Local versus systemic effect.

The definition of the topical route of administration sometimes states that both the application location and the pharmacodynamic effect thereof is local. In other cases, "topical" is defined as applied to a localized area of the body or to the surface of a body part regardless of the location of the effect. By this definition, topical administration also includes transdermal application, where the substance is administered onto the skin but is absorbed into the body to attain systemic distribution. Such medications are generally hydrophobic chemicals, such as steroid hormones. Specific types include transdermal patches which have become a popular means of administering some drugs for birth control, hormone replacement therapy, and prevention of motion sickness. One example of an antibiotic that may be applied topically is chloramphenicol.  If defined strictly as having local effect, the topical route of administration can also include enteral administration of medications that are poorly absorbable by the gastrointestinal tract. One poorly absorbable antibiotic is vancomycin, which is recommended by mouth as a treatment for severe "Clostridium difficile" colitis.

Choice of base formulation.

A medication's potency often is changed with its base. For example, some topical steroids will be classified one or two strengths higher when moving from cream to ointment. As a rule of thumb, an ointment base is more occlusive and will drive the medication into the skin more rapidly than a solution or cream base.  The manufacturer of each topical product has total control over the content of the base of a medication. Although containing the same active ingredients, one manufacturer's cream might be more acidic than the next, which could cause skin irritation or change its absorption rate. For example, a vaginal formulation of miconazole antifungal cream might irritate the skin less than an athlete foot formulation of miconazole cream. These variations can, on occasion, result in different clinical outcomes, even though the active ingredient is the same. No comparative potency labeling exists to ensure equal efficacy between brands of topical steroids (percentage of oil vs water dramatically affect the potency of topical steroid). Studies have confirmed that the potency of some topical steroid products may differ according to manufacturer or brand. An example of this is the case of brand name Valisone cream and Kenalog cream in clinical studies have demonstrated significantly better vasoconstrictions than some forms of this drug produced by generic drug manufacturers. However, in a simple base like an ointment, much less variation between manufacturers is common.  In dermatology, the base of a topical medication is often as important as the medication itself. It is extremely important to receive a medication in the correct base, before applying to the skin. A pharmacist should not substitute an ointment for a cream, or vice versa, as the potency of the medication can change. Some physicians use a thick ointment to replace the waterproof barrier of the inflamed skin in the treatment of eczema, and a cream might not accomplish the same clinical intention

Classes.

There are many general classes, with no clear dividing line among similar formulations. As a result, what the manufacturer's marketing department chooses to list on the label of a topical medication might be completely different from what the form would normally be called. For example, Eucerin "cream" is more appropriately described as an ointment than as a cream.

Cream.

A cream is an emulsion of oil and water in approximately equal proportions. It penetrates the stratum corneum outer layer of skin wall. Cream is thicker than lotion, and maintains its shape when removed from its container. It tends to be moderate in moisturizing tendency. For topical steroid products, oil-in-water emulsions are common. Creams have a significant risk of causing immunological sensitization due to preservatives and have a high rate of acceptance by patients. There is a great variation in ingredients, composition, pH, and tolerance among generic brands.

Foam.

Foam can be seen with topical steroid marketed for the scalp.

Gel.

Gels are thicker than liquids. Gels are often a semisolid emulsion and sometimes use alcohol as a solvent for the active ingredient; some gels liquefy at body temperature. Gel tends to be cellulose cut with alcohol or acetone. Gels tend to be self-drying, tend to have greatly variable ingredients between brands, and carry a significant risk of inducing hypersensitivity due to fragrances and preservatives. Gel is useful for hairy areas and body folds. In applying gel one should avoid fissures in the skin, due to the stinging effect of the alcohol base. Gel enjoys a high rate of acceptance due to its cosmetic elegance.

Lotion.

Lotions are similar to solution but are thicker and tend to be more emollient in nature than solution. They are usually oil mixed with water, and more often than not have less alcohol than solution. Lotions can be drying if they contain a high amount of alcohol. There is a significant variability in the ingredients among different lotions.

Ointment.

An ointment is a homogeneous, viscous, semi-solid preparation, most commonly a greasy, thick oil (oil 80% - water 20%) with a high viscosity, that is intended for external application to the skin or mucous membranes. Ointments have a water number that defines the maximum amount of water that it can contain. They are used as emollients or for the application of active ingredients to the skin for protective, therapeutic, or prophylactic purposes and where a degree of occlusion is desired.  Ointments are used topically on a variety of body surfaces. These include the skin and the mucous membranes of the eye (an "eye ointment"), chest, vulva, anus, and nose. An ointment may or may not be medicated.  Ointments are usually very moisturizing, and good for dry skin. They have a low risk of sensitization due to having few ingredients beyond the base oil or fat, and low irritation risk. There is typically little variability between brands of drugs. They are often disliked by patients due to greasiness.  The vehicle of an ointment is known as the "ointment base". The choice of a base depends upon the clinical indication for the ointment. The different types of ointment bases are:  The medicaments are dispersed in the base and are divided after penetrating the living cells of the skin.  The water number of an ointment is the maximum quantity of water that 100g of a base can contain at 20 °C.  Ointments are formulated using hydrophobic, hydrophilic, or water-emulsifying bases to provide preparations that are immiscible, miscible, or emulsifiable with skin secretions. They can also be derived from hydrocarbon (fatty), absorption, water-removable, or water-soluble bases.  Properties which affect choice of an ointment base are:

Paste.

Paste combines three agents - oil, water, and powder. It is an ointment in which a powder is suspended.

Powder.

Powder is either the pure drug by itself (talcum powder), or is made of the drug mixed in a carrier such as corn starch or corn cob powder (Zeosorb AF - miconazole powder). Can be used as an inhaled topical (cocaine powder used in nasal surgery).

Shake lotion.

A shake lotion is a mixture that separates into two or three parts over time. Frequently, an oil mixed with a water-based solution needs to be shaken into suspension before use and includes the instructions: "Shake well before use".

Solid.

Medication may be placed in a solid form. Examples are deodorant, antiperspirants, astringents, and hemostatic agents. Some solids melt when they reach body temperature (e.g. rectal suppositories).

Sponge.

Certain contraceptive methods rely on sponge as a carrier of a liquid medicine. Lemon juice embedded in a sponge has been used as a primitive contraception in some cultures.

Tape.

Cordran tape is an example of a topical steroid applied under occlusion by tape. This greatly increases the potency and absorption of the topical steroid and is used to treat inflammatory skin diseases.

Tincture.

A tincture is a skin preparation that has a high percentage of alcohol. It would normally be used as a drug vehicle if drying of the area is desired.

Topical solution.

Topical solutions can be marketed as drops, rinses, or sprays, are generally of low viscosity, and often use alcohol or water in the base. These are usually a powder dissolved in alcohol, water, and sometimes oil; although a solution that uses alcohol as a base ingredient, as in topical steroids, can cause drying of the skin. There is significant variability among brands, and some solutions may cause irritation, depending on the preservative(s) and fragrances used in the base.  Some examples of topical solutions are given below:

Transdermal patch.

Transdermal patches can be a very precise time released method of delivering a drug. Cutting a patch in half might affect the dose delivered. The release of the active component from a transdermal delivery system (patch) may be controlled by diffusion through the adhesive which covers the whole patch, by diffusion through a membrane which may only have adhesive on the patch rim or drug release may be controlled by release from a polymer matrix. Cutting a patch might cause rapid dehydration of the base of the medicine and affect the rate of diffusion.

Vapor.

Some medications are applied as an ointment or gel, and reach the mucous membrane via vaporization. Examples are nasal topical decongestants and smelling salt.

A topical medication is a medication that is applied to a particular place on or in the body. Most often topical administration means application to body surfaces such as the skin or mucous membranes to treat ailments via a large range of classes including creams, foams, gels, lotions, and ointments. Many topical medications are epicutaneous, meaning that they are applied directly to the skin. Topical medications may also be inhalational, such as asthma medications, or applied to the surface of tissues other than the skin, such as eye drops applied to the conjunctiva, or ear drops placed in the ear, or medications applied to the surface of a tooth. The word "topical" derives from Greek τοπικός "topikos", "of a place".

外用药物(英语:Topical medication),是医疗上使用于身体表面的药物,例如涂抹于皮肤或黏膜的表面,像是阴道,阴茎,眼睛和耳朵等。外用药物通常要避免接触口部,也不可进食。


History.

Black Box theaters have their roots in the European avant-garde of the early 20th century. The black box theaters became popular and increasingly widespread in the 1960s as rehearsal spaces. Almost any large room can be transformed into a "black box" with the aid of paint or curtains, making black box theaters an easily accessible option for theater artists. Sets are simple and small and costs are lower, appealing to nonprofit and low-income artists/companies. The black box is also considered by many to be a place where more "pure" theatre can be explored, with the most human and least technical elements in focus.  The concept of a building designed for flexible staging techniques can be attributed to Swiss designer Adolphe Appia, circa 1921. The invention of such a stage instigated a half century of innovations in the relationship between audience and performers. Antonin Artaud also had ideas of a stage of this kind; the first flexible stage in America was located in the home living room of actor/manager Gilmor Brown in Pasadena, CA. While the domestic decor meant that Brown's stage was not a proper black box, the idea was still a revolutionary one. This venue, and two subsequent permutations, are known as the Playbox Theatre, and functioned as an experimental space for Brown's larger venue, the Pasadena Playhouse.

Use.

Such spaces are easily built and maintained. Black box theaters are usually home to plays or other performances requiring very basic technical arrangements, such as limited set construction. Common floor plans include thrust stage, modified thrust stage, and theater in the round.  Universities and other theater training programs employ the black box theaterbecause the space is versatile and easy to change. The black backdrop can encourage the audience to focus on the actors, furthering the benefits. Many theater training programs will have both a large proscenium theater, as well as a black box theater. Not only does this allow two productions to be mounted simultaneously, but they can also have a large extravagant production in the main stage while having a small experimental show in the black box.  Black box spaces are also popular at fringe theater festivals; due to their simple design and equipment they can be used for many performances each day. This simplicity also means that a black box theater can be adapted from other spaces, such as hotel conference rooms. This is prevalent at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe where the larger venues will hire entire buildings and divide each room to be rented out to several theater companies. "The Black Box Theatre" in Oslo, Norway, and the Alvina Krause Studio at Northwestern University are theaters of this type.

Technical features.

Most older black boxes were built like television studios, with a low pipe grid overhead. Newer black boxes typically feature catwalks or tension grids, the latter combining the flexibility of the pipe grid with the accessibility of a catwalk.  The interiors of most black box theatres are painted black, although that is not exclusive (a black box doesn't have to be black to be considered a black box, though black is most common). The absence of colour not only gives the audience a sense of "anyplace" (and thus allows flexibility from play to play or from scene to scene), it also allows for an innovative lighting design to shine through.

A black box theater is a simple performance space, that varies in size, and is usually a square room with black walls and a flat floor. The simplicity of the space is used to create a flexible stage and audience interaction. The black box is a relatively recent innovation in theatre. (not to be confused with black light theater, which is also known as black theater.)

「黑箱剧场」(Black Box Theater),也有人叫它「黑盒子剧场」。它是几乎全黑的剧场空间。因为黑色除了最能凸显其他色彩外,在没有光源的状况下,也最能隐藏表演者的技术秘密,以达到让观众惊奇或集中注意力的效果。


Plot.

Several years after the events of "A Better Tomorrow", Sung Tse-ho (Ti Lung) is offered early parole by the police in exchange for spying on his former boss and mentor, Lung Sei (Dean Shek), who is suspected of heading a counterfeiting operation. Inspector Wu (Lau Siu-ming), the leader of the crime task force, wants to mark his retirement with the capture of a high profile criminal like Lung.  However, Ho, still loyal to Lung, initially declines. He changes his mind when he discovers that his younger brother, Sung Tse-kit (Leslie Cheung), is working undercover on the same case, and agrees to go undercover to protect his brother, who is expecting a child along with his pregnant wife Jackie (Emily Chu). While working the case, the two brothers meet and agree to work together on the investigation.  After being framed for murder, Lung seeks Ho's help. Ho is able to help him escape to New York, but Lung suffers a psychotic break and is institutionalised after receiving news of his daughter's murder and witnessing his friend being killed.  Meanwhile, Ho learns that Mark Lee has a long-lost twin brother, Ken (Chow Yun-fat), a former gang member who went legitimate and left Hong Kong as a teenager to travel across America, eventually settling and opening a restaurant in New York City. However, Ho tracks down Ken and enlists his assistance in freeing Lung and nursing him back to health.  Targeted by both assassins hunting for Lung as well as American mobsters looking to extort Ken's business, Ken and Lung (who is still catatonic) go into hiding in an apartment building, and where Ken arms himself. During a shoot-out with the mobsters, but Ken and Lung find themselves cornered. Seeing Ken wounded and in trouble, Lung regains his sanity and kills the last of the Americans pursuing them.  The two return to Hong Kong and link-up with Ho and Kit. The group discovers that one of Lung's employees, Ko Ying-pui (Kwan Shan), is responsible for trying to kill Lung and has taken over the organisation in Lung's absence. Lung resolves that he would rather destroy his organisation by his own hands than let it fall into dishonor and ruin, and the team starts planning to act against Ko.  After doing some reconnaissance in Ko's mansion alone, Kit is fatally wounded, roughly at the same time his daughter is born. He is rescued by Ken, who attempts to rush him to the hospital. Knowing that he won't make it, Kit persuades Ken to stop at a phone booth to call his wife. He manages, just before he dies, to name his child Sung Ho-yin (in Cantonese, "the Spirit of Righteousness").  After attending Kit's funeral, Ho, Ken, and Lung take revenge on Ko by attacking his mansion during a meeting with a counterfeiting client. An enormous gun battle ensues. The three, assisted by Ho's former boss in the taxi company, kill approximately 90 others (including Ko) but are all severely (perhaps mortally) wounded in the process. After the shootout ends, the three sit down in the mansion and are surrounded by the police, led by Inspector Wu. Upon seeing the condition of the men, Wu motions to the other officers to lower their weapons. Ho remarks that Inspector Wu shouldn't retire yet as there is "much work left for [him] to do."

Music.

Music cues.

This film contains music cues from other films:

Release.

The film was theatrically released in Hong Kong on 17 December 1987. In the Philippines, the film was released by First Films as Rapid Fire on 25 August 1988, with free sunglasses, jackets, and watches distributed on opening day.  Anchor Bay Entertainment released the film on DVD in the US in January 2001. Extras include the trailer and biographies. In June 2004, HKflix.com released it again on DVD along with its two sequels in a boxed set. Hong Kong Legends released a special collector's edition in the UK in September 2006.

Reception.

"Rotten Tomatoes", a review aggregator, reports that 83% of six surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating was 7/10. Writing in "Sex and Zen & A Bullet in the Head", Stefan Hammond and Mike Wilkins describe the film as "gorged with Woo's trademarks" and "a funhouse exaggeration of its central motifs".

A Better Tomorrow 2 is a 1987 Hong Kong action film written and directed by John Woo. A follow-up to its popular predecessor, "A Better Tomorrow", the film stars returning cast members Chow Yun-fat, Ti Lung and Leslie Cheung alongside new cast member Dean Shek. The film was released in Hong Kong on 17 December 1987.

《英雄本色II》(英语:A Better Tomorrow II)是一部1987年上映的香港电影,吴宇森执导,为《英雄本色系列》中的第二部。


Naming.

The moon was named in 2006 after Daphnis, a shepherd, pipes player, and pastoral poet in Greek mythology; he was descendant of the Titans, after whom the largest moons of Saturn are named. Both Daphnis and Pan, the only other known shepherd moon to orbit within Saturn's main rings, are named for mythological figures associated with shepherds.

Discovery.

Before it was photographed, the existence of a moon in Daphnis's position had already been inferred from gravitational ripples observed on the outer edge of the Keeler gap.  The discovery of Daphnis was announced by the Cassini Imaging Science Team on May 6, 2005. The discovery images were taken by the "Cassini" probe over 16 min on May 1, 2005, from a time-lapse sequence of 0.180 second narrow-angle-camera exposures of the outer edge of the A ring. The moon was subsequently found in 32 low-phase images taken of the F ring on April 13, 2005 (spanning 18 min) and again in two high-resolution (3.54 km/pixel) low-phase images taken on May 2, 2005, when its 7 km disk was resolved.

Orbit.

The inclination and eccentricity of Daphnis's orbit are very small, but distinguishable from zero. Both, particularly the inclination, are significantly greater than those of Pan (the larger moonlet which forms the Encke Gap). Daphnis's eccentricity causes its distance from Saturn to vary by ~9 km, and its inclination causes it to move up and down by ~17 km. The Keeler Gap, within which Daphnis orbits, is about 42 km wide.

Effect on Saturn's rings.

Daphnis orbits within the Keeler gap in Saturn's rings. As it orbits, it creates gravitational ripples on the edges of the gap as ring particles are attracted toward the moon and then fall back down toward the ring. The waves made by the moon in the inner edge of the gap precede it in orbit, while those on the outer edge lag behind it, due to the differences in relative orbital speed. In a photograph taken on January 18, 2017, a tendril of ring particles can be seen to extend toward the moon; according to JPL, "this may have resulted from a moment when Daphnis drew a packet of material out of the ring, and now that packet is spreading itself out."

Physical characteristics.

On January 18, 2017, Daphnis was photographed from a sufficiently close distance to reveal its shape. The moon was discovered to be an irregularly-shaped object with a mostly smooth surface, a few craters, and an equatorial ridge.

Daphnis is an inner satellite of Saturn. It is also known as '; its provisional designation was '. Daphnis is about 8 kilometres in diameter, and orbits the planet in the Keeler Gap within the A ring.

土卫三十五(Daphnis, 编号S/2005 S 1)是土星的一颗天然卫星。它是2005年5月1日由Carolyn Porco与卡西尼号科学图像团队发现的,并于5月2日在两张3.54km/pixel的低相位照片上被确认。发现之前,人们根据观测Keeler缝外侧边缘的重力扰动,推测存在这颗卫星。


Illustrative reactions.

The most widely practiced example of this reaction is the ethylation of benzene. Approximately 24,700,000 tons were produced in 1999. (After dehydrogenation and polymerization, the commodity plastic polystyrene is produced.) In this process, solid acids are used as catalyst to generate the incipient carbocation. Many other electrophilic reactions of benzene are conducted, although on much smaller scale, they are valuable routes to key intermediates. The nitration of benzene is achieved via the action of the nitronium ion as the electrophile. The sulfonation with fuming sulfuric acid gives benzenesulfonic acid. Aromatic halogenation with bromine, chlorine, or iodine gives the corresponding aryl halides. This reaction is typically catalyzed by the corresponding iron or aluminum trihalide.  The Friedel–Crafts reaction can be performed either as an acylation or as an alkylation. Often, aluminium trichloride is used, but almost any strong Lewis acid can be applied. For the acylation reaction a stoichiometric amount of aluminum trichloride is required.

Reaction mechanism.

The overall reaction mechanism, denoted by the Hughes–Ingold mechanistic symbol SAr, begins with the aromatic ring attacking the electrophile E. This step leads to the formation of a positively charged and delocalized cyclohexadienyl cation, also known as an arenium ion, Wheland intermediate, or arene σ-complex. Many examples of this carbocation have been characterized, but under normal operating conditions these highly acidic species will donate the proton attached to the sp carbon to the solvent (or any other weak base) to reestablish aromaticity. The net result is the replacement of H by E in the aryl ring. Occasionally, other electrofuges (groups that can leave "without their electron pair") beside H will depart to reestablish aromaticity; these species include silyl groups (as SiR), the carboxy group (as CO + H), the iodo group (as I), and tertiary alkyl groups like "t"-butyl (as R). The capacity of these types of substituents to leave is sometimes exploited synthetically, particularly the case of replacement of silyl by another functional group ("ipso" attack). However, the loss of groups like iodo or alkyl is more often an undesired side reaction.

Effect of substituent groups.

Both the regioselectivity—the diverse arene substitution patterns—and the speed of an electrophilic aromatic substitution are affected by the substituents already attached to the benzene ring. In terms of regioselectivity, some groups promote substitution at the ortho or para positions, whereas other groups favor substitution at the meta position. These groups are called either ortho–para directing or meta directing, respectively. In addition, some groups will increase the rate of reaction (activating) while others will decrease the rate (deactivating). While the patterns of regioselectivity can be explained with resonance structures, the influence on kinetics can be explained by both resonance structures and the inductive effect.

Reaction rate.

Substituents can generally be divided into two classes regarding electrophilic substitution: activating and deactivating towards the aromatic ring. Activating substituents or activating groups stabilize the cationic intermediate formed during the substitution by donating electrons into the ring system, by either inductive effect or resonance effects. Examples of activated aromatic rings are toluene, aniline and phenol.  The extra electron density delivered into the ring by the substituent is not distributed evenly over the entire ring but is concentrated on atoms 2, 4 and 6, so activating substituents are also ortho/para directors (see below).  On the other hand, deactivating substituents destabilize the intermediate cation and thus decrease the reaction rate by either inductive or resonance effects. They do so by withdrawing electron density from the aromatic ring. The deactivation of the aromatic system means that generally harsher conditions are required to drive the reaction to completion. An example of this is the nitration of toluene during the production of trinitrotoluene (TNT). While the first nitration, on the activated toluene ring, can be done at room temperature and with dilute acid, the second one, on the deactivated nitrotoluene ring, already needs prolonged heating and more concentrated acid, and the third one, on very strongly deactivated dinitrotoluene, has to be done in boiling concentrated sulfuric acid. Groups that are electron-withdrawing by resonance decrease the electron density especially at positions 2, 4 and 6, leaving positions 3 and 5 as the ones with comparably higher reactivity, so these types of groups are meta directors (see below). Halogens are electronegative, so they are deactivating by induction, but they have lone pairs, so they are resonance donors and therefore ortho/para directors.

"Ortho/para" directors.

Groups with unshared pairs of electrons, such as the amino group of aniline, are strongly "activating" and "ortho/para"-directing by resonance. Such activating groups donate those unshared electrons to the "pi" system, creating a negative charge on the ortho and para positions. These positions are thus the most reactive towards an electron-poor electrophile. The highest electron density is located on both ortho and para positions, although this increased reactivity might be offset by steric hindrance between substituent and electrophile. The final result of the electrophilic aromatic substitution might thus be hard to predict, and it is usually only established by doing the reaction and determining the ratio of ortho versus para substitution.  In addition to the increased nucleophilic nature of the original ring, when the electrophile attacks the ortho and para positions of aniline, the nitrogen atom can donate electron density to the "pi" system (forming an iminium ion), giving four resonance structures (as opposed to three in the basic reaction). This substantially enhances the stability of the cationic intermediate.  When the electrophile attacks the "meta" position, the nitrogen atom cannot donate electron density to the "pi" system, giving only three resonance contributors. This reasoning is consistent with low yields of "meta"-substituted product.  Other substituents, such as the alkyl and aryl substituents, may also donate electron density to the "pi" system; however, since they lack an available unshared pair of electrons, their ability to do this is rather limited. Thus, they only weakly activate the ring and do not strongly disfavor the "meta" position.  Directed ortho metalation is a special type of EAS with special ortho directors.

"Meta" directors.

Non-halogen groups with atoms that are more electronegative than carbon, such as a carboxylic acid group (-COH), withdraw substantial electron density from the "pi" system. These groups are strongly deactivating groups. Additionally, since the substituted carbon is already electron-poor, any structure having a resonance contributor in which there is a positive charge on the carbon bearing the electron-withdrawing group (i.e., "ortho" or "para" attack) is less stable than the others. Therefore, these electron-withdrawing groups are "meta" directing because this is the position that does not have as much destabilization.  The reaction is also much slower (a relative reaction rate of 6×10 compared to benzene) because the ring is less nucleophilic.

Reaction on pyridine.

Compared to benzene, the rate of electrophilic substitution on pyridine is much slower, due to the higher electronegativity of the nitrogen atom. Additionally, the nitrogen in pyridine easily gets a positive charge either by protonation (from nitration or sulfonation) or Lewis acids (such as AlCl) used to catalyze the reaction. This makes the reaction even slower by having adjacent formal charges on carbon and nitrogen or 2 formal charges on a localised atom. Doing an electrophilic substitution directly in pyridine is nearly impossible.  In order to do the reaction, they can be made by 2 possible reactions, which are both indirect.  One possible way to do a substitution on pyridine is nucleophilic aromatic substitution. Even with no catalysts, the nitrogen atom, being electronegative, can hold the negative charge by itself. Another way is to do an oxidation before the electrophilic substitution. This makes pyridine "N"-oxide, which due to the negative oxygen atom, makes the reaction faster than pyridine, and even benzene. The oxide then can be reduced to the substituted pyridine.

"Ipso" attack.

The attachment of an entering group to a position in an aromatic compound already carrying a substituent group (other than hydrogen). The entering group may displace that substituent group but may also itself be expelled or migrate to another position in a subsequent step. The term "'ipso"-substitution' is not used, since it is synonymous with substitution. A classic example is the reaction of salicylic acid with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acid to form picric acid. The nitration of the 2 position involves the loss of CO as the leaving group. Desulfonation in which a sulfonyl group is substituted by a proton is a common example. See also Hayashi rearrangement. In aromatics substituted by silicon, the silicon reacts by "ipso" substitution.

Five membered heterocycles.

Compared to benzene, furans, thiophenes, and pyrroles are more susceptible to electrophilic attack. These compounds all contain an atom with an unshared pair of electrons (oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen) as a member of the aromatic ring, which substantially stabilizes the cationic intermediate. Examples of electrophilic substitutions to pyrrole are the Pictet–Spengler reaction and the Bischler–Napieralski reaction.

Asymmetric electrophilic aromatic substitution.

Electrophilic aromatic substitutions with prochiral carbon electrophiles have been adapted for asymmetric synthesis by switching to chiral Lewis acid catalysts especially in Friedel–Crafts type reactions. An early example concerns the addition of chloral to phenols catalyzed by aluminium chloride modified with (–)-menthol. A glyoxylate compound has been added to N,N-dimethylaniline with a chiral bisoxazoline ligand–copper(II) triflate catalyst system also in a Friedel–Crafts hydroxyalkylation:  In another alkylation N-methylpyrrole reacts with crotonaldehyde catalyzed by trifluoroacetic acid modified with a chiral imidazolidinone:  Indole reacts with an enamide catalyzed by a chiral BINOL derived phosphoric acid:  In the presence of 10–20 % chiral catalyst, 80–90% ee is achievable.

Electrophilic aromatic substitution is organic reaction in which an atom that is attached to an aromatic system (usually hydrogen) is by an electrophile. Some of the most important electrophilic aromatic substitutions are aromatic nitration, aromatic halogenation, aromatic sulfonation, and alkylation and acylation Friedel–Crafts reaction..

亲电芳香取代反应是指芳香环系上的取代基(通常是氢原子)被亲电试剂取代的反应。该反应中最重要的类型包括芳香环系的硝化反应、卤代反应、磺化反应以及傅-克反应。


Structure.

The building is located on a plot of land near the Lujiazui metro station and was built at an estimated cost of US$530 million.  It was designed by the Chicago firm of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM). Its postmodern form, whose complexity rises as it ascends, draws on traditional Chinese architecture such as the tiered pagoda, gently stepping back to create a rhythmic pattern as it rises. Like the Petronas Towers in Malaysia, the building's proportions revolve around the number 8, associated with prosperity in Chinese culture. The 88 floors (93 if the spire floors are counted) are divided into 16 segments, each of which is 1/8 shorter than the 16-story base. The tower is built around an octagon-shaped concrete shear wall core surrounded by 8 exterior composite supercolumns and 8 exterior steel columns. Three sets of 8 two-story high outrigger trusses connect the columns to the core at six of the floors to provide additional support.  The foundations rest on 1,062 high-capacity steel piles driven deep in the ground to compensate for poor upper-strata soil conditions. At the time of construction, these were the longest steel piles ever used for a land-based building. The piles are capped by a 4 m-thick concrete raft underground. The basement's surrounding slurry wall is thick, high and long. It is composed of of reinforced concrete.  The building employs an advanced structural engineering system of wind and earthquake engineering which fortify it against typhoon winds of up to 200 km/h (with the top swaying by a maximum of ) and earthquakes of up to 7 on the Richter scale. The steel shafts have shear joints that act as shock absorbers to cushion the lateral forces imposed by winds and quakes. The swimming pool on the 57th floor is also said to act as a passive damper. The exterior curtain wall is made of glass, stainless steel, aluminum, and granite and is criss-crossed by complex latticework cladding made of aluminum alloy pipes.

Operations.

Official dedication was August 28, 1998, a date also chosen with the number 8 in mind. The building was fully operational in 1999. The Jin Mao Tower is owned by the China Jin Mao Group Co. Ltd (formerly China Shanghai Foreign Trade Centre Co. Ltd). It reportedly has a daily maintenance cost of 1 million RMB (US$121,000).  The building has 3 main entrances to the lobby: two for the office portion and one for the hotel. The basement has express elevators to the observation deck and a parking area for 600 vehicles and 7,500 bicycles. In total, 61 Mitsubishi elevators and 19 escalators carry visitors throughout the building. Levels 51, 52, and 89–93 are mechanical floors, accessible only by service elevators.

Occupants.

The 3-level basement has a food court, while the first two floors include the Hyatt's conference and banquet facilities. The first six floors include a shopping mall, restaurants, and nightclubs, include Pu-J's.  The lower 50 floors (in the first 4 segments of the tower) are made up of of offices, divided into 5 elevator zones (3-6, 7-17, 18-29, 30-40, and 41-50). Office spaces are open-plan (column-free), with a floor-to-floor gross height of and net height of.

Grand Hyatt Shanghai.

The building's anchor tenant is the five-star 555-room Grand Hyatt Shanghai hotel which occupies floors 53 to 87. It is one of the highest hotels in the world, second in Shanghai only to its sister property, the Shanghai Park Hyatt, occupying the 79th to 93rd floors of the immediately adjacent Shanghai World Financial Center. These have since been surpassed by The Ritz-Carlton, Hong Kong, which occupies floors 102 to 118 of the International Commerce Centre. However, the tallest building to be used exclusively as a hotel is the JW Marriott Marquis Dubai. Additionally, the world's longest laundry chute runs down the full length of the tower to the basement, incorporating buffers to slow the laundry during its descent.  The Hyatt's famous barrel-vaulted atrium starts at the 56th floor and extends upwards to the 87th. Lined with 28 annular corridors and staircases arrayed in a spiral, it is in diameter with a clear height of approximately. It is one of the tallest atria in the world, the tallest being the Burj Al Arab's.  The hotel floors also feature:

Skywalk.

The Skywalk, a indoor observation deck with a capacity of 1,000+ people, occupies the 88th floor of the building. In addition to the panoramic views of Shanghai, it offers a topside view of the hotel atrium below. It also includes a small post office. Access is through two express elevators from the basement that travel at 9.1 m/s and take 45 seconds to reach the top. As of 2009, admission to the 88th floor costs 88 RMB for adults and 45 RMB for children.

The Jin Mao Tower (), also known as the or, is an 88-story (93 if counting the floors in the spire) landmark skyscraper in Lujiazui, Pudong, Shanghai, China. It is tall and is one of the tallest buildings in the world. It contains a shopping mall, offices and the Grand Hyatt Shanghai hotel, which at the time of completion was the highest hotel in the world. Along with the Oriental Pearl Tower, the Shanghai World Financial Center and the Shanghai Tower it is part of the Lujiazui skyline seen from the Bund. It was the tallest building in China from its completion in 1999 until 2007, when it was surpassed by the Shanghai World Financial Center which is located close by. The Shanghai Tower, a 121-story building located next to these two buildings, surpassed the height of both these buildings in 2015, creating the world's first trio of adjacent supertall skyscrapers.

金茂大厦又称金茂大楼,位于中华人民共和国上海市浦东新区黄浦江畔的陆家嘴金融贸易区,楼高420.5米,是上海第3高的摩天大楼、中国大陆第10高楼(截至2015年)。大厦于1994年开工,1998年建成。全楼在地上共88层,再加上尖塔的楼层共有93层,地下则3层,全部的面积为27万8707平方米。楼中有130部电梯与555间客房。该大厦是上海的一座地标,是集现代化办公楼、五星级酒店、会展中心、娱乐、商场等设施于一体,融汇中国塔型风格与西方建筑技术的多功能型摩天大楼。它由美国芝加哥SOM设计事务所的前任设计合伙人亚德里安·史密斯(Adrian Smith)设计。金茂大厦由金茂集团拥有。该楼日常维护费用为每日100万人民币。


History.

Formation (1996-2000).

The band was formed by Alex Band (lead vocals) and Aaron Kamin (lead guitar, backing vocals) when Kamin was dating Band's sister. Kamin and Band initially began jamming and writing songs as far back as 1996, and began gigging under the band name "Generation Gap" with a drummer who was twice their age. At this stage, the band also included saxophonist Benny Golbin, giving the songs a more jazzy sound reminiscent of Dave Matthews Band. Eventually, Band and Kamin ditched the "Gap" lineup, and briefly switched their name to "Next Door", which itself was a nod to Ron Fair, a veteran music business executive and Band's neighbor.  They quickly found their own sound amongst radio rock acts of the early 21st century such as Matchbox Twenty, Third Eye Blind, Train, and Fastball. By 1999, Fair was impressed enough by the demos to sign them to a record deal with RCA. They changed their name to "The Calling", which reflected the band's sense of purpose.

"Camino Palmero" and departures of Woolstenhulme, Mohler, and Wood (2001-2002).

While the RCA deal was a huge boost, it also created a new problem for Band and Kamin: they had no solid band and, thus, had hardly toured and built a fanbase. Rather than putting them out on the road and building regional support, Fair worked intensely with Band and Kamin for over two years perfecting the debut album. The Calling's first album was recorded from 1999–2001, with Sean Woolstenhulme (formerly with Lifehouse) (rhythm guitar), Billy Mohler (bass), and Nate Wood (drums). The Calling's first album, "Camino Palmero", was issued in July 2001 and quickly became a hit due to the strength of its single, "Wherever You Will Go", which was named the No. 1 Adult Pop song of the decade by "Billboard" magazine. The song was featured prominently in the television series "Smallville's" first-season episode "Metamorphosis". It was also featured in the 2000 film "Coyote Ugly" with the group performing in the background in the first club scene, and in early trailers in 2001 for the "Star Trek" prequel series "". In an episode of the CBS television drama "Cold Case", "Frank's Best", the song is played at the end of the episode. "Camino Palmero" ultimately sold more than five million copies worldwide and was certified gold in the United States.  In June 2002, Woolstenhulme left The Calling. His replacement was Dino Meneghin. Mohler and Wood left in October 2002. In November 2003, former members Wood and Mohler sued Band, Kamin, and the group's management, accusing them of mismanagement, fraud, and asking for an audit of the money that was spent during their tenures in The Calling. They claimed that they were promised a share of the royalties and profits from touring and merchandise. Band and Kamin claimed that the two were not entitled to any records of the royalties.

"Two" and first breakup (2004-2005).

In June 2004, the group returned with "Two". The album had three singles and accompanying videos: "Our Lives", "Things Will Go My Way", and "Anything". However, "Two" had disappointing sales compared to their first album.  After a lengthy world tour in support of the album, Kamin and Band decided to disband The Calling. They played a farewell show in Temecula, California on June 6, 2005. Alex then began pursuing a solo career and played occasional shows.

Temporary reunion and second breakup (2013).

On August 15, 2013, Alex Band reformed The Calling with new members. The band performed their comeback gig at Bally's Atlantic City on August 17. On August 18, Band was reportedly abducted by two men that robbed him, beat him severely, and dumped him on train tracks in Lapeer, Michigan. He was taken to an emergency room at a nearby hospital, where he was treated and released. After only a few shows, the group broke up again.

Upcoming material (2016-present).

In October 2016 The Calling with a new lineup performed in Manila, Philippines the following month. The Australian company ""Unbreakable Touring"" announced that the band were to perform in areas such as Adelaide, Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne and Fremantle along with the rock band Juke Kartel and newcomer Mike Waters, but this was later postponed due to visa issues. In July 2017 it was announced that The Calling would be joining Lifehouse as support acts for Live's Australian leg of their world reunion tour.  Band said in an interview with Australian music website "may the rock be with you" in November 2017 that The Calling will be releasing new music soon.

Musical influences.

The band has cited that their influences include bands such as Pearl Jam, Bon Jovi, Live, Train, and U2.

The Calling is an American rock band from Los Angeles, California, formed in 1996 by lead singer Alex Band and guitarist Aaron Kamin. They are best known for their hit single, "Wherever You Will Go", which topped the Adult Top 40 for 23 weeks, making it the second longest running number one in the chart’s history and later named the number one song of the decade of 2000s on the Adult Pop Charts by "Billboard" magazine. Their debut album "Camino Palmero" was released in July 2001 and was a commercial success.

呼叫乐团(英语:The Calling)是一队美国的流行摇滚乐团,来自加州洛杉矶。主唱艾力克斯·班德 (英语:Alex Band)和主音吉他手Aaron Kamin是乐团的重心成员。乐团于2005年解散。


History.

Construction.

The site of the airport was originally used by the Gala Amusement Park, owned by the Steinway family. It was razed and transformed in 1929 into a private flying field named Glenn H. Curtiss Airport after the pioneer Long Island aviator, later called North Beach Airport.  The initiative to develop the airport for commercial flights began with an outburst by New York mayor Fiorello La Guardia (in office from 1934 to 1945) upon the arrival of his TWA flight at Newark Airport – the only commercial airport serving the New York City region at the time – as his ticket said "New York". He demanded to be taken to New York, and ordered the plane to be flown to Brooklyn's Floyd Bennett Field, giving an impromptu press conference to reporters along the way. He urged New Yorkers to support a new airport within their city.  American Airlines accepted La Guardia's offer to start a trial program of scheduled flights to Floyd Bennett, although the program failed after several months because Newark's airport was closer to Manhattan. La Guardia went as far as to offer police escorts to airport limousines in an attempt to get American Airlines to continue operating the trial program. During the Floyd Bennett experiment, La Guardia and American executives began an alternative plan to build a new airport in Queens, where it could take advantage of the new Queens–Midtown Tunnel to Manhattan. The existing North Beach Airport was an obvious location, but much too small for the sort of airport that was being planned. With backing and assistance from the Works Progress Administration, construction began in 1937, it is on the waterfront of Flushing and Bowery Bays in East Elmhurst and borders the neighborhoods of Astoria and Jackson Heights. Building on the site required moving landfill from Rikers Island, then a garbage dump, onto a metal reinforcing framework. The framework below the airport still causes magnetic interference on the compasses of outgoing aircraft: signs on the airfield warn pilots about the problem.  Because of American's pivotal role in the development of the airport, LaGuardia gave the airline extra real estate during the airport's first year of operation, including four hangars, which was an unprecedented amount of space at the time. American opened its first Admirals Club (and the first private airline club in the world) at the airport in 1939. The club took over a large office space that had previously been reserved for the mayor, but he offered it for lease following criticism from the press, and American vice president Red Mosier immediately accepted the offer.

Opening and early years.

The airport was dedicated on October 15, 1939, as the New York Municipal Airport, and opened for business on December 2 of that year. It cost New York City $23 million to turn the tiny North Beach Airport into a modern facility. Not everyone was as enthusiastic as La Guardia about the project; some regarded it as a $40 million boondoggle. But the public was fascinated by the very idea of air travel, and thousands traveled to the airport, paid the dime fee, and watched the airliners take off and land. Two years later these fees and their associated parking had already provided $285,000, and other non-travel related incomes (food, etc.) were another $650,000 a year. The airport was soon a financial success. A smaller airport in nearby Jackson Heights, Holmes Airport, was unable to prevent the expansion of the larger airport and closed in 1940.  Newark Airport began renovations, but could not keep up with the new Queens airport, which "TIME" called "the most pretentious land and seaplane base in the world". Even before the project was completed LaGuardia had won commitments from the five largest airlines (Pan American Airways, American, United, Eastern Air Lines and Transcontinental & Western Air) to begin using the new field as soon as it opened. Pan Am's transatlantic Boeing 314 flying boats moved to La Guardia from Port Washington in 1940. During World War II the airport was used to train aviation technicians and as a logistics field. Transatlantic landplane airline flights started in late 1945; some continued after Idlewild (now John F. Kennedy International) opened in July 1948, but the last ones shifted to Idlewild in April 1951.  Newspaper accounts alternately referred to the airfield as New York Municipal Airport and LaGuardia Field until the modern name was officially applied when the airport moved to Port of New York Authority control under a lease with New York City on June 1, 1947.  LaGuardia opened with four runways at 45-degree angles to each other, the longest (13/31) being. Runway 18/36 was closed soon after a United DC-4 ran off the south end in 1947; runway 9/27 (4,500 ft) was closed around 1958, allowing LaGuardia's terminal to expand northward after 1960. Circa 1961 runway 13/31 was shifted northeastward to allow construction of a parallel taxiway (such amenities being unknown when LGA was built) and in 1965–66 both remaining runways were extended to their present.  The April 1957 Official Airline Guide shows 283 weekday fixed-wing departures from LaGuardia: 126 American, 49 Eastern, 33 Northeast, 31 TWA, 29 Capital and 15 United. American's flights included 26 nonstops to Boston and 27 to Washington National (mostly Convair 240s). Jet flights (United 727s to Cleveland and Chicago) started on June 1, 1964.

Later development.

Although LaGuardia was a large airport for the era in which it was built, it soon became too small. Starting in 1968 general aviation aircraft were charged heavy fees to operate from LaGuardia during peak hours, driving many LGA operators to airports such as Teterboro Airport in Teterboro, New Jersey. The increase in traffic at LaGuardia and safety concerns prompted the closure of nearby Flushing Airport in 1984. Also in 1984, to further combat overcrowding at LGA, the Port Authority instituted a Sunday-thru-Friday "perimeter rule" banning nonstop flights from LaGuardia to cities more than away; at the time, Denver was the only such city with nonstop flights, and it became the only exception to the rule. (In 1986 Western Airlines hoped to fly 737-300s nonstop to Salt Lake City and unsuccessfully challenged the rule in federal court). Later, the Port Authority also moved to connect JFK and Newark Airport to regional rail networks with the AirTrain Newark and AirTrain JFK, in an attempt to make these more distant airports competitive with LaGuardia. In addition to these local regulations, the FAA also limited the number of flights and types of aircraft that could operate at LaGuardia.  LaGuardia's traffic continued to grow. By 2000, the airport routinely experienced overcrowding delays, many more than an hour long. That year, Congress passed legislation to revoke the federal traffic limits on LaGuardia by 2007. The reduced demand for air travel following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on New York City quickly slowed LaGuardia's traffic growth, helping to mitigate the airport's delays. Ongoing Port Authority investments to renovate the Central Terminal Building and improve the airfield layout have also made the airport's operations more efficient in recent years.  FAA approved Instrument Departure Procedure "Whitestone Climb" and the "Expressway Visual Approach to Runway 31", which both overfly Citi Field.  In late 2006, construction began to replace the Wallace Harrison designed air traffic control tower built in 1962 with a more modern one. The tower began operations on October 9, 2010.  On August 12, 2009, Delta Air Lines and US Airways announced a landing slot and terminal swap in separate press releases. Under the swap plan, US Airways would have given Delta 125 operating slot pairs at LaGuardia. US Airways, in return, would have received 42 operating slot pairs at Ronald Reagan National Airport in Washington, D.C., and be granted the authority to begin service from the US to São Paulo, Brazil and Tokyo, Japan. When the swap plan was complete, Delta Shuttle operations would have moved from the Marine Air Terminal to Terminal C (the present US Airways terminal), and Terminals C and D would have been connected together. US Airways Shuttle flights would have moved to the Marine Air Terminal, and mainline US Airways flights would have moved to Terminal D (the present Delta terminal).  The United States Department of Transportation announced that they would approve the Delta/US Airways transaction under the condition that they sell slots to other airlines. Delta and US Airways dropped the slot swap deal in early July 2010 and both airlines filed a court appeal. In May 2011, both airlines announced that they would resubmit their proposal of the slot swap to the US DOT. It was tentatively approved by the US DOT on July 21, 2011. The slot swap received final approval from the US DOT on October 10, 2011.  On December 16, 2011, Delta Air Lines announced plans to open a new domestic hub at LaGuardia Airport. The investment was the largest single expansion by any carrier at LaGuardia in decades, with flights increasing by more than 60 percent, and destinations by more than 75 percent. By summer 2013, Delta increased operations to 264 daily flights between LaGuardia and more than 60 cities, more than any other airline at LaGuardia.

Reconstruction.

Planning.

In April 2010, Port Authority director Christopher Ward announced that the agency had hired consultants to explore a full demolition and rebuilding of LaGuardia's Central Terminal. The project would create a unified, modern, and efficient plan for the airport, currently an amalgam of decades of additions and modifications. The project, expected to cost $2.4 billion, will include the demolition of the existing central terminal building and its four concourses, garage, Hangar 1, and frontage roads; building temporary facilities; and designing and building a new central terminal building. The rebuilding would be staged in phases in order to maintain operations throughout the project.  Proposals were due on January 31, 2012. Patrick Foye, executive director of the Port Authority, said, "It's got a quaint, nostalgic but unacceptable kind of 1940s, 1950s feel that's just not acceptable." The Port Authority was seeking a private company to develop and operate the replacement terminal with private funds, similar to how Delta operates the other terminals at the airport. However, in January 2014, Governor Andrew Cuomo announced a plan for the state to oversee construction of the long-stalled new terminal project instead of the proposed public-private partnership.

Reconstruction work.

On July 27, 2015, Governor Andrew Cuomo, joined by then-Vice President Joe Biden, announced a $4 billion plan to rebuild the terminals as one contiguous building with terminal bridges connecting buildings. Airport officials and planners had concluded that the airport essentially had to be torn down and rebuilt.  Under the airport reconstruction plan disclosed in 2015, a single terminal building is to be constructed in stages, with a people mover, retail space and a new hotel. Some of additional taxiways are to be built. A people mover is to connect the new terminal sections, the Grand Central Parkway is to be reconfigured, and AirTrain LaGuardia, previously announced, will connect the airport to the Mets–Willets Point subway station and the Mets–Willets Point LIRR station. A proposed high-speed ferry, if introduced, will service the Marine Air Terminal, a national historic landmark, which will remain intact. An onsite tram has also been proposed to move passengers more quickly within the central terminal. The new airport is to be eco-friendly and contain accommodations such as a hotel of approximately 200 rooms and a business/conference center. The entire airport will move closer to the Grand Central Parkway. New parking garages replaced parking facilities between the existing terminals and Grand Central Parkway, creating space for the new facilities. By locating the terminals closer to the Grand Central Parkway, additional space for aircraft taxiways and hold areas will be created, reducing ground delays. The runways themselves will not be reconfigured.  Construction of the project's first phase started in spring of 2016, once final plans were approved by the Port Authority board, with the entire redevelopment scheduled to be completed by 2021. Terminal B will be demolished, and Delta will rebuild its terminals C and D in coordination with the plan. The new airport will feature an island gate system, with passengers connecting between the terminal building and the gates via bridges that will be high enough for aircraft to taxi under. In late March 2016, the comprehensive plans for the redevelopment were approved unanimously between the Port Authority of New York & New Jersey & LaGuardia Gateway Partners for the Terminal B Project. Construction costs were estimated to range from $4 billion to $5.3 billion. In August 2017, Magic Johnson Enterprises and Loop Capital created a joint venture named JLC Capital to invest in Phase 2 of LaGuardia Airport's reconstruction. The same month, Delta broke ground on the last phase of the airport's reconstruction.  On December 9, 2017, six airlines moved at LGA. Alaska Airlines and JetBlue moved to the Marine Air Terminal. American consolidated in Terminal B. Frontier and Spirit depart from Terminal C and arrive at Terminal D. The first half of the seven-level West Parking Garage opened in February 2018, with 1,600 of 3,100 parking spaces being made available, and the rest of the garage was opened later that year. Eleven new gates at Terminal B opened on December 1, 2018, and were used by Air Canada, American Airlines, and Southwest Airlines. Five additional new gates opened on June 2, 2019, when United relocated most of its operations to the new concourse. The new space included a concourse with a ceiling, food concessions, an FAO Schwarz toy store, and an indoor play area. Delta opened Concourse G on the eastern end of the airport on October 29, 2019. Delta Shuttle flights moved to the Concourse G on November 16, 2019. The new headhouse at Terminal B opened on June 13, 2020, along with the new connector to the Eastern Concourse. The Western Concourse is scheduled to open in 2021. Delta is also planning to fast-track its renovation at Terminal C, with the Terminal C headhouse scheduled to open in 2021.

Facilities.

Terminals.

LaGuardia has four terminals (A, B, C and D) connected by buses and walkways. Signage throughout the terminals was designed by Paul Mijksenaar. As with the other Port Authority airports, some terminals at LaGuardia are managed and maintained by airlines themselves. Terminal B was under direct Port Authority operation, but as of 2016, operation of Terminal B has been transferred to a private company, LaGuardia Gateway Partners.

Terminal A.

Terminal A, known as the Marine Air Terminal (MAT), was the airport's original terminal for overseas flights. The waterside terminal was designed to serve the fleet of flying boats, or Clippers, of Pan American Airways, America's main international airline throughout the 1930s and 1940s. When a Clipper landed in Long Island Sound, it taxied to a dock where passengers could disembark into the terminal. During World War II new four-engine land planes were developed, and flying boats stopped carrying scheduled passengers out of New York after 1947. The last Pan American flight left the terminal in February 1952, bound for Bermuda.  Inside the terminal hangs "Flight," a mural measuring 12 feet (3.7 m) in height and 237 feet (72 m) in length; it was the largest mural created as part of the Great Depression-era Works Progress Administration (WPA). Completed by James Brooks in 1942, "Flight" depicts the history of man's involvement with flight. The mural was painted over without explanation by the Port Authority of New York & New Jersey in the 1950s, possibly because some saw left-wing symbolism in it. After an extensive restoration project headed by aviation historian Geoffrey Arend, the mural was rededicated in 1980.  In 1986, Pan Am restarted flights at the MAT with the purchase of New York Air's shuttle service between Boston, New York City, and Washington, D.C. In 1991, Delta Air Lines bought the Pan Am Shuttle and subsequently started service from the MAT on September 1. In 1995, the MAT was designated as a historic landmark. A $7 million restoration was completed in time for the airport's 65th anniversary of commercial flights on December 2, 2004. On December 9, 2017, JetBlue and Alaska Airlines relocated to the MAT while Delta consolidated all Delta Shuttle flights to Terminal C. On October 27, 2018, Alaska Airlines ended all service from LaGuardia Airport, leaving JetBlue as the terminal's only tenant.

Terminal B.

Terminal B, known as the Central Terminal Building (CTB), serves most of LaGuardia's airlines. It functions as the hub for American Airlines. It is six blocks long, consisting of a four-story central section, two three-story wings and four concourses (A, B, C, and D) with 40 aircraft gates. The $36 million facility designed by Harrison & Abramovitz was dedicated on April 17, 1964. Delta and US Airways left the CTB in 1983 and 1992 respectively for their own dedicated terminals on the east side of the airport.  The Port Authority and various airlines carried out a $340 million improvement project in the 1990s to expand and renovate the existing space.  Eleven gates at Terminal B's new Eastern Concourse opened on December 1, 2018. Five additional gates opened on June 2, 2019, when United Airlines moved all of its operations at LaGuardia to the new Terminal B Eastern Concourse. The remaining two gates in the Eastern Concourse are scheduled to open in 2020. The new Terminal B Western Concourse is slated to open in 2021 where all of American Airlines gates will be located.  As of June 2, 2019, the following airlines operate out of Terminal B:

Terminal C.

Terminal C, the, designed by William Nicholas Bodouva + Associates Architects and Planners, was opened September 12, 1992, at a cost of $250 million. Along with Terminal D, it functions as the hub for Delta Air Lines. The original tenant was intended to be Eastern Air Lines, but when Eastern was forcibly bankrupt in an effort by parent Texas Air Corporation to merge its assets with that of sister airline Continental, Continental assumed the leases. Continental never moved in, as it sold its leases and most of its LaGuardia slots to US Airways as part of Continental's bankruptcy restructuring. Trump Shuttle, successor to the Eastern Shuttle, also occupied the terminal before becoming part of US Airways. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey says that the terminal handles approximately 50% of regional airliner traffic at LaGuardia.  As a result of a slot-swap deal between Delta and US Airways, as of July 2012, Delta occupies the majority of the terminal (gates C15–C44). American (the former US Airways flights) operated some flights from gates C35–C44 until December 9, 2017. Gates C11-C14 on the east side of the lower level do not have jet bridges and are for Delta Connection flights parked at remote stands on the east side of the terminal. Passengers use air stairs to board/deplane these flights. Gates C15-C24 are currently closed due to construction of a new concourse.  As of December 9, 2017, Delta, Delta Connection, Frontier, Spirit, and WestJet operate out of Terminal C.

Terminal D.

Terminal D, opened on June 19, 1983, at a cost of approximately $90 million, was designed by William Nicholas Bodouva + Associates Architects to accommodate Delta's new Boeing 757 and Boeing 767 aircraft.  As of January 8, 2020, Delta and Delta Connection operate out of the new Concourse G that is connected to Terminal D.  Terminal D is connected to Terminal C by a 600-foot walkway, which opened in early 2013 as part of Delta's effort to build a hub at LaGuardia.

General aviation.

Although there is no separate terminal building for general aviation aircraft a pseudo-terminal is operated within the Marine Air Terminal (Terminal A), which is currently run by Sheltair Aviation providing full FBO services to private and charter aircraft owners-pilots including 100LL and Jet A fueling, computerized weather and flight planning as well as pilot and passenger lounges. To access the General Aviation terminal an on-airport tenant must possess a SIDA (Security Identification Display Area) badge for unescorted access, transient aircraft owners-pilots and passengers must be escorted at all times into and out of the GA Terminal and to the ramp and hangar areas by the FBO staff.  Following the events of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 the Federal Aviation Administration changed the rules for the landing and departure of general aviation aircraft at LaGuardia. Pilots operating a non-scheduled IFR flight are now required to make a reservation via the FAA's e-CVRS system no more than 72 hours prior to the flight's arrival or departure while public charter flights may make a reservation up to six months prior. Unscheduled IFR flights may only operate at LaGuardia with a reservation from the hours of 6:00 am to 9:59 pm local time Monday thru Friday and 12:00 pm to 9:59 pm local time on Sundays. Reservations for unscheduled IFR flights are not required all day on Saturdays. Aircraft without a reservation will be redirected to either Teterboro Airport or Linden Airport.

Ground transportation.

, several MTA Regional Bus Operations bus lines, including two Select Bus Service-branded bus rapid transit lines, link LGA to the New York City Subway and Long Island Rail Road, with free transfers provided for MetroCard users making subway connections. The buses are wheelchair accessible and are operated by MTA New York City Transit and MTA Bus Company:  There are also many private bus lines operating express buses to Manhattan, the Hudson Valley, and Long Island. The Port Authority runs two free shuttle bus routes, which operate at all times except overnight hours, within the airport connecting all terminals and parking lots.  Taxicabs serving the airport are licensed by New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission. The fares within New York City are metered. Uniformed taxi dispatchers are available to assist passengers before they start the rides. The airport is accessible directly from Grand Central Parkway. New York City's limousine services, which are also licensed by the Taxi & Limousine Commission, offer various rates ranging from $40 to $150 from LGA to Manhattan (excluding tips and tolls) in a sedan or limousine.  No New York City Subway routes serve the airport directly, but provisions for a transit connection were made in a 2014 long-range rebuilding plan by the subway's operator, the MTA. A similar plan to bring BMT Astoria Line service () to the airport was defeated in 2003. On January 20, 2015, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo announced AirTrain LGA, a plan to build a people mover, similar to AirTrain JFK, running along the Grand Central Parkway. This people mover would connect the airport to Willets Point, and would connect there with the New York City Subway's at the Mets – Willets Point station and with the Long Island Rail Road at a separate Mets – Willets Point station., the AirTrain would start construction in 2020 and be completed by 2022.

Other facilities.

When New York Air was in operation, its headquarters were in Hangar 5 at LaGuardia.  The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department (PAPD) provides law enforcement and fire-rescue services to the airport. Its LaGuardia Airport Command is located in Building 137. Emergency medical services are provided by North Shore University Hospital under contract to the Port Authority.

LaGuardia Airport is an airport in Queens, New York. The airport is the third busiest airport serving New York City, and the twentieth busiest in the United States. LaGuardia Airport covers.

拉瓜迪亚机场(英语:LaGuardia Airport,)是美国纽约市的三大机场之一,位于皇后区,面向法拉盛湾。此机场是以前纽约市长菲奥雷洛·H·拉瓜迪亚(Fiorello LaGuardia)命名。目前,机场是由纽约与新泽西港口管理局负责管理及营运,此管理局同时也管理营运纽约市的肯尼迪国际机场和纽华克自由国际机场。


Causes.

The main cause is foot sweat (also see focal hyperhidrosis). Sweat itself is odorless; however, it creates a beneficial environment for certain bacteria to grow, producing odorous substances. These bacteria are naturally present on our skin as part of the human flora. The front part of the foot produces the most sweat.  The smell is exacerbated by factors that increase sweating, such as wearing closed-toe shoes. Sports footwear such as sneakers is often heavily padded inside which provides a perfect environment to trap moisture and allow the bacteria to thrive. Socks can trap foot hair, especially on the toes, and may contribute to odor intensity by increasing surface area on which bacteria can thrive.  Given that socks directly contact the feet, their composition can affect foot odor. Synthetic materials like polyester and nylon afford less ventilation to the foot than do cotton or wool, leading to increased perspiration and odor, although they can also reduce incidence of blisters by wicking away perspiration. Many synthetic socks are treated with chemicals to help reduce odor.  Wearing closed-toe shoes ("e.g.", ballet flats or pumps) without socks leads to accumulation of sweat, dead skin cells, dirt, and oils, further contributing to bacterial growth.

Odor qualities.

"Brevibacteria" are considered a major cause of foot odor because they ingest dead skin on the feet and, in the process, convert the amino acid methionine into methanethiol, a colorless gas with a distinctive sulfuric aroma. The dead skin that fuels this process is especially common on the sole and between the toes. Brevibacteria also give such cheeses as Limburger, Bel Paese, Port Salut, Pálpusztai and Munster their characteristic pungency.  Propionic acid (propanoic acid), a breakdown product of "Propionibacteria" amino acid metabolism in adolescent and adult sebaceous gland ducts, is also present in many foot sweat samples.  Isovaleric acid (3-methyl butanoic acid), another other source of foot odor, is produced by "Staphylococcus epidermidis", a bacterial species normally resident on human skin and present in several strong-smelling varieties of cheese.  Other implicated microorganisms include Micrococcaceae, "Corynebacterium" and "Pityrosporum".  Bart Knols of Wageningen Agricultural University in the Netherlands received a 2006 "Ig Nobel Prize" for demonstrating that the female "Anopheles gambiae" mosquito, known for transmitting malaria, is "attracted equally to the smell of Limburger cheese and to the smell of human feet". Fredros Okumu, of the Ifakara Health Institute in Tanzania, received grants in 2009 and 2011 to develop mosquito attractants and traps to combat malaria. He used a blend of eight chemicals four times more effective than actual human secretions.

Prevention and Treatment.

Maintaining good foot hygiene is the best way to prevent foot odour as it eliminates odour causing bacteria and removes dead skin cells as well as sebum. A foot file, pumice stone or chemical treatment, such as an Alpha hydroxy acid containing foot peel preparation, can be used to remove dead skin cells. Using antibacterial soap to wash feet daily; keeping feet dry by changing socks daily and wearing cotton or wool instead of synthetic fibres can also help reduce moisture build-up. Using medicated insoles and foot powder can also help.  In some cases, medical intervention may be needed to treat the bacterial or fungal infection with a topical antibacterial or fungicide.

Foot odor (foot odour or bromodosis) is a type of body odor that affects the feet of humans. It is sometimes considered to be an unpleasant smell, but can also be the target of foot fetishism, more specifically as a form of olfactophilia.

脚臭是指人类脚部的体味,即足部异味,通常被认为是一种令人不快的气味。但作为气味色情的一种形式,它也可能为恋足癖者所喜欢。 足部异味是气味色情的广泛形式之一:在1994的研究中发现,45%的恋足癖者有脚臭和臭袜子。


History.

Cook County was created on January 15, 1831, out of Putnam County by an act of the Illinois General Assembly. It was the 54th county established in Illinois and was named after Daniel Cook, one of the earliest and youngest statesmen in Illinois history. He served as the second U.S. Representative from Illinois and the state's first Attorney General. In 1839, DuPage County was carved out of Cook County.  In the 1980s, Cook County was ground zero to an extensive FBI investigation called Operation Greylord. Ninety-two officials were indicted, including 17 judges, 48 lawyers, eight policemen, 10 deputy sheriffs, eight court officials, and a state legislator.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (42.2%) is water. It is the sixth largest county in Illinois by land area, and the largest in total area. Most of the water is in Lake Michigan. The highest point is more than, and is in northwest Barrington Township, in the northwest corner of the county. The lowest point is less than, along the Lake Michigan shoreline.

Climate and weather.

In July, temperatures in Chicago, Cook County average daytime highs of, and nighttime lows of ; and January daytime highs of, and nighttime lows of. Winter temperatures will sometimes veer above, and, although not common, have also risen over on some winter days. Average monthly precipitation ranged from in June to in February.  Cook County is among the few counties in the United States to border two counties with the same name (Lake County, Illinois and Lake County, Indiana). Illinois has two such counties (Randolph County borders both Perry County, Illinois and Perry County, Missouri).

Government and politics.

Government.

The government of Cook County is primarily composed of the Board of Commissioners, other elected officials such as the Sheriff, State's Attorney, Treasurer, Board of Review, Clerk, Assessor, Recorder, Circuit Court judges, and Circuit Court Clerk, as well as numerous other officers and entities. Cook County is the only home rule county in Illinois. The "Cook County Code" is the codification of Cook County's local ordinances. Cook County's current County Board president is Toni Preckwinkle.  The Circuit Court of Cook County, which is an Illinois state court of general jurisdiction is funded, in part, by Cook County, and accepts more than 1.2 million cases each year for filing. The Cook County Department of Corrections, also known as the Cook County Jail, is the largest single-site jail in the nation. The Cook County Juvenile Detention Center, under the authority of the Chief Judge of the court, is the first juvenile center in the nation and one of the largest in the nation. The Cook County Law Library is the second-largest county law library in the nation.  The Bureau of Health Services administers the county's public health services and is the third-largest public health system in the nation. Three hospitals are part of this system: John H. Stroger, Jr. Hospital of Cook County, Provident Hospital, and Oak Forest Hospital of Cook County, along with over 30 clinics.  The Cook County Department of Transportation is responsible for the design and maintenance of roadways in the county. These thoroughfares are composed mostly of major and minor arterials, with a few local roads. Although the County Department of Transportation was instrumental in designing many of the expressways in the county, today they are under the jurisdiction of the state.  The Cook County Forest Preserves, organized in 1915, is a separate, independent taxing body, but the Cook County Board of Commissioners also acts as its Board of Commissioners. The district is a belt of of forest reservations surrounding the city of Chicago. The Brookfield Zoo (managed by the Chicago Zoological Society) and the Chicago Botanic Garden (managed by the Chicago Horticultural Society) are located in the forest preserves.  Cook County is the fifth-largest employer in Chicago.  In March 2008, the County Board increased the sales tax by one percent to 1.75 percent. This followed a quarter-cent increase in mass transit taxes. In Chicago, the rate increased to 10.25 percent, the steepest nominal rate of any major metropolitan area in America. In Evanston, sales tax reached 10 percent and Oak Lawn residents pay 9.5 percent. On July 22, 2008, the Cook County board voted against Cook County Commissioner's proposal to repeal the tax increase.  In 2016, Cook County joined Chicago in adopting a $13 hourly minimum wage. Cook County Board chairman John Daley called the wage hike "the moral and right thing to do." In June 2017, however, nearly 75 home rule municipalities passed measures opting themselves out of the increase.

Politics.

The county has more Democratic Party members than any other Illinois county and it is one of the most Democratic counties in the United States. Since 1932, the majority of its voters have only supported a Republican candidate in a Presidential election three times, all during national Republican landslides–Dwight Eisenhower over native son Adlai Stevenson II in 1952 and 1956, and Richard Nixon over George McGovern in 1972. Since then, the closest a Republican has come to carrying the county was in 1984, when Ronald Reagan won 48.4 percent of the county's vote.  The Cook County Democratic Party represents Democratic voters in 50 wards in the city of Chicago and 30 suburban townships of Cook County. The organization has dominated County, city, and state politics since the 1930s. The last Republican mayor of Chicago was William Hale "Big Bill" Thompson, who left office in 1931 with a record of corruption. The high-water mark for Republican candidacies for mayor since then was that of Republican candidate Bernard Epton, who in 1983 came within 3.3 percentage points of defeating Democrat Harold Washington.

Secession movements.

To establish more localized government control and policies which reflect the often different values and needs of large suburban sections of the sprawling county, several secession movements have been made over the years which called for certain townships or municipalities to form their own independent counties.  In the late 1970s, a movement started which proposed a separation of six northwest suburban townships, Cook County's panhandle (Barrington, Hanover, Palatine, Wheeling, Schaumburg, and Elk Grove) from Cook to form Lincoln County, in honor of the former U.S. president and Illinois resident. It is likely that Arlington Heights would have been the county seat. This northwest suburban region of Cook was at the time moderately conservative and has a population over 500,000. Local legislators, led by State Senator Dave Regnar, went so far as to propose it as official legislation in the Illinois House. The legislation died, however, before coming to a vote.  In 2004, Blue Island Mayor Donald E. Peloquin organized a coalition of fifty-five south and southwest suburban municipalities to form a new county, also proposing the name "Lincoln County". The county would include everything south of Burbank, stretching as far west as Orland Park, as far east as Calumet City, and as far south as Matteson, covering an expansive area with a population of over one million residents. Peloquin argued that the south suburbs are often shunned by the city (although Chicago is not bound or required to do anything for other municipalities) and he blamed the Chicago-centric policies of Cook County for failing to jumpstart the somewhat-depressed south suburban local economy. Pending sufficient interest from local communities, Peloquin planned a petition drive to place a question regarding the secession on the general election ballot, but the idea was not met with success.  Talk of secession from Cook County amongst some outlying communities again heated up in mid-2008 in response to a highly controversial 1% sales tax hike which has pushed the tax rates across the county communities up amongst the highest in the nation. Some border towns in particular had been outraged, as people can take their business across the county border (paying, for instance, 7% in Lake County instead of Palatine's 9.5%). The secession issue eventually died down from the nominal tax increase.  In 2011, two downstate Republican state representatives, Bill Mitchell of the 87th district and Adam Brown of the 101st district, proposed statehood for Cook County. Mitchell said that Chicago is "dictating its views" to the rest of the state and Brown added that Chicago "overshadows" the rest of Illinois.

Demographics.

According to the 2000 Census there were 1,974,181 households out of which 30.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.0% were married couples living together, 15.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.7% were non-families. 29.4% of all households were someone living alone including 9.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.68 and the average family size was 3.38. In the county, the population age distribution was: 26.0% under the age of 18, 9.9% from 18 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 44, 20.7% from 45 to 64, and 11.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.5 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $45,922, and the median income for a family was $53,784. Males had a median income of $40,690 versus $31,298 for females. The per capita income for the county was $23,227. About 10.6% of families and 13.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.9% of those under age 18 and 10.3% of those age 65 or over.  According to Census Bureau estimates, the county's population was down to 5,211,263 in 2017, decreased further by 2010 (5,194,675) and had grown slightly by 2017 (5,211,263).

Ethnicity.

As of the 2010 Census, the population of the county was 5,194,675, White Americans made up 55.4% of Cook County's population; non-Hispanic whites represented 43.9% of the population. African Americans made up 24.8% of the population. Native Americans made up 0.4% of Cook County's population. Asian Americans made up 6.2% of the population (1.8% Indian, 1.2% Filipino, 1.2% Chinese, 0.7% Korean, 0.3% Vietnamese, 0.2% Japanese, 0.8% Other). Pacific Islander Americans made up less than 0.1% of the population. People from other races made up 10.6% of the population; people from two or more races made up 2.5% of the county's population. Hispanics and Latinos (of any race) made up 24.0% of Cook County's population.  As of the 2000 Census, there were 5,376,741 people, 1,974,181 households, and 1,269,398 families residing in the county. The population density was 5,686 people per square mile (2,195/km2). There were 2,096,121 housing units at an average density of 2,216 per square mile (856/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 56.27% white, 26.14% Black or African American, 0.29% Native American, 4.84% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islanders, 9.88% from other races, and 2.53% from two or more races. 19.93% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 9.1% were of Polish, 8.1% German, 7.9% Irish and 5.7% Italian ancestry. 17.63% reported speaking Spanish at home; 3.13% speak Polish.  Whites (Hispanic and non-Hispanic) number roughly 2,793,500. There are about 2,372,500 non-Hispanic whites residing in Cook County. Sizeable non-Hispanic white populations are those of German (11.4%), Irish (10.3%), Polish (9.7%), Italian (6.1%), and British (4.1%) descent. There are also significant groups of Swedish (1.5%), Russian (1.5%), French (1.3%), Greek (1.2%), Czech (1.0%), Dutch (1.0%), Lithuanian (0.9%), and Norwegian (0.8%) descent.  Black Americans are the second largest racial group. Black Americans form over one-quarter (25.4%) of Cook County's population. Blacks of non-Hispanic origin form 25.2% of the population; black Hispanics make up the remaining 0.2% of the populace. There are roughly 1,341,000 African Americans of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin living in Cook County; 1,328,000 are non-Hispanic blacks. Roughly 52,500 people were of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, making up 1.0% of the total population.  The Native American population is sizeable but small proportionally. Over 10,200 residents of Cook County are of Native American ancestry, equivalent to just 0.2% of the total population. There are 974 Cherokee, 612 Chippewa, 430 Navajo, and 96 Sioux living in Cook County. Native Americans of Hispanic origin represent much of the Native American population group. Some 5,900 Native Americans are of non-Hispanic origin, so some 4,300 are of Hispanic origin. Over 40% of the Native American racial group is of Hispanic descent. Asian Americans are a sizeable racial group in the county, numbering over 300,800. The Asian population is ethnically diverse, and includes roughly 87,900 Indians, 61,700 Filipinos, 60,700 Chinese, 35,000 Koreans, 13,700 Vietnamese, and 11,100 Japanese. Roughly 30,800 are of other Asian ethnic groups, such as Thai, Cambodian, and Hmong. Indian Americans make up 1.7% of the population, while Chinese and Filipino Americans make up 1.2% of the population each.  Pacific Islander Americans form the smallest racial group in Cook County. Just over 3,000 are of Pacific Islander heritage. This group includes roughly 780 Native Hawaiians, 670 Guamanians, 120 Samoans, and 1,400 people of other Pacific Islander groups.  Hispanic and Latino Americans make up over one-fifth (22.8%) of Cook County's population. Roughly 1,204,000 Hispanics live in the county. Mexicans are, by far, the most common Hispanic group. Cook County's 925,000 Mexican Americans make up 17.5% of its population. Roughly 127,000 Puerto Ricans make up 2.4% of the population. About 12,200 Cubans form 0.2% of the total population. There are some 140,000 Hispanics and Latinos of other nationalities living in Cook County (i.e. Colombian, Bolivian, etc., and they collectively make up 2.6% of the county's population.

Religion.

In 2010 statistics, the largest religious group in Cook County was the Archdiocese of Chicago, with 1,947,223 Catholics worshipping at 371 parishes, followed by 209,195 non-denominational adherents with 486 congregations, an estimated 201,152 Muslims with 62 congregations, 68,865 NBC Baptists with 99 congregations, 49,925 ELCA Lutherans with 145 congregations, 49,909 SBC Baptists with 181 congregations, 45,979 LCMS Lutherans with 120 congregations, 39,866 UCC Christians with 101 congregations, 33,584 UMC Methodists with 121 congregations, and 32,646 AG Pentecostals with 64 congregations. Altogether, 59.6% of the population was claimed as members by religious congregations, although members of historically African-American denominations were underrepresented due to incomplete information. In 2014, Cook County had 2,001 religious organizations, second only to Los Angeles County out of all US counties.

Communities.

Townships.

The county is divided into 29 townships, in addition to the cities of Chicago and Evanston.

Current townships.

The 29 townships of Cook County, with their populations as of the 2010 Census, are:

Former townships.

Chicago's eight former townships and annexed parts of others no longer have any governmental structure or responsibility since their annexations, but their names and boundaries are still used on property plats and by Cook County for tax assessment purposes.  In 2014, Evanston Township was dissolved by voters and its functions were absorbed by the city of Evanston.

Cook County is the most populous county in the U.S. state of Illinois and the second-most-populous county in the United States after Los Angeles County, California. As of 2019, the population was 5,150,233. Its county seat is Chicago, the most populous city in Illinois and the third-most-populous city in the United States. More than 40% of all residents of Illinois live in Cook County.

库克县()是美国伊利诺伊州东北部的一个郡,东南与印地安纳州相连(部分界线位于密歇根湖上),东与密歇根州相连(全部界线位于密歇根湖上)。面积4,235平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口5,376,741人,是伊利诺伊州人口最多的县(占全州人口40.5%),也是全美人口第二多的县,仅次于洛杉矶县。库克县的县治为芝加哥。


Geography.

Kingsland is located at (33.861397, -92.294200).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2010, there were 447 people, 177 households, and 121 families residing in the town. The population density was 401.4 people per square mile (154.8/km2). There were 211 housing units at an average density of 188.6/sq mi (72.7/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 63.98% White, 32.89% Black or African American, 0.22% Native American, 0.45% Asian, and 2.46% from two or more races. None of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 219 households out of which 29.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.7% were married couples living together, 13.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.6% were non-families. 31.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.20.  In the town, the population was spread out with 27.96% under the age of 18, 5.82% from 20 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 49, 20.81% from 50 to 64, and 13.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. There were 228 females and 219 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $20,536, and the median income for a family was $28,958. Males had a median income of $26,667 versus $16,250 for females. The per capita income for the town was $9,500. About 28.0% of families and 33.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 42.9% of those under age 18 and 26.1% of those age 65 or over.

History.

On March 31, 1994, Johnny Cash returned to Kingsland for the dedication of the new post office named in his honor.  In May 2003, the 63-year-old main building at the Kingsland School was destroyed by fire. The building's old pine, along with the varnish on the floors, oil on the wood inside and a gas heating system all contributed to the blaze. Later, the fire was found to be arson and two suspects, one of them being a firefighter, were subsequently arrested. Damages were estimated to be over $2.1 million.  In October 2011, the feature film "Come Morning" featured Kingsland as its backdrop. Though one scene was filmed in New Edinburg, Arkansas, the rest of the film was shot entirely in Kingsland.

Education.

Public education for elementary and secondary school students is provided by the Cleveland County School District, which includes students attending Kingsland Elementary School prior to graduating from Rison High School. The district was established by the July 1, 2004 consolidation of the Rison School District and the Kingsland School District. Kingsland High School closed in 2004.  In 1890 a two-story building became Kingsland's first school. A new school built as part of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) opened in 1940.

Kingsland is a town in Cleveland County, Arkansas, United States. Its population was 447 at the 2010 U.S. census. It is included in the Pine Bluff, Arkansas Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is famous as the birthplace of Johnny Cash.

金斯兰(英语:Kingsland)是一个位于美国阿肯色州克里夫兰县的城市。