Development.

Origins.

On 31 October 1934, the French Ministry of Air issued a specification for a heavy fighter. The specification demanded the aircraft be capable of performing three principal roles: fighter direction, in which it was required to lead formations of single-engine fighters with sufficient maneuverability; day attack, in which the type was also to escort friendly close air support and bomber aircraft; and nightfighter operations. Specified performance details included a maximum speed of 450 km/h at 4,000 meters, a 300 km/h cruising speed, and an endurance of at least four hours. Armament requirements included two fixed forward-firing 20 mm cannons and a single machine gun to the rear for self-defence. The sought aircraft was also required to accommodate two/three seats along with a twin-engine configuration; however, some of the performance limitations imposed upon the aircraft, such as the maximum weight, served to restrict the range of suitable engines to power the type.  The original "Potez 630" was developed to meet this specification; two variants of the aircraft were originally submitted for consideration, one (the 630) powered by Hispano-Suiza 14AB radial engines and the other (the 631) with the Gnome-Rhône 14N. Other companies also produced submissions in response, including Breguet Aviation, Hanriot, Chantiers aéronavals Étienne Romano, and Loire-Nieuport. Each of the competing manufacturers were requested to produce a single prototype for evaluation at their own expense; work on the first prototype, designated as the "Potez 630-01", commenced in April 1935. In addition to the Potez 630, the same specification had ultimately resulted in the successful Breguet 690 series of attack aircraft.  On 25 April 1936, the Potez 630-01, equipped with a pair of 580 hp Hispano-Suiza 14, conducted its maiden flight from Méaulte, Picardy. Initially, the prototype was equipped with an experimental feature in the form of a braced horizontal stabilizer that incorporated no dihedreal. On 6 May 1936, the prototype suffered some damage due to a hard landing following the mid-air loss of a propeller blade. On 3 August 1936, after receiving repairs, the Potez 630-01 was transferred to Villacoublay Air Base, Île-de-France; it was soon refitted with an alternative tail arrangement similar to later production aircraft and long-stroke landing gear. On 20 November 1936, flight testing of the prototype resumed; it was shortly thereafter delivered to the "Centre d'Essais de Matériels Aériens" (CEMA) for official tests.  The original engines of the Potez 630-01 were progressively replaced with improved models of Hispano-Suiza engine, gradually increasing thrust to reach 700 hp on takeoff. At its maximum takeoff weight of 3,850 kg, the prototype was capable of a maximum speed of 460 km/h and a maximum range of 1,300 km when flown at an economical cruising speed of 300 km/h. In March 1937, the second prototype, designated Potez 630-02, performed its maiden flight from Méaulte. The Potez 631-01 was damaged after a landing with its landing gear not being locked into the down position; after repairs, it was handed over to CEMA for official trials in November 1937.

Production.

On 23 December 1936, the Société nationale des constructions aéronautiques du Nor (SNCAN) was officially formed, grouping together five French aircraft factories; further amalgamations into SNCAN soon took place, including Potez in early 1937. Shortly following its establishment, SNCAN received a provisional order letter for ten experimental aircraft; four of these were derived from the Potez 630, three from the Potez 631 (one being the existing 631-01 prototype), two Potez 633 light bombers and one Potez 637 aerial reconnaissance aircraft. This was promptly confirmed by a contract, under which one Potez 633 was replaced by a single Potez 637 low level ground attack aircraft.  In June 1937, an order for an initial production batch of 10 two-seat and 30 three-seat Potez 631 day fighters was received, the first five of which were to be delivered by February 1938. As large-scale manufacturing of the Gnome-Rhône 14M engines had yet to be achieved and thus was not able to reach the desired production rate of the Potez 630, an additional order was placed for 80 aircraft powered by the alternative Hispano-Suiza engine. The first 48 aircraft to be produced were equipped with Hispano-Suiza 14AB02/03 engines, these were succeeded on later models by the improved Hispano-Suiza 14AB10/11. In December 1937, regular contracts took the place of the provisional letters; a further order for 50 Potez 633 light bombers was also received, bringing the total orders for the type to 180, including the ten prototypes that had been ordered.  During the late 1930s, the Potez 630 received considerable foreign interest; in addition to France, many countries were in the process of re-equipping their air forces. One such foreign venture was the acquisition of a licence to manufacture by the Czechoslovakian aircraft firm Avia to produce a variant of the aircraft, designated as the "Potez 636"; none were completed prior to Czechoslovakia's annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938. In 1938, a further 50 additional Potez 631s were ordered, of which 20 were to be diverted to Finland, although they never reached that country. A number of firm foreign orders was placed with SNCAN for the type; the Republic of China ordered four Potez 631 and five Potez 633, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ordered two Potez 630 and one Potez 631, the Kingdom of Romania ordered 20 Potez 633, the Kingdom of Greece ordered 24 Potez 633, and Switzerland ordered one Potez 630 and one Potez 633.  In May 1937, series production of the Potez 630 commenced. Manufacturing work on the aircraft's various sections and components was shared out across various SNCAN facilities; the fuselage and tailplanes were produced in Caudebec-en-Caux, Normandy, the wings were made at Le Havre, Normandy, and final assembly was initially performed at Méaulte; the assembly work was later transferred to Les Mureaux. In February 1938, the first production Potez 630 conducted its maiden flight; on 23 February, the French Air Force accepted their first production 630 aircraft. Early on, production of the Potez 630 was hit by considerable delays, caused by a shortage of engines, propellers, and cannons; the first batch of Potez 630s were armed with four machine guns instead of the two 20 mm Hispano-Suiza cannons. On 2 August 1938, the first Potez 631 was officially accepted.  On 15 March 1938, a major re-equipment and expansion program of the French Air Force, known as "Plan V", was approved. While there had been intentions to order a more capable twin-engine aircraft, these were not ready for production, thus the Potez 631 and 633 were retained for this production program, which first involved 207 twin-engined day-and-night fighters along with 449 daytime light bombers. On 25 March 1938, the order for the Potez 633 was increased to 125 bombers, which were also requested to be three-seaters. The Potez 633 orders were subsequently cancelled, ordering additional Potez 631 aircraft in their place; further orders of the Potez 631 were placed to allow for the speedy withdrawal of the troublesome Potez 630. Between January and June 1940, an average production rate of 100 aircraft per month was maintained.

Design.

The Potez 630 was a twin engine, monoplane, fully metallic three-seater with efficient aerodynamic lines and twin tailplanes. The basic design allowed for the type to replace various obsolete aircraft in the French Air Force in a wide range of roles. The long glasshouse housed a crew of three, comprising a pilot, an observer or commander who was carried based upon mission requirements, and a rear gunner who manned a single flexible light machine gun. The Potez 637 featured a glazed gondola located beneath the fuselage for an observer to be carried in the prone position. Some variants, such as the Potez 631 and 633, had a vertical bomb bay located between the two crew members. The 630 was a relatively simple and sound design, requiring an average of 7,500 man-hours to assemble each aircraft. All members of the family (with the possible exception of the Potez 63.11) shared pleasant flying characteristics and were designed to allow for easy maintenance.  As a day fighter aircraft, the performance of the Potez 631 C3 was relatively disappointing, due to a low maximum speed and inadequate rate of climb compared with contemporary fighter aircraft. As a nightfighter, lack of detection equipment drastically limited their effectivness. Later models had a heavy armament (12 machine guns for the Potez 63.11). The Potez 63 family, as with the contemporary Fairey Battle and Bristol Blenheim bombers, and like many French aircraft of the time, proved vulnerable to Messerschmitt Bf 109s. Their similarity to the Messerschmitt Bf 110, both being equipped with twin engines, twin fins and a long greenhouse canopy, is believed to have resulted in several aircraft being lost to "friendly fire".

Operational service.

Introduction.

From May 1938, production Potez 630 fighters started to be delivered; the first improved Potez 631 aircraft were received in August that year. Potez 630 and 631s, in two-seater configuration, were soon used to replace obsolete ANF Les Mureaux 113 used as night fighters, while single-seat fighter groups received a number of three seat Potez 63s to act as command aircraft, from which formations of single-seat fighters would be directed and co-ordinated by radio. In July 1938, the first fifteen Potez 630 aircraft participated in the Villacoublay Air Show.  In May 1938, the "Armée de l'Air" (French Air Force) placed an order for 125 Potez 633 light bombers; additional orders had also being placed by Romania and Greece for 20 and 24 Potez 633s respectively. France cancelled its order for Potez 633s in the summer of 1938, but further orders for the 633 were placed by Romania (for 20 more aircraft, which had been part built under the French order), and from China, for nine. Deliveries to Romania started late in 1938, with the Greeks receiving their first aircraft in the spring of 1939. In August 1939, with the risk of war increasing the French government requisitioned 32 Potez 633s from the Greek and Romanian orders that were still in France awaiting delivery.  By September 1938, the Potez 630 had begun to supplant the obsolete Bloch MB.200 bomber in the fighter direction role; however, the Potez 630's engines proved so troublesome in service that most units were rapidly re-equipped with the Potez 631 prior to the outbreak of the Second World War. By 1 April 1939, a total of 77 Potez 630 and 88 Potez 631 aircraft had been accepted by the French Air Force. The retirement of other obsolete French aircraft, such as the Morane-Saulnier M.S.225 and Dewoitine D.510, could be accommodated for by the increasing numbers of Potez 631s. Just prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, the French Air Force had 85 Potez 630s, 206 Potez 631s, 22 Potez 633s, 63 Potez 633s, and 5 Potez 63.11 aircraft.  The Potez 633 aircraft that were exported to Greece and Romania saw greater service than their French counterparts despite their limited numbers. Greece had nine Potez 633s in service when Italy invaded Greece in October 1940. These were used for bombing attacks against Italian supply lines until shortage of spares forced their withdrawal. In June 1941, Romania joined Germany in the invasion of the Soviet Union. Two squadrons were equipped with the Potez 633 which were used to support the Romanian army as it advanced towards Odessa. In 1942, they were replaced by Junkers Ju 88 bombers, allowing the survivors to be transferred to the advanced training role.

Second World War.

On 28 August 1939, the French Air Force initiated the mobilisation of its units, including those equipped with the Potez 630 series. Due to requests from French Naval Aviation some Potez 631 aircraft were soon diverted to replace their Dewoitine D.371 fighters. In February 1940, a new war plan, "Plan V bis", was adopted; under this plan, nearly all Potez 630 and a number of Potez 631 aircraft were retired from front line service, with some of the 630s converted to become dual-control training aircraft. That same month, it was decided to rearm the majority of Potez 631s, replacing their original armament of one cannon and one machine gun with two cannons and four underwing machine guns for the purpose of conducting ground attack missions; however, progress on this was relatively slow.  The French Air Force found a use for the Potez 633 aircraft as conversion trainers for units that had received the Breguet 691 attack aircraft. On 20 May 1940, three Potez 633s took part in a strafing mission against German troops near Arras. This was the type's only operational mission over France as two days later the aircraft was withdrawn from front-line service. A small number of Potez 633 originally destined for China were commandeered by the French colonial administration in Indochina and saw limited action in the brief French-Thai War in early 1941. Parked in the open ground, a number of them were destroyed by Thai Hawk 75N strafing during air raid at Siem Reap.  Once active combat had begun, the Potez 631 had quickly proved to be an ineffectual interceptor; it was slower than some German bomber aircraft and 130 km/h slower than the Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighter. Perhaps the most successful unit operating the Potez 631 was the Flottille F1C of the French Naval Air Arm; between 10–21 May 1940, aircraft of the unit shot down 12 enemy aircraft in exchange for 8 of their own losses prior to its withdrawal from active combat.  At one point, the Potez 637 was the only modern aircraft equipping the Groupes de Reconnaissance (GOA), which had long been equipped with obsolete aircraft. From November 1939 onwards, the first units to convert to the Potez P.63.11 were each assigned three aircraft. By mid-January 1940, there were 43 Potez 63.11s in service with 12 GOAs. By June 1940, more than 700 reconnaissance Potez 63.11 had been delivered. These aircraft encountered various fates in service: more than 220 were destroyed or abandoned. Despite the addition of extra machine gun armament, aircraft having received either six, eight, or ten machine guns, the Potez 63.11 suffered the heaviest losses of any French type. One factor contributing to the high losses was the near-complete lack of spares, rendering 70 per of all P.63.11 aircraft unserviceable even prior to the German invasion; many aircraft were destroyed on the ground by enemy bombing and strafing attacks, and entire units were wiped out without conducting a single mission.  The Potez 63.11 continued in service with the air force of Vichy France and with the forces of the Free French; this led to the two opposing sides both operating the type in the North African theatre. The Free French Air Force initially possessed as few as three Potez 630 aircraft, but further models were captured from the Vichy French Air Force. The Germans initially allowed several Potez 630-equipped units to continue under Vichy French control; these were typically stationed in Southern France and North Africa. In the latter theatre they frequently engaged in combat with Allied forces. By 1 November 1941, the Vichy Air Force had 22 Potez 630s, 82 Potez 631s, six Potex 637s, and 236 Potez 63.11 aircraft. Large numbers of Axis-aligned Potez 630s stationed in North Africa were destroyed by American bombers during Operation Torch; Allied 630s were also used during the operation to conduct ammunition supply missions and to respond to "Luftwaffe" aircraft.  On 27 November 1942, German military units occupied Vichy Air Force bases and seized their aircraft: around 134 Potez 630s of several variants were taken. Of the seized aircraft, 53 were refurbished and dispatched to Romania for use as trainers and target tugs; spare engines were also reused to power a number of "Luftwaffe" Henschel Hs 129Bs. Production of the type was resumed under German control; significant numbers of aircraft appear to have been pressed into service by the Germans, mostly in liaison and training roles. The last three Potez 631s in service were recaptured examples; these made a final contribution following the cessation of hostilities in their use as trainer aircraft at the "Centre d'Essais en Vol" for the revived French Air Force.

Variants.

Unlike many contemporary French aircraft, production of the Potez aircraft was reasonably prompt and the first deliveries were effected before the end of 1938. The 63 had been designed with mass production in mind and as a result, one Potez 630 was cheaper and faster to manufacture than one Morane-Saulnier M.S.406. As production tempo increased, a number of derivatives and experimental models were also developed.

Fighter variants.

A typical feature of the 630 and 631 was the frontal armament, which originally consisted in two 20 mm Hispano-Suiza HS.404 cannons in gondolas under the fuselage, though sometimes one of the cannons was replaced by a MAC 1934. Later in their career, 631s received four similar light machine guns in gondolas under the outer wings, though it was theoretically possible to fit six.

Reconnaissance variants.

Dissatisfied with its strategic reconnaissance aircraft such as the troublesome Bloch MB.131, the Armée de l'air required the development of a derivative of the Potez 631 for this role.

Futures studies, or futurology, is the systematic and interdisciplinary forecasting of technological advancement and other environmental trends, often for the purpose of predicting how people will live and work in the future. In general, it can be considered as a branch of the social sciences and parallel to the field of history. Futures studies (colloquially called "futures" by many of the field's practitioners) seeks to understand what is likely to continue and what could plausibly change. Part of the discipline thus seeks a systematic and pattern-based understanding of past and present, and to determine the likelihood of future events and trends.

未来学(英语:Futures Studies或Futurology)是一个综合性研究人类重大领域的未来趋势、可能图景、面临的挑战、应当采取的对策等内容的新学科。未来学也研究预测未来的科学方法。一般而言,它可以被认为是社会科学的一个分支。


Basis.

A settlement, as well as dealing with the dispute between the parties is a contract between those parties, and is one possible (and common) result when parties sue (or contemplate so doing) each other in civil proceedings. The plaintiffs and defendants identified in the lawsuit can end the dispute between themselves without a trial.  The contract is based upon the bargain that a party forgoes its ability to sue (if it has not sued already), or to continue with the claim (if the plaintiff has sued), in return for the certainty written into the settlement. The courts will enforce the settlement. If it is breached, the party in default could be sued for breach of that contract. In some jurisdictions, the party in default could also face the original action being restored.  The settlement of the lawsuit defines legal requirements of the parties and is often put in force by an order of the court after a joint stipulation by the parties. In other situations (as where the claims have been satisfied by the payment of a certain sum of money), the plaintiff and defendant can simply file a notice that the case has been dismissed.  The majority of cases are decided by a settlement. Both sides (regardless of relative monetary resources) often have a strong incentive to settle to avoid the costs (such as legal fees, finding expert witnesses, etc.), the time and the stress associated with a trial, particularly where a trial by jury is available. Generally, one side or the other will make a settlement offer early in litigation. The parties may hold (and indeed, the court may require) a settlement conference, at which they attempt to reach such a settlement.  In controversial cases, it may be written into a settlement that both sides keep its contents and all other information relevant to the case confidential or that one of the parties (usually the one being sued) does not, by agreeing to the settlement, admit to any fault or wrongdoing in the underlying issue.  A "global settlement" is one employed where suits have been filed or charges brought in multiple jurisdictions and is defined as "a legal agreement that addresses or compromises both civil claims and criminal charges against a corporation or other large entity". Examples of a global settlement include the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement between the attorneys general of 46 U.S. states and the four major U.S. tobacco companies in 1999. Another example is within the Global Analyst Research Settlements.

Specific jurisdictions.

United States.

Usually, lawsuits end in a settlement, with an empirical analysis finding that less than 2% of cases end with a trial, 90% of torts settle, and around 50% of other civil cases settle.

Negotiations.

Under Federal Rule of Evidence 408, settlement negotiations cannot usually be introduced as evidence at trial, and many state rules of evidence have similar rules modeled after it.

Confidentiality.

Most settlements are confidential. In these cases, the court order may refer to another document which is not disclosed, but which may be revealed to prove a breach of the settlement. Confidentiality is not possible in class action cases in the United States, where all settlements are subject to approval by the court pursuant to Rule 23 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and counterpart rules adopted in most states.  In some cases, confidential settlements are requested in discovery. Federal courts can issue protective orders preventing the release, but the party seeking to prevent disclosure must show that harm or prejudice would result from the disclosure. In specific states such as California, however the burden is on the party seeking release of the confidential settlement.

Limitations.

The confidentiality of settlements is controversial as it allows damaging actions to remain secret, as occurred in the Catholic sexual abuse scandal. In response, some states have passed laws which limit confidentiality. For example, in 1990 Florida passed a 'Sunshine in Litigation' law which limits confidentiality from concealing public hazards. Washington state, Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana have laws limiting confidentiality as well, although judicial interpretation has weakened the application of these types of laws. In the U.S. Congress, a similar federal Sunshine in Litigation Act has been proposed but not passed in 2009, 2011, 2014, and 2015. Confidentiality agreements which keep secrets from regulators about violations is probably unenforceable, but a specific carveout granting regulators access is usually not included.

England and Wales.

In England and Wales, if the matter is already before the courts, except in a case where the claim is to be dismissed outright and the Claimant agrees to pay the Defendant's costs, the matter is usually dealt with by a consent order, signed by the legal representatives of both parties and approved by the judge.  To get around the issue of confidentiality referred to above, a standard procedure consent order, known as a Tomlin Order is entered into. The order itself contains an agreement that the claim is stayed and no further action can be taken in court (except for referring a dispute in the implementation of the order to court, which is allowed). The order also deals with payment of costs, and payments of money out of court if any money is held by the court (as these are matters which must be dealt with by Court Order). However, the actual terms of the settlement are dealt with in a'schedule' to the order, which can remain confidential. Breach of the schedule can be dealt with as breach of contract, or breach of the consent order.

Israel.

In Israel, which is a common law jurisdiction, settlements almost always are submitted to the court, for two reasons: (a) only by submitting the settlement to the court can the litigants control whether the court will order one or more parties to pay costs, and (b) the plaintiff (claimant) usually prefers for the settlement to be given the effect of a judgment.

Criminal cases.

In criminal matters, the closest parallel to a settlement is a plea bargain, although this differs in several important respects, particularly the ability of the presiding judge to reject the terms of a settlement.

In law, a settlement is a resolution between disputing parties about a legal case, reached either before or after court action begins. The term "settlement" also has other meanings in the context of law. Structured settlements provide for future periodic payments, instead of a one time cash payment.

庭外和解,是指民事纷争之当事人,在提起诉讼后,于法院外达成和解。


Goals.

The main objectives of the Uruguay Round were:  They also wanted to draft a code to deal with copyright violation and other forms of intellectual property rights.

History.

A set of updated documents was produced in Geneva by the office of the Director-General during July 1986 in order to prepare the way for progress to be made. As described below, the round was launched in Punta del Este, Uruguay in September 1986, followed by negotiations in Geneva, Brussels, Washington, D.C., and Tokyo.

Background.

The 1986 Ministerial Declaration identified problems including structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of certain countries' policies on world trade GATT could not manage. To address these issues, the eighth GATT round (known as the Uruguay Round) was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay. It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; all the original GATT articles were up for review.  The round was supposed to end in December 1990, but the US and EU disagreed on how to reform agricultural trade and decided to extend the talks. Finally, In November 1992, the US and EU settled most of their differences in a deal known informally as "the Blair House accord", and on 15 April 1994, the deal was signed by ministers from most of the 123 participating governments at a meeting in Marrakesh, Morocco. The agreement established the World Trade Organization, which came into being upon its entry into force on 1 January 1995, to replace the GATT system. It is widely regarded as the most profound institutional reform of the world trading system since the GATT's establishment.  The position of Developing Countries (GATT) was detailed in the book: "Brazil in the Uruguay Round of the GATT: The Evolution of Brazil’s Position in the Uruguay Round, with Emphasis on the Issue of Services". In this book, the polemics about the issue of services are described, as well as the opposition of Developing Countries to the so called "New Issues".

Conclusion and signature.

The 20 agreements were signed in Marrakesh—the Marrakesh Agreement—in April 1994.

Achievements.

The GATT still exists as the WTO's umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made between GATT 1994, the updated parts of GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994). The GATT 1994 is not, however, the only legally binding agreement included in the Final Act; a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. In fact, the agreements fall into a simple structure with six main parts:  The agreements for the two largest areas under the WTO, goods and services, share a three-part outline:  One of the achievements of the Uruguay round would be the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture, administered by the WTO, which brings agricultural trade more fully under the GATT. Prior to the Uruguay Round, conditions for agricultural trade were deteriorating with increasing use of subsidies, build-up of stocks, declining world prices and escalating costs of support. It provides for converting quantitative restrictions to tariffs and for a phased reduction of tariffs. The agreement also imposes rules and disciplines on agricultural export subsidies, domestic subsidies, and sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures through the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

Criticism.

Groups such as Oxfam have criticized the Uruguay Round for paying insufficient attention to the special needs of developing countries. One aspect of this criticism is that figures very close to rich country industries—such as former Cargill executive Dan Amstutz—had a major role in the drafting of Uruguay Round language on agriculture and other matters. As with the WTO in general, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as Health Gap and Global Trade Watch also criticize what was negotiated in the Round on intellectual property and industrial tariffs as setting up too many constraints on policy-making and human needs. An article asserts that the developing countries’ lack of experience in WTO negotiations and lack of knowledge of how the developing economies would be affected by what the industrial countries wanted in the WTO new areas; the intensified mercantilist attitude of the GATT/WTO’s major power, the US; the structure of the WTO that made the GATT tradition of decision by consensus ineffective, so that a country would not preserve the status quo, were the reasons for this imbalance.

The Uruguay Round was the 8th round of multilateral trade negotiations (MTN) conducted within the framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), spanning from 1986 to 1993 and embracing 123 countries as "contracting parties". The Round led to the creation of the World Trade Organization, with GATT remaining as an integral part of the WTO agreements. The broad mandate of the Round had been to extend GATT trade rules to areas previously exempted as too difficult to liberalize (agriculture, textiles) and increasingly important new areas previously not included (trade in services, intellectual property, investment policy trade distortions). The Round came into effect in 1995 with deadlines ending in 2000 (2004 in the case of developing country contracting parties) under the administrative direction of the newly created World Trade Organization (WTO).

乌拉圭回合(Uruguay Round)是关税及贸易总协定(简称“关贸总协定”)的国际商讨中,最近一次也是最重要的一次国际协定,历时7年半(从1986年9月至1994年4月),参与各方于1994年签订了马拉喀什协议,并于次年(1995年)成立世界贸易组织。


Development.

Origins.

In the late 1970s, Dornier GmbH developed a new kind of wing, the TNT ("Tragflügel neuer Technologie" – Aerofoil new technology), subsidized by the German Government. Dornier tested it on a modified Do 28D-2 "Skyservant" and with Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-110 turboprop engines. Finally, Dornier changed the engine and tested the new aircraft, which was named Do 128 with two Garrett AiResearch TPE-331-5 engines. The company developed a new fuselage for the TNT and TPE 331–5 in two variants (15- and 19-passenger) and named both project-aircraft E-1 (later Do 228-100) and E-2 (later Do 228-200). At the ILA Berlin Air Show in 1980, Dornier presented the new aircraft to the public. Both of the prototypes were flown on 28 March 1981 and 9 May 1981 for the first time. After German certification was granted on 18 December 1981, the first Do 228-100 entered service in the fleet of Norving in July 1982. The first operator of the larger Do 228-200 entered service with Jet Charters in late 1982. Certification from both British and American aviation authorities followed on 17 April and 11 May 1984 respectively. By 1983, the production rate of the Do 228 had risen to three aircraft per month; at this point, Dornier had targeted that 300 Do 228s would be produced by the end of the 1980s. In November 1983, a major license-production and phased technology-transfer agreement was signed between Dornier and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) was signed; a separate production line was established and produced its first aircraft in 1985. By 2014, a total of 125 Do 228s had been produced in India.  Over the years, Dornier offered the 228 in upgraded variants and fitted with optional equipment for performing various special missions. In 1996, it was announced that all manufacturing operations would be transferred to India. In 1998, activity on the German production line was halted, in part to concentrate on the production of the larger Fairchild-Dornier 328 and in response to Dornier's wider financial difficulties.

Do 228NG.

RUAG acquired the Do 228 type certificate in 2003. In December 2007, RUAG announced their intention to launch a modernized version of the aircraft, designated as the Do 228 Next Generation, or Do 228 NG. At the 2008 Berlin Air Show, HAL agreed on supplying the first three components sets — fuselage, wings and tail — for €5 million, as a part of an €80 million ($123 million) ten-year contract. In June 2010, the passenger aircraft was priced at €5.2 million ($7 million), €5.8–5.9 million with JAR-Ops equipment; restarting its production cost €20 million.  On 18 August 2010, the Do 228NG received its airworthiness certification from the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). The final assembly for the type is located in Germany; however, most airframe subassemblies, such as the wings, tail and fuselage, are produced by HAL in India. The main changes from the previous Dornier 228-212 model were a new five-blade propeller made of composite material, more powerful engines and an advanced glass cockpit featuring electronic instrument displays and other avionics improvements.  The first delivery, to the Japanese operator New Central Aviation, took place in September 2010. RUAG decided to suspend production of the Do 228 NG after the completion of an initial batch of eight aircraft in 2013. In 2014, RUAG and Tata Group signed an agreement for the latter to become a key supplier of the program. Production was restarted in 2015, with deliveries of four per year planned from 2016. In February 2016, RUAG announced that they were set to begin serial production of the Do 228 NG at its German production line in mid-2016; the assembly line is reportedly capable of producing a maximum of 12 aircraft per year.

Indian production.

The aircraft was made eligible to fly commercial flights in Europe after the European Aviation Safety Agency accepted the Directorate General of Civil Aviation certification for the aircraft on 30 August 2019.

Hybrid-Electric Demonstrator.

Supported by Bavarian funding, the German DLR is modifying one of its two Do 228 into a demonstrator hybrid electric aircraft. The first fully electric flight is planned for 2020 and the first hybrid-electric flight for 2021, apparently from Cochstedt Airport. Partners include MTU Aero Engines and Siemens, of which Rolls-Royce plc is acquiring the electric propulsion unit.

Design.

The Dornier 228 is a twin-engine general purpose aircraft, capable of transporting up to 19 passengers or various cargoes. It is powered by a pair of Garrett TPE331 turboprop engines. The Do 228 is commonly classified as a Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL)-capable aircraft, being capable of operating from rough runways and in hot climates. This capability has been largely attributed to the type's supercritical wing which generates large amounts of lift at slow speeds. The Do 228 is typically promoted for its versatility, low operational costs, and a high level of reliability – possessing a dispatch reliability of 99%. RUAG Aviation have claimed that no other aircraft in the same class may carry as much cargo or as many passengers over a comparable distance as fast as the Do 228 NG.  The rectangular shape of the Do 228's fuselage section and large side-loading doors make it particularly suitable for utility operators, which is a market that Dornier had targeted with the type from the onset. According to Flight International, one of the more distinguishing features of the Do 228 is the supercritical wing used. The structure of the wing is atypical, consisting of a box formed from four integrally-milled alloy panels, while kevlar is used for the ribs, stringers, trailing edge and fowler flaps, the wing's leading edge is conventional alloy sheet metal. Benefits of this wing over conventional methodology include a 15% reduction in weight, the elimination of 12,000 rivets, and lowering the per-aircraft manufacturing workload by roughly 340 man hours. Both the fuselage and tail are of a conventional design, but make use of chemical milling in order to save weight. The Do 228 has been promoted in various capacities, including as a commuter aircraft, a military transporter, cargo hauler, or as a special missions aircraft. Special missions include maritime surveillance, border patrol, medevac, search and rescue, paradrop and environmental research missions, in which capacity the type has proven useful due to a ten-hour flight endurance, a wide operating range, low operational cost, and varied equipment range. Special equipment available to be installed include a 360-degree surveillance radar, side-looking airborne radar, forward-looking infrared (FLIR) sensor, search light, operator station, real-time datalink, enlarged fuel tanks, satellite uplink, stretches, air-openable roller door, and infrared/ultraviolet sensors. In addition to a 19-seat commuter configuration for airlines, a VIP cabin configuration is also offered; the cabin can also be customized as per each client's specifications. The Do 228 is the only aircraft of its class to be fitted with air conditioning as standard.

Do 228NG.

More than 350 design changes are present between the Do 228 and the re-launched Do 228 NG. Amongst the principal changes is the adoption of Universal's UNS-1 glass cockpit, which means that standard aircraft are equipped to be flown under single-pilot instrument flight rules (IFR) in addition to visual flight rules (VFR); according to RUAG Aviation, the Do 228 NG is the first aircraft in its class to be certified with equivalent electronics. A total of four large displays are used in the cockpit, two primary flight displays and two multifunction displays, to present all key flight data. The navigation system includes VHF omnidirectional range (VOR), distance measuring equipment (DME), automatic direction finder (ADF), radar altimeter, Global Positioning System (GPS), air data computer, and a flight management system. A three-axis autopilot can be optionally incorporated, as can a weather radar and high frequency (HF) radio. While designed for two-pilot operation, the Dornier 228 can be flown by only one crewmember.  Additional changes include the Garrett TPE331-10 engines, which have been optimized to work with the redesigned five-bladed fibre-composite propellers now used by the type, which are more efficient, quick to start, and produces substantially less vibration and noise than the original metal four-bladed predecessor. Through its engines, the Do 228 NG has the longest time between overhaul (TBO) of any 19-seat aircraft, reportedly up to 7,000 hours. An engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS) is also present for safety purposes; additional optional safety equipment akin to much larger passenger aircraft, including airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) and terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS), can be incorporated as well.

Operators.

In July 2018, 57 aircraft were in airline service. Other operators include police, law enforcement, para-military operators and military operators.  By July 2018, the fleet accumulated over four million flight hours.

Accidents and incidents.

The Do 228 has been involved in 49 aviation accidents and incidents including 40 hull losses. Those resulted in 187 fatalities.

The Dornier Do 228 is a twin-turboprop STOL utility aircraft, designed and first manufactured by Dornier GmbH (later DASA Dornier, Fairchild-Dornier) from 1981 until 1998. 245 were built in Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany. In 1983, Hindustan Aeronautics (HAL) bought a production licence and manufactured another 125 aircraft in Kanpur, India. In July 2017, 63 aircraft were still in airline service.

多尼尔Dornier Do 228是由德国多尼尔公司研制的小型载客飞机,于1981至1998年投产,共生产超过270架。此飞共有两个型号,分别为100型及被广泛使用的200型。停产后此型号飞机将由多尼尔328所取代。由2009年重新投产。


Fluvial processes.

Fluvial processes include the motion of sediment and erosion or deposition on the river bed.  Erosion by moving water can happen in two ways. Firstly, the movement of water across the stream bed exerts a shear stress directly onto the bed. If the cohesive strength of the substrate is lower than the shear exerted, or the bed is composed of loose sediment which can be mobilized by such stresses, then the bed will be lowered purely by clearwater flow. However, if the river carries significant quantities of sediment, this material can act as tools to enhance wear of the bed (abrasion). At the same time the fragments themselves are ground down, becoming smaller and more rounded (attrition).  Sediment in rivers is transported as either bedload (the coarser fragments which move close to the bed) or suspended load (finer fragments carried in the water). There is also a component carried as dissolved material.  For each grain size there is a specific velocity at which the grains start to move, called "entrainment velocity". However the grains will continue to be transported even if the velocity falls below the entrainment velocity due to the reduced (or removed) friction between the grains and the river bed. Eventually the velocity will fall low enough for the grains to be deposited. This is shown by the Hjulström curve.  A river is continually picking up and dropping solid particles of rock and soil from its bed throughout its length. Where the river flow is fast, more particles are picked up than dropped. Where the river flow is slow, more particles are dropped than picked up. Areas where more particles are dropped are called alluvial or flood plains, and the dropped particles are called alluvium.  Even small streams make alluvial deposits, but it is in the flood plains and deltas of large rivers that large, geologically-significant alluvial deposits are found.  The amount of matter carried by a large river is enormous. The names of many rivers derive from the color that the transported matter gives the water. For example, the Huang He in China is literally translated "Yellow River", and the Mississippi River in the United States is also called "the Big Muddy". It has been estimated that the Mississippi River annually carries 406 million tons of sediment to the sea, the Yellow River 796 million tons, and the Po River in Italy 67 million tons.

In geography and geology, fluvial processes are associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them. When the stream or rivers are associated with glaciers, ice sheets, or ice caps, the term glaciofluvial or fluvioglacial is used.

河流作用(fluvial process)是指河流流水的侵蚀、搬运和堆积作用,河水是流体,具有动能,因此河流时时刻刻都对地表进行侵蚀作用,使之发生变化。流水的侵蚀搬运堆积作用是经常变化的,对一条河流而言,在正常的情况下上游是以侵蚀作用为主;下游则以堆积作用为主。如果河水水量少,泥沙物质增多,在河流的上游段也可以产生堆积作用,如果海平面下降则下游地段也可以转变为侵蚀作用,在同一时一地侵蚀作用和堆积作用可能同时进行。


Background.

The 1985 Live Aid concert was conceived as a follow-on to the successful charity single "Do They Know It's Christmas?" which was also the brainchild of Geldof and Ure. In October 1984, images of hundreds of thousands of people starving to death in Ethiopia were shown in the UK in Michael Buerk's BBC News reports on the 1984 famine. The BBC News crew were the first to document the famine, with Buerk's report on 23 October describing it as "a biblical famine in the 20th century" and "the closest thing to hell on Earth". The report shocked Britain, motivating its citizens to inundate relief agencies, such as Save the Children, with donations, and to bring the world's attention to the crisis in Ethiopia. Geldof also saw the report, and called Ure from Ultravox (Geldof and Ure had previously worked together for charity when they appeared at the 1981 benefit show "The Secret Policeman's Ball" in London) and together they quickly co-wrote the song, "Do They Know It's Christmas?" in the hope of raising money for famine relief. Geldof then contacted colleagues in the music industry and persuaded them to record the single under the title 'Band Aid' for free. On 25 November 1984, the song was recorded at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill, London, and was released four days

Organisation.

Among those involved in organising Live Aid were Harvey Goldsmith, who was responsible for the Wembley Stadium concert, and Bill Graham, who put together the American leg. On promoting the event, Goldsmith states, “I didn't really get a chance to say no. Bob [Geldof] arrived in my office and basically said, 'We're doing this.' It started from there.”  The concert grew in scope, as more acts were added on both sides of the Atlantic. Tony Verna, inventor of instant replay,

Collaborative effort.

The concert began at 12:00 British Summer Time (BST) (7:00 Eastern Daylight Time (EDT)) at Wembley Stadium in the United Kingdom. It continued at John F. Kennedy Stadium (JFK) in the United States, starting at 13:51 BST (8:51 EDT). The UK's Wembley performances ended at 22:00 BST (17:00 EDT). The JFK performances and whole concert in the US ended at 04:05 BST 14 July (23:05 EDT). Thus, the concert continued for just over 16 hours, but since many artists' performances were conducted simultaneously in Wembley and JFK, the total concert's length was much longer.  Mick Jagger and David Bowie intended to perform an intercontinental duet, with Bowie in London and Jagger in Philadelphia. Problems of synchronisation meant the only practical solution was to have one artist, likely Bowie at Wembley, mime along to prerecorded vocals broadcast as part of the live sound mix for Jagger's performance from Philadelphia. Veteran music engineer David Richards (Pink Floyd and Queen) was brought in to create footage and sound mixes Jagger and Bowie could perform to in their respective venues. The BBC would then have had to ensure those footage and sound mixes were in sync while also performing a live vision mix of the footage from both venues. The combined footage would then have had to be bounced back by satellite to the various broadcasters around the world. Due to the time lag (the signal would take several seconds to be broadcast twice across the Atlantic Ocean), Richards concluded there was no way for Jagger to hear or see Bowie's performance, meaning there could be no interaction between the artists, essentially defeating the whole point of the exercise. On

Broadcasts.

Broadcaster Richard Skinner opened the Live Aid concert with the words:  The concert was the most ambitious international satellite television venture that had ever been attempted at the time. In Europe, the TV feed was supplied by the BBC, whose broadcast was presented by Richard Skinner, Andy Kershaw, Mark Ellen, David Hepworth, Andy Batten-Foster, Steve Blacknell, Paul Gambaccini, Janice Long and Mike Smith and included numerous interviews and chats in between the various acts. The BBC's television sound feed was mono, as was all UK TV audio before NICAM was introduced, but the BBC Radio 1 feed was stereo and was simulcast in sync with the TV pictures. Unfortunately, in the rush to set up the transatlantic feeds, the sound feed from Philadelphia was sent to London via transatlantic cable, while the video feed was via satellite, which meant a lack of synchronisation on British television receivers. Due to the constant activities in both London and Philadelphia, the BBC producers omitted the reunion of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young from their broadcast. The BBC, however, did supply a 'clean feed' to various television channels in Europe.  ABC was largely responsible for the US broadcast (although ABC themselves only telecast the final three hours of the concert from Philadelphia, hosted by Dick Clark,

Stages and locations.

Wembley Stadium.

The Coldstream Guards band opened with the "Royal Salute", a brief version of the national anthem "God Save the Queen". Status Quo were the first act to appear and started their set with "Rockin' All Over the World", also playing "Caroline" and fan favourite "Don't Waste My Time". "Bob told me, 'It doesn't matter a fuck what you sound like, just so long as you're there,'" recalled guitarist and singer Francis Rossi. "Thanks for the fucking honesty, Sir Bob." This would be the band's last appearance with bassist and founder member Alan Lancaster and drummer Pete Kircher. Princess Diana and Prince Charles were among those in attendance as the concert commenced.  Bob Geldof performed with the rest of the Boomtown Rats, singing "I Don't Like Mondays". He stopped just after the line "The lesson today is how to die" to loud applause. According to Gary Kemp, “Dare I say it, it

John F. Kennedy Stadium.

The host of the televised portion of the concert in Philadelphia was actor Jack Nicholson. The opening artist Joan Baez announced to the crowd, "this is your Woodstock, and it's long overdue," before leading the crowd in singing "Amazing Grace" and "We Are the World".  When Madonna got on stage, despite the ambient temperature, she proclaimed "I'm not taking shit off today!" referring to the recent release of early nude photos of her in "Playboy" and "Penthouse" magazines.  During his opening number, "American Girl", Tom Petty flipped the middle finger to somebody off

Fundraising.

Throughout the concerts, viewers were urged to donate money to the Live Aid cause. Three hundred phone lines were manned by the BBC, so that members of the public could make donations using their credit cards. The phone number and an address that viewers could send cheques to were repeated every twenty minutes.  Nearly seven hours into the concert in London, Bob Geldof enquired how much money had been raised so far; he was told about £1.2 million. He is said to have been sorely disappointed by the amount and marched to the BBC commentary position. Pumped up further by a performance by Queen which he later called "absolutely amazing", Geldof gave an interview in which BBC presenter David Hepworth had attempted to provide a postal address to which potential donations could be sent; Geldof interrupted him in mid-flow and shouted "Fuck the address, let's get the numbers". Although the phrase "give us your fucking money" has passed into folklore, Geldof has stated that

Criticisms and controversies.

Bob Dylan's performance generated controversy after he said: "I hope that some of the money... maybe they can just take a little bit of it, maybe... one or two million, maybe... and use it, say, to pay the mortgages on some of the farms and, the farmers here, owe to the banks". He is often misquoted, as on the Farm Aid website, as saying: "Wouldn't it be great if we did something for our own farmers right here in America?". In his autobiography, "Is That It?" (published in 1986), Geldof was critical of the remark, saying "He displayed a complete lack of understanding of the issues raised by Live Aid.... Live Aid was about people losing their lives. There is a radical difference between losing your livelihood and losing your life. It did instigate Farm Aid, which was a good thing in itself, but it was a crass, stupid, and nationalistic thing to say." Although Dylan's comments were criticised, his remark inspired fellow musicians Willie Nelson, Neil Young and John Mellencamp to organize the Farm Aid charity, which held its first concert in September 1985. The concert raised over $9 million for America's family farmers and became an annual event.  Geldof was not happy about the Hooters being added as the opening band in Philadelphia. He felt pressured into it by Graham and local promoter Larry Magid. Magid, promoting the concert through Electric Factory Concerts, argued that the band was popular in Philadelphia; their first major label album "Nervous Night" had been released almost three months earlier and had been a hit. In an interview for "Rolling Stone", Geldof asked: "Who the fuck are the Hooters?" Ironically, in December 2004, Geldof appeared on the bill with the Hooters in Germany as "their" opening act.  Adam Ant subsequently criticised the event and expressed regrets about playing it, saying, "I was asked by Sir Bob [sic] to promote this concert. They had no idea they could sell it out. Then in Bob's book he said, 'Adam was over the hill so I let him have one number.'... Doing that show was the biggest fucking mistake in the world. Knighthoods were made, Bono got it made, and it was a waste of fucking time. It was the end of rock 'n' roll." Geldof stated in his autobiography that Miles Copeland, manager of Adam Ant and Sting, asked Geldof if he'd thought of asking Ant after Geldof contacted him to get Sting to appear: "I hadn't. I thought he was a bit passé. But then so were the Boomtown Rats, and each represented a certain piece of pop history, so I agreed. I also thought that might entice him to encourage Sting, or perhaps all three of the Police."  BBC coverage co-host Andy Kershaw criticised the event in his autobiography "No Off Switch", stating, "Musically, Live Aid was to be entirely predictable and boring. As they were wheeled out – or rather bullied by Geldof into playing – it became clear that this was another parade of the same old rock aristocracy in a concert for Africa, organised by someone who, while advertising his concern for, and sympathy with, the continent didn't see fit to celebrate or dignify the place by including on the Live Aid bill a single African performer." Kershaw also described the attitude of Geldof and his showbusiness associates as "irritating, shallow, sanctimonious and self-satisfied".

Performances.

London, Wembley Stadium.

Philadelphia, John F. Kennedy Stadium.

Others.

Notable absences.

Bruce Springsteen decided not to appear at Live Aid despite his huge global popularity in 1985. He later stated that he "simply did not realise how big the whole thing was going to be". He has since expressed regret at turning down Geldof's invitation to appear at the London concert, stating that he could have played a couple of acoustic songs had there been no slot available for a full band performance.  Michael Jackson declined to appear. His press agent, Norman Winter, released a statement at the time saying that Jackson was "working around the clock in the studio on a project that he's made a major commitment to," and consequently could not free up sufficient time to rehearse and perform at Live Aid. Winter added, "Michael is just about living in the studio, rehearsing and recording. I know, what could be more major than Live Aid, but Michael couldn't turn his back on his responsibility to the people he's working with. This affected employment for a lot of people."  Prince also did not appear in person, but sent a pre-taped video of an acoustic version of "4 the Tears in Your Eyes", which

Live Aid recordings.

When organiser Bob Geldof was persuading artists to take part in the concert, he promised them that it would be a one-off event, never to be seen again. That was the reason why the concert was never recorded in its complete original form, and only secondary television broadcasts were recorded. Following Geldof's request, ABC even erased its own broadcast tapes. However, before the syndicated/ABC footage was erased, copies of it were donated to the Smithsonian Institution and have now been presumed lost. The ABC feed of the USA for Africa/"We Are The World" finale does exist in its entirety, complete with the network end credits, and can be found as a supplemental feature on the "We Are The World: The Story Behind The Song" DVD.  Meanwhile, MTV decided to keep recordings of its broadcast and eventually located more than 100 tapes of Live Aid in its archives, but many songs in these tapes were cut short by MTV's ad breaks and presenters (according to the BBC). The BBC also decided to erase fragments of the performance due to storage limitations, to pave the way for newer programmes. Many performances from the US were not shown on the BBC, and recordings of these performances are missing. There were four separate Audio Trucks in Philadelphia provided by David Hewitt of Remote Recording Services. ABC had taken the decision that no multi track tape recordings would be allowed, so no remixing of the Philadelphia show was possible.

Official Live Aid DVD.

An official four-disc DVD set of the Live Aid concerts was released on 8 November 2004. A premiere to launch the new DVD was held on 7 November and shown in DTS surround sound featuring a short compilation of the four-disc set. The screening was held at the Odeon Cinema in Kensington, London and included guests such as Brian May, Anita Dobson, Roger Taylor, Bob Geldof and partner Jean Marie, Annie Lennox, Midge Ure, Michael Buerk, Gary Kemp and The Darkness. Other theatrical premiere’s were held in Zurich, Milan, Rome, Vienna, Hamburg and Berlin. A 52-minute compilation was later released as a limited edition DVD in July 2005 titled "20 Years Ago Today: Live Aid". The box set contains 10-hour partial footage of the 16-hour length concert. The

Official Live Aid audio.

An audio copy of Live Aid was officially released by the Band Aid Trust label on 7 September 2018 on digital download. When

Live Aid channel.

On 12 September 2018, YouTube launched the Official Live Aid channel with a total of 87 videos from the Live Aid 1985 concert. According to the channel,

Unofficial recordings.

Because the Live Aid broadcast was watched by 1.5 billion people, most of the footage was recorded on home consumer video recorders all around the world, in various qualities. Many of these recordings were in mono, because in the mid-1980s most home video machines could only record mono sound, and also because the European BBC TV broadcast was in mono. The US

Legacy.

Live Aid eventually raised $127 million in famine relief for African nations, and the publicity it generated encouraged Western nations to make available enough surplus grain to end the immediate hunger crisis in Africa. According to one aid worker, a larger impact than the money raised for the Ethiopian famine is that "humanitarian concern is now at the centre of foreign policy" for the west.  Many artists and performers at Live Aid gained prominence and positive commercial influence. For all the cultural, charitable, and technological significance of 1985's Live Aid, its most immediate impact was on the charts. In the UK, for example, "No Jacket Required" by Phil Collins and Madonna's "Like a Virgin" leapt back into the top ten. Queen's three year old "Greatest Hits" rose fifty-five places into the top twenty, followed by Freddie Mercury's "Mr. Bad Guy". Every U2 album available at the time also returned to the chart. In 1986, Geldof received an honorary knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II for his efforts.  Queen's performance at Live Aid was recreated in the band's 2018 biopic "Bohemian Rhapsody". Footage from the 1985 performance can be seen to match with the movie performance. In February 2020, Queen + Adam Lambert reprised the original Queen setlist from Live Aid for the Fire Fight Australia charity concert in Sydney, Australia.  The background to the staging of the concert as a whole was dramatised in the 2010 television drama "When Harvey Met Bob".

Live Aid was a benefit concert held on Saturday 13 July 1985, as well as an ongoing music-based fundraising initiative. The original event was organised by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise funds for relief of the ongoing Ethiopian famine. Billed as the "global jukebox", the event was held simultaneously at Wembley Stadium in London, UK, attended by about 72,000 people, and John F. Kennedy Stadium in Philadelphia, US, attended by exactly 89,484 people.

拯救生命(Live Aid)为1985年7月13日于英国伦敦和美国费城同时举行的旨在为埃塞俄比亚大饥荒筹集资金的跨地区大型演唱会。由于连年内战和干旱,1983年至1985年间,非洲埃塞俄比亚发生了大饥荒,近40万人死亡。这场名为“拯救生活”的大型演唱会由音乐人Bob Geldof和Midge Ure发起,先后在伦敦温布利球场和费城约翰·肯尼迪体育场演出。


Creation.

It has been proposed that the character was in part intended to represent Servilia Vatia, Emperor Augustus's first fiancée.

Story.

Lavinia, the only child of the king and "ripe for marriage," had been courted by many men who hoped to become the king of Latium. Turnus, ruler of the Rutuli, was the most likely of the suitors, having the favor of Queen Amata. In Vergil's account, King Latinus is warned by his father Faunus in a dream oracle that his daughter is not to marry a Latin:  "Propose no Latin alliance for your daughter  Son of mine; distrust the bridal chamber Now prepared. Men from abroad will come And be your sons by marriage. Blood so mingled Lifts our name starward. Children of that stock Will see all earth turned Latin at their feet, Governed by them, as far as on his rounds The Sun looks down on Ocean, East or West."  Lavinia has what is perhaps her most, or only, memorable moment in Book 7 of the "Aeneid", lines 69–83: during a sacrifice at the altars of the gods, Lavinia's hair catches fire, an omen promising glorious days to come for Lavinia and war for all Latins:"While the old king lit fires at the altars  With a pure torch, the girl Lavinia with him,  It seemed her long hair caught, her head-dress caught  In crackling flame, her queenly tresses blazed,  Her jeweled crown blazed. Mantled then in smoke  And russet light, she scattered divine fire  Throughout all the house. No one could hold that sight  Anything but hair-raising, marvelous,  And it was read by seers to mean the girl  Would have renown and glorious days to come,  But that she brought a great war on her people."Not long after the dream oracle and the prophetic moment, Aeneas sends emissaries bearing several gifts for King Latinus. King Latinus recognizes Aeneas as the destined one:"I have a daughter, whom the oracles  Of Father's shrine and warning signs from heaven  Keep me from pledging to a native here.  Sons from abroad will come, the prophets say--  For this is Latium's destiny-- new blood  To immortalize our name. Your king's the man  Called for by fate, so I conclude, and so  I wish, if there is truth in what I presage."Aeneas is said to have named the ancient city of Lavinium for her.  By some accounts, Aeneas and Lavinia had a son, Silvius, a legendary king of Alba Longa. According to Livy, Ascanius was the son of Aeneas and Lavinia; and she ruled the Latins as a power behind the throne, for Ascanius was too young to rule. In Livy's account, Silvius is the son of Ascanius.

In other works.

In Ursula K. Le Guin's 2008 novel "Lavinia", Lavinia's character and her relationship with Aeneas is expanded, giving insight into the life of a king's daughter in ancient Italy. Le Guin employs a self-conscious narrative device in having Lavinia as the first-person narrator knowing that she would not have a life without Virgil, who, being the writer of the "Aeneid" several centuries after her time, is thus her creator.  Lavinia also appears with her father, King Latinus, in Dante's "Divine Comedy", "Inferno", Canto IV, lines 125–126. She is remembered in "De Mulieribus Claris", a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature..

In Roman mythology, Lavinia ( ; ) is the daughter of Latinus and Amata, and the last wife of Aeneas.

在罗马神话中,拉维尼亚(拉丁文:Lāuīnĭa),是萨图恩玄孙,皮库斯曾孙,法乌诺斯孙,拉丁努斯和阿玛塔之女。阿玛塔希望与表兄图努斯订婚,但其父根据神示把她嫁给了埃涅阿斯,此事引起了图耳努斯和埃涅阿斯的战争。埃涅阿斯胜利后与拉维尼亚完了婚,建立了城市。为纪念拉维尼亚,此城命名为拉维尼乌姆。埃涅阿斯去世后,拉维尼亚的继子阿斯卡尼乌斯-尤卢斯对她追求甚急,拉维尼亚逃至森林中。在那里生了西尔维乌斯,后即成为阿尔巴隆伽的第一代国王。据利维乌斯说,西尔维乌斯是阿斯乌斯之子。


Background.

International documents inconsistently refer to both the "Straits of Tiran" and the "Strait of Tiran". There are several passages formed by the islands between Egypt and Saudi Arabia. The westernmost strait, between Egypt and the island of Tiran, overlooked by the Egyptian city Sharm el-Sheikh is the "Strait of Tiran", wide. It has two passages deep enough to be navigable by large ships. The Enterprise passage, deep, is adjacent to the Egyptian side, while the deep Grafton passage, surrounded by shallows, is to the east, nearer to the island of Tiran. To the east of Tiran, between it and Saudi Arabia, the other strait has reefs and shallows with a single channel deep.

Closure in 1967.

Access to Jordan's only seaport of Aqaba and to Israel's only Red Sea seaport of Eilat is through the Gulf of Aqaba, which gives the Straits of Tiran strategic importance. In 1967, ninety percent of Israeli oil passed through the Straits of Tiran, making it a target of Egyptian blockade during the Arab League boycott of Israel.  In May 1967, Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol repeated declarations that Israel had made in 1957, saying that closure of the Straits of Tiran would be an act of war. Egypt then blockaded the straits on May 22, 1967, and oil tankers that were due to pass through the straits were required to submit documents ensuring their cargo was not destined for an Israeli port. At that time, Israel viewed the Straits of Tiran as a vital interest as it is where Israel received vital imports, mainly oil from Iran, and a blockade threatened Israel's ability to develop the Negev.  In May 1967, Major General Indar Jit Rikhye was the commander of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) in the Sinai peninsula when Egypt deployed its own troops in that territory and demanded that Rikhye withdraw all of his troops. Rikhye did withdraw, including from the port at Sharm el Sheikh adjacent to the straits. The subsequent closure of the Tiran Straits by Egypt was closely linked to the preceding UNEF withdrawal, because having the peacekeepers (rather than the Egyptian military) at Sharm el Sheik was important for keeping that waterway open. Later in life, General Rikhye sought to downplay the importance that Israel attached to keeping that waterway open, saying that Israel's accusation in 1967 of a blockade was "questionable" given that an Israeli-flagged ship had not passed through the straits in two years, and that "The U.A.R. [Egyptian] navy had searched a couple of ships after the establishment of the blockade and thereafter relaxed its implementation". Egypt had initially requested UNEF withdrawal from locations other than Sharm el-Sheik, but UN Secretary-General U Thant demanded an all-or-nothing withdrawal.  The U.S. President at the time, Lyndon Johnson, had this to say about closure of these straits being a cause of the Six-Day War:  If a single act of folly was more responsible for this explosion than any other, it was the arbitrary and dangerous announced decision that the Straits of Tiran would be closed. The right of innocent, maritime passage must be preserved for all nations.

Bridge project.

A project to build a bridge across the straits, linking Egypt and Saudi Arabia, is under consideration by the Egyptian government (see Saudi–Egypt Causeway).

The Straits of Tiran ( "") are the narrow sea passages between the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas which separate the Gulf of Aqaba from the Red Sea proper. The distance between the two peninsulas is about. The body is named after Tiran Island located at its entrance from the Sinai, on which the Multinational Force and Observers has an observation post to monitor the compliance of Egypt in maintaining freedom of navigation of the straits as provided under the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty.

蒂朗海峡(阿拉伯语: مضيق تيران ;希伯来语:מיצרי טיראן),是一条位于埃及西奈半岛与沙特阿拉伯之间的狭窄海峡,因海峡中的蒂朗岛而得名,宽约13公里,北连亚喀巴湾,南通红海,是约旦唯一出海通道,也是以色列在红海上的唯一出海通道,地理位置十分重要。


Geography.

Location.

Pau is from the Atlantic Ocean and from the Pyrenees. Spain is away as the crow flies. The frontier is crossed by the col du Somport

Access.

Pau is served by the Pau Pyrénées Airport away. Limited scheduled flights serve Amsterdam, London, Southampton, Dublin, Lyon and Paris.  A TGV rail line runs to Paris

Hydrography.

The city, located at an average altitude of, is crossed by the Gave de Pau, where a ford gave passage to the Pyrenees. "Gave" is the name given to a torrent in the Pyrenees. The Gave de Pau, which becomes a torrent when mountain snow melts, takes its source in the Cirque de Gavarnie and is the main tributary of the Adour, into which it empties after. The crossing was used for pasturage

Climate.

Pau features wet mild winters, with warm, mild summers that are drier. Its geographical location, not far from the Pyrenees, gives the city a contrasting, warm oceanic climate. Temperatures colder than are rare and those below are exceptional. Temperatures reached lows of in February 1956 and in January 1985. Snow falls about 15 days per year ( in 1987), from November to April.  In summer, the maximum temperatures are of the order of, and temperatures above are reached very rarely. During some days of winter, the foehn, a warm wind, can raise the temperature over. As soon as the wind stops, snow can fall.  Rainfall is high, of the order

History.

Toponymy.

The origin of the name is uncertain. One tradition suggests it is a derivation of "pal" (fr. "pieu"), from the palisade around the original château. Another is that the name refers to a ford across the river administered by the church, the pious. According to Michel Grosclaude and other onomasticians, more recent research suggests the pre-Indo-European root for a rockface was "*pal" or "*bal," and that the name

Origins.

Before the 10th century, there are no traces of occupation of the site on which the city is now built. Perhaps there were a few hovels or a modest hunting lodge, but surely nothing more important.  The city was built on a site with very special qualities. The Gave de Pau, which descends from the Pyrenees, was a river which was fairly difficult to cross, and for a distance of approximately, only three fords existed: from Nay to the east, from Orthez to the west and that of Pau, strategically located between the two. The northern extremity of a plateau, formed to a point, overlooks this ford of almost. In summary, it is an ideal natural location to control the passage and the arrivals from the Pyrenees, and a small monitoring station was built around the year 1000, a fort surrounded by a simple palisade.  The site was fortified in the 11th century to control the ford across the Gave de Pau. It was built on the north bank, equidistant from Lescar, seat of the bishops, and from Morlaàs.  Until the

History.

Middle Ages.

Pau was a castelnau founded at an unknown date, in the second half of the 11th or the very beginning of the 12th century, to control a fording of the Gave de Pau which was used for the passage of the shepherds in transhumance between the mountains of Ossau and pasture of the plain of the

16th–18th century.

In 1464, Gaston IV of Foix-Béarn, after he married the Infanta Eleanor of Aragon, transferred his Court of Orthez to Pau. Pau thus became the fourth historic capital of Béarn, after Lescar, Morlaàs and Orthez. The city had a municipal charter; fairs took place, like the Béarn states. He transformed the curtain walls of his castle home.  In 1512, it became the capital of the Kings of Navarre, who were refugees north of the Pyrenees, after the capture of Pamplona by the Spaniards. In 1520, it had a sovereign council and a chamber of accounts.  In 1527, Henri d'Albret, King of Navarre and sovereign viscountcy of Béarn, married Marguerite of Angoulême, sister of Francis I of France: She transformed the château in the Renaissance style and created its gardens.  In 1553, his daughter, Jeanne d'Albret, gave birth to Henry III of Navarre by singing a song of Béarn to the Virgin

19th century.

Napoleon expressed his interest and helped to save the château, which became a prison for a time. In 1838, Louis-Philippe did boldly restore it, to highlight the medieval and Renaissance character. Napoleon III added a double tower framing a false entry, to the West. He also added streets of Belle Époque architecture, before the fashion transferred to Biarritz.  After the July Monarchy, Pau became, between 1830 and 1914, had the most famous climate and sports resort in Western Europe. In 1842, the Scottish physician Alexander Taylor (1802–1879) advocated Pau for a winter cure. The success of his work was important and Pau became a holiday resort for the British. In 1876, there were 28,908 inhabitants of Pau. The English settled there and took advantage of the first golf on the continent, of fox hunting (Pau fox hunt), and held races at the Pont-Long Racecourse.

20th century.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Pau was still a resort town where European nobility spent the winter. Good English, American, Russian, Spanish or Prussian society met in the Béarnaise city. Many public amenities were from this period, including the Pau Funicular to connect the station to the upper town. Next to these public amenities, wealthy foreign visitors were building villas to improve the conditions of their stay. First built in the centre of town, these residences spread out more and more to enjoy the great outdoors and views of the Pyrenees. Between 1850 and 1910, many residences were thus built and still evoke the splendour of this period, today. This golden period of climate tourism in Pau stopped abruptly at the outbreak of World War I.  The first balloon flights took

21st century.

In 2008, at the end of a bitter political struggle, which included François Bayrou, Martine Lignières-Cassou became mayor of Pau. During this term, she included the rebuilding of the water stadium and making the "Rue Joffre" pedestrian. She also allowed the realisation of the City of the Pyrénées which brought different associations related to Pyreneeism into one place.  In 2014, François Bayrou became mayor, after standing against David Habib in the election. Bayrou was clearly ahead in the second round of voting.

Politics and administration.

Fourth city in Nouvelle-Aquitaine (after Bordeaux, Limoges and Poitiers), Pau is the prefecture of Pyrénées-Atlantiques and the chief town of four cantons:

Municipal administration.

Below is the sharing

List of mayors.

André Labarrère died of cancer on 16 May 2006. He was succeeded by Yves Urieta, elected by the

Intercommunality.

The town of Pau is part of five

International relations.

Pau is

Population and society.

Demographics.

Pau and the agglomeration population.

The communal population of Pau amounts to 81,166 inhabitants, according to the 2010 census (legal populations of 1 January 2013). The Communauté

Demographic evolution.

In 2012, the commune had 78,506 inhabitants. The evolution of the number of inhabitants is known through the population censuses carried out in the town since 1793. From the 21st century, communes with more than 10,000 inhabitants have a census every year as a result of a sample survey, unlike the other municipalities which have a real census every five years.  The (2010) includes 197,611 inhabitants and the (2011) has 240,898 inhabitants. Pau is the most populous city of the Department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, and the second of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region after Bordeaux.

Education.

Kindergartens and primary schools.

Legend: K: Kindergarten

Secondary.

Legend: S: Secondary College / T: Technical college

Higher education.

University.

The city of Pau has a long academic tradition, as a university was established in Pau in 1722. Now, Pau is the second student city of Aquitaine. The city has 17,000 students and 3,900 researchers. It has a multidisciplinary university (law, economics, sciences, social sciences and humanities), an, an, several schools of engineers, business schools and art schools.  The University of Pau and Pays de l'Adour (UPPA) had 11,200 students, in May 2012, spread across five sites: Pau,

Research centres.

The university has 34 teams of research including 11 teams associated with the CNRS and INRA team. Some groups of public or private research teams:  The centre is the home of master students of private law, and doctoral students in private law in partnership with the graduate school SSH 481.

Health.

Private clinics and centres.

The Centre Hospitalier de Pau has contributed to the establishment of an important centre of health by enabling the consolidation of different private institutions close to the hospital area:

Gastronomy.

Pau, became the historic capital of Béarn in 1464, offering the gastronomic specialities of the southwest and typical Béarnese or Palois dishes:

Restaurants and bars.

Pau, at the centre, has more than 160 restaurants, from the old quarters (Château, Hédas), up to the outskirts. The

Culture.

The town of Pau is marked by a strong cultural identity, with the presence of a French-Occitan bilingual school (calandreta "Paulina") (90 students) in Pau and one in the metropolitan area in Lescar (60 students), by a living practice of Béarnese and the success of the Occitan cultural groups. The city has, however, received foreign influences of major importance (English, Spanish, Russian, Brazilian) and remains very open to the outside with a high English student community, along with the presence of Dutch, Portuguese, Spaniards and Moroccans. Near Dax, Bayonne and Biarritz, the Pau people have a love of city ferias. The bandas, bodegas (drinking places with typical animation) and Béarnese singing groups are numerous including "Nadau", "Lo Cèu de Pau" and "Balaguera". Since 2005, the city hosts the festival Hestiv'oc which is the grand festival of Occitania. The University of Pau, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, also often hosts concerts and cultural events.  The Association of the Palois and Béarnese in Paris, "La Garbure", was founded around 1890 by a Béarnese pharmacist who went to the capital to open a shop on Boulevard Haussmann. The history of this association, which has never had official status, is transmitted only orally. However, the original spirit remains the same. The "expatriates" meet two or three times a year in a friendly atmosphere to speak of the country around a good meal. Without issue, and without political dimension, although politicians like Louis Barthou, François Bayrou and others have never neglected this "sounding board" which also brings together celebrities from entertainment, from information and from gastronomy.

Language.

The Béarnese state language, before 1789, was a Gascon dialect of Occitan. For the anecdote, there is an English-Béarnese dictionary for the use of the British who were

Theatres and orchestral formations.

The "Comédie des Mutins" in Lescar,

Festivals.

The city of Pau is

Media.

Print.

The region is covered

Sport.

Pau has many sports facilities and several high level sport clubs.

Facilities.

For amateur joggers the Gave de Pau river bank footpath is a most valued itinerary,

Events.

Since 1930, Pau has become a mainstay of the Tour de France cycling race, thanks both to its geographical location and to its marvelous infrastructure. Pau hosted its 63rd stage in 2010, and only one other city besides Paris has done better. The 2010 Tour visited Pau on three occasions: First as a passing town, second time as a finish, and the third time as a departure town on the way to the Col du Tourmalet. Pau is behind Bordeaux as the town of the province

Pau Grand Prix.

Pau held the first race to be called a Grand Prix in 1901. After that the 1928 French Grand Prix was held in nearby Saint-Gaudens, Pau also wanted to arrange the race and in 1930 the French Grand Prix was held on a Le Mans-type track outside the city with Philippe Étancelin winning for Bugatti. Pau returned to the calendar in 1933 with a track in the town centre inspired by Monaco.  The track, long, is winding and has remained largely unchanged. The first curve is the station hairpin. After that the road climbs on the Avenue Léon Say, alongside the stone viaduct that carries the Boulevard de Pyrenées, to Pont Oscar. A tunnel is followed by the narrow hairpin at the Louis Barthou high school that leads the track into the demanding Parc Beaumont section at the top of the town. After the Casino garden and another hairpin, the track winds back to the

Economy.

From the 1950s to the 1990s Pau depended on the production of natural gas and sulphur which were discovered nearby at Lacq. In the 21st century, the mainstays of the Béarn area are the oil business, the aerospace industry through the helicopter turboshaft engines manufacturer Turbomeca, tourism and agriculture. Pau was the birthplace of Elf Aquitaine, which has now become a part of Total. Halliburton has an office in Pau.  Pau is the second economic hub of Aquitaine, after Bordeaux. A university city, it has concentrated several industrial centres and centres of important research in the fields of petroleum engineering and geosciences, petrochemistry and chemistry, food, automotive, aeronautics and computer science.  Pau benefits from its central location in the region of the "Pays de l'Adour" and its location between two major areas of population: Bayonne/Anglet/Biarritz (160,000 inhabitants) and the area of Tarbes/Lourdes (110,000 inhabitants) and secondary, more diffuse, areas: South of Landes/Dax (90,000 inhabitants) and the areas of Auch (40,000 inhabitants), Orthez/Lacq (30,000 inhabitants) and Oloron (20,000 inhabitants).  The municipality is partially within the Ossau-Iraty AOC area.

Industry.

Pau experienced an important economic boom based on the discovery of the giant deposit of natural gas in Lacq. Discovered in the 1950s (by engineer Jean Féger), it was then the largest terrestrial deposit of gas in Europe and helped France to be self-sufficient in gas for almost thirty years. The "Société Nationale des Pétroles d'Aquitaine" (SNPA) was born at Lacq in 1941, after merger with ELF in 1976 it became part of the Elf Aquitaine group, then Total during its integration into the Group TotalFinaElf (in Lacq, known now the SNEAP, Société Nationale Elf Aquitaine Production). Oil and focussed businesses (Total

Services.

Pau also concentrates the regional headquarters of many service companies as capital of the "Pays de l'Adour" region: The banking sector (CA Pyrénées Gascogne, Banque Pouyanne), insurance (MIF, MSA), construction (Groupe MAS, Cance) and business services (APR, YSA, Vitalicom).  ICT businesses have experienced an important development with the deployment of optical fibre in the agglomeration and the implantation of companies specialising in information technology, networks and image processing. The technopoles [technological hubs] of "Helioparc" (close to the University, 1,000 jobs), "Pau Cité Multimédia" (north of the town, 700 jobs) and the "@LLEES" (Villa Ridgway built in 1905, former headquarters of Elf) concentrate a large number of systems integration and computer engineering information technology consulting schools. Pau should, ultimately, be fully connected to a fibre optic network (Pau Broadband Country) of the agglomeration of Pau-Pyrénées communities which will allow a data transfer rate of 10 to 100 megabits per second (and 1 gigabit per second for some companies) and applications of types such as VoIP, online services and "webTV". Pau is the third city in Europe, after Stockholm

Tourism.

The town of Pau is located 45 minutes from the Pyrenees and its ski resorts. It is a holiday resort for tourists to the Pyrenees (hiking, climbing, skiing) and Spain. Located near the Basque and Landes coasts (an hour's drive), it is possible to practice water sports (surfing, diving, sailing, etc.).  Pau is the gateway to the five Béarnese valleys (the Ossau Valley, Vallée d'Aspe,, the and Vath-Vielha) that receives winter sports tourists (the ski resorts of Gourette,, and ), spas (Eaux-Bonnes and Eaux-Chaudes) and green tourism (white-water sports, cultural and gastronomic tourism).  Its location at the foot of the Pyrenees gives Pau an exceptional panorama of the chain of the Pyrenees, in particular from the Boulevard des Pyrénées which is a long avenue of, facing

Transportation.

Train.

The railway station Gare de Pau offers connections to Bordeaux, Bayonne, Toulouse and Paris, and several regional destinations.  Two railway construction projects are under consideration: the extension and

Airport.

The international airport of Pau-Pyrénées, located to the north-west in the commune of Uzein, is connected directly to Paris Charles-de-Gaulle and Paris-Orly, as well

Funicular.

The Funiculaire de Pau, opened in 1908, provides, free of charge, a link between the city centre and Boulevard des Pyrénées to the railway station in the valley. After a

Bus.

The Société des Transports de agglomération Paloise (STAP) or IDELIS bus network, operates 13 urban bus routes, serving Pau and the adjoining communes of Billère, Jurançon, Gelos, Mazères-Lezons, Lescar, Lons, Bizanos, Gan, Ousse, Sendets, Lée, Idron, Artigueloutan, Uzein, Morlaàs, Serres-Castet and Aressy. A free shuttle bus service, Coxitis, circles the city centre at brief intervals from early

Heritage.

Pau has a heritage which stretches from the 12th to the 21st century, which is represented through numerous sites and monuments, including the castle of Henri IV.

Religious monuments.

Other religious buildings.

Pau has a Russian Orthodox Church, a mosque, a synagogue and a number of smaller churches such as St-Jean-Baptiste, Sainte-Bernadette and Sainte-Thérèse.

Civil monuments.

Until the 18th century.

The Château de Pau dominates the Gave de Pau. Its two oldest towers date from the 12th century. The quadrangular tower of brick was raised by Sicard de Lordat in the 14th century. Thus constituted fortress was turned into a Renaissance palace by Marguerite d'Angoulême and then restored under Louis-Philippe and Napoleon III. In summary, the castle was fortress of the Viscounts of Béarn, Castle of Fébus, birthplace of the good King Henry IV ("Nouste Enric") and royal residence in the Renaissance.  A first defensive tower desired below the castle by Gaston Fébus, then called the "Tour du Moulin" [tower of the mill] for a time, was built along a water channel operating the mill of the castle as early as the 15th century. The "Tour de la Monnaie" [Money Tower] was named according to Henri d'Albret who, in 1554, used it as a mint. Today containing a lift within, it was

In the 19th century.

Former grand hotels of the Belle Époque which were in direct competition, the "Hotel de Gassion" and the "Hotel de France", are located on the "Boulevard des Pyrénées". The "Hotel de Gassion", located between the château and the Church of Saint-Martin, now houses apartments. The "Hotel de France", located to the east of the "Place Royale", now houses the services of the Communauté d'agglomération de Pau-Pyrénées and is the second decision-making centre in Pau. The "Palais Beaumont", originally referred to as the "Palais d'Hiver" [Winter Palace], was created at the end of the 19th century. Mixing architectural styles, it was repeatedly altered and was renovated from 1996, after half a century of neglect. It hosts a casino but is primarily a convention centre, a space for events such as seminars and fairs. The funicular, which joins with the upper town, the historic centre, has welcomed travellers to and from the railway station, since 1908. Municipal services settled in the current premises of the town hall in 1878. The building, located north of the, is actually a former

Environmental heritage.

Parks and gardens.

Pau is also a green city, having more than occupied by green areas, with many rare and exotic species. Pau has been classed "4 flowers" by

Horizons Palois (Pau Horizons).

The notion of "Horizons Palois" refers to the desire to protect the major elements which structure the special view from Pau to its natural environment. The view from the heights of Pau includes the saligues of the Gave de Pau and the hillsides of Jurançon and finally the chain of the Pyrenees. Seventeen sites were registered in 1944 as "Horizons Palois", in order to protect them from any construction or alteration that may deteriorate the extraordinary panorama which is particularly visible from the Boulevard des Pyrénées and the château. The city of Pau has committed several years of reflection to a candidacy of the Horizons to UNESCO World Heritage. This would thus enhance the protection of the panorama, and also be an improvement with the renaming of this site to the general public.

Pau (, ; ) is a "commune" overlooking the Pyrenees, and capital of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques Département in the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine, France.

波城(,),法国西南部城市,新阿基坦大区大西洋比利牛斯省的一个市镇,也是该省的省会和人口最多的城市。波城位于大西洋比利牛斯省中部偏东,波河畔,是这一地区的政治文化中心,其市镇面积为平方公里,人口数量为人,在法国城市中排名第63位。