Naming.

Regarding the confusion in the two different codes being referred to by the same name, Krajči et al write:  Around 1948, both Claude E. Shannon (1948) and Robert M. Fano (1949) independently proposed two different source coding algorithms for an efficient description of a discrete memoryless source. Unfortunately, in spite of being different, both schemes became known under the same name "Shannon–Fano coding".  There are several reasons for this mixup. For one thing, in the discussion of his coding scheme, Shannon mentions Fano’s scheme and calls it “substantially the same” (Shannon, 1948, p. 17). For another, both Shannon’s and Fano’s coding schemes are similar in the sense that they both are efficient, but "suboptimal" prefix-free coding schemes with a similar performance Shannon's (1948) method, using predefined word lengths, is called Shannon–Fano coding by Cover and Thomas, Goldie and Pinch, Jones and Jones, and Han and Kobayashi. It is called Shannon coding by Yeung.  Fano's (1949) method, using binary division of probabilities, is called Shannon–Fano coding by Salomon and Gupta. It is called Fano coding by Krajči et al.

Shannon's code: predefined word lengths.

Shannon's algorithm.

Shannon's method starts by deciding on the lengths of all the codewords, then picks a prefix code with those word lengths.  Given a source with probabilities formula_3 the desired codeword lengths are formula_4. Here, formula_5 is the ceiling function, meaning the smallest integer greater than or equal to formula_6.  Once the codeword lengths have been determined, we must choose the codewords themselves. One method is to pick codewords in order from most probable to least probable symbols, picking each codeword to be the lexicographically first word of the correct length that maintains the prefix-free property.  A second method makes use of cumulative probabilities. First, the probabilities are written in decreasing order formula_7. Then, the cumulative probabilities are defined as so formula_9 and so on. The codeword for symbol formula_1 is chosen to be the first formula_11 binary digits in the binary expansion of formula_12.

Example.

This example shows the construction of a Shannon–Fano code for a small alphabet. There 5 different source symbols. Suppose 39 total symbols have been observed with the following frequencies, from which we can estimate the symbol probabilities.  This source has entropy formula_13 bits.  For the Shannon–Fano code, we need to calculate the desired word lengths formula_4.  We can pick codewords in order, choosing the lexicographically first word of the correct length that maintains the prefix-free property. Clearly A gets the codeword 00. To maintain the prefix-free property, B's codeword may not start 00, so the lexicographically first available word of length 3 is 010. Continuing like this, we get the following code:  Alternatively, we can use the cumulative probability method.  Note that although the codewords under the two methods are different, the word lengths are the same. We have lengths of 2 bits for A, and 3 bits for B, C, D and E, giving an average length of  which is within one bit of the entropy.

Expected word length.

For Shannon's method, the word lengths satisfy  Hence the expected word length satisfies Here, formula_18 is the entropy, and Shannon's source coding theorem says that any code must have an average length of at least formula_19. Hence we see that the Shannon–Fano code is always within one bit of the optimal expected word length.

Fano's code: binary splitting.

Outline of Fano's code.

In Fano's method, the symbols are arranged in order from most probable to least probable, and then divided into two sets whose total probabilities are as close as possible to being equal. All symbols then have the first digits of their codes assigned; symbols in the first set receive "0" and symbols in the second set receive "1". As long as any sets with more than one member remain, the same process is repeated on those sets, to determine successive digits of their codes. When a set has been reduced to one symbol this means the symbol's code is complete and will not form the prefix of any other symbol's code.  The algorithm produces fairly efficient variable-length encodings; when the two smaller sets produced by a partitioning are in fact of equal probability, the one bit of information used to distinguish them is used most efficiently. Unfortunately, Shannon–Fano coding does not always produce optimal prefix codes; the set of probabilities {0.35, 0.17, 0.17, 0.16, 0.15} is an example of one that will be assigned non-optimal codes by Shannon–Fano coding.  Fano's version of Shannon–Fano coding is used in the IMPLODE compression method, which is part of the ZIP file format.

The Shannon–Fano tree.

A Shannon–Fano tree is built according to a specification designed to define an effective code table. The actual algorithm is simple:

Example.

We continue with the previous example.  All symbols are sorted by frequency, from left to right (shown in Figure a). Putting the dividing line between symbols B and C results in a total of 22 in the left group and a total of 17 in the right group. This minimizes the difference in totals between the two groups.  With this division, A and B will each have a code that starts with a 0 bit, and the C, D, and E codes will all start with a 1, as shown in Figure b. Subsequently, the left half of the tree gets a new division between A and B, which puts A on a leaf with code 00 and B on a leaf with code 01.  After four division procedures, a tree of codes results. In the final tree, the three symbols with the highest frequencies have all been assigned 2-bit codes, and two symbols with lower counts have 3-bit codes as shown table below:  This results in lengths of 2 bits for A, B and C and per 3 bits for D and E, giving an average length of  We see that Fano's method, with an average length of 2.28, has outperformed Shannon's method, with an average length of 2.62.

Expected word length.

It is shown by Krajči et al that the expected length of Fano's method has expected length bounded above by formula_21, where formula_22 is the probability of the least common symbol.

Comparison with other coding methods.

Neither Shannon–Fano algorithm is guaranteed to generate an optimal code. For this reason, Shannon–Fano codes are almost never used; Huffman coding is almost as computationally simple and produces prefix codes that always achieve the lowest possible expected code word length, under the constraints that each symbol is represented by a code formed of an integral number of bits. This is a constraint that is often unneeded, since the codes will be packed end-to-end in long sequences. If we consider groups of codes at a time, symbol-by-symbol Huffman coding is only optimal if the probabilities of the symbols are independent and are some power of a half, i.e., formula_23. In most situations, arithmetic coding can produce greater overall compression than either Huffman or Shannon–Fano, since it can encode in fractional numbers of bits which more closely approximate the actual information content of the symbol. However, arithmetic coding has not superseded Huffman the way that Huffman supersedes Shannon–Fano, both because arithmetic coding is more computationally expensive and because it is covered by multiple patents.

Huffman coding.

A few years later, David A. Huffman (1949) gave a different algorithm that always produces an optimal tree for any given symbol probabilities. While Fano's Shannon–Fano tree is created by dividing from the root to the leaves, the Huffman algorithm works in the opposite direction, merging from the leaves to the root.

Example with Huffman coding.

We use the same frequencies as for the Shannon–Fano example above, viz:  In this case D & E have the lowest frequencies and so are allocated 0 and 1 respectively and grouped together with a combined probability of 0.282. The lowest pair now are B and C so they're allocated 0 and 1 and grouped together with a combined probability of 0.333. This leaves BC and DE now with the lowest probabilities so 0 and 1 are prepended to their codes and they are combined. This then leaves just A and BCDE, which have 0 and 1 prepended respectively and are then combined. This leaves us with a single node and our algorithm is complete.  The code lengths for the different characters this time are 1 bit for A and 3 bits for all other characters.  This results in the lengths of 1 bit for A and per 3 bits for B, C, D and E, giving an average length of  We see that the Huffman code has outperformed both types of Shannon–Fano code, which had expected lengths of 2.62 and 2.28.

In the field of data compression, Shannon–Fano coding, named after Claude Shannon and Robert Fano, is a name given to two different but related techniques for constructing a prefix code based on a set of symbols and their probabilities (estimated or measured).

在数据压缩的领域里,香农-范诺编码(英语:Shannon–Fano coding)是一种基于一组符号集及其出现的或然率(估量或测量所得),从而构建前缀码的技术。其名称来自于以克劳德·香农和罗伯特·法诺。在理想意义上,它与哈夫曼编码一样,并未实现码词(code word)长度的最低预期;然而,与哈夫曼编码不同的是,它确保了所有的码词长度在一个理想的理论范围formula_1之内。这项技术是香农于1948年,在他介绍信息理论的文章“通信数学理论”中被提出的。这个方法归功于范诺,他在不久以后以技术报告发布了它。 香农-范诺编码不应该与香农编码混淆,后者的编码方法用于证明Shannon's noiseless coding theorem,或与Shannon–Fano–Elias coding(又被称作Elias coding)一起,被看做算术编码的先驱。


Resonance.

In the simple aromatic ring of benzene the delocalization of six π electrons over the C ring is often graphically indicated by a circle. The fact that the six C-C bonds are equidistant is one indication that the electrons are delocalized; if the structure were to have isolated double bonds alternating with discrete single bonds, the bond would likewise have alternating longer and shorter lengths. In valence bond theory, delocalization in benzene is represented by resonance structures.

Electrical conduction.

Delocalized electrons also exist in the structure of solid metals. Metallic structure consists of aligned positive ions (cations) in a "sea" of delocalized electrons. This means that the electrons are free to move throughout the structure, and gives rise to properties such as conductivity.  In diamond all four outer electrons of each carbon atom are 'localized' between the atoms in covalent bonding. The movement of electrons is restricted and diamond does not conduct an electric current. In graphite, each carbon atom uses only 3 of its 4 outer energy level electrons in covalently bonding to three other carbon atoms in a plane. Each carbon atom contributes one electron to a delocalized system of electrons that is also a part of the chemical bonding. The delocalized electrons are free to move throughout the plane. For this reason, graphite conducts electricity along the planes of carbon atoms, but does not conduct in a direction at right angles to the plane.

Molecular orbitals.

Standard ab initio quantum chemistry methods lead to delocalized orbitals that, in general, extend over an entire molecule and have the symmetry of the molecule. Localized orbitals may then be found as linear combinations of the delocalized orbitals, given by an appropriate unitary transformation.  In the methane molecule for example, ab initio calculations show bonding character in four molecular orbitals, sharing the electrons uniformly among all five atoms. There are two orbital levels, a bonding molecular orbital formed from the 2s orbital on carbon and triply degenerate bonding molecular orbitals from each of the 2p orbitals on carbon. The localized sp orbitals corresponding to each individual bond in valence bond theory can be obtained from a linear combination of the four molecular orbitals.

In chemistry, delocalized electrons are electrons in a molecule, ion or solid metal that are not associated with a single atom or a covalent bond. The term delocalization is general and can have slightly different meanings in different fields. In organic chemistry, this refers to resonance in conjugated systems and aromatic compounds. In solid-state physics, this refers to free electrons that facilitate electrical conduction. In quantum chemistry, this refers to molecular orbital electrons that have extended over several adjacent atoms.

离域电子(英语:delocalized electron),也称游离电子,是在分子、离子或固体金属中不止与单一原子或单一共价键有关系的电子。 游离电子包含在分子轨道中,延伸到几个相邻的原子。一般来讲,离域电子存在于共轭系统和介离子化合物中。人们渐渐地了解到,σ键中的电子也会游离。例如甲烷中的成键电子是由五个原子共享的。更多细节详见分子轨道理论。


Early life.

Asahara was born on March 2, 1955 into a large, poor family of tatami-mat-makers in Japan's Kumamoto Prefecture. He had infantile glaucoma from birth, which made him lose all sight in his left eye and go partially blind in his right eye at a young age, and was thus enrolled in a school for the blind. Asahara was known to be a bully at the school, taking advantage of the other students by beating them and extorting money from them. He graduated in 1977 and turned to the study of acupuncture and traditional Chinese medicine, which were common careers for the blind in Japan. He married the following year and eventually fathered 12 children, the eldest of whom was born in 1978.  In 1981, Asahara was convicted of practicing pharmacy without a license and selling unregulated drugs, for which he was fined.  Asahara's interest in religion reportedly started at this time. Having been recently married, he worked to support his large and growing family. He dedicated his free time to the study of various religious concepts, starting with Chinese astrology and Taoism.  Later, Asahara practiced Western esotericism, yoga, meditation, esoteric Buddhism, and esoteric Christianity.

Aum Shinrikyo.

In 1984, Asahara formed Aum Shinsen no Kai. He changed his name from Chizuo Matsumoto to Shoko Asahara and renamed his group Aum Shinrikyo in 1987. Asahara applied for government registration and, although authorities were initially reluctant, after an appeal, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government eventually granted it legal recognition as a religious corporation in 1989.  After this, a monastic order was established, and many lay followers joined. Asahara gained credibility by appearing on TV and on magazine covers. He gradually attained a following of believers and began being invited to lecture-meeting at universities. Asahara also wrote several religious books, including "Beyond Life and Death" and "Supreme Initiation".  The doctrine of Aum Shinrikyo is based on the Vajrayana scriptures, the Bible, and other texts. In 1992 Asahara published "Declaring Myself the Christ", within which he declared himself Christ, Japan's only fully enlightened master, and identified with the Lamb of God.  His purported mission was to take others' sins upon himself, and he claimed he could transfer spiritual power to his followers. He saw dark conspiracies everywhere, promulgated by the Jews, the Freemasons, the Dutch, the British Royal Family, and rival Japanese religions.  He outlined a doomsday prophecy, which included a third World War, and described a final conflict culminating in a nuclear "Armageddon", borrowing the term from the Book of Revelation.  Asahara often preached the necessity of Armageddon for "human relief". He eventually declared, "Put tantra Vajrayana into practice in accordance with the doctrines of Mahamudra," and he led a series of terrorist attacks using a secret organization hidden from ordinary believers.

Tokyo subway gas attack, and arrest.

On March 20, 1995, members of Aum Shinrikyo attacked the Tokyo subway with the nerve agent sarin. Thirteen people died and thousands more suffered ill effects. After finding sufficient evidence, authorities accused Aum Shinrikyo of complicity in the attack, as well as in a number of smaller-scale incidents. Dozens of disciples were arrested, Aum's facilities were raided, and the court issued an order for Asahara's arrest.  On May 16, 1995, the police investigated the headquarters of Aum Shinrikyo. Asahara was discovered in a very small, isolated room in one of the facilities.  Wary of possible Aum military power, the First Airborne Brigade of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force was stationed nearby to support the police if needed.

Accusations, trial and execution.

Asahara faced 27 counts of murder in 13 separate indictments. The prosecution argued that Asahara gave orders to attack the Tokyo Subway in order to "overthrow the government and install himself in the position of Emperor of Japan".  Later, during the trial which took more than seven years to conclude, the prosecution forwarded an additional theory that the attacks were ordered to divert police attention away from Aum. The prosecution also accused Asahara of masterminding the Matsumoto incident and the Sakamoto family murder. According to Asahara's defense team, a group of senior followers initiated the atrocities and kept them a secret from Asahara.  During the trials, some of the disciples testified against Asahara, and he was found guilty on 13 of 17 charges, including the Sakamoto family murder; four charges were dropped. On February 27, 2004, he was sentenced to death by hanging. The trial was called the "trial of the century" by the Japanese media. Meanwhile, Asahara resigned from his position as the Aum Shinrikyo representative in an attempt to prevent the group from being forcefully dissolved by the state.  The defence appealed Asahara's sentencing on the grounds that he was mentally unfit and psychiatric examinations were undertaken. During much of the trials, Asahara remained silent or only muttered to himself. However, he communicated with the staff at his detention facility, which convinced the examiner that Asahara was maintaining his silence out of free will. Owing to his lawyers' failure to submit the statement of reason for appeal, the Tokyo High Court decided on March 27, 2006, not to grant them leave to appeal. This decision was upheld by the Supreme Court of Japan on September 15, 2006.  Two re-trial appeals were declined by the appellate court. In June 2012, Asahara's execution was postponed due to arrests of several fugitive Aum Shinrikyo members.  Asahara was executed by hanging on July 6, 2018, at the Tokyo Detention House, 23 years after the sarin gas attack, along with six other cult members. Relatives of victims said they approved of the execution.

, born, was the founder of the Japanese doomsday-cult group Aum Shinrikyo. Asahara was convicted of masterminding the deadly 1995 sarin-gas attack on the Tokyo subway, and was also involved in several other crimes. He was sentenced to death in 2004. In May 2012, his execution was postponed due to further arrests of Aum Shinrikyo members. He was executed by hanging on July 6, 2018.

麻原彰晃(,1955年-3月2日-2018年-7月6日),邪教组织「奥姆真理教」教主,日本杀人犯、恐怖份子,恐怖组织「真理国」神圣法皇(领导人),1980年代化名为麻原彰晃,本名松本智津夫,生于九州熊本县八代市。


History.

Ajax was founded in Amsterdam on 18 March 1900. The club achieved promotion to the highest level of Dutch football in 1911 and had its first major success in 1917, winning the KNVB Beker, the Netherlands' national cup. The following season, Ajax became national champion for the first time. The club defended its title in 1918–19, becoming the only team to achieve an unbeaten season in the Netherlands Football League Championship.  Throughout the 1920s, Ajax was a strong regional power, winning the Eerste Klasse West division in 1921, 1927 and 1928, but could not maintain its success at national level. This changed in the 1930s, with the club winning five national championships (1931, 1932, 1934, 1937, 1939), making it the most successful Dutch team of the decade. Ajax won its second KNVB Cup in 1942–43, and an eighth Dutch title in 1946–47, the last season the club was managed by Englishman Jack Reynolds, who, up to this point, had overseen all of its national championship successes as well as its 1917 KNVB Cup win.  In 1956, the first season of the Netherlands' new professional league, the Eredivisie, was played with Ajax participating as a founding member. The Amsterdam club became the first national champions under the new format and made its debut in the European Champion Clubs' Cup the following year, losing to Hungarian champions Vasas SC 6–2 on aggregate at the quarter-final stage. The team were again Eredivisie champions in 1960 and won a third KNVB Cup in 1961.  In 1965, Rinus Michels, who had played for the club between 1946 and 1958, was appointed manager of Ajax, implementing his philosophy of Total Football which was to become synonymous with both Ajax and the Netherlands national team. A year earlier, Johan Cruyff, who would go on to become the greatest Dutch footballer of all-time, made his debut. Between them, Michels and Cruyff led Ajax through the most successful period in its history, winning seven Eredivisie titles, four KNVB Cups and three European Cups.  Ajax won the Dutch championship in 1966, 1967 and 1968, and reached the 1969 European Cup final, losing to Milan. During the 1966–67 season, Ajax scored a record 122 goals in an Eredivisie season and also won the KNVB Cup to achieve its first league and cup double. In 1969–70, Ajax won a fourth Dutch league championship and second league and cup double in five seasons, winning 27 out of 34 league matches and scoring 100 goals.  The 1970–71 season saw Ajax retain the KNVB Cup and reach the 1971 European Cup final, where they defeated Panathinaikos 2–0 with goals from Dick van Dijk and Arie Haan to become continental champions for the first time, with Cruyff being named European Footballer of the Year. After this success, Michels departed to become manager of Barcelona and was replaced by the Romanian Ștefan Kovács. In Kovács' first season, Ajax completed a treble of the European Cup, the Eredivisie and a third consecutive KNVB Cup. The following season, the team beat Argentine club Independiente to win the 1972 Intercontinental Cup and retained their Eredivisie and European Cup titles, becoming the first club to win three consecutive European Cups since Real Madrid in the 1950s.  In 1973, Michels' Barcelona broke the world transfer record to bring Cruyff to Catalonia. Kovács also departed to become manager of the France national team, signalling the end of this period of international success.  In 1976–77, Ajax won its first domestic championship in four seasons and recorded a double of the Eredivisie and KNVB Cup two years later.  The early 1980s saw the return of Johan Cruyff to the club, as well as the emergence

Academies (Youth/Coaching).

The club is also particularly famous for its renowned youth programme that has produced many Dutch talents over the years – Johan Cruyff, Edwin van der Sar, Gerald Vanenburg, Frank Rijkaard, Dennis Bergkamp, Rafael van der Vaart, Patrick Kluivert, Marco van Basten, Wesley Sneijder, Maarten Stekelenburg, and Nigel de Jong have come through the ranks and are just some of the talents who've played for Ajax. Ajax also regularly supplies the Dutch national youth teams with local talent.  Due to mutual agreements with foreign clubs, the youth academy has also signed foreign players as teenagers before making first team debuts, such as Belgian defensive trio Jan Vertonghen, Toby Alderweireld and Thomas Vermaelen along with winger Tom De Mul, all of whom are full internationals, as well as Dutch international Vurnon Anita and Javier Martina, representing Curaçao.  Ajax has also expanded its talent searching programme to South Africa with Ajax Cape Town. Ajax Cape Town was

Stadiums.

Ajax's first stadium was built in 1911 out of wood and was called Het Houten Stadion ("The Wooden Stadium"). Ajax later played in the Olympic Stadium built for the 1928 Summer Olympics hosted in Amsterdam. This stadium, designed by Jan Wils, is known as the Olympic Stadium. In 1934, Ajax moved to De Meer Stadion in east Amsterdam, designed by architect and Ajax-member Daan Roodenburgh, who had also designed the club's first stadium. It could accommodate 29,500 spectators and Ajax continued to play there until 1996. For big European and national fixtures the club would often play at the Olympic Stadium, which could accommodate about twice the number of spectators.  In 1996, Ajax moved to a new home ground in the

Crest and colours.

Crest.

In 1900, when the club was founded, the emblem of Ajax was just a picture of an Ajax player. The crest was slightly altered following the club's promotion to the top division in 1911 to match the club's

Colours.

Ajax originally played in an all-black uniform with a red sash tied around the players' waists, but that uniform was soon replaced by a red/white striped shirt and black shorts. Red, black and white are the three colours of the flag of Amsterdam. When under manager Jack Kirwan, however, the club earned promotion to the top flight of Dutch football

Financial.

AFC Ajax N.V..

AFC Ajax are the only Dutch club with an Initial public offering (IPO). The club is registered as a Naamloze vennootschap (N.V.) listed on the stock exchange Euronext Amsterdam, since 17 May 1998. With a launch price of ƒ25,- (Guilders) the club managed to a bring their total revenue up to €54 million (converted) in their first year on the market. After short-lived success, however, the rate dropped, at one

Sponsorship.

Ajax's shirts have been sponsored by TDK from 1982 to 1991, and by ABN AMRO from 1991 to 2008. AEGON then replaced ABN AMRO as the new head sponsor for a period of seven years. On 1 April 2007, Ajax wore a different sponsor for the match against Heracles Almelo, "Florius". Florius is a banking programme launched by ABN AMRO who wanted it to be the shirt sponsor for one match.  The shirts have been manufactured by Le Coq Sportif (1973–1977), Puma (1977–1979), Cor du Buy (1979-1980), Le Coq Sportif (1980–1984), Kappa (1985–1989) and

Technology Investment.

It was announce on 4 October 2019 that Ajax has partnered with AI and machine learning solution developer

Other teams.

Reserves team.

Jong Ajax ("formerly more commonly known as Ajax 2") is the reserve team of AFC Ajax. The team is composed mostly of professional footballers, who are often recent graduates from the highest youth level (Ajax A1) serving their first professional contract as a reserve, or players who are otherwise unable to play in the first team.  Since 1992, Jong Ajax competed in the Beloften Eredivisie, competing against other reserve teams such as Jong PSV, Jong FC Groningen or Jong AZ. They have won the Beloften Eredivisie title a record eight times, as well as the KNVB Reserve Cup three times, making them the most successful reserve squad in the Netherlands. By winning the Beloften Eredivisie title, Jong Ajax were able to qualify for the actual KNVB Cup, even advancing to the semi-finals on three occasions. Their best result in the Dutch Cup was under manager Jan Olde Riekerink in 2001–02, when a semi-final loss to Utrecht in a Penalty shoot-out after extra time, which saw Utrecht advance, and thus preventing an Ajax–Jong Ajax Dutch Cup final.  The 2013–14 season

Amateur team.

AFC Ajax Amateurs, better known as Ajax Zaterdag, is a Dutch amateur football club founded 18 March 1900. It is the amateur team of the professional club AFC Ajax, who play their home matches at the Sportpark De Toekomst training grounds to a capacity of 5,000. The team was promoted from the Eerste Klasse to the Hoofdklasse

Women's team.

AFC Ajax Vrouwen ("English: AFC Ajax Women") are the women's team of AFC Ajax, competing in the BeNe League, the highest level of professional football in Belgium and the Netherlands. Founded on 18 May 2012, the women's

Other sports.

Baseball.

Ajax HVA (1922–1972) was the baseball team of AFC Ajax founded in 1922, and competed as founding members of the Honkbal Hoofdklasse, the top flight of professional baseball in the Netherlands. Ajax won the national baseball title a total of four times (1924, 1928, 1942, 1948) before the club

eSports.

In 2016, Ajax launched an eSports team, with Koen Weijland as the club's first signing, making their debut on the Global stage of professional

Affiliated clubs.

The following clubs are currently affiliated with AFC

Rivalries.

"As one of the traditional big three clubs in the Netherlands, Ajax have amassed a number of intense rivalries over the years. Listed below are the most significant of the rivalries involving Ajax."

Rivalry with Feyenoord.

Feyenoord from Rotterdam are Ajax's archrivals. Every year both clubs play the "De Klassieker" ("The Classic"), a match between the teams from the two largest cities of the Netherlands. During the 1970s, Ajax and Feyenoord were the only two clubs in the Netherlands who were able to clinch national titles, as well as achieve continental and even global success. A meeting between the two clubs became the measure for who was truly the best club in the Netherlands. The "Klassieker" is the most famous

Rivalry with PSV.

PSV are also a rival of Ajax, but in terms of tension and rivalry, these matches are not as loaded as the duels with Feyenoord. The rivalry has existed for some time with PSV and stems from various causes, such as the different interpretations of whether current national and international successes of both clubs correlates and the supposed opposition between the Randstad and the province. The matches between these two teams is commonly referred to as "De Topper"

Rivalries with other clubs.

Aside from Feyenoord and PSV, Ajax have several other rivalries, although in most cases the sentiment is mostly felt by the opposition and is more directed towards Ajax, with one of them being Utrecht. Although the rivalry is more felt on the Utrecht side then with Ajax, matchups between the two sides are often quite intense. Both teams have fanatic supporters, and clashes off the pitch are more often the rule than the exception. The same goes for ADO Den Haag, with both supporter groups often getting in conflicts, when ADO-Hooligans set fire to the supporters home of Ajax, and Ajax hooligans subsequently broke into the Supporters home of ADO tensions between the two clubs rose. In 2006, supporters from both

Supporters.

Ajax are known for having fanatic core supporter-groups, of which F-Side and VAK410 are the most famous. F-Side were founded on 3 October 1976, and are situated right behind the goal in the Johan Cruyff Arena, on the southern end of the stadium in rows 125–129. Their name is derived from the group's former location on the F-side of the old De Meer Stadion. The F-side supporters are responsible for a big part of the atmosphere in the stadium, but are also known for rioting during and after matches. If in any match Ajax should win the coin toss, the second half of the match Ajax always play towards the south-end of the stadium. VAK410 (English: Row 410) were founded in 2001 and are situated in the Zuidhoek ("South corner") of the stadium on the upper ring in rows 424–425. The group was originally situated on the North-West side of the stadium in row 410, from where it derives its name, until relocating to their current place in the stands in 2008. Members of VAK410 are known to perform various stunts, which include massive banners, to enhance the atmosphere in the stadium. Neither F-Side or VAK410 have seats in their sections of the stadium, and both groups stand for the duration of the match.  Through the official "Football Top 20" of Dutch sports research group "SPORT+MARKT", it was revealed in 2010 that Ajax had approximately 7.1 million supporters throughout Europe. This is significantly more than rivals Feyenoord and PSV (each 1.6 and 1.3 million, respectively), which puts Ajax as the club with the 15th-most supporters across Europe. The study also revealed that approximately 39% of the Netherlands were Ajax supporters. Not only does Ajax have many supporters, but several fans attend their matches in European competition, with an average attendance of 48,677 spectators for every international match Ajax played, putting the team at 12th place in Europe for highest attendance, ahead of high-profile clubs such as Milan and Chelsea. It is noteworthy that not all stadiums share the capacity of the Johan Cruyff Arena.

Supporters clubs.

The Supporters Club Ajax () is officially the largest supporters club in the Netherlands with 94,000 members. Founded on 7 May 1992, the supporters club organize big monthly events throughout the Netherlands, and particularly around the official Ajax Open Training Day, which attracts thousands of supporters each year. Furthermore, the supporters group is responsible for the Ajax Life website, as well as the fanzine which is issued 20 times a year. In 2006, the AFCA Supportersclub was introduced as the club's second

Average attendance.

This graph displays the average attendance for home matches of Ajax from 1988–2018,

Jewish connection.

Historically, Ajax was popularly seen as having "Jewish roots". Although not an official Jewish club like the city's, Ajax has had a Jewish image since the 1930s when the home stadium was located next to a Jewish neighbourhood of Amsterdam-Oost and opponents saw many supporters walking through the Nieuwmarkt/Waterloopleinbuurt (de Jodenhoek—the "Jews' corner") to get to the stadium. The city of Amsterdam was historically referred to as a Mokum city, Mokum (מקום) being the Yiddish word for "place" or "safe haven", and as anti-Semitic chants and name calling developed and intensified at the old De Meer Stadion from frustrated supporters of opposing clubs, Ajax fans (few of whom are actually Jewish) responded by embracing Ajax's "Jewish" identity: calling themselves "super Jews", chanting "Jews, Jews"

Players.

Youth/reserves squad.

"For the reserve squad

Honours.

Official trophies (recognized by UEFA and FIFA).

Other trophies.

Ajax have won numerous friendly tournaments, unsanctioned by UEFA or FIFA, including the Amsterdam Tournament, Bruges Matins Trophy, Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu, Eusébio Cup, Ted Bates Trophy, Jalkapalloturnaus and Chippie Polar Cup. ("For a complete list, see main article")

Honorary club members.

Ajax have a total of 45 honorary club members, from people who have been invested within the club's administrative engagements, to committed players who have excelled in the athletic department. Of those

Results.

Domestic results.

Below is a table with Ajax's

Club van 100.

The Club van 100 is the official list of Football players who have appeared in one hundred or more official matches for AFC Ajax. The club currently has a total of over 150 members. The record for league appearances is held by Mr. Ajax himself Sjaak Swart, who appeared in 463 league matches for Ajax.

Lucky Ajax.

Lucky Ajax are a beneficiary team that was initiated by Sjaak Swart in the seventies, competing in at least one match a year, usually in the name of charity and/or to bid farewell to retiring former Ajax players. The team is made up of various members of the Club van 100 of Ajax who will come out of retirement for this match to

Number 14 shirt.

As of the 2007–08 season, no player could wear the number 14 shirt at Ajax after the club decided to retire the shirt out of respect for Johan Cruyff, "the legendary number fourteen". Cruyff himself laughed off the tribute, saying the club had to let its best player play with number

Team tournaments.

Amsterdam Tournament.

Established in 1975 as the Amsterdam 700 Tournament to celebrate 700 years of history in the city. The tournament was hosted annually each summer by Ajax until 1992, when the last edition of the original tournament was played. It returned in 1999 with the backing of the International Event Partnership (IEP). Four teams participated in the competition, played in a league format since 1986. Since its return, the tournament used an unusual point scoring system. As with most league competitions, three points were

Copa Amsterdam.

Established in 2005, the Copa Amsterdam is an international friendly football tournament for Under-19 youth teams, that is organized by Ajax and the Amsterdam city council, which takes place at the Olympic Stadium as part of the annual Amsterdam Sports Weekend, a citywide sponsored initiative to promote'sports and recreation' within the city

Future Cup.

Established in 2010, the AEGON Future Cup is an international friendly tournament for Under-17 youth teams, which is organized by AFC Ajax and their main sponsor, the insurance company AEGON. The tournament is held each year at the Johan Cruyff Arena and at the Sportpark De Toekomst, the team's training ground, which also inspired the name of the competition, since "De

Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax (), also known as AFC Ajax, Ajax Amsterdam, or simply Ajax, is a Dutch professional football club based in Amsterdam, that plays in the Eredivisie, the top tier in Dutch football. Historically, Ajax (named after the legendary Greek hero) has been the most successful club in the Netherlands, with 34 Eredivisie titles and 19 KNVB Cups. It has continuously played in the Eredivisie, since the league's inception in 1956 and, along with Feyenoord and PSV Eindhoven, it is one of the country's "big three" clubs that have dominated that competition.

阿姆斯特丹阿贾克斯足球会(Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax,简称Ajax Amsterdam,AFC Ajax 及 Ajax,),创立于1900年,是一支位于荷兰首都阿姆斯特丹的足球俱乐。与飞燕诺以及PSV燕豪芬并称荷兰足球三强。阿贾克斯被誉为世界第一的球星加工厂和世界第一青训球会,其青训系统培养大量球星。阿贾克斯球员过去往往成为国家队的重心球员,包括约翰·克鲁伊夫、列卡特和-{zh-hk:云巴士顿;zh-hans:马尔科·范巴斯滕}-等。


Indications.

The most common indications for thoracic sympathectomy are focal hyperhidrosis (that specifically affects the hands and underarms), Raynaud syndrome, and facial blushing when accompanied by focal hyperhidrosis. It may also be used to treat bromhidrosis, although this usually responds to non-surgical treatments, and sometimes people with olfactory reference syndrome present to surgeons requesting sympathectomy.  There are reports of ETS being used to achieve cerebral revascularization for people with moyamoya disease, and to treat headaches, hyperactive bronchial tubes, long QT syndrome, social phobia, anxiety, and other conditions.

Surgical procedure.

ETS involves dissection of the main sympathetic trunk in the upper thoracic region of the sympathetic nervous system, irreparably disrupting neural messages that ordinarily would travel to many different organs, glands and muscles. It is via those nerves that the brain is able to make adjustments to the body in response to changing conditions in the environment, fluctuating emotional states, level of exercise, and other factors to maintain the body in its ideal state (see homeostasis).  Because these nerves also regulate conditions like excessive blushing or sweating, which the procedure is designed to eliminate, the normative functions these physiological mechanisms perform will be disabled or significantly impaired by sympathectomy.  There is much disagreement among ETS surgeons about the best surgical method, optimal location for nerve dissection, and the nature and extent of the consequent primary effects and side effects. When performed endoscopically as is usually the case, the surgeon penetrates the chest cavity making multiple incisions about the diameter of a straw between ribs. This allows the surgeon to insert the video camera (endoscope) in one hole and a surgical instrument in another. The operation is accomplished by dissecting the nerve tissue of the main sympathetic chain.  Another technique, the clamping method, also referred to as 'endoscopic sympathetic blockade' (ESB) employs titanium clamps around the nerve tissue, and was developed as an alternative to older methods in an unsuccessful attempt to make the procedure reversible. Technical reversal of the clamping procedure must be performed within a short time after clamping (estimated at a few days or weeks at most), and a recovery, evidence indicates, will not be complete.

Physical, mental and emotional effects.

Sympathectomy works by disabling part of the autonomic nervous system (and thereby disrupting its signals from the brain), through surgical intervention, in the expectation of removing or alleviating the designated problem. Many non-ETS doctors have found this practice questionable chiefly because its purpose is to destroy anatomically functional nerves.  Exact results of ETS are impossible to predict, because of considerable anatomic variation in nerve function from one patient to the next, and also because of variations in surgical technique. The autonomic nervous system is not anatomically exact and connections might exist which are unpredictably affected when the nerves are disabled. This problem was demonstrated by a significant number of patients who underwent sympathectomy at the same level for hand sweating, but who then presented a reduction or elimination of feet sweating, in contrast to others who were not affected in this way. No reliable operation exists for foot sweating except lumbar sympathectomy, at the opposite end of the sympathetic chain.  Thoracic sympathectomy will change many bodily functions, including sweating, vascular responses, heart rate, heart stroke volume, thyroid, baroreflex,lung volume, pupil dilation, skin temperature and other aspects of the autonomic nervous system, like the essential fight-or-flight response. It reduces the physiological responses to strong emotions, such as fear and laughter, diminishes the body's physical reaction to both pain and pleasure, and inhibits cutaneous sensations such as goose bumps.  A large study of psychiatric patients treated with this surgery showed significant reductions in fear, alertness and arousal. Arousal is essential to consciousness, in regulating attention and information processing, memory and emotion.  ETS patients are being studied using the autonomic failure protocol headed by David Goldstein, M.D. Ph.D., senior investigator at the U.S National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. He has documented loss of thermoregulatory function, cardiac denervation, and loss of vasoconstriction. Recurrence of the original symptoms due to nerve regeneration or nerve sprouting can occur within the first year post surgery. Nerve sprouting, or abnormal nerve growth after damage or injury to the nerves can cause other further damage. Sprouting sympathtetic nerves can form connections with sensory nerves, and lead to pain conditions that are mediated by the SNS. Every time the system is activated, it is translated into pain. This sprouting and its action can lead to Frey's syndrome, a recognized after effect of sympathectomy, when the growing sympathetic nerves innervate salivary glands, leading to excessive sweating regardless of environmental temperature through olfactory or gustatory stimulation.  In addition, patients have reported lethargy, depression, weakness, limb swelling, lack of libido, decreased physical and mental reactivity, oversensitivity to sound, light and stress and weight gain. (British Journal of Surgery 2004; 91: 264–269)

Risks.

ETS has both the normal risks of surgery, such as bleeding and infection, conversion to open chest surgery, and several specific risks, including permanent and unavoidable alteration of nerve function. It is reported that a number of patients - 9 since 2010, mostly young women - have died during this procedure due to major intrathoracic bleeding and cerebral disruption. Bleeding during and following the operation may be significant in up to 5% of patients. Pneumothorax (collapsed lung) can occur (2% of patients). Compensatory hyperhidrosis (or reflex hyperhidrosis) is common over the long term. The rates of severe compensatory sweating vary widely between studies, ranging from as high as 92% of patients. Of those patients that develop this side effect, about a quarter in one study said it was a major and disabling problem.  A severe possible consequence of thoracic sympathectomy is corposcindosis (split-body syndrome), in which the patient feels that he or she is living in two separate bodies, because sympathetic nerve function has been divided into two distinct regions, one dead, and the other hyperactive.  Additionally, the following side effects have all been reported by patients: Chronic muscular pain, numbness and weakness of the limbs, Horner's Syndrome, anhidrosis (inability to sweat), hyperthermia (exacerbated by anhidrosis and systemic thermoregulatory dysfunction), neuralgia, paraesthesia, fatigue and amotivationality, breathing difficulties, substantially diminished physiological/chemical reaction to internal and environmental stimuli, somatosensory malfunction, aberrant physiological reaction to stress and exertion, Raynaud’s disease (albeit a possible indication for surgery), reflex hyperhidrosis, altered/erratic blood pressure and circulation, defective fight or flight response system, loss of adrenaline, eczema and other skin conditions resulting from exceptionally dry skin, rhinitis, gustatory sweating (also known as Frey's syndrome). Other long-term adverse effects include:  Other side effects are the inability to raise the heart rate sufficiently during exercise with instances requiring an artificial pacemaker after developing bradycardia being reported as a consequence of the surgery.  The Finnish Office for Health Care Technology Assessment concluded more than a decade ago in a 400-page systematic review that ETS is associated with an unusually high number of significant immediate and long-term adverse effects.  Quoting the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare statement: "The method can give permanent side effects that in some cases will first become obvious only after some time. One of the side effects might be increased perspiration on different places on your body. Why and how this happens is still unknown. According to the research available about 25-75% of all patients can expect more or less serious perspiration on different places on their body, such as the trunk and groin area, this is "Compensatory sweating"".  In 2003, ETS was banned in its birthplace, Sweden, due to inherent risks, and complaints by disabled patients. In 2004, Taiwanese health authorities banned the procedure on people under 20 years of age.

History.

Sympathectomy developed in the mid-19th century, when it was learned that the autonomic nervous system runs to almost every organ, gland and muscle system in the body. It was surmised that these nerves play a role in how the body regulates many different body functions in response to changes in the external environment, and in emotion.  The first sympathectomy was performed by Alexander in 1889. Thoracic sympathectomy has been indicated for hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating) since 1920, when Kotzareff showed it would cause anhidrosis (total inability to sweat) from the nipple line upwards.  A lumbar sympathectomy was also developed and used to treat excessive sweating of the feet and other ailments, and typically resulted in impotence and retrograde ejaculation in men. Lumbar sympathectomy is still being offered as a treatment for plantar hyperhidrosis, or as a treatment for patients who have a bad outcome (extreme 'compensatory sweating') after thoracic sympathectomy for palmar hyperhidrosis or blushing; however, extensive sympathectomy risks hypotension.  Endoscopic sympathectomy itself is relatively easy to perform; however, accessing the nerve tissue in the chest cavity by conventional surgical methods was difficult, painful, and spawned several different approaches in the past. The posterior approach was developed in 1908, and required resection (sawing off) of ribs. A supraclavicular (above the collar-bone) approach was developed in 1935, which was less painful than the posterior, but was more prone to damaging delicate nerves and blood vessels. Because of these difficulties, and because of disabling sequelae associated with sympathetic denervation, conventional or "open" sympathectomy was never a popular procedure, although it continued to be practiced for hyperhidrosis, Raynaud's disease, and various psychiatric disorders. With the brief popularization of lobotomy in the 1940s, sympathectomy fell out of favor as a form of psychosurgery.  The endoscopic version of thoracic sympathectomy was pioneered by Goren Claes and Christer Drott in Sweden in the late 1980s. The development of endoscopic "minimally invasive" surgical techniques has decreased the recovery time from the surgery and increased its availability. Today, ETS surgery is practiced in many countries throughout the world predominantly by vascular surgeons.

References.

Endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy (ETS) is a surgical procedure in which a portion of the sympathetic nerve trunk in the thoracic region is destroyed. ETS is used to treat excessive sweating in certain parts of the body (focal hyperhidrosis), facial blushing, Raynaud's disease and reflex sympathetic dystrophy. By far the most common complaint treated with ETS is sweaty palms (palmar hyperhidrosis). The intervention is controversial and illegal in some jurisdictions. Like any surgical procedure, it has risks; the endoscopic sympathetic block (ESB) procedure and those procedures that affect fewer nerves have lower risks.


Geography.

Nord-Trøndelag bordered Nordland to the north, Sør-Trøndelag to the south, Sweden to the east and the Norwegian Sea to the west. The county seat was the town of Steinkjer, with 20,527 inhabitants (2005). The largest lake is Snåsavatnet and the largest river is Namsen, one of the best salmon rivers in Europe. Other well known salmon rivers are as Verdalselva and Stjørdalselva. Salsvatnet is the second-deepest lake in Europe, with a maximum depth of. Another lake in the area is Byavatnet. Stjørdal is the biggest town in the county. There are local hospitals in Levanger and Namsos.  A large part of the population lives near the large Trondheimsfjord, which is a central feature of the southern part of this county. In the north are other fjords, mainly the Namsenfjord and Foldafjord. Areas on the eastern and northeastern shore of Trondheimsfjord (mainly in Stjørdal, Frosta, Levanger, Inderøy, Verdal and Steinkjer) are fertile agricultural lowland, with grain fields and vegetables. Together with the grain fields in the Namdalen lowland, this forms the most northern grain cultivation area in Norway today. However, the spruce dominated forest (some birch) covers a much larger area, and Nord-Trøndelag is the second largest timber producing county in Norway (after Hedmark). The forest and highland in Nord-Trøndelag is one of few places in Norway with four species of deer (moose, roe deer, red deer and reindeer). There are mountains near the border with Sweden, and coastal mountains with bare rock at the northern coast. The spruce forests occurs even at the coast, where some areas are classified as temperate rainforest (boreal rainforest, see Scandinavian coastal conifer forests). There are several national parks in the county, among them Blåfjella–Skjækerfjella National Park (one of the largest in Norway), Børgefjell National Park (partly), Lierne National Park and Skarvan and Roltdalen National Park (partly).

History.

The first people in Nord-Trøndelag settled in Flatanger and Leka between 7500 and 6000 BCE, and were migrating northwards along the coast. In about the same time, people moved upwards along the Trondheimsfjord. The first farmers migrated to Stjørdal around 2000 BCE in the Stone Age. Early agriculture was based mostly on animals, which allowed people to remain nomads and combine stockbreeding with gathering. Around 2300 to 2000 BCE, the spruce spread into the county, and by 1300 CE, the landscape was dominated by spruce like today. During the early Bronze Age, from 1800 to 1000 BCE, the first large graves were built in the Trondheimsfjord area. The earliest species of cereals grown was barley around 500 BCE, which was later supplemented with other cereals.  In the first century CE, iron mining in swamps started in the easternmost parts of the country. Several small communities with blast furnaces were established, located several days walk from the good agricultural land, generating trade and occupational specialization. However, the mining industry stopped in the fifth century. In the following centuries, as part of the increased immigration due to the Migration Period, then a Germanic judicial system was introduced, which was a further development of the system launched during the mining era. In the fifth century, the first organizing of military took place, with constructions of small forts. Around this time, the area was split into counties, with the current Nord-Trøndleag consisting of parts of Stjørdølafylke, Skøynafylke, Øynafylke, Verdølafylke, Sparbyggjafylke and Naumdølafylke. From the tenth century, the Frostating was established as a thing for all of the Trondheimsfjord area.  The largest hof for worshiping Nordic mythology was at Mære and was a common site for animal sacrifice. In 997, Olaf Tryggvason established Nidaros (current-day Trondheim), in Sør-Trøndelag, started a series of attacks to conquer Innherred. To counteract, the Innherred warlords established a marketplace in Steinkjer. In the Battle of Stiklestad, which took place in 1030, King Olaf Haraldsson was killed by a peasant army in a battle for supremacy over Trøndelag. In the following decades, despite the defeat of the Christian Olaf, Trøndelag was gradually Christianized, resulting in the construction of churches and two monasteries. By the 13th century, the Frostating laws had been codified, by which time all of Central Norway was under the thing, which developed into a court, which was moved to Nidaros in the 16th century.  During the Viking Age, the population increased, reaching 20,000 by the mid-13th century. The Black Death killed off many people, and Nordli and Meråker were depopulated. Sami people immigrated from the north in the following two centuries. Archbishop of Nidaros, Olav Engelbrektsson, started building a fortress in Steinvikholmen in Stjørdal, which was completed in 1532, and became the center of the archdiocese. It remained until the Protestant Reformation in 1537, in which the king took over all church assets in the country, which consisted of nearly 40% of the land. Subsequently, the number of self-owning farmers increased. The 16th century also saw the beginning of export of fish and lumber, and the first sawmills were established. In the 17th century, administration gradually shifted from that of warlords to vogt, a representative of the king in Copenhagen. Taxes were increased to finance the military, and in Nord-Trøndelag, farmers had to join the military to fight Sweden in Jämtland.  In the 18th century, confirmation and schools were introduced, and the potato was introduced during the 1770s. Parts of Namdalen was the target of immigrants from Eastern Norway, who cleared new land. In 1804, Trondhjems amt was split into two, with the northern part becoming Nordre Trondhjems amt. In 1919, it changed its name to Nord-Trøndelag. In 1838, the municipalities were created, and Nordre Trondhjems amt received 18. In 1836, Levanger received status as a market-town, followed by Namsos in 1845 and Steinkjer in 1857. The number would gradually increase to 48.  In 1851, Marcus Thrane's public meetings caused riots demanding increased labor rights. The first steam-powered sawmill was established at Spillum in 1853, and forestry started becoming a profession, rather than a part-time work during the winter. From the late 18th century, sail ships started running in regular traffic along the coast and in the fjord to Trondheim. Most natural resources were owned by the burgoise in Trondheim, as royal concession was needed for any exploitation. During the last half of the 19th century, tens of thousands of people emigrated to North America, with some communities losing just under half their population.  Industrialization started in the 1838 with steamships in regular traffic along the coast, and later on Trondheimsfjord and Snåsavatnet. At the end of the 19th century, the Great Transformation took place, whereby the economy changed from being predominantly based on self-production to a professional trades. Crofts were abolished. The Meråker Line reached Hell in 1881, and in 1905 the Hell–Sunnan Line reached Sunnan. The first flight took off from Værnes in 1914, and in 1948 scheduled services were started to Oslo.

Demographics.

As of 2010, Nord-Trøndelag had 131,555 inhabitants. There were 55,910 households, or 2.3 people per household. Life expectancy is 77.7 years for males and 82.4 years for females, both above the national average. There were 5,942 foreigners, or 4.5%, including Norwegian-born to immigrant parents. There were 4,699 people with foreign citizenship, the lowest for any county both in relative and absolute numbers. The largest sources of immigration are Eastern Europe and Asia.  Christianity is the dominant religion. As of 2010, 5,061 (3.8%) people were not registered as members of the Church of Norway. Of these, 2,581 (1.9%) were members of other Christian groups, while 1,762 (1.3%) were irreligious, 508 (0.3%) were Muslims, 158 were Buddhists, and 52 belonged to other religions.  Trøndersk is a dialect of Norwegian which with minor modifications is spoken throughout Trøndelag and Nordmøre. It is characterized by the use of apocope, palatalization and retroflex flaps (thick "L"). The Trøndersk spoken in Nord-Trøndelag is broader and closer to Old Norse than what is spoken in Trondheim, with the broadest language being spoken in Innherred. The towns in Nord-Trøndelag have been more influenced by written Norwegian and Standard Østnorsk and have a less broad dialect. Compared to Sør-Trøndelag, there is a tendency of "utjamning" rather than "tiljamning". The use of dative case is gradually disappearing. About 300 Sami people, which are concentrated around Snåsa, speak the Southern Sami language. It is not mutually intelligible with other Sami languages, and belongs to Uralic, a different language family than Norwegian.

Government.

Nord-Trøndelag County Municipality runs of county roads, public transport, eleven upper secondary schools with 7,000 pupils, regional development and other minor issues. The county municipality is led by a 35-member county council, which in the 2007 election has consisted of members of seven parties. The administration is led by a county cabinet with six members, representing the Labour Party, the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party and the Christian Democratic Party. The cabinet is led by Alf Daniel Moen of the Labour Party, while Gunnar Viken of the Conservative Party is county mayor.  The Nord-Trøndelag County Governor is the state's representative in the county. Since 2009, the governor has been Inge Ryan, a former parliamentarian for the Socialist Left Party. The county is covered by three district courts, Inderøy District Court, located in Steinkjer, Stjør- and Verdal District Court in Levanger, and Namdal District Court in Namsos. All are subordinate Frostating Court of Appeal. The county is covered by Nord-Trøndelag Police District.  Nord-Trøndelag also constitutes an electoral district for the Parliament of Norway, consisting of six representatives. In the 2009 election, the Labour Party received three representatives, Gerd Janne Kristoffersen, Arild Stokkan-Grande and Susanne Bratli, in addition to Robert Eriksson of the Progress Party, Lars Peder Brekk of the Centre Party, and Lars Myraune of the Conservative Party. Since 2008, Brekk has been Minister of Agriculture and Food.

Economy.

In 2007, Nord-Trøndelag had a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita NOK 242,895 and an income per capita of NOK 165,075, less than any other Norwegian county. For GDP per capita, Nord-Trøndelag lay at 67% of the national average, excluding the continental shelf, and lay just above a third of Oslo.  Agriculture is most common east of the Trondheimsfjord, the lower parts of Indre Namdal and Nærøy. of land is used for agriculture, of which is cereals, which is more dominant along the Trondheimsfjord. The county has ten percent of the country's agricultural output, and no other county has so high a percentage of its production from farming. Farms traditionally have a square lot of buildings, with the house, called a trønderlån, being thin and long. Fishing is an important industry along the coast, particularly in Ytre Namdal, and Trondheim Fjord is the fjord with the highest yield in Norway. Fish farming, particularly of salmon, has seen a rapid growth since the 1970s. Most of the fish is exported to Continental Europe, and to a less degree the Far East. Forty percent of the county is covered by forest, but about half of it is not profitable to log. Parts of the forests are preserved, including the Coastal Spruce Forest, which is the only place in Europe where spruce grows out to the coast. Up to of lumber is harvested each year, of which 95% is spruce and 3% is pine. Statskog, a government agency, owns of Nord-Trøndelag, of which is productive forest. Large private forest owners include Værdalsbruket and Meraker Brug, while municipalities own. Norske Skog Skogn, established in 1962 and located at Skogn, is one of the largest companies in the county, and among Europe's largest producers of newsprint. Södra Cell Folla in Follafoss is a producer of pulp.  Hydroelectricity production in Nord-Trøndelag is for 2.9 TWh per year, all of which is owned by Nord-Trøndelag Elektrisitetsverk (NTE). Owned by the county municipality and established in 1919, it also operates two wind farms, Vikna and Hundhammerfjellet. Aker Verdal manufacturers jackets for oil platforms; established in 1976, it is among the largest employers in the county.

Culture.

The county had four folk high schools: Sund, Namdal, Skogn and Bakketun. The state-owned Nord-Trøndelag University College has campuses in Levanger, Steinkjer, Stjørdal and Namsos, and provides undergraduate education to 4,460 pupils. The Central Norway Regional Health Authority is based in Stjørdal, and its subsidiary Nord-Trøndelag Hospital Trust operates two hospitals, Levanger and Namsos.  The traditional cuisine consisted of five meals per day, and contained herring, porridge, dairy products and flat bread, with the potato coming into use during the 19th century. Herring and potato became the standard meal for commoners. Local specialties include ginger ale, akvavit, sodd, while it was common to use grævfisk and rakfisk (raw rotten fish) in the mountainous areas.  Nord-Trøndelag Teater, located in Verdalsøra, is the only all-year professional theater. Since 1954, The Saint Olav Drama has been performed at Stiklestad, portraying the battle. Similarly, an outdoor midnight opera is held on Steinvikholmen portraying the historical events there. Amateur revue is popular, and the Norwegian Revue Festival is held in Høylandet every other year. Three bands Åge Aleksandersen, Hans Rotmo and DDE are the most successful music artists, having created the genre trønderrock. The former two had their breakthrough in the 1970s, while the latter had it in the 1990s. Levanger HK plays in Premier Women's Handball League. Saemien Sijte, located in Snåsa, is a center for Sami culture.  "Trønder-Avisa", published in Steinkjer, is the only county-wide newspaper, although the Trondheim-based "Adresseavisen" also covers the county. "Namdalsavisa", published in Namsos, covers Namdalen. Local newspapers, most of which cover a single municipality, are "Frostingen", "Inderøyningen", "Innherreds Folkeblad og Verdalingen", "Levanger-Avisa", "Lokalavisa Verran Namdalseid", "Meråkerposten", "Snåsningen", "Steinkjer-Avisa", "Stjørdalens Blad" and "Ytringen". The Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation has offices in Steinkjer and runs radio programs exclusively for the county.

Transport.

European Route E6 runs north–south throughout eastern part the county, partially as a motorway. This route runs from Stjørdal via Steinkjer and Grong to Nordland. Other important routes in the county include E14 between Stjørdal via Meråker to Sweden, and County Road 17 from Steinkjer via Namsos and Nærøy to Nordland. Both passenger and car ferries operate on the coast, and in Trondheimsfjord is the Levanger–Hokstad Ferry. Private road transport is dominant, as public transport is sparsely operated. The largest bus company is TrønderBilene.  The Nordland Line is a railway that runs from Trondheim to Bodø, and it runs north–south through the county. South of Steinkjer, the Trøndelag Commuter Rail operates to Trondheim. There are also two other lines; the Meråker Line, part of the line between Trondheim and Stockholm runs from Stjørdal to Meråker and onwards to Sweden. The Namsos Line is purely used for freight and goes from Grong to Namsos. All the railways are unelectrified. Trondheim Airport, Værnes, Norway's third-largest airport is located in Stjørdal, and serves most major airports in Norway, as well as European destinations. There are two regional airports, Namsos Airport, Høknesøra and Rørvik Airport, Ryum. The Coastal Express ferry service calls at Rørvik.

Municipalities.

Nord-Trøndelag has 23 municipalities as shown in the map.

Nord-Trøndelag (; "North Trøndelag") was a county constituting the northern part of the present-day Trøndelag county in Norway. The county was established in 1804 when the old Trondhjems amt was divided into two: Nordre Trondhjems amt and Søndre Trondhjems amt. In 2016, the two county councils voted to merge (back) into a single county on 1 January 2018.

北特伦德拉格( )是挪威中部已撤销的郡,首府为斯泰恩谢尔。北特伦德拉格郡面积22,412平方公里,人口129,069(2007年),曾是挪威人口第16大郡。


Use and storage.

Soy sauce can be added directly to food, and is used as a dip or salt flavor in cooking. It is often eaten with sushi, noodles, and sashimi, or can also be mixed with ground wasabi. Bottles of soy sauce for salty seasoning of various foods are common on restaurant tables in many countries. Soy sauce can be stored at room temperature. Shoyu is stored in PET bottles or soft plastic containers.

History.

East Asia.

China.

Soy sauce (醬油, "jiàngyóu") is considered almost as old as soy paste—a type of fermented paste (Jiang, ) obtained from soybeans—which had appeared during the Western Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) and was listed in the bamboo slips found in the archaeological site Mawangdui (馬王堆). There are several precursors of soy sauce that are associated products with soy paste. Among them the earliest one is "Qingjiang" (清醬) that had appeared in AD 40 and was listed in "Simin Yueling" (). Others are "Jiangqing" (醬清), "Chizhi" (豉汁) and "Chiqing" (豉清) which are recorded in "Qimin Yaoshu" () in AD 540. By the time of the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD), the term "soy sauce" (醬油) had become the accepted name for the liquid condiment, which are documented in two books: "Shanjia Qinggong" (山家清供) and "Pujiang Wushi Zhongkuilu" (浦江吳氏中饋錄) during the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD).  Like many salty condiments, soy sauce was originally a way to stretch salt, historically an expensive commodity. During the Zhou dynasty of ancient China, fermented fish with salt was used as a condiment in which soybeans were included during the fermentation process. By the time of the Han dynasty, this had been replaced with the recipe for soy paste and its by-product soy sauce, by using soybeans as the principal ingredient, with fermented fish-based sauces developing separately into fish sauce.  The 19th century Sinologist Samuel Wells Williams wrote that in China, the best soy sauce is "made by boiling beans soft, adding an equal quantity of wheat or barley, and leaving the mass to ferment; a portion of salt and three times as much water are afterwards put in, and the whole compound left for two or three months when the liquid is pressed and strained".

Japan.

Originally, a common Japanese condiment was uoshōyu, which was fish based. When Buddhism came to Japan from China in the 7th century, they introduced vegetarianism and brought many soy-based products with them, such as soy sauce, which is known as "shōyu" (醤油 "shōyu") in Japan. Shoyu exportation began in 1647 by the Dutch East India Company.

Korea.

The earliest soy sauce brewing in Korea seems to have begun prior to the era of the Three Kingdoms c. 57 BCE. The "Records of the Three Kingdoms", a Chinese historical text written and published in the 3rd century, mentions that "Goguryeo people are good at brewing fermented soy beans." in the section named "Dongyi" (Eastern foreigners), in the "Book of Wei". Jangdoks used for soy sauce brewing are found in the mural paintings of Anak Tomb No.3 from the 4th century Goguryeo.  In "Samguk Sagi", a historical record of the Three Kingdoms era, it is written that "ganjang" (soy sauce) and "doenjang" (soybean paste) along with "meju" (soybean block) and "jeotgal" (salted seafood) were prepared for the wedding ceremony of the King Sinmun in February 683. "Sikhwaji", a section from "Goryeosa" (History of Goryeo), recorded that "ganjang" and "doenjang" were included in the relief supplies in 1018, after a Khitan invasion, and in 1052, when a famine occurred. Joseon texts such as "Guhwangchwaryo" and "Jeungbo sallim gyeongje" contain the detailed procedures on how to brew good quality "ganjang" and "doenjang." "Gyuhap chongseo" explains how to pick a date for brewing, what to forbear, and how to keep and preserve "ganjang" and "doenjang".

Europe.

Records of the Dutch East India Company list soy sauce as a commodity in 1737, when seventy-five large barrels were shipped from Dejima, Japan, to Batavia (present-day Jakarta) on the island of Java. Thirty-five barrels from that shipment were then shipped to the Netherlands. In the 18th century, diplomat and scholar Isaac Titsingh published accounts of brewing soy sauce. Although earlier descriptions of soy sauce had been disseminated in the West, his was among the earliest to focus specifically on the brewing of the Japanese version. By the mid-19th century, Japanese soy sauce gradually disappeared from the European market, and the condiment became synonymous with the Chinese product. Europeans were unable to make soy sauce because they did not understand the function of "Aspergillus oryzae", the fungus used in its brewing. Soy sauce made from ingredients such as Portobello mushrooms were disseminated in European cookbooks during the late 18th century. A Swedish recipe for ""Soija"" was published in the 1770 edition of Cajsa Warg's "Hjelpreda i Hushållningen för Unga Fruentimber" and was flavored with allspice and mace.

United States.

The first soy sauce production in the United States began in the Territory of Hawaii in 1908 by the Hawaiian Yamajo Soy Company. La Choy started selling hydrolyzed vegetable protein based soy sauce in 1933.

Production.

Soy sauce is made either by fermentation or by hydrolysis. Some commercial sauces have both fermented and chemical sauces.  Flavor, color, and aroma developments during production are attributed to non-enzymatic Maillard browning.  Variation is usually achieved as the result of different methods and durations of fermentation, different ratios of water, salt, and fermented soy, or through the addition of other ingredients.

Traditional.

Traditional soy sauces are made by mixing soybeans and grain with mold cultures such as "Aspergillus oryzae" and other related microorganisms and yeasts (the resulting mixture is called "koji" in Japan; the term "koji" is used both for the mixture of soybeans, wheat, and mold as well as for the mold itself). Historically, the mixture was fermented naturally in large urns and under the sun, which was believed to contribute extra flavors. Today, the mixture is placed in a temperature and humidity controlled incubation chamber.  Traditional soy sauces take months to make:

Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein.

Some brands of soy sauce are made from acid-hydrolyzed soy protein instead of brewed with a traditional culture. This takes about three days. Although they have a different flavor, aroma, and texture when compared to brewed soy sauces, they can be produced more quickly and cheaply, and also have a longer shelf life and are usually made for these reasons. The clear plastic packets of dark sauce common with Chinese-style take-out food typically use a hydrolyzed vegetable protein formula. Some higher-priced hydrolyzed vegetable protein products with no added sugar or colorings are sold as low-sodium soy sauce alternatives called "liquid aminos" in health food stores, similar to the way salt substitutes are used. These products are, however, not necessarily low in sodium.

High-salt liquid-state fermented soy sauce.

High-salt liquid-state fermentation (HLF) of soybeans depends heavily on microbial activity, metabolism and enzymatic hydrolysis of macro-nutrients.

Low-salt solid-state fermented soy sauce.

LSF, also referred as rapid fermenting, is a modern fermentation method invented in response to high market demand.

Chemical composition.

The chemical composition of soy sauce can be affected easily by raw materials, fermentation methodologies, fermenting molds and strains, and post-fermentation treatments. The primary fermentation of lactic-acid-fermenting halophiles has lower the pH of the moromi, and this has directly resulted in an acidic pH range (4.4–5.4) of soy sauce products. The secondary fermentation conducted by heterofermentative microbes provides soy sauce with a wide range of flavor and odorant compounds by breaking down macro-nutrients. Soy proteins and grain proteins are hydrolyzed into short peptide chain and free amino acids, which adds umami taste to the product. Based on the result of free amino acid analysis, the most abundant amino acids in Chinese soy sauce product are glutamic acid, aspartic acid, alanine and leucine.  Soy sauce may contain more than 1% alcohol and may run afoul of liquor control legislation.

Sensory profile.

The taste of soy sauce is predominated by saltiness, followed by moderate umami, sweet taste, and finally slight bitterness, which is hard to perceive due to the masking effect of other tastes. The overall flavor of soy sauce is a result of the balance and interaction among different taste components. The saltiness is largely attributed to the presence of NaCl (common salt) in brine. The sugars hydrolyzed from starch add sweetness into soy sauce. Umami is largely caused by the presence of free amino acids. Additionally, the interaction between glutamine and sodium cation may have given rise to sodium glutamate (MSG), which can further contribute to the umami flavor. Basic tastes can also be attributed to amino acid groups arranged in specific sequence. In soy sauce, it was found that "amino acids were grouped as MSG-like (monosodium glutamate-like) (Asp+Glu), sweet (Ala+Gly+Ser+Thr), bitter (Arg+His+Ile+Leu+Met+Phe+Trp+Try+Val), and tasteless (Cys+Lys+Pro)".  Despite a large variety of volatile and odorant compounds that have been identified in soy sauce, the food product "per se" does not present a strong aroma. Alcohols, acids, esters, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, heterocyclic compounds, alkynes and benzenes are identified in Chinese soy sauces. An explanation for this observation is that the aroma of soy sauce does not depend largely on the aroma-active compounds. The subtle aroma is a result of a "critical balance" achieved among all volatile and odorant compounds, whose respective concentrations are relatively low.

Variations by country.

Soy sauce is widely used as an important flavoring and has been integrated into the traditional cuisines of many East Asian and Southeast Asian cultures. Despite their rather similar appearance, soy sauces made in different cultures and regions are different in taste, consistency, fragrance and saltiness. Soy sauce retains its quality longer when kept away from direct sunlight.

Burmese.

Burmese soy sauce production is dated back to the Bagan era in the 9th and 10th century. Scripts written in praise of "pe ngan byar yay" (, literally "bean fish sauce") were found. Thick soy sauce is called "kya nyo" (, from Chinese "jiàngyóu").

Chinese.

Chinese soy sauces (; or alternatively, ; ) are primarily made from soybeans, with relatively low amounts of other grains. Chinese soy sauce can be roughly split into two classes: brewed or blended. Chinese soy sauces can also be classified into Low-Salt Solid-State fermented soy sauce (LSF), and High-Salt Liquid-State fermented soy sauce (HLF).

Brewed.

Soy sauce that has been brewed directly from a fermentation process using wheat, soybeans, salt, and water without additional additives.

Blended.

Additives with sweet or umami (savory) tastes are sometimes added to a finished brewed soy sauce to modify its taste and texture.

Filipino.

In the Philippines, soy sauce is called "toyò" in the native languages, derived from "tau-yu" in Philippine Hokkien. Philippine soy sauce is usually a combination of soybeans, wheat, salt, and caramel color. It is thinner in texture and has a saltier taste than its Southeast Asian counterparts, similar to Japanese variety.  "Toyò" is used as a marinade, an ingredient in cooked dishes, and most often as a table condiment, usually alongside other sauces such as fish sauce ("patís") and sugar cane vinegar ("sukà"). It is often mixed and served with the juice of the calamansi (× "Citrofortunella microcarpa"; also called calamondin, "limonsito"). The combination is known as "toyomansî", which can be comparable to the Japanese "ponzu" sauce (soy sauce with yuzu). Toyò is also a main ingredient in "Philippine adobo", one of the more famous dishes of Filipino cuisine.

Hawaiian.

Soy sauce is a very popular condiment and marinade for many dishes in the Hawaiian cuisine. "Aloha shoyu" is soy sauce made in the Islands.

Indonesian.

In Indonesia, soy sauce is known as "kecap" (old spelling: "ketjap"), which is a catch-all term for fermented sauces, and cognate to the English word "ketchup". The most popular type of soy sauce in Indonesian cuisine is "kecap manis" or sweet soy sauce. The term "kecap" is also used to describe other non-soy-based sauces, such as "kecap ikan" (fish sauce) and "kecap Inggris" (worcestershire sauce; lit. "English sauce", due to Worcestershire sauce originating in England). Three common varieties of soy-based "kecap" exist in Indonesian cuisine, used either as ingredients or condiments:

Japanese.

"Shōyu" is traditionally divided into five main categories depending on differences in their ingredients and method of production. Most, but not all Japanese soy sauces include wheat as a primary ingredient, which tends to give them a slightly sweeter taste than their Chinese counterparts. They also tend towards an alcoholic sherry-like flavor, sometimes enhanced by the addition of small amounts of alcohol as a natural preservative. The widely varying flavors of these soy sauces are not always interchangeable, some recipes only call for one type or the other, much as a white wine cannot replace a red's flavor or beef stock does not make the same results as fish stock.  Some soy sauces made in the Japanese way or styled after them contain about 50% wheat.

Varieties.

Newer varieties of Japanese soy sauce include:  All of these varieties are sold in three different grades according to how they were made:  All the varieties and grades may be sold according to three official levels of quality:  Soy sauce is also commonly known as "shoyu", and less commonly "shōyu", in Hawaii. and Brazil

Korean.

In South Korea, soy sauces or "ganjang" (, "seasoning sauce") can be roughly split into two categories: "hansik ganjang" (Korean-style soy sauce) and "gaeryang ganjang" (modernized soy sauce). The term "ganjang" can also refer to non-soy-based salty condiments, such as "eo-ganjang (fish sauce)".

"Hansik ganjang".

"Hansik ganjang" (, "Korean-style soy sauce") is made entirely of fermented soybean (meju) and brine. It is a byproduct of "doenjang" (fermented soybean paste) production, and has a unique fermented soybean flavour. Both lighter in colour and saltier than other Korean ganjang varieties, "hansik ganjang" is used mainly in guk (soup) and namul (seasoned vegetable dish) in modern Korean cuisine. Common names for "hansik ganjang" include "jaeraesik ganjang" (, "traditional soy sauce"), "Joseon-ganjang" (, "Joseon soy sauce"), and "guk-ganjang" (, "soup soy sauce"). The homebrewed variety is also called "jip-ganjang" (, "home soy sauce").  Depending on the length of aging, "hansik ganjang" can be divided into three main varieties: clear, middle, and dark. Korean Ministry of Food and Drug Safety's Food Code classifies "hansik-ganjang" into two categories by their ingredients.

"Gaeryang ganjang".

"Gaeryang-ganjang" (, "modernized soy sauce"), referring to varieties of soy sauces not made of meju, is now the most widely used type of soy sauce in modern Korean cuisine. The word "ganjang" without modifiers in bokkeum (stir-fry), jorim (braised or simmered dishes), and jjim (steamed dishes) recipes usually mean "gaeryang-ganjang". Another common name of "gaeryang-ganjang" is "jin-ganjang" (, "dark soy sauce"), because "gaeryang-ganjang" varieties are usually darker in appearance compared to traditional "hansik ganjang". Having been introduced to Korea during the era of Japanese forced occupation, "garyang ganjang" is also called "Wae-ganjang" (, "Wae soy sauce").  Korean Ministry of Food and Drug Safety's Food Code classifies "gaeryang-ganjang" into four categories by their method of production.

Malaysian and Singaporean.

Malays from Malaysia, using the Malay dialect similar to Indonesian, use the word "kicap" for soy sauce. "Kicap" is traditionally of two types: "kicap lemak" (lit "fat/rich soy sauce") and "kicap cair". "Kicap lemak" is similar to Indonesian "kecap manis" but with very much less sugar while "kicap cair" is the Malaysian equivalent of "kecap asin".

Sri Lankan.

Soy sauce () is a popular food product used in Sri Lanka and is a major ingredient used in the nationally popular street food dish, Kottu. Soy sauce has largely been produced by the Sri Lankan Chinese community but its production has also spread to other communities in Sri Lanka. Soy sauce production in Sri Lanka is the same as the production of soy sauce in Indonesia. Fermentation occurs over a period of three months. The soy beans which are steeped in brine are then pressed to obtain a liquid sauce.

Taiwanese.

The history of soy sauce making in Taiwan can be traced back to southeastern China, in the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong. Taiwanese soy sauce is known for its black bean variant, known as black bean soy sauce (黑豆蔭油), which takes longer to make (about 6 months). Most major soy sauce makers in Taiwan make soy sauce from soybeans and wheat, and are widely popular, and are available in many Oriental Foods and Grocery Stores. Some make black bean soy sauce, which is very widely used in Chinese and Oriental cooking as an excellent flavor enhancer.

Thai.

In Thailand, soy sauce is called "sii-íu" (). "Sii-íu kǎao" (, 'white soy sauce') is used as regular soy sauce in Thai cuisine, while "sii-íu dam" (, 'black soy sauce') is used primarily for colour. Another darker-coloured variety, "sii-íu wǎan" (,'sweet soy sauce') is used for dipping sauces. "Sɔ́ɔt prung rót" (,'seasoning sauce') is also commonly used in modern Thai cuisine.

Vietnamese.

In Vietnam, Chinese-style soy sauce is called "xì dầu" (derived from the Cantonese name 豉油) or "nước tương". The term "soy sauce" could also imply other condiments and soy bean paste with thick consistency known as "tương". Both are used mostly as a seasoning or dipping sauce for a number of dishes. Vietnamese cuisine itself favors fish sauce in cooking but "nước tương" has a clear presence in vegetarian cuisine.

Nutrition.

A study by the National University of Singapore showed that Chinese dark soy sauce contains 10 times the antioxidants of red wine, and can help prevent cardiovascular diseases. Unpasteurized soy sauce is rich in lactic acid bacteria and of excellent anti-allergic potential.  Soy sauce does not contain the level of isoflavones associated with other soy products such as tofu or edamame. It can also be very salty, having a salt content between 14–18%. Low-sodium soy sauces are made, but it is difficult to make soy sauce without using some quantity of salt as an antimicrobial agent.  A serving of of soy sauce contains, according to the USDA:

Carcinogens.

Soy sauce may contain ethyl carbamate, a Group 2A carcinogen.  In 2001, the United Kingdom Food Standards Agency found in testing various soy sauces manufactured in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Thailand (made from hydrolyzed soy protein, rather than being naturally fermented) that 22% of tested samples contained a chemical carcinogen named 3-MCPD (3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol) at levels considerably higher than those deemed safe by the EU. About two-thirds of these samples also contained a second carcinogenic chemical named 1,3-DCP (1,3-dichloropropane-2-ol) which experts advise should not be present at any levels in food. Both chemicals have the potential to cause cancer, and the Agency recommended that the affected products be withdrawn from shelves and avoided. The same carcinogens were found in soy sauces manufactured in Vietnam, causing a food scare in 2007.  In Canada, the Canadian Cancer Society writes,

Allergies.

Soy sauce allergy is rare; it is not caused by soy or wheat allergy. Most varieties of soy sauce contain wheat, to which some people have a medical intolerance. However, some naturally brewed soy sauces made with wheat may be tolerated by people with a specific intolerance to gluten because gluten is not detectable in the finished product. Japanese tamari soy sauce is traditionally wheat-free, and some tamari available commercially today is wheat- and gluten-free.

Soy sauce (American English and Canadian English), also spelled as soya sauce (British English), is an East Asian liquid condiment of Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermented paste of soybeans, roasted grain, brine, and "Aspergillus oryzae" or "Aspergillus sojae" molds. Soy sauce in its current form was created about 2,200 years ago during the Western Han dynasty of ancient China, and spread throughout East and Southeast Asia where it is used in cooking and as a condiment.

酱-{}-油,粤语、潮语、客语、闽东语、越南语地区称为-{豉油}-,四川话、闽南语等地又称为豆油,是一种具东亚特色用于烹饪的调味料。除了华人之外,日本人、朝鲜人及东南亚各民族均普遍使用,近十年美国及欧洲也占相当消费比例。制造酱油一般以大豆为主要原料,加入水、食盐经过制曲和发酵,在各种微生物繁殖时分泌的各种酶的作用下,酿造出来的一种液体。制作酱油的原料在各地有所不同,使用的配料不同,风味也不同,比较特别的是鱼露(使用鱼)。