Biography.

Early life.

He was born in the village of Rudnik in the Sanjak of Berat, Albania to Albanian parents. He entered the sultan's service as a devşirme youth and was trained in the palace school. Köprülü began as a kitchen boy in the imperial kitchen before transferring to the imperial treasury and then the offices of the palace chamberlain. Other officials reportedly found it difficult to work with Köprülü, and he was transferred to the "sipahi" (cavalry) corps in the provinces.

Rise through the imperial service.

He was first stationed in the town of Köprü in northern Turkey, which was later named "Vezirköprü" in his honour. He quickly rose in rank, keeping the name Köprülü, meaning "from Köprü". Köprülü's former mentor, Hüsrev Pasha, rose in the imperial service and promoted Köprülü to increasingly important offices. When Hüsrev was assassinated, however, Köprülü built up his own following. He eventually held important offices as head of the market police in Constantinople, supervisor of the Imperial Arsenal, chief of the Sipahi corps, and head of the corps armorers. Köprülü managed to attach himself to powerful men and somehow survived their falls without being destroyed himself. Köprülü continued to hold important offices. He eventually rose to the rank of pasha and was appointed the "beylerbey" (provincial governor) of the Trebizond Eyalet in 1644.  Later he was to rule the provinces of Eğri in 1647, of Karaman in 1648, and of Anatolia in 1650. He served as vizier of the divan for one week in 1652 before being dismissed due to the constant power struggle within the palace. Over the years, Köprülü had cultivated many friendships at the sultan's court, especially with the Queen Mother Turhan Hatice Sultan, mother of the minor sultan Mehmed IV.  In 1656, the political situation in Ottoman Empire was critical. The war in Crete against the Venetians was still continuing. The Ottoman Navy under Kapudan Pasha (grand admiral) Kenan Pasha, in May 1656, was defeated by the Venetian and Maltese navy at the Battle of Dardanelles (1656) and the Venetian navy continued the blockade of the Çanakkale Straits cutting the Ottoman army in Crete from Constantinople, the state capital. There was a political plot to unseat the reigning Sultan Mehmed IV led by important viziers including the Grand Mufti (Şeyhülislam) Hocazade Mesut Efendi. This plot was discovered, and the plotters were executed or exiled. The Mother Sultana Turhan Hatice conducted consultations and the most favored candidate for the post of Grand Vizier came out as the old and retired but experienced Köprülü Mehmed Pasha. Mehmed Efendi, the chief of scribes, and the chief architect convinced the sultan that only Köprülü Mehmed Pasha could avert disaster.

Grand Vizier.

Köprülü was called to Istanbul, where he accepted the position of Grand Vizier on 14 September 1656. As a condition of his acceptance, Köprülü demanded that the sultan decree only what Köprülü approved, allow him to make all the appointments and dismissals, and refuse to hear or accept any malicious stories that might be spread about him. He was given extraordinary powers and political rule without interference, even from the highest authority of the Sultan.  Köprülü had acquired the reputation of being an honest and able administrator, but he was 80 years old when he assumed office. As the Grand Vizier, his first task was to advise Sultan Mehmed IV to conduct a life of hunts and traveling around the Balkans and to reside in the old capital of Edirne, thus stopping his direct political involvement in the management of the state. On 4 January 1657, the household cavalry Sipahi troops in Constantinople started a rebellion and this was cruelly suppressed by Köprülü Mehmed Pasha with the help of Janissary troops. The Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople was proven to be in treasonous contacts with the enemies of Ottoman state and Köprülü Mehmed Pasha approved of his execution.  Rivals and unfriendly religious leaders were banished or executed. The support of the Janissaries was obtained once he was secure in his office. Köprülü centralized power in the empire, reviving traditional Ottoman methods of governing. He ordered those who were suspected of abusing their positions or who proved to be corrupt to be removed or executed. Those who failed at their tasks were punished severely, and unsuccessful military commanders often paid the supreme price. When Grand Admiral Topal Mehmed Pasha failed to break the Venetian blockade of the Dardanelles on 17 July 1657, Köprülü executed him and his principal officers on the spot. When rivals complained to Mehmed IV about the Grand Vizier's methods, Köprülü resigned, complaining that the Sultan had violated their agreement. Mehmed immediately asked Köprülü to return as Grand Vizier, because his methods showed such success at restoring Ottoman power.

War with Venice.

Since the resurgence of the Republic of Venice was the immediate crisis that had prompted Köprülü's appointment as grand vizier, it was important that he demonstrate his effectiveness as a leader against the Venetians. He started on a military expeditions against the Venetian blockade of Dardanelles Straits. The Ottoman navy had a victory against Venice in the Battle of the Dardanelles on 19 July 1657. This allowed Ottomans to regain some of the Aegean islands, including Bozcaada and Limni (15 November) and to open the sea-supply routes to the Ottoman Army still conducting the sieges of Crete.

War with Transylvania and the Habsburgs.

In 1658 he conducted a successful campaign in Transylvania. In Transylvania, Prince George II Rákóczi renounced his erstwhile allegiance to the sultan. He attempted to make his state into a major power, allying himself with other Protestant princes in an attempt to conquer Hungary and Poland. While Rákóczi invaded Poland in 1657, however, Köprülü sent the Crimean Tatars to attack Transylvania. They forced Rákóczi to retreat from Poland, but he refused to resume his obedience to the sultan. In response, in 1658, Köprülü himself led a large Ottoman army into Transylvania. This force defeated Rákóczi and forced him to flee to Habsburg lands. War with Habsburgs continued, but Ottoman control over Transylvania was confirmed in a temporary peace. He also annexed Yanova (Jenö) on 1 August 1660 and Várad on 27 August.

Revolt of Abaza Hasan Pasha.

Köprülü Mehmed Pasha's campaign against Transylvania was cut short by the large-scale revolt of several eastern provincial governors under the leadership of Abaza Hasan Pasha, then the governor of Aleppo. The rebels opposed Köprülü Mehmed's violent purges of the military and demanded that he be killed. However, Sultan Mehmed IV remained steadfast in his support for Köprülü and dispatched an army against the rebels under the command of Murtaza Pasha, who was then guarding the Safavid frontier. Despite assembling a force of 30,000 men and defeating Murtaza Pasha in battle, the harsh winter and fading morale eventually forced the rebels to capitulate. Abaza Hasan's revolt was finally brought to an end in February 1659 with the assassination of all the rebel commanders in Aleppo, despite promises that they would be spared.

Ayazmakapi Fire.

In July 1660 there was a big fire in Istanbul (the Ayazmakapi Fire) causing great damage to persons and buildings, leading later to a food scarcity and plague. Köprülü Mehmed Pasha became personally involved in the reconstruction affairs. The honesty and integrity in conducting state affairs by Köprülü Mehmed Pasha is shown by an episode in this task. The burnt-out Jewish quarters from the Ayazmakapi Fire were decided to be compulsorily purchased by the state.

Death and legacy.

Despite Köprülü's advanced age, he continued to display energy until the end of his life. When he fell mortally ill in 1661, the sultan came to his bedside. Köprülü convinced him to appoint his son, Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed Pasha, as the next grand vizier. He also allegedly advised the sultan never to take advice from a woman, never to appoint a minister who was too wealthy, to always keep the treasury full, and to always keep the army on the move.  Köprülü died on 31 October 1661. He left behind a well-tuned administrative machine, having restored to the Ottoman Empire its reputation for military aggressiveness and its former prestige and power internally and externally. Köprülü Mehmed's victories in Transylvania would push the Ottoman border closer to Austria.

Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (, ; or "Qyprilliu", also called "Mehmed Pashá Rojniku"; 1575, Roshnik,– 31 October 1661, Edirne) was the founder of the Köprülü political dynasty of the Ottoman Empire, a family of viziers, warriors, and statesmen who dominated the administration of the Ottoman Empire during the last half of the 17th century, an era known as the Köprülü era. He helped rebuild the power of the empire by rooting out corruption and reorganizing the Ottoman army. As he introduced these changes, Köprülü also expanded the borders of the empire, defeating the Cossacks, the Hungarians, and most impressively, the Venetians. Köprülü's effectiveness was matched by his reputation.

科普鲁律·穆罕默德帕夏(,Köprüli Meḥmed Paşa;或;1575年||1661年|10月31日}}),又称罗什尼克的穆罕默德帕夏。阿尔巴尼亚裔奥斯曼帝国权臣,科普鲁律时期的创立者。通过打击腐败,整顿军备,他扭转了奥斯曼帝国的颓势,扩展了奥斯曼的疆土,并击败了哥萨克、匈牙利人甚至威尼斯人。他的行政能力使他声名远播。其家族统治奥斯曼帝国长达半个世纪(十七世纪后半期)。奥斯曼帝国在科普鲁律家族治下达到了其极盛。


Taxonomy and systematics.

The red-whiskered bulbul was originally described with the shrikes within the genus "Lanius" in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus in his "Systema Naturae". Hybrids have been noted in captivity with the red-vented, white-eared, white-spectacled, black-capped and Himalayan bulbuls. Leucism has also been recorded.

Subspecies.

Nine subspecies are recognized:

Description.

The red-whiskered bulbul is about in length. It has brown upper-parts and whitish underparts with buff flanks and a dark spur running onto the breast at shoulder level. It has a tall pointed black crest, red face patch and thin black moustachial line. The tail is long and brown with white terminal feather tips, but the vent area is red. Juveniles lack the red patch behind the eye, and the vent area is rufous-orange.  The loud and evocative call is a sharp "kink-a-joo" (also transcribed as "pettigrew" or "kick-pettigrew" or "pleased to meet you") and the song is a scolding chatter. They are more often heard than seen, but will often perch conspicuously especially in the mornings when they call from the tops of trees. The life span is about 11 years.

Distribution and habitat.

This is a bird of lightly wooded areas, more open country with bushes and shrubs, and farmland. Irruptions have been noted from early times with Thomas C. Jerdon noting that they were "periodically visiting Madras and other wooded towns in large flocks."  It has established itself in Australia and in Los Angeles, Hawaii, and Florida in the United States, as well as in Mauritius, on Assumption Island and Mascarene Islands. In Florida, it is only found in a small area, and its population could be extirpated easily. It was eradicated from Assumption Island in 2013–2015 to prevent colonisation of nearby Aldabra, the largest introduced bird-free tropical island.  The red-whiskered bulbul was introduced by the Zoological and Acclimatization Society in 1880 to Sydney, became well established across the suburbs by 1920, and continued to spread slowly to around 100 km away. It is now also found in suburban Melbourne and Adelaide, although it is unclear how they got there.

Behaviour and ecology.

On the island of Réunion, this species established itself and also aided the spread of alien plant species such as "Rubus alceifolius". In Florida they feed on fruits and berries of as many as 24 exotic plants including loquat ("Eriobotrya japonica"), "Lantana" spp., Brazilian pepper ("Schinus terebinthifolius") and figs ("Ficus"). In Mauritius they aid the dispersal of "Ligustrum robustum" and "Clidemia hirta". Seeds that pass through their gut germinate better. Populations of the red-whiskered bulbul on the island of Reunion have diversified in the course of thirty years and show visible variations in bill morphology according to the food resources that they have adapted to utilize.

Breeding.

The breeding season is spread out and peaks from December to May in southern India and March to October in northern India. Breeding may occur once or twice a year. The courtship display of the male involves head bowing, spreading the tail and drooping wings. The nest is cup-shaped, and is built on bushes, thatched walls or small trees. It is woven of fine twigs, roots, and grasses, and embellished with large objects such as bark strips, paper, or plastic bags. Clutches typically contain two to three eggs. Adults (possibly the female) may feign injury to distract potential predators away from the nest. The eggs have a pale mauve ground colour with speckles becoming blotches towards the broad end. Eggs measure 21 mm and are 16 mm wide. Eggs take 12 days to hatch. Both parents take part in raising the young. Young birds are fed on caterpillars and insects which are replaced by fruits and berries as they mature. The chicks are psilopaedic (having down only in the pterylae). Eggs and chicks may be preyed on by the greater coucal and crows.  They defend territories of about during the breeding season. They roost communally in loose groups of a hundred or more birds.

Food and feeding.

The red-whiskered bulbul feeds on fruits (including those of the yellow oleander that are toxic to mammals), nectar and insects.

Threats.

Several avian malaria parasites have been described from the species.

Relationship with humans.

This species was once a popular cage bird in parts of India. C. W. Smith noted that  The species continues to be a popular cagebird in parts of Southeast Asia.

The red-whiskered bulbul ("Pycnonotus jocosus"), or crested bulbul, is a passerine bird found in Asia. It is a member of the bulbul family. It is a resident frugivore found mainly in tropical Asia. It has been introduced in many tropical areas of the world where populations have established themselves. It feeds on fruits and small insects. Red-whiskered bulbuls perch conspicuously on trees and have a loud three or four note call. They are very common in hill forests and urban gardens within their range.

红耳<unk>,(学名:'),又名红颊<unk>,俗名高髻冠、高鸡冠、高冠鸟、黑头公、红屎忽等,是一种原产于亚洲热带的<unk>属鸟类,后来作为观赏鸟被引入到世界各地。


Features.

MindManager provides ways for users to visualize information using mind maps, and with the release of MindManager 2016 for Windows, now includes flowchart and concept map creation tools. The digital mind maps can be used as a “virtual whiteboard” for brainstorming, managing and planning projects, compiling research, organizing large amounts of information, and for strategic planning. MindManager also has features that allow budget calculations and formulas, Gantt chart views of project timelines, and guided brainstorming. Documents can be attached to mind map topics and viewed within the MindManager application. Links, images, and notes can also be added to mind map topics and viewed and searched in a side panel.

Development.

The software that became MindManager was originally developed by Mike Jetter in the mid-1990s while he was recovering from a bone marrow transplant to treat leukemia. Jetter's goal was to develop a program that would overcome the limitations of creating mind maps with pen and paper, such as the inability to easily move items around. Following his release from hospital, Jetter decided to sell the software. The software's mind maps were initially based on the method created by Tony Buzan. Over time, however, Mindjet has developed its own style of mind mapping.  The software was originally marketed under the name "MindMan — The Creative MindManager". In 1999, it was rebranded as MindManager. Originally only available for Windows, MindManager expanded to Mac OS X in 2006. With the release of version 7, the Windows version of MindManager adopted the ribbon interface first seen in Microsoft Office 2007 and introduced support for Office Open XML. In 2011, mobile versions of MindManager were released for both iOS and Android. Later that year, the company acquired Thinking Space, an Android-based information mapping application, and Cohuman, a social task management service, which the company developed into a collaborative, cloud-based service to complement MindManager called Mindjet Connect or Project Director.  In September 2012, the Mindjet company combined all of its software, including MindManager, Mindjet Connect, and its mobile offerings into a single product, also called Mindjet.  Mindjet moved away from the single-product offering in mid-2013. The stand-alone mind mapping product was again named MindManager, with a more expansive version tailored to large enterprise adoptions called MindManager Enterprise released in 2014. MindManager Enterprise added sharing options including viewing/editing within Microsoft SharePoint. A MindManager mind map viewer also became available with MindManager Enterprise 2016.  On August 9, 2016, Corel announced that they had acquired the Mindjet MindManager business.

Reception and awards.

MindManager has received generally positive notice from reviewers. MindManager 2016 for Windows took first place in Biggerplate's MindMapper's Choice poll. MindManager 8 received four out of five stars from TechRadar, while MindManager 9 received 3.5 out of 5 stars from "PC Magazine" and 4 out of 5 stars from "Macworld". MindManager was chosen as one of the top 5 best mind mapping tools.  MindManager also received a number of awards, including "Collaboration Product of the Year" for 2008 by Intranet Journal, a Jolt Productivity award for Design and Modeling tools from Dr. Dobb's Journal, and "Best of CeBIT" in the Personal Software category in 2004.

MindManager is a commercial mind mapping software application developed by Mindjet. The software provides ways for users to visualize information in mind maps and flowcharts. MindManager can be used to manage projects, organize information, and for brainstorming.

Mindjet(原名:MindManager、MindMan)是由Mindjet公司开发的一款商业项目管理的应用程序,可以让用户通过思维导图的方法进行可视化的知识管理。截至2011年12月,Mindjet拥有约200万用户,当中包括可口可乐、迪斯尼、IBM及沃尔玛等著名客户。


Plot.

In the 1750s, Spanish Jesuit priest Father Gabriel enters the northeastern Argentina and eastern Paraguayan jungle to build a mission station and convert a Guaraní community to Christianity. The Guaraní are not initially receptive to Christianity or outsiders in general, and tie a priest to a wooden cross and send him over the Iguazu Falls. Father Gabriel travels to the falls, climbs to the top, and plays his oboe. The Guaraní warriors, captivated by the music, allow him to live.  Mercenary and slaver Rodrigo Mendoza makes his living kidnapping natives such as the Guarani community and selling them to nearby plantations, including the plantation of the Spanish Governor Don Cabeza. After returning from another kidnapping trip, Mendoza is told by his assumed fiancée, Carlotta, that she loves his younger half-brother Felipe. Mendoza later finds them in bed together and in a fit of rage kills Felipe in a duel. Although he is acquitted of the killing of Felipe, Mendoza spirals into depression. Father Gabriel visits and challenges Mendoza to undertake a suitable penance. Mendoza accompanies the Jesuits on their return journey, dragging a heavy bundle containing his armour and sword. After initially tense moments upon reaching the outskirts of the natives' territory, though they recognise him, the natives embrace a tearful Mendoza and cut away his heavy bundle.  Father Gabriel's mission is depicted as a place of sanctuary and education for the Guaraní. Moved by the Guaraní's acceptance, Mendoza wishes to help at the mission and Father Gabriel gives him a Bible. In time, Mendoza takes vows and becomes a Jesuit under Father Gabriel and his colleague Father Fielding.  The Jesuit missions were safe, because they were protected under Spanish law. The Treaty of Madrid (1750) reapportioned South American land on which the Jesuit missions were located, transferring the area to the Portuguese, who allowed slavery. The Portuguese colonials seek to enslave the natives, and as the independent Jesuit missions might impede this, Papal emissary Cardinal Altamirano, a former Jesuit priest, is sent from the Vatican to survey the missions and decide which, if any, should be allowed to remain.  Under pressure from both Cabeza and Portuguese representative Hontar, Cardinal Altamirano is forced to choose between two evils. If he rules in favour of the colonists, the indigenous peoples will become enslaved; if he rules in favour of the missions, the entire Jesuit Order may be condemned by the Portuguese and the European Catholic Church could fracture. Altamirano visits the missions and is amazed at their industry and success, both in converting the Indians and, in some cases, economically. At Father Gabriel's mission of San Carlos, he tries to explain the reasons behind closing the mission and instructs the Guaraní that they must leave, because it is God's will. The Guaraní question the validity of his claim, and argue God's will was to settle and develop the mission. Father Gabriel and Mendoza, under threat of excommunication, state their intention to defend the mission alongside the Guaraní if the plantation owners and colonists attack. They are, however, divided on how to do this, and they debate how to respond to the impending military attack. Father Gabriel believes that violence is a direct crime against God. Mendoza, however, decides to break his vows by militarily defending the Mission. Against Father Gabriel's wishes, he teaches the natives the European art of war and once more takes up his sword.  When a joint Portuguese and Spanish force attacks, the mission is initially defended by Mendoza, Fielding and the Guaraní. They are no match for the military force and Mendoza is shot and fatally wounded after the soldiers destroy a trap, allowing them to enter the village. Fielding sacrifices himself by killing the Portuguese commander before he is killed. Upon seeing the church at the mission village the soldiers become reluctant to fire. When the soldiers enter the mission village, they encounter the singing of Father Gabriel and the Guaraní women and children who march in the procession. Father Gabriel leads, carrying a monstrance with the Blessed Sacrament. Ignoring this, the Spanish commander orders the attack; Father Gabriel, the rest of the priests and most of the Guaraní, including women and children, are gunned down. After Father Gabriel is shot, a child picks up the Blessed Sacrament and leads the procession. Only a handful escape into the jungle.  In a final exchange between Cardinal Altamirano and Hontar, Hontar laments that what happened was unfortunate but inevitable, because "we must work in the world; the world is thus." Altamirano replies, "No, thus have we made the world. Thus have I made it." Days later, a canoe of young children return to the scene of the Mission massacre and salvage a few belongings. They set off up the river, going deeper into the jungle, with the thought that the events will remain in their memories. A final title declares that many priests continue to fight for the rights of indigenous people. The text of John 1:5 is displayed: "The light shineth in the darkness, and the darkness hath not overcome it."

Historical basis.

"The Mission" is based on events surrounding the Treaty of Madrid in 1750, in which Spain ceded part of Jesuit Paraguay to Portugal. A significant subtext is the impending suppression of the Jesuits, of which Father Gabriel is warned by the film's narrator, Cardinal Altamirano, who was once himself a Jesuit. Altamirano, speaking in hindsight in 1758, corresponds to the actual Andalusian Jesuit Father Luis Altamirano, who was sent by Jesuit Superior General Ignacio Visconti to Paraguay in 1752 to transfer territory from Spain to Portugal. He oversaw the transfer of seven missions south and east of the Río Uruguay, that had been settled by Guaraní and Jesuits in the 17th century. As compensation, Spain promised each mission 4,000 pesos, or fewer than 1 peso for each of the approximately 30,000 Guaraní of the seven missions, while the cultivated lands, livestock, and buildings were estimated to be worth 7–16 million pesos. The film's climax is the Guaraní War of 1754–1756, during which historical Guaraní defended their homes against Spanish-Portuguese forces implementing the Treaty of Madrid. For the film, a re-creation was made of one of the seven missions, São Miguel das Missões.  Father Gabriel's character is loosely based on the life of Paraguayan saint and Jesuit Roque González de Santa Cruz. The story is taken from the book "The Lost Cities of Paraguay" by Father C. J. McNaspy, S.J., who was also a consultant on the film.  The waterfall setting of the film suggests the combination of these events with the story of older missions, founded between 1610–1630 on the Paranapanema River above the Guaíra Falls, from which Paulista slave raids forced Guaraní and Jesuits to flee in 1631. The battle at the end of the film evokes the eight-day Battle of Mbororé in 1641, a battle fought on land as well as in boats on rivers, in which the Jesuit-organised, firearm-equipped Guaraní forces stopped the Paulista raiders.

Historical inaccuracies.

The historical Altamirano was not a cardinal sent by the Pope, but an emissary sent by the Superior General of the Society of Jesus, Ignacio Visconti, to preserve the Jesuits in Europe in the face of attacks in Spain and Portugal.

Filming locations.

The film was mostly filmed in Colombia, Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay. The tunnels of Fort Amherst in Kent were used as part of the monastery where Mendoza (Robert De Niro) was held.

Soundtrack.

"The Mission" soundtrack was written by Ennio Morricone. Beginning with a liturgical piece ("On Earth as It Is in Heaven") which becomes the "Spanish" theme, it moves quickly to the "Guaraní" theme, which is written in a heavily native style and uses several indigenous instruments. Later, Morricone defines the "Mission" theme as a duet between the "Spanish" and "Guaraní" themes.  Other themes throughout the movie include the "Penance", "Conquest" and "Ave Maria Guaraní" themes. In the latter, a large choir of indigenous people sing a rendition of the "Ave Maria".

Reception.

Box Office.

The film grossed $17.2 million at the US and international box office against a budget of £16.5 million, which at the time was the US equivalent of $25.4 million, making this film a commercial flop.  Goldcrest Films invested £15,130,000 in the film and received £12,250,000 in returns, netting Goldcrest a £2,880,000 loss.

Critical.

"The Mission" received mixed to positive reviews from critics. The film currently holds a 64% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 25 reviews.

Awards and honours.

Academy Awards  BAFTA Film Awards  Cannes Film Festival  Golden Globe Awards

Others.

The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

The Mission is a 1986 British period drama film about the experiences of a Jesuit missionary in 18th-century South America. Directed by Roland Joffé and written by Robert Bolt, the film stars Robert De Niro, Jeremy Irons, Ray McAnally, Aidan Quinn, Cherie Lunghi, and Liam Neeson.

《教会》(英语:The Mission)是一部1986年的英国时代电影,表述18世纪天主教耶稣会赴南美传教的故事。编剧是罗伯特·鲍特,导演是罗兰·佐夫,主演罗伯特·德尼罗及谢洛美·艾朗斯等。


Family background.

There are two accounts of Cao Zhen's origins. The first, from the "Records of the Three Kingdoms" ("Sanguozhi") and "Wei Shu" (魏書; by Wang Chen), claimed that Cao Zhen was a distant younger relative of Cao Cao, a warlord who rose to power in the late Eastern Han dynasty and controlled the Han central government. Cao Zhen's father, Cao Shao (曹邵), was a close aide to Cao Cao and was known for his intelligence and loyalty. Around 190, when Cao Cao was raising an army to join the Guandong Coalition, he sent Cao Shao to recruit soldiers from the various commanderies. Huang Wan (黃琬), the Inspector of Yu Province at the time, plotted to assassinate Cao Cao. Cao Shao sacrificed his life to save Cao Cao.  The second account, from the "Weilue", mentioned that Cao Zhen's original family name was Qin (秦), and that he was adopted into the Cao family. In this account, Cao Zhen's father was one Qin Bonan (秦伯南), who was a close friend of Cao Cao. Around 195, when Cao Cao was being attacked by soldiers under a rival warlord Yuan Shu, he took shelter in Qin Bonan's house. When the soldiers showed up and asked him where Cao Cao was, Qin Bonan claimed that he was Cao Cao and was killed by the soldiers. Out of gratitude to Qin Bonan for saving his life, Cao Cao adopted his children and allowed them to bear his family name.

Service under Cao Cao.

In any case, Cao Cao took pity on Cao Zhen, adopted him and allowed him to live with one of his own sons, Cao Pi. One day, while Cao Zhen was out hunting, he encountered a ferocious tiger which started chasing him. Cao Zhen turned back and killed the tiger with a single arrow shot. Cao Cao was so impressed with Cao Zhen's bravery that he appointed his adopted son as an officer in the elite "Tiger and Leopard Cavalry" (虎豹騎) of his army. Cao Zhen scored his first victory in battle when he defeated bandits in Lingqiu County (靈丘縣; east of present-day Lingqiu County, Shanxi). In recognition of his achievement, the Han imperial court enfeoffed him as the Marquis of Lingshou Village (靈壽亭侯).

Hanzhong Campaign.

Between 217 and 219, Cao Zhen fought in Hanzhong Commandery against Cao Cao's rival Liu Bei, who had launched a campaign to seize control of Hanzhong Commandery from Cao Cao. When Liu Bei sent Wu Lan (吳蘭), one of his officers, to lead troops to garrison at Xiabian County (下辯縣; northwest of present-day Cheng County, Gansu), Cao Cao ordered his cousin Cao Hong to lead an army to attack the enemy. Along with Cao Xiu and Cao Hong, Cao Zhen fought at Xiabian County and defeated Wu Lan. He was promoted to Central Resolute General (中堅將軍) for his achievement.  When Cao Zhen returned to Chang'an, Cao Cao appointed him as Commandant of the Central Army (中領軍). At the time, as his general Xiahou Yuan had been killed in action against Liu Bei's forces at the Battle of Mount Dingjun, Cao Cao was worried that Liu Bei would press on the attack at Yangping Pass (陽平關; in present-day Ningqiang County, Shaanxi). He commissioned Cao Zhen as Army Protector Who Attacks Shu (征蜀護軍) and ordered him and Xu Huang to lead troops to attack Gao Xiang, an officer under Liu Bei, at Yangping Pass. Cao Zhen and Xu Huang defeated Gao Xiang and drove him back. In 219, after a prolonged war against Liu Bei, Cao Cao eventually decided to give up defending Hanzhong Commandery so he withdrew all his forces. During the retreat, he sent Cao Zhen to Wudu Commandery (武都郡; around present-day Cheng County, Gansu) to meet up with Cao Hong and relay his order for them to retreat to Chencang (陳倉; east of present-day Baoji, Shaanxi).

Service under Cao Pi.

Following Cao Cao's death in March 220, his son Cao Pi succeeded him as the (vassal) King of Wei (魏王) and Imperial Chancellor (丞相) of the Eastern Han dynasty. Cao Pi appointed Cao Zhen as General Who Guards the West (鎮西將軍) and ordered him to supervise military operations in Yong and Liang provinces in western China. He also elevated Cao Zhen from the status of a village marquis to a district marquis under the title "Marquis of Dong District" (東鄉侯). During Cao Zhen's tenure, when one Zhang Jin (張進) started a rebellion in Jiuquan Commandery, Cao Zhen ordered his subordinate Fei Yao to lead troops to quell the rebellion. Fei Yao succeeded in his mission and killed Zhang Jin.  In late 220, Cao Pi usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, ended the Eastern Han dynasty, and established the state of Cao Wei with himself as the new emperor. Two years later, Cao Pi summoned Cao Zhen to the Wei imperial capital, Luoyang, where he reassigned Cao Zhen to be Senior General of the Upper Army (上軍大將軍), awarded him a ceremonial axe, and put him in charge of supervising military affairs throughout Wei.

Battle of Jiangling.

In 223, Cao Pi ordered Cao Zhen, Xiahou Shang, Zhang He and others to lead Wei forces to attack Wei's rival state, Eastern Wu, while he personally stationed at Wan (宛; in present-day Nanyang, Henan) to provide backup. The Wei forces attacked and besieged Jiangling (江陵; present-day Jiangling County, Hubei), which was defended by the Wu general Zhu Ran and some 5,000 soldiers. The Wei forces managed to defeat Wu reinforcements led by Sun Sheng (孫盛), Pan Zhang and Yang Can (楊粲), who were trying to help Zhu Ran. During the siege, Cao Zhen ordered his troops to dig tunnels, pile up earth to form small mounds, and build watchtowers to rain arrows on the defenders in Jiangling. Zhu Ran and his men managed to hold their ground and even found a small opportunity to counterattack and destroy two Wei camps. After some six months of siege, the Wei forces could not breach Jiangling's walls so they retreated.  During the campaign, Cao Zhen and Xiahou Shang managed to destroy a Wu garrison at Niuzhu (牛渚; northwest of present-day Dangtu County, Anhui). After he returned from the campaign, Cao Zhen was reassigned to be Senior General of the Central Army (中軍大將軍) and given an additional appointment as an Official Who Concurrently Serves in the Palace (給事中).

Incident with Wu Zhi.

In 224, Cao Pi ordered Wu Zhi to host a banquet in his residence to celebrate Cao Zhen's return from a campaign. In Cao Pi's imperial edict, all officers holding the rank of Senior General (上將軍) with "Specially Advanced" (特進) status and below had to attend. During the banquet, Wu Zhi instructed actors to put up a skit to make fun of Cao Zhen and Zhu Shuo (朱<unk>), who were fat and thin respectively. Cao Zhen turned furious and he shouted at Wu Zhi, "Are you and your men seeking a fight with me and my men?" Cao Hong and Wang Zhong egged Wu Zhi on by saying, "If you want to make the General (Cao Zhen) admit that he is fat, you have to show that you're thin." Cao Zhen drew his sword, glared at them and said, "I'll kill whoever dares to mock me." Wu Zhi also drew his sword and insulted Cao Zhen by saying, "Cao Zidan, you're not meat under a butcher's cleaver. My throat won't tremble when I swallow you and my teeth won't chatter when I chew on you. How dare you behave so rudely!" Zhu Shuo stood up and tried to reduce tensions by telling Wu Zhi, "His Majesty ordered you to host entertainment for everyone. Do you have to do this?" Wu Zhi then shouted at Zhu Shuo, "Zhu Shuo, how dare you leave your seat!" Everyone then returned to their seats. Zhu Shuo felt outraged but did not say anything, and returned to his seat and used his sword to hit the ground.

Service under Cao Rui.

In 226, when Cao Pi became critically ill, he ordered Cao Zhen, Chen Qun, Sima Yi and others to assist his son, Cao Rui, who later succeeded him as the second emperor of Wei. After his coronation, Cao Rui elevated Cao Zhen from the status of a district marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Shaoling" (邵陵侯), and promoted him to the position of General-in-Chief (大將軍) in January or February 227.

Tianshui revolts.

In the spring of 228, Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor (丞相) of Wei's rival state Shu Han, launched the first of a series of military campaigns against Wei and led the Shu forces to attack Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu). At the same time, he also ordered Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi to lead a detachment of troops to Ji Valley (箕谷) and pretend to be preparing to attack Mei County (郿縣; southeast of present-day Fufeng County, Shaanxi), so as to draw the Wei forces' attention away from Mount Qi. Three Wei-controlled commanderies – Nan'an (南安; around present-day Longxi County, Gansu), Tianshui and Anding (安定; around present-day Zhenyuan County, Gansu) – responded to the Shu invasion by defecting to the Shu side.  When the Wei imperial court received news of the invasion, Cao Rui ordered Cao Zhen to lead Wei forces to resist the invaders. At Ji Valley, Cao Zhen easily defeated Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi, who had been given command of the weaker soldiers in the Shu army. (Zhuge Liang had reserved the better soldiers for his own army to attack Mount Qi.) In the meantime, the Wei general Zhang He attacked and defeated the Shu general Ma Su at the Battle of Jieting. Around the time, one Yang Tiao (楊條) from Anding Commandery had rallied some followers, taken the commandery officials hostage and captured the revenue office. When Cao Zhen and his troops besieged Anding Commandery, Yang Tiao tied himself up and surrendered. Zhuge Liang and the Shu forces retreated upon learning of Ma Su’s defeat. The Wei forces under Cao Zhen and Zhang He then used the opportunity to quell the rebellions in the three commanderies and restore peace.

Siege of Chencang.

After repelling the first Shu invasion, Cao Zhen observed that if Shu were to invade Wei again, they would attack via Chencang (陳倉; east of present-day Baoji, Shaanxi). He then put Hao Zhao and Wang Sheng (王生) in charge of defending Chencang and ordered them to strengthen the fortress's defences. As Cao Zhen foresaw, Zhuge Liang indeed led Shu forces to attack Chencang in the spring of 229. However, as Hao Zhao and the Wei defenders were well-prepared, they managed to hold their ground against the second Shu invasion. Zhuge Liang ordered a retreat after failing to breach Chencang's walls. As a reward for Cao Zhen's contributions, Cao Rui increased the number of taxable households in his marquisate, bringing it up to a total of 2,900.

Aborted campaign against Shu.

In 230, Cao Rui summoned Cao Zhen to the imperial capital Luoyang, where he promoted him to Grand Marshal (大司馬) and awarded him the ceremonial privileges of carrying a sword and wearing shoes into the imperial court, as well as not having to walk in briskly during imperial court sessions.  During this meeting with Cao Rui, Cao Zhen proposed launching a large-scale invasion of Shu from multiple directions to eliminate the threat once and for all. Cao Rui approved his proposal and personally saw him off from Luoyang. In September 230, Cao Zhen led an army from Chang'an to attack Shu via the Ziwu Valley (子午谷). At the same time, another Wei army led by Sima Yi, acting on Cao Rui's order, advanced towards Shu from Jing Province by sailing along the Han River. The rendezvous point for Cao Zhen and Sima Yi's armies was at Nanzheng County (南鄭縣; in present-day Hanzhong, Shaanxi). Other Wei armies also prepared to attack Shu from the Xie Valley (斜谷) or Wuwei Commandery. However, the campaign eventually had to be aborted in October 230 because the gallery roads leading into Shu were too damaged for the troops to pass through, and also because of rainy weather lasting more than 30 days.

Death.

Cao Zhen fell sick on the journey back to Luoyang and became bedridden in the subsequent months. During this time, Cao Rui personally visited Cao Zhen to check on his condition. Cao Zhen eventually died of illness in April or May 231. Cao Rui honoured him with the posthumous title "Marquis Yuan" (元侯).

Appraisal.

Cao Zhen was known for being generous with his personal wealth. In his younger days, he served under his foster father Cao Cao along with Cao Zun (曹遵), a distant relative of his, and Zhu Zan (朱讚), who was from the same hometown as him. Both Cao Zun and Zhu Zan died early. Cao Zhen took pity on their families so he requested permission from Cao Rui to give away parts of his marquisate to Cao Zun and Zhu Zan's sons. Cao Rui issued an imperial decree to praise Cao Zhen for his kindness, and award secondary marquis titles to Cao Zun and Zhu Zan's sons and give them each 100 taxable households.  Cao Zhen was also known for sharing weal and woe with his troops whenever he led them into battle. Every time after a battle, if there were insufficient rewards to be given out to all his men, he would use his personal wealth to make up for the difference. His men gladly accepted his kindness.

Family.

Cao Zhen had a younger brother, Cao Bin (曹彬), who received a marquis title and a marquisate of 200 taxable households by Cao Pi's decree. He also had a younger sister who married Xiahou Shang and bore Xiahou Xuan and Xiahou Hui; her personal name is unknown and she was referred to as the Lady of Deyang District (德陽鄉主).  Cao Zhen had six sons: Cao Shuang, Cao Xi (曹羲), Cao Xun (曹訓), Cao Ze (曹則), Cao Yan (曹彥) and Cao Ai (曹<unk>). Among them, Cao Shuang inherited his father's peerage and marquisate as the Marquis of Shaoling (邵陵侯), while the other five also had their own marquis titles and marquisates. In 239, before Cao Rui died, he appointed Cao Shuang and Sima Yi as regents for his underage adopted son, Cao Fang, who succeeded him as the third emperor of Wei. In 249, Sima Yi staged a "coup d'état" against Cao Shuang and successfully seized power from him. After the "coup d'état", Cao Shuang and his brothers were convicted of treason and executed along with their entire families.

In "Romance of the Three Kingdoms".

Cao Zhen appears as a character in the 14th-century historical novel "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", which romanticises the historical figures and events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. He makes a late first appearance in Chapter 84 when he accompanies Cao Pi on a campaign against Eastern Wu.  Cao Zhen starts to play a more important role from Chapter 91 onwards when the Shu regent Zhuge Liang launches the Northern Expeditions against Wei. His contributions in the series of battles against Shu are largely downplayed because the author, Luo Guanzhong, wanted to accentuate Sima Yi's resourcefulness and effectively portray him as Zhuge Liang's nemesis. Luo Guanzhong even attributed Cao Zhen's death to his failure to heed Sima Yi's forewarning of a Shu offensive.  In Chapter 100, Sima Yi warns Cao Zhen that Shu forces will, within the next ten days, launch an attack on Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu), a strategic location which would allow further incursions into the Wei heartland. After Cao Zhen refuses to believe Sima Yi, the two make a bet and each of them leads half of the Wei army to guard the valleys to the east and west of Mount Qi. Cao Zhen prepares for battle halfheartedly as he thinks that he is right. Seven days later, when his scouts report that a small number of Shu soldiers are approaching the valley, Cao Zhen sends his subordinate Qin Liang (秦良) to lead 5,000 men to survey the terrain. As Qin Liang and his men travel deeper into the valley, they fall into an ambush by Shu forces led by Liao Hua and Guan Xing and are completely destroyed. The Shu forces then disguise themselves by wearing the Wei soldiers' armour and uniform and infiltrate Cao Zhen's camp. In the meantime, Sima Yi encounters and defeats Shu forces led by Wei Yan. When he learns that no enemy forces have been spotted at Cao Zhen's side, he immediately leads his troops to Cao Zhen's camp. By then, the Shu infiltrators have launched a surprise attack within Cao Zhen's camp. Sima Yi shows up in time, drives back the Shu forces, and saves Cao Zhen. Cao Zhen feels so ashamed of himself that he falls sick. Zhuge Liang writes a letter to Cao Zhen to taunt and insult him. Cao Zhen becomes so angry after reading the letter that he coughs blood and dies that night in his camp. Sima Yi sends his dead body back to Luoyang, where he receives a proper burial.

Cao Zhen (died April or May 231), courtesy name Zidan, was a military general of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was an adopted son of Cao Cao, a warlord who rose to power in the late Eastern Han dynasty and laid the foundation for Wei. After Cao Cao's death and the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Cao Zhen served under Cao Pi and Cao Rui, the first two emperors of Wei. He is best known for leading a successful defence of Wei from the first two of a series of invasions by Wei's rival state, Shu Han, between 228 and 229.

曹真,字子丹,汉末三国时代曹魏名将,曹操的族子,也是曹丕的托孤对象。当初其父为曹操招募兵马被杀,曹操怜悯曹真而特别厚待。在曹魏的表现出众,多次抵御诸葛亮北伐,官至大将军、大司马,曹真死后谥为元侯。


Biography.

Born at Bordenau (now a part of Neustadt am Rübenberge, Lower Saxony) near Hanover, into a small landowner's family, Waitz von Scharnhorst succeeded in educating himself and in securing admission to the military academy of William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe, at the Wilhelmstein fortress. In 1778 he received a commission into the Hanoverian service. He employed the intervals of regimental duty in further self-education and literary work. In 1783 he transferred to the artillery and received an appointment to the new artillery school in Hanover. He had already founded a military journal which, under a series of names, endured until 1805, and in 1788 he designed, and in part published, a Handbook for Officers in the Applied Sections of Military Science ("Handbuch für Offiziere in den anwendbaren Teilen der Kriegswissenschaften"). He also published in 1792 his Military Handbook for Use in the Field ("Militärisches Taschenbuch für den Gebrauch im Felde").  The income he derived from his writings provided Scharnhorst's chief means of support, for he still held the rank of lieutenant, and though the farm of Bordenau produced a small sum annually, he had a wife, Clara Schmalz (a sister of Theodor Schmalz, the first director of Berlin University) and family to maintain. His first military campaign took place in 1793 in the Netherlands, in which he served with distinction under the Duke of York. In 1794 he took part in the defence of Menen and commemorated the escape of the garrison in his Defence of the Town of Menen ("Verteidigung der Stadt Menin", Hanover, 1803), which, apart from his paper on "The Origins of the Good Fortune of the French in the Revolutionary War" ("Die Ursachen des Glücks der Franzosen im Revolutionskrieg") remains his best-known work. Shortly thereafter he received promotion to the rank of major and joined the staff of the Hanoverian contingent.  After the Peace of Basel (5 March 1795) Scharnhorst returned to Hanover. He had by now become so well known to the armies of the various allied states that he received invitations from several of them to transfer his services. This in the end led to his engaging himself to King Frederick William III of Prussia, who gave him a patent of nobility, the rank of lieutenant-colonel and more than twice the pay that he had received in Hanover (1801). The Prussian Military Academy employed him, almost as a matter of course, in important instructional work (Clausewitz was one of his students) and he founded the Berlin Military Society. In the mobilizations and precautionary measures that marked the years 1804 and 1805, and in the war of 1806 that ensued, Scharnhorst served as chief of the general staff (lieutenant-quartermaster) of the Duke of Brunswick, received a slight wound at Auerstedt (14 October 1806) and distinguished himself by his stern resolution during the retreat of the Prussian army. He attached himself to Blücher in the last stages of the disastrous campaign, went into captivity with him at the capitulation of Ratekau (7 November 1806), and, quickly exchanged, had a prominent and almost decisive part in leading L'Estocq's Prussian corps, which served with the Russians. For his services at Eylau (February 1807) he received the highest Prussian military order "Pour le Mérite".  It was apparent that Scharnhorst's skills exceeded those of a merely brilliant staff officer. Educated in the traditions of the Seven Years' War, he had by degrees, as his experience widened, divested his mind of antiquated forms of war, and realised that only a "national" army and a policy of fighting decisive battles could give an adequate response to the political and strategic situation brought about by the French Revolution. He was promoted to major-general a few days after the Peace of Tilsit (July 1807), and became the head of a reform commission that included the best of the younger officers, such as Gneisenau, Grolman, and Boyen. Stein himself became a member of the commission and secured Scharnhorst free access to King Frederick William III by securing his appointment as "aide-de-camp-general". But Napoleon quickly became suspicious, and Frederick William repeatedly had to suspend or cancel the reforms recommended.  By slow and labored steps, Scharnhorst converted the professional long-service army of Prussia, wrecked at Jena (1806), into a national army based on universal service. Universal service was not secured until his death, but he laid down the principles and prepared the way for its adoption. Enrollments of foreigners were abolished, corporal punishments were limited to flagrant cases of insubordination, promotion for merit was established, and the military administration organized and simplified. The organization of the "Landwehr" (army reserves) was begun.  In 1809, the war between France and Austria roused premature hopes in the patriots' party, which the conqueror did not fail to note. By direct application to Napoleon, Scharnhorst evaded the decree of 26 September 1810, which required all foreigners to leave the Prussian service forthwith, but when in 1811–1812 France forced Prussia into an alliance against Russia and Prussia despatched an auxiliary army to serve under Napoleon's orders, Scharnhorst left Berlin on unlimited leave of absence. In retirement he wrote and published a work on firearms, "Über die Wirkung des Feuergewehrs" (1813). But the retreat from Moscow (1812) at last sounded the call to arms for the new national army of Prussia.  Scharnhorst, recalled to the king's headquarters, refused a higher post but became Chief of Staff to Blücher, in whose vigour, energy, and influence with the young soldiers he had complete confidence. Russian Prince Wittgenstein was so impressed by Scharnhorst that he asked to borrow him temporarily as his Chief of Staff, and Blücher agreed. In the first battle, Lützen or Gross-Görschen (2 May 1813), Prussia suffered defeat, but a very different defeat from those Napoleon had hitherto customarily inflicted. The French suffered significant casualties and, due in part to a severe shortage of cavalry, failed to follow up, rendering it an incomplete triumph. In this battle, Scharnhorst received a wound in the foot, not in itself grave, but soon made mortal by the fatigues of the retreat to Dresden, and he succumbed to it on 28 June 1813 at Prague, where he had travelled to negotiate with Schwarzenberg and Radetzky for the armed intervention of Austria. Shortly before his death he had received promotion to the rank of lieutenant-general. Frederick William III erected a statue in his memory, by Christian Daniel Rauch, in Berlin. Scharnhorst was buried at the Invalidenfriedhof Cemetery in Berlin.

Legacy.

Scharnhorst became the namesake for several objects, places and groups:  General Hans von Seeckt has been compared to Scharnhorst, mainly for his part in preparing the German Army of the Weimar Republic, which was severely limited by the Treaty of Versailles, for its eventual rearming, adapting secret doctrines, and preparing a General Staff. He has been credited with their unparalleled success in the campaigns of 1939-1940. After the rise of the Nazis in Germany, Field Marshal von Mackensen compared von Seeckt to Scharnhorst, saying "The old fire burnt still, and the Allied Control had not destroyed any of the lasting elements of German strength." Winston Churchill also subscribed to this theory, believing von Seeckt was vital in the return of Germany to its place in the military world as rapidly as it had.

Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a means of visualizing the level of similarity of individual cases of a dataset. MDS is used to translate "information about the pairwise 'distances' among a set of n objects or individuals" into a configuration of n points mapped into an abstract Cartesian space.

多维标度(Multidimensional scaling,缩写MDS,又译“多维尺度”)也称作“相似度结构分析”("Similarity structure analysis"),属于多重变量分析的方法之一,是社会学、数量心理学、市场营销等统计实证分析的常用方法。


Air quality monitoring.

Air pollutants are atmospheric substances—both naturally occurring and anthropogenic—which may potentially have a negative impact on the environment and organism health. With the evolution of new chemicals and industrial processes has come the introduction or elevation of pollutants in the atmosphere, as well as environmental research and regulations, increasing the demand for air quality monitoring.  Air quality monitoring is challenging to enact as it requires the effective integration of multiple environmental data sources, which often originate from different environmental networks and institutions. These challenges require specialized observation equipment and tools to establish air pollutant concentrations, including sensor networks, geographic information system (GIS) models, and the Sensor Observation Service (SOS), a web service for querying real-time sensor data. Air dispersion models that combine topographic, emissions, and meteorological data to predict air pollutant concentrations are often helpful in interpreting air monitoring data. Additionally, consideration of anemometer data in the area between sources and the monitor often provides insights on the source of the air contaminants recorded by an air pollution monitor.  Air quality monitors are operated by citizens, regulatory agencies, and researchers to investigate air quality and the effects of air pollution. Interpretation of ambient air monitoring data often involves a consideration of the spatial and temporal representativeness of the data gathered, and the health effects associated with exposure to the monitored levels. If the interpretation reveals concentrations of multiple chemical compounds, a unique "chemical fingerprint" of a particular air pollution source may emerge from analysis of the data.

Air sampling.

Passive or "diffusive" air sampling depends on meteorological conditions such as wind to diffuse air pollutants to a sorbent medium. Passive samplers have the advantage of typically being small, quiet, and easy to deploy, and they are particularly useful in air quality studies that determine key areas for future continuous monitoring.  Air pollution can

Soil monitoring.

Soil monitoring involves the collection and/or analysis of soil and its associated quality, constituents, and physical status to determine or guarantee its fitness for use. Soil faces many threats, including compaction, contamination, organic material loss, biodiversity loss, slope stability issues, erosion, salinization, and acidification. Soil monitoring helps characterize these threats and other potential risks to the soil, surrounding environments, animal health, and human health.  Assessing these threats and other risks to soil can be challenging due to a variety of factors, including soil's heterogeneity and complexity, scarcity of toxicity data, lack of understanding of a contaminant's fate, and variability in levels of soil screening. This requires a risk assessment approach and analysis techniques that prioritize environmental protection, risk reduction, and, if necessary, remediation methods. Soil monitoring plays a significant role in that risk assessment, not only aiding in the identification of at-risk and affected areas but also in the establishment of base background values of soil.  Soil monitoring has historically focused on more classical conditions and contaminants, including toxic elements (e.g., mercury, lead, and arsenic) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Historically, testing for these and other aspects of soil, however, has had its own set of challenges, as sampling in most cases is of a destructive in nature, requiring multiple samples over time. Additionally, procedural and analytical errors may be introduced due to variability among references and methods, particularly over time. However, as analytical techniques evolve and new knowledge about ecological processes and contaminant effects disseminate, the focus of monitoring will likely broaden over time and the quality of monitoring will continue to improve.

Soil sampling.

The two primary types of soil sampling are grab sampling and composite sampling. Grab sampling involves the collection of an individual sample at a specific time and place, while composite sampling involves the collection of a homogenized mixture of multiple individual samples at

Monitoring programs.

Soil contamination monitoring.

Soil contamination monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in contaminant deposition, movement, and effect. Human-based pressures such as tourism, industrial activity, urban sprawl, construction work, and inadequate agriculture/forestry practices can contribute to and make worse soil contamination and lead to the soil becoming unfit for its intended use. Both inorganic and organic pollutants may make their way to the soil, having a wide variety of detrimental effects. Soil contamination monitoring is therefore important to identify risk areas, set baselines, and identify contaminated zones

Soil erosion monitoring.

Soil erosion monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil and sediment movement. Monitoring programs have varied over the years, from long-term academic research on university plots to reconnaissance-based surveys of biogeoclimatic areas. In most

Soil salinity monitoring.

Soil salinity monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil salt content. Both the natural process of seawater intrusion and the human-induced processes of inappropriate soil and water management can lead to salinity problems in soil, with up to one billion hectares of land affected globally (as of 2013). Salinity monitoring at the local level may look closely at the root zone to gauge salinity impact and develop management options, whereas at the regional and national level salinity monitoring may help with identifying areas at-risk and aiding policymakers in tackling the issue before it spreads. The monitoring process itself may be performed using technologies such as remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) to identify salinity via greenness, brightness, and whiteness at the surface level. Direct analysis of soil up close, including the use of electromagnetic induction techniques, may also be used to monitor soil salinity.

Water quality monitoring.

Design of environmental monitoring programmes.

Water quality monitoring is of little use without a clear and unambiguous definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the objectives that it will satisfy. Almost all monitoring (except perhaps remote sensing) is in some part invasive of the environment under study and extensive and poorly planned monitoring carries a risk of damage to the environment. This may be a critical consideration in wilderness areas or when monitoring very

Parameters.

"see also Freshwater environmental quality parameters"

Chemical.

The range of chemical parameters that have the potential to affect any ecosystem is very large and in all monitoring programmes it is necessary to target a suite of parameters based on local knowledge and past practice for an initial review. The list can be expanded or reduced based on developing knowledge

Biological.

In ecological monitoring, the monitoring strategy and effort is directed at the plants and animals in the environment under review and is specific to each individual study.  However, in more generalised environmental monitoring, many animals act as robust indicators of the quality of the environment that they are experiencing or have experienced in the recent past. One of the most familiar examples is

Radiological.

Radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to ionizing radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results. The ‘measurement’ of dose often means the measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly. Also, sampling may

Microbiological.

Bacteria and viruses are the most commonly monitored groups of microbiological organisms and even these are only of great relevance where water in the aquatic environment is subsequently used as drinking water or where water contact recreation such as swimming or canoeing is practised.  Although pathogens are the primary focus of attention, the principal monitoring effort is almost always directed at much more common indicator species such as "Escherichia coli", supplemented by overall

Populations.

Monitoring strategies can produce misleading answers when relaying on counts of species or presence or absence of particular organisms if there is no regard to population size. Understanding the populations dynamics of an organism being monitored is critical.  As an example if presence or absence of a particular organism within a 10 km square is the measure adopted by a monitoring strategy, then a reduction of population from 10,000 per square to 10 per square will go unnoticed despite the very significant impact experienced by the organism.

Monitoring programmes.

All scientifically reliable environmental monitoring is performed in line with a published programme. The programme may include the overall objectives of the organisation, references to the specific strategies that helps deliver the objective and details of specific projects or tasks within those strategies the key feature of any programme is the listing of what is being monitored and how that

Environmental monitoring data management systems.

Given the multiple types and increasing volumes and importance of monitoring data, commercial software Environmental Data Management Systems (EDMS) or E-MDMS are increasingly in common use by regulated industries. They provide a means of managing all monitoring data in a single central place.

Sampling methods.

There are a wide range of sampling methods which depend on the type of environment, the material being sampled and the subsequent analysis of the sample.  At its simplest a sample can be filling a clean bottle with river water and submitting it for conventional chemical analysis. At the more complex end, sample data may be produced by complex electronic sensing devices taking sub-samples over fixed or variable time periods.

Judgmental sampling.

In judgmental sampling, the selection of sampling units (i.e., the number and location and/or timing of collecting samples) is based on knowledge of the feature or condition under investigation and on professional judgment. Judgmental sampling is distinguished from probability-based sampling in

Simple random sampling.

In simple random sampling, particular sampling units (for example, locations and/or times) are selected using random numbers, and all possible selections of a given number of units are equally likely. For example, a simple random sample of a set of drums can be taken by numbering all the drums and randomly selecting numbers from that list or by sampling an area by using pairs of random coordinates. This method is easy to understand, and the equations for determining

Stratified sampling.

In stratified sampling, the target population is separated into non-overlapping strata, or subpopulations that are known or thought to be more homogeneous (relative to the environmental medium or the contaminant), so that there tends to be less variation among sampling units in the same stratum than among sampling units in different strata. Strata may be

Systematic and grid sampling.

In systematic and grid sampling, samples are taken at regularly spaced intervals over space or time. An initial location or time is chosen at random, and then the remaining sampling locations are defined so that all locations are at regular intervals over an area (grid) or time (systematic). Examples Systematic Grid Sampling - Square Grid Systematic Grid Sampling - Triangular Grids of systematic grids include square, rectangular, triangular, or radial grids. Cressie, 1993. In random systematic sampling, an initial sampling location (or time) is chosen at random and the remaining sampling sites are specified so that they are located according to a regular pattern. Random systematic sampling is used to search for hot spots and to infer means, percentiles, or other parameters and is also useful for estimating spatial patterns or trends over time. This design provides a practical and easy method for designating sample locations and ensures uniform coverage of a site, unit, or process.  Ranked set sampling is

Adaptive cluster sampling.

In adaptive cluster sampling, samples are taken using simple random sampling, and additional samples are taken at locations where measurements exceed some threshold value. Several additional rounds of sampling and analysis may be needed. Adaptive cluster sampling tracks the selection probabilities for later phases of sampling so that an unbiased

Grab samples.

Grab samples are samples taken of a homogeneous material, usually water, in a single vessel. Filling a clean bottle with river water is a very common example. Grab samples provide a good snap-shot view of the quality of the sampled environment at the point of sampling and at the time of sampling. Without additional monitoring, the results cannot be extrapolated to other times or to other parts of the river, lake or ground-water.  In order to enable grab samples or rivers to be treated as representative, repeat transverse and longitudinal transect surveys taken at different times of day and times of year are required to establish that the grab-sample location is as representative as is reasonably possible. For

Semi-continuous monitoring and continuous.

There is a wide range of specialized sampling equipment available that can be programmed to take samples at fixed or variable time intervals or in response to an external trigger. For example, a sampler can be programmed to start taking samples of a river at 8-minute intervals when the rainfall intensity rises above 1 mm / hour. The trigger in this case may be a remote rain gauge communicating with the sampler by using cell phone or meteor burst technology. Samplers can also take individual discrete samples at each sampling occasion or bulk up samples into composite so that in the course of one day, such a sampler might produce 12 composite samples each composed of 6 sub-samples taken at 20-minute intervals.  Continuous or quasi-continuous monitoring involves

Passive sampling.

The use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location. Passive samplers are semi-disposable and can be produced at a relatively low cost, thus they can be employed in great numbers, allowing for

Remote surveillance.

Although on-site data collection using electronic measuring equipment is common-place, many monitoring programmes also use remote surveillance and remote access to data in real time. This requires the on-site monitoring equipment to be connected to a base station via either a telemetry network, land-line, cell phone network or other telemetry system such as Meteor burst. The advantage of remote surveillance is that many data feeds

Remote sensing.

Environmental remote sensing uses aircraft or satellites to monitor the environment using multi-channel sensors.  There are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors and in environmental remote sensing, the sensors used are tuned to specific wavelengths from far infrared through visible light frequencies to the far ultraviolet. The volumes of data that can be collected are very large and require dedicated computational support. The output of data analysis from remote sensing are false colour images which differentiate small differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment being monitored. With a skilful operator choosing specific channels it is possible to amplify differences which

Bio-monitoring.

The use of living organisms as monitoring tools has many advantages. Organisms living in the environment under study are constantly exposed to the physical, biological and chemical influences of that environment. Organisms that have a tendency to accumulate chemical

Other sampling methods.

Ecological sampling requires careful planning to be representative and as noninvasive as possible. For grasslands and other low growing habitats the use of a quadrat – a 1-metre square frame – is often used with the numbers and types of organisms growing within each quadrat area counted  Sediments and soils require specialist sampling tools to ensure that the material recovered is representative. Such samplers are frequently designed to recover a specified volume of material and may also be designed to recover the sediment or soil living biota as well such as the Ekman grab sampler.

Data interpretations.

The interpretation of environmental data produced from a well designed monitoring programme is a large and complex topic addressed by many publications. Regrettably it is sometimes the case that scientists approach the

Environmental quality indices.

Since the start of science-based environmental monitoring, a number of quality indices have been devised to help classify and clarify the meaning of the considerable volumes of data involved. Stating that a river stretch is in "Class B" is likely to be much more informative than stating that this river stretch has a mean BOD of

Environmental monitoring describes the processes and activities that need to take place to characterize and monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental monitoring is used in the preparation of environmental impact assessments, as well as in many circumstances in which human activities carry a risk of harmful effects on the natural environment. All monitoring strategies and programs have reasons and justifications which are often designed to establish the current status of an environment or to establish trends in environmental parameters. In all cases, the results of monitoring will be reviewed, analyzed statistically, and published. The design of a monitoring program must therefore have regard to the final use of the data before monitoring starts.

作业环境监测是通过对人类和环境有影响的各种物质的含量、排放量的检测,跟踪环境质量的变化,确定环境质量水平,为环境管理、污染治理等工作提供基础和保证。简单地说,了解环境水平,进行环境监测,是开展一切环境工作的前提。


Early life.

Ackles was born in Dallas, Texas, the son of Donna Joan (née Shaffer) and Alan Roger Ackles, an actor. He has a brother, Josh, and a sister, Mackenzie. Ackles had planned to study sports medicine at Texas Tech University and to become a physical therapist, but instead moved to Los Angeles to start his acting career. He has English, Irish, Scottish, and German ancestry.

Career.

After modelling on and off since the age of four, Ackles began to concentrate on an acting career in 1996. He appeared in several guest roles on "Mr. Rhodes", "Sweet Valley High", and "Cybill" before joining the cast of the NBC soap opera "Days of Our Lives" as Eric Brady in 1997. He won a 1998 Soap Opera Digest Award for Best Male Newcomer and went on to be nominated three times (in 1998, 1999, and 2000) for a Daytime Emmy Award for "Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series" for his work on "Days of our Lives". Ackles departed "Days of our Lives" in 2000 and went on to appear in the mini-series "Blonde", about the life of Marilyn Monroe. He also auditioned for the role of the young Clark Kent on "Smallville", a role offered to actor Tom Welling instead. Next he appeared in a guest role on the James Cameron television series "Dark Angel" on Fox in 2001 as serial killer Ben/X5-493, the brother of main character Max/X5-452 (played by Jessica Alba). His character died in the episode, but Ackles returned to the show as a series regular in the second season as Ben's sane clone, Alec/X5-494. He remained with the show until its cancellation in 2002. Ackles worked steadily throughout 2003. He joined the cast of the WB's hit show "Dawson's Creek" during its final season, playing CJ, Jen Lindley's lover. Afterward, Ackles filmed several episodes of the unaired series "Still Life" for Fox before it was abruptly dropped. He also had a small role in the 2004 short film "The Plight of Clownana". Ackles was the producer's first choice to play Eliza Dushku's love interest on the second season of "Tru Calling"; Ackles turned down the role, which was then offered to Eric Christian Olsen and the character's name was changed to "Jensen" because the producers of "Tru Calling" liked Ackles' name. Ackles returned to Vancouver (where "Dark Angel" was filmed) in 2004 to become a regular on "Smallville" playing the assistant football coach Jason Teague, who was also the newest romantic interest for Lana Lang (played by Kristin Kreuk). He also had a lead role in the 2005 film "Devour" in which Ackles' father, actor Alan Ackles, also had a role playing the father of Ackles' character, Jake Gray.  In 2005, Ackles joined the cast of the WB show horror/action series "Supernatural" where he stars as Dean Winchester. Dean and his brother Sam (Jared Padalecki) drive throughout the United States hunting paranormal predators, fighting demons and angels, and showcasing fantasy & sci-fi pop culture. The show is currently in its fourteenth season on the CW. It owns the title of the longest-running North American sci-fi series in history. In the summer of 2007, Ackles took on the role of Priestly in the independent comedy "Ten Inch Hero". The film began hitting the film festival circuit in early 2007 and Ackles received high praise for his comedic timing in the role. In February 2009, the film was released on DVD exclusively by Blockbuster Home Video. He also appeared on stage from June 5–10, 2007 with Lou Diamond Phillips in "A Few Good Men" at Casa Mañana Theatre in Fort Worth, Texas, as Lt. Daniel Kaffee. Ackles received strong praise for his work in this role, which was also his professional theatre debut.  In the summer of 2008, Ackles was cast in the remake of the cult film "My Bloody Valentine 3D", which opened nationwide on January 16, 2009.  In summer of 2010, Ackles provided the voice for the Red Hood (Jason Todd) in the animated film, "", which was released to DVD and Blu-ray on July 27.  On October 22, 2010, Disney Interactive Studios announced that he would be voicing a character named Gibson in the video game, "", which was released on December 7, 2010.  After years of performing at Supernatural Conventions, Ackles has released his first original recorded song as a professional singer titled "Sounds of Someday” which is the first track from an album due for release. In 2018, Ackles collaborated with musician Steve Carlson to form Radio Company. Together Ackles and Carlson completed a debut album entitled "Radio Company Vol. 1". The album's first single was released on iTunes with the album set for a November 2019 release.

Personal life.

After three years of dating, Ackles became engaged to actress and model Danneel Harris in November 2009. The couple married on May 15, 2010 in Dallas, Texas. Their first child, a daughter, was born in May 2013. In August 2016, the couple announced that they were expecting twins, a boy and a girl, who were born in December.  Ackles is a co-owner of a brewery in Dripping Springs, Texas, Family Business Beer Company, with his wife and in-laws. The brewery's name is a reference to "Supernatural" ("family business" being a tagline for the series).  Ackles and "Supernatural" co-stars Jared Padalecki and Misha Collins supported Beto O'Rourke for the 2018 Senate election in Texas.  In 2019, Ackles was chosen to serve as King Bacchus LI in the Krewe of Bacchus parade.

Jensen Ross Ackles (born March 1, 1978) is an American actor, singer and director. He has appeared on television as Dean Winchester in The CW horror fantasy series "Supernatural", Eric Brady in "Days of Our Lives", which earned him several Daytime Emmy Award nominations, Alec/X5-494 in "Dark Angel" and Jason Teague in "Smallville". He also starred as the lead in the box office success "My Bloody Valentine 3D" and provided the voice of Jason Todd in the popular animated film "".

詹森·罗斯·艾克尔斯(英语:Jensen Ackles,1978年-3月1日)是一名美国男演员,因主演《末世黑天使》、《超人前传》、《狙魔人》等电视剧而为观众所熟知。


History.

Origins (1972–1990).

The Green Party of England and Wales has its origins in the PEOPLE Party, which was founded in Coventry, Warwickshire, in February 1972. It was renamed to The Ecology Party in 1975 and, in 1985, changed again to the Green Party. In 1989, the party's Scottish branch split to establish the independent Scottish Green Party, with an independent Green Party in Northern Ireland developing shortly after, leaving the branches in England and Wales to

Early years (1990–2008).

Seeking to capitalize on the Greens' success in the EP elections, a group named Green 2000 was established in July 1990, arguing for an internal reorganization of the party in order to develop it into an active electoral force capable of securing seats in the House of Commons. Its proposed reforms included a more centralized structure, the replacement of the existing party council with a smaller party executive, and the establishment of delegate voting at party conferences. Many party members opposed the reforms, believing that they would undermine the party's internal democracy and, amid the arguments, various vital

Caroline Lucas (2008–2012).

In November 2007, the party held an internal referendum to decide on whether it should replace its use of two "principal speakers", one male and the other female, with the more conventional roles of "leader" and "deputy leader"; the motion passed with 73% of the vote. In September 2008, the party then elected its first leader, Caroline Lucas, with Adrian Ramsay elected deputy leader. In the party's first election with Lucas as leader, it retained both its MEPs in the 2009 European

Natalie Bennett (2012–2016).

In May 2012, Lucas announced that she would not seek re-election to the post of party leader. In September, Natalie Bennett was elected party leader and Will Duckworth deputy leader in the leadership election took place.  The 2013 local government elections saw overall gains of 5 seats. The party returned representation for the first time on the councils of Cornwall, Devon, and Essex.  At the local government elections the following year, the Greens gained 18 seats overall. In London, the party won four seats, a gain of two, holding seats in Camden and Lewisham, and gaining seats in Islington and Lambeth. At

Lucas and Bartley (2016–2018).

On 15 May 2016, Bennett announced she would not be standing for re-election in the party's biennial leadership election due to take place in the summer. Former leader Lucas and Jonathan Bartley announced two weeks later that they intended to stand for leadership as a job share arrangement. Nominations closed at the end of June, with the campaign period taking place in July and voting period in August and the results announced at the party's Autumn Conference in Birmingham from 2–4 September. It was announced on 4 September that Lucas and Bartley would become the party's leaders in a job share.  Lucas first suggested "progressive pacts" to work on a number of issues including combating climate change and for

Bartley and Berry (2018–).

Bartley and Berry were elected as co-leaders in September 2018, winning 6,279 of 8,329 votes. In the 2019 local elections, the Green Party secured their best ever local election result, more than doubling their number of council seats from 178 to 372 councillors. This success was followed by

Ideology and policy.

Sociologist Chris Rootes stated that the Green Party took "the left-libertarian" vote, while Dennison and Goodwin characterised it as reflecting "libertarian-universalistic values". The party wants an end to big government – which they see as hindering open and transparent democracy – and want to limit the power of big business – which, they argue, upholds the unsustainable trend of globalisation, and is detrimental to local trade and economies. There have been allegations of factionalism and infighting in the Green Party between liberal, socialist, and anarchist factions.  The party publishes a full set of its policies, as approved by successive party conferences, collectively entitled "Policies for a Sustainable Society" (originally "The Manifesto for a Sustainable Society" before February 2010). This manifesto was summarised by LGBT and human rights campaigner Peter Tatchell as "radical socialist", "incorporat[ing] key socialist values" as it "rejects privatisation, free-market economics and globalisation, and includes commitments to public ownership, workers' rights, economic democracy, progressive taxation and the redistribution of wealth and power".

Manifesto.

The party publishes a manifesto for each of its election campaigns. In their 2015 Election Manifesto, for the 2015 general election, the Greens outlined many new policies, including a Robin Hood tax on banks, and a new 60% tax on those earning over £150,000.  In their 2019 Manifesto, the party outlined their key policies including remaining in and transforming the EU, investing in public services, simplifying income tax and increasing the rate of corporation tax to 24%. The 2019 Manifesto has four key pillars: remain

Economic policy.

The Green Party believes in "an economy that works for all". This includes radical steps to eliminate poverty with ambitious social policies such as increasing the minimum wage in line with the living wage. They also want to introduce a four-day working week; many economists say this will result in stagnant economic growth, while others say it would boost productivity and growth as Mondays and Fridays are the least productive days in the week.  In November 2019, the Greens pledged to introduce a basic income by 2025, which will give every adult in the United Kingdom (unemployed or not) at least £89 a week (with additional payments to those facing barriers to work, including disabled people and single parents). This is in order to tackle poverty, give people financial security, give people more

Environmental policy.

The party states that it would phase out fossil fuel-based power generation, and would work toward closing coal-fired power stations as soon as possible. The Green Party would also remove subsidies for nuclear power within ten years and work towards phasing out nuclear energy. The party aims for the UK to become carbon neutral. The Green Party Manifesto states:The UK should

Foreign policy and defence.

Since at least 1992, the party has emphasised unilateral nuclear disarmament and called for the rejection of the Trident nuclear programme of nuclear weapons in the United Kingdom. To campaign for the latter, it has teamed up with the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Plaid Cymru, and the Scottish National Party. Former Leader Natalie Bennett has advocated replacing the UK Army with a "home defence force", according to "The Telegraph". "In the long term, it would take the UK out of NATO."  The party has opposed the invasion of Iraq, NATO-led military intervention in Libya and British involvement in Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen.  The party campaigns for the rights of indigenous people around the world and argues for greater autonomy

Drug policy.

The Green Party has an official drugs group, for drugs policy and research. The party wants to end the prohibition of drugs and create a system of legal regulation in order to minimise the harms associated with drug use as well as the harms associated with its production and supply. The party's view is that people have always used drugs and there will always be people that will use them, and therefore focus should be on minimising the harms associated with drug use and tackling the causes of why people take drugs (e.g. poverty, isolation, mental illness, physical illness, and psychological trauma). This sits alongside the party's

Sexual orientation and gender identity.

The stated aim of the sexual orientation and gender identity group within the party, known as LGBTIQA+ Greens, is to raise awareness on LGBTIQA+ rights and issues affecting the broader LGBTIQA+ community, as well as broader Green politics.  The 2015 and 2017 general election manifestos contained policies on all teachers to be trained on

Transport.

The Green party has called for "A People's Transport System" to help deal with the issues not just to the planet but to local communities as well. The Green Party has an official transport working group, aimed at helping to draw up policies to be voted on at the conference.  The party also aims to prioritise accessibility to transport and create equal access irrespective of age, wealth or disability. The party also wants to reduce the total distance people travel and travel journey lengths by encouraging the development and

Tuition fees.

The party supports scrapping university and further education fees. It supports all courses in further education being provided free at the point of use. According to the Green Party:"Under a green

Governance.

Global governance.

The party campaigns for greater accountability in global governance, with the United Nations made up of elected representatives and more regional representation, as opposed to the current

National governance.

The party advocates ending the first past the post voting system for UK parliamentary elections and replacing it with a form of

European Union.

The party supported the 2016 referendum on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union, calling it "a vital opportunity to create a more democratic and accountable Europe, with a clearer purpose for the future". The party has criticised the Common Agricultural Policy, the Common Fisheries Policy and the "excessive influence" of the European Commission in comparison to the European Council and European Parliament, describing it as "undemocratic and unaccountable". The party favoured a "three yeses" approach to Europe: "yes to a referendum, yes to major EU reform and yes to staying in a reformed Europe". Bennett also added that: 'Yes to the EU' does not mean we are content with the union continuing to operate as it has in the past. There is a huge democratic deficit in its functioning, a serious bias towards the interests of neoliberalism and 'the market', and central institutions have been overbuilt. But to achieve those reforms we need to work with fellow EU members, not try to dictate high handedly to them, as David Cameron has done.

Young Greens.

The youth wing of the Green Party, the Young Greens (of England and Wales), has developed independently from around 2002 and is for all Green Party members aged up to 30 years old. There is no lower age limit.

Membership and finances.

According to accounts filed with the Electoral Commission, for the year ending 31 December 2010, the party had an income of £770,495 with expenditure of £889,867. Membership increased rapidly in 2014, more than doubling in that year. On 15 January 2015, the Green Party claimed that the combined membership of the UK Green Parties (Green Party of England and Wales, Scottish Green Party, and Green Party in Northern Ireland) had risen to 43,829 members, surpassing UKIP's membership of 41,966, and making it the third-largest UK-wide political party in the UK in terms of membership. On 14 January 2015, UK newspaper "The Guardian" had reported that membership of the combined UK Green Parties was closing on those of UKIP and the Liberal Democrats, but noted that it lagged behind that of the Scottish National Party (SNP), which has a membership of 92,187 members but is not a UK-wide party. Membership of the party peaked at over 67,000 members in the summer of 2015 after the general election, but has since declined subsequent to Jeremy Corbyn becoming leader of the Labour Party.

Support base.

According to political scientist Sarah Birch, the Green Party draws support from "a wide spectrum of the population". In 1995, sociologist Chris Rootes stated that the Green Party "appeals disproportionately to younger, highly educated professional people", although he noted that this support base was "not predominantly urban". In 2009, Birch noted that the Green's strongest areas

Electoral representation.

The party has one Member of Parliament, two Members of the House of Lords, seven Members of the European Parliament and two Members of the London Assembly.

House of Commons.

Brighton Pavilion was the Green Party's first and only parliamentary seat to date, won at the 2010 general

House of Lords.

The party's first life peer was Lord (Tim) Beaumont, who defected from the Liberal Democrat group of peers in 1999, spoke frequently in the house and

European Parliament.

Since the first UK election to the European Parliament with proportional representation, in June 1999, the Green Party of England and Wales has had representation in the European Parliament. From 1999 to 2010, the two MEPs were Jean Lambert (London) and Lucas (South East England). In 2010, on election to the House of Commons, Lucas resigned her seat

Local government.

The party has representation at local government level in England. The party has limited representation on most councils on which it is represented.  From the early 1990s until 2009, the number of Green local councillors rose from zero to over

The Green Party of England and Wales (GPEW), also known as the Green Party or simply the Greens (Welsh: "Plaid Werdd Cymru a Lloegr"), is a green, left-wing political party in England and Wales. Headquartered in London, its co-leaders have been Siân Berry and Jonathan Bartley since September 2018. The Green Party has one representative in the House of Commons and, two in the House of Lords. It also has various councillors in the UK local government and two members of the London Assembly.

英格兰和威尔士绿党是活跃于英国英格兰和威尔士的绿党。


Structure.

Hydrostatic skeletons are typically arranged in a cylinder. Hydrostatic skeletons can be controlled by several different muscle types. Length can be adjusted by longitudinal muscle fibers parallel to the longitudinal axis. The muscle fibers may be found in continuous sheets or isolated bundles, and the diameter can be manipulated by three different muscle types: circular, radial, and transverse. Circular musculature wraps around the circumference of the cylinder, radial musculature extends from the center of the cylinder towards the surface, and transverse musculature arrange in parallel and perpendicular sheets crossing the diameter of the cylinder.  Within the cylinder lies fluid, most often water. The fluid is resistant to changes in volume. Contraction of circular, radial or transverse muscles increases the pressure within the cylinder, and results in an increase in length. Contraction of longitudinal muscles can shorten the cylinder.  Change in shape is limited by connective tissue fibers. Connective fibers, often collagenous, are arranged in a helical shape within the wall of the hydrostatic skeleton. The helical shape formed by these fibers allows for elongation and shortening of the skeleton, while still remaining rigid to prevent torsion. As the shape of the cylinder changes, the pitch of the helix will change. The angle relative to the long axis will decrease during elongation and increase during shortening.

Advantages and disadvantages.

Organisms containing a hydrostatic skeleton have advantages and disadvantages. Their fluid shape allows them to move around easily while swimming and burrowing. They can fit through oddly shaped passages and hide themselves more effectively from predators. They are able to create a force when squeezing through rocks and create a “prying open” gesture. There is a lightweight, flexible component to them that allows this movement with very little muscle mass.  These organisms are also able to heal faster than organisms that contain hard skeletons. Healing in these organisms varies from creature to creature. However, if the cavity needs to be refilled, the “fluid” can easily be refilled if it is water or blood. If the fluid is some other type of liquid, it can take longer, but it is still faster than healing a bone. The common earthworm is also able to regrow damaged parts of its body.  These organisms have some relatively simple pathways for circulation and respiration. Also, these organisms have a cushion to allow protection for internal organs from shock. However, it does not protect internal organs from external damage very effectively.  Because the hydrostatic skeletons have limited ability for attachment of limbs, the organisms are relatively simple and do not have many abilities to grab or latch onto things. Organisms with complete hydrostatic skeletons need to be in an environment that allows them to re-fill themselves with their fluid that is necessary for survival. This is why hydrostatic skeletons are common in marine life. They have a large amount of access to the necessary elements for survival. Terrestrial organisms that have hydrostatic skeletons generally have a lack of strength because they are not in a fluid environment. If one were to expand its body too much, it would collapse under its own weight.

Organisms.

Hydrostatic skeletons are very common in invertebrates. A common example is the earthworm. Also, hydrostatic nature is common in marine life such as jelly fish, starfish, and sea anemones. Earthworms have rings of muscles that are filled with fluid, making their entire body hydrostatic. A sea anemone has a hydrostatic head, with arms radiating out around the mouth. This structure is helpful in feeding and locomotion.  An example of a simple vertebrate containing a hydrostatic skeleton would be Enteropneusta, with the common name of acorn worm. This organism is classified as a Hemichordate, and they are marine worms that use their hydrostatic skeleton to tunnel and anchor themselves into the ground. This can be used for locomotion, but also can aid in the defense of the organism against outside forces as the worm can try to "hide" itself within the ocean floor.

Vertebrates.

The mammalian penis is a hydrostatic organ. The hydrostatic fluid, in this case blood, fills the penis during an erection. Unlike the hydrostatic skeletons of many invertebrates, which use the bending of the animal for locomotion, the penis must resist bending and shape changes during sexual intercourse. Instead of connective fibers arranged in a helical shape, the penis contains a layer called the corpus cavernosum. The corpus cavernosum contains connective fibers arranged both parallel and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. These fibers remain folded when the penis is flaccid, but unfold as the penis fills with blood during an erection, which allows the penis to resist bending. The penises of turtles are structured similarly, although they evolved separately.  Other vertebrates sometimes utilize a modified hydrostatic skeleton called a muscular hydrostat. Muscular hydrostats do not contain a fluid-filled cavity. These structures are constructed of muscle and connective fibers, densely packed into a 3-D structure. In many cases, the muscular hydrostat can be manipulated in all three dimensions. This allows for more precise movement compared to a typical hydrostatic skeleton. While in typical hydrostatic skeletons, movement is generated by applying force to a fluid-filled cavity, muscular hydrostats generate movement by muscle contractions. When one muscle contracts and decreases in area, other muscles within the structure must expand in response. Helical muscles may be present, which can create torsion, an ability that is restricted in hydrostatic skeletons. Muscular hydrostats are found in mammalian, reptilian, and amphibian tongues. Mammalian tongues have the structure of a central core of muscle fibers surrounded by bundles of longitudinal muscles and alternating parallel sheets of transverse muscle fibers. Elephant trunks and tapir proboscises also utilize a muscular hydrostat. These structures are composed of longitudinal fibers surrounded by radial and helical fibers.

A hydrostatic skeleton, or hydroskeleton, is a flexible skeleton supported by fluid pressure. Hydrostatic skeletons are common among simple invertebrate organisms. While more advanced organisms can be considered hydrostatic, they are sometimes referred to as hydrostatic for their possession of a hydrostatic organ instead of a hydrostatic skeleton. A hydrostatic organ and a hydrostatic skeleton may have the same capabilities, but they are not the same. Hydrostatic organs are more common in advanced organisms, while hydrostatic skeletons are more common in primitive organisms. As its name suggests, containing hydro meaning "water", being hydrostatic means that the skeleton or organ is fluid-filled.

静水骨骼(Hydrostatic skeleton)或水骨骼(Hydroskeleton),是一种由液压支撑的骨骼。静水骨骼在简单的脊椎生物中是常见的。更高级的生物体也有静水结构,不过它们是静水器官而不是静水骨骼。静水骨骼与静水器官功能相近,但不完全相同。静水器官常见于高级生物,而静水骨骼常见于原始生物。由其名称便可得知:静水意味着器官或骨骼充满液体。