History.

One of the first fire escapes of any type was invented in 18th-century England. In 1784, Daniel Maseres, of England, invented a machine called a fire escape, which, being fastened to the window, would enable a person to descend to the street without injury. Abraham Wivell created an improved design, including an escape chute, after becoming superintendent of the "Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire." Henry Vieregg patented the first US fire escape in Grand Island, NE in November 8, 1898, serial number 681,672, which was designed for traveling businessmen.  As building codes became more common in countries around the turn of the 20th century, fire safety became an important concern for new construction. Building owners were increasingly required to provide adequate escape routes, and at the time, fire escapes seemed the best option available. Not only could they be included in new construction at a low cost, but they could be very easily added to existing construction. As building codes evolved and more safety concerns addressed over subsequent editions, all construction above a certain number of stories was required to have a second means of egress, and external fire escapes were allowed as a retrofit option for existing buildings prior to the post-World War II period.  In the 1930s, the enclosed tubular chute type fire escape became widely accepted for schools, hospitals and other institution replaced the open iron ladder type. Its main advantage was people would have no reason to use it for anything other than a fire escape and patients could be slid down it in a fire on their bedding. However, with the rise of urban sprawl in the mid-20th century, particularly the increase in public housing in cities in the United States and Europe in the 1950s and 1960s, certain problems with fire escapes became clear. In the poorer areas of several major American cities, such as New York, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh, fire escapes were commonly used for everything but their intended purpose.  In the hot summer months, residents of mid-rise apartment buildings would sleep outside on the platforms of their fire escapes. Such a situation triggered the plot premise of Cornell Woolrich's 1947 short story, "The Boy Cried Murder", about a boy on a fire escape who one night witnesses a murder in a neighboring apartment; this story was filmed as the suspense thriller "The Window" (1949). The practice of sleeping on fire escapes can also be seen in Alfred Hitchcock's 1954 movie "Rear Window" (also based on a Woolrich short story), as well as Weegee's photography of the Lower East Side). Diagonal shadows of fire escapes made them a constant motif in film noir, and the balcony scene of "Romeo and Juliet" was transposed to a fire escape for the musical "West Side Story".  The installation of window air conditioners in individual apartment units with fire escape-facing windows, often installed against code or local ordinance by residents, which require the unit to be affixed to the window sash, also make a fire escape nearly useless in the summer months; the bulk and weight of an air conditioner unit shoved onto or over a fire escape in an emergency also creates additional danger for firefighters and evacuees.  "Boston Herald American" photographer Stanley Forman won a 1976 Pulitzer Prize for the photograph "Fire Escape Collapse" capturing two girls plunging from a faulty fire escape during a 1975 Boston fire, and the controversial image resulted in tougher fire safety codes in some jurisdictions.

High-rise fire escapes.

As buildings are built taller and taller, new fire escape ideas have been gaining popularity. Elevators, though traditionally not used as fire escapes, are now being thought of as a possible evacuation for high-rises and skyscrapers. Other alternate high-rise fire escape solutions include parachutes, external collapsible elevators, and slides.

Residential.

The use of a fire escape is dictated by various local, state, and agreed upon international building codes, such as standards provided by the "International Code Council" (ICC), the "International Building Code" (IBC), or the "International Energy Conservation Code". Both the 2012 IBC and 2012 IRC require emergency escape and rescue openings for residential buildings of 4 floors or less, in sleeping rooms and basements with habitable space, for means of emergency egress. A fire escape can be a window, and if above the first floor with an approved ladder, or door that leads to a porch with ground access or a fire escape ladder. Federal rules, such as those of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), have requirements that follow ICC codes.

In literature.

The fire escape is often regarded as one of the important symbols in the drama "The Glass Menagerie" by Tennessee Williams. Its name is said to be "a touch of accidental poetic truth, for all of these huge buildings are always burning with the slow and implacable fires of human desperation". At certain points in the drama, the fire-escape even accentuates the characteristics of the characters. Tom, the character most intertwined with the fire-escape, appears on it more often than others. In most of his appearances on the fire-escape, he is moving out of the apartment, a gesture showing his yearnings to venture into the outside world, escaping troubles at home.

A fire escape is a special kind of emergency exit, usually mounted to the outside of a building or occasionally inside but separate from the main areas of the building. It provides a method of escape in the event of a fire or other emergency that makes the stairwells inside a building inaccessible. Fire escapes are most often found on multiple-story residential buildings, such as apartment buildings. At one time, they were a very important aspect of fire safety for all new construction in urban areas; more recently, however, they have fallen out of common use. This is due to the improved building codes incorporating fire detectors, technologically advanced fire fighting equipment, which includes better communications and the reach of fire fighting ladder trucks, and more importantly fire sprinklers. The international building codes and other authoritative agencies have incorporated fire sprinklers into multi-story buildings below 15 storeys and not just skyscrapers.

逃生梯又称消防梯,为一种建筑设施作为火灾时的逃生通道,各国消防法多有规定设置,并列入建筑消防执照检查项目。


Early life.

Early Education.

Wang Li was born to a poor family in Bobai County, Guangxi, China. He first discovered his interest in literature and novels at the age of seven, inspired by one of the four Great Classical Chinese novels "Romance of the Three Kingdoms". However, after he graduated from primary school at the age of 14, his family could no longer support his education. As a result, Wang started to educate himself by reading a large number of books. At the age of seventeen, Wang Li also began to tutor his little brother Xiangrui while the family stilled struggled under poverty and could not provide the money for Xiangrui to go to primary school.Wang Li's talent as a tutor brought him several other young children from the county to study with him. Gradually, Wang built a private school at his house. Wang did not adopt the general teaching style employed by other private schools at the time, which emphasized memorization of text over comprehension. Instead, Wang provided explicit explanation of each text by thoroughly analyzing the syntactic and semantic components of the texts. At the age of 21, Wang was invited to one of his students' house for dinner. He accidentally found fourteen boxes of books, ranging from history to astronomy to medicine, accompanied by the authors' footnotes and literature reviews of various works. Wang asked the host of the family whether he could borrow them and the host kindly lent them to him. Later in his life, Wang considered the discovery of the fourteen boxes of books one turning point of his life.  In the same year, Wang was hired by a local school to teach primary school students Chinese. Three years later, he was funded by his colleagues and the Principal of the school to further pursue his studies in Shanghai.

University.

In 1924, Wang enrolled at Shanghai Southern University and subsequently at the University of China. Two years later, he was admitted to the Academy of Chinese Learning at Tsinghua University, where he studied with Yuen Ren Chao, Liang Qichao and Wang Guowei, whose instruction and guidance immensely inspired and influenced Wang in the study of linguistics. Among the thirty-two students that entered Tsinghua University in the same year as Wang, he was the only one that chose to study linguistics with Chao. Wang said that "While Liang encourages innovation, Chao emphasizes practicality, both of which are indispensable to the study of linguistics". Wang wrote in the postscript of his paper on the topic of the grammar of Classical Chinese that two specific sentence structures Fanzhao Sentence () and Gangmu Sentence () are only commonly observed in Chinese and are very rare in western linguistics. Fanzhao Sentence () occurs when an object or objective phrase is placed at the beginning of the sentence and is replaced by a pronoun later in the sentence. Gangmu Sentence () is similar to modern English topicalization. After reading the paper, Chao suggested that Wang delete the postscript, claiming that he could not assert the grammatical rules of a language before fully acquiring it. Afterwards, Chao's words “It is easier to claim the presence but harder to claim the absence of things" became the motto of Wang's academic career throughout his whole life.  In 1926, under the advice of Chao, Wang went to Paris to further pursue his study of linguistics. He hoped to learn from the western linguistic theories and bring them back to China. Wang supplemented his education by translating French literature into Chinese, and his works were greatly recognized and praised by the editor of the Commercial Press, Ye Shengtao. Ye spoke highly of Wang's translation, commenting that "I cannot comment on faithfulness (to the original work) and expressiveness, but there is no doubt that his translation is filled with elegance and taste."

Early career.

Five years later, Wang finished his education in France with a doctorate degree in the study of Bobai phonology. He first focused on dialects in Liangguang region, which includes Guangdong and Guangxi in Southern China. Based on his observation and intuition as a first language speaker of the Bobai dialect, Wang presumed that "cuōkǒu ("撮口, "round mouth"), one of the four traditional ways of classifying syllable finals of Mandarin dialects, does not exist in Liangguang area, as it does not exist in the Bobai dialect. However, Chao pointed out in his letters to Wang that it was wrong for him to overgeneralize the dialectal patterns in a large area with multiple dialects solely based on the linguistic behaviors of one single dialect. Taking Chao's advice, Wang narrowed his research down to the study of the dialect in Bobai county.  Afterwards, Wang went back to China in 1931 and started teaching at Tsinghua University in Beijing, ranked as the top three academic institutions in China. In his spare time, he produced various works of literature including books about Greek and Roman literature and translations of Émile Zola's "Nana", Molière's plays and Baudelaire's "Les Fleurs du mal". While Wang taught General Linguistics and Chinese Phonology for two years at Tsinghua University, his several dozen translations of various works became one of the reasons why he was not offered the expected professorship after two years' teaching. In order to compensate for the unbalanced attention he gave to his job at the university, Wang immersed himself in the study of linguistics and wrote "An Exploratory Study of Chinese Grammar" (), which earned him the professorship after four years' lecturing at Tsinghua University. In the book, Wang underlines the importance of using the comparative methodologies used in historical linguistics to compare the feature of Chinese and western languages, to build an independent system of Chinese grammar. He considered this work as a "manifesto" that directed his later works and research in Chinese linguistics.

Second Sino-Japanese War.

During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), Wang supported himself through a great number of publications, including newspaper columns and essays on a variety of subjects and genres. The hardship of the war did not stop his research in linguistics. By the end of the war, Wang's research had expanded to phonology, morphology, syntax, poetry and dialectal studies, and he began to plan for the future of Chinese linguistics. He said, "as the language of Chinese starts to prosper, Chinese may appear as one of the foreign languages, parallel to English, French, German and Italian in universities across the world. By the time it happens, is there a Chinese dictionary as good as the Oxford Dictionary, or a formal Chinese grammar system as advanced as the "Essentials of English Grammar" of Jespersen?"  During the war, Wang also wrote a book called 龙虫并雕斋琐语 "(Trivial Talk of Dragon and Worm Carving)", a collection of prose and essays he wrote in Kunming, Southern China. In traditional Chinese craftwork, the technique of carving the worm is elementary and uncomplicated, while the carving of dragon requires meticulousness and preciseness. Wang metaphorically used the phrase “carve the worm” to refer to the stories he wrote about the common life, including personal anecdotes and his ruminations, parallel to his other eminent and well-known "carve the dragon" works. The collection of essays are less academically rigid but profound and reflective, which deeply influenced the people during the hardship of the wartime. Wang's anecdotes and essays were once criticized by Wen Yiduo, a famous Chinese poet, for their vulgarity and bad taste, which in Wang's opinion, were a genuine reflection of people's lives. In one of Wang's essays "Salaries", he pointed out that the word salaries "薪(firewood)水(water)" originally refers to the money to buy firewood and water---the money needed for sustenance. However, Wang derided the miserly payback to the labor from the Chinese government by saying that with the salaries being so low, 薪水 should be renamed as 茶(tea)水(water) or 风(wind)水(water), as the only thing people could buy with the scarce amount of money is tea or wind. Such stories resonated with those who suffered during the wartime and those who worked and lived at the bottom of the society.

Later life.

Later career.

After the war, Wang started to teach at Sun Yat-sen University in Guangdong in 1946 and founded the first Linguistics Department among Chinese universities. Wang himself designed the course syllabi and content for most of the courses. He integrated his research into teaching and used his own research as teaching materials. He believed that "students should not be taught through books bought by the teacher but through books written by the teacher". Many of his research works and notes were used as the textbooks and were directly sent to be published right after the courses ended.  As the aftermath of the war drifted away, the Chinese government began to switch its prioritization from war efforts into developing literacy rates, implemented through a series of policy in language reform. By the time the State Commission on Language Reform was founded (1954), the number of students in the Linguistics Department increased rapidly and the department was merged into the Chinese Department at Peking University in Beijing, China. By then, Wang served as the department chair of the Department of Chinese Language Studies at Peking University, and was also a member of the Advisory Board of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and State Commission on Language Reform. He was actively engaged in the institution and transmission of pinyin (the romanization system of Mandarin Chinese pronunciation) and putonghua (Modern Standard Mandarin). Wang insisted that pinyin should be represented in the form of Latin alphabet, and Pinyin should be taught to students in the first year of school.  While Wang was devoted to promoting the transmission and advancement of the language of Chinese and its application, he continued his research in morphology, semantics, rhetoric, lexicography and experimental phonology, and the inheritance of traditional Chinese linguistics. Wang then started the study of Classical Chinese, believing that "in order to catch up with the world's advanced study in the science of language, one has to perform historical analysis on the linguistic phenomena and its development patterns." Per request of the Ministry of Education of China's objective of rehabilitating college students' abilities to read Classical Chinese and promoting the transmission of traditional Chinese literature, Wang took the responsibility and started to compile the four-volume textbook 古代漢語 "Ancient Chinese". He included selections of classical Chinese literature with detailed annotation, lessons on background knowledge, and a glossary of commonly used words, combining theory and practical usage as the method of instruction. This textbook, printed in Traditional Chinese, is still used by Chinese language and literature students at Peking University and other major language and literature departments in China. The glossary served as the starting point of the 古汉语常用字字典 "Dictionary of Commonly Used Characters in Ancient Chinese". With Wang as the original editor-in-chief, this dictionary has proven to be extremely popular, having undergone over 100 printings since its initial publication in 1980 (most recent revision, 5th ed. in 2018) and is by far the most widely used (and often required) reference work for Classical Chinese for secondary school students. As such, it is set in Simplified Chinese for accessibility by a general audience, although there are extensive usage notes to help readers distinguish between ancient variant forms, "tongjia"'rebus borrowing' characters, and modern simplified forms.  In 1957, Wang finished writing the book "Hanyu Shigao" 漢語史稿 "A Draft History of the Chinese Language". The three volumes of the book respectively demonstrates the historical development of Chinese phonology, grammar and lexicon, and illustrates the progress of transformation from classical Chinese to modern Chinese.

Later years.

Wang's academic career was severely hindered during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). He was publicly humiliated and was sentenced to hard labour from 1966 to 1971, experiencing enormous devastation and depression. Wang had earlier made an agreement with Commercial Press to write a dictionary of ancient Chinese. He began to work on it, but after completing fifty-odd pages, the manuscript was confiscated and destroyed when Red Guards raided his home. He only restarted the work when the Zhonghua Publishing House invited him to compile a dictionary in the early 1980s ("see below"). While he was under suppression and imprisonment, he continued his study. During daytime at labour, he reflected and expanded on the texts and materials he memorized and wrote down his thoughts at night. When the Cultural Revolution ended, Wang Li had finished writing two books on classical Chinese poetry, the "Classic of Poetry" and "Chu Ci".  After the Cultural Revolution ended in 1976, Wang was determined to work harder to compensate for the six years he had lost due to the political upheaval. He was invited to give lectures at different universities and conferences, and responded to letters of inquiry of different areas including writing, Pinyin learning and foreign language acquisition. Wang put together a large amount of his works into books, including "The General Principles of Ancient Chinese", "The History of Chinese Phonology", and "The Dictionary of Paronyms". He also started to revise the "A Draft History of the Chinese Language" at the age of 80, and expanded his original work "A Draft History of the Chinese Language" into "History of Chinese Phonology, History of Chinese Syntax" and "History of Chinese Lexicography".  In 1984, at the age of 84, he started to compile a dictionary for ancient Chinese, writing thousands of characters everyday, regardless of his deteriorated vision and other health conditions. In order to minimize the cataract's hindrance, he bought many magnifiers, switching from one to the other so that he could continue reading and writing, until he was no longer able to work. In the postscript of the work, the dictionary's editorial team writes that Wang had worked on the dictionary seven to eight hours per day in the last few years of his life, completing a preface and a little more than four out of the twelve sections of the work. Wang died at the age of 86 from complications of cerebrovascular disease. Although he was not able to finish writing the dictionary, six of his students and colleagues collaborated and finished the work with his advice and instructions, and named it "The Wang Li Character Dictionary of Ancient Chinese", in his memory with the permission of his widow Xia Weixia ().  The editorial team completed the dictionary in 1998 (publishing it in 2000) in the spirit of Wang's ideal ancient Chinese dictionary, which he outlined in the dictionary's preface and previously in an essay written in the 1940s entitled "An Ideal Dictionary" (理想的字典). In general, the work is informed by and incorporates the principles of Western historical linguistics, something that Wang felt was missing in previous dictionaries that descended more-or-less directly from China's native philological traditions. In the preface, Wang criticized some incorrect interpretations of citations in previously published dictionaries like the "Cihai" or "Ciyuan" for definitions incompatible with the historical evolution of a character's meaning. In addition to giving the original Classical and pre-Classical definitions of a character, it also provides Old Chinese rime group and Middle Chinese "fanqie", and gives collections of characters of common etymological origin, often, but not necessarily, derived from the same graphic element (e.g., 才,財,材 and 家,嫁,居). It also carefully notes definitions that arose post-Classically during the medieval and late imperial periods, and alerts readers to possibly unreliable definitions appearing only once in historical texts (see "hapax legomenon"). The work (published only in Traditional Chinese) was immediately recognized as an authoritative reference for scholars engaged in linguistic or historical research and was awarded first prize in the fourth National Lexicographical Works Prize.

Legacy.

In 1990, three years after Wang died, the Wang Li Academic Forum was held in Beijing. Scholars and linguists from different countries came and paid respect to the great linguist Wang Li. In the same year, the book "Wang Li Xian Sheng Ji Nian Lun Wen" 王力先生纪念论文 "(Festschrift of Wang Li)" was published.

Criticism.

Wang pointed out in his book "Zhong Guo Yu Yan Xue Shi" 中国语言学史 "(History of Chinese Linguistics)" that in the past, Chinese scholars mistakenly regarded philology as linguistics and overly emphasized on exploring the literature instead of the language itself. He decisively claimed that there is a difference between philology and linguistics, while the former relies on the investigation of previous literature and a language's historical development, the latter studies the language itself and generates systematic and scientific linguistics theories. Wang's distinction of philology and linguistics was largely questioned by many scholars; Xu Guozhang, a famous Chinese linguist specializing in English especially disagreed with Wang and claimed that a developed linguistic system did exist in traditional Chinese literature, such as the "liu shu" 六書 ('six scripts'), a system for classifying and structurally analyzing the origin and development of Hanzi, the Chinese character.

Wang Li (; ; 10 August 1900 – 3 May 1986), courtesy name Wang Liaoyi () and birth name Wang Xiangying (), was a Chinese linguist, educator, translator and poet, described as "the founder of Chinese Linguistics". His work expands a wide range in Chinese linguistics, including phonology, grammar and lexicography, historical linguistics and dialectal studies. He was also the founder of the first Chinese Linguistics Department at Tsinghua University. He brought the western modern linguistic methodologies back to China and strove for the modernization and reformation of Chinese grammar throughout his whole life. His most famous books include "Zhongguo Yinyunxue" 中国音韵学 (Chinese Phonology), "Zhongguo Wenfa Chutan" 中国文法初探 (An Exploratory Study of Chinese Grammar), and "Wang Li's Character Dictionary of Ancient Chinese" 王力古汉语字典.

王力(1900年-8月10日-1986年-5月3日),字了一,原名王祥瑛,男,广西博白人,中国汉语语法学家、翻译家、诗人、散文家,在声韵学、训诂学等语言学领域亦有贡献。


History and description.

The building was designed by Scottish-born architect John McArthur Jr. and Thomas Ustick Walter in the Second Empire style, and was constructed from 1871 to 1901 at a cost of $24 million. City Hall's tower was completed by 1894, although the interior wasn't finished until 1901. Designed to be the world's tallest building, it was surpassed during construction by the Washington Monument and the Eiffel Tower. Upon completion of its tower in 1894, it became the world's tallest habitable building. It was also the first secular building to have this distinction, as all previous world's tallest buildings were religious structures, including European cathedrals and—for the previous 3,800 years—the Great Pyramid of Giza.  The location chosen was one of the five center city urban park squares dedicated by William Penn, that geometrically is the center to the other four squares within Center City renamed as Penn Square. John McArthur Jr. and Thomas Ustick Walter designed the building in the Second Empire style. City Hall is a masonry building whose weight is borne by granite and brick walls up to thick. The principal exterior materials are limestone, granite, and marble. The original design called for virtually no sculpture. The stonemason William Struthers and sculptor Alexander Milne Calder were responsible for the more than 250 sculptures of nature, capturing artists, educators, and engineers who embodied American ideals and contributed to this country’s genius.The final construction cost was $24 million.  At, including the statue of city founder William Penn atop its tower, City Hall was the tallest habitable building in the world from 1894 to 1908. It remained the tallest in Pennsylvania until it was surpassed in 1932 by the Gulf Tower in Pittsburgh. It was the tallest in Philadelphia until 1986 when the construction of One Liberty Place surpassed it, ending the informal gentlemen's agreement that had limited the height of buildings in the city to no higher than the Penn statue.  It was constructed over the time span from 1871 to 1901 and includes 700 rooms dedicated for uses of various governmental operations. The building structure used over 88 million bricks and thousands of tons of marble and granite. With almost 700 rooms, City Hall is the largest municipal building in the United States and one of the largest in the world. The building houses three branches of government: the city's executive branch (the Mayor's Office), its legislature (the Philadelphia City Council), and a substantial portion of the judicial activity in the city (the Civil Division and Orphan's Court of the Pennsylvania Court of Common Pleas for the First Judicial District are housed there, as well as chambers for some criminal judges and some judges of the Philadelphia Municipal Court).  The tower features a clock face on each side that is in diameter. The clock faces are larger in diameter than those on Big Ben which measure. City Hall's clock was designed by Warren Johnson and built in 1898.  City Hall's observation deck is located directly below the base of the statue, about above street level. Once enclosed with chain-link fencing, the observation deck is now enclosed by glass. It is reached in a 6-person elevator whose glass panels allow visitors to see the interior of the iron superstructure that caps the tower and supports the statuary and clocks. Stairs within the tower are only used for emergency exit. The ornamentation of the tower has been simplified; the huge garlands that festooned the top panels of the tower were removed.  In the 1950s, the city council investigated tearing down City Hall for a new building elsewhere. They found that the demolition would have bankrupted the city due to the building's masonry construction.  Beginning in 1992, Philadelphia City Hall underwent a comprehensive exterior restoration, planned and supervised by the Historical Preservation Studio of Vitetta Architects & Engineers, headed by renowned historical preservation architect Hyman Myers. The majority of the restoration was completed by 2007, although some work has continued, including the installation of four new ornamental courtyard gates, based on an original architectural sketch, in December 2015.

William Penn statue.

The building is topped by a bronze statue weighing of city founder William Penn, one of 250 sculptures created by Alexander Milne Calder that adorn the building inside and out. The statue was cast at the Tacony Iron Works of Northeast Philadelphia and hoisted to the top of the tower in fourteen sections in 1894. The statue is the tallest atop any building in the world. Despite its lofty perch, the city has mandated that the statue be cleaned about every ten years to remove corrosion and reduce deterioration due to weathering, with the latest cleaning done in May 2017. Penn's statue is hollow, and a narrow access tunnel through it leads to a hatch atop the hat.  Calder wished the statue to face south so that its face would be lit by the sun most of the day, the better to reveal the details of his work. The statue actually faces northeast, towards Penn Treaty Park in the Fishtown section of the city, which commemorates the site where Penn signed a treaty with the local Native American tribe. Pennsbury Manor, Penn's country home in Bucks County, is also located to the northeast.  By the terms of a gentlemen's agreement that forbade any structure from rising above the hat on the Penn statue, Philadelphia City Hall remained the tallest building in the city until it was surpassed by One Liberty Place in 1986. The abrogation of this agreement supposedly brought a curse onto local professional sports teams. Twice during the 1990s, the statue was partially clothed in a major league sports team's uniform when they were in contention for a championship: a Phillies cap in 1993 and a Flyers jersey in 1997—both teams lost. The supposed curse ended 22 years later when the Phillies won the 2008 World Series, a year and four months after a Penn statuette had been affixed to the final beam of the Comcast Center during its topping out ceremony in June 2007. Another Penn statuette was placed on the topmost beam of the Comcast Technology Center in November 2017, and the Eagles won the Super Bowl a few months later.

Notable facts.

City Hall is a masonry structure with load-bearing walls up to thick. The principal exterior materials are limestone, granite, and marble. The only structural and exterior metallic parts of the building are the upper portion of the clock tower and the bronze statuary.  City Hall was the tallest habitable building in the world from 1894 to 1908, measuring to the top of the statue of William Penn. It is the 16th-tallest building in Pennsylvania, and was the tallest building in the state from 1894 until 1932 when it was surpassed by the Gulf Tower in Pittsburgh. It was the tallest building in Philadelphia from 1894 until 1986 when One Liberty Place ended the gentlemen's agreement which had limited building heights to no higher than William Penn's hat.  The tallest statue atop any building in the world is the tall statue of William Penn, sculpted by Alexander Milne Calder. Approximately 88 million bricks and several thousand tons of stone were used in construction. There are four bronze eagles, each weighing three tons with wingspans, perched above the tower's four clocks. The building was voted #21 on the American Institute of Architects' list of Americans' 150 favorite U.S. structures in 2007.

Centre Square.

City Hall is situated on land that was reserved as a public square upon the city's founding in 1682. Originally known as Centre Square—later renamed Penn Square—it was used for public gatherings until the construction of City Hall began in 1871. Centre Square was one of the five original squares of Philadelphia laid out on the city grid by William Penn. The square had been located at the geographic center of Penn's city plan, but the Act of Consolidation in 1854 created the much larger and coterminous city and county of Philadelphia. Though no longer at the exact center of the city, the square remains situated in the center of the historic area between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers; an area which is now called Center City.  Penn had intended that Centre Square be the central focus point where the major public buildings would be located, including those for government, religion, and education, as well as the central marketplace. However, the Delaware riverfront would remain the de facto economic and social heart of the city for more than a century.

Film appearances.

City Hall has been a filming location for several motion pictures including "Rocky" (1976), "Blow Out" (1981), "Trading Places" (1983), "Philadelphia" (1993), "12 Monkeys" (1995), "National Treasure" (2004), "" (2009), "Limitless" (2011), "Birdy" (1984), "Prison Song" (2001), and "Law Abiding Citizen" (2009).

References.

Notes Further reading

Philadelphia City Hall is the city hall of the City of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It serves as the seat of the municipal government of the City of Philadelphia, housing the chambers of the Philadelphia City Council and the offices of the Mayor of Philadelphia. It is also a courthouse, serving as the seat of the First Judicial District of Pennsylvania, and houses the Civil Trial and Orphans' Court Divisions of the Court of Common Pleas of Philadelphia County.

费城市政厅(Philadelphia City Hall),位于美国宾夕法尼亚州的费城的 1 Penn Square,曾经是美国费城的市政厅。


Preparation.

PhF was first reported in 1886 by O. Wallach at the University of Bonn, who prepared the compound in two steps. Phenyldiazonium chloride was first converted to a triazene using piperidine:  The triazine was then cleaved with hydrofluoric acid:  Historical note: in Wallach’s era, the element fluorine was symbolized with “Fl”. Thus, his procedure is subtitled “Fluorbenzol, CHFl”.  On the laboratory scale, PhF is prepared by the thermal decomposition of the benzenediazonium tetrafluoroborate: According to the procedure, solid [PhN]BF is heated with a flame to initiate an exothermic reaction, which also affords boron trifluoride and nitrogen gas. Product PhF and BF are readily separated because of their differing boiling points.  The technical synthesis is by the reaction of cyclopentadiene with difluorocarbene. The initially formed cyclopropane undergoes a ring expansion and subsequent elimination of hydrogen fluoride.

Reactions.

PhF behaves rather differently from other halobenzene derivatives owing to the pi-donor properties of fluoride. For example, the para position is more activated than benzene toward electrophiles. For this reason, it can be converted to 1-bromo-4-fluorobenzene with relatively high efficiency.

Solvent properties.

PhF is a useful solvent for highly reactive species. Its melting point at -44 °C is lower than that of benzene. In contrast, the boiling points of PhF and benzene are very similar, differing by only 4 °C. It is considerably more polar than benzene, with a dielectric constant of 5.42 compared to 2.28 for benzene at 298 K. Fluorobenzene is a relatively inert compound reflecting the strength of the C–F bond.  Although it is usually considered a non-coordinating solvent, a metal complex of PhF has been crystallized.

Fluorobenzene is the chemical compound with the formula CHF, often abbreviated PhF. A colorless liquid, it is a precursor to many fluorophenyl compounds.

氟苯是有机化合物,分子式为CHF,通常简写为PhF。这种物质是苯的衍生物,氟原子与苯环直接相连。其熔点为-44°C,低于苯,这是由于氟取代基破坏苯环的对称性,使分子无法如未取代的苯一般良好堆叠而结晶。相比之下,其沸点只与苯相差4°C。


History of laws regarding same-sex sexual activity.

Homosexuality was punishable by death in the Holy Roman Empire from 1532 until its dissolution and in Prussia from 1620 to 1794. The influence of the Napoleonic Code in the early 1800s sparked decriminalisations in much of Germany outside of Prussia. However, in 1871, the year the federal German Empire was formed, Paragraph 175 of the new Penal Code recriminalised homosexual acts. The law was extended under Nazi rule, and convictions multiplied by a factor of ten to about 8,000 per year. Penalties were severe, and 5,000–15,000 suspected offenders were interned in concentration camps, where most of them died.  The Nazi additions were repealed in East Germany in 1950, but homosexual relations between men remained a crime until 1968. West Germany kept the more repressive version of the law, legalising male homosexual activity one year after East Germany, in 1969. The age of consent was equalized in East Germany at 14 years in 1989, and in unified Germany in 1994. It is now 14 years (16/18 in some circumstances) for female-female, male-male and female-male sexual activity.

East Germany (1949–1990).

East Germany inherited Paragraph 175. Communist gay activist Rudolf Klimmer, modelling himself on Magnus Hirschfeld and his Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, campaigned in 1954 to have the law repealed, but was unsuccessful. His work prevented any further convictions for homosexuality after 1957.  In the five years following the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany, the GDR Government instituted a program of "moral reform" to build a solid foundation for the new socialist republic in which masculinity and the traditional family were championed, while homosexuality, seen to contravene "healthy mores of the working people", continued to be prosecuted under Paragraph 175. Same sex activity was "alternatively viewed as a remnant of bourgeois decadence, a sign of moral weakness, and a threat to the social and political health of the nation".  In East Germany, Paragraph 175 ceased to be enforced from 1957 but remained on the books until 1968. Officially, homosexuality was decriminalised in East Germany in 1968.  According to historian Heidi Minning, attempts by lesbian and gay activists to establish a visible community were "thwarted at every turn by the GDR Government and the SED party". Minning wrote: "Police force was used on numerous occasions to break up or prevent public gay and lesbian events. Centralised censorship prevented the presentation of homosexuality in print and electronic media, as well as the import of such materials."  The Protestant Church provided more support than the state, allowing meeting spaces and printing facilities.  Towards the end of the 1980s, just before the collapse of the iron curtain, the East German Government opened a state-owned gay disco in Berlin. On 11 August 1987, the East German Supreme Court affirmed that ""homosexuality, just like heterosexuality, represents a variant of sexual behavior. Homosexual people do therefore not stand outside socialist society, and the civil rights are warranted to them exactly as to all other citizens"."  In 1988, the German Hygiene Museum in Dresden commissioned the state-owned film studio, DEFA, to make the documentary film "Die andere Liebe" ("The Other Love"). It was the first DEFA film about homosexuality and its aim was to convey official state acceptance. In 1989, the German Hygiene Museum also commissioned DEFA to make the GDR's only HIV/AIDS prevention documentary, "Liebe ohne Angst" ("Love Without Fear"). This did not focus on homosexuality directly but pointed out that AIDS was not a "gay disease". In 1989, DEFA produced the film "Coming Out", directed by Heiner Carow, telling the story of an East German man coming to accept his homosexuality, with much of it shot in East Berlin gay bars. It was the only East German feature film on the theme of same-sex desire ever produced. It won a number of awards including a Silver Bear and Teddy Award at the 40th Berlin International Film Festival, and awards at the National Feature Film Festival of the GDR.  Jürgen Lemke is considered one of the most prominent East German gay rights activists and has published a book on the subject ("Gay Voices from East Germany", English edition published in 1991). Lemke claimed that the gay community was far more united in the GDR than it was in the West.

West Germany (1949–1990).

West Germany inherited Paragraph 175, which remained on the books until 1969. However, as opposed to East Germany, the churches' influence in West Germany was very strong. Fundamentalist Protestants and the Roman Catholic Church were staunchly opposed to LGBT rights legislation.  As a result of these strong socially conservative influences, the German Christian Democratic Union, the dominant political force in post-war West Germany, tended to ignore or oppose most gay rights issues. While their frequent coalition partners the Free Democratic Party tended to have a stronger belief in civil liberties, they were, as a smaller party, less likely to alienate the more socially conservative elements in the larger Christian Democratic Union.  During the Cold War era, support for gay rights in Germany was generally restricted to the Free Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party and, later in the 1980s, the Greens. At the national level, advancements in gay rights did not begin to happen until the end of the Cold War and the electoral success of the Social Democratic Party. For example, in 1990, the law was changed so that homosexuality and bisexuality were no longer grounds for being discriminated against in the military.  The first kiss between two men on German television was shown in Rosa von Praunheim's film "It Is Not the Homosexual Who Is Perverse, But the Society in Which He Lives" (1971). This film marks the beginning of the German modern gay liberation movement. In 1986, the popular soap opera "Lindenstraße" showed the first gay kiss in a German TV series. From then on, many other television shows followed this example. The creation of private TV stations in 1984 resulted in a stronger LGBT presence in the media by the end of the decade. The station RTL in particular was very gay-friendly and some TV stars had come out by then.

Annulment of convictions.

In 2002, the German Government decided to overturn any convictions for homosexuality made during the Nazi period.  In May 2016, Justice Minister Heiko Maas announced that gay and bisexual men who were convicted of same-sex sexual activity after World War II would have their convictions overturned. Maas said the following in a statement: In October 2016, the German Government announced the introduction of a draft law to pardon around 50,000 men for the prosecutions they endured due to their sexual orientation. On 22 March 2017, the Germany Cabinet officially approved the bill. The bill, which also foresees compensation of €3,000 (£2,600) for each conviction, plus €1,500 (£1,300) for every year of jail time, then had to obtain parliamentary approval. On 22 June 2017, the Bundestag (German Parliament) unanimously passed the bill to implement the scheme to rehabilitate gay and bisexual men. The bill then went back to the Bundesrat for final approval, and was signed into law by German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier on 17 July 2017.

Recognition of same-sex relationships.

Same-sex couples have been legally recognized in Germany since 2001. That year, registered life partnerships () were instituted, giving same-sex couples rights and obligations in areas such as inheritance, alimony, health insurance, immigration, hospital, jail visitations, and name change. Subsequently, the Constitutional Court repeatedly ruled in favor of same-sex couples in registered partnerships, requiring the Bundestag to make incremental changes to the partnership law. In one case, the European Court of Justice ruled that refusing a widow's pension to the same-sex partner of a deceased person is direct discrimination if the partnership was comparable to marriage (see also "same-sex unions in the European Union").  Even though a majority of the political parties in the Bundestag supported legalising same-sex marriage, attempts to follow through with the proposal were repeatedly blocked by CDU/CSU, the largest parliamentary party and the dominant party in the government coalitions since 2005. This changed on the final sitting day of the Bundestag before the 2017 summer break, when the junior party in the coalition, the Social Democratic Party, introduced a bill to legalise same-sex marriage and adoption which had previously passed the Bundesrat in September 2015. German Chancellor Angela Merkel moderated her stance on the issue by allowing members of the CDU/CSU to follow their personal conscience rather than the party line, which freed up moderate members who had long been in favour of same-sex marriage to vote for it. On 30 June 2017, the SPD, Die Linke and the Greens as well as 75 members of the CDU/CSU formed a majority in the Bundestag to pass the bill by 393 votes to 226. The law came into effect three months after promulgation, on 1 October 2017.  The first same-sex weddings in Germany were celebrated on 1 October 2017. Berlin couple Karl Kreile and Bodo Mende, a couple for 38 years, were the first same-sex couple to exchange their vows under the new law and did so at the town hall of Schöneberg, Berlin.

Adoption and parenting.

In 2004, the registered partnership law (originally passed in 2001) was amended, effective on 1 January 2005, to give registered same-sex couples limited adoption rights (stepchild adoption only) and reform previously cumbersome dissolution procedures with regard to division of property and alimony. In 2013, the Supreme Constitutional Court ruled that if one partner in a same-sex relationship has adopted a child, the other partner has the right to become the adoptive mother or father of that child as well; this is known as "successive adoption". The same-sex marriage law, passed in June 2017, gave same-sex couples full adoption rights. On 10 October 2017, a court in Berlin's Kreuzberg district approved the first application for joint adoption of a child by a same-sex couple.  There is no legal right to assisted reproduction procedures for lesbian couples, such as artificial insemination and in vitro fertilisation, but such practices are not explicitly banned either. The German Medical Association is against explicit legalisation and directs its members not to perform such procedures. Since this directive is not legally binding, however, sperm banks and doctors may work with lesbian clients if they wish. This makes it harder for German lesbian couples to have children than in some other countries, but it is becoming increasingly popular. If a married lesbian couple conceives a child via donor insemination, the non-biological parent is not automatically recognized on the child's birth certificate and must go through an adoption procedure. This is not the case for married heterosexual couples, where the non-biological father is automatically recognized as a legal parent. A bill initiated by Alliance 90/The Greens in June 2018 to rectify this inequality is pending in the Bundestag. In October 2018, the Federal Court of Justice ("Bundesgerichtshof") in Karlsruhe ruled that, unlike heterosexual couples, the wife of the child's legal mother does not automatically become a parent, and that an adoption is necessary. This specific case involved a lesbian couple from Saxony, who had converted their civil partnership in mid-October 2017 into a marriage. At the beginning of November, their child was born via artificial insemination. When trying to record the birth, only the biological mother was allowed to register. The couple then unsuccessfully applied to the registry office to correct the birth record so that the non-biological mother could also be listed as the child's mother. The office rejected this request, whereupon the woman filed suit. A district court in Chemnitz initially ruled for the couple, but the Dresden Higher Regional Court overturned this decision in April 2018. Eventually, after another appeal, the Federal Court of Justice ruled against them. In its judgment, the Court referenced Paragraph 1592 of the "Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch", which states that "the father of a child is the man who at the moment of birth is married to the child's mother". The Ministry of Justice has begun looking into legal reforms to grant automatic co-parent recognition for lesbian couples.  In May 2019, Federal Minister of Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth Franziska Giffey recommended that teachers use forms that are gender-neutral, which no longer use "mother and father" but instead "parent 1 and parent 2".

Military service.

LGBT people are permitted to serve openly in the German Armed Forces.  The Bundeswehr maintained a "glass ceiling" policy that effectively banned homosexuals from becoming officers until 2000. First Lieutenant Winfried Stecher, an army officer demoted for his homosexuality, had filed a lawsuit against former Defense Minister Rudolf Scharping. Scharping vowed to fight the claim in court, claiming that homosexuality "raises serious doubts about suitability and excludes employment in all functions pertaining to leadership". However, before the case went to trial, the Defense Ministry reversed the policy. While the German Government declined to issue an official explanation for the reversal, it was widely believed that Scharping was overruled by former Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and former Vice-Chancellor Joschka Fischer. Nowadays, according to general military orders given in the year 2000, tolerance towards all sexual orientations is considered to be part of the duty of military personnel. Sexual relationships and acts amongst soldiers outside service times, regardless of the sexual orientation, are defined to be "irrelevant", regardless of the rank and function of the soldier(s) involved, while harassment or the abuse of functions is considered a transgression, as well as the performance of sexual acts in active service. Transgender persons may also serve openly in the German Armed Forces.

Discrimination protections.

In the fields of employment, goods and services, education and health services, discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity is illegal throughout Germany. As a signatory to the Treaty of Amsterdam, Germany was required to amend its national anti-discrimination laws to include, among others, sexual orientation. It failed to do so for six years, due to discussions about the scope of the proposed laws. Some of the proposals were debated because they actually surpassed the requirements of the Treaty of Amsterdam (namely, extending discrimination protection for all grounds of discrimination to the provision of goods and services); the final version of the law, however, was criticised as not fully complying with some parts of the Treaty, especially with respect to the specifications about the termination of work contracts through labor courts. The Bundestag finally passed the "General Act on Equal Treatment" () on 29 June 2006; the Bundesrat voted on it without discussion on 7 July 2006. Having come into force on 18 August 2006, the law bans discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity in employment, education, health services and the provision of goods and services.  Some state constitutions have anti-discrimination laws that include sexual orientation and gender identity, including the constitutions of Berlin (since 1995), Brandenburg (since 1992), Bremen (since 2001), Saarland (since 2011) and Thuringia (since 1993), and Saxony-Anhalt in the public sector since 1997. Article 10(2) of the Berlin Constitution reads as follows: Hate speech on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity is banned in Germany. German law prohibits incitement to hatred based on membership to a certain social or ethnic group. According to the Ministry of the Interior, 245 cases of homophobic and transphobic attacks occurred in the first half of 2019, compared to 351 recorded in all of 2018.

Basic Law amendment.

In 1994, although a majority in the Joint Constitutional Commission of the Bundestag and Bundesrat voted in favor of the inclusion of a prohibition on discrimination based on sexual identity in the Basic Law (), the required two-thirds majority was not achieved.  In June 2018, the states of Berlin, Brandenburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Rhineland-Palatinate and Thuringia submitted a draft bill to the Bundesrat to amend article 3 of the Basic Law to add the characteristics "sexual and gender identity". In July, the draft proposal failed after the state of Berlin requested that it be rejected, as it became clear that the two-thirds majority would not be achieved.  In May 2019, Alliance 90/The Greens, the Free Democratic Party and The Left proposed a joint legislative initiative to amend Article 3 of the Basic Law to ban discrimination on grounds of "sexual identity" (). In November 2019, the Christian Democratic Union expressed support for the intiative.

Transgender and intersex rights.

Since 1980, the "Gesetz über die Änderung der Vornamen und die Feststellung der Geschlechtszugehörigkeit in besonderen Fällen" has stated that transgender persons may change their legal sex following sex reassignment surgery and sterilization. In January 2011, the Federal Constitutional Court ruled that these two requirements were unconstitutional.  In May 2019, the Ministry of Justice and the Ministry of the Interior presented a draft bill to reform the law. It was criticized by LGBT groups for failing to adopt a self-determination model and still requiring transgender people to go to court before a legal gender change. In addition, it would introduce the concept of "spousal veto", and requires a three-year waiting period before the applicant can reapply to change gender after a spousal veto or a negative court decision.  The German Society for Transidentity and Intersexuality estimates the number of transgender and intersex people in Germany at between 210,000 and 500,000 people.  Since 2013, German law has allowed children born with atypical sexual anatomy to have their gender left blank instead of being categorised as male ("männlich") or female ("weiblich"). The Swiss activist group "Zwischengeschlecht" criticised this law, arguing that "if a child's anatomy does not, in the view of physicians, conform to the category of male or the category of female, there is no option but to withhold the male or female labels given to all other children". The German Ethics Council and the Swiss National Advisory Commission also criticised the law, saying that "instead of individuals deciding for themselves at maturity, decisions concerning sex assignment are made in infancy by physicians and parents".  In November 2017, the Federal Constitutional Court ("Bundesverfassungsgericht") ruled that civil status law must allow a third gender option, meaning that intersex people would have another option besides being listed as female or male or having a blank gender entry. A government proposal on the matter was presented in August 2018. Intersex individuals would be able to register themselves as "divers" on official documents. The proposal was approved by the Bundestag in December 2018, and took effect on 1 January 2019. The "divers" option is available for such documents as birth certificates, passports and driver's licenses; however, intersex people are required to receive a doctor's statement or medical certification confirming their intersex status, which was criticized by LGBT groups. Additionally, parents are able to use the "divers" category for newborns with unclear sex traits. In April 2019, the Ministry of the Interior clarified that the "divers" option is applicable to intersex people only, not transgender people.

Conversion therapy.

Conversion therapy has a negative effect on the lives of LGBT people, and can lead to low self-esteem, depression and suicide ideation. It is opposed by every medical organisation in Germany.  In 2008, the German Government declared itself completely opposed to the pseudoscientific practice. In 2013, Alliance 90/The Greens introduced a draft bill to the Bundestag to ban conversion therapy on minors, but it was never voted on. A petition calling on the Health Ministry to ban the practice was launched in July 2018, and had collected about 60,000 signatures by mid-August 2018.  In February 2019, openly gay German Health Minister Jens Spahn stated that he wanted gay conversion therapy for both minors and adults to be made illegal, calling it "a form of assault". Spahn said he hoped to work together with Justice Minister Katarina Barley for a law to ban conversion therapy, that he hoped would be approved by the autumn of 2019. In April 2019, after an online petition on the issue started by international LGBT organisation All Out collected around 110,000 signatures, Spahn called for a commission to draft proposals on how exactly such a ban can be introduced. The panel would then present its final report in autumn. The commission met in May and June for two full-day workshops. Likewise, the Ministry of Health invited politicians, scientists and those affected, as well as institutions from abroad who have already gained experience with legal prohibitions, to participate in the exchange. In June, Spahn presented in a press conference the results of two scientific reports that denounced conversion therapy, and called for a legal ban. In early November 2019, Spahn submitted a draft bill that would ban the use of conversion therapy on minors and punish those coercing, deceiving and threatening someone of any age into the practice. On 18 December, the Cabinet gave its approval to the draft bill. Conversion therapy on adults would also be banned, provided there was a "lack of will power" such as coercion, threats, deceit or misapprehension. The ban would also be in effect for psychotherapeutic and pastoral conversations, but only if "the conversational partner purposefully tries to influence one's sexual orientation". People charged with illegally performing conversion therapy may face up to one year in prison. Offering, promoting and referring to conversion therapy in case of minors would also be deemed illegal and may carry a fine of 30,000 €. Both people performing the therapies and legal guardians "grossly violating their duty of care" may be charged. The legislation was approved by the Bundestag on 7 May 2020 with support from all political parties except the AfD.  There was also an initiative of several federal states for a ban on conversion therapy. The states of Hesse, Berlin, Bremen, Saarland and Schleswig-Holstein tabled a joint motion in the Bundesrat, which was presented in plenary on 12 April 2019. The states of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia agreed to the motion, while Bavaria expressed potential support but with some modifications. The motion was to be voted on in plenary in the Bundesrat in May, but was later postponed. Another bill to ban conversion therapy for minors and a motion with numerous measures to educate and support victims of such practices was presented by the Green parliamentary group in the Bundestag in March 2019.

Blood donation.

In Germany, as in many other countries, men who have sex with men (MSM) were previously not allowed to donate blood. In June 2016, German health ministers announced that the MSM ban would be lifted, replacing it with a one-year deferral period. The proposal to lift the ban was championed by Saarland Health Minister Monika Bachmann. Since summer 2017, gay and bisexual men have been allowed to donate blood following a year of abstinence from sex.  Bone marrow donation has been allowed since December 2014.

Openly gay and lesbian politicians.

There are several prominent German politicians who are openly gay. Among them are former Berlin Mayor Klaus Wowereit (having outed himself with the famous words "Ich bin schwul – und das ist auch gut so!" ["I am gay – and that's a good thing!"]) and Johannes Kahrs (from the SPD); Volker Beck, Kai Gehring, Ulle Schauws, Gerhard Schick and Anja Hajduk (from The Greens); Harald Petzold (The Left); Alice Weidel (AfD); Jens Spahn and Stefan Kaufmann (from the CDU); Bernd Fabritius (from the CSU); and Michael Kauch and Guido Westerwelle, respectively former federal Foreign Minister and former head of the Free Democratic Party (FDP). In addition, former Hamburg Mayor Ole von Beust (CDU) did not deny anything when his father outed him but considered it a private matter; after leaving office he began talking about his homosexuality. In July 2007, Karin Wolff, the Minister of Education for Hesse, came out as a lesbian. In December 2013, Barbara Hendricks (SPD), the Federal Minister for the Environment in the Third Merkel Cabinet, came out as lesbian. In 2012, Michael Ebling (SPD) became the Mayor of Mainz. In 2013 and 2015, Sven Gerich (SPD) and Thomas Kufen (CDU) became the openly gay mayors of Wiesbaden and Essen, respectively.

Positions of political parties.

The Christian-conservative parties, the Christian Democratic Union and the Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU), support basic rights such as registered partnerships and some of its members support same-sex marriages. Other major parties, including the Social Democratic Party (SPD), The Left (Die Linke), Alliance '90/The Greens (Bündnis 90/Die Grünen) and the liberal Free Democratic Party (FDP) support LGBT rights, including same-sex marriage. The right-wing Alternative for Germany (AfD) is opposed to full LGBT rights and opposes same-sex marriage, but is in favour of registered partnerships.

LGBT rights movement in Germany.

The first gay journal in the world "Der Eigene" ("The Self-Owning") began publishing in 1896. The journal continued publishing, with contributions from Benedict Friedlaender, Hanns Heinz Ewers, Erich Mühsam and more, until 1932. During the 1920s and 1930s, several gay bars and clubs opened in Berlin's Schöneberg district. With the rise to power of the Nazi Party, officials closed the bars and censored and banned gay publications.  The first modern gay rights group in Germany was the Homosexual Action West Berlin (, HAW), which was founded on 15 August 1971. The group formed as a result of Rosa von Praunheim's film "It Is Not the Homosexual Who Is Perverse, But the Society in Which He Lives". From 1973 onwards, the group organised annual meetings with several other gay groups including the "Homosexuelle Aktion Göttingen", founded in 1972 in the city of Göttingen, and the "Homosexuelle Frauengruppe Münster" (Homosexual Women's Group Münster). The first gay and lesbian protest was organised in Münster on 29 April 1972. The groups campaigned for the repeal of Paragraph 175 and societal acceptance of LGBT people. In 1975, several members of HAW split from the group to form their own organisation, the "Lesbisches Aktionszentrum Westberlin" (Lesbian Action Center West Berlin). HAW began to lose influence from the late 1970s; founding the gay club SchwuZ ("SchwulenZentrum") and eventually shuting down in the late 90s. The Federal Association of Homosexuality ("Bundesverband Homosexualität") was established in Cologne in 1986 and dissolved in 1997. In 1990, the Lesbian and Gay Federation in Germany (LSVD, "Lesben- und Schwulenverband in Deutschland") was founded in Berlin. The LSVD is today Germany's largest LGBT rights organisation. Several more advocacy groups were formed, including Lesbenring in 1982, the Association of Lesbian and Gay Journalists ("Bund Lesbischer und Schwuler JournalistInnen") in Cologne in 1997, the Ecumenical Working Group Homosexuals and the Church ("Ökumenische Arbeitsgruppe Homosexuelle und Kirche") in 1977, and the Association of Gay and Lesbian Police Officers ("Verband lesbischer und schwuler Polizeibediensteter"), among many others. The "Bundesverband Trans*" and "Intersexuelle Menschen e.V." are among several groups campaigning for transgender and intersex rights.  The first Christopher Street Day occurred in Berlin in 1979 with 400 masked participants. Attendance increased thereafter, with 15,000 attendees in 1990 and reaching 100,000 attendees in the late 90s. In 2005, the event attracted an estimated 400,000 people. Today, Berlin Pride is among the city's largest events, attracting an estimated one million attendees in 2019. Outside Berlin, pride parades are also held in numerous cities, including Bremen and Cologne which held their first events in 1979, and Hamburg (known as Hamburg Pride) and Munich whose first pride events were organized in 1980. Freiburg im Breisgau organized its first pride event in 1985, followed by Frankfurt in 1993, Dresden in 1994, Dortmund in 1996, Kiel in 1998 and Stuttgart in 1999. Events are also held in Bonn, Leipzig, Karlsruhe, Hanover, Nuremberg, Darmstadt, Bielefeld, Düsseldorf, Essen, Duisburg, Heidelberg, Wuppertal, Mannheim, Saarbrücken and Lübeck, among many others.

Demographics.

A May 2019 study revealed that 6.9% of the German population identified as LGBTI. The study also showed that 10.6% of the population of Cologne between the ages of 18 and 75 described themselves as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex or queer. This accounted to over 87,000 people in the city.

Public opinion.

A 2013 Pew Research Center poll indicated that 87% of Germans believed that homosexuality should be accepted by society, which was the second highest in the 39 countries polled, following Spain at 88%.  46% of 20,000 German LGBT people said they had experienced discrimination because of their sexual orientation and gender identity in the past year per the 2013 results of a survey by the EU's Fundamental Rights Agency (47% was the EU average). Two-thirds of respondents said they concealed their sexual orientation at school and in public life and a fifth felt discriminated at work.  In May 2015, PlanetRomeo, an LGBT social network, published its first Gay Happiness Index (GHI). Gay men from over 120 countries were asked about how they feel about society’s view on homosexuality, how they experience the way they are treated by other people and how satisfied are they with their lives. Germany was ranked 14th with a GHI score of 68.  A 2017 poll found that 83% of Germans supported same-sex marriage, 16% were against. For comparison, the 2015 Eurobarometer found that 66% of Germans thought that same-sex marriage should be allowed throughout Europe, 29% were against.  The 2019 Eurobarometer showed that 88% of Germans believed gay and bisexual people should enjoy the same rights as heterosexual people, and 84% supported same-sex marriage.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights in Germany have evolved significantly over the course of the last decades. During the 1920s and early 1930s, lesbian and gay people in Berlin were generally tolerated by society and many bars and clubs specifically pertaining to gay men were opened. Although same-sex sexual activity between men was already made illegal under Paragraph 175 by the German Empire in 1871, Nazi Germany extended these laws during World War II, which resulted in the persecution and deaths of thousands of homosexual citizens. The Nazi extensions were repealed in 1950 and same-sex sexual activity between men was decriminalised in both East and West Germany in 1968 and 1969, respectively. The age of consent was equalized in East Germany in 1989 and in unified Germany in 1994.

德国对女同性恋、男同性恋、双性恋与跨性别者权益的保障是欧洲各国相当完善的一个国家,最早在1898年,德国政界便已有废除《刑事法第175条》的呼声,该法将男同性恋者的同性性行为视为刑事罪行,并加以惩罚。1929年,德国国会委员会通过废除刑事法第175条,但由于纳粹党的崛起及掌权,战后保守派及宗教团体等阻挠,该法最终迟至1994年德国统一后才被完全废除,但同性之间仍不能结婚;直到2017年,德国联邦议院通过婚姻平权法案,德国的同性伴侣才拥有婚姻权利。


History.

Over 60 years, the university has grown from a provincial feeder college with 300 students to an international university with over 30,000 students spread across nine domestic campuses and four international centres.

Establishment.

The University of Wollongong traces its origins to 1951. The foundation of the university was in 1951 when a division of The New South Wales University of Technology (currently known as the University of New South Wales, UNSW) was established in Wollongong. In 1962, the division became the Wollongong College of the University of New South Wales.  On 1 January 1975, the New South Wales Parliament incorporated the University of Wollongong as an independent institution of higher learning consisting of five faculties (including engineering, humanities, mathematics, sciences and social sciences) with Michael Birt as its inaugural vice chancellor. In 1976, Justice Robert Marsden Hope was installed as chancellor of the university. As of 1982, the university amalgamated the Wollongong Institute of Higher Education which had begun life in 1962 as the Wollongong Teachers' College; thus the merger formed the basis for a period of rapid growth in the 1980s.

Years in history.

In 1951, a foundation of the University of Wollongong was founded as a division of the New South Wales University of Technology in Wollongong. A decade later, the division became the Wollongong College of the University of New South Wales.  In 1972, the library was three storeys high and could fit 280 students.  In 1975, the University of Wollongong gained its autonomy as an independent institution of higher learning by the New South Wales Parliament.  In 1976, the library expanded and could fit 530 students.  In 1977, the Faculty of Computer Science (currently known as the Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences) developed a version of Unix for the Interdata 7/32 called UNSW 01, this was the first non-PDP Unix. In the late 70s, Tim Berners-Lee sourced TCP/IP software, an integral element of the World Wide Web, from the University of Wollongong.  In 1981, Ken McKinnon was appointed Vice-Chancellor, overseeing the amalgamation of the university with the Wollongong Institute of Education (also known as WIE) in 1982. The Wollongong Institute of Education had originated in 1971 as the Teachers College (renamed the Wollongong Institute of Education in 1973) This merger formed the basis of the contemporary university.  In 1983, the Faculty of Commerce was established along with the School of Creative Arts, followed by the creation of the Faculty of Education in 1984. Also in 1984 the commencement of the new Wollongong University building program began, which led to the construction and opening of the Illawarra Technology Centre (1985), Kooloobong (1985, 1986, 1990), Weerona College (1986), Administration, Union Mall (now known as UniCentre), URAC (1987), multi-storey carpark (1990) and heated swimming pool (1990).  In 1993, the University of Wollongong Dubai Campus in Dubai, the United Arab Emirates was established.  In 2000, the Shoalhaven campus was opened at Nowra on the New South Wales south coast. The Bega campus was also opened.  In 2001, the Southern Highlands campus opened at Moss Vale.  In 2008, the university opened the first building at Wollongong Innovation Campus (abbreviated as iC) on a 20-hectare site at Brandon Park in Wollongong. In August, the Faculty of Science Dean, Rob Whelan, took up a new role as president of the University of Wollongong in Dubai.  In 2009, the Chancellor, Mike Codd AC, announced his retirement after three four-year terms. His replacement, effective on 1 October, was Jillian Broadbent AO. Ms Jillian Broadbent, who has a banking background, is on the Board of the Reserve Bank of Australia; and has been a director of Qantas, Special Broadcasting Service and Australian Securities Exchange. She became the third Chancellor after Justice Robert Hope and Mr Michael Codd.  In 2010, the New South Wales Health Minister, Carmel Tebbutt, opened the $30 million Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute in July. In August, a $20 million building housing the Sydney Business School and the UOW/TAFE Digital Media Centre opened at the Innovation Campus. The centre was named the Mike Codd Building in honour of a former Chancellor, Michael Codd AC.'  In 2014, work began on the $20 million iAccelerate building at the Innovation Campus (iC), which offers space for up to 200 budding entrepreneurs to develop their ideas.  In 2017, the University of Wollongong South Western Sydney campus opened on Moore Street in Liverpool.

Overseas expansion.

In 1993 the University of Wollongong in Australia opened what was to become the University of Wollongong in Dubai (UOWD) in the United Arab Emirates. Initially called the Institute of Australian Studies (IAS), this centre made UOW the first foreign university to open a campus in the UAE, and the first Australian tertiary institution represented in the Persian Gulf region, as well as one of the earliest tertiary institutions founded in the UAE. IAS initially offered English language programs, before becoming a "feeder college" by 1995, where students completed part of a degree in business or IT in Dubai before coming to Australia to complete their studies. In 1999, it was the first foreign-owned institution in the world to be issued a licence from the federal government of the United Arab Emirates, and was formally opened as University of Wollongong, Dubai Campus in October 2000. It was officially incorporated as University of Wollongong in Dubai in 2004 and at present it has over 4,000 students from almost one hundred countries.

Campuses.

The University of Wollongong comprises nine campuses in Australia:

Wollongong.

The Wollongong campus, as the university's main campus, is located on the New South Wales coast, 3 km from the centre of Wollongong and 80 km south of Sydney. It is served by the North Wollongong railway station which opened in 1915 on South Coast railway line.  The Wollongong campus offers a comprehensive range of undergraduate and postgraduate courses. The courses are offered across five faculties comprising the Faculty of Business, the Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences, the Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, the Faculty of Social Sciences and the Faculty of Law, Humanities and the Arts. All together, nearly 30,000 students attend classes along with around 2000 staff on the Wollongong campus. Apart from the teaching and research buildings, the campus includes student residences, conference facilities, food halls, supermarket, cafes, restaurants, a bar, conference facilities, indoor sports centres and gymnasium, Olympic-standard swimming pool and sports fields. The Wollongong campus is also home to UOW College.

South Western Sydney (Liverpool).

In 2016 The University of Wollongong expanded to the growing South West Sydney region, with a campus in the Liverpool CBD taking its first cohort of students in 2017. The campus is expected to expand over the next several years.

Innovation Campus.

The Innovation Campus, abbreviated as iC, is located in Wollongong, New South Wales. The campus was established with seed funding from the New South Wales government and has received ongoing support from the federal and state governments as well as the Wollongong City Council and was established to drive partnerships and collaboration between the research and business communities by co-locating commercial and research organisation.

Sydney Business School.

The Sydney Business School, which was established in 1997, is the graduate school of UOW's Faculty of Business and offers postgraduate business programs at the Sydney CBD Campus located at Circular Quay, and UOW's Wollongong Campus.

Organisation.

The University of Wollongong has five faculties.  Faculty of Business Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences Faculty of Law, Humanities and The Arts Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health Faculty of Social Sciences

Library.

The University of Wollongong has multiple libraries across its campuses.

Academics.

Awards, rankings and recognition.

The University of Wollongong is ranked among the best 20 modern universities in the world in the QS Top 50 Under 50 Rankings 2019. It is ranked 181-190th in the world by the 2019 QS Graduate Employability Ranking for the quality of its graduates.  Ranked 37th in Times Higher Education Asia-Pacific University Rankings 2019.  Ranked among the top 250 universities in the world - QS World University Rankings 2020

Undergraduate rankings.

UOW is rated Australia's leading public university for student experience in the 2019 Good Universities Guide. UOW is one of only two Australian universities – and the only publicly funded university – to achieve 5-stars in all student experience measures: Overall experience; Skills development; Student support; Learning resources, Learner engagement, Student retention and Staff qualifications.  The Quality Indicators for Learning and Teaching (QILT) has ranked UOW as the number 1 university in New South Wales.  UOW is the highest rated university in Australia for:  UOW also received the highest rank among NSW/ACT universities in three study areas on QILT 2019.

Controversy.

Judith Wilyman PhD controversy.

In January 2016 the university awarded a PhD for a thesis, which is alleged to advocate a vaccine conspiracy theory, by vocal anti-vaccinationist Judith Wilyman titled "A critical analysis of the Australian government’s rationale for its vaccination policy" in the Faculty of Law, Humanities and the Arts. The university received criticism over this decision from a number of different quarters. The university defended its decision to award the PhD citing the need to permit 'freedom of opinion', and noting that the thesis passed the university's assessment procedures. UOW Head of Research, Judy Raper defended the university against the criticism. The Medical Journal of Australia said for "such a thesis that draws on the science", Wilyman "should have been subjected to the most rigorous scrutiny by experts in the field" but there was an "apparent failure to do that". Peter McIntyre, former director for Immunisation Research, added that the university "must bear the major responsibility for manifestly inadequate supervision".  In reaction to awarding the PhD to Judy Wilyman at least 65 UOW faculty members released a statement supporting vaccination and urging parents to get their children vaccinated, which in turn was also supported by 11 medical research and clinical societies. In 2016 the Australian Skeptics awarded the Social Sciences Department of the University, Judith Wilyman, and Brian Martin, the satirical Bent Spoon Award for "a PhD thesis riddled with errors, misstatements, poor and unsupported 'evidence' and conspiratorial thinking". The March 2019 issue of the journal Vaccine published an article titled "PhD thesis opposing immunisation: Failure of academic rigour with real-world consequences" in which the authors stated in their conclusion that, "This thesis is notable for its lack of evidence of systematic literature review. Despite its extensive claims, there is no primary research, but there is abundant evidence of strong bias in selecting the literature cited and sometimes outright misrepresentation of facts."

International students and reports of discrimination.

As reported in "The Australian", a 2016 review commissioned by the university into postgraduate research programs found that "discrimination against international students" was one of a number of problems identified that were faced by postgraduate students. The review also found that "international students also have to do a lot more research themselves" when compared to domestic students and there was "feelings of discrimination felt by international students". The report found that the university's current framework, policies and procedures are comparable to those of other benchmarked Australian universities, but recommended a number of improvements. The university has committed to implementing all of the report's recommendations.

Handling of reports of on-campus sexual assaults.

The university has been criticised for their handling of reported sexual assaults. One case highlighted the way in which the University claimed to "assist" a student after the student alleged sexual assault by another student. News Limited reported that the University did not take any disciplinary action against the alleged perpetrator, instead advising the victim to change behaviour, with the victim adding: "Nothing happened to him. Instead I was told to make all the changes". For self-protection the victim independently succeeded in taking out an Apprehended Violence Order via the courts against the alleged. Karen Willis, the executive officer of Rape and Domestic Violence Services Australia, described the actions of the university as "disgraceful", as it placed the "onus and responsibility on the person who has experienced violence". The university responded that its instructions are "standard procedure", it "does not comment on specific allegations", and it is not able to investigate sexual assault claims, as those must be investigated by the NSW Police. Another alleged victim considers their sexual assault and UoW's "response to be equally despicable."  Between 2011–2016, there were 40 officially reported cases of sexual assault, harassment or misconduct on campus, resulting in no expulsions, one suspension and three reprimands. Freedom of information investigations reported by News Limited suggest this may represent "just the tip of the iceberg... due to under-reporting". In contrast, the 2017 Australian Human Rights Commission report on sexual assault and harassment found reported figures substantially higher than this.

Liberal Arts controversy.

At its meeting on 21 June 2019, the Council of the University approved a new course, Bachelor of Arts in Western Civilisation and associated double degree programs, commencing in 2020. The funding agreement between the Ramsay Centre and the University was allegedly made without wide consultation with staff or the approval of the academic senate. The National Tertiary Education Union opposed the decision only to withdraw legal action later in the NSW Supreme Court.  A new School of Liberal Arts has been created in the Faculty of Law, Humanities and the Arts. The interdisciplinary curriculum will focus on the classic intellectual and artistic literature of the Western tradition.

Student life.

Facilities.

The Wollongong Undergraduate Students' Association produces the magazine "Tertangala", and many other services including representation, advocacy and student support. Postgraduate representation is provided by the Wollongong University Postgraduate Association, a member of the Council of Australian Postgraduate Associations.  Wollongong UniCentre, an on-campus organisation and controlled entity of the university, provides the social and commercial infrastructure on the campus, administering the UniBar, student clubs and societies, food outlets, entertainment and activities, a books and news shop and other student services.  The geographical and social centre of the university is the Duck Pond Lawn, and its surrounding eateries and other facilities, including the UniBar. The UniBar serves alcoholic drinks and a small range of lunch foods. The UniBar building was opened by Colin Markham MP, Simon Zulian Student Rep, Nigel Pennington UniCentre GM and Gerard Sutton VC on 14 May 2001. The UniBar has since won numerous awards including the Major Award and the Public Building Award of the Architectural Design Awards held in Wollongong in 2003, the "ACUMA" award for Best New Campus Facility and the Master Builders Award for Excellence in Construction by Camarda and Cantril.  In line with Commonwealth legislation introduced in October 2011, the University of Wollongong instated the Student Services and Amenities Fee. This fee was charged to student depending on their study load and location, and has been used to upgrade and subsidise existing facilities and install new facilities such as common barbecue areas.

Publications.

"Campus News" is the university's official quarterly publication. It was first published when the university was established as an institution in its own right – in 1975. It started life as a weekly magazine on 2 April 1975 but moved to less regular publication dates in 1976. The magazine features news and announcements about the university, stories about graduates, research news, opinion pieces and awards and achievements.  "WUSA" produces the campus magazine "Tertangala". "Tertangala" has a 45-year history, making it older than the University of Wollongong itself. It began in 1962, when the university was an external campus of the University of New South Wales. The magazine features student investigative and feature articles, news, artwork, opinion, film and music reviews, as well as interviews and editorials. Submissions from staff and students (including student association representatives) makes up the bulk of the magazines content, however submissions from other members of the community are also accepted. "Tertangala" is produced eight times a year.  "TIDE" is an annual literary compilation edited and published by third-year creative writing students. It features prose, poetry and artworks from students and community members and was first published May 2004.  "Paper, Rock" is a magazine created by the School of Journalism and Creative Writing at UOW. It incorporates features, sections on arts and entertainment, stories about university life, fashion, food and wine. It was first published in August 2007.  "Rhizome Magazine" is the magazine for postgraduate and research students at UOW. It features submissions from current postgraduate students at UOW, in many cases on the topic of the students' own research. It is produced by the Wollongong University Postgraduate Association (WUPA).

Rugby.

The Wollongong University RC (or UOW Mallee Bulls) competes in the Illawarra Rugby Union premiership. The club plays their home games at the University Oval, Wollongong. The Mallee Bulls wear red, white and blue jerseys. The club fields three senior teams and a women's side.  The University of Wollongong Titans (or UOW Titans) is a former rugby league football team that was part of Country Rugby League and competed in the Illawarra Rugby League premiership.

Residential colleges.

The university has a number of residential college and halls of residence:  The International House is the oldest residential college of the University of Wollongong and is an affiliate of the 16 International Houses Worldwide. It provides accommodation to approximately 218 students who are attending the University of Wollongong. It is situated at the corner of Porter and Hindmarsh Avenue in North Wollongong, near the North Wollongong railway station.  Residents of the residential college are predominantly undergraduate students, with some postgraduate students also accommodated. International House provides catered, dormitory style accommodation. There are 218 beds, 14 shared rooms (28 beds) and 190 single rooms.

Cooperation.

Affiliations.

The University of Wollongong has affiliated to a number of associations and organisations:

Research.

The University's Innovation Campus is home to the iAccelerate Centre, an innovation accelerator housing over 280 start-up entrepreneurs.

International research.

The University of Wollongong has formed key alliances with a number of international corporations and organisations:

International exchanges.

The University of Wollongong has 180 global partners, offering international short course and study abroad programs, and internships.

Alumni and staff.

UOW is consistently ranked in the top 1% of universities in the world for the quality of its graduates, including in the 2018 QS Graduate Employability Rankings  As of 2016 the QS World University Rankings placed Wollongong at the 61–70 band in the world for graduate employability.  As of 2014, the University has turned out more than a hundred thousand graduates, and also has alumni members all over the world in 143 countries. Although a large number of alumni live in Wollongong and Sydney, and a significant number also live in Melbourne, Brisbane, Canberra, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, Bangkok, London, New York and Washington, D.C..

The University of Wollongong (abbreviated as UOW) is an Australian public research university located in the coastal city of Wollongong, New South Wales, approximately 80 kilometres south of Sydney. As of 2017, the university had an enrolment of more than 32,000 students (including over 12,800 international students from 134 countries), an alumni base of more than 131,859 and over 2,400 staff members.

伍伦贡大学(英语:University of Wollongong),曾译作卧龙岗大学,是一家公立研究型大学,位于澳洲海滨城市伍伦贡市,距离悉尼以南约。截至2014年,该大学拥有超过30,000名入学学生,包括来自134个国家12,000多名国际学生、120,000多名校友以及1,000多名教研人员。卧龙岗大学在全球大学中排名前2%。


History.

St Cross College was formally set up as a society by the University on 5 October 1965; it was to admit its first graduate students (five in number) in the following year. Like the majority of Oxford's newer colleges, St Cross has been co-educational since its foundation.  The early location of St Cross was on a site in, immediately south of St Cross Church. The college took its name from its proximity to these places. In 1976 negotiations began between the college and the members of Pusey House over the possibility of moving the college to the St Giles site. The negotiations were successful, and in 1981 the college moved from St Cross Road into a site owned by Pusey House for a leased period of 999-years. The old site on St Cross Road continued to be used, initially by the Centre for Islamic Studies (at that time an Associated Centre of the college), and then subsequently in the early 1990s the site was developed by the college in collaboration with Brasenose College. The site now houses two residential buildings, which were opened in 1996.  On 18 November 2010, it was announced that Sir Mark Jones, previously Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum, had been elected as the next Master of the college; he took up the post in September 2011. Unlike every other college head (except the presidents of Kellogg and Parks), the Master of St Cross is appointed not by the college's governing body but by the University Council. Therefore, the election has only the character of a recommendation to Council, albeit one which is constantly followed.

Buildings.

The college is located on St Giles' near to the Ashmolean Museum, south of Regent's Park College and immediately north of Blackfriars. It is also close to the Classics Faculty and the Oriental Institute.  The college buildings are structured around two quads, the Richard Blackwell Quadrangle and the new West Quad. St Cross shares the site with Pusey House, which comprises the first floor and parts of the ground floor to the eastern side of the Blackwell quad, a library on the first floor on its western side, as well as the chapel. The original Pusey House buildings around the Blackwell quad, including the chapel, date from the period of 1884 to 1926 and are mainly the work of the architects Temple and Leslie Moore and Ninian Comper. Discreet internal alterations were made when St Cross moved in by Geoffrey Beard and the Oxford Architects Partnership. Among these was the conversion of a cloister and store rooms into the Saugman Hall (now the Saugman Common Room) named after Per Saugman, a former Director of Blackwell Scientific Publications and a former fellow of the college. The first quadrangle was named the Richard Blackwell Quadrangle in honour of Richard Blackwell (another former fellow); both Saugman and Blackwell played a crucial part in securing the large Blackwell benefaction for St Cross. Most students, however, used to refer to the Richard Blackwell Quadrangle by its nickname: 'the Quad'. After completion of the second quad, it is now commonly known as 'the front Quad'.  At the west side of the Blackwell Quad lies the Four Colleges Arch, named after the four colleges which had contributed especially generous capital and recurrent funding to St Cross: Merton, All Souls, Christ Church, and St John's.  Behind the Four Colleges Arch originally lay a large open garden bordered by medieval boundary wall. This offered the college the possibility of expanding its buildings and erecting a second quadrangle, the West Quad.  Work was first completed on the South Wing on the southern side of the West Quad, containing a hall and kitchen, with bar, the Ian Skipper conference room, and the Caroline Miles games room below, a guest room and study bedrooms above. This development has in part been financed by Ian Skipper, Domus fellow of the college, after whom the conference room on the lower ground floor was named.  A second building to the western and northern sides of the West Quad was set to be completed in time for the college's semicentennial in 2015. However, planning permission for the new building was rejected, as it required the demolition of a medieval boundary wall, an action which the council qualified as 'unjustifiable'. Planning permission was subsequently granted following an appeal, and the new West Wing building was completed in 2017. The new West Quad includes 50 student bedrooms, a lecture theatre, a library with a garden room (the Douglas and Catherine Wigdor Library), several seminar rooms, and the Audrey Blackman Guest Room.  In addition to the current main site, the college still owns its original site on St Cross Road, located near the Law Faculty and English Faculty. After the college moved to its present location, this site was developed into student accommodation, the St Cross Annexe. The site is shared with Brasenose, who also own an annexe on the site.  Additional buildings which are run by St Cross College as student accommodation include Bradmore Road House, Stonemason House, and the Wellington Square houses.  The master's lodgings are also located in Wellington Square.

Academia.

In 2016, St Cross had over 550 graduate students, studying for degrees in all subjects. There is a strong emphasis on international diversity, with regularly over 75% of the students coming from outside the UK (2016: 83%). This is reflected in the college motto "Ad quattuor cardines mundi", meaning 'to the four corners of the earth'. The fellowship is similarly diverse and represents a broad range of academic disciplines in the sciences and the arts.  The college awards a number of scholarships in different subjects, predominantly in the humanities and social sciences.  Unusually for an Oxford college, there is a founding tradition of sharing social facilities between fellows, members of Pusey House, the Common Room and students, with no separate high table or Senior Common Room. This gives the college a much more informal atmosphere and makes it an important community of scholars who forge links across a range of subjects.  The college has an active social calendar for both current students and alumni. There are a range of college societies and sports teams (often in collaboration with other colleges), as well as weekly academic seminars and annual conferences.  The college's Boat Club, shared with Wolfson College is particularly successful, and like many other college boat clubs competes both within the university itself and in external competitions. The St Cross women's football team also enjoys success, becoming Cuppers Champions in 2015.  Other events in the college include regular feasts, 'bops' and balls. As a result of the large international community at St Cross, the college strives to cater a wide range of events from other cultures; St Cross was the first Oxford college to officially celebrate Chinese New Year. Reunion events for alumni are hosted by the college annually both in Oxford itself and abroad.

Administration.

Together with Kellogg and Parks, St Cross is one of only three Oxford colleges without a royal charter. It is officially a society of the university rather than an independent college. The main difference from an independent college is that the governing body only recommends a Master, who is then appointed by Council; in other colleges, the head of house is elected and appointed by the governing body directly. For accounting purposes, the societies are considered departments of the university. St Cross has one of the smallest endowments of any Oxford college, at approximately £8 million. Nevertheless, the college has several scholarships that it awards to current and prospective graduate students and that are funded by third party donations and alumni.

Traditions.

Grace.

The college grace is:

References.

Bibliography

St Cross College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. Founded in 1965, St Cross is an all-graduate college with traditional-style buildings on a central site in St Giles', just south of Pusey Street. It aims to match the structure, life and support of undergraduate colleges, with the relaxed atmosphere of an all-graduate college.

圣十字学院(St Cross College)是英国牛津大学的一个学院。由于只招收研究生,它是所有学院当中学生数字最小的之一。学院有传统式样的建筑,位置在牛津市中心的 St Giles'. 圣十字学院1965年由牛津大学正式建立是牛津38所学院中第四年轻的学院。这是一个纯研究生学院,其传统风格的建筑位于普西街(Pusey Street)南面圣贾尔斯(St Giles)的中心位置。它旨在使本科学院的结构、生活、后勤与纯研究生学院的轻松氛围相匹配。