History and description.

Early years.

"The New York Review" was founded by Robert B. Silvers and Barbara Epstein, together with publisher A. Whitney Ellsworth and writer Elizabeth Hardwick. They were backed and encouraged by Epstein's husband, Jason Epstein, a vice president at Random House and editor of Vintage Books, and Hardwick's husband, poet Robert Lowell. In 1959 Hardwick had published an essay, "The Decline of Book Reviewing", in "Harper's", where Silvers was then an editor, in a special issue that he edited called "Writing in America". Her essay was an indictment of American book reviews of the time, "light, little article[s]" that she decried as "lobotomized", passionless praise and denounced as "blandly, respectfully denying whatever vivacious interest there might be in books or in literary matters generally." The group was inspired to found a new magazine to publish thoughtful, probing, lively reviews featuring what Hardwick called "the unusual, the difficult, the lengthy, the intransigent, and above all, the "interesting"".  During the 1962–63 New York City newspaper strike, when "The New York Times" and several other newspapers suspended publication, Hardwick, Lowell and the Epsteins seized the chance to establish the sort of vigorous book review that Hardwick had imagined. Jason Epstein knew that book publishers would advertise their books in the new publication, since they had no other outlet for promoting new books. The group turned to the Epsteins' friend Silvers, who had been an editor at "The Paris Review" and was still at "Harper's", to edit the publication, and Silvers asked Barbara Epstein to co-edit with him. She was known as the editor at Doubleday of Anne Frank's "Diary of a Young Girl", among other books, and then worked at Dutton, McGraw-Hill and "The Partisan Review". Silvers and Epstein sent books to "the writers we knew and admired most.... We asked for three thousand words in three weeks in order to show what a book review should be, and practically everyone came through. No one mentioned money." The first issue of the "Review" was published on February 1, 1963 and sold out its printing of 100,000 copies. It prompted nearly 1,000 letters to the editors asking for the "Review" to continue. "The New Yorker" called it "surely the best first issue of any magazine ever."  "Salon" later commented that the list of contributors in the first issue "represented a'shock and awe' demonstration of the intellectual firepower available for deployment in mid-century America, and, almost equally impressive, of the art of editorial networking and jawboning. This was the party everyone who was anyone wanted to attend, the Black and White Ball of the critical elite." The "Review" "announced the arrival of a particular sensibility... the engaged, literary, post-war progressive intellectual, who was concerned with civil rights and feminism as well as fiction and poetry and theater. The first issue projected "a confidence in the unquestioned rightness of the liberal consensus, in the centrality of literature and its power to convey meaning, in the solubility of our problems through the application of intelligence and good will, and in the coherence and clear hierarchy of the intellectual world". After the success of the first issue, the editors assembled a second issue to demonstrate that "the "Review" was not a one-shot affair". The founders then collected investments from a circle of friends and acquaintances, and Ellsworth joined as publisher. The "Review" began regular biweekly publication in November 1963. Silvers said of the editors' philosophy, that "there was no subject we couldn't deal with. And if there was no book [on a subject], we would deal with it anyway. We tried hard to avoid books that were simply competent rehearsals of familiar subjects, and we hoped to find books that would establish something fresh, something original." In particular, "We felt you had to have a political analysis of the nature of power in America – who had it, who was affected". The editors also shared an "intense admiration for wonderful writers". But, Silvers noted, it is a mystery whether "reviews have a calculable political and social impact" or will even gain attention: "You mustn't think too much about influence – if you find something interesting yourself, that should be enough." Well-known writers were willing to contribute articles for the initial issues of the "Review" without pay because it offered them a chance to write a new kind of book review. As Mark Gevisser explained: "The essays... made the book review form not just a report on the book and a judgment of the book, but an essay in itself. And that, I think, startled everyone – that a book review could be exciting in that way, could be provocative in that way." Early issues included articles by such writers as Hardwick, Lowell, Jason Epstein, Hannah Arendt, W. H. Auden, Saul Bellow, John Berryman, Truman Capote, Paul Goodman, Lillian Hellman, Irving Howe, Alfred Kazin, Anthony Lewis, Dwight Macdonald, Norman Mailer, Mary McCarthy, Norman Podhoretz, Philip Rahv, Adrienne Rich, Susan Sontag, William Styron, Gore Vidal, Robert Penn Warren and Edmund Wilson. The "Review" pointedly published interviews with European political dissidents, including Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Andrei Sakharov and Václav Havel.

Since 1979.

During the year-long lock-out at "The Times" in London in 1979, the "Review" founded a daughter publication, the "London Review of Books". For the first six months, this journal appeared as an insert in the "New York Review of Books", but it became an independent publication in 1980. In 1990 the "Review" founded an Italian edition, "la Rivista dei Libri." It was published for two decades until May 2010.  For over 40 years, Silvers and Epstein edited the "Review" together. In 1984, Silvers, Epstein and their partners sold the "Review" to publisher Rea S. Hederman, who still owns the paper, but the two continued as its editors. In 2006, Epstein died of cancer at the age of 77. In awarding to Epstein and Silvers its 2006 Literarian Award for Outstanding Service to the American Literary Community, the National Book Foundation stated: "With "The New York Review of Books", Robert Silvers and Barbara Epstein raised book reviewing to an art and made the discussion of books a lively, provocative and intellectual activity."  After Epstein's death, Silvers was the sole editor until his own death in 2017. Asked about who might succeed him as editor, Silvers told "The New York Times", "I can think of several people who would be marvelous editors. Some of them work here, some used to work here, and some are just people we know. I think they would put out a terrific paper, but it would be different." In 2008, the "Review" celebrated its 45th anniversary with a panel discussion at the New York Public Library, moderated by Silvers, discussing "What Happens Now" in the United States after the 2008 election of Barack Obama as president. Panelists included "Review" contributors such as Didion, Wills, novelist and literary critic Darryl Pinckney, political commentator Michael Tomasky, and Columbia University professor and contributor Andrew Delbanco. The 45th anniversary edition of the "Review" (November 20, 2008) began with a posthumous piece by Edmund Wilson, who wrote for the paper's first issue in 1963. In 2008, the paper moved its headquarters from Midtown Manhattan to 435 Hudson Street, located in the West Village. In 2010, it launched a blog section of its website that "The New York Times" called "lively and opinionated", and it hosts podcasts. Asked in 2013 how social media might affect the subject matter of the "Review", Silvers commented: "I might imagine [a] witty, aphoristic, almost Oscar Wildean [anthology of] remarks, drawn from the millions and millions of tweets. Or from comments that follow on blogs.... Facebook is a medium in which privacy is, or at least is thought to be, in some way crucial.... And so there seems a resistance to intrusive criticism. We seem at the edge of a vast, expanding ocean of words... growing without any critical perspective whatever being brought to bear on it. To me, as an editor, that seems an enormous absence."  "The Review" began a year-long celebration of its 50th anniversary with a presentation by Silvers and several contributors at The Town Hall in New York City in February 2013. Other events included a program at the New York Public Library in April, called "Literary Journalism: A Discussion", focusing on the editorial process at the "Review" and a reception in November at the Frick Collection. During the year, Martin Scorsese filmed a documentary about the history and influence of the "Review", and the debates that it has spawned, titled "The 50 Year Argument", which premiered in June 2014 at the Sheffield Doc/Fest in England. It was later seen at various film festivals, on BBC television and on HBO in the US. Asked how he maintained his "level of meticulousness and determination" after 50 years, Silvers said that the "Review" "was and is a unique opportunity... to do what one wants on anything in the world. Now, that is given to hardly any editor, anywhere, anytime. There are no strictures, no limits. Nobody saying you can't do something. No subject, no theme, no idea that can’t be addressed in-depth.... Whatever work is involved is minor compared to the opportunity." A special 50th anniversary issue was dated November 7, 2013. Silvers said: An independent, critical voice on politics, literature, science, and the arts seems as much needed today as it was when Barbara Epstein and I put out the first edition of the "New York Review" fifty years ago – perhaps even more so. Electronic forms of communication grow rapidly in every field of life but many of their effects on culture remain obscure and in need of new kinds of critical scrutiny. That will be a central concern of the "Review" for the years to come.  Ian Buruma, who had been a regular contributor to the "Review" since 1985, became editor in September 2017. He left the position in September 2018 after backlash over publishing an essay by Jian Ghomeshi, who has been accused by 20 women of sexual assault, and defending the publication in an interview with "Slate" magazine. The "Review" stated that it did not follow its "usual editorial practices", as the essay "was shown to only one male editor during the editing process", and that Buruma's statement to "Slate" about the staff of the "Review" "did not accurately represent their views". Gabriel Winslow-Yost (formerly a senior editor at the "Review") and Emily Greenhouse (formerly the managing editor of "The New Yorker" and earlier an editorial assistant at the "Review") were named co-editors in February 2019; Daniel Mendelsohn, a longtime "Review" contributor, was named to the new position of "editor at large".

Description.

The "Review" has been described as a "kind of magazine... in which the most interesting and qualified minds of our time would discuss current books and issues in depth... a literary and critical journal based on the assumption that the discussion of important books was itself an indispensable literary activity." Each issue includes a broad range of subject matter, including "articles on art, science, politics and literature." Early on, the editors decided that the "Review" would "be interested in everything... no subject would be excluded. Someone is writing a piece about Nascar racing for us; another is working on Veronese." The "Review" has focused, however, on political topics; as Silvers commented in 2004: "The pieces we have published by such writers as Brian Urquhart, Thomas Powers, Mark Danner and Ronald Dworkin have been reactions to a genuine crisis concerning American destructiveness, American relations with its allies, American protections of its traditions of liberties.... The aura of patriotic defiance cultivated by the [Bush] Administration, in a fearful atmosphere, had the effect of muffling dissent." Silvers told "The New York Times": "The great political issues of power and its abuses have always been natural questions for us."  "The Nation" gave its view of the political focus of the "New York Review of Books" in 2004: [T]he Review took a vocal role in contesting the Vietnam War.... Around 1970, a sturdy liberalism began to supplant left-wing radicalism at the paper. As Philip Nobile observed in... 1974... the "Review" returned to its roots and became "a literary magazine on the British nineteenth-century model, which would mix politics and literature in a tough but gentlemanly fashion."... The publication has always been erudite and authoritative – and because of its analytical rigor and seriousness, frequently essential – but it hasn't always been lively, pungent and readable.... But the election of George W. Bush, combined with the furies of 9/11, jolted the editors. Since 2001, the Review's temperature has risen and its political outlook has sharpened.... Prominent [writers for] the Review... charged into battle not only against the White House but against the lethargic press corps and the "liberal hawk" intellectuals.... In stark contrast to "The New Yorker"... or "The New York Times Magazine"..., the "Review" opposed the Iraq War in a voice that was remarkably consistent and unified.  Over the years, the "Review" has featured reviews and articles by such international writers and intellectuals, in addition to those already noted, as Timothy Garton Ash, Margaret Atwood, Russell Baker, Saul Bellow, Isaiah Berlin, Harold Bloom, Joseph Brodsky, Ian Buruma, Noam Chomsky, J. M. Coetzee, Frederick Crews, Ronald Dworkin, John Kenneth Galbraith, Masha Gessen, Nadine Gordimer, Stephen Jay Gould, Christopher Hitchens, Tim Judah, Murray Kempton, Paul Krugman, Richard Lewontin, Perry Link, Alison Lurie, Peter Medawar, Daniel Mendelsohn, Bill Moyers, Vladimir Nabokov, Ralph Nader, V. S. Naipaul, Peter G. Peterson, Samantha Power, Nathaniel Rich, Felix Rohatyn, Jean-Paul Sartre, John Searle, Zadie Smith, Timothy Snyder, George Soros, I. F. Stone, Desmond Tutu, John Updike, Derek Walcott, Steven Weinberg, Garry Wills and Tony Judt. According to the National Book Foundation: "From Mary McCarthy and Edmund Wilson to Gore Vidal and Joan Didion, "The New York Review of Books" has consistently employed the liveliest minds in America to think about, write about, and debate books and the issues they raise."  The "Review" also devotes space in most issues to poetry, and has featured the work of such poets as Robert Lowell, John Berryman, Ted Hughes, John Ashbery, Richard Wilbur, Seamus Heaney, Octavio Paz, and Czeslaw Milosz. For writers, the "depth [of the articles], and the quality of the people writing for it, has made a "Review" byline a résumé definer. If one wishes to be thought of as a certain type of writer – of heft, style and a certain gravitas – a "Review" byline is pretty much the gold standard." In editing a piece, Silvers said that he asked himself "if [the point in any sentence could] be clearer, while also respecting the writer’s voice and tone. You have to listen carefully to the tone of the writer’s prose and try to adapt to it, but only up to a point. [No change was made without the writers' permission.]... Writers deserve the final word about their prose."  In addition to domestic matters, the "Review" covers issues of international concern. In the 1980s, a British commentator noted: "In the 1960s [the "Review"] opposed American involvement in Vietnam; more recently it has taken a line mildly Keynesian in economics, pro-Israeli but Anti-Zionist, sceptical of Reagan's Latin-American policy". The British newspaper "The Independent" has described the "Review" as "the only mainstream American publication to speak out consistently against the war in Iraq." On Middle East coverage, Silvers said, "any serious criticism of Israeli policy will be seen by some as heresy, a form of betrayal.... [M]uch of what we've published has come from some of the most respected and brilliant Israeli writers... Amos Elon, Avishai Margalit, David Grossman, David Shulman, among them. What emerges from them is a sense that occupying land and people year after year can only lead to a sad and bad result."  Caricaturist David Levine illustrated "The New York Review of Books" from 1963 to 2007, giving the paper a distinctive visual image. Levine died in 2009. John Updike, whom Levine drew many times, wrote: "Besides offering us the delight of recognition, his drawings comfort us, in an exacerbated and potentially desperate age, with the sense of a watching presence, an eye informed by an intelligence that has not panicked, a comic art ready to encapsulate the latest apparitions of publicity as well as those historical devils who haunt our unease." Levine contributed more than 3,800 pen-and-ink caricatures of famous writers, artists and politicians for the publication. Silvers said: "David combined acute political commentary with a certain kind of joke about the person. He was immensely sensitive to the smallest details – people’s shoulders, their feet, their elbows. He was able to find character in these details." "The New York Times" described Levine's illustrations as "macro-headed, somberly expressive, astringently probing and hardly ever flattering caricatures of intellectuals and athletes, politicians and potentates" that were "replete with exaggeratedly bad haircuts, 5 o'clock shadows, ill-conceived mustaches and other grooming foibles... to make the famous seem peculiar-looking in order to take them down a peg". In later years, illustrators for the "Review" included James Ferguson of "Financial Times".  "The Washington Post" described the "lively literary disputes" conducted in the 'letters to the editor' column of the "Review" as "the closest thing the intellectual world has to bare-knuckle boxing". In addition to reviews, interviews and articles, the paper features extensive advertising from publishers promoting newly published books. It also includes a popular "personals" section that "share[s] a cultivated writing style" with its articles. One lonely heart, author Jane Juska, documented the 63 replies to her personal ad in the "Review" with a 2003 memoir, "A Round-Heeled Woman", that was. In "The Washington Post", Matt Schudel called the personal ads "sometimes laughably highbrow" and recalled that they were "spoofed by Woody Allen in the movie "Annie Hall"".  Several of the magazine's editorial assistants have become prominent in journalism, academia and literature, including Jean Strouse, Deborah Eisenberg, Mark Danner and A. O. Scott. Another former intern and a contributor to the "Review", author Claire Messud, said: "They’re incredibly generous about taking the time to go through things. So much of [business today] is about people doing things quickly, with haste. One of the first things to go out the window is a type of graciousness.... There’s a whole sort of rhythm and tone of how they deal with people. I’m sure it was always rare. But it feels incredibly precious now."  The "Review" has published, since 2009, the "NYR Daily", which focuses on the news.

Critical reaction.

"The Washington Post" calls the "Review" "a journal of ideas that has helped define intellectual discourse in the English-speaking world for the past four decades.... By publishing long, thoughtful articles on politics, books and culture, [the editors] defied trends toward glibness, superficiality and the cult of celebrity". Similarly, the "Chicago Tribune" praised the paper as "one of the few venues in American life that takes ideas seriously. And it pays readers the ultimate compliment of assuming that we do too." In a 2006 "New York" magazine feature, James Atlas stated: "It's an eclectic but impressive mix [of articles] that has made "The New York Review of Books" the premier journal of the American intellectual elite". "The Atlantic" commented in 2011 that the "Review" is written with "a freshness of perspective", and "much of it shapes our most sophisticated public discourse." In celebrating the 35th birthday of the "Review" in 1998, "The New York Times" commented, "The N.Y.R. gives off rogue intimations of being fun to put out. It hasn't lost its sneaky nip of mischief".  In 2008, Britain's "The Guardian" deemed the "Review" "scholarly without being pedantic, scrupulous without being dry". The same newspaper wrote in 2004: The... issues of the "Review" to date provide a history of the cultural life of the east coast since 1963. It manages to be... serious with a fierce democratic edge.... It is one of the last places in the English-speaking world that will publish long essays... and possibly the very last to combine academic rigour – even the letters to the editor are footnoted – with great clarity of language. In "New York" magazine, in February 2011, Oliver Sacks stated that the "Review" is "one of the great institutions of intellectual life here or anywhere." In 2012, "The New York Times" described the "Review" as "elegant, well mannered, immensely learned, a little formal at times, obsessive about clarity and factual correctness and passionately interested in human rights and the way governments violate them."  Known throughout its history as a left-liberal journal, what Tom Wolfe called "the chief theoretical organ of radical chic", the "Review" has, perhaps, had its most effective voice in wartime. According to a 2004 feature in "The Nation", One suspects they yearn for the day when they can return to their normal publishing routine – that gentlemanly pastiche of philosophy, art, classical music, photography, German and Russian history, East European politics, literary fiction – unencumbered by political duties of a confrontational or oppositional nature. That day has not yet arrived. If and when it does, let it be said that the editors met the challenges of the post-9/11 era in a way that most other leading American publications did not, and that "The New York Review of Books"... was there when we needed it most.  Sometimes accused of insularity, the "Review" has been called "The New York Review of Each Other's Books". Philip Nobile expressed a mordant criticism along these lines in his book "Intellectual Skywriting: Literary Politics and the New York Review of Books". "The Guardian" characterized such accusations as "sour grapes". Phillip Lopate commented, in 2017, that Silvers "regarded his contributors as worthy authors, and so why punish them by neglecting their latest work?". In 2008, the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote, "the pages of the 45th anniversary issue, in fact, reveal the actuality of [the paper's] willfully panoramic view".  "The Washington Post" called the 2013 50th Anniversary issue "gaudy with intellectual firepower. Four Nobel Laureates have bylines. U.S. Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer muses on reading Proust. There's the transcript of a long-lost lecture by T. S. Eliot." In 2014, Rachel Cooke wrote in "The Observer" of a recent issue: "The offer of such an embarrassment of riches is wholly amazing in a world where print journalism increasingly operates in the most threadbare of circumstances". "America" magazine echoed Zoë Heller's words about the "Review": "I like it because it educates me." Lopate adds that the "Review" "was and is the standard bearer for American intellectual life: a unique repository of thoughtful discourse, unrepentantly highbrow, in a culture increasingly given to dumbing down." Timothy Noah of "Politico" called it "the country’s best and most influential literary journal.... It's hard to imagine that Hardwick... would complain today that book reviewing is too polite."

Book-publishing arm.

The book-publishing arm of the "Review" is New York Review Books. Established in 1999, it has several imprints: New York Review Books, NYRB Classics, The New York Review Children's Collection, New York Review Comics, NYRB Poets, NYRB Lit and the Calligrams. NYRB Collections publishes collections of articles from frequent "Review" contributors. The Classics imprint reissues books that have gone out of print in the US, as well as translations of classic books. It has been called "a marvellous literary imprint... that has put hundreds of wonderful books back on our shelves."

Archives.

The New York Public Library purchased the NYRB archives in 2015.

The New York Review of Books (or NYREV or NYRB) is a semi-monthly magazine with articles on literature, culture, economics, science and current affairs. Published in New York City, it is inspired by the idea that the discussion of important books is an indispensable literary activity. "Esquire" called it "the premier literary-intellectual magazine in the English language." In 1970 writer Tom Wolfe described it as "the chief theoretical organ of Radical chic".

《纽约书评》(The New York Review of Books,缩写为NYRB)是一本在美国纽约市发行的半月刊(确切地说是每年二十期,学期段每月两期,寒暑假每月一期,显然是为了配合高校师生的生活日程),内容涉及文学、文化以及时事。杂志的出发点是:对重要书籍的讨论本身就是不可或缺的文学活动。2003年,《纽约书评》的发行量超过了115,000份。


Winner and nominees.

The nominees for the 68th Academy Awardswere announced on February 13, 1996, at 5:38 a.m. PST (13:38 UTC) at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater by president of the Academy, and the music producer Quincy Jones. "Braveheart" led all nominees with ten nominations; "Apollo 13" came in second with nine.  The winners were announced during the awards ceremony on March 25, 1996. "Braveheart" was the ninth film to win Best Picture with no acting nominations. With her Best Supporting Actress win for "Mighty Aphrodite", Mira Sorvino became the second consecutive actress to win the aforementioned category for a performance in a film directed by Woody Allen. Best Adapted Screenplay winner Emma Thompson was the first person to win Oscars for both acting and screenwriting. She had previously won Best Actress for her performance in the 1992 film "Howards End". This was the first year since the 42nd Academy Awards—and last to date—that none of the acting winners appeared in Best Picture nominees.

Awards.

Winners are listed first, highlighted in boldface, and indicated with a double dagger ().

Multiple nominations and awards.

The following 19 films received multiple nominations:  The following five films received multiple awards:

Presenters and performers.

The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or performed musical numbers.

Ceremony information.

As a result of the negative reception of David Letterman's stint as host from the preceding year's ceremony, veteran film and television director Gil Cates declined to helm the upcoming festivities. In November 1995, AMPAS recruited music producer and Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award recipient Quincy Jones as producer of the 1996 ceremony. Jones immediately selected actress and comedian Whoopi Goldberg to host the ceremony. In an interview with "Los Angeles Times" writer Susan King, Jones explained the decision to hire Goldberg saying, "She has all the qualifications to move on a dime, to carry the elegance and the dignity of the show and is very funny. She understands the street. She has everything."  One segment that was staged during the ceremony was an elaborate fashion show showcasing the nominees for Best Costume Design. Produced by fashion photographer Matthew Rolston, the production featured models such as Cameron Alborzian, Tyson Beckford, Tyra Banks, Marcus Schenkenberg and Joel West sporting various costumes from the five films nominated in the category. Initially, actor Jack Nicholson was approached to introduce the segment along with models Naomi Campbell and Claudia Schiffer. However, actor Pierce Brosnan accepted the role of presenter of the segment and award after Nicholson declined those respective duties.  Several other people and elements were also involved with the production of the ceremony. Jeff Margolis served as director for the program. Actress and talk show host Oprah Winfrey interviewed several nominees and other attendees during a seven-minute red carpet arrival segment shown at the beginning of the telecast. Musician and saxophonist Tom Scott served as musical director for the ceremony. Choreographer Jamie King supervised the performances of the Best Song nominees and two dance numbers. Babe, the pig from the eponymous film, and Miss Piggy participated in a comedy sketch during the proceedings. Actor Christopher Reeve, who was paralyzed in a horse riding accident nearly a year earlier, made a surprise appearance on the telecast urging filmmakers to make movies that face the world's most important issues head-on.

Division of Best Original Score category.

Beginning with this ceremony, the AMPAS music branch divided the category of Best Original Score into two categories: Best Dramatic Score and Best Musical or Comedy Score. This was seen as a response to the dominance of Walt Disney Feature Animation films in the Original Score and Original Song categories in recent years. Four years later, the two scoring categories were merged back into one category.

Box office performance of nominees.

At the time of the nominations announcement on February 13, the combined gross of the five Best Picture nominees at the US box office was $333 million, with an average of $66.5 million per film. "Apollo 13" was the highest earner among the Best Picture nominees with $172 million in domestic box office receipts. The film was followed by "Braveheart" ($67 million), "Babe" ($58.2 million), "Sense and Sensibility" ($24.6 million) and finally "Il Postino: The Postman" ($10.7 million).  Of the top 50 grossing movies of the year, 47 nominations went to 14 films on the list. Only "Toy Story" (2nd), "Apollo 13" (3rd), "Braveheart" (23rd), "Babe" (29th), "12 Monkeys" (31st), "Casino" (38th) and "Mr. Holland's Opus" (39th) were nominated for directing, acting, screenwriting, or Best Picture. The other box office hits that earned nominations were "Batman Forever" (1st), "Pocahontas" (4th), "Seven" (9th), "Crimson Tide" (10th), "Waterworld" (12th), "The Bridges of Madison County" (21st), "The American President" (27th) and "Sabrina" (34th).

Rainbow Coalition protest.

Several days before the ceremony, activist group Rainbow Coalition, led by Reverend Jesse Jackson, planned a protest regarding African Americans and other racial minorities in the film industry. The group was voicing its objections to unflattering portrayals of minorities in film and television and the fact that minorities were underemployed in the entertainment industry. Jackson further pointed out the disparity in racial minorities in Hollywood by noting that Best Live Action Short Film nominee Dianne Houston was the only African American nominated that year. Although the group initially planned to demonstrate outside the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion, an agreement between Jackson and producer Jones caused the protest to be moved adjacent to the broadcast facilities of the local ABC affiliate KABC-TV. Nevertheless, Jones remarked that the Academy Awards were not the appropriate venue for such protest declaring "Why should the movie business be different from anything else in America? It's a problem that permeates everything in the country. Every facet of America discriminates."

Critical reviews.

The show received a positive reception from most media publications. "The New York Times" film critic Janet Maslin raved, "Mr. Jones pointedly turned this year's ceremony into a showcase for Hollywood's new guard." She also praised host Goldberg's opening monologue, remarking that it "established the sharpness of this year's gag writing." "People" columnist Janice Min wrote that "the most egregious crime at the 68th Academy Awards on March 25 was–egad!–the relentless elegance and good taste that deprived viewers of genuine, Grade A snicker fodder. Television critic Howard Rosenberg of the "Los Angeles Times" applauded Goldberg's performance, noting that her "confident performance [...] was symbolic of her whopping improvement as host over her showing on the 1994 Oscars."  Some media outlets were more critical of the show. "Chicago Tribune" television critic Steve Johnson lamented that Goldberg "settled into bland script reading that made one long for David Letterman's cranky unpredictability in the role last year." He also stated that the "Best Costume Design fashion show" was the silliest opening Oscar production number since Rob Lowe and Snow White sang "Proud Mary" in 1989. Ken Tucker of "Entertainment Weekly" bemoaned that the dominance of Best Picture winner "Braveheart" and the lack of fashion glamour "had the makings of a tiresome evening."

Ratings and reception.

The American telecast on ABC drew in an average of 44.81 million people over its length, which was a 9% decrease from the previous year's ceremony. The show also garnered lower Nielsen ratings compared to the previous ceremony, with 30.48% of households watching over a 48.88 share. It also earned a lower 18–49 demographic rating with an 18.76 rating over a 35.27 share among viewers in that demographic.  In July 1996, the ceremony presentation received seven nominations at the 48th Primetime Emmys. Two months later, the ceremony won one of those nominations for Greg Brunton's lighting design and direction during the telecast.

"In Memoriam".

The annual "In Memoriam" tribute was presented by Academy President Arthur Hiller. The montage featured an excerpt of the main title of "The Prince of Tides" composed by James Newton Howard.  A separate tribute to actor, dancer and veteran Oscar host Gene Kelly featured tap dancer Savion Glover dancing to the song "Singin' in the Rain" from the 1952 film of the same name.

The 68th Academy Awards ceremony, organized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 1995 in the United States and took place on March 25, 1996, at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles beginning at 6:00 p.m. PST / 9:00 p.m. EST. During the ceremony, AMPAS presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as "Oscars") in 24 categories. The ceremony, televised in the United States by ABC, was produced by Quincy Jones and directed by Jeff Margolis. Actress Whoopi Goldberg hosted the show for the second time, having previously presided over the 66th ceremony in 1994. Three weeks earlier, in a ceremony held at the Regent Beverly Wilshire Hotel in Beverly Hills, California, on March 2, the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by host Richard Dreyfuss.

第68届奥斯卡颁奖典礼是美国电影艺术与科学学院旨在奖励1995年最优秀电影的一场晚会,于太平洋时区1996年3月25日下午18点(北美东部时区晚上21点)在美国加利福尼亚州洛杉矶的多萝茜·钱德勒大厅举行,共计颁发了24座奥斯卡金像奖(也称学院奖)。本届颁奖典礼由昆西·琼斯担任制片人,杰夫·马格里斯执导,通过ABC在美国直播。女演员乌比·戈德堡第二次担任主持人,她上一次主持是在1994年举行的第66届奥斯卡颁奖典礼。三个星期前的3月2日,男演员理乍得·德莱弗斯在比佛利山的威尔希尔丽晶酒店主持颁发了奥斯卡科技成果奖。


Early history.

Stanford engineering graduate Harry Williams entered the coin-operated amusement industry in 1933 and helped popularize several important pinball innovations such as the tilt mechanism, electrically-powered scoring holes, and the ability to win a free play by achieving a certain score. After working for a succession of companies including Pacific Amusement Manufacturing, Rock-Ola, and Exhibit Supply, he went into business with Lyndon Durant in 1942 under the name United Manufacturing. After a break with Durant, Williams founded the Williams Manufacturing Company in 1943 at 161 West Huron Street in Chicago, Illinois. The first seven products were a fortune-telling machine called "Selector Scope" (1944), two electro-mechanical (EM) games, "Periscope" (1944) and "Liberator" (1944), a novelty called "Zingo" (1944), a pinball conversion called "Flat-Top" (1945), another EM arcade game, "Circus Romance" (7/45) and a second pinball conversion called "Laura" (1945). The two pinball conversions (Flat-Top & Laura) were built by purchasing older pinball machines made by other companies and changing artwork and other elements on the playfield. The lack of raw materials during World War II made the manufacture of new machines difficult and expensive. The first all original amusement device made by Williams was a flipperless pinball machine called "Suspense" (1946). During the late 1940s and early 1950s, Williams continued to make pinball machines and the occasional bat-and-ball game. In 1950, Williams produced "Lucky Inning", their first pinball machine to have its bottom flippers facing inward in the modern manner.  In 1948, Williams sold 49% of his company to a Philadelphia distributor named Sam Stern, who became a vice president and took over much of the day-to-day running of the company. In 1959, Stern orchestrated a buyout of Williams by Consolidated Sun Ray, a New York retail conglomerate that operated drug stores and discount houses. Harry Williams left the company after the buyout of his company, which was renamed the Williams Electronic Manufacturing Corporation. In 1960, Harry Williams designed his last pinball machine for Williams, the horse racing-themed "Nags". The last game he designed for Williams was also one of the last electromechanical games, "Rancho" (1977).  In 1961, Stern bought Williams back from Consolidated Sun Ray. Three years later, the company was acquired by the Seeburg Corporation, which also purchased United Manufacturing. The two amusement companies were consolidated under the Williams name, but moved into the United factory. Sam Stern continued to run the amusement business, which was renamed Williams Electronics in 1967.  In 1962, "3 Coin" became the best selling williams machine with 1,100 units sold. One year later, "Skill Pool" sold 2,250 units. In 1964 Williams was purchased by the Seeburg Corporation. Its 1966 pinball machine "A-Go-Go", with its avant-garde 60s theme, sold a record 5,100 units. Early Williams pinball machines often included innovative features and pinball firsts, such as mechanical reel scoring and the "add-a-ball" feature for locations that didn't allow game replays. By 1967, pinball was in the middle of its so-called "golden age", and the number of pinball units that sold began to increase dramatically. Popular Williams pinballs included "Shangri-La" (1967), "Apollo" (1967), "Beat Time" (1967), "Smart Set" (1969), "Gold Rush" (1971), and "Space Mission" (1976).

Golden age of arcade games.

Taking note of Atari's success with "Pong" in 1972, Williams decided to enter the fledgling coin-operated arcade videogame industry. After preliminary negotiations with Magnavox, it subcontracted the Magnetic Corporation of America to create its first arcade videogame "Paddle-Ball". In 1974, Williams Electronics, Inc. was formed to acquire the company. In 1980, Seeburg (which had since been renamed XCOR International) sold Williams to Louis Nicastro, who, with his son Neil, would take the company public and run it for over two decades.  Williams developed its own breakthrough hit with the release of 1980's "Defender", whose gameplay, horizontal scrolling, and dynamic color influenced many subsequent games. It was followed by a sequel in 1981, "Stargate", and a group of popular and influential titles: "Joust", "", "Sinistar", and the licensed "Moon Patrol". With the exception of "Sinistar", these were widely ported to home systems by external developers and publishers including Atari, Inc.  After "Dragon's Lair" popularized LaserDisc video games in 1983, Williams created the LaserDisc/computer graphics hybrid racing game "Star Rider" which lost, or contributed to a loss of, 50 million US dollars for the company.

Solid state pinball.

Williams' first solid-state machines produced in 1976 were prototype runs based on electromechanical games; "Aztec" (1976) and "Grand Prix". Williams continued to release new electromechanical pinball machines through October 1977, when they released their last, "Wild Card". From November 1977, Williams released solid-state pinball games exclusively, beginning with their first solid state production model "Hot Tip" (1977), which sold 4,903 units (the electromechanical version previously released in June sold 1,300 units). From the late 1970s through the 1980s, Williams released numerous innovative pinball games, such as "Gorgar" (1979, the first pinball featuring a synthetic voice), "Firepower" (1980), "Black Knight" (1980), "Jungle Lord" (1981), "Space Shuttle" (1984), "Comet" (1985), "High Speed" (1986), "Pin*Bot" (1986), "F-14 Tomcat" (1987), "Cyclone" (1988), and "Taxi" (1988).  From 1989 through the mid 1990s, a resurgence of pinball during which machines transitioned to dot-matrix displays, Williams had a string of hits including "Black Knight 2000", "FunHouse", "", "", "Fish Tales", and "".  In 1992, the company produced the licensed "The Addams Family" pinball game based on "The Addams Family" movie (1991). "The Addams Family" sold 20,270 units, a record that still stands today. In 1993, the company produced "Twilight Zone" which sold 15,235 units. After 1993, though still the market leader, Williams never came close to matching the sales numbers of "Twilight Zone" and "The Addams Family". Williams won the American Amusement Machine Association's 1995 Manufacturer of the Year award. Medieval Madness, produced in 1997, often tops the list as the greatest pinball game of all time.  In 1999, Williams made one last attempt to revitalize pinball sales with its "Pinball 2000" machines that integrated pinball with computer graphics on embedded raster-scan displays. The innovation didn't pay off, as the manufacturing expenses exceeded the prices that the market would bear, and that same year, WMS left pinball to focus on slot machine development.

Focus on gambling machines.

As the pinball industry declined, WMS invested in the hotel industry, successfully taking public and then spinning off its hotel subsidiary, WHG Resorts, in 1996 (which was later taken private and acquired by Wyndham International). Its video game subsidiary, Midway Games, enjoyed rising fortunes in the early 1990s with a number of successful arcade games, including "Mortal Kombat" and "NBA Jam".

First slot machines.

WMS entered the reel-spinning slot machine market in 1994, and its products have helped to move the industry trend away from generic mechanical slot machines and toward games that incorporate familiar intellectual properties. For more than a century beginning in the late 1800s, mechanical slot machine reels employed limited themes: card suits, horseshoes, bells and stars, varieties of fruit, black bars and the Liberty Bell. WMS's video gaming roots would prove to be its strength when, in 1996, it introduced its first hit casino slot machine, "Reel ‘em In", a "multi-line, multi-coin secondary bonus" video slot machine. WMS followed this with a number of similar successful games like "Jackpot Party", "Boom" and "Filthy Rich". Meanwhile, by 1996, WMS had transferred all of the copyrights and trademarks in its video game library to Midway, including "Defender", "Stargate", "", "Joust" and "Smash TV", as it took Midway public and finally spun it off in 1998. With the closing of its pinball division in 1999, WMS focused entirely on the gaming machine industry. During the 1990s, that industry grew as additional states permitted casino gambling and video lottery games and as Native American tribes built gaming casinos.  By 2001, WMS introduced its very successful "Monopoly"-themed series of "participation" slots, which the company licenses or leases to casinos, instead of selling the games to the casinos. The company's participation games have included machines based on such well-known entertainment-related brands as "Men in Black", "The Price Is Right", "Match Game", "Hollywood Squares", Clint Eastwood, "Powerball", "Green Acres", "The Dukes of Hazzard", "Top Gun", "The Wizard of Oz", "", "The Lord of the Rings" and "Clue". Some of these games are networked within casinos and even between multiple casinos so that players have a chance to win large jackpots based on the total amount of play received by all of the machines in the network. These branded games proved popular with players and profitable for WMS, as the net licensing revenues and lease fees generated by each game have exceeded the profit margins of its games for sale. Other recent games include "Brazilian Beauty" and "Hot Hot Super Jackpot". WMS Industries acquired a second subsidiary, Netherlands-based gaming company Orion Financement Company B.V., in July 2006.  From fiscal year 2006 to 2011 the company's revenues grew from $451 million to $783 million, respectively, and its net income reached $113 million in 2010. The company's revenues decreased to $690 million in 2012.

Later products, technology, business.

WMS continued to produce video gaming machines and, to a smaller extent, reel-spinning slots, for sale and for lease to casinos in the U.S., selected foreign markets and state lotteries. Some of WMS's product designs reflected the changing demographics of its industry. Younger players raised on video games often seek more challenging experiences, both physical and mental, than do women age 55 to 65 – the traditional audience for slot machines. Accordingly, some of the company's machines incorporate surround sound, flat-panel display screens and animated, full-color images.  WMS also manufactured the G+ series of video reel slots, the Community Gaming family of interconnected slots, as well as mechanical reels, poker games, and video lottery terminals. WMS began to offer online gaming in 2010 to persons over 18 years old in the UK and in 2011 in the US at www.jackpotparty.com. In 2012, WMS partnered with Large Animal Games to incorporate several of WMS's slot machine games into a cruise ship-themed Facebook game application titled "Lucky Cruise". By playing games and enlisting Facebook friends' help, players can accumulate "lucky charms" (instead of money). The game play is similar to playing a slot machine but includes a "light strategy component". In 2012, the company introduced gaming on mobile devices and focused its efforts on expanding its online game offerings. For casinos, it introduced "My Poker" video poker games.  WMS technologies included:  Approximately 70% of WMS's revenues in 2010 were derived from U.S. customers. Its design facilities at the time were Chicago, Illinois. It had other facilities and offices across the United States and international development and distribution facilities located in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Canada, China, India, Mexico, the Netherlands, South Africa, Spain and the United Kingdom and an online gaming center in Belgium.

Acquisition by Scientific Games.

WMS merged with Scientific Games in October 2013, becoming a wholly owned subsidiary of Scientific Games. Scientific Games paid $1.5 billion for WMS, and WMS shareholders received $26.00 per share. At the time of the merger, the company's stock ceased trading on the New York Stock Exchange.  In 2016, WMS was reorganized and fully merged into Scientific Games. Today, WMS is retained as a brand of Scientific Games, along with SG, Bally and Shuffle Master.

Williams Interactive.

In the first half of 2012, WMS Industries acquired Stockholm, Sweden-based Jadestone Group AB and then Cedar Falls, Iowa-based Phantom EFX which would later become part of the announced subsidiary Williams Interactive.  In July 2012, WMS Industries announced the formation of "Williams Interactive" to serve the global online gaming industry. Its aims was "to focus on the growth, development and operational execution of the company’s worldwide online wagering, social, casual and mobile gaming initiatives." In the same month they announced the launch of its Facebook social casino game Jackpot Party Casino  In October 2012 both Betsson and Unibet online casinos entered multi-year agreements with Williams Interactive to provide "such premium video slot games as Jackpot Party, Zeus or Reel ‘Em In which they can offer to their registered players (more than 12 million customers).".  Williams Interactive produce the Fire Queen slot game which is available at a large number of physical and online casinos  In June 2014 EveryMatrix, an iGaming software provider which offers white label and turnkey solutions, partnered with Williams Interactive. This partnership will allow EveryMatrix to offer slot content from Williams Interactive.

WMS Industries, Inc. is an American electronic gaming and amusement manufacturer in Enterprise, Nevada. WMS traces its roots to 1943, to the Williams Manufacturing Company, founded by Harry E. Williams. However, the company that became WMS Industries was formally founded in 1974 as Williams Electronics, Inc.

WMS产业有限公司(WMS Industries, Inc.)是美国电子游戏与娱乐公司,开发设施位于伊利诺斯芝加哥。2013年公司被科学游戏全资收购。公司的主要经营子公司有WMS游戏和威廉姆斯互动。WMS最早可追溯到哈瑞·H·威廉姆斯在1943年创立的威廉姆斯制造(Williams Manufacturing Company)。不过今天名为WMS产业的公司则是从1974年正式建立的威廉姆斯电子有限公司(Williams Electronics, Inc.)开始。


History.

The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement was founded by Les U. Knight, a high school substitute teacher living in Portland, Oregon. After becoming involved in the environmental movement as a college student in the 1970s, Knight attributed most of the dangers faced by the planet to human overpopulation. He joined the Zero Population Growth organization, and chose to be vasectomised at age 25. He later concluded that the extinction of humanity would be the best solution to the Earth's environmental problems. He believes that this idea has also been held by some people throughout human history.  In 1991, Knight began publishing VHEMT's newsletter, known as "These Exit Times". In the newsletter, he asked readers to further human extinction by not procreating. VHEMT has also published cartoons, including a comic strip titled "Bonobo Baby", featuring a woman who forgoes childbearing in favor of adopting a bonobo. In 1996, Knight created a website for VHEMT; it was available in 11 languages by 2010. VHEMT's logo features the letter "V" (for voluntary) and a picture of the Earth with north at the bottom.

Organization and promotion.

VHEMT functions as a loose network rather than a formal organization, and does not compile a list of members. Daniel Metz of Willamette University stated in 1995 that VHEMT's mailing list had just under 400 subscribers. Six years later, Fox News said the list had only 230 subscribers. Knight says that anyone who agrees with his ideology is a member of the movement; and that this includes "millions of people".  Knight serves as the spokesman for VHEMT. He attends environmental conferences and events, where he publicizes information about population growth. VHEMT's message has, however, primarily been spread through coverage by media outlets, rather than events and its newsletter. VHEMT sells buttons and T-shirts, as well as bumper stickers that read "Thank you for not breeding".  In 2018, a supporter of the movement appeared on the popular YouTube channel LAHWF in a video called, "Chatting with a Supporter of the Voluntary Human Extinction Movement".

Ideology.

Knight argues that the human population is far greater than the Earth can handle, and that the best thing for Earth's biosphere is for humans to voluntarily cease reproducing. He says that humans are "incompatible with the biosphere" and that human existence is causing environmental damage which will eventually bring about the extinction of humans (as well as other organisms). According to Knight, the vast majority of human societies have not lived sustainable lifestyles, and attempts to live environmentally friendly lifestyles do not change the fact that human existence has ultimately been destructive to the Earth and many of its non-human organisms. Voluntary human extinction is promoted on the grounds that it will prevent human suffering and the extinction of other species; Knight points out that many species are threatened by the increasing human population.  James Ormrod, a psychologist who profiled the group in the journal "Psychoanalysis, Culture & Society", notes that the "most fundamental belief" of VHEMT is that "human beings should stop reproducing", and that some people consider themselves members of the group but do not actually support human extinction. Knight, however, believes that even if humans become more environmentally friendly, they could still return to environmentally destructive lifestyles and hence should eliminate themselves. Residents of First World countries bear the most responsibility to change, according to Knight, as they consume the largest proportion of resources.  Knight believes that Earth's non-human organisms have a higher overall value than humans and their accomplishments, such as art: "The plays of Shakespeare and the work of Einstein can't hold a candle to a tiger". He argues that species higher in the food chain are less important than lower species. His ideology is drawn in part from deep ecology, and he sometimes refers to the Earth as Gaia. He notes that human extinction is unavoidable, and that it is better to become extinct soon to avoid causing the extinction of other animals. The potential for evolution of other organisms is also cited as a benefit.  Knight sees abstinence from reproduction as an altruistic choice – a way to prevent involuntary human suffering – and cites the deaths of children from preventable causes as an example of needless suffering. Knight claims that non-reproduction would eventually allow humans to lead idyllic lifestyles in an environment comparable to the Garden of Eden, and maintains that the last remaining humans would be proud of their accomplishment. Other benefits of ceasing human reproduction that he cites include the end of abortion, war, and starvation. Knight argues that "procreation today is de facto child abuse". He maintains that the standard of human life will worsen if resources are consumed by a growing population rather than spent solving existing issues. He speculates that if people ceased to reproduce, they would use their energy for other pursuits, and suggests adoption and foster care as outlets for people who desire children.  VHEMT rejects government-mandated human population control programs in favor of voluntary population reduction, supporting only the use of birth control and willpower to prevent pregnancies. Knight states that coercive tactics are unlikely to permanently lower the human population, citing the fact that humanity has survived catastrophic wars, famines, and viruses. Though their newsletter's name recalls the suicide manual "Final Exit", the idea of mass suicide is rejected, and they have adopted the slogan "May we live long and die out". A 1995 survey of VHEMT members found that a majority of them felt a strong moral obligation to protect the Earth, distrusted the ability of political processes to prevent harm to the environment, and were willing to surrender some of their rights for their cause. VHEMT members who strongly believed that "Civilization [is] headed for collapse" were most likely to embrace these views. However, VHEMT does not take any overt political stances.  VHEMT promotes a more extreme ideology than Population Action International, a group that argues humanity should reduce—but not eliminate—its population to care for the Earth. However, the VHEMT platform is more moderate and serious than the Church of Euthanasia, which advocates population reduction by suicide and cannibalism. The 1995 survey found that 36% considered themselves members of Earth First! or had donated to the group in the previous five years.

Reception.

Knight states his group's ideology runs counter to contemporary society's natalism. He believes this pressure has stopped many people from supporting, or even discussing, population control. He admits that his group is unlikely to succeed, but contends that attempting to reduce the Earth's population is the only moral option.  Reception of Knight's idea in the mainstream media has been mixed. Writing in the "San Francisco Chronicle", Gregory Dicum states that there is an "undeniable logic" to VHEMT's arguments, but he doubts whether Knight's ideas can succeed, arguing that many people desire to have children and cannot be dissuaded. Stephen Jarvis echoes this skepticism in "The Independent", noting that VHEMT faces great difficulty owing to the basic human reproductive drive. At "The Guardian"s website, Guy Dammann applauds the movement's aim as "in many ways laudable", but argues that it is absurd to believe that humans will voluntarily seek extinction. Freelance writer Abby O'Reilly writes that since having children is frequently viewed as a measure of success, VHEMT's goal is difficult to attain. Knight contends in response to these arguments that though sexual desire is natural, human desire for children is a product of enculturation.  The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York has criticized Knight's platform, arguing that the existence of humanity is divinely ordained. Ormrod claims that Knight "arguably abandons deep ecology in favour of straightforward misanthropy". He notes that Knight's claim that the last humans in an extinction scenario would have an abundance of resources promotes his cause based on "benefits accruing to humans". Ormrod sees this type of argument as counter-intuitive, arguing that it borrows the language of "late-modern consumer societies". He faults Knight for what he sees as a failure to develop a consistent and unambiguous ideology. "The Economist" characterizes Knight's claim that voluntary human extinction is advisable due to limited resources as "Malthusian bosh". The paper further states that compassion for the planet does not necessarily require the pursuit of human extinction. Sociologist Frank Furedi also deems VHEMT to be a Malthusian group, classifying them as a type of environmental organization that "[thinks] the worst about the human species". Writing in "Spiked", Josie Appleton argues that the group is indifferent to humanity, rather than "anti-human".  Brian Bethune writes in "Maclean's" that Knight's logic is "as absurd as it's unassailable". However, he doubts Knight's claim that the last survivors of the human race would have pleasant lives and suspects that a "collective loss of the will to live" would prevail. In response to Knight's platform, journalist Sheldon Richman argues that humans are "active agents" and can change their behavior. He contends that people are capable of solving the problems facing Earth. Alan Weisman, author of "The World Without Us", suggests a limit of one child per family as a preferable alternative to abstinence from reproduction.  Katharine Mieszkowski of Salon.com recommends that childless people adopt VHEMT's arguments when facing "probing questions" about their childlessness. Writing in the "Journal for Critical Animal Studies", Carmen Dell'Aversano notes that VHEMT seeks to renounce children as a symbol of perpetual human progress. She casts the movement as a form of "queer oppositional politics" because it rejects perpetual reproduction as a form of motivation. She argues that the movement seeks to come to a new definition of "civil order", as Lee Edelman suggested that queer theory should. Dell'Aversano believes that VHEMT fulfills Edelman's mandate because they embody the death drive rather than ideas that focus on the reproduction of the past.  Although Knight's organization has been featured in a book titled "Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief", "The Guardian" journalist Oliver Burkeman notes that in a phone conversation Knight seems "rather sane and self-deprecating". Weisman echoes this sentiment, characterizing Knight as "thoughtful, soft-spoken, articulate, and quite serious". Philosophers Steven Best and Douglas Kellner view VHEMT's stance as extreme, but they note that the movement formed in response to extreme stances found in "modern humanism".

The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement (VHEMT) is an environmental movement that calls for all people to abstain from reproduction to cause the gradual voluntary extinction of humankind. VHEMT supports human extinction primarily because, in the group's view, it would prevent environmental degradation. The group states that a decrease in the human population would prevent a significant amount of human-caused suffering. The extinctions of non-human species and the scarcity of resources required by humans are frequently cited by the group as evidence of the harm caused by human overpopulation.

人类自愿灭绝运动(英语:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement,简称英语:VHEMT)是一场号召所有人放弃生育,逐步实现自愿性人类灭绝的环保运动。运动的支持者认为人类灭绝可以防止环境恶化,该组织称人口过多存在多种危害,如物种灭绝、人类所需资源短缺等,减少人口就能显著减少人为因素造成的苦难。


Life.

Lady Quan was the daughter of Quan Shang (全尚). Her mother is the daughter of Sun Gong, the grandson of Sun Jing. Her relative Quan Cong married Sun Luban, a daughter of Wu's founding emperor Sun Quan. When she was young, she looked pretty and was favoured by Sun Luban. Every time Sun Luban entered the palace, she took Lady Quan to visit her father. When a succession struggle between Sun Quan's sons Sun He and Sun Ba was ongoing, Sun Luban, who had a feud with Sun He's mother, urged her father to arrange a marriage between Lady Quan and Sun Liang (another of Sun Quan's sons born to Lady Pan) because Sun Liang and his mother were becoming increasingly favoured by Sun Quan. Around 250, the succession struggle between Sun He and Sun Ba concluded when Sun Quan deposed Sun He from his position as crown prince and forced Sun Ba to commit suicide. Sun Liang was designated as the new heir apparent to the Wu throne.  In 252, Sun Liang ascended the throne upon the death of his father. In January 253, he instated Lady Quan as the empress. Following that, Empress Quan's family and relatives rose to power as six members of the Quan clan (including Quan Shang) were enfeoffed as marquises and assumed high offices in the Wu government and military forces. This was regarded as a phenomenon because since the founding of Wu in 229, there had never been a case of "waiqi" (外戚; relatives of the emperor's wives) playing prominent roles in the Wu political scene. In 257, when Zhuge Dan (a general from Wu's rival state Cao Wei) started a rebellion in the Wei-controlled Shouchun (壽春; around present-day Shou County, Anhui), he requested help from Wu so Sun Liang ordered the Quans to lead troops to Shouchun to assist Zhuge Dan. However, the rebellion was suppressed by Wei forces and Zhuge Dan was killed, while four of the Quans surrendered and defected to Wei, thereafter the Quans' influence in Wu weakened drastically.  In 258, Sun Liang was deposed from the throne by Sun Chen, a distant relative of the Wu imperial family who rose to power in the 250s and became the regent of Wu. Sun Liang became known as the "Prince of Kuaiji" after his dethronement while Empress Quan also lost her place as the empress. In 260, Sun Liang's elder half-brother and successor, Sun Xiu (who eliminated Sun Chen after ascending the throne in 258) further demoted Sun Liang to "Marquis of Houguan" and sent Sun Liang to his marquisate in Houguan County (侯官縣; around present-day Fuzhou, Fujian). Lady Quan accompanied Sun Liang to Houguan County and settled there. She returned to the Wu capital Jianye (建業; present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu) after Wu was vanquished in 280 by forces of the Jin dynasty. She died sometime in the Yongning era (301–303) of the reign of Emperor Hui of Jin.

Empress Quan (244 – 300s), also known as Quan Huijie, was an empress of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. She was married to Sun Liang, the second emperor of Wu.

全皇后(?-300年),名不详(一说名为惠解),吴郡钱塘(今浙江省杭州市)人,吴废帝孙亮之皇后,随孙亮一同被废并离宫。


Regime.

The administrative, institutional, economic, social, and political framework of Luxembourg was swept away without restraint. Unlike a simple transfer of sovereignty, such as Luxembourg had experienced many over the previous decades, this period was to put Luxembourg and surrounding areas on the path to a new kind of society.  The privileges of the masters and confraternities of artisans were abolished in November 1795. Under the Austrian Netherlands, civil registrations (births, deaths, marriages) were left to the parishes, and linked to sacraments administered by the Church. From June 1796, this changed: registrations were performed by a civil registration officer. Luxembourg was a Catholic society, in which religion was omnipresent and resistant to change. In this traditional society, the secularisation of marriage and the introduction of divorce were fault lines, which caused great consternation.  The institutions and administrative machinery introduced by the French in this period is the origin of today's government institutions in Luxembourg: districts ("arrondissements"), cantons and communes were introduced under the French, and continue to exist.  French rule in Luxembourg provoked widespread discontent, and the causes for this are several: religious persecutions, the suppression of the religious orders in the city of Luxembourg, military requisitions, taxation, and the introduction of obligatory military service from 1798. This discontent culminated in the Peasants' War that same year, a revolt in the northern part of the department that was limited to the peasantry. Among other classes of society, however, the benefits of the Napoleonic reforms did meet with a level of appreciation.  At the same time, a fundamental characteristic of the French Revolutionary government, administrative centralisation, collided with Luxembourgish traditions: each department received a central commissioner. The department of Forêts saw four commissioners over the years, all of them from France proper.

Economy.

In the city of Luxembourg, due to the abolition of the corporations, a commercial and artisanal revolution took place, allowing a middle class to emerge, whose members could for the first time participate in political life under the French regime.  Another development linked to the disappearance of the corporations occurred in the countryside: small artisanal business sprang up, often with only one employee. Employer and worker would enjoy a certain proximity, eating at the same table. In 1803, the "livret d'ouvrier" (labourer's booklet) was introduced. This was to list what work labourers did for whom, and a reference from their last employer every time they changed workplace. If travelling without their booklet, they could be reported as a vagabond, and punished accordingly. The Code civil's Article 1781 established the "legal superiority of the employer," while the Code pénal in 1810 forbade workers from forming trade unions. These provisions were evidence of a great mistrust of the world of the workers, who were seen as a danger to society. The overarching objective of the livret d'ouvrier was to keep under surveillance a social class judged seen as dangerous, and to prevent poaching of labourers amongst competing enterprises, in this period of manpower shortages. Finally, it represented an "effective means of domination by the employers," and "a veritable internal passport."

Legacy.

The Code civil, introduced by the French, had a profound impact on Luxembourgish society, and is still in force 200 years later. Luxembourgish law remains close to French law: Luxembourgish law students study in France or in Belgium. Arguments before the courts, and the announcement of verdicts, are conducted in French. Laws and regulations were published in French and German from 1816, but since 1945, only in French.

Forêts was a department of the French First Republic, and later the First French Empire, in present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and Germany. Its name, meaning 'forests', comes from the Ardennes forests. It was formed on 24 October 1795, after the Southern Netherlands had been annexed by France on 1 October. Before annexation, the territory was part of the Duchy of Luxembourg and the Duchy of Bouillon. Its capital was Luxembourg City.

森林省(;;),或音译作福雷省,是法国第一共和国及后来法兰西第一帝国的一个省份,位于今德国、比利时和卢森堡,得名于阿登森林,省会卢森堡城。该省份成立于1795年,时值法国吞并奥属尼德兰。


Playing career.

Club.

Born in Amstelveen, North Holland to Surinamese parents, Reiziger started his career with hometown's AFC Ajax, making his first-team debut at the age of 17 then serving two consecutive loan spells, with FC Volendam and FC Groningen: with the latter, in the 1993–94 season, he scored a career-best six goals while operating also as a midfielder.  Upon his return to Ajax, Reiziger established himself as a renowned defensive element, helping the club to, among other conquests, the 1994–95 edition of the UEFA Champions League. In 1996 he signed for A.C. Milan, but after a season marred by injury, he departed for FC Barcelona where he spent the following seven years, arriving at the same time as compatriot and former Ajax boss Louis van Gaal; though not an undisputed starter, he nonetheless featured heavily for the Catalans, amassing more than 200 overall appearances and helping the club to back-to-back La Liga titles.  In 2004, Reiziger moved to Middlesbrough on a Bosman transfer. He scored once in the league for "Boro", against Aston Villa in December 2004. However, after another campaign plagued by physical problems, he left and returned to the Netherlands to see out his career at PSV Eindhoven (in his second year he won the Eredivisie, and was also reunited with Ajax, "Barça" and national teammate Patrick Kluivert, although the two rarely ever played).

International.

Reiziger made his debut for the Dutch national team on 12 October 1994, against Norway. He played for his country at the UEFA Euro 1996, 1998 FIFA World Cup, Euro 2000 and Euro 2004, retiring from international play after the latter.  Shortly after signing for PSV, Reiziger said he would consider playing for the Netherlands again if the opportunity arose, but he was never recalled again, amassing 72 appearances in ten years.

Coaching career.

After retiring, Reiziger settled in Barcelona. He later went on to coach Sparta Rotterdam at youth level and, subsequently and successively, acted as assistant to Gert Kruys and Alex Pastoor.  On 20 June 2017, Reiziger returned to Ajax as manager of the reserves who competed in the Eerste Divisie, replacing Marcel Keizer. In his first season in charge he led the squad to the league title, but they were ineligible for promotion; he also acted as interim for the first team during one match after the dismissal of Keizer, defeating Willem II 3–1 at home.  After Reiziger's contract expired, he was replaced by Mitchell van der Gaag at the helm of Ajax B. He was then offered a position as assistant coach of the first team, which he accepted.

Honours.

Player.

Ajax  Barcelona  PSV

Manager.

Jong Ajax

Michael John Reiziger (, born 3 May 1973) is a Dutch former professional footballer who played mainly as a right back, currently the assistant manager of AFC Ajax.

米高·约翰·列斯加(Michael John Reiziger,1973年-5月3日)前荷兰足球运动员,担任右闸,他被PSV燕豪芬放弃后决定退役。


Early years.

Jie is generally known as Xia Jie (夏桀) or Jie of Xia. His given name was Lü Gui (履癸). Jie ascended to the throne in the year of "Renchen" (壬辰). Initially, his capital was in Zhenxun. He lived there for three years and constructed his tilt palace. About the same time, he destroyed the pyramid of Rong (容台), and quelled a rebellion by the Quanyi people (aka "Fei Barbarians") after they entered Qi, near Fen.  His parents were Fa of Xia and his wife.

Emperor of Xia.

Ruling.

Jie is known to have lived a lavish lifestyle with slaves and treated his people with extreme cruelty. His style of ruling was reckless and filled with sex, luxury and entertainment. He generally disliked people who criticized him, and many were indeed afraid of him.  In the sixth year of Jie's regime, he entertained envoys from vassals and neighbors. He received an envoy from the Qizhong barbarian people. In the 11th year, he summoned all his vassals to his court. The Youmin kingdom did not come, so Jie attacked and conquered it.  In his 13th year of the ruling, he moved his capital from Zhenxun to Henan. About that time, he began using the Nian (<unk>), or sedan chair, on which he was carried by servants.  The next year, he led an army to Minshan. There, he found two of the King of Minshan's daughters, Wan and Yan. They were unmarried and very beautiful, so he took them as his wives, renaming them Zhao ("苕") and Hua. He abandoned his original wife Mo Xi ("妹喜") and built a pyramid on top of the Tilt Palace for them to live in.

Alcohol lake.

According to Liu Xiang’s book "Lienü zhuan" written much later, around 18 BCE, Jie was corrupted by his infatuation with his concubine Mo Xi (妺喜 or "末喜"), who was beautiful, but completely lacking in virtue. Among other things, she liked to drink, enjoyed music, and also had a penchant for jugglers and sing-song girls. Apparently, she had Jie order a lake of wine made. They both sailed about in the alcohol lake in an orgy of drunken naked men and women bathing and drinking. She then commanded 3,000 men to drink the lake dry, only to laugh when they all drowned. This event was also recorded in the Han Ying’s book "Han shi waizhuan".

Jie’s cuisine.

A great deal of effort was spent on Jie’s cuisine and his requirements. Vegetables had to come from the northwest, fish had to be from the East Sea, seasonings and sauces had to come from ginger that grew in the south, sea salt had to come from the north. Several hundred people were employed just to supply Jie with his meals. Anyone that got his meal wrong was beheaded.  Jie was also a known alcoholic, but he did not drink regular wine. He drank a type of pure alcohol wine (清醇). The people working for him who could not supply this drink were killed. Many people died because of this. And while he was drinking wine it was required that he ride on someone’s back like a horse.  In one incident Jie was riding the back of a top chancellor like a horse. After a while the chancellor was tired to the point that he could no longer crawl or move. He asked Emperor Jie to spare him. Jie immediately dragged him out to be executed. Another chancellor, Guan Longfeng (關龍逢), told the emperor that he was losing the trust of his people along with the Xia dynasty’s rivers and mountains (江山). After yelling at Guan, he too was dragged out to be killed.

Xia Dynasty collapse.

The rise of Shang.

The Xia Dynasty held suzerainty over a number of kingdoms, one of which was the Kingdom of Shang. During Jie's reign, Shang grew in power, initially at the expense of Xia's other vassals. A person by the name of Zi Lü was able to win many supporters from as many as 40 smaller kingdoms. Tang of Shang recognized that Jie mistreated the people and used this as a way to convince other supporters. In one speech Tang of Shang said that creating chaos is not something he wanted, but given the terror of Jie, he has to follow the mandate of heaven and use this opportunity to overthrow Xia. He also pointed out that even Jie’s own military generals would not obey his orders.  In the 15th year of Jie’s reign, Tang of Shang began moving Lü (履) to the capital Bo. About two years later Shang sent his minister Yi Yin as an envoy to Jie. Yi remained in the Xia capital for about three years, before returning to Shang.  The Shang’s power continued to grow. In the 26th year of Jie’s reign, Shang conquered Wen. Two years later, Shang was attacked by Kunwu (昆吾), and several years of war between Shang and Kunwu followed. Despite this setback, Shang continued to expand on a number of fronts, gathering vassal troops in Jingbo (景亳). The Shang army and allied forces conquered Mixu (密須) (today's 密縣), Wei, and attacked Gu (顧), which was also conquered the following year. Around the same time Zhong Gu, chief historian of Jie, fled from the Xia to the Shang.

Natural disasters.

As Jie’s reign went on, the histories record unusual and increasingly dire natural phenomena. These began in the 10th year of Jie’s reign, when five stars were seen in the sky in alignment and a meteor shower occurred, followed by an earthquake. It is documented that Jie also saw the "money face" (脸钱) during this time but refused to share it among his people, leading to the downfall of the Xia dynasty.  In the 29th year of Jie’s reign he tried to dig a water-tunnel through the Qu mountain, but the next year the mountain collapsed with a landslide. There was also a disaster at Linsui (聆隧) in the winter.  Records from the later Qin Dynasty say that during the last year of Jie’s reign, ice formed during the summer mornings and frost occurred through July. Heavy rainfall toppled buildings, hot and cold weather arrived in disorder, and crops failed. Some scientists correlate this event with a volcanic winter, possibly due to the Minoan eruption of Thera circa 1628 BC.

Battle of Mingtiao.

In the 31st year of Jie's reign, Tang of Shang dispatched troops from Er (<unk>) to simultaneously attack Xia and Kunwu. Kunwu was quickly defeated. By this time, the Xia were getting weaker near the Yellow River while the Shang were becoming stronger.  The Shang army then fought Jie's forces in the Battle of Mingtiao, in a heavy thunder storm, and defeated the Xia army.  Jie himself escaped and fled to Sanzong. The Shang forces, under their general Wuzi (戊子), pursued Jie to Cheng, captured him at Jiaomen and deposed him, bringing the Xia dynasty to an end. Eventually, Jie was released in Nanchao. Jie eventually died of illness. Tang of Shang succeeded as Emperor by Tang, who inaugurated the Shang Dynasty.

Family.

Emperor Jie had a wife named Mo Xi (妹喜), but he later abandoned her for the King of Minshan's daughters Wan and Yan whom Jie renamed Zhao and Hua. Emperor Jie had no known children with his wives.

Emperor Jie (; traditionally 17281675 BCE) was the 17th and last ruler of the Xia dynasty of China. He is traditionally regarded as a tyrant and oppressor who brought about the collapse of a dynasty.

(?-?),姒姓,夏后氏,名履癸,又称夏桀,中国夏朝第十七任君主,亦是最后一任君主。发之子。


Modern history.

In 1914, outer areas of Incheon City (including former city centre of Gwangyo-dong of old Incheon) and Bupyeong County were joined together under the name "Bucheon". In 1931, Gyenam township ("myeon", 계남면) was renamed Sosa township ("myeon", 소사면). In 1936, the westernmost part of Bucheon which were part of old Incheon (including the former Incheon city centre of Gwangyo-dong) was incorporated in Incheon City and in 1940 some other part of old Incheon belonging to Bucheon Country was incorporated in Incheon again while part of old Bupyeong was annexed to Incheon at the same time. In 1941, Sosa township promoted to "eup" (town) status.  January 1, 1963, when the great expansion of Seoul was implemented, several districts were combined to Yeongdeungpo-gu (영등포구) of Seoul Metropolitan City as below.  In 1988, two districts were established. Bucheon was divided into Nam-gu ("south", ) and Jung-gu ("central", ) along the Seoul-Incheon trainline. Present day Sosa-gu was formerly called Nam-gu.  In 1993, Bucheon's Jung-gu was separated into two further districts, forming Wonmi () and Ojeong () Districts.  The three districts were abolished in July 2016 as Bucheon decided to become a unified city without any administrative districts.

Arts and education.

Bucheon promotes itself as the cultural centre of the Seoul Metropolitan Area. The Bucheon Philharmonic Orchestra is located there, an annual international film festival is held in July called the Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival or BiFan, and an annual international bboy competition called Bucheon Bboy International Championship (BBIC) held by since 2016.  Bucheon's institutions of higher education include: Bucheon College, Yuhan College, Catholic University of Korea Bucheon campus, and Seoul Theological University.  The city was designated "City of Literature" and has been a member of UNESCO Creative Cities Network since 2017.

Shopping.

There are a number of markets in Bucheon, including the traditional market that runs along the south side of Bucheon Station, and a smaller traditional market that is located between Songnae Station and Jungdong Station. Bucheon Station has an underground shopping center, a small Starbucks, and an E-Mart with a small Kyobo Book store on the top floor.  There are many department stores. In the Jung Dong area there is a Lotte Department store (formally GS Square) with a HomePlus located just across the street. On the Jung Dong and Sang Dong cusp there are a number of shopping places including the Hyundai Department Store, E-mart, and UPLEX (formally known as "The Mall"). UPLEX has a CGV movie cinema. The main Bucheon intercity bus terminal is attached to a shopping center called Newcore and it has a grocery store called Kim's Club located on the ground floor. There is also a movie cinema called Primus (프리머스) located in Newcore which is change into CGV nowadays. There is also a large HomePlus located beside Newcore with a Save Zone shopping center opposite it.  Songnae Station has a Toona Shopping Mall, which mostly sells clothing. Yeokgok Station has a Homeplus. There is also a Homeplus in Northern Bucheon, nearer to Bucheon Stadium.

Bars and restaurants.

The busiest areas for bars and restaurants are located by Bucheon Station, Lotte Department Store (formally GS Square), and Hyundai Department Store.

Transportation.

Bucheon has an extensive bus network of local and area buses that connect the city to Seoul, Incheon and other surrounding cities. Bucheon Bus Terminal has buses connecting to different cities and provinces throughout the country. The Seoul Subway System Line 1 and Line 7 runs through Bucheon. There are currently five stations in Seoul Subway Line Line 1 within Bucheon City, including Bucheon Station and Songnae Station, and seven stations in the Line 7, including Kkachiul, Bucheon Stadium, Chunui, Sinjung-dong, Bucheon City Hall, and Sang-dong, which continues through Incheon ending at Bupyeong Station.  Bucheon has currently two subway lines under construction. The Sosa-Wonsi Line will open in 2018, connecting Bucheon's Sosa Station of the Line 1 with Ansan's Choji Station of Seoul Subway Line 4. The Daegok-Sosa Line will open in 2021, connecting with the Sosa-Wonsi Line as a single line. It will provide subway service in the northern area of Bucheon and connect the city to Gimpo International Airport Station where transfers to Seoul Subway Line 5, Seoul Subway Line 9, AREX and Gimpo Goldline will be available. The line terminates at Daegok Station in Goyang, which offers a transfer to Seoul Subway Line 3 and Gyeongui-Jungang Line.  In addition, the city is getting a completely new subway line in the future which will connect Bucheon's northern Wonjeong area to Hongik University Station.

Religion.

There are a number of churches in Bucheon, including a Full Gospel Church near Lotte Department Store and the English-language "Bucheon Onnuri English Ministry" (BOEM) in Sang Dong. There is also a Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints located a short ways north of Bucheon Station. Evangelism and mission is a key expression of Christianity in the Bucheon churches. There is also Seogwangsa Temple, beside Weonmisan Mountain.

Sports.

Bucheon is home to the K League Challenge football team Bucheon FC 1995.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Bucheon is twinned with:

Bucheon () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Bucheon is a satellite city of Seoul, away. This city is located between Incheon and Seoul.

富川市()位于大韩民国京畿道的西部,于1973年成立,是一个以工业为主的卫星城市。东侧是首尔特别市、西侧是仁川广域市。


Geography.

Narnia.

The country of Narnia is where most of the action of the series is set. According to the mythology of the series, Narnia was created by the great lion, Aslan, and is filled with talking animals and mythical creatures. C. S. Lewis may have taken the name from the Italian town of Narni, whose Latin name was in fact Narnia. Narnia features rolling hills rising into low mountains to the south, and is predominantly forested except

Archenland.

Archenland is a mountainous country south of Narnia. It is bordered on the north by Narnia and on the south by the Winding Arrow river. The seat of government is at Anvard, in the heart of the country, a fortified area. No other towns or villages are mentioned in the Chronicles. It is described as being somewhat open parkland, with many

Calormen.

Calormen is a semi-arid empire in the south of the world of Narnia. Notable geographic features include the Flaming Mountain of Lagour (a volcano) and the Great Desert. The Great Desert is in the northern part of the country, and the difficulty of crossing it discouraged the Calormenes from invading Archenland and Narnia. The capital of Calormen is Tashbaan, located on an island near the mouth of the River of Calormen, which flows from west to east in the north of Calormen, just south of the Great Desert.  Tashbaan is described as one of the wonders of the world. The city is a hot and crowded place, though with fine streets, magnificent palaces, and gardens. It is built on a natural slope, rising to the palace of the Tisroc and the great Temple of Tash at the

Eastern Ocean.

Numerous islands and archipelagoes dot the Eastern Ocean. Most notable among these are Galma, the Seven Isles, The Lone Islands (a subject of the Narnian crown), and Terebinthia. At the far end of the Eastern Ocean the geography becomes completely fantastic (as a result of the Narnian world being flat) where

Other lands.

To the north of Narnia lie Ettinsmoor and the Wild Lands of the North, both inhabited by giants and dragons. The most prominent settlement is the House of Harfang, a community of giants that is apparently the remnant of a much larger city (Giant City Ruinous) which was abandoned generations ago and fell into ruin.  The land west of Narnia is an uninhabited region of rugged mountains known as the Western Wild. The land of Telmar lies somewhere beyond this region, but its exact location was never documented - forgotten even

Inspiration.

The landscape of Lewis' native Ireland, in particular Ulster, played a large part in the creation of the Narnian landscape. In his essay "On Stories", Lewis wrote "I have seen landscapes, notably in the Mourne Mountains and southwards which under a particular light made me feel that at any moment a giant might raise his head

Inhabitants.

Humans from Earth.

A total of eleven named humans from Earth entered Narnia: four boys, two men, four girls, and a woman. Humans from Earth are sometimes referred to as Sons of Adam and Daughters of Eve by Narnians, a reference to first humans in the Biblical account of creation.  The four Pevensie children are the best known: Peter Pevensie (High King Peter the Magnificent), Susan Pevensie (Queen Susan the Gentle), Edmund Pevensie (King Edmund the Just), and Lucy Pevensie (Queen Lucy the Valiant). All of them appear in "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" and in "Prince Caspian". Edmund and Lucy appear in "The Voyage of the Dawn Treader" and three (all except Peter, who is out fighting giants on the northern frontier) appear as adults in "The Horse and his Boy".  Others from our world include

Dwarfs.

Dwarfs are native to Narnia. They are called Sons of Earth by Aslan, as opposed to humans, who are called Sons of Adam or Daughters of Eve. Dwarfs exist in at least two varieties: Black Dwarfs and Red Dwarfs, distinguished by the colour of their hair. While many Red Dwarfs are kind and loyal to Aslan, Black Dwarfs appear to be more selfish and hostile, and most fight on the White Witch's side. Dwarfs appearing in the books are male and live together in communities, although they are known to mingle with and reproduce with humans. For example, Prince Caspian's Tutor Cornelius is a half-dwarf, and Caspian's former nurse is described

Talking animals.

Strawberry, the cabman's horse, also entered Narnia from our world and there was chosen to be a talking beast and transformed into the winged horse Fledge.  Many of the animals found in our world can also be found in Narnia. In addition, there are talking versions of most of these animals. When Aslan breathed upon the first animal pairs, some not only gained thought and speech, but changed in size as well. Smaller animals (rodents, birds and small mammals) are larger than their non-talking relatives and larger animals are slightly smaller.

Witches.

Two Witches appear as characters in the Narnian books, the White Witch (Jadis, Empress of Charn, or the "White Lady") and the Lady of the Green Kirtle (or "the Green Lady"). Long after Lewis's death, character sketches appeared in later editions of the books that seem to indicate that these two witches are the same, but these notes are not due to Lewis (See the Lady of the Green Kirtle for more discussion).  Jadis has the appearance of a very tall human woman but is actually the last scion of the royal house of Charn as shown in "The Magician's Nephew". In later Narnian times her origin on Charn is not known to her subjects. Jadis claims human descent to legitimize her rule, but in

Mythological creatures.

Other inhabitants of the Narnian world based on known mythological or folkloric creatures include Boggles, Centaurs, Cruels, Dragons, Dryads, Earthmen (the Narnian version of gnomes), Efreets, Ettins, Fauns, Giants, Ghouls, Griffins, Hags, Hamadryads, Horrors, Incubi, Maenads, Merpeople,

Other creatures and inhabitants.

Narnia is inhabited by Marsh-wiggles (creatures of Lewis' own invention), and Dufflepuds (adapted from Pliny's Monopods) live on a distant island. There are also many singular beings who frequent or inhabit Narnia and its surrounding countries including: the River god,

Cosmology.

General characteristics.

The world of Narnia is a flat world in a geocentric system. Its sky is a dome that mortal creatures cannot penetrate. Traveling eastwards, characters in "The Voyage of the Dawn Treader" eventually reach a literal End of the World, where the sky reaches the sea.  Narnia's stars are shining sentient beings that occasionally come to the various worlds in humanoid form. Its constellations are the result of a mystical dance upon the sky, performed by the stars to announce the works and comings of Aslan, Narnia's creator. The stars also arrange themselves to allow seers to foretell certain future events. Constellations include the Ship, the Hammer, and the Leopard.  The Narnian sun is a flaming

The worlds of Narnia.

The Narnian world is part of a series of many fictional worlds including Earth and the world of Charn. These are connected by a linking room known as the Wood between the Worlds, a nexus that existed outside all the

Time.

Earth visitors to Narnia typically find that a visit to Narnia lasts longer in Narnia (sometimes much longer) than the corresponding period of their absence from Earth. How much longer appears to be arbitrary. For example, in "The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe", Lucy's first visit to Narnia lasts hours and the four children's main adventure there lasts

History.

Creation of Narnia.

In the first year of Narnia, the Creation of Narnia was witnessed by six creatures: Jadis, Empress of Charn, Digory Kirke, Polly Plummer, Andrew Ketterley, Frank the cabman, and his cab horse Strawberry. During a failed attempt by Digory to transfer Jadis from London in our world back to her own world of Charn, the group arrived in the unmade darkness of Narnia just prior to Aslan calling it into being.  Aslan began the creation soon after they arrived, and with his song called forth the stars, sun, and eventually all landforms, plants, and animals as well. When he was finished, Aslan selected certain animals from these to be Talking Animals, giving to them, and all other magical creatures, Narnia as their new home, to own and rule it

Rule of the White Witch.

During the Age of Conquest, Narnia remained at peace for hundreds of years after its creation until Jadis the Witch-Queen returned as the White Witch in 898. She conquered Narnia and reigned as a tyrant in 900, using her wand to turn anyone who crossed her into stone. With her magic she covered the land in perpetual ice and snow, making it "always winter and never Christmas"; so began Narnia's Age of Winter. Though she claimed to be Queen of Narnia and Châtelaine of Cair Paravel, Jadis ruled from her own fortress in the north, where her halls were lined with Narnians

Golden Age.

After the defeat of the Witch in 1000, Aslan fulfilled the ancient Narnian prophecy and made the four Pevensie children — Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy — Kings and Queens of Narnia. The ensuing prosperity inaugurated Narnia's Golden Age. In the first few years, the Pevensies vanquished the remnants of the White Witch's Army. They also had to contend with other

Dark Age.

What happened between the disappearance of the Pevensies in 1015 and the Telmarine Invasion in 1998 is unclear. What is

Invasion of the Telmarines.

In the Narnian year 1998, Narnia was invaded by people from the West called the Telmarines, descendants of pirates from Earth, and so began the Telmarine Age of Narnia. Led by Caspian I, they left their land in the West to escape a great famine and reached Narnia by crossing a pass in the

The Reign of Caspian X.

Peter Pevensie and his siblings were recalled to Narnia in the Narnian year 2303, 1288 Narnian years after their departure.  Narnia was then ruled by the Telmarine King Miraz, who had murdered his brother Caspian IX and usurped the throne. Miraz planned to murder the true heir, his nephew Prince Caspian, after the birth of his unnamed own son. Caspian had learned of Old Narnia and its creatures and had become sympathetic to their plight.  The four Pevensies helped Caspian defeat Miraz at the Second Battle of Beruna, and Caspian recovered the throne. Caspian took firm control of Narnia, knighting many of his officers from the War of Deliverance and appointing a loyal council composed of both Telmarines and Narnians.  He ensured equality and peace between the races, and renewed Narnia's alliance with Archenland. He waged a successful war against the giants in the North and rebuilt the Narnian navy.  Lucy and Edmund came to Narnia once again three years later with their cousin Eustace in

Destruction.

The world of Narnia was finally destroyed in the Narnian year 2555 at the end of the Later Ages, during the reign of King Tirian, son of King Erlian and seventh in descent from Rilian.  A talking ape named Shift constructed an elaborate conspiracy in a selfish attempt to change Narnia to his liking. By dressing a donkey named Puzzle in a lion's skin and claiming him to be Aslan, Shift began surreptitiously to gain control of the country, forcing inhabitants to do his bidding in the lion's name. He then made contact with the rulers of Calormen, inviting them to conquer Narnia for their mutual advantage.  Calormene soldiers under Captain Rishda Tarkaan soon arrived, and by the time King Tirian learned of the ape's treasonous plans, they were well on the way to completion. Shift told the Calormene soldiers that Tash and Aslan were one being called "Tashlan."  With the help of Eustace and Jill (who arrived in time to rescue the king from capture), Tirian attempted to rally Narnia and drive out the invaders, but the divisive effect of the false Aslan and the capture of Cair Paravel by a Calormene fleet

Contact with our world.

There are seven documented events of contact between the world of men and the world of Narnia. Dates are taken from a timeline provided in the book "Past Watchful Dragons" by Walter

Another perspective on Narnian history.

In "The Last Battle", Jewel the Unicorn discusses Narnian history with Jill Pole, explaining that while she (and the readers) imagine it to have been

Outline of Narnian History.

Lewis provided a timeline to map out the events related to The Chronicles of Narnia. He gave an "Outline of Narnian History" in manuscript form to Walter Hooper, who included it in his essay "Past Watchful Dragons: The Fairy Tales of C. S. Lewis". The novels never explicitly mention the year or years in which events take place, so the timeline is the only source for this information. Kathryn Lindskoog, along with other Lewis scholars, has challenged the authenticity of some posthumous works attributed to Lewis and edited by Hooper, but the validity of the outline in particular has not been questioned. The outline is accepted by Lewis experts and has been included in works by Paul Ford, Martha Sammons and others. However, there are contradictions between the novels and the outline: for example the outline dates Queen Swanwhite c.1502 while according to "The Last Battle" she ruled Narnia before Jadis returned (meaning that her reign must have ended before 898).

Consistency with other works.

Several people have pointed out more or less significant areas where Lewis' "Outline" is not consistent with the text of The Chronicles. Paul Ford, author of "Companion to Narnia", points out that the text of "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" states that Lucy and Edmund are

Contents of the timeline.

The timeline begins in the Narnian year 1 and continues to the Narnian year 2555, which corresponds with the period of time in London from year AD 1900 until AD 1949. He concludes the Narnian entries with the last battle and the "End of Narnia", and concludes the end of the London entries with "1949: Serious accident on British Railways".  The timeline includes information concerning the birth of several human characters, including Digory Kirke in 1888, Polly Plummer in 1889, Peter Pevensie in 1927, Susan, Edmund and Lucy (1928, 1930, 1932 respectively), Eustace Scrubb and Jill Pole (both born in 1933).  The timeline also lists the dates of notable events in the series, particularly the main periods where the protagonists enter Narnia. Digory and Polly entering Narnia in 1900, and the Pevensies twice enter

Inspiration.

Beginning in 1906, young C.S Lewis (1898-1963) visited the northern Irish seaside near Portrush many times. In later years, Lewis remembered the sounds of the sea, the cliffs rising above it, and the ruined medieval towers of Dunluce Castle which many authors have speculated may have inspired his creation of Cair Paravel.

Narnia is a fantasy world created by C. S. Lewis as the primary location for his series of seven fantasy novels for children, "The Chronicles of Narnia". The world is so called after the country of Narnia, in which much of the action of the Chronicles takes place.

纳尼亚(英语:Narnia)是一个由C·S·路易斯所创造,用来当作他七本为儿童所写的小说系列《纳尼亚传奇》主要场景的奇幻世界。而这个故事主要发生的世界也因此叫作纳尼亚王国。