's history. He added two on 15 November of that year, in a 6–2 play-off second leg win over Bosnia and Herzegovina which secured a place in the competition.  Selected by Paulo Bento to the finals in Poland and Ukraine as first-choice striker, he netted in the second group stage against Denmark, scoring the second in an eventual 3–2 win. He injured his right thigh in the first half of the national side's 1–0 quarter-final victory over the Czech Republic, which also forced him out of the next match and the rest of the tournament.  Postiga scored six goals in the qualification campaign for the 2014 World Cup. On 6 September 2013, he was sent off in the first half of a 3–2 win away to Northern Ireland for headbutting Gareth McAuley; at the finals, he started the second game against the United States after an injury to Hugo Almeida in the opener, but was himself substituted following 16 minutes due to injury as Portugal were eliminated in the group stage.

Personal life.

A childhood fan of S.L. Benfica who went on to play for their two main rivals, Postiga grew up in the Caxinas fishing neighbourhood of Vila do Conde, as did his long-time international teammates Bruno Alves and Fábio Coentrão.  Postiga's younger brother, José, is also a footballer and a forward. He played youth football at Sporting.  His father's cousin, Armindo, died in a fishing shipwreck off Figueira da Foz in August 2015.

Career statistics.

International goals.

"Scores and results list Portugal's goal tally first."! #!! Date!! Venue!! Opponent!! Score!! Result!! Competition

Honours.

Club.

Porto  Sporting  Atlético Kolkata

International.

Portugal

Hélder Manuel Marques Postiga (; born 2 August 1982) is a Portuguese retired professional footballer who played as a striker.

埃尔德·曼努埃尔·马克斯·波斯蒂加(葡萄牙语:),葡萄牙足球运动员。


Club career.

Sporting.

Born in the village of Constantim in Vila Real, Simão started his career at Sporting CP, whose youth system had just produced Luís Figo – and later Cristiano Ronaldo.  During his two-year spell he played 62 competitive games with the first team, his first goal coming in his debut at only 17 in a 3–0 away win against S.C. Salgueiros.

Barcelona.

Simão moved to FC Barcelona in the 1999 off-season on a £10 million transfer, partnering with Figo in his first year as they finished second in La Liga to Deportivo de La Coruña. On 21 October 2000, in a match remembered for his compatriot's treatment by Barça fans on his return to the Camp Nou in the colours of new team Real Madrid, he scored in a 2–0 "El Clásico" win.  In 2001, after a comparatively low-key tenure at the Spanish club under manager Louis van Gaal, Simão spoke of his desire for a move back to Sporting. However, he signed with city rivals S.L. Benfica for €12 million.

Benfica.

Simão instantly became a fan-favorite as his new team, quickly acquiring the status of captain. Also, during his six-year stint, he always finished as their top scorer, also ranking high in the global domestic charts, notably in the 2002–03 season as he scored a Primeira Liga and career-best 18 goals.  In the following campaign, Simão scored Benfica's second goal in a 2–1 extra-time victory over FC Porto in the final of the Taça de Portugal, ending the club's eight-year silverware drought. In 2004–05, as the side won the national championship after an 11-year wait, he played in all the matches and minutes, netting 15 times. They also reached the domestic cup final in a 1–2 loss against Vitória de Setúbal, with him scoring through a fourth-minute penalty; in the campaign's UEFA Cup he also appeared in all the matches, netting four times including twice against Dukla Banská Bystrica in a 3–0 away win, with his team eventually reaching the round-of-32.  The 2005 summer transfer window saw Simão targeted by Liverpool in an offer worth approximately £12 million, though negotiations reportedly failed over Benfica's increase in asking price. He continued his excellent form into 2005–06, helping his side in the UEFA Champions League campaign, where they made it to the quarter-finals. He played in eight of a possible ten matches in the tournament, including the 1–2 loss at Manchester United in the group stage, firing his team level shortly before the hour with a free kick after he himself had been fouled by Alan Smith; in the knockout stages he helped stun title holders Liverpool, unleashing an unstoppable shot into the top left-hand corner of Pepe Reina's goal, as the Portuguese won 2–0 at Anfield and 3–0 overall.  The following year several clubs, such as Manchester United and again Liverpool also revealed interest in Simão, but he decided to stay at the Estádio da Luz.

Atlético Madrid.

Finally, on 26 July 2007, Atlético Madrid reached an agreement to sign Simão from Benfica for a fee of €20 million. During his first two seasons, in which he was an undisputed starter, he scored seven goals apiece, as the team finished fourth in the top division on both occasions.  On 12 April 2009, Simão entered in the hundred-year history of the capital club by scoring its 4,000th goal in the league with a left-footed diagonal shot against Deportivo. In the ensuing summer he became one of Atlético's captains for the new campaign, receiving that role from coach Abel Resino after a reshuffle; as the "Colchoneros" underachieved overall, he scored in the Champions League at APOEL FC in a 1–1 away draw, a goal that secured the club's place in the season's UEFA Europa League.  On 14 January 2010, Simão scored twice in a 5–1 home victory over Recreativo de Huelva that qualified to the quarter-finals of the Copa del Rey (5–4 on aggregate), including through an 83rd-minute free kick from 20 metres to decide the tie. He also grabbed an important goal in the Europa League against Galatasaray SK as the team eventually won the competition, with the player appearing in the final against Fulham.  Simão began the 2010–11 season on a high note, scoring three goals in the first seven games – notably in a 1–1 draw at Valencia CF on 22 September 2010. He also captained the side more frequently due to the absence of Antonio López, most notably in the UEFA Super Cup's 2–0 defeat of Inter Milan, where he set up a goal for Sergio Agüero.

Beşiktaş.

On 22 December 2010, aged 31, Sabrosa signed with Süper Lig's Beşiktaş JK for €900,000, reuniting with Portugal teammates Hugo Almeida and Ricardo Quaresma. On 11 May 2011, he scored the decisive penalty in the shootout as they won the Turkish Cup against İstanbul Başakşehir FK (4–3, 2–2 after extra time).  Simão faced his previous team in the 2011–12 Europa League round-of-16, scoring in a 1–3 loss at the Vicente Calderón Stadium (1–6 on aggregate).

Espanyol.

Simão joined RCD Espanyol on a free transfer on 17 August 2012, signing a two-year contract. He scored his first goal with his new club on 7 December, featuring as a second-half substitute for Rui Fonte and heading in from a corner kick in an eventual 2–2 home draw against Sevilla FC.  Simão was released on 22 May 2014, alongside Joan Capdevila. In April 2015, having been inactive for ten months, he said that he was finding it difficult to attract a new club at the age of 35, and was considering the possibility of entering management.

NorthEast United.

On 25 June 2015, Indian Super League club NorthEast United FC announced they had signed Simão as a marquee player. He captained the team in his debut match on 9 September, also scoring in the friendly with AmaZulu FC.  Initially sidelined by injury, Simão made his competitive debut on 20 October against Chennaiyin FC at the Indira Gandhi Stadium, replacing Francis Dadzie after 74 minutes and winning a last-minute penalty which he converted to open a 2–0 win which gave the team their first points of the season. On 3 November, immediately after replacing compatriot Silas, he scored a free kick to close a 1–1 draw at Delhi Dynamos FC; four days later, from the penalty spot, he decided an away win at Atlético de Kolkata.

Post-retirement.

Simão returned to Benfica on 14 September 2017, being appointed head of international relations after longtime club and international teammate Nuno Gomes, who had just left his post as director of the Futebol Campus academy in Seixal, rejected the offer.

International career.

Simão's path to the Portugal national team began when he won the UEFA European Under-16 Championship in 1996. The following year he began playing for the under-18s, being a regular in the under-21 side two years later.  Simão made his full debut for Portugal at only 19 years of age, scoring on 18 November 1998 against Israel, but was not included in the squad for UEFA Euro 2000. He also did not make the list for the 2002 FIFA World Cup due to injury, but he did participate at Euro 2004 where the hosts finished in second place. He played in three of his country's six matches, his most notable appearance coming against England in the quarter-finals: he came on as a second-half substitute and seized on Frank Lampard's wayward pass and crossed for Hélder Postiga, who headed in unmarked scoring the equalising goal in the late minutes of the game, bringing it to extra time and an eventual successful penalty shootout, where he converted his attempt. Simão was also selected for the 2006 World Cup in Germany, finishing fourth overall. He made six appearances in the tournament, scoring only one goal on the 24th minute against Mexico, in a 2–1 group stage win; on 1 July, in the quarter-finals, Portugal and England met again in a penalty shootout (0–0 after 120 minutes) and he helped to another victory, netting his attempt for the final 3–1.  In Euro 2008, Simão played in three of Portugal's matches and did not find the net, as the nation was eliminated in the quarter-finals by Germany. He did finish as his team's top scorer during the qualifying phase for the 2010 World Cup with four goals, including two in a 3–0 home defeat of Hungary.  Simão was selected for the finals in South Africa. A starter from the second group stage fixture he scored precisely in that game, through a right-footed low shot in a 7–0 rout of North Korea on 21 June 2010.  On 27 August 2010, Simão stepped down from the national squad citing personal reasons, and earned 85 caps over his 12-year spell, netting 22 goals.

Outside football.

Personal life.

Simão was married to Filipa Valente for ten years, before their divorce in August 2011. The couple had a daughter and a son together. In 2014, he fathered a son who was also given his name, born to Vanessa Rebelo, the ex-wife of his former Benfica teammate Bruno Aguiar.  In March 2009, Simão took leave from Atlético to aid in the search for Diogo, the four-year-old son of his elder brother Serafim, who was reported missing when playing in the sea off Matosinhos. It was later confirmed that he had drowned.

Other ventures.

Simão launched an instructional DVD titled "Como Se Faz um Campeão" ("How to Make a Champion"), and was the protagonist of a campaign for television channel Sport TV HD. In June 2016, he began working there as pundit and interviewer. He featured on the cover of the Portuguese edition of the video game "FIFA 10", and in 2010, he appeared in an advertisement for McDonald's.

Honours.

Club.

Benfica  Atlético Madrid  Beşiktaş

International.

Portugal

Simão Pedro Fonseca Sabrosa (born 31 October 1979), known mononymously as Simão (), is a Portuguese former footballer who played mainly as a left winger, with dribbling and set piece skills as primary attributes.

西芒·佩德罗·丰塞卡·萨布罗萨(,一般缩写为西芒·萨布罗萨(),1979年-10月31日),乃一名葡萄牙足球运动员,曾效力葡萄牙球会本菲卡,场上位置是翼锋。


Landmarks.

Aldwych, the street, is a crescent, connected to the Strand at both ends. It forms part of the A4 route and carries traffic eastbound. Streets adjoining are Drury Lane, Kingsway, India Place and Melbourne Place. Notable buildings along its length include:  Theatres:  High Commissions:  Hotels and Restaurants:  Universities:  Former buildings include:  Facing one end of the street on the Strand is closed-in-1994 Aldwych station, originally named Strand station. It has been used when closed for scenes of films and television dramas.

History.

In the seventh century, the area was an Anglo-Saxon major settlement Lundenwic (the last syllable pronounced as today) ('London port') centred one mile to the west of "Londinium" (known to the Saxons as "Lundenburh" 'London fort'). "Lundenwic" soon became the old wich (old port, that is Aldwych). It is not known if it had a church, and the town either took advantage of the scouring action of the Fleet or used the mouth itself as a harbour for trading ships and fishing boats. After Alfred the Great re-built the London fortifications in the late 9th century, Londinium became known as "Lundenburh" or simply Lunden, and "Lundenwic" so became ealdwic or aldwich. (The word "old" evolved from ald, the Old English being eald and the German cognate being alt.) The name was recorded as "Aldewich" in 1211.  St Clement Danes (parish) is one of the four ancient Westminster parishes, and was first recorded in the 1190s; it covered this area throughout and originally all adjoining areas. Its church, which features in the first line of nursery rhyme "Oranges and Lemons", was rebuilt by Wren. The civil parish was abolished in 1922. It is open to - and it is known by residents and businesses to - use the term St Clement Danes interchangeably with Aldwych, which also covered in its final, smallest form the Adelphi and much of the Strand. The urban centre of "Lundenwic" was unearthed in the 1980s after extensive excavations, and were reinterpreted as being urban in character. These conclusions were reached independently by two archaeologists (Vince and Biddle). Recent excavations in Covent Garden adjoining have uncovered an extensive Anglo-Saxon settlement, covering about, stretching from the present-day National Gallery site in the west, to Aldwych in the east. As the presumed locus of the city, "Lundenburh", was moved back within the old Roman walls, the older settlement of "Lundenwic" gained the name of "ealdwic", 'old port', "eald" and the softer form of "wic" transposed to "ald" and "wich" in Middle English orthography.  The street was created in the early 20th century in a project that saw a new street layout destroying Wych Street which was full of overhangs and projections, and the construction of Australia House (built 1913–18) and Bush House (completed 1925). A statue of the 19th-century prime minister William Ewart Gladstone was installed in 1905 near St Clement Danes church, at the eastern end of Aldwych.  In 1906, Aldwych tramway station was opened underneath Kingsway; it closed in 1952. In 1907, Aldwych station was opened on the Strand opposite Aldwych; it closed in 1994.  On 18 February 1996, a bomb was detonated prematurely on a number 171 bus travelling along Aldwych, killing its carrier, Provisional Irish Republican Army member Edward O'Brien and injuring several passengers.

Aldwych (pronounced ) is a one-way street and the name of the area immediately surrounding it in central London, England, within the City of Westminster. The street starts east-northeast of Charing Cross, the conventional map centre-point of the city.

奥德维奇(Aldwych)是英国伦敦的一条单行道,也可以指这条街道附近的地区。奥德维奇位于西敏市查令十字东北处。奥德维奇是北岸商业开发区的一部分,附近原有伦敦地铁奥德维奇站(已关闭)。