Discovery.

Albertus Magnus, in the 13th century, documented the ability of nitric acid to separate gold and silver by dissolving the silver. Magnus noted that the resulting solution of silver nitrate could blacken skin.

Synthesis.

Silver nitrate can be prepared by reacting silver, such as silver bullion or silver foil, with nitric acid, resulting in silver nitrate, water, and oxides of nitrogen. Reaction byproducts depend upon the concentration of nitric acid used.  This is performed under a fume hood because of toxic nitrogen oxides evolved during the reaction.

Reactions.

A typical reaction with silver nitrate is to suspend a rod of copper in a solution of silver nitrate and leave it for a few hours. The silver nitrate reacts with copper to form hairlike crystals of silver metal and a blue solution of copper nitrate:  Silver nitrate decomposes when heated:  Qualitatively, decomposition is negligible below the melting point, but becomes appreciable around 250 °C and totally decompose at 440 °C.  Most metal nitrates thermally decompose to the respective oxides, but silver oxide decomposes at a lower temperature than silver nitrate, so the decomposition of silver nitrate yields elemental silver instead.

Uses.

Precursor to other silver compounds.

Silver nitrate is the least expensive salt of silver; it offers several other advantages as well. It is non-hygroscopic, in contrast to silver fluoroborate and silver perchlorate. It is relatively stable to light. Finally, it dissolves in numerous solvents, including water. The nitrate can be easily replaced by other ligands, rendering AgNO versatile. Treatment with solutions of halide ions gives a precipitate of AgX (X = Cl, Br, I). When making photographic film, silver nitrate is treated with halide salts of sodium or potassium to form insoluble silver halide in situ in photographic gelatin, which is then applied to strips of tri-acetate or polyester. Similarly, silver nitrate is used to prepare some silver-based explosives, such as the fulminate, azide, or acetylide, through a precipitation reaction.  Treatment of silver nitrate with base gives dark grey silver oxide:

Halide abstraction.

The silver cation,, reacts quickly with halide sources to produce the insoluble silver halide, which is a cream precipitate if Br- is used, a white precipitate if is used and a yellow precipitate if is used. This reaction is commonly used in inorganic chemistry to abstract halides:  where =,, or.  Other silver salts with non-coordinating anions, namely silver tetrafluoroborate and silver hexafluorophosphate are used for more demanding applications.  Similarly, this reaction is used in analytical chemistry to confirm the presence of chloride, bromide, or iodide ions. Samples are typically acidified with dilute nitric acid to remove interfering ions, e.g. carbonate ions and sulfide ions. This step avoids confusion of silver sulfide or silver carbonate precipitates with that of silver halides. The color of precipitate varies with the halide: white (silver chloride), pale yellow/cream (silver bromide), yellow (silver iodide). AgBr and especially AgI photo-decompose to the metal, as evidence by a grayish color on exposed samples.  The same reaction was used on steamships in order to determine whether or not boiler feedwater had been contaminated with seawater. It is still used to determine if moisture on formerly dry cargo is a result of condensation from humid air, or from seawater leaking through the hull.

Organic synthesis.

Silver nitrate is used in many ways in organic synthesis, e.g. for deprotection and oxidations. binds alkenes reversibly, and silver nitrate has been used to separate mixtures of alkenes by selective absorption. The resulting adduct can be decomposed with ammonia to release the free alkene. Silver Nitrate is highly soluble in water but is poorly soluble in most organic solvents, except acetonitrile (111.8 mg/100 g, 25°C).

Biology.

In histology, silver nitrate is used for silver staining, for demonstrating reticular fibers, proteins and nucleic acids. For this reason it is also used to demonstrate proteins in PAGE gels. It can be used as a stain in scanning electron microscopy.

Medicine.

Silver salts have antiseptic properties. In 1881 Credé introduced the use of dilute solutions of AgNO in newborn babies' eyes at birth to prevent contraction of gonorrhea from the mother, which could cause blindness. (Modern antibiotics are now used instead.)  Fused silver nitrate, shaped into sticks, was traditionally called "lunar caustic". It is used as a cauterizing agent, for example to remove granulation tissue around a stoma. General Sir James Abbott noted in his journals that in India in 1827 it was infused by a British surgeon into wounds in his arm resulting from the bite of a mad dog to cauterize the wounds and prevent the onset of rabies.  Silver nitrate is used to cauterize superficial blood vessels in the nose to help prevent nose bleeds.  Dentists sometimes use silver nitrate-infused swabs to heal oral ulcers. Silver nitrate is used by some podiatrists to kill cells located in the nail bed.  The Canadian physician C. A. Douglas Ringrose researched the use of silver nitrate for sterilization procedures, believing that silver nitrate could be used to block and corrode the fallopian tubes. The technique was ineffective.

Disinfection.

Much research has been done in evaluating the ability of the silver ion at inactivating "Escherichia coli", a microorganism commonly used as an indicator for fecal contamination and as a surrogate for pathogens in drinking water treatment. Concentrations of silver nitrate evaluated in inactivation experiments range from 10–200 micrograms per liter as Ag. Silver's antimicrobial activity saw many applications prior to the discovery of modern antibiotics, when it fell into near disuse. Its association with argyria made consumers wary and led them to turn away from it when given an alternative.

Against warts.

Repeated daily application of silver nitrate can induce adequate destruction of cutaneous warts, but occasionally pigmented scars may develop. In a placebo-controlled study of 70 patients, silver nitrate given over nine days resulted in clearance of all warts in 43% and improvement in warts in 26% one month after treatment compared to 11% and 14%, respectively, in the placebo group.

Safety.

As an oxidant, silver nitrate should be properly stored away from organic compounds. Despite its common usage in extremely low concentrations to prevent gonorrhea and control nose bleeds, silver nitrate is still very toxic and corrosive. Brief exposure will not produce any immediate side effects other than the purple, brown or black stains on the skin, but upon constant exposure to high concentrations, side effects will be noticeable, which include burns. Long-term exposure may cause eye damage. Silver nitrate is known to be a skin and eye irritant. Silver nitrate has not been thoroughly investigated for potential carcinogenic effect.  Silver nitrate is currently unregulated in water sources by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. However, if more than 1 gram of silver is accumulated in the body, a condition called argyria may develop. Argyria is a permanent cosmetic condition in which the skin and internal organs turn a blue-gray color. The United States Environmental Protection Agency used to have a maximum contaminant limit for silver in water until 1990, when it was determined that argyria did not impact the function of any affected organs despite the discolouration. Argyria is more often associated with the consumption of colloidal silver solutions rather than with silver nitrate, since it is only used at extremely low concentrations to disinfect the water. However, it is still important to be wary before ingesting any sort of silver-ion solution.

Silver nitrate is an inorganic compound with chemical formula. This salt is a versatile precursor to many other silver compounds, such as those used in photography. It is far less sensitive to light than the halides. It was once called "lunar caustic" because silver was called "luna" by the ancient alchemists, who associated silver with the moon.

硝酸银化学式为AgNO,白色晶体,易溶于水,遇有机物变灰黑色,分解出银。纯硝酸银对光稳定,但由于一般的产品纯度不够,其水溶液和固体常被保存在棕色试剂瓶中。


Etymology.

There are multiple theories about the origins of the word "ska". Ernest Ranglin claimed that the term was coined by musicians to refer to the "skat! skat! skat!" scratching guitar strum. Another explanation is that at a recording session in 1959 produced by Coxsone Dodd, double bassist Cluett Johnson instructed guitarist Ranglin to "play like ska, ska, ska", although Ranglin has denied this, stating "Clue couldn't tell me what to play!" A further theory is that it derives from Johnson's word "skavoovie", with which he was known to greet his friends. Jackie Mittoo insisted that the musicians called the rhythm "Staya Staya", and that it was Byron Lee who introduced the term "ska". Derrick Morgan said: "Guitar and piano making a ska sound, like'ska, ska,"

History.

Jamaican ska.

After World War II, Jamaicans purchased radios in increasing numbers and were able to hear rhythm and blues music from the Southern United States in cities such as New Orleans by artists such as Fats Domino, Barbie Gaye, Rosco Gordon and Louis Jordan whose early recordings all contain the seeds of the "behind-the-beat" feel of ska and reggae. The stationing of American military forces during and after the war meant that Jamaicans could listen to military broadcasts of American music, and there was a constant influx of records from the United States. To meet the demand for that music, entrepreneurs such as Prince Buster, Coxsone Dodd, and Duke Reid formed sound systems.  As the supply of previously unheard tunes in the jump blues and more traditional R&B genres began to dry up in the late 1950s, Jamaican producers began recording their own version of the genres with local artists. These recordings were initially made to be played on "soft wax" (a lacquer on metal disc acetate later to become known as a "dub plate"), but as demand for them grew eventually some time in the second half of 1959 (believed by most to be in the last quarter) producers such as Coxsone Dodd and Duke Reid began to issue these recording on 45rpm 7-inch discs. At this point the style was a direct copy of the American "shuffle blues" style, but within two or three years it had morphed into the more familiar ska style with the off-beat guitar chop that could be heard in some of the more uptempo late-1950s American rhythm and blues recordings such as Domino's "Be My Guest" and Barbie Gaye's "My Boy Lollypop", both of which were popular on Jamaican sound systems of the late 1950s. Domino's rhythm, accentuating the offbeat, was a particular influence.  This "classic" ska style was of bars made up of four triplets but was characterized by a guitar chop on the off beat—known as an upstroke or'skank'—with horns taking the lead and often following the off-beat skank and piano emphasizing the bass line and, again, playing the skank. Drums kept time and the bass drum was accented on the third beat of each four-triplet phrase. The snare would play side stick and accent the third beat of each 4-triplet phrase. The upstroke sound can also be found in other Caribbean forms of music, such as mento and calypso. Ernest Ranglin asserted that the difference between R&B and ska beats is that the former goes ""chink"-ka" and the latter goes "ka-"chink"".  One theory about the origin of ska is that Prince Buster created it during the inaugural recording session for his new record label Wild Bells. The session was financed by Duke Reid, who was supposed to get half of the songs to release. The guitar began emphasizing the second and fourth beats in the bar, giving rise to the new sound. The drums were taken from traditional Jamaican drumming and marching styles. To create the ska beat, Prince Buster essentially flipped the R&B shuffle beat, stressing the offbeats with the help of the guitar. Prince Buster has explicitly cited American rhythm and blues as the origin of ska: specifically, Willis Jackson's song "Later for the Gator" (which was Coxsone Dodd's number one selection).  The first ska recordings were created at facilities such as Federal Records, Studio One and WIRL Records in Kingston, Jamaica with producers such as Dodd, Reid, Prince Buster, and Edward Seaga. The ska sound coincided with the celebratory feelings surrounding Jamaica's independence from the UK in 1962; an event commemorated by songs such as Derrick Morgan's "Forward March" and The Skatalites' "Freedom Sound".  Until Jamaica ratified the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, the country did not honor international music copyright protection. This created many cover songs and reinterpretations. One such cover was Millie Small's version of the R&B/shuffle tune, "My Boy Lollypop", first recorded in New York in 1956 by 14-year-old Barbie Gaye. Smalls' rhythmically similar version, released in 1964, was Jamaica's first commercially successful international hit. With over seven million copies sold, it remains one of the best selling reggae/ska songs of all time. Many other Jamaican artists would have success recording instrumental ska versions of popular American and British music, such as Beatles songs, Motown and Atlantic soul hits, movie theme songs and instrumentals (007, Guns of Navarone). The Wailers covered the Beatles' "And I Love Her", and radically reinterpreted Bob Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone". They also created their own versions of Latin-influenced music from artists such as Mongo Santamaría. The Skatalites, Lord Creater, Laurel Atcken, Roland Alphonso, Tommy Macook, Jackie Mitto, Desmond Dekker, and Don Drummond also recorded ska.  Byron Lee & the Dragonaires performed ska with Prince Buster, Eric "Monty" Morris, and Jimmy Cliff at the 1964 New York World's Fair. As music changed in the United States, so did ska. In 1965 and 1966, when American soul music became slower and smoother, ska changed its sound accordingly and evolved into rocksteady. However, rocksteady's heyday was brief, peaking in 1967. By 1968, ska evolved again into reggae.

2 Tone.

The 2 Tone genre, which began in the late 1970s in the Coventry area of UK, was a fusion of Jamaican ska rhythms and melodies with punk rock's more aggressive guitar chords and lyrics. Compared to 1960s ska, 2 Tone music had faster tempos, fuller instrumentation, and a harder edge. The genre was named after 2 Tone Records, a record label founded by Jerry Dammers of The Specials. In many cases, the reworking of classic ska songs turned the originals into hits again in the United Kingdom.  The 2 Tone movement promoted racial unity at a time when racial tensions were high in England. There were many Specials songs that raised awareness of the issues of racism, fighting and friendship issues. Riots in English cities were a feature during the summer that The Specials song "Ghost Town" was a hit, although this work was in a slower, reggae beat. Most of the 2 Tone bands had multiracial lineups, such as The Beat (known as The English Beat in North America and the British Beat in Australia), The Specials, and The Selecter. Although only on the 2 Tone label for one single, Madness was one of the most effective bands at bringing the 2 Tone genre into the mainstream. The music of this era resonated with white working class youth and West Indian immigrants who experienced the struggles addressed in the lyrics.

Third wave.

Third wave ska originated in the punk scene in the late 1980s and became commercially successful in the 1990s. Although some third wave ska has a traditional 1960s sound, most third wave ska is characterized by dominating guitar riffs and large horn sections. Examples of third wave ska bands include The Toasters, Fishbone, No Doubt, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, The Hotknives, Hepcat, The Slackers, Suicide Machines, Voodoo Glow Skulls, Reel Big Fish, Less Than Jake, Bim Skala Bim, Mad Caddies, The Aquabats, Mustard Plug, Five Iron Frenzy, Buck-o-Nine, Suburban Legends, The Pietasters, Save Ferris, Goldfinger, Dance Hall Crashers, Mephiskapheles, Blue Meanies and The O.C. Supertones. New York City bands such as The Second Step, the Connotations, The Third Degree and The Boilers had a steady presence at CBGB throughout the mid to late 80s.

United Kingdom.

By the late 1980s, ska had experienced a minor resurgence of popularity in the United Kingdom, due to bands such as The Burial and The Hotknives, ska-friendly record labels such as Unicorn Records, ska festivals, and a re-emergence of the traditional skinhead subculture.

Germany, Spain, Australia, Russia, Japan and Latin America.

The early 1980s saw a massive surge in ska's popularity in Germany, which led to the founding of many ska bands like The Busters, record labels and festivals.  In Spain, ska became relevant in the 1980s in the Basque Country due to the influence of Basque Radical Rock, with Kortatu and Potato being the most representatives bands. (Skalariak and Betagarri followed their footsteps in the early 1990s and their influence is visible outside the Basque Country in punk-rock bands like Ska-P, Boikot and many others that have gained importance in the Spanish rock and punk rock scene and festivals.  The Australian ska scene flourished in the mid-1980s, following the musical precedents set by 2 Tone, and spearheaded by bands such as Strange Tenants, No Nonsense and The Porkers. Some of the Australian ska revival bands found success on the national music charts, most notably The Allniters, who had a #10 hit with a ska cover of "Montego Bay" in 1983. The 30 piece Melbourne Ska Orchestra has enjoyed success in recent years, touring internationally, including sets at Glastonbury and Montreux Jazz Festival.  Russian (then-Soviet) ska scene established in the mid-1980s in Saint Petersburg as the anglophone opposition to more traditional Russian rock music. AVIA and N.O.M. were among the first bands of genre. Then the bands like Spitfire, Distemper, Leningrad and Markscheider Kunst began popular and commercially successful in Russia and abroad in the late 1990s.  Japan established its own ska scene, colloquially referred to as "J-ska", in the mid-1980s. The Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra, formed in 1985, have been one of the most commercially successful progenitors of Japanese ska.  Latin America's ska scene started developing in the mid-1980s. Latin American ska bands typically play traditional ska rhythms blended with strong influences from Latin music and rock en Español. The most prominent of these bands is Los Fabulosos Cadillacs from Argentina. Formed in 1985, the band has sold millions of records worldwide, scoring an international hit single with "El Matador" in 1994 and winning the 1998 Grammy Award for Best Latin Rock/Alternative album.

United States and Canada.

By the early 1980s, 2 Tone-influenced ska bands began forming throughout the United States. The Uptones from Berkeley, California and The Toasters from New York City—both formed in 1981 — were among the first active ska bands in North America. They are both credited with laying the groundwork for American ska and establishing scenes in their respective regions. In Los Angeles around the same time, The Untouchables also formed. While many of the early American ska bands continued in the musical traditions set by 2 Tone and the mod revival, bands such as Fishbone, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones and Operation Ivy pioneered the American ska punk subgenre, a fusion of ska and punk rock that typically downplayed ska's R&B influence in favor of faster tempos and guitar distortion. Two hotspots for the United States' burgeoning ska scenes were New York City and Orange County, California. In New York, Toasters frontman Robert "Bucket" Hingley formed independent record label Moon Ska Records in 1983. The label quickly became the largest independent ska label in the United States. The Orange County ska scene was a major breeding ground for ska punk and more contemporary pop-influenced ska music, personified by bands such as Reel Big Fish and Sublime. It was here that the term "third wave ska" was coined and popularized by Albino Brown and Tazy Phyllipz (hosts of the "Ska Parade" radio show) to describe the new wave of ska-influenced bands which were steadily gaining notoriety; and Brown wrote the first treatise on ska's third wave in 1994. The San Francisco Bay Area also contributed to ska's growing popularity, with Skankin' Pickle, Let's Go Bowling and the Dance Hall Crashers becoming known on the touring circuit. The mid-1990s saw a considerable rise in ska music's underground popularity, marked by the formation of many ska-based record labels, booking organizations and indie zines. While Moon Ska was still the largest of the United States' ska labels, other notable labels included Jump Up Records of Chicago, which covered the thriving midwest scene, and Steady Beat Recordings of Los Angeles, which covered Southern California's traditional ska revival. Stomp Records of Montreal was Canada's primary producer and distributor of ska music. Additionally, many punk and indie rock labels, such as Hellcat Records and Fueled by Ramen, broadened their scope to include both ska and ska punk bands. Asian Man Records (formerly Dill Records), founded in 1996, started out primarily releasing ska punk albums before branching out to other music styles.  In 1993, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones signed with Mercury Records, becoming the first American ska punk band to find mainstream commercial success, with their 1994 album "Question the Answers" achieving gold record status and peaking at #138 on the "Billboard" 200. In 1995, punk band Rancid, featuring former members of Operation Ivy, released the ska punk single "Time Bomb", which reached #8 on the "Billboard" Modern Rock Tracks, becoming the first major ska punk hit of the 1990s and launching the genre into the public eye. Over the next few years, a string of notable ska and ska-influenced singles became hits on mainstream radio, including "Sell Out" by Reel Big Fish and "The Impression That I Get" by The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, all of whom would reach platinum status with each of their respective albums. By 1996, third wave ska was one of the most popular forms of alternative music in the United States. A sign of mainstream knowledge of third wave ska was the inclusion of the parody song "Your Horoscope for Today" on "Weird Al" Yankovic's 1999 album "Running with Scissors".  By the late 1990s, mainstream interest in third wave ska bands waned as other music genres gained momentum. Moon Ska Records folded in 2000, but Moon Ska Europe, a licensed affiliate based in Europe, continued operating in the 2000s and was later relaunched as Moon Ska World. In 2003, Hingley launched a new ska record label, Megalith Records. Jump Up Records, a label in Chicago, IL, also releases new ska music. Jump Up Records has been in business for 25 years.  In the early 21st century, ska was mostly absent from the radio, though there were exceptions. In 2017, Captain SKA reached #4 on the UK charts with "Liar Liar GE2017." In 2018, The Interrupters broke into the U.S. charts with their single "She's Kerosene." By 2019, several publications started wondering aloud whether a "fourth wave" of ska was about to emerge.

Ska (; ) is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s and was the precursor to rocksteady and reggae. It combined elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm and blues. Ska is characterized by a walking bass line accented with rhythms on the off beat. It was developed in Jamaica in the 1960s when Prince Buster, Clement "Coxsone" Dodd, and Duke Reid formed sound systems to play American rhythm and blues and then began recording their own songs. In the early 1960s, ska was the dominant music genre of Jamaica and was popular with British mods. Later it became popular with many skinheads.

斯卡曲风(Ska)发源自牙买加,本是该地的传统乐风。经过输入及改进后,于1960年代早期,成为美国流行音乐乐坛的一环,也为美国当地拉丁美洲流行音乐的重要一部分。


Mythology and literature.

Hesiod.

In Hesiod's "Theogony", Nyx is born of Chaos. With Erebus (Darkness), Nyx gives birth to Aether (Brightness) and Hemera (Day). Later, on her own, Nyx gives birth to Moros (Doom, Destiny), the Keres (Destruction, Death), Thanatos (Death), Hypnos (Sleep), the Oneiroi (Dreams), Momus (Blame), Oizys (Pain, Distress), the Hesperides, the Moirai (Fates), Nemesis (Indignation, Retribution), Apate (Deceit), Philotes (Friendship), Geras (Old Age), and Eris (Strife).  In his description of Tartarus, Hesiod locates there the home of Nyx, and the homes of her children Hypnos and Thanatos. Hesiod says further that Nyx's daughter Hemera (Day) left Tartarus just as Nyx (Night) entered it; continuing cyclicly, when Hemera returned, Nyx left. This mirrors the portrayal of Ratri (night) in the Rigveda, where she works in close cooperation but also tension with her sister Ushas (dawn).

Homer.

At "Iliad" 14.249–61, Hypnos, the minor deity of sleep, reminds Hera of an old favor after she asks him to put Zeus to sleep. He had once before put Zeus to sleep at the bidding of Hera, allowing her to cause Heracles (who was returning by sea from Laomedon's Troy) great misfortune. Zeus was furious and would have smote Hypnos into the sea if he had not fled to Nyx, his mother, in fear. Homer goes on to say that Zeus, fearing to anger Nyx, held his fury at bay and in this way Hypnos escaped the wrath of Zeus by appealing to his powerful mother. He disturbed Zeus only a few times after that always fearing Zeus and running back to his mother, Nyx, who would have confronted Zeus with a maternal fury.

Others.

Nyx took on an even more important role in several fragmentary poems attributed to Orpheus. In them, Nyx, rather than Chaos, is the first principle from which all creation emerges. Nyx occupies a cave or adyton, in which she gives oracles. Cronus – who is chained within, asleep and drunk on honey – dreams and prophecizes. Outside the cave, Adrasteia clashes cymbals and beats upon her tympanon, moving the entire universe in an ecstatic dance to the rhythm of Nyx's chanting. Phanes – the strange, monstrous, hermaphrodite Orphic demiurge – was the child or father of Nyx. Nyx is also the first principle in the opening chorus of Aristophanes' "The Birds", which may be Orphic in inspiration. Here she is also the mother of Eros.  The theme of Nyx's cave or mansion, beyond the ocean (as in Hesiod) or somewhere at the edge of the cosmos (as in later Orphism) may be echoed in the philosophical poem of Parmenides. The classical scholar Walter Burkert has speculated that the house of the goddess to which the philosopher is transported is the palace of Nyx; this hypothesis, however, must remain tentative.  In some accounts, the goddess of witchcraft, Hecate was also called the daughter of Night.

Cult.

There was no known temple dedicated to Nyx, but statues are known to have been made of her and a few cult practices of her are mentioned. According to Pausanias, she had an oracle on the acropolis at Megara. Pausanias wrote : More often, Nyx was worshipped in the background of other cults. Thus there was a statue called "Night" in the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The Spartans had a cult of Sleep and Death, conceived of as twins. Cult titles composed of compounds of "nyx-" are attested for several deities, most notably Dionysus "Nyktelios" "nocturnal" and Aphrodite "Philopannyx" "who loves the whole night".  Roman authors mentioned cult practices and wrote hymns in her honor. Ovid wrote: "May 9 Lemuria Nefastus. You ancient rite will be performed, Nox Lemuria; here will be offerings to the mute dead", and she is also mentioned by Statius:

Astronomy.

In 1997, the International Astronomical Union approved the name Nyx for a mons (mountain/peak) feature on the planet Venus. Nyx Mons is located at latitude 30° North and longitude 48.5° East on the Venusian surface. Its diameter is 875 km.  On June 21, 2006, the International Astronomical Union renamed one of Pluto's recently discovered moons (S/2005 P 2) Nix, in honor of Nyx. The name was spelled with an "i" instead of a "y", to avoid conflict with the asteroid 3908 Nyx.

Nyx (;,,, 'Night') is the Greek goddess (or personification) of the night. A shadowy figure, Nyx stood at or near the beginning of creation and mothered other personified deities such as Hypnos (Sleep) and Thanatos (Death), with Erebus (Darkness). Her appearances are sparse in surviving mythology, but reveal her as a figure of such exceptional power and beauty that she is feared by Zeus himself.

倪克斯(,,“夜”)在希腊神话中是代表黑夜的女神,也是希腊神话中的原始创世神之一。盖亚的姐妹。


History.

Origin.

The earliest known recipe for something similar to today's potato chips is in William Kitchiner's book "The Cook's Oracle" published in 1817, which was a bestseller in the United Kingdom and the United States. The 1822 edition's recipe for "Potatoes fried in Slices or Shavings" reads "peel large potatoes... cut them in shavings round and round, as you would peel a lemon; dry them well in a clean cloth, and fry them in lard or dripping". An 1825 British book about French cookery calls them "Pommes de Terre frites" (second recipe) and calls for thin slices of potato fried in "clarified butter or goose dripping", drained and sprinkled with salt. Early recipes for potato chips in the US are found in Mary Randolph's "Virginia House-Wife" (1824) and in N.K.M. Lee's "Cook's Own Book" (1832), both of which explicitly cite Kitchiner.

Saratoga Springs legend.

A legend associates the creation of potato chips with Saratoga Springs, New York decades later than the first recorded recipe. By the late nineteenth century, a popular version of the story attributed the dish to George Crum, a cook at Moon's Lake House who was trying to appease an unhappy customer on 24 August 1853. The customer kept sending back his French-fried potatoes, complaining that they were too thick, too "soggy", or not salted enough. Frustrated, Crum sliced several potatoes extremely thin, fried them to a crisp, and seasoned them with extra salt. To his surprise, the customer loved them. They soon came to be called "Saratoga Chips", a name that persisted into the mid-twentieth century. A version of this story was popularized in a 1973 national advertising campaign by St. Regis Paper Company which manufactured packaging for chips, claiming that Crum's customer was Cornelius Vanderbilt. Crum was already renowned as a chef at the time, and he owned a lakeside restaurant by 1860 which he called Crum's House. The "Saratoga Chips" brand name still exists today.

Production.

In the 20th century, potato chips spread beyond chef-cooked restaurant fare and began to be mass-produced for home consumption. The Dayton, Ohio-based Mikesell's Potato Chip Company, founded in 1910, identifies as the "oldest potato chip company in the United States". New England-based Tri-Sum Potato Chips, founded in 1908 as the Leominster Potato Chip Company, in Leominster, Massachusetts, claims to be America's first potato chip manufacturer.

Flavored chips.

In an idea originated by the Smiths Potato Crisps Company Ltd, formed in 1920, Frank Smith packaged a twist of salt with his chips in greaseproof paper bags, which were sold around London. The potato chip remained otherwise unseasoned until an innovation by Joe "Spud" Murphy, the owner of the Irish crisps company Tayto, who in the 1950s developed a technology to add seasoning during manufacture. After some trial and error, Murphy and his employee Seamus Burke produced the world's first seasoned chips: Cheese & Onion and Salt & Vinegar. Companies worldwide sought to buy the rights to Tayto's technique.  The first flavored chips in the United States, barbecue flavor, were being manufactured and sold by 1954. In 1958, Herr's was the first company to introduce barbecue-flavored potato chips in Pennsylvania.

Potato chip bag.

Chips sold in markets were usually sold in tins or scooped out of storefront glass bins and delivered by horse and wagon. Early potato chip bags were wax paper with the ends ironed or stapled together. At first, potato chips were packaged in barrels or tins, which left chips at the bottom stale and crumbled.  In the 1920s, Laura Scudder, an entrepreneur in Monterey Park, California, started having her workers take home sheets of wax paper to iron into the form of bags, which were filled with chips at her factory the next day. This pioneering method reduced crumbling and kept the chips fresh and crisp longer. This innovation, along with the invention of cellophane, allowed potato chips to become a mass-market product. Today, chips are packaged in plastic bags, with nitrogen gas blown in prior to sealing to lengthen shelf life, and provide protection against crushing.

Kettle-cooked.

Chips were long made in a batch process, where the potato slices are rinsed with cold water to release starch, fried at a low temperature of, and continuously raked to prevent them from sticking together.  Industrial advances resulted in a shift to production by a continuous process, running the chips through a vat of hot oil and drying them in a conveyor process.  Some small producers continued to use a batch process, notably in Maui. In 1980, inspired by the Maui Chip, an entrepreneur started Cape Cod Potato Chips to produce thicker, batch-cooked "Hawaiian style" potato chips, which came to be known as kettle-style (US) or hand-cooked (UK) chips and became a premium, "gourmet" item. Kettle chips are thicker and the surface starch is not rinsed off, resulting in a style of chip called "hard bite".

Nomenclature.

Little consistency exists in the English-speaking world for the name of this food. North American English uses "chips", though Canadians may also call French fries, especially thick ones, "chips" as well. "Crisps" may be used for thin fried potatoes made from batter.  In the United Kingdom and Ireland, "crisps" are potato chips which are eaten at room temperature, whilst "chips" are similar to french fries (as in "fish and chips") and are served hot. In Australia, some parts of South Africa, New Zealand, India, and the West Indies, especially in Barbados, both forms of potato product are simply known as "chips", as are the larger "home-style" variety. In the north of New Zealand, they are sometimes known as "chippies", but they are marketed as "chips" throughout the country. In Australia and New Zealand, a distinction is sometimes made between "hot chips" (fried potatoes) and "chips" or "potato chips". In Bangladesh, they are generally known as "chip" or "chips", and much less frequently as "crisps" (pronounced "kirisp") and locally, "alu bhaja" (for their similarity to the fried potato dish, "bhajji").  In German-speaking countries (Austria, Germany: ""Kartoffelchips"", or colloquially "Pommes" or "Fritten"; Switzerland: ""Pommes Chips"") and in countries of the former SFR Yugoslavia, fried thin potato slices are known as "chips" (locally pronounced very similarly to the English pronunciation), with a clear distinction from French fries. In Brazil, "home-style" potato chips are known as ("Portuguese potatoes") if their sides are relatively smooth and ("Prussian potatoes") if their sides show a wafer biscuit-like pattern, whilst American-like industrial uniform potato chips made from a fried potato purée-based dough are known as "batata chips" ("potato chips"), or just.

Health concerns.

Most potato chips contain high levels of sodium, from salt. This has been linked to health issues such as high blood pressure. However, researchers at Queen Mary University of London in 2004 have noted that a small "bag of ready-salted crisps" contains less salt than a serving of many breakfast cereals, including "every brand of cornflakes on sale in the UK."  Some potato chip companies have responded to the long-standing concerns by investing in research and development to modify existing recipes and create health-conscious products. PepsiCo research shows that about 80% of salt on chips is not sensed by the tongue before being swallowed. Frito-Lay spent $414 million in 2009 on product development, including development of salt crystals that would reduce the salt content of Lay's potato chips without adversely affecting flavor.  Unsalted chips are available, e.g. the longstanding British brand Salt 'n' Shake, whose chips are not seasoned, but instead include a small salt sachet in the bag for seasoning to taste. Many other popular brands in the United States, such as Frito-Lay, also offer such a product.  Another possible health concern related to potato chips is acrylamide, which is produced when potatoes are fried or baked at high temperatures. Studies show that laboratory animals exposed to high levels of acrylamide develop cancer; however, it is currently unclear whether a similar risk exists in humans. In August 2008, California Attorney General Jerry Brown announced a settlement with Frito-Lay, Kettle Foods, and Lance Inc. the makers of Cape Cod Potato Chips for violating the state's Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act. The state had alleged in 2005 that potato chips from these companies failed to document that they contained high levels of acrylamide, which is listed by California since the 1990s as a carcinogen. These companies paid fines and agreed to reduce acrylamide levels to be under 275 parts per billion. Many potato chip manufacturers attempt to remove burned and thus potentially acrylamide-rich chips before the packaging process. Large scanners are used to eliminate chips worst affected by heat.

Regional varieties.

Canada.

In Canada, seasonings include the unique all dressed, as well as dill pickle, jalapeño, ketchup, barbecue, sour cream and onion, and salt and vinegar. In 2006, Lay's introduced wasabi chips in Toronto and Vancouver, but no longer offers them. Lays has recently released new Lay's Poppables which come in 3 flavours: Sea Salt and Vinegar, Honey BBQ, Sea Salt and White cheddar. Loblaw, Canada's largest food retailer, offers several unusual flavors under its President's Choice brand, including poutine, maple bacon, Jamaican jerk chicken, Greek feta and olive, ballpark hot dog, and barbecue baby back ribs.

Hong Kong.

In Hong Kong, the two prominent potato chips are the spicy "Ethnican" variety by Calbee, and barbecue by Jack 'n Jill. Lay's are also popular in Hong Kong.

Indonesia.

In Indonesia, potato chips are commonly called as "kripik kentang", traditionally fell under "kripik" category. Indonesian potato chips market is mainly ruled by two brands; Indofood's Chitato (since 1990s) and Lay's (Frito-Lay). In 2014, Japan's Calbee and Indonesia's Wings Food formed Calbeewings, a joint venture and marketed Potabee potato chips in Indonesia.  Common potato chips flavors marketed in Indonesia include beef barbecue, spicy chicken, cheese and plain salted. Lay's potato chips sold in Indonesia is available in 6 flavors; honey butter, sour cream and onion, nori seaweed, beef barbecue, classic salty, and salmon teriyaki flavors. Potabee sold in Indonesia offers two flavors; beef BBQ and grilled seaweed. In 2018 Chitato launched "Do Us A Flavor" campaign that sell three unusual flavors; beef rendang, fried crab golden egg yolk, and mango sticky rice.

Ireland.

In Ireland, the two most popular flavors are cheese and onion, and salt and vinegar. However in Ireland, the word "Tayto" is synonymous with potato chips after the Tayto brand and can be used to describe all varieties of chips, including those not produced by Tayto. Hunky Dorys and King are other popular Irish brands. In November 2010, the Tayto company opened a theme park called "Tayto Park".

Mainland western Europe.

In Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands only two flavors were traditionally available, red paprika ("Paprika", sometimes also called "ungarisch" (from "Hungarian")) and salted ("gesalzen"). These are still by far the most common and popular types, but some vendors started to offer a number of other flavors such as sour cream and onion, cheese, oriental, or more exotic seasonings like "Chakalaka", "Currywurst", "Pommes" (french fries), ""Rot-weiss"" (red and white - french fries with tomato ketchup and mayonnaise). Potato chips made from ground potatoes are called "Stapelchips" rather than "Kartoffelchips" for legal reasons.

Colombia.

In Colombia, lemon, chicken, chorizo, and sirloin steak with mushroom sauce flavored potato chips are sold.

Japan.

In Japan, flavors include norishio (nori and salt), "consommé", wasabi, soy sauce and butter, garlic, plum, barbecue, pizza, mayonnaise, and black pepper. Chili, scallop with butter, teriyaki, takoyaki, and yakitori chip flavors are also available. Major manufacturers are Calbee, Koikeya and Yamayoshi.

United Kingdom.

The market in the United Kingdom is led by Walkers, which held 56% of the British crisp market in 2013. Walkers is known for its wide variety of crisps with the most popular flavors being Cheese & Onion, Salt & Vinegar, Prawn Cocktail, Beef and Onion, Roast Chicken, Smoky Bacon, Worcester Sauce, Pickled Onion, Tomato Ketchup, and Salt & Shake - Original.  More exotic flavors are Thai sweet chili, roast pork and creamy mustard sauce, lime and Thai spices, chicken with Italian herbs, Spicy Sriracha, BBQ Pulled Pork, sea salt and cracked black pepper, sea salt and cider vinegar, spicy and aromatic curry, turkey and bacon, caramelized onion and sweet balsamic vinegar, Stilton and cranberry. Since 2008, Walkers has launched its "Do Us a Flavour" campaign, challenging the British public to think up unique flavors for their crisps. Six flavors were chosen from among the entries and released as special editions. In 2014 the public had to pick one of Walkers' base ingredients, which was made up of six flavors from around the UK – Somerset Cheddar, Devonshire Chicken, Norfolk Pork, Dorset Sour Cream, Vale of Evesham Tomatoes and Aberdeen Angus Beef – then add their own unique flavor. In 2018 Walkers launched six new flavors to celebrate the brand's 70th birthday, with each flavor representing a different decade.  In 1981, hedgehog flavored crisps were produced by the landlord of "The Vaults" in Welshpool, Philip Lewis, for his customers who kept asking for them as a joke. They became unexpectedly popular, but this led to controversy. There was concern that real hedgehogs were being slaughtered, but it proved that they were actually flavored with pork fat. This then caused concern about false advertising, and so a compromise was agreed with the trading standards authorities: the labelling was amended to "Hedgehog® Flavoured Crisps".

United States.

In the United States, potato chips are made by national chains like Frito-Lay, Pringles and Kettle Brand; major regional brands like Jay's of Chicago, Better Made of Detroit and Old Dutch of Minneapolis; and specialty brands with local or uneven distribution.  Potato chip flavorings include variations of barbecue, as well as sour cream and onion, sour cream and cheddar, salt and vinegar, ranch, jalapeno and cheese. "Hot" is a common flavor such as Jay's Hot Stuff and Better Made Red Hot. Better Made also make Rainbow chips, heavily cooked dark-colored chips which would be rejected by most processors. In the Gulf South, Zapp's of Gramercy, Louisiana, makes kettle-cooked chips using regional flavors such as Crawtator, Cajun dill, Voodoo, and Creole onion.

Pennsylvania.

Pennsylvania leads the United States in potato chip production, and has been dubbed "the Potato Chip Capital" by several sources. Pennsylvania-based companies that produce potato chips include Utz Quality Foods, Herr's Snacks, Snyder's of Berlin, Snyder's of Hanover, Martin's Potato Chips, Wise Foods, Middleswarth Potato Chips, Dieffenbach's Potato Chips, Hartley's Potato Chips, Gibbles Foods, Stehman's Potato Chips, and Charles Chips. Many of these companies are members of SNAC International, the global snack industry association.

Similar foods.

Another type of potato chip, notably the Pringles and Lay's Stax brands, is made by extruding or pressing a dough made from dehydrated potato flour into the desired shape before frying. This makes chips that are uniform in size and shape, which allows them to be stacked and packaged in rigid cardboard or plastic canisters. Pringles are officially branded as "potato crisps" in the US. Pringles may be termed "potato chips" in Britain, to distinguish them from traditional "crisps". Munchos, another brand that uses the term "potato crisps", has deep air pockets in its chips that give it a curved shape, though the chips themselves resemble regular bagged chips.  An additional variant of potato chips exists in the form of "potato sticks", also called "shoestring potatoes". These are made as extremely thin (2 to 3 mm) versions of the popular French fry but are fried in the manner of regular salted potato chips. A hickory-smoke-flavored version is popular in Canada, going by the vending machine name "Hickory Sticks". Potato sticks are typically packaged in rigid containers, although some manufacturers use flexible pouches, similar to potato chip bags. Potato sticks were originally packed in hermetically sealed steel cans. In the 1960s, manufacturers switched to the less expensive composite canister (similar to the Pringles container). Reckitt Benckiser was a market leader in this category under the Durkee Potato Stix and French's Potato Sticks names but exited the business in 2008. In 2014, French's reentered the market.  A larger variant (about 1 cm thick) made with dehydrated potatoes is marketed as Andy Capp's Pub Fries, using the theme of a long-running British comic strip, which are baked and sold in a variety of flavors. Walkers make a similar product (using the Smiths brand) called "Chipsticks" which are sold in ready-salted and salt and vinegar flavors.  Some companies have also marketed baked potato chips as an alternative with lower fat content. Additionally, some varieties of fat-free chips have been made using artificial, and indigestible, fat substitutes. These became well known in the media when an ingredient many contained, Olestra, was linked in some individuals to abdominal discomfort and loose stools.  Many other products might be called "crisps" in Britain, but would not be classed as "potato chips" because they are not made with potato or are not chipped (for example, Wotsits, Quavers, Skips, Hula Hoops, and Monster Munch).  Sweet potato chips are eaten in Korea, New Zealand, and Japan; parsnip, beetroot, and carrot crisps are available in the United Kingdom. India is famous for a large number of localized 'chips shops', selling not only potato chips, but also other varieties such as plantain chips, tapioca chips, yam chips, and even carrot chips. Plantain chips, also known as chifles or tostones, are also sold in the Western Hemisphere from Canada to Chile. In the Philippines, banana chips can be found sold at local stores. In Kenya, chips are made from arrowroot and cassava. In the United Kingdom, Sweden, Finland, and Australia, a new variety of Pringles made from rice has been released and marketed as lower in fat than its potato counterparts.

Potato chips (often just chips), or crisps (in British English), are thin slices of potato that have been either deep fried or baked until crunchy. They are commonly served as a snack, side dish, or appetizer. The basic chips are cooked and salted; additional varieties are manufactured using various flavorings and ingredients including herbs, spices, cheeses, other natural flavors, artificial flavors, and additives. Potato chips form a large part of the snack food and convenience food market in Western countries. The global potato chip market generated total revenue of US$16.49 billion in 2005. This accounted for 35.5% of the total savory snacks market in that year ($46.1 billion).

马铃薯-{}-片(美式英文:potato chip),简称为-{洋芋片}-或-{薯片}-,是指由马铃薯制成的零食。制作方法是把马铃薯用切或碾压成型等方式制成薄片,然后炸或烤至脆口并加以调味即可,营养成分表的脂肪含量通常在33-40%之间。除了最简单地以盐来调味外,市面上不同口味的薯片亦会使用不同味精及不同香料调味。薯片是英语国家零食市场重要一部分。


History.

Origins and influences.

Krautrock is a broad label encompassing diverse sounds and artists that emerged in West Germany during the 1960s and early 1970s. The music was partially inspired by broad cultural developments such as the revolutionary 1968 German student movement, with many young people having both political and aesthetic concerns. Youth rebelled against both dominant American influence and conservative German entertainment like schlager music, seeking to liberate themselves from Germany's Nazi legacy in World War II and create a new popular culture. Jean-Hervé Peron of Faust said: "We were trying to put aside everything we had heard in rock 'n' roll, the three-chord pattern, the lyrics. We had the urge of saying something completely different." The movement saw artists merge elements of varied genres such as psychedelic rock, avant-garde forms of electronic music, funk rhythm, jazz improvisation and "ethnic" music styles, typically reflecting a "genuine sense of awe and wonder."  Core influences on these German artists included avant-garde composers Karlheinz Stockhausen and Terry Riley, and bands such as the Mothers of Invention, the Velvet Underground, the Beatles, and Pink Floyd. A significant influence was the work of American minimalists such as Riley, Tony Conrad, and La Monte Young, as well as the late '60s albums of jazz musician Miles Davis. Some artists drew on ideas from 20th century classical music and musique concrète, particularly composer Stockhausen (with whom, for example, Irmin Schmidt and Holger Czukay of Can had previously studied), and from the new experimental directions that emerged in jazz during the 1960s and 1970s (mainly the free jazz pieces by Ornette Coleman or Albert Ayler). "The Quietus" noted the influence of Jimi Hendrix and James Brown on krautrock musicians. Moving away from the patterns of song structure and melody of much rock music in America and Britain, some in the movement were drawn to a more mechanical and electronic sound.

Etymology.

Until around 1973, the word "Deutsch-Rock" ("German Rock") was used to refer to the new groups from West Germany. "Krautrock" was originally a humorous term coined in the early 1970s either by British disc jockey John Peel or by the UK music newspaper "Melody Maker", in which experimental German bands found an early and enthusiastic following, and ironically retained by its practitioners. The term derives from the ethnic slur "kraut", and its use by the music press was inspired by a track from Amon Düül's "Psychedelic Underground" titled "Mama Düül und ihre Sauerkrautband spielt auf" ('Mama Düül and her Sauerkrautband Strike Up'). According to author Ulrich Adelt, "kraut" in German can refer to herbs, weeds, and drugs. Other names thrown around by the British music press were "Teutonic rock" and "Götterdämmer rock". West Germany's music press initially used "krautrock" as a pejorative, but the term lost its stigma after the music gained success in Britain.  Its musicians tended to reject the name "krautrock". This was also the case for "kosmische Musik". Musicologist Julian Cope, in his book "Krautrocksampler", says "Krautrock is a subjective British phenomenon", based on the way the music was received in the UK rather than on the actual West German music scene out of which it grew. For instance, while one of the main groups originally tagged as krautrock, Faust, recorded a seminal 12-minute track they titled "Krautrock", they would later distance themselves from the term, saying: "When the English people started talking about Krautrock, we thought they were just taking the piss... and when you hear the so-called 'Krautrock renaissance', it makes me think everything we did was for nothing."

Musical elements.

Krautrock has been described as a broad genre encompassing varied approaches, though "The Quietus" noted that most music in the genre, "diverse as it is, shares an interest in electronics, texture and repetition." "Shindig!" summarized the style as "avant-garde musical collages of electronic sounds, rock music, and psychedelia" which typically featured "improvisation and hypnotic, minimalistic rhythms". "Los Angeles Magazine" summarized the genre as "where American psychedelica meets icy Germanic detachment". Critic Simon Reynolds described the style as "where the over-reaching ambition and untethered freakitude of late '60s acid rock is checked and galvanised by a proto-punk minimalism... music of immense scale that miraculously avoided prog-rock's bombastics". AllMusic described it as expanding on the musical explorations associated with art rock and progressive rock, but diverging from American and British groups' emphasis on jazz and classical elements in favor of "a droning, pulsating sound that owed more to the avant garde than to rock & roll". According to "The Line of Best Fit", some typical characteristics include "steady 4/4 beats, hypnotic, droning rhythms, and shimmering keyboards". Artists used early synthesizers and experimented with tape music techniques. "Pitchfork" stated that the genre "in its platonic ideal should be basically instrumental; it should seamlessly meld electronics and rock instruments; it should favor long, drawn-over structures over short dynamic shifts, and steady-state rhythms over syncopation". "Los Angeles Magazine" describes it as a "hypnotic, piston-pumping genre [...] where drummers pounded out tightly-wound beats, bassists thumped pulsing notes, and zoned out singers warbled over it all in an absurdist drone". "The Stranger" called krautrock an "innovative reconstruction of rock and electronic music".  The "Motorik" beat is the 4/4 beat often used by drummers associated with krautrock, characterised by a kick drum-heavy, pulsating groove, that created a forward-flowing feel. The motorik beat was used by Can in the song "Mother Sky", and by Neu! on their debut album, later being adopted by other krautrock bands. It has been widely used in many different styles of music beyond krautrock. According to "XLR8R", the term krautrock is often used by critics to signify the "mesmerizing motorik rhythms pioneered by Can and Neu!", but contested that "they represent merely a tiny fraction of the music that emerged from Germany during Krautrock's Golden Age". Matt Bolton of "The Guardian" makes a similar point, arguing that "Neu!'s streamlined instrumentals [...] certainly have little in common with Can's eclectic experimentalism, Amon Düül II's improvisational space rock or Faust's cut-and-paste sound collages.

Kosmische Musik.

Kosmische Musik ("cosmic music") is a term which came into regular use before "krautrock" and was preferred by some German artists who disliked the English label; today, it is often used synonymously with krautrock. More specifically, it may describe 1970s German electronic music which uses synthesizers and incorporates themes related to space or otherworldliness; it is also used as a German analogue to the English term "space rock". The style was often instrumental and characterized by "spacy", ambient soundscapes. Artists used synthesizers such as the EMS VCS 3 and Moog Modular, as well as sound processing effects and tape-based approaches. They largely rejected rock music conventions, and instead drew on "serious" electronic compositions.  The term "kosmische Musik" was coined either by Edgar Froese in the liner notes of Tangerine Dream's 1971 album "Alpha Centauri" or by record producer Rolf-Ulrich Kaiser as a marketing name for bands like Ash Ra Tempel, Tangerine Dream, and Klaus Schulze. The following year, Rolf-Ulrich Kaiser's Ohr Records released the compilation "Kosmische Musik" (1972) featuring tracks by Tangerine Dream, Klaus Schulze, Ash Ra Tempel, and Popol Vuh. Kaiser eventually began referring to the style as "cosmic rock" to signify that the music belonged in a rock idiom. German producer Conny Plank was a central figure in the kosmische sound, emphasizing texture, effects processing, and tape-based editing techniques. Plank oversaw kosmische recordings such as Kraftwerk's "Autobahn", Neu!'s "Neu! 75", and Cluster's "Zuckerzeit".  Several of these artists would later distance themselves from the term. Other proposed names for the style at the time were "Berlin School" and "Dusseldorf School," though none remained definitive. The style would later lead to the development of new-age music, with which it shared several characteristics. It would also exert lasting influence on subsequent electronic music and avant-garde rock.

Legacy and influence.

Krautrock has proved to be highly influential on a succession of other musical styles and developments. Early contemporary enthusiasts outside Germany included Hawkwind and in particular Dave Brock who supposedly penned the sleeve notes for the British edition of Neu!'s first album Faust's budget release "The Faust Tapes" has been cited as a formative teenage influence by several musicians growing up in the early 1970s such as Julian Cope (who has always cited krautrock as an influence, and wrote the book "Krautrocksampler" on the subject). The genre also had a strong influence on David Bowie's "Station to Station" (1976) and the experimentation it inspired led to his 'Berlin Trilogy'.  Krautrock was also highly influential on the late-'70s development of British new wave and post-punk, notably artists such as Siouxsie and the Banshees, Public Image Ltd., Cabaret Voltaire, The Fall, Gary Numan, Joy Division, Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, Simple Minds and This Heat. Kraftwerk in particular had a lot of influence on American electronic dance music of the 1980s: electro, house, techno and especially Goa trance. Ash Ra Tempel was strongly influential on the later development of 70s ambient as well as post-rock.

References.

Bibliography

Krautrock (also called, ) is a broad genre of experimental rock that developed in West Germany in the late 1960s and early 1970s among artists who blended elements of psychedelic rock, electronic music, and various avant-garde influences. These artists largely avoided the blues influences and song structure found in traditional Anglo-American rock music, instead utilizing hypnotic rhythms, tape-music techniques, and early synthesizers. Prominent groups associated with krautrock music included Neu!, Can, Faust, Kraftwerk, Cluster, Ash Ra Tempel, Popol Vuh, Amon Düül II, Tangerine Dream, and Harmonia.

德国泡菜摇滚(英语:Krautrock,,也叫cosmic music)是一种泛指的实验摇滚类型,在1960年代末期的德国发展开来。“泡菜摇滚”这种称呼一开始是一些英文音乐记者给一些德国乐队起的打趣的名字,这些乐队的曲风混杂了迷幻摇滚、前卫、电子音乐、放克、简约音乐、即兴爵士和世界音乐的曲风,和英美两国摇滚乐传统的蓝调、摇滚风极为不同,并强化了电子音乐、氛围音乐的流行、派生出了后庞克、另类摇滚和新世纪音乐这三种类型。泡菜摇滚的代表乐队有罐头乐队、发电厂乐团、Neu!、灰烬太阳神殿、橘梦乐团、Popol Vuh和Faust。


Etymology.

The Greek word κήρ means "death" or "doom" and appears as a proper noun in the singular and plural as Κήρ and Κῆρες to refer to divinities. Homer uses "Κῆρες" in the phrase "κήρες θανάτοιο", "Keres of death". By extension the word may mean "plague, disease" and in prose "blemish or defect". The relative verb "κεραΐζω" or "κείρω" means "ravage or plunder". Sometimes in Homer the words κήρ and moira have similar meanings. The older meaning was probably "destruction of the dead", and Hesychius of Alexandria relates the word to the verb "κηραινειν" "decay".

Description.

They were described as dark beings with gnashing teeth and claws and with a thirst for human blood. They would hover over the battlefield and search for dying and wounded men. A description of the Keres can be found in the Shield of Heracles (248-57): Though not mentioned by Hesiod, Achlys may have been included among the Keres.  A parallel, and equally unusual personification of "the baleful Ker" is in Homer's depiction of the Shield of Achilles ("Iliad",ix.410ff), which is the model for the "Shield of Heracles". These are works of art that are being described.  In the fifth century, Keres were portrayed as small winged sprites in vase-paintings adduced by J.E. Harrison (Harrison, 1903), who described apotropaic rites and rites of purification that were intended to keep the Keres at bay.  According to a statement of Stesichorus noted by Eustathius, Stesichorus "called the Keres by the name Telchines", whom Eustathius identified with the Kuretes of Crete, who could call up squalls of wind and would brew potions from herbs (noted in Harrison, p 171).  The term "Keres" has also been cautiously used to describe a person's fate. An example of this can be found in the "Iliad" where Achilles was given the choice (or "Keres") between either a long and obscure life and home, or death at Troy and everlasting glory. Also, when Achilles and Hector were about to engage in a fight to the death, the god Zeus weighed both warriors' "keres" to determine who shall die. As Hector’s "ker" was deemed heavier, he was the one destined to die and in the weighing of souls, Zeus chooses Hector to be killed. During the festival known as Anthesteria, the Keres were driven away. Their Roman equivalents were Letum (“death”) or the Tenebrae (“shadows”).

Keres and Valkyries.

Mathias Egeler suggests a connection exists between the Keres and the Valkyries of Norse mythology. Both deities are war spirits that fly over battlefields during conflicts and choose those to be slain. The difference is that Valkyries are benevolent deities in contrast to the malevolence of the Keres, perhaps due to the different outlook of the two cultures towards war. The word "valkyrie" derives from Old Norse "valkyrja" (plural "valkyrjur"), which is composed of two words; the noun "valr" (referring to the slain on the battlefield) and the verb "kjósa" (meaning "to choose"). Together, they mean "chooser of the slain". The Greek word "Ker" etymologically means destruction, death.

In Greek mythology, the Keres (), singular Ker (), were female death-spirits. They were the goddesses who personified violent death and who were drawn to bloody deaths on battlefields. Although they were present during death and dying, they did not have the power to kill. All they could do was wait for them to die and then they could feast on the dead. The Keres were daughters of Nyx, and as such the sisters of beings such as Moirai, who controlled the fate of souls and Thanatos, the god of peaceful death. Some later authorities, such as Cicero, called them by a Latin name, "Tenebrae" "the Darknesses", and named them daughters of Erebus and Nyx.

克尔(Κήρ, "Kēr")是希腊神话中登场的死亡与战争女神或恶灵。复数存在,复数形是克蕾丝(Κῆρες, "Kēres")。


Definition.

A function formula_1 between two topological spaces is a homeomorphism if it has the following properties:  A homeomorphism is sometimes called a bicontinuous function. If such a function exists, formula_6 and formula_7 are homeomorphic. A self-homeomorphism is a homeomorphism from a topological space onto itself. "Being homeomorphic" is an equivalence relation on topological spaces. Its equivalence classes are called homeomorphism classes.

Notes.

The third requirement, that formula_22 be continuous, is essential. Consider for instance the function formula_23 (the unit circle in formula_24) defined byformula_25. This function is bijective and continuous, but not a homeomorphism (formula_26 is compact but formula_27 is not). The function formula_22 is not continuous at the point formula_29, because although formula_22 maps formula_29 to formula_32, any neighbourhood of this point also includes points that the function maps close to formula_33, but the points it maps to numbers in between lie outside the neighbourhood.  Homeomorphisms are the isomorphisms in the category of topological spaces. As such, the composition of two homeomorphisms is again a homeomorphism, and the set of all self-homeomorphisms formula_34 forms a group, called the homeomorphism group of "X", often denoted formula_35. This group can be given a topology, such as the compact-open topology, which under certain assumptions makes it a topological group.  For some purposes, the homeomorphism group happens to be too big, but by means of the isotopy relation, one can reduce this group to the mapping class group.  Similarly, as usual in category theory, given two spaces that are homeomorphic, the space of homeomorphisms between them, formula_36 is a torsor for the homeomorphism groups formula_35 and formula_38, and, given a specific homeomorphism between formula_6 and formula_7, all three sets are identified.

Informal discussion.

The intuitive criterion of stretching, bending, cutting and gluing back together takes a certain amount of practice to apply correctly—it may not be obvious from the description above that deforming a line segment to a point is impermissible, for instance. It is thus important to realize that it is the formal definition given above that counts. In this case, for example, the line segment possesses infinitely many points, and therefore cannot be put into a bijection with a set containing only a finite number of points, including a single point.  This characterization of a homeomorphism often leads to a confusion with the concept of homotopy, which is actually "defined" as a continuous deformation, but from one "function" to another, rather than one space to another. In the case of a homeomorphism, envisioning a continuous deformation is a mental tool for keeping track of which points on space "X" correspond to which points on "Y"—one just follows them as "X" deforms. In the case of homotopy, the continuous deformation from one map to the other is of the essence, and it is also less restrictive, since none of the maps involved need to be one-to-one or onto. Homotopy does lead to a relation on spaces: homotopy equivalence.  There is a name for the kind of deformation involved in visualizing a homeomorphism. It is (except when cutting and regluing are required) an isotopy between the identity map on "X" and the homeomorphism from "X" to "Y".

In the mathematical field of topology, a homeomorphism, topological isomorphism, or bicontinuous function is a continuous function between topological spaces that has a continuous inverse function. Homeomorphisms are the isomorphisms in the category of topological spaces—that is, they are the mappings that preserve all the topological properties of a given space. Two spaces with a homeomorphism between them are called homeomorphic, and from a topological viewpoint they are the same. The word "homeomorphism" comes from the Greek words "ὅμοιος" ("homoios") = similar or same and "μορφή" ("morphē") = shape, form, introduced to mathematics by Henri Poincaré in 1895.

在拓扑学中,同胚(homeomorphism、topological isomorphism、bi continuous function)是两个拓扑空间之间的双连续函数。同胚是拓扑空间范畴中的同构;也就是说,它们是保持给定空间的所有拓扑性质的映射。如果两个空间之间存在同胚,那么这两个空间就称为同胚的,从拓扑学的观点来看,两个空间是相同的。


Versions.

There are multiple versions of the P/E ratio, depending on whether earnings are projected or realized, and the type of earnings.  Some people mistakenly use the formula market capitalization / net income to calculate the P/E ratio. This formula often gives the same answer as market price / earnings per share, but if new capital has been issued it gives the wrong answer, as market capitalization = market price × "current" number of shares whereas earnings per share = net income / "weighted average" number of shares.  Variations on the standard trailing and forward P/E ratios are common. Generally, alternative P/E measures substitute different measures of earnings, such as rolling averages over longer periods of time (to attempt to "smooth" volatile or cyclical earnings, for example), or "corrected" earnings figures that exclude certain extraordinary events or one-off gains or losses. The definitions may not be standardized. For companies that are loss-making, or whose earnings are expected to change dramatically, a "primary" P/E can be used instead, based on the earnings projections made for the next years to which a discount calculation is applied.

Interpretation.

As the ratio of a stock (share price) to a flow (earnings per share), the P/E ratio has the units of time. It can be interpreted as the amount of time over which the company would need to sustain its current earnings in order to make enough money to pay back the current share price. While the P/E ratio can in principle be given in terms of any time unit, in practice it is essentially always implicitly reported in years, with the unit of "years" rarely indicated explicitly. (This is the convention followed in this article.)  The price/earnings ratio (PER) is the most widely used method for determining whether shares are "correctly" valued in relation to one another. But the PER does not in itself indicate whether the share is a bargain. The PER depends on the market’s perception of the risk and future growth in earnings. A company with a low PER indicates that the market perceives it as higher risk or lower growth or both as compared to a company with a higher PER. The PER of a listed company’s share is the result of the collective perception of the market as to how risky the company is and what its earnings growth prospects are in relation to that of other companies. Investors use the PER to compare their own perception of the risk and growth of a company against the market’s collective perception of the risk and growth as reflected in the current PER. If investors believe that their perception is superior to that of the market, they can make the decision to buy or sell accordingly.

Historical P/E ratios for the U.S. stock market.

Since 1900, the average P/E ratio for the S&P 500 index has ranged from 4.78 in Dec 1920 to 44.20 in Dec 1999. However, except for some brief periods, during 1920–1990 the market P/E ratio was mostly between 10 and 20.  The average P/E of the market varies in relation with, among other factors, expected growth of earnings, expected stability of earnings, expected inflation, and yields of competing investments. For example, when U.S. treasury bonds yield high returns, investors pay less for a given earnings per share and P/E's fall.  The average U.S. equity P/E ratio from 1900 to 2005 is 14 (or 16, depending on whether the geometric mean or the arithmetic mean, respectively, is used to average).  Jeremy Siegel has suggested that the average P/E ratio of about 15 (or earnings yield of about 6.6%) arises due to the long term returns for stocks of about 6.8%. In "Stocks for the Long Run", (2002 edition) he had argued that with favorable developments like the lower capital gains tax rates and transaction costs, P/E ratio in "low twenties" is sustainable, despite being higher than the historic average.  Set out below are the recent year end values of the S&P 500 index and the associated P/E as reported. For a list of recent contractions (recessions) and expansions see U.S. Business Cycle Expansions and Contractions.  Note that at the height of the Dot-com bubble P/E had risen to 32. The collapse in earnings caused P/E to rise to 46.50 in 2001. It has declined to a more sustainable region of 17. Its decline in recent years has been due to higher earnings growth.

In business culture.

The P/E ratio of a company is a major focus for many managers. They are usually paid in company stock or options on their company's stock (a form of payment that is supposed to align the interests of management with the interests of other stock holders). The stock price can increase in one of two ways: either through improved earnings or through an improved multiple that the market assigns to those earnings. In turn, the primary drivers for multiples such as the P/E ratio is through higher and more sustained earnings growth rates.  Consequently, managers have strong incentives to boost earnings per share, even in the short term, and/or improve long term growth rates. This can influence business decisions in several ways:

Investor expectations.

In general, a high Price-Earning ratio indicates that investors are expecting higher growth of company's earnings in the future compared to companies with a lower Price-Earning ratio. A low Price-Earning ratio may indicate either that a company may currently be undervalued or that the company is doing exceptionally well relative to its past trends. The price-to-earnings ratio can also be seen as a means of standardizing the value of one dollar of earnings throughout the stock market. In theory, by taking the median of P/E ratios over a period of several years, one could formulate something of a standardized P/E ratio, which could then be seen as a benchmark and used to indicate whether or not a stock is worth buying.

Negative Earnings.

When a company has no earnings or is posting losses, in both cases P/E will be expressed as “N/A.” Though it is possible to calculate a negative P/E, this is not the common convention.

The price-earnings ratio, also known as P/E ratio, P/E, or PER, is the ratio of a company's share (stock) price to the company's earnings per share. The ratio is used for valuing companies and to find out whether they are overvalued or undervalued. <br>

股票的-{市盈率}- (Price-to-Earning Ratio,P/E 或 PER),又称为本益比,指每股市价除以每股盈余 (Earnings Per Share,EPS),通常作为股票是便宜抑或昂贵的指标 (通货膨胀会使每股收益虚增,从而扭曲市盈率的比较价值)。市盈率把企业的股价与其制造财富的能力联系起来。


Signs and symptoms.

When vomiting is severe, it may result in the following:  Symptoms can be aggravated by hunger, fatigue, prenatal vitamins (especially those containing iron), and diet. Many women with HG are extremely sensitive to odors in their environment; certain smells may exacerbate symptoms. Excessive salivation, also known as sialorrhea gravidarum, is another symptom experienced by some women.  Hyperemesis gravidarum tends to occur in the first trimester of pregnancy and lasts significantly longer than morning sickness. While most women will experience near-complete relief of morning sickness symptoms near the beginning of their second trimester, some sufferers of HG will experience severe symptoms until they give birth to their baby, and sometimes even after giving birth.  A small percentage rarely vomit, but the nausea still causes most (if not all) of the same issues that hyperemesis with vomiting does.

Causes.

There are numerous theories regarding the cause of HG, but the cause remains controversial. It is thought that HG is due to a combination of factors which may vary between women and include genetics. Women with family members who had HG are more likely to develop the disease.  One factor is an adverse reaction to the hormonal changes of pregnancy, in particular, elevated levels of beta human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG). This theory would also explain why hyperemesis gravidarum is most frequently encountered in the first trimester (often around 8–12 weeks of gestation), as β-hCG levels are highest at that time and decline afterward. Another postulated cause of HG is an increase in maternal levels of estrogens (decreasing intestinal motility and gastric emptying leading to nausea/vomiting).

Pathophysiology.

Although the pathophysiology of HG is poorly understood, the most commonly accepted theory suggests that levels of β-hCG are associated with it. Leptin, a hormone that inhibits hunger, may also play a role.  Possible pathophysiological processes involved are summarized in the following table:

Diagnosis.

Hyperemesis gravidarum is considered a diagnosis of exclusion. HG can be associated with serious problems in the mother or baby, such as Wernicke's encephalopathy, coagulopathy and peripheral neuropathy.  Women experiencing hyperemesis gravidarum often are dehydrated and lose weight despite efforts to eat. The onset of the nausea and vomiting in hyperemesis gravidarum is typically before the 20th week of pregnancy.

Differential diagnosis.

Diagnoses to be ruled out include the following:

Investigations.

Common investigations include blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and electrolytes, liver function tests, urinalysis, and thyroid function tests. Hematological investigations include hematocrit levels, which are usually raised in HG. An ultrasound scan may be needed to know gestational status and to exclude molar or partial molar pregnancy.

Management.

Dry bland food and oral rehydration are first-line treatments. Due to the potential for severe dehydration and other complications, HG is treated as an emergency. If conservative dietary measures fail, more extensive treatment such as the use of antiemetic medications and intravenous rehydration may be required. If oral nutrition is insufficient, intravenous nutritional support may be needed. For women who require hospital admission, thromboembolic stockings or low-molecular-weight heparin may be used as measures to prevent the formation of a blood clot.

Intravenous fluids.

Intravenous (IV) hydration often includes supplementation of electrolytes as persistent vomiting frequently leads to a deficiency. Likewise, supplementation for lost thiamine (Vitamin B) must be considered to reduce the risk of Wernicke's encephalopathy. A and B vitamins are depleted within two weeks, so extended malnutrition indicates a need for evaluation and supplementation. In addition, electrolyte levels should be monitored and supplemented; of particular concern are sodium and potassium.  After IV rehydration is completed, patients typically begin to tolerate frequent small liquid or bland meals. After rehydration, treatment focuses on managing symptoms to allow normal intake of food. However, cycles of hydration and dehydration can occur, making continuing care necessary. Home care is available in the form of a peripherally-inserted central catheter (PICC) line for hydration and nutrition. Home treatment is often less expensive and reduces the risk for a hospital-acquired infection compared with long-term or repeated hospitalizations.

Medications.

A number of antiemetics are effective and safe in pregnancy including: pyridoxine/doxylamine, antihistamines (such as diphenhydramine), and phenothiazines (such as promethazine). With respect to effectiveness, it is unknown if one is superior to another for relieving nausea or vomiting. Limited evidence from published clinical trials suggests the use of medications to treat hyperemesis gravidarum.  While pyridoxine/doxylamine, a combination of vitamin B and doxylamine, is effective in nausea and vomiting of pregnancy, some have questioned its effectiveness in HG.  Ondansetron may be beneficial, however, there are some concerns regarding an association with cleft palate, and there is little high-quality data. Metoclopramide is also used and relatively well tolerated. Evidence for the use of corticosteroids is weak; there is some evidence that corticosteroid use in pregnant women may slightly increase the risk of cleft lip and cleft palate in the infant and may suppress fetal adrenal activity. However, hydrocortisone and prednisolone are inactivated in the placenta and may be used in the treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum after 12 weeks.

Nutritional support.

Women not responding to IV rehydration and medication may require nutritional support. Patients might receive parenteral nutrition (intravenous feeding via a PICC line) or enteral nutrition (via a nasogastric tube or a nasojejunal tube). There is only limited evidence from trials to support the use of vitamin B to improve outcome. An oversupply of nutrition (hyperalimentation) may be necessary in certain cases to help maintain volume requirements and allow weight gain. A physician might also prescribe Vitamin B (to prevent Wernicke's encephalopathy) and folic acid.

Alternative medicine.

Acupuncture (both with P6 and traditional method) has been found to be ineffective. The use of ginger products may be helpful, but evidence of effectiveness is limited and inconsistent, though three recent studies support ginger over placebo.

Complications.

Pregnant woman.

If HG is inadequately treated, anemia, hyponatremia, Wernicke's encephalopathy, kidney failure, central pontine myelinolysis, coagulopathy, atrophy, Mallory-Weiss tears, hypoglycemia, jaundice, malnutrition, pneumomediastinum, rhabdomyolysis, deconditioning, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, splenic avulsion, or vasospasms of cerebral arteries are possible consequences. Depression and post-traumatic stress disorder are common secondary complications of HG and emotional support can be beneficial.

Infant.

The effects of HG on the fetus are mainly due to electrolyte imbalances caused by HG in the mother. Infants of women with severe hyperemesis who gain less than during pregnancy tend to be of lower birth weight, small for gestational age, and born before 37 weeks gestation. In contrast, infants of women with hyperemesis who have a pregnancy weight gain of more than 7 kilograms appear similar to infants from uncomplicated pregnancies. There is no significant difference in the neonatal death rate in infants born to mothers with HG compared to infants born to mothers who do not have HG. Children born to mothers with undertreated HG have a fourfold increase in neurobehavioral diagnoses.

Epidemiology.

Vomiting is a common condition affecting about 50% of pregnant women, with another 25% having nausea. However, the incidence of HG is only 0.3–1.5%. After preterm labor, hyperemesis gravidarum is the second most common reason for hospital admission during the first half of pregnancy. Factors, such as infection with "Helicobacter pylori", a rise in thyroid hormone production, low age, low body mass index prior to pregnancy, multiple pregnancies, molar pregnancies, and a past history of hyperemesis gravidarum have been associated with the development of HG.

History.

Thalidomide was prescribed for treatment of HG in Europe until it was recognized that thalidomide is teratogenic and is a cause of phocomelia in neonates.

Etymology.

Hyperemesis gravidarum is from the Greek "hyper-", meaning excessive, and "emesis", meaning vomiting, and the Latin "gravidarum", the feminine genitive plural form of an adjective, here used as a noun, meaning "pregnant [woman]". Therefore, hyperemesis gravidarum means "excessive vomiting of pregnant women".

Notable cases.

Author Charlotte Brontë is often thought to have suffered from hyperemesis gravidarum. She died in 1855 while four months pregnant, having been afflicted by intractable nausea and vomiting throughout her pregnancy, and was unable to tolerate food or even water.  Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge was hospitalised due to hyperemesis gravidarum during her first pregnancy, and was treated for a similar condition during the subsequent two.  Comedienne Amy Schumer cancelled the remainder of a tour due to hyperemesis gravidarum.

Hyperemesis gravidarum (HG) is a pregnancy complication that is characterized by severe nausea, vomiting, weight loss, and possibly dehydration. Feeling faint may also occur. It is considered more severe than morning sickness. Symptoms often get better after the 20th week of pregnancy but may last the entire pregnancy duration. The exact causes of hyperemesis gravidarum are unknown. Risk factors include the first pregnancy, multiple pregnancy, obesity, prior or family history of HG, trophoblastic disorder, and a history of eating disorders. Diagnosis is usually made based on the observed signs and symptoms. HG has been technically defined as more than three episodes of vomiting per day such that weight loss of 5% or three kilograms has occurred and ketones are present in the urine. Other potential causes of the symptoms should be excluded, including urinary tract infection and an overactive thyroid. Treatment includes drinking fluids and a bland diet. Recommendations may include electrolyte-replacement drinks, thiamine, and a higher protein diet. Some women require intravenous fluids. With respect to medications, pyridoxine or metoclopramide are preferred. Prochlorperazine, dimenhydrinate, or ondansetron may be used if these are not effective. Hospitalization may be required. Psychotherapy may improve outcomes. Evidence for acupressure is poor. While vomiting in pregnancy has been described as early as 2,000 BC, the first clear medical description of HG was in 1852 by Paul Antoine Dubois. HG is estimated to affect 0.3–2.0% of pregnant women. While previously known as a common cause of death in pregnancy, with proper treatment this is now very rare. Those affected have a lower risk of miscarriage but a higher risk of premature birth. Some pregnant women choose to have an abortion due to HG symptoms.

妊娠剧吐(英语:Hyperemesis gravidarum,HG)是妊娠并发症的一种。其特征为足以造成体重下降与脱水的严重恶心和呕吐。征象和症状包含一天内多次的剧吐还有晕眩感,其严重程度超越害喜。症状通常会在怀孕二十周后稍微改善,但也可能整个怀孕期间都为此而苦。 造成妊娠剧吐的原因尚未确定,但已知的危险因子有初次怀孕、多胞胎、肥胖症、妊娠滋养层细胞疾病、进食障碍病史,或是先前曾发生或有妊娠剧吐的家族病史。本病通常根据其症状确诊。妊娠剧吐已经在实务上被定义为每日呕吐超过三次、体重下降百分之五或三公斤、及在尿液中出现酮类。确诊前应排除泌尿道感染与甲状腺功能亢进等可能造成相似症状的疾病。