History.

In the earliest day of naval warfare, there was little distinction between sailors and soldiers on a warship. The oarsmen of Ancient Greek and Roman ships had to be capable of fighting the rowers of opposing ships hand-to-hand; though hoplites began appearing on Greek ships specifically for the boarding of enemy ships.  The Roman Republic was the first to understand the importance of professional soldiers dedicated to melee combat onboard of ships. During the First Punic War, Roman crews remained inferior in naval experience to the Carthaginians and could not hope to match them in naval tactics, which required great fleet maneuverability and tactical experience. The Romans therefore employed a novel weapon which changed sea warfare to their advantage — they equipped their ships with the "corvus", a long pivoting plank with a beak-like spike on the underside for hooking onto enemy ships, possibly developed earlier by the Syracusans against the Athenians during the Sicilian Expedition of the Peloponnesian War. Using it as a boarding

Etymology.

The English noun "marine" is from the adjective "marine", meaning "of the sea", via French "marin" ("of the sea") from Latin "marinus" ("of the sea") itself from mare ("sea"), from Proto-Indo-European "*móri" ("body of water, lake") (cognate with Old English "mere" ("sea, lake"), Dutch "meer", German "Meer", all from Proto-Germanic "*mari").  The word "marine" was originally used for the marine-type forces of England; however, in many European languages

Roles.

The principal role of marine troops is military operations in the littoral zone; operating from ships they are trained to land on and secure key points to around 50 miles inland, or as far as ship borne logistics can provide.  Marine units primarily deploy from warships using boats, landing craft, hovercraft, amphibious vehicles or helicopters. Specialist units are also trained

By country.

Argentina.

The Argentine Marine Corps ("Infantería de Marina de la Armada de la República Argentina" or IMARA) is a part of the Argentine Navy. Argentine marines have the same rank insignia and titles as the rest of the navy. It is composed of a fleet marine force (one marine battalion, plus artillery, air defense, communications, logistics, engineer and vehicle units), a southern marine force (two marine battalions), a river operations battalion, a special forces unit (the Amphibious Commandos Group)

Australia.

The marine and naval infantry designations are not, officially, applied

Bahamas.

The Royal Bahamas Defence Force (RBDF) is the navy of The Bahamas. Since the Bahamas does not have

Bolivia.

The Bolivian Naval Force includes about 2,000 naval

Brazil.

The Corps of Naval Fusiliers ("Corpo de Fuzileiros Navais"), with about 15,000 men, is subordinate to the Brazilian Navy. The marine corps is composed

Cambodia.

During the 1970-75 Cambodian Civil War the Cambodian Marine Corps were active, but were

Chile.

The 4,200 strong Chilean Corps of Naval Infantry ("Cuerpo de Infanteria de Marina") is a branch of the Chilean Navy. Specialized in amphibious assaults and land fighting, the corps is build around four detachments based along Chile's long coasts at Viña del Mar, Talcahuano, Punta Arenas and Iquique. Each detachment is made by infantry battalions as well as tactical support companies comprising artillery, air defence and light tanks

China.

The Chinese marines are known as the People's Liberation Army Navy Marine Corps (PLAMC) and consist of 20,000 marines who are divided into three brigades. The PLAMC is

Colombia.

The 24,000-member Colombian Marine Corps is organized into a single division with four brigades (one counter-terrorist and three river brigades), each with several battalions plus numerous small security units. It is a part of the Colombian Navy.  The

Cuba.

The Cuban Revolutionary Navy ("Marina de Guerra Revolucionaria"

Denmark.

The Guard Hussar Regiment ("Gardehusarregimentet" or GHR) maintains a marine squadron based in Almegårds

Ecuador.

The 5,000-man Ecuadorian Navy maintains a 1,700-man Naval Infantry Corps ("Cuerpo de Infantería de Marina") headquartered in Guayaquil. Formed on 12 November

Egypt.

The 111th Independent Mechanized Brigade (formerly the 130th Marine Amphibious Brigade) of the Egyptian Army can

El Salvador.

The El Salvador Navy included two 600-man Marine Infantry Battalions ("Batallon de Infanteria de Marina" or BIM),

Finland.

The Finnish Uusimaa Brigade () in Ekenäs is the home of the Finnish Marines — the "Kustjägarna" (in Swedish)

France.

The "Fusiliers Marins" (Naval Fusiliers) and "Commandos Marine" (Naval Commandos) are naval personnel. The "fusiliers marins" protect vessels and installations, provide the navy with military training, augment boarding-landing parties and support operations of the Commandos Marine. The "Commandos Marine" (Naval Commandos) are a seven company Commando formation whose roots can be traced to the Second World War. The Commandos Marine have evolved to be broadly comparable to the British Special Boat Service, with whom they exchange officers.  "Troupes de Marine" ("Marine Troops"), are a branch of the

Germany.

The "" (Naval Special Deployment Force) was a special operations formation of the German Navy. The battalion included the "Kampfschwimmerkompanie" (German commando frogmen), the Minentaucher kompanie and a boarding-company. The unit was

Greece.

The Greek 32nd Marine Brigade "Moravas" ("32η Ταξιαρχία Πεζοναυτών Mοράβας") and the Amphibious Raider

Honduras.

The Honduran Navy established at least one 600-man

India.

The Indian Army has amphibious units in the form of the 340 Independent Infantry

Indonesia.

In Indonesia, the main amphibious warfare force and naval infantry of the Indonesian National Armed Forces is the Indonesian Marine Corps of the Indonesian Navy. As per May 2019,

Iran.

Since the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the number of marines in the Islamic Republic of Iran Navy (IRIN) has expanded to 2,600 personnel, in two marine brigades, each composed of three battalions. Their mission is to provide security throughout the Arabian Sea and free waters, as well as securing routes

Iraq.

The Iraqi Navy is a small force with 1,500 sailors and 800 marines designed to protect the shoreline and inland waterways from insurgent infiltration.

Israel.

Upon its revival in the 1980s the Givati Brigade was intended to serve as the amphibious infantry brigade of the Israel Defense

Italy.

Italian Navy

Japan.

Japan Ground Self-Defense Force Amphibious Rapid Deployment Brigade

Korea, South.

The Republic of Korea Marine Corps is the marine corps of South Korea. Though theoretically it is under the direction of the Chief of Naval Operations, the Marine Corps operates as

Korea, North.

The Korean People's Army's Light Infantry Training Guidance Bureau has two or more amphibious light infantry/sniper brigades. These brigades are believed deployed to Wonsan on the east coast and Namp'o and Tasa-ri

Lebanon.

Lebanon maintains an elite but very small in number "Navy Commando" regiment. Trained internationally and armed with mostly American and French made

Malaysia.

Defence Minister Hishammuddin Tun Hussein said in a statement on 10 October 2013, Malaysia is planning on establishing a marines corps for amphibious operations. The Marine Corps will be drawn from all three services, with the majority of personnel coming from one of the three parachute battalions of the 10 Paratrooper Brigade, which

Maldives.

The Maldives National Defence Force maintains a frontline ground combat force known as the MNDF Marine Corps. It is divided

Mexico.

The Mexican Naval Infantry (Spanish: "Infantería de Marina") of the Mexican Navy consists of 25,000 marines spread in a brigade of three battalions, plus a battalion attached to the Presidential Guard Corps, three regional battalions with headquarters in Mexico City, Acapulco and Veracruz, and thirty-five independent companies (mainly In Celaya) and detachments distributed among ports, bases and zonal headquarters. The marines are

Myanmar.

The Myanmar Navy raised a naval infantry battalion of 800 men in 1964, followed by a second battalion in 1967. Two more

Namibia.

Namibian Marine Corps are a battalion-sized infantry unit of the Namibian Navy under the command of a naval captain. Its officers and men are part of the navy and use

Netherlands.

The Royal Netherlands Navy naval infantry unit is the Netherlands Marine Corps ("Korps Mariniers"), founded in 1665 as an infantry regiment to the Dutch Navy. They saw their first amphibious action in 1667 raiding the English coast during the Raid on the Medway. Their Latin motto is Qua Patet Orbis ("As Far as the World Extends"). Today, it is a brigade approximately 2300 marines

Norway.

The Coastal Ranger Command ("Kystjegerkommandoen" or KJK) of the Norwegian Navy is an amphibious infantry unit

Pakistan.

The Pakistan Marines division of the Pakistan Navy was re-established on April 14, 1990,

Paraguay.

The Paraguayan Marine Corps ("Cuerpo de Fusileros Navales") is a battalion-sized organization consisting of four company sized brigades. In limited cadre form the Marine

Peru.

The Peruvian Naval Infantry ("Infantería de Marina del Perú") consists of around 3,000 naval infantrymen and includes an amphibious brigade of three

Philippines.

The Philippine Marine Corps (PMC) has a strength of about 7,500 men divided into three brigades. The

Poland.

The Polish Navy maintains several naval infantry units responsible for port and coastal security. The Polish Army maintains the 7th Coastal Defense Brigade, which bears traditions of the disbanded

Portugal.

The third oldest marine corps in the world was founded as the "Terço of the Navy of the Crown of Portugal" in 1618. The Portuguese Navy still maintains this

Romania.

The 307th Marine Battalion ("Batalionul 307 Infanterie Marină") is the light infantry/reconnaissance unit of the Romanian Naval

Russia.

The Russian Naval Infantry () are the amphibious forces of the Russian Armed Forces. The naval infantry includes the 65th Naval Infantry Brigade of the Russian Pacific Fleet,

Saudi Arabia.

The Royal Saudi Navy maintains two, 1,500-man marine brigades consisting of three battalions each. The brigades are

South Africa.

South Africa has not had a dedicated marine branch of its military since the apartheid era. A close analogue would be the South African Navy's Maritime Reaction Squadron, a marine-type unit which currently consists of four companies. It is planned that this squadron will eventually become a battalion-sized unit. Members are marines and use naval ranks. They are trained in infantry combat

Spain.

The Spanish Navy Marines ("Infantería de Marina") are the oldest existing marine force in the world, as they were established on February 27, 1537, by Charles I when he permanently assigned the "Compañías Viejas del Mar de Nápoles" (Naples Sea Old Companies)

Sri Lanka.

The Sri Lanka Navy established its first Marine Battalion in November 2016 and the first group of members were assisted in training by the 11th Marine

Sweden.

The Swedish Amphibious Corps ("Svenska amfibiekåren") is an arm of the Swedish Navy. The

Syria.

The Fouj Al-Mughawayr Al-Bahir (, meaning "Marines Regiment") is a

Taiwan.

The Republic of China Marine Corps (traditional Chinese:) is responsible for amphibious combat, counter-landing and reinforcement

Thailand.

Royal Thai Marine Corps (RTMC) is the naval infantry sub-branch of the Royal Thai

Tonga.

The Royal Tongan Marines is a sub-unit of the Tongan Maritime Force, which itself is

Turkey.

The Amphibious Marine Infantry Brigade Command is the marine force of the Turkish Naval Forces and consists

Ukraine.

The Ukrainian Marines was founded in 1993 from a unit of the former Soviet Naval Infantry. It serves as

United Arab Emirates.

The UAE Marines is a

United Kingdom.

The Royal Marines (RM) were formed in 1664 and are part of HM Naval Service. Apart from musicians, they have the longest basic infantry training in the world which stands at 32 weeks for an enlisted recruit and 64 weeks for a young officer. They include an amphibious and expeditionary brigade (3 Commando Brigade RM, which includes commando-trained units and individual personnel from the British Army, Royal Navy and Royal Air Force), a naval security unit responsible for guarding the UK's naval

United States.

The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is currently the largest and only marine combined-arms force in the world. Created in 1775, it was originally intended only to guard naval vessels during the American Revolutionary War. While the USMC is a component part of the US Department of the Navy in the military command structure, it is a separate military branch from the United States Navy, with its own representative on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Corps’ major functions include: seizure or defense of advanced naval bases and... land operations... essential to... a naval campaign,

Uruguay.

The Uruguayan Marine Corps ("Cuerpo de Fusileros Navales" or FUSNA) is a battalion-sized organization consisting of four company sized

Venezuela.

The Venezuelan Marine Corps ("Infantería de Marina") is a sub-division of the Venezuelan Navy. Headquartered in Meseta de Mamo, Vargas, the estimated numerical strength of this unit is

Vietnam.

The Vietnam People's Navy maintains a naval infantry force. It once stood at eleven brigades each of several battalions. The first

Historical marine forces.

Ancient Greece.

The ancient Greek states did not possess specialized

Ancient Rome.

The Roman Navy used regular infantry as marines. Naval personnel were trained for raiding and also provided the

Australia.

Several of the Colonial navies of Australia raised volunteer naval infantry and naval militia brigades in the second half of the 19th century. The Victorian Naval Brigade was formed in 1859, the Sydney Naval Brigade in 1864 (later supplemented by the Naval Artillery Volunteers in

Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Though overshadowed by its Prussian counterpart, the Marinier-Korps as well as naval powers like the British, the French, the Spanish, and the Italians, Austria-Hungary maintained a small regiment of naval infantrymen complemented with an artillery corps dating back to Venetian times alongside the then Austrian Imperial

Byzantine Empire.

For several centuries, the Byzantine navy used the descendants of the Mardaites, who were settled in southern Anatolia and Greece, as marines and rowers for its ships. Emperor Basil I also established a separate marine regiment, 4,000 strong, for the central Imperial

Confederate States.

The Confederate Marines were a branch of the Confederate States Navy and

Denmark-Norway.

Marineregimentet (The Marine Regiment) was

Estonia.

The Meredessantpataljon, was a short-lived infantry battalion of the Estonian Navy. The battalion was created in 1919 from the crews of the

France.

The "Troupes de marine" were founded in 1622 (as "compagnies ordinaires de la mer") as land forces under the control of the Secretary of State of the Navy, notably for operations in French Canada. The "Compagnies de la Mer" were transformed in line infantry regiments by Napoleon, but became once more marine forces in 1822 (for the

Gran Colombia.

The Federation of Gran Colombia Marines were formed

Italy.

The Blackshirt militia maintained an independent "Marine

Japan.

During the feudal period, the Japanese used Ashigaru soldiers or regular Yumi archers as soldiers to protect ships from pirates.  In 1873 a short-lived marine corps was added to the newly-created Imperial Japanese Navy, using Britain's Royal Marines as a model.

The Netherlands.

The Corps was founded on 10 December 1665 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War by the unofficial leader of the republic Johan de Witt and Admiral Michiel de Ruyter as the Regiment de Marine. Its leader was Willem Joseph Baron van Ghent. The Dutch had successfully used ordinary soldiers in ships at sea in the First Anglo-Dutch War. It was the fifth European marine unit formed, being preceded by the Spanish Marines (1537), the Portuguese Marines (1610), the French Marines (1622) and the

Ottoman Empire.

The role of Ottoman naval infantry originated in Orhan's conquest of the Karasi Beylik and the capture of its fleet. From then on, Janissaries and Azaps were sometimes deployed as marines during the 14th Century. The Deniz azaps were

Portuguese Empire.

Portugal raised numerous companies of Special Marines ("Fuzileiros Especiais") and African Special Marines ("Fuzileiros Especiais Africanos"), both at home

Russian Empire.

The Imperial Russian Navy used several regiments of marine equipage troops that fought as much

Spain.

The oldest naval infantry. Created February,27 of 1537 as Tercio de Armada by Carlos

Soviet Union.

The Soviet Navy had a number of small battalion-sized naval infantry and coastal defence units that mostly served in the ports and bases before the Second World War. During the war, and building on

South Africa.

The South Africa Marine Corps was set up as a sub-branch of the South African Navy in 1979, with

Vietnam.

Vietnamese dynasties had a long tradition of utilizing marines. This tradition went back no later than the Annam Protectorate of Tang dynasty when the governors built boats and trained marines to fight off pirates and invaders. The successive Vietnamese dynasties made full use of their marines' superiority at river and sea

Yugoslavia.

The 12th Naval Infantry Brigade ("12. brigada mornaričko desantne pješadije") of the Yugoslavian Navy consisted of

Marines, also known as naval infantry, are typically an infantry force that specializes in the support of naval and army operations at sea and on land and air, as well as the execution of their own operations. In many countries, the marines are an integral part of that state's navy. In others, it is a separate organization altogether, such as in the United States, where the Marine Corps falls under the US Department of the Navy, yet it operates independently (and similarly the UK's Royal Marines come under Her Majesty's Naval Service). Marines can also fall under a country's army like the "Troupes de marine" (i.e. the French marines).

海军陆战队(英语:Marines、英语:marine corps),简称海陆或陆战队,是海军中负责地面作战、两栖作战、船上作战的军队,早期都是步兵队伍,进入现代则有装甲配备甚至飞行装备。大部分国家的海军陆战队组织是隶属于海军体制内,但美国与英国是将海军陆战队体系独立为单一军种,法国则由陆军所辖。海军陆战队出现的历史中,早期存在的理由是为了解决强制征召船只衍生出来的叛变问题,同时也有保护本国船只,攻击敌国船只的任务;近代海军陆战队在科技演化下朝向专业两栖作战部队改组,成为各国海权发扬的一部分。


Origins of terms.

The usual noun and adjective in English is "patronymic", but as a noun this exists in free variation alongside "patronym". The first part of the word "patronym" comes from Greek πατήρ "patēr" "father" ( πατρός "patros" whence the combining form πατρο- "patro"-); the second part comes from Greek ὄνυμα "onyma", a variant form of ὄνομα "onoma" "name". In the form "patronymic", this stands with the addition

History.

In many areas around the world, patronyms predate the use of family names. Family names in many Celtic, Germanic, Iberian, Scandinavian, Georgian, Armenian and Slavic languages originate from patronyms, e.g. Wilson (son of William), FitzGerald (son of Gerald), Powell (from "ap Hywel"), Fernández (son of Fernando), Rodríguez (son of Rodrigo), Andersson or Andersen (son of Anders, Scandinavian form of Andrew), Carlsen

Historical and current use.

Africa.

Traditionally Muslim and non-Arabic speaking African people, such as Hausa and Fulani people usually (with some exceptions) follow the Arab naming pattern. The word or phrase meaning "son of" is, however, omitted. So Mohamed son of Ibrahim son of Ahmed is "Mohamed Ibrahim Ahmed", and Mohamed Ibrahim Ahmed's son Ali is "Ali Mohamed Ibrahim".

Ethiopia and Eritrea.

Ethiopians and Eritreans have no concept of family name and surname. If one is to refer to a person with a single name he/she will always use the person's given name. Ethiopian and Eritreans use a naming pattern very similar to the Arab naming pattern, but with one exception: no suffix or prefix. The full name is written as: First

Kenya.

Some Kenyan communities used patronyms. As of 2010 the practice has largely dropped off with the use of just the father's last name as a surname. Kalenjin use 'arap' meaning'son

Mozambique.

Patronymic naming is very common in parts of Mozambique. Although

Nigeria.

Now not as prominent as before, many people of southern Nigeria took their father's given name as their surname. It could also be the father's prominent nickname, which takes the place of a first name. An example would

Somalia.

Somalis use their paternal grandfather's given name as their legal surname for documentation purpose. They also use the term "ina" or "iña" meaning "the son of" or "the daughter of," which is similar to other African- and the Arab-naming patterns. For

South Africa.

Among the Zulu patronymics were used in the pre-colonial era. The prefix "ka" was attached to the father's name, for example Shaka kaSenzangakhona means Shaka son of Senzangakhona. The practice disappeared from everyday use with the introduction of the modern European style surname system but still remains part of traditional cultural practices, particularly in the case of chieftains and royalty where reciting lineages forms a part of many ceremonial occasions.

East Asia.

China.

Yi people's sons' given names are based on the

Taiwan.

Atayal people's names are followed by the name of their father, both son and daughter are patronymic. Amis people's son names are also followed by the father's name, while a daughter's name is followed by her mother's name. Whereas the Seediqs often get to choose which of their parents’ name to go after their own.

South Asia.

India.

Patronymy is common in parts of India. For example, if a father is named Khurram Suleman (a Muslim masculine name), he might name his son Taha Khurram, who in turn might name his son Ismail Taha. As a result, unlike surnames, patronymics will not pass down through many generations.  In Tamil Nadu and some parts of Kerala and South Karnataka, patronymy is predominant. This is a significant departure from the rest of the country where caste names are mostly employed as surnames. This came into common use during the 1950s and 1960s when the Dravidian movement campaigned against the use one's caste as part of the name.  However, rather than using the father's full name, only the first letter — popularly known as the initial — is prefixed to the given name. For example, if a person's given name is "Saravanan" and his father's "Krishnan", then the full name is "K. Saravanan" and is seldom expanded, even in official records. Only where it is forced by stipulation — such as when applying for an Indian passport which does not usually allow initials — is the initial expanded and the name rendered as "Krishnan Saravanan". Some families follow the tradition of retaining the name of the hometown, the grandfather's name, or both as initials. The celebrated Indian English novelist R. K. Narayan's name at birth was Rasipuram Krishnaswami Ayyar Narayanaswami, which was shortened at the behest of his writer friend, Graham Greene. Rasipuram, the first name, is a toponym and Krishnaswami Ayyar, the second name, is a patronym.  In Tamil Nadu the use of initials and/or surname is up to the prerogative of the person with no strict rules. The late chief minister Karunanidhi preferred to be referred as M. Karunanidhi where the initial M stood for Muthuvel - his father's given name. M.Karunanidhi's son prefers to

Southeast Asia.

In Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei, ethnic Malays generally follow the Arabic patronymic naming system of "given name" + bin/binti + "father's name".  In Brunei, the ruling family of the monarch uses "given name" + "ibni" + "father's name" instead of using bin/binti.  In Indonesia, there are a number of ethnic groups with different naming systems. The Batak of North Sumatra

Middle East.

A common feature of historical Semitic names is the patronymic system. Since ancient times, men and women were referred to and named using this system. This was not limited to any certain region or religion. It was only in the 17th and 18th centuries, when laws were put in place in European nations demanding as much, that those of Semitic progeny began to abandon the patronymic naming scheme in favor of embracing consistent legal surnames. It was only after these laws were ratified that 99% of Jews and Muslims in these territories received surnames.

Jewish.

Jews have historically used Hebrew patronymic names after the Bar Kokhba revolt, before which the most common language was Aramaic. In the Jewish patronymic system the first name is followed by either ben- or bat- ("son of" and "daughter of", respectively), and then the father's name, mother's name, or both. In Aramaic, the first name was followed by bar- or bat- ("son of" and "daughter of", respectively).  Permanent family surnames exist today, first by Sephardic Jews in 10th or 11th century Iberia and by Ashkenazi Jews in the late 18th century, when Austria passed the first law requiring Jews adopt surnames. Similar laws were passed in Prussia, Galicia, France, regions of Germany, and other countries.  While Jews now have permanent surnames for everyday life, the patronymic form is still used in religious life. It is used in synagogue and in documents in Jewish law such as the ketubah (marriage contract). Many Sephardic Jews used the Arabic "ibn" instead of "bat" or "ben" when it was the norm. The Spanish family Ibn Ezra is one example.  There is a strong cultural pressure for immigrants to modern Israel to Hebraize their names. This practice is especially common among Ashkenazic immigrants, because most of their names were taken during the period from the end of the 18th century to the middle of the 19th century. For example, Golda Meir was born "Golda Mabovitch", took the name "Golda Meyerson" after her marriage to American Morris Meyerson, and, upon making Aliyah and at the urging of Moshe Sharett, Hebraized her last name to Meir.

Muslim.

In Arabic, the word "" ( or : "bin", "ben" and sometimes "ibni" and "ibnu" to show the grammatical case of the noun) is the equivalent of the "-son" suffix

Europe.

In Europe patronyms were formerly widespread but later became confined to Scandinavia and Iceland.

English.

In England, names ending with the suffix "son" were often originally patronymic. In addition, the archaic French (more specifically, Norman) prefix "fitz" (cognate with the modern French "fils", meaning "son") appears in England's

Irish, Scottish, and Manx.

The use of "Mac" in some form was prevalent in Scottish Gaelic, Irish and Manx, in all of which it denotes "son". "Mc" is also a frequent anglicisation in both Scotland and Ireland. In Ireland, the forms "Mag" and "M'" are encountered. The prefix "Mac" is used to form a patronym, such as "Mac Coinnich" – or the anglicized 'Mackenzie' – son of Coinneach/Kenneth. The female equivalent of "Mac" is "Nic", condensed from "nighean mhic" (in Scottish Gaelic) or "iníon mhic" (in Irish), both meaning daughter. For example, the Scottish Gaelic surname, "Nic Dhòmhnaill"

Welsh and Cornish.

Before the 1536 Act of Union, the Welsh did not generally employ surnames, but instead used epithets (e.g. Selyf Sarffgadau, "Selyf the Battle-Serpent"), patronyms (e.g. Rhodri ap Merfyn, "Rhodri son of Merfyn"), and (much less often) matronyms (e.g. Rhodri ap Nest, "Rhodri son of Nest") to identify people. Welsh, as a P-Celtic language, originally used "map" or "mab" instead of the Q-Celtic "mac" employed in Ireland and Scotland. These were later simplified to the modern Welsh "ap" and "ab". A common practice is to use "ab" before a father's name beginning with a vowel (e.g., Llywelyn ab Iorwerth), but the two alternative forms are also employed arbitrarily in many

Dutch.

In Dutch, patronymics were often used in place of family names or as middle names. Patronymics were composed of the father's name plus an ending "-zoon" for sons, "-dochter" for daughters. For instance, Abel Janszoon Tasman is "Abel son of Jan Tasman", and Kenau Simonsdochter Hasselaer: "Kenau, daughter of Simon Hasselaer". In written form, these endings were often abbreviated as "-sz." and "-dr." respectively e.g. Jeroen Cornelisz. "Jeroen son of Cornelis", or Dirck Jacobsz.

French.

In France, the terms "patronyme" and "nom patronymique" had long been used interchangeably to designate the family name, meaning that it is inherited from the father.  The

Iberian peninsula.

In the past, both in Spanish and Portuguese, the endings "-ez" and "-es" tended to be conflated since pronunciation was quite similar in the two languages. Today, Portuguese has been fully standardized to "-es"; Spanish is also standardized to "-ez", but it is very common to see archaic endings in "-es". For instance, Pires/Peres and Pérez are the modern equivalents of English "Peterson" in Portuguese and Spanish.  In Portugal, there are some surnames which had a patronymic genesis, while still common they no longer indicate patronymic usage. For instance, "Álvares" was the son of "Álvaro" and "Gonçalves" was the son of "Gonçalo" (it was the case of Nuno Álvares Pereira, son of Álvaro and Gonçalves Pereira, son of Gonçalo Pereira). Other cases include "Rodrigues" ("son of Rodrigo"), "Nunes" ("son of Nuno") and "Fernandes" ("son of Fernando"). In the same way the surname Soares means son of Soeiro (in Latin Suarius). It comes from Latin Suaricius (son of Suarius); the Latin genitive suffix "-icius/a" was used to indicate a patronymic. Later it became Suáriz, Suárez (both Spanish) and

Scandinavian languages.

In Norse custom, patronyms and matronyms were formed by using the ending -son (later -søn and -sen in Danish, Norwegian and German) to the genitive form of the father's name to indicate "son of", and -dóttir (Icelandic and Faroese -dóttir, Swedish and Norwegian -dotter, Danish and Norwegian -datter) for "daughter of". The resulting patronymic was generally used as a last name; however a third name, a so-called byname based on location or personal characteristic, was often added to differentiate people and could eventually develop into a kind of family name. Some Early Modern examples of the latter practice, where the patronymic was placed after the given name and was followed by the surname, are Norwegian Peder Claussøn Friis, the son of Nicolas Thorolfsen Friis (Claus in Claussøn being short for Nicolas) and Danish Thomas Hansen Kingo, the son of Hans Thomsen Kingo.  Eventually, most Nordic countries replaced or complemented this system with the prevailing "international" standard of inherited family names. In Norway, for example, the parliament passed

Finnish.

In Finland, the use of patronymics was a result of relatively recent Swedish influence and remained uncommon outside official documents. Only in the 19th century did the use of patronymics gain any sort of popularity among the Finnish-speaking lower classes.

Bulgarian.

In Bulgarian, the patronymics are "-ov"/"-ev" and "-ova"/"-eva" for men and women, respectively. These are identical to the endings of "family" names in Bulgarian

Caucasus.

Greek and Greek Cypriot.

Most Greek surnames are patronymics by origin, albeit in various forms depending on ancestral locality. Diminutive suffixes which denote ""son of"", or more generally ""descendant of"", are produced as follows: starting with the given name Δημήτριος, "Dēmétrios", for example, the patronymic surnames Dēmētr"ópoulos" (Peloponnese), Dēmētr"ákos" (Laconia), Dēmētr"éas" (Messenian Mani), Dēmētr"átos" (Cephalonia), Dēmētr"ákēs" (Crete), Dēmētr"iádēs"/Dēmētr"-ídēs" (Pontus, Asia Minor), Dēmētr"éllēs" (Lesbos), Dēmétr"oglou" (Asia Minor) (identical to Turkish patronym "-oğlu"), or simply "Dēmētríou" (esp. common in Cyprus, the first name in the Genitive) are formed. The same principle can apply to

Hungarian.

In Hungarian, patronyms were traditionally formed with the ending "-fi" (sometimes spelled as "-fy" or "-ffy"). This system is no longer in common use, though traces of it can still be found in some frequent present-day surnames such as "Pálfi" (son of Paul), "Győrfi", "Bánfi" or in the name of

Romanian.

In Romanian, the endings "-escu" and "-eanu" were used, as in "Petrescu",'son of Petre (Peter)'; many modern

Russian.

In East Slavic languages, the endings "-ovich", "-evich" and "-ich" are used to form patronymics for men. It would be cognate to the Latin genitive -ici, used for marking family line, and also as equivalent to: 'little' -Vladic= 'the little Vlad'-. For women, the ending is "-yevna", "-ovna" or "-ichna". For example, in Russian, a man named Ivan with a father named Nikolay would be known as Ivan Nikolayevich or "Ivan, son of Nikolay" ("Nikolayevich" being a patronymic). Likewise, a woman named Lyudmila with a father named Nikolay would be known as Lyudmila Nikolayevna or "Lyudmila, daughter of Nikolay" ("Nikolayevna" being a patronymic). For masculine names ending in a vowel, such as Ilya or Foma, when they are used as a base for patronymic, the corresponding endings are "-ich" (for men) and "-inichna" (for women). Examples in titles of classical Russian literature include" The Tales of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin", "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" and "The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich".  In Russia,

Serbian.

Vuk Karadžić reported in the 19th century that Serbs sometimes used their old family names, and sometimes patronymics. Vuk Karadžić himself used patronymic Stefanović (son of Steven), and sometimes Karadzić, old family name. However, nowadays, the patronymic names in Serbia are mostly used on legal documents, and have

Turkish.

In Turkish, the suffixes used to indicate paternal ancestry are "-oğlu" and "-zade", which indicate the ancestry as coming from a certain man. Like many other patronymics in other languages, with the formalization

Ukrainian.

In Ukrainian, the female patronymic always ends with "-івна" "(-ivna)" or "-ївна" "(-yivna)". The male patronymic always ends with -"ович" "(-ovych)" or "-йович" "(-yovych)". Exception: "Illia (Ілля)" -> "Illich (Ілліч)" (e.g. Illia Illich Mechnikov), "Sava (Сава)" -> "Savych (Савич)", "Iakiv (Яків)" -> "Iakovych (Якович)".  Patronyms are part of full name and obligatory in formal messages. They're frequent in common speech, e.g. to call a person in respectful manner (in form of name followed by patronym) and to accent an informal message in formal environment, such as between colleagues who have good relationships at work (in form of patronym without name and family name).

A patronymic, or patronym, is a component of a personal name based on the given name of one's father, grandfather (avonymic), or an earlier male ancestor. A component of a name based on the name of one's mother or a female ancestor is a matronymic. A name based on the name of one's child is a teknonymic or paedonymic. Each is a means of conveying lineage.

父名是姓名的一种。一个人的父名取自他的父亲。而取自母亲的名字则称作母名。


Chemistry.

The organic chemistry of nitrosamines is well developed both with regard to their syntheses, their structures, and their reactions. They are usually produced by the reaction of nitrous acid (HNO) and secondary amines. The nitrous acid usually arises from protonation of nitrite. This synthesis method is relevant to the generation of nitrosamines under some biological conditions.  With regards to structure, the CNO core of nitrosamines is planar, as established by X-ray crystallography. The N-N and N-O distances are 1.32 and 1.26 Å, respectively in dimethylnitrosamine.  Nitrosamines are not directly carcinogenic. Metabolic activation is required to convert them to the alkylating agents that modify bases in DNA, inducing mutations. The specific alkylating agents vary with the nitrosamine, but all are proposed to feature alkyldiazonium centers.

History and occurrence.

In 1956, two British scientists, John Barnes and Peter Magee, reported that dimethylnitrosamine produced liver tumours in rats. Subsequent studies showed that approximately 90% of the 300 nitrosamines tested were carcinogenic in a wide variety of animals.  A common way ordinary consumers are exposed to nitrosamines is through cigarette smoke. Tobacco-specific nitrosamines can also be found in American dip snuff, chewing tobacco, and to a much lesser degree, snus (127.9 ppm for American dip snuff compared to 2.8 ppm in Swedish snuff or snus).  Nitrosamines are produced by the reaction of nitrites and secondary amines. Nitrites are used as food preservatives, e.g. cured meats. Secondary amines arise by the degradation of proteins (food).  Nitrite and nitrosamine intake are associated with risk of gastric cancer and oesophageal cancer.

Inhibition.

Endogenous nitrosamine formation can be inhibited by ascorbic acid. In the case of formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines in the stomach from dietary nitrite (used as processed meat preservative), ascorbic acid markedly decreases nitrosamine formation in the absence of fat in the meal; but when 10% fat is present, this reverses the effect such that ascorbic acid then markedly "increases" nitrosamine formation.

Nitrosamines are organic compounds of the chemical structure RN–N=O, where R is usually an alkyl group. They feature a nitroso group (NO) bonded to a deprotonated amine. Most nitrosamines are carcinogenic.

亚硝胺、亚硝酸胺(Nitrosamine)是一类通式为RN(–R)–N=O的胺化合物,其大部分成员都属强致癌物。


Biography.

Giovanni Borelli was born on 28 January 1608 in the district of Castel Nuovo, in Naples. He was the son of Spanish infantryman Miguel Alonso and a local woman named Laura Porello (alternately "Porelli" or "Borelli".)  Borelli eventually traveled to Rome where he studied under Benedetto Castelli, matriculating in mathematics. Sometime before 1640 he was appointed Professor of Mathematics at Messina. In the early 1640s, he met Galileo Galilei in Florence. While it is likely that they remained acquaintances, Galileo rejected considerations to nominate Borelli as head of Mathematics at the University of Pisa when he left the post himself. Borelli would attain this post in 1656. It was there that he first met the Italian anatomist Marcello Malpighi.  Borelli and Malpighi were both founder-members of the short-lived Accademia del Cimento, an Italian scientific academy founded in 1657. It was here that Borelli, piqued by Malpighi's own studies, began his first investigations into the science of animal movement, or biomechanics. This began an interest that would continue for the rest of his life, eventually earning him the title of the Father of Biomechanics. Borelli's involvement in the Accademia was temporary and the organization itself disbanded shortly after he left.  Borelli returned to Messina in 1668 but was quickly forced into exile for suspected involvement in political conspiracies. Here he first became acquainted with ex-Queen Christina of Sweden who had also been exiled to Rome for converting to Catholicism. Borelli lived the rest of his years in poverty, teaching basic mathematics at the school of the convent where he had been allowed to live. He never saw the publication of his masterwork, "De Motu Animalium (On the Movement of Animals)" as it was published posthumously, financed by Christina and his benefactors at the convent.

Scientific achievements.

Borelli's major scientific achievements are focused around his investigation into biomechanics. This work originated with his studies of animals. His publications, "De Motu Animalium I" and "De Motu Animalium II", borrowing their title from the Aristotelian treatise, relate animals to machines and utilize mathematics to prove his theories. The anatomists of the 17th century were the first to suggest the contractile movement of muscles. Borelli, however, first suggested that ‘muscles do not exercise vital movement otherwise than by contracting.’ He was also the first to deny corpuscular influence on the movements of muscles. This was proven through his scientific experiments demonstrating that living muscle did not release corpuscles into water when cut. Borelli also recognized that forward motion entailed movement of a body's center of gravity forward, which was then followed by the swinging of its limbs in order to maintain balance. His studies also extended beyond muscle and locomotion. In particular he likened the action of the heart to that of a piston. For this to work properly he derived the idea that the arteries have to be elastic. For these discoveries, Borelli is labeled as the father of modern biomechanics, and the American Society of Biomechanics uses the Borelli Award as its highest honour for research in the area.  Along with his work on biomechanics, Borelli also had interests in physics, specifically the orbits of the planets. Borelli believed that the planets were revolving as a result of three forces. The first force involved the planets' desire to approach the sun. The second force dictated that the planets were propelled to the side by impulses from sunlight, which is corporeal. Finally, the third force impelled the planets outward due to the sun's revolution. The result of these forces is similar to a stone's orbit when tied on a string. Borelli's measurements of the orbits of satellites of Jupiter are mentioned in Volume 3 of Newton's "Principia". Borelli is also considered to be the first man to consider a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus along with his early submarine design. The exhaled gas was cooled by sea water after passing through copper tubing. The helmet was brass with a glass window and 0.6 m (2 ft) in diameter. The apparatus was never likely to be used or tested.  Borelli also wrote:

Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (; 28 January 1608 – 31 December 1679) was a Renaissance Italian physiologist, physicist, and mathematician. He contributed to the modern principle of scientific investigation by continuing Galileo's practice of testing hypotheses against observation. Trained in mathematics, Borelli also made extensive studies of Jupiter's moons, the mechanics of animal locomotion and, in microscopy, of the constituents of blood. He also used microscopy to investigate the stomatal movement of plants, and undertook studies in medicine and geology. During his career, he enjoyed the patronage of Queen Christina of Sweden.

乔瓦尼·阿方索·博雷利(,1608年-1月28日-1679年-12月31日)意大利文艺复兴时期生理学家、物理学家和数学家。他在克里斯蒂娜女王的资助下,继承了伽利略开创了通过观察来检验假设正确性的方法,对木星的卫星、动物运动的机理和血液的成分都有研究,还通过显微镜研究了植物的气孔运动,被称为生物力学之父,美国生物力学学会设置了博雷利奖作为该领域的最高奖赏。


History.

First construction phase.

The original parish church in Ulm was built at the gate of the city outside the walls, and this caused much trouble for the citizens of the city in the 14th century's conflicts that involved Ulm, as demonstrated by Emperor Charles IV's siege of the city. This parish church had also been subordinated to Reichenau Monastery by Charlemagne in 813, and the denizens of Ulm wanted a new, independent church inside the city's walls. To this end, the city's near 10,000 inhabitants decided to finance construction themselves. On 30 June 1377, Mayor Ludwig Krafft laid the first stone, the foundation stone, of the new church. This church, whose design would be given to Heinrich Parler, the architect of Holy Cross Minster in Schwäbisch Gmünd. The first plan was to build a stepped hall church with aisles as wide and almost as high as the central nave, with a main spire on the west and two steeples above the choir ( long, wide). The women of the Ulmer Assemblage would also make their contributions to the foundation works, something memorialized by 17th and 18th century composer Barbara Kluntz.  Michael Parler, who had experience from working at the Dombauhütte in Prague, assumed construction of the church in 1381 and continued work on the nave, which had originally been conceived as a triple-aisled hall church with approximately equal height and width. From 1387 to 1391, Heinrich III Parler managed construction as head of the Bauhütte. Then in 1392 Ulrich Ensingen, associated with Strasbourg Cathedral, was appointed master builder. It was Parler's plan to construct the Ulm Minster's spire, the highest of any church. In order to balance its proportions, the nave was now to be much taller than the Parlers had intended, making a noticeable difference in height between the chancel and nave. The church was consecrated on 25 July 1405. In 1446, Ulrich's son Matthäus took over construction and finished the choir vault in 1449 and the vault over the northern nave in 1452. When he died in 1463, his own son, Mortiz, took over construction. Himself dying in 1471, he completed the vaulting over the nave and constructed the sacrament house, finally making the church a basilica according to Ulrich's plan.  In 1477, Matthäus Böblinger took over and made changes to the plans of the church but especially to the main tower and in doing so caused the church's first major structural threat: the heavy vaults of the wide aisles and high nave burdened the columns with too much lateral force at different heights. A new master builder, Burkhart Engelberg of Augsburg, tackled the structural damage by reinforcing the foundation of the west tower and demolishing the heavy aisle vaults and replacing them with vaults of half widths, which afforded rows of additional columns dividing each of the aisles in two. Although catastrophe had been avoided, the walls were left without their buttresses for 350 years and the northern wall of the nave bulges outward by even today.  In a referendum in 1530/31, the citizens of Ulm converted to Protestantism during the Reformation. Ulm Minster became a Lutheran church. Although as large as many cathedrals, Ulm is not a cathedral, as the responsible bishop of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg – member of the Evangelical Church in Germany – resides in Stuttgart.  In 1543, construction work ceased at a time when the steeple had reached a height of some. The suspension of the building process was due to a variety of factors which were political and religious (the Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, the War of the Spanish Succession) as well as economic, since the discovery of the Americas during the voyages of Christopher Columbus 1492–1504, the Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India in 1497–99, and Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe led to a epochal shift in trade routes and commodities. One result was economic stagnation and a steady decline, preventing major public expenditure.  In 1817, the interior frescos were covered by painting the walls grey. In 1844, construction work resumed. After a phase of repairs lasting until 1856, the central nave was stabilized by the addition of flying buttresses. Then the small steeples beside the choir were built – without medieval plans. At last, the main steeple was completed, changing the available medieval plan in making it about ten metres taller. Finally, on 31 May 1890 the building was completed.

World War II.

A devastating air raid hit Ulm on 17 December 1944, which destroyed virtually the entire town west of the church to the railway station and north of the church to the outskirts. The church itself was barely damaged. However, almost all the other buildings of the town square (Münsterplatz) were severely hit and some 80% of the medieval centre of Ulm was destroyed.

Current events.

The church is currently dealing with problems caused by large numbers of men urinating around the structure. In addition to the health issues this presents, acids and salts in the urine are degrading the sandstone foundation of the Münster. Church officials say that festivals and events in the adjacent Münsterplatz draw large numbers of people to the area, but event organizers do not provide sufficient free toilets. After costly repairs to the structure, church leaders pressed city officials to increase patrols and fines, but these have failed to stop offenders.

Architecture.

While the walls of the choir, the side aisles and the tower were constructed of brick, the upper levels of the nave are ashlar, a sandstone from Isny im Allgäu. Limestone from the nearby Swabian Jura was used in small quantities.  Works of art

Ulm Minster () is a Lutheran church located in Ulm, State of Baden-Württemberg (Germany). Until the eventual completion of Sagrada Familia in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, it will remain the tallest church in the world, and the 5th tallest structure built before the 20th century, with a steeple measuring.

乌尔姆大教堂(德语:)是坐落在德国乌尔姆的一座哥特式教堂,属基督新教路德宗。乌尔姆大教堂的塔顶高161.53米,共有768级台阶,是世界上最高的教堂。尽管该教堂在历史上从未成为主教座堂,但因其宏伟的哥特式教堂建筑结构而闻名于世。乌尔姆大教堂最多可以容纳3万人,是仅次于科隆主教座堂()的德国第二大哥特式教堂。


Name.

The form of the name Sophonisba is not known until the fifteenth century, in a few late manuscripts of Livy, but it is the better known form because of later literature. She's also called Sophonisbe and Sophoniba. However, her true name might be unclear. Her story is told in Livy (30.12.11-15.11), Diodorus (27.7), Appian (Pun. 27-28), and Cassius Dio (Zonaras 9.11), but Polybius, who had met Masinissa, never refers to Sophonisba by name in his allusions to her (14.4ff.). Nevertheless, it has been proposed that Polybius' account provides the basis for the Sophonisba story.

Biography.

In 206, Sophonisba had been betrothed to the King Masinissa, a leader of the Massylii or eastern Numidians who served along with Gisco against Rome in Hispania, in order to conclude the diplomatic alliance between Carthage and the Massylii. However, the Carthaginian Senate prohibited the wedding and ordered Sophonisba to marry Syphax, chieftain of the western Masaesyli, who up to that point had been allied to Rome. Cassius Dio suggests that this was because Syphax was considered a better ally, while Appian tells Syphax was in love with Sophonisba and actively pressed for the marriage, harassing Carthage with revolts and threatening attacks alongside Roman forces until they conceded. In any case, Sophonisba married Syphax in 206, turning him into Carthage's greatest ally in African terrain. Meanwhile Masinissa, disgruntled by the circumstances, secretly allied himself with Scipio Africanus and returned to his lands. Some believe those accounts might be embellished, as Livy implies Masinissa met her for the first time after the Battle of Cirta, but this is not entirely incompatible with the previous.  Classical chroniclers praise Sophonisba for her virtues and skill. Diodorus Siculus called her "comely in appearance, a woman of many varied moods, and one gifted with the ability to bind men to her service," while Cassius Dio states she had a high education in music and literature and was "clever, ingratiating, and altogether so charming that the mere sight of her or even the sound of her voice sufficed to vanquish every one, even the most indifferent." Polybius also emphasizes her youth, calling her a "child" bride, something which Diodorus also mentions. Nevertheless, those traits have led to modern historians to consider her a true political agent for Carthage instead of a mere pawn of the war.  Loyal to her city, Sophonisba managed to make Syphax join forces with Hasdrubal and face Scipio and Masinissa in the Battle of the Great Plains on the Bagradas, but the Punic force ended up ultimately defeated. Syphax was then defeated and captured in 203 BC in the Battle of Cirta. When Sophonisba fell in Masinisa's hands, he freed her and married her, accepting that she had been forced to marry Syphax against her will. However, after hearing claims (confirmed by Gaius Laelius's inquiries) that Syphax had acted against Rome under the influence of Sophonisba, Scipio refused to agree to this arrangement, fearing she would turn Masinissa against him as well. He insisted on the immediate surrender of the princess so that she could be taken to Rome and appear in the triumphal parade. On the other hand, Plutarch considers Scipio asked for Sophonisba's delivery for safety reasons, fearing Masinissa could torment her in revenge for her marriage to Syphax.  Although Masinissa loved Sophonisba, he accepted to leave her before being declared an enemy to Rome, and went to Sophonisba. He told her that he could not free her from captivity or shield her from Roman wrath, and so he asked her to die like a true Carthaginian princess. With great composure, she drank a cup of poison that he offered her and died, berating Masinissa for making their marriage short and bitter. Afterwards, Masinissa handed Scipio her corpse. His kingdom and Rome remained allied for long after Masinissa's death in 148 BC.

In literature, art and film.

Petrarch elaborated her story in his epic poem "Africa", published posthumously in 1396.  The playwright John Marston wrote "The Wonder of Women", a Roman tragedy based on the story of Sophonisba, in 1606 for the Children of the Queen's Revels.  There are a number of paintings of Sophonisba drinking her poison, but the subject is often very similar to that of Artemisia II of Caria drinking her husband's ashes, and the Rembrandt in the Prado and a Donato Creti in the National Gallery are examples of works where the intended subject remains uncertain between the two.  Sophonisba became the subject of tragedies (and later operas) from the 16th to the 19th centuries, and, along with the story of Cleopatra, furnished more dramas than any other. The first tragedy is credited to the Italian Galeotto Del Carretto (c. 1470–1530) which was written in 1502, but issued posthumously in 1546. The first to appear, however, was Gian Giorgio Trissino's play of 1515 which, "in codifying the forms of Italian classical tragedy, helped consign Del Carretto's Sofonisba to oblivion." In France, Trissino's version was adapted by Mellin de Saint-Gelais (performed in 1556), and may have served as the primary model for versions by Antoine de Montchrestien (1596) and Nicolas de Montreux (1601). The tragedy by Jean Mairet (1634) is one of the first monuments of French "classicism", and was followed by a version from Pierre Corneille (1663).  The story of Sophonisba also served as subject for works by John Marston (1606), David Murray (1610), Nathaniel Lee (1676), Daniel Caspar von Lohenstein (1680), Henry Purcell (1685), Antonio Caldara (1708), Leonardo Leo (1718), Luca Antonio Predieri (1722), James Thomson (1729), Niccolò Jommelli (1746), Baldassare Galuppi (1747, 1764), Tommaso Traetta (1762), Antonio Boroni (1764), Christopher Gluck (1765), Maria Teresa Agnesi (1765), (1766), François Joseph Lagrange-Chancel, revised by Voltaire (1770), Christian Gottlob Neefe (1776), António Leal Moreira (1783), Joseph Joaquín Mazuelo (1784), Vittorio Alfieri (1789), Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi (1802), Marcos Portugal (1803), Ferdinando Paer (1805), Vincenzo Federici (1805), Luigi Petrali (1844), Emanuel Geibel (1869), Jeronim de Rada (1892), (1904), Dimitrie Cuclin (1945), Vasco Graça Moura (1993), and others.  Sophonisba also appears in film, first in Giovanni Pastrone's 1914 silent film "Cabiria" and again in Carmine Gallone's 1937 epic movie "".

References.

Livy, "Ab urbe condita libri xxix.23, xxx.8, 12-15.8"

Sophonisba ( in Punic, <unk> Ṣap̄anbaʿal) (fl. 203 BC) was a Carthaginian noblewoman who lived during the Second Punic War, and the daughter of Hasdrubal Gisco. She held influence over the Numidian political landscape, convincing king Syphax to change sides during the war, and later, in an act that became legendary, she poisoned herself rather than be humiliated in a Roman triumph.

索福尼斯巴(Sophonisba;布匿语: ';?-前203年),又译为索芙妮丝芭、索芬尼斯芭等,是第二次布匿战争时期迦太基的一位贵族女性。


Background and family.

Woods was born in 1975 in Cypress, California, to Earl and Kultida "Tida" Woods. He is their only child and has two half-brothers, Earl Jr. and Kevin, as well as a half-sister named Royce from his father's first marriage.  Kultida (née Punsawad) is originally from Thailand, where Earl had met her when he was on a tour of duty there in 1968. She is of mixed Thai, Chinese, and Dutch ancestry. Earl was a retired lieutenant colonel

Early life and amateur golf career.

Woods grew up in Orange County, California. He was a child prodigy who was introduced to golf before the age of two by his athletic father, Earl Woods. Earl was a single-digit handicap amateur golfer who also was one of the earliest African-American college baseball players at Kansas State University. Tiger's father was a member of the military and had playing privileges at the Navy golf course beside the Joint Forces Training Base in Los Alamitos, which allowed Tiger to play there. Tiger also played at the par 3 Heartwell golf course in Long Beach, as well as some of the municipals in Long Beach.  In 1978, Tiger putted against comedian Bob Hope in a television appearance on "The Mike Douglas Show". At age three, he shot a 48 over nine holes at the Navy course. At age five, he appeared in "Golf Digest" and on ABC's "That's Incredible!" Before turning seven, Tiger won the Under Age 10 section of the Drive, Pitch, and Putt competition, held at the Navy Golf Course in Cypress, California. In 1984 at the age of eight, he won the 9–10 boys' event, the youngest age group available, at the Junior World Golf Championships. He first broke 80 at age eight. He went on to win the Junior World Championships six times, including four consecutive wins from 1988 to 1991.  Woods' father Earl wrote that Tiger first defeated him at the age of 11 years, with Earl trying his best. Earl lost to Tiger every time from then on. Woods first broke 70 on a regulation golf course at age 12.  When Woods was 13 years old, he played in the 1989 Big I, which was his first major national

College golf career.

Woods was heavily recruited by college golf powers. He chose Stanford University, the 1994 NCAA champions. He enrolled at Stanford in the fall of 1994 under a golf scholarship and won his first collegiate event, the 40th Annual William H. Tucker Invitational, that September. He selected a major in economics and was nicknamed "Urkel" by college teammate Notah Begay III. In 1995, he successfully defended his U.S. Amateur title at the Newport Country Club in Rhode Island and was voted Pac-10 Player of the Year, NCAA First Team All-American,

Professional career.

Woods turned pro at age 20 in August 1996 and immediately signed advertising deals with Nike, Inc. and Titleist that ranked as the most lucrative endorsement contracts in golf history at that time. Woods was named "Sports Illustrated"s 1996 Sportsman of the Year and PGA Tour Rookie of the Year. On April 13, 1997, he won his first major, the Masters, in record-breaking fashion and became the tournament's youngest winner at age 21. Two months later, he set the record for the fastest ascent to No. 1 in the Official World Golf Rankings. After a lackluster 1998, Woods finished the 1999 season with eight wins, including the PGA Championship, a feat not achieved since Johnny Miller did it in 1974.  Woods was severely myopic; his eyesight had a rating of 11 diopters. In order to correct this problem, he underwent successful laser eye surgery in 1999, and he immediately resumed winning tour events. In 2007, his vision again began to deteriorate, and he underwent laser eye surgery a second time.  In 2000, Woods won six consecutive events on the PGA Tour, which was the longest winning streak since Ben Hogan did it in 1948. One of these was the U.S. Open, where he broke or tied nine tournament records in what "Sports Illustrated" called "the greatest performance in golf history", in which Woods won the tournament by a record 15-stroke margin and earned a check for $800,000. At age 24, he became the youngest golfer to achieve the Career Grand Slam. At the end of 2000, Woods had won nine of the twenty PGA Tour events he entered and had broken the record for lowest scoring average in tour history. He was named the "Sports Illustrated" Sportsman of the Year, the only athlete to be honored twice, and was ranked by Golf Digest magazine as the twelfth-best golfer of all time. When Woods won the 2001 Masters, he became the only player to win four consecutive major professional golf titles, although not in the same calendar year. This achievement came to be known as the "Tiger Slam." Following a stellar 2001 and 2002 in which he continued to dominate the tour, Woods' career hit a slump. He did not win a major in 2003 or 2004. In September 2004, Vijay Singh overtook Woods in the Official World Golf Rankings, ending Woods' record streak of 264 weeks at No. 1.  Woods rebounded in 2005, winning six PGA Tour events and reclaiming the top spot in July after swapping it back and forth with Singh over the first half of the year.  Woods began dominantly in 2006, winning his first two PGA tournaments but failing to capture his fifth Masters championship in April. Following the death of his father in May, Woods took some time off from the tour and appeared rusty upon his return at the U.S. Open at Winged Foot, where he missed the cut. However, he quickly returned to form and ended the year by winning six consecutive tour events. At the season's close, Woods had 54 total wins that included 12 majors; he had broken the tour records for both total wins and total majors wins over eleven seasons. Woods continued to excel in 2007 and the first part of 2008. In April 2008, he underwent knee surgery and missed the next two months on the tour. Woods returned for the 2008 U.S. Open, where he struggled the first day but ultimately claimed a dramatic sudden death victory over Rocco Mediate that followed an 18-hole playoff, after which Mediate said, "This guy does things that are just not normal by any stretch of the imagination," and Kenny Perry added, "He beat everybody on one leg." Two days later, Woods announced that he would miss the remainder of the season due to additional knee surgery, and that his knee was more severely damaged than previously revealed, prompting even greater praise for his U.S. Open performance. Woods called it "my greatest ever championship." In Woods' absence, TV ratings for the remainder of the season suffered a huge decline from 2007. Woods had a much anticipated return to golf in 2009, when he performed well. His comeback included a spectacular performance at the 2009 Presidents Cup, but he failed to win a major, the first year since 2004 that he had not done so. After his marital infidelities came to light and received massive media coverage at the end of 2009 (see further details below), Woods announced in December that he would be taking an indefinite break from competitive golf. In February 2010, he delivered a televised apology for his behavior, saying "I was wrong and I was foolish." During this period, several companies ended their endorsement deals with Woods.  Woods returned to competition in April at the 2010 Masters, where he finished tied for fourth place. He followed the Masters with poor showings at the Quail Hollow Championship and the Players Championship, where he withdrew in the fourth round, citing injury. Shortly afterward, Hank Haney, Woods' coach since 2003, resigned the position. In August, Woods hired Sean Foley as Haney's replacement. The rest of the season went badly for Woods, who failed to win a single event for the first time since turning professional, while nevertheless finishing the season ranked No. 2 in the world. In 2011, Woods' performance continued to suffer; this took its toll on his ranking. After falling to No. 7 in March, he rebounded to No. 5 with a strong showing at the 2011 Masters, where he tied for fourth place. Due to leg injuries incurred at the Masters, he missed several summer stops on the PGA Tour. In July, he fired his longtime caddy Steve Williams (who was shocked by the dismissal), and replaced him on an interim basis with friend Bryon Bell until he hired Joe LaCava. After returning to tournament play in August, Woods continued to falter, and his ranking gradually fell to a low of #58. He rose to No. 50 in mid-November after a third-place finish at the Emirates Australian Open, and broke his winless streak with a victory at December's Chevron World Challenge.  Woods began his 2012 season with two tournaments (the Abu Dhabi HSBC Golf Championship and the AT&T Pebble Beach National Pro-Am) where he started off well but struggled on the final rounds. Following the WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship, where he was knocked out in the second round by missing a 5-foot putt, Woods revised his putting technique and tied for second at the Honda Classic, with the lowest final round score in his PGA Tour career. After a short time off due to another leg injury, Woods won the Arnold Palmer Invitational, his first win on the PGA Tour since the BMW Championship in September 2009. Following several dismal performances, Woods notched his 73rd PGA Tour win at the Memorial Tournament in June, tying Jack Nicklaus in second place for most PGA Tour victories; a month later, Woods surpassed Nicklaus with a win at the AT&T National, to trail only Sam Snead, who accumulated 82 PGA tour wins.  The year 2013 would bring a return of Woods' dominating play. In January, he won the Farmers Insurance Open by four shots for his 75th PGA Tour win. It was the seventh time he had won the event. In March, he won the WGC-Cadillac Championship, also for the seventh time, giving him his 17th WGC title and first since 2009. Two weeks later, he won the Arnold Palmer Invitational, winning the event for a record-tying 8th time. The win moved him back to the top of the world rankings. To commemorate that achievement, Nike was quick to launch an ad with the tagline "winning takes care of everything".  During the 2013 Masters, Woods faced disqualification after unwittingly admitting in a post-round interview with ESPN that he had taken an illegal drop on the par-5 15th hole when his third shot had bounced off the pin and into the water. After further review of television footage, Woods was assessed a two-stroke penalty for the drop but was not disqualified. He finished tied for fourth in the event. Woods won The Players Championship in May 2013, his second career win at the event, notching his fourth win of the 2013 season. It was the quickest he had gotten to four wins in any season in his professional career. Woods had a poor showing at the 2013 U.S. Open as a result of an elbow injury that he sustained at The Players Championship. In finishing at 13-over-par, he recorded his worst score as a professional and finished 12 strokes behind winner Justin Rose. After a prolonged break because of the injury, during which he missed the Greenbrier Classic and his own AT&T National, he returned at the Open Championship at Muirfield. Despite being in contention all week and beginning the final round only two strokes behind Lee Westwood, he struggled with the speed of the greens and could only manage a 3-over-par 74 that left him tied for 6th place, five strokes behind eventual winner Phil Mickelson. Two weeks later, Woods returned to form at the WGC-Bridgestone Invitational, recording his 5th win of the season and 8th win at the event in its 15-year history. His second round 61 matched his record score on the PGA Tour and could easily have been a 59 were it not for some short missed birdie putts on the closing holes. This gave him a seven-stroke lead that he held onto for the rest of the tournament. Woods would never contend at the PGA Championship at Oak Hill Country Club and would come short of winning a major for the 5th full season, only contending in two of the four majors in 2013.  After a slow start to 2014, Woods sustained an injury during the final round of the Honda Classic and was unable to finish the tournament. He withdrew after the 13th hole, citing back pain. He subsequently competed in the WGC-Cadillac Championship but was visibly in pain during much of the last round. He was forced to skip the Arnold Palmer Invitational at the end of March 2014, and after undergoing back surgery, he announced on April 1 that he would miss the Masters for the first time since 1994. Woods returned at the Quicken Loans National in June, however he stated that his expectations for the week were low. He would struggle with nearly every aspect of his game and miss the cut. He next played at The Open Championship, contested at Hoylake, where Woods had won eight years prior. Woods fired a brilliant 69 in the first round to put himself in contention, but shot 77 on Friday and would eventually finish 69th. Despite his back pain, he played at the 2014 PGA Championship where he failed to make the cut. On August 25, 2014, Woods and his swing coach Sean Foley parted ways. In the four years under Foley, he won eight times but no majors. He had previously won eight majors with Harmon and six with Haney. Woods said there is currently no timetable to find a replacement swing coach.  On February 5, 2015, Woods withdrew from the Farmers Insurance Open after another back injury. Woods stated on his website that it was unrelated to his previous surgery and he would take a break from golf until his back healed. He returned for the Masters, finishing in a tie for 17th. In the final round, Woods injured his wrist after his club hit a tree root. He later stated that a bone popped out of his wrist, but he adjusted it back into place and finished the round. Woods then missed the cut at the 2015 U.S. Open and Open Championship, the first time Woods missed the cut at consecutive majors, finishing near the bottom of the leaderboard both times. He finished tied for 18th at the Quicken Loans National on August 2. In late August 2015, Woods played quite well at the Wyndham Championship finishing the tournament at 13-under, only four strokes behind the winner, and tied for 10th place. Woods offered only a brief comment on the speculation that he was still recovering from back surgery, saying it was "just my hip" but offering no specifics. Woods had back surgery on September 16, 2015. In late March 2016, he announced that he would miss the Masters while he recovered from the surgery; he had also missed the 2014 Masters due to a back problem. "I'm absolutely making progress, and I'm really happy with how far I've come," he explained in a statement. "But I still have no timetable to return to competitive golf." However, he did attend the Masters Champions Dinner on April 5, 2016. For the first time in his career, he missed all four majors in one year due to problems with his back. In October 2016, he told Charlie Rose on PBS that he still wanted to break Jack Nicklaus's record of 18 major titles. Woods underwent back surgery in December 2016 and spent the next 15 months off the Tour. He made his return to competitive golf in the Hero World Challenge.  Woods' back problems continued to hinder him in 2017. He missed the cut at the Farmers Insurance Open in January and pulled out of a European Tour event in Dubai on February 3. On March 31, Woods announced on his website that he would not be playing in the 2017 Masters Tournament despite being cleared to play by his doctors. Woods said that although he was happy with his rehabilitation, he did not feel "tournament ready." Woods subsequently told friends, "I'm done". On April 20, Woods announced that he had undergone his fourth back surgery since 2014 to alleviate back and leg pain. Recovery time required up to six months, meaning that Woods would spend the rest of the year without playing any professional golf. Woods returned to competitive golf at the Hero World Challenge in the Bahamas. He shot rounds of 69-68-75-68 and finished tied for 9th place. His world ranking went from 1,199th to 668th, which was the biggest jump in the world rankings in his career.  On March 11, 2018, he finished one-shot back and tied for second at the Valspar Championship in Florida, his first top-five finish on the PGA Tour since 2013. He then tied for sixth with a score of five under par at the 2018 Open Championship. At the last major of the year Woods finished second at the 2018 PGA Championship, two shots behind the winner Brooks Koepka. It was his best result in a major since 2009 (second at the 2009 PGA Championship) and moved up to 26th in the world rankings. His final round of 64 was his best ever final round in a major.  Woods returned to the winner's circle for the 80th time in his PGA Tour career on September 23, 2018, when he won the season-ending Tour Championship at East Lake Golf Club for the second time and that tournament for the third time. He shot rounds of 65-68-65-71 to win by two strokes over Billy Horschel.  On April 14, 2019, Woods won the Masters, which was his first major championship win in eleven years and his 15th major overall. He finished 13 under par to win by one stroke over Dustin Johnson, Xander Schauffele and Brooks Koepka. At age 43, he became the second oldest golfer ever to win the Masters, after Jack Nicklaus who was 46 when he triumphed in 1986. In August 2019, Woods announced via social media that he underwent a knee surgery to repair minor cartilage damage and that he had an arthroscopic procedure during the Tour Championship. In his statement, Woods also confirmed that he was walking and intends on traveling and playing in Japan in October.  Woods played in his first 2020 PGA Tour event at the Zozo Championship in October 2019, which was the first-ever PGA Tour event played in Japan. Woods, who played a highly publicized skins game earlier in the week at the same course as the Championship, held at least a share of the lead after every round of the rain-delayed tournament, giving him a three stroke victory over Hideki Matsuyama. The win was Woods's 82nd on Tour, tying him with Sam Snead for the most victories all time on the PGA Tour.

Career achievements.

Woods has won 82 official PGA Tour events, including 15 majors. He is 14–1 when going into the final round of a major with at least a share of the lead. Multiple golf experts have heralded Woods as "the greatest closer in history". He owns the lowest career scoring average and the most career earnings of any player in PGA Tour history.  Woods' victory at the 2013 Players Championship also marked a win in his 300th PGA Tour start. He also won golf tournaments in his 100th (in 2000) and 200th (in 2006) tour starts.  Woods has spent the most consecutive and cumulative weeks atop the world rankings. He is one of five players (along with Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Gary Player, and Jack Nicklaus) to have won all four major championships in his career, known as the Career Grand Slam, and was the youngest to do so. Woods is the only player to have won all four major championships in a row, accomplishing the feat in the 2000–2001 seasons.

Major championships.

Wins (15).

Defeated May in three-hole playoff by 1 stroke: Woods (3-4-5=12), May (4-4-5=13) Defeated DiMarco in a sudden-death playoff: Woods (3), DiMarco

Results timeline.

LA = Low amateur
 CUT = missed the half-way cut
 WD = withdrew
 "T" indicates a tie for a place

The Players Championship.

Results timeline.

WD = withdrew "T" indicates a tie for a place.

World Golf Championships.

Results timeline.

Cancelled due to 9/11
  QF, R16, R32, R64 = Round in which player lost in match play
 WD = withdrew
 NT = No tournament
 "T" = tied
 Note that the HSBC Champions did not become a WGC event until 2009.

PGA Tour career summary.

<nowiki>*</nowiki>As of

Playing style.

When Woods first joined the PGA Tour in 1996, his long drives had a large impact on the world of golf, but he did not upgrade his equipment in the following years. He insisted upon the use of True Temper Dynamic Gold steel-shafted clubs and smaller steel clubheads that promoted accuracy over distance. Many opponents caught up to him, and Phil Mickelson even made a joke in 2003 about Woods using "inferior equipment", which did not sit well with Nike, Titleist or Woods. During 2004, Woods finally upgraded his driver technology to a larger clubhead and graphite shaft, which, coupled with his clubhead speed, again made him one of the tour's longest players off the tee.  Despite his power advantage, Woods has always focused on developing an excellent all-around game. Although in recent years he has typically been near the bottom of the Tour rankings in driving accuracy, his iron play is generally accurate, his recovery and bunker play

Equipment.

WGC Dell

Other ventures.

TGR Foundation.

The TGR Foundation was established in 1996 by Woods and his father Earl as the Tiger Woods Foundation, with the primary goal of promoting golf among inner-city children. The foundation has conducted junior golf clinics across the country, and sponsors the Tiger Woods Foundation National Junior Golf Team in the Junior World Golf Championships. As of December 2010, TWF employed approximately 55 people.  The foundation operates the Tiger Woods Learning Center, a $50-million,

Tiger Woods Design.

In November 2006, Woods announced his intention to begin designing golf courses around the world through a new company, Tiger Woods Design. A month later, he announced that the company's first course would be in Dubai as part of a 25.3-million-square-foot development, The Tiger Woods Dubai. The Al Ruwaya Golf Course was initially expected to finish construction in 2009. As of February 2010, only seven holes had been completed; in April 2011, "The New York Times" reported that the project had been shelved permanently. In 2013, the partnership between Tiger Woods Design

Writings.

Woods wrote a golf instruction column for "Golf Digest" magazine from 1997 to February 2011. In 2001 he wrote a best-selling golf instruction book, "How I Play

Personal life.

Marriage and children.

In November 2003, Woods became engaged to Elin Nordegren, a Swedish former model and daughter of former minister of migration Barbro Holmberg and radio journalist Thomas Nordegren. They were introduced during The Open Championship in 2001 by Swedish golfer Jesper Parnevik, who had employed her as an au pair. They married on October 5, 2004, at

Infidelity scandal and fallout.

In November 2009, the "National Enquirer" published a story claiming that Woods had had an extramarital affair with New York City nightclub manager Rachel Uchitel, who denied the claim. Two days later, around 2:30 a.m. on November 27, Woods was driving from his Florida mansion in his Cadillac Escalade SUV when he collided with a fire hydrant, a tree, and several hedges near his home. He was treated for minor facial lacerations and received a ticket for careless driving. Following intense media speculation about the cause of the accident, Woods released a statement on his website and took sole responsibility for the accident, calling it a "private matter" and crediting his wife for helping him from the car. On November 30, Woods announced that he would not be appearing at his own charity golf tournament (the Chevron World Challenge) or any other tournaments in 2009 due to his injuries.  On December 2, following "Us Weekly"s previous day reporting of a purported mistress and subsequent release of a voicemail message allegedly left by Woods for the woman, Woods released a further statement. He admitted transgressions and apologized to "all of those who have supported [him] over the years", while reiterating his

2017 arrest.

On May 29, 2017, Woods was arrested near his Jupiter Island, Florida, home by the Jupiter Police Department at about 3:00 am. EDT for driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs. He was asleep in his car, which was stationary in a traffic lane with its engine running. He later stated that he had taken prescription drugs and did not realize how they might interact together. On July 3, 2017, Woods tweeted that he had

Other pursuits.

Woods was raised as a Buddhist, and he actively practiced his faith from childhood until well into his adult, professional golf career. In a 2000 article, Woods was quoted as saying that he "believes in Buddhism... not every aspect, but most of it." He has attributed his deviations and infidelity to his losing track of Buddhism. He said, "Buddhism teaches me to stop following every impulse and to learn restraint. Obviously I lost track of what I was taught."  Woods is registered

Eldrick Tont "Tiger" Woods (born December 30, 1975) is an American professional golfer. He is tied for first in PGA Tour wins and ranks second in men's major championships and also holds numerous golf records. Woods is widely regarded as one of the greatest golfers, and one of the most famous athletes of all time. He will be inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 2021.

埃尔德里克·“泰格”·伍兹(英语:Eldrick "Tiger" Woods,1975年-12月30日),美国高尔夫球手,自1997年首次登上世界排名第一以来,他在位周数超过650周,是高球史上纪录。因为在英文中他的绰号“Tiger”的意思是“虎”,所以在中文中经常被称为-{老虎}-。


Premise.

The "Dune" franchise is set thousands of years in humanity's future. Faster-than-light travel has been developed, and humans have colonized a vast number of worlds. At the time of the first book's setting, humanity has formed a feudal interstellar empire known as the Imperium, run by several Great Houses that oversee various planets. Of key interest is the planet Arrakis, known as "Dune". Entirely a desert planet with nearly no precipitation, it is the only planet where a special life-extending drug, melange or "the

Development and publication.

Original series.

Herbert's interest in the desert setting of "Dune" and its challenges is attributed to research he began in 1957 for a never-completed article about a United States Department of Agriculture experiment using poverty grasses to stabilize damaging sand dunes, which could "swallow whole cities, lakes, rivers, and highways." Herbert spent the next five years researching, writing, and revising what would eventually become the novel "Dune", which was initially serialized in "Analog" magazine as two shorter works, "Dune World" (1963) and "The Prophet of Dune" (1965). The serialized version was expanded and reworked—and rejected by more than 20 publishers—before being published by Chilton Books, a printing house best known for its auto repair manuals, in 1965. "Dune" won the 1966 Hugo Award and the inaugural Nebula Award for Best Novel. The novel has been translated into dozens of languages, and has sold almost 20

Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.

Over a decade after Herbert's death, his son Brian Herbert enlisted science fiction author Kevin J. Anderson to coauthor a trilogy of "Dune" prequel novels that would come to be called the "Prelude to Dune" series. Using some of Frank Herbert's own notes, the duo wrote "" (1999), "" (2000), and "" (2001). The series is set in the years immediately prior to the events of "Dune". This was followed with a second prequel trilogy called the "Legends of Dune", consisting of "" (2002), "" (2003), and "" (2004). These were set during the Butlerian Jihad, an element of backstory which Frank Herbert had previously established as occurring 10,000 years before the events chronicled in "Dune". Herbert's brief description of humanity's "crusade against computers, thinking machines, and conscious robots" was expanded by Brian Herbert and Anderson in this series.  With an outline for the first book of "Prelude to Dune" series written and a proposal sent to publishers, Brian Herbert had

Short stories.

In 1985, Frank Herbert wrote an illustrated short work called "The Road to Dune", set sometime between the events of "Dune" and "Dune Messiah". Published in Herbert's short story collection "Eye", it takes the form of a guidebook

By other authors.

In 1984, Herbert's publisher Putnam released "The Dune Encyclopedia" under its Berkley Books imprint. Approved by Herbert but not written by him, this collection of essays by 43 contributors describes in invented detail many aspects of the "Dune" universe not found in the novels themselves. Herbert's estate later confirmed its non-canon status after Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson had begun publishing prequel novels that directly contradict "The Dune Encyclopedia".  The 1984 "Dune" film spawned "The Dune Storybook" (September 1984, ), a novelization written by Joan D. Vinge, and "The Making of Dune" (December 1984, ), a making-of book by Ed Naha. In November 1984, Pocket Books published "National Lampoon's Doon" by Ellis Weiner (), a parody novel.  In May

In other media.

Film.

In 1973, director and writer Alejandro Jodorowsky set about creating a cinematic adaptation, taking over the option that producer Arthur P. Jacobs had put on the film adaptation rights in 1973 shortly before his death. Jodorowsky approached, among others, Peter Gabriel, the prog rock groups Pink Floyd and Magma for some of the music, artists H. R. Giger and Jean Giraud for set and character design, Dan O'Bannon and Douglas Trumbull for special effects. Jodorowsky cast his own son Brontis Jodorowsky in the lead role of Paul Atreides, Salvador Dalí as Shaddam IV, Padishah Emperor, Amanda Lear as Princess Irulan,

Television.

Syfy (Sci-Fi Channel) premiered a three-part miniseries adaptation called "Frank Herbert's Dune" on December 3, 2000. Its March 16, 2003 sequel, "Frank Herbert's Children of Dune", combined both "Dune Messiah" and "Children of Dune". As of 2004, both miniseries were two of the three highest-rated programs ever to be broadcast on Syfy. "Frank Herbert's Dune" won two Primetime Emmy Awards in 2001, for Outstanding Cinematography for a Miniseries or Movie and Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special. The miniseries was also nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special. "Frank Herbert's Children

Comics and graphic novels.

On December 1, 1984, Marvel Comics and Berkley published "Dune: The Official Comic Book" (), a comic adaptation of David Lynch's film "Dune". "Marvel Super Special #36: Dune" featuring an adaptation of the film by writer Ralph Macchio and artist Bill Sienkiewicz was released on April 1, 1985, as well as a three-issue limited comic series from Marvel entitled "Dune" from April to June 1985.

Music.

Soundtrack albums have been released for the 1984 film, the 2000 TV miniseries, and the 2003 "Children of

Merchandising.

Toys.

A line of "Dune" action figures from toy company LJN was released to lackluster sales in 1984. Styled after David Lynch's film, the collection featured figures of Paul Atreides, Baron Harkonnen, Feyd, Rabban, Stilgar, and a Sardaukar warrior, plus a poseable sandworm, several vehicles and weapons, and a set of View-Master stereoscope reels.

Games.

The board game "Dune" was released by Avalon Hill in 1979, followed by a Parker Brothers game "Dune" in 1984. A 1997 collectible card game called "Dune" was followed by the role-playing game "" in 2000. The 1979 Avalon Hill game was republished by Gale Force Nine in 2019.  To date, there have been five licensed "Dune" computer and video games released. The first was "Dune" (1992) from Cryo Interactive/Virgin Interactive. Another game developed at the same

Themes and influences.

The "Dune" series is a landmark of soft science fiction. Herbert deliberately suppressed technology in his "Dune" universe so he could address the politics of humanity, rather than the future of humanity's technology. "Dune" considers the way humans and their institutions might change over time. Jon Michaud of "The New Yorker" called the originating novel "Dune" "an epic of political betrayal, ecological brinkmanship, and messianic deliverance." Director John Harrison, who adapted "Dune" for Syfy's 2000 miniseries, called the novel a universal and timeless reflection of "the human condition and its moral dilemmas", and said: Novelist Brian Herbert, Frank Herbert's son and biographer, explained that "Frank Herbert drew parallels, used spectacular metaphors, and extrapolated present conditions into world systems that seem entirely alien at first blush. But close examination reveals they aren't so different from systems we know". He wrote that the invaluable drug melange "represents, among other things, the finite resource of oil". Michaud explained, "Imagine a substance with the combined worldwide value of cocaine and petroleum and you will have some idea of the power of melange." Each chapter of "Dune" begins with an epigraph excerpted from the fictional writings of the character Princess Irulan. In forms such as diary entries, historical commentary, biography, quotations and philosophy, these writings set tone and provide exposition, context, and other details intended by Herbert to enhance understanding of his complex fictional universe and themes.  Michaud wrote in 2013, "With daily reminders of the intensifying effects of global warming, the spectre of a worldwide water shortage, and continued political upheaval in the oil-rich Middle East, it is possible that "Dune" is even more relevant now than when it was first published." Praising Herbert's "clever authorial decision" to excise robots and computers ("two staples of the genre") from his fictional universe, he suggested that "This de-emphasis on technology throws the focus back on people. It also allows for the presence of a religious mysticism uncommon in science fiction."

Environmentalism and ecology.

The originating novel "Dune" has been called the "first planetary ecology novel on a grand scale". After the publication of "Silent Spring" by Rachel Carson in 1962, science fiction writers began treating the subject of ecological change and its consequences. "Dune" responded in 1965 with its complex descriptions of life on Arrakis, from giant sandworms (for whom water is

Declining empires.

Lorenzo DiTommaso compared "Dune" portrayal of the downfall of a galactic empire to Edward Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," which argues that Christianity allied with the profligacy of the Roman elite led to the fall of Ancient Rome. In "History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert's "Dune"" (1992), DiTommaso outlines similarities between the two works by highlighting the excesses of Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV on his home planet of Kaitain and of the Baron Harkonnen in his palace. The Emperor loses his effectiveness as a ruler through an excess of ceremony and pomp. The hairdressers and attendants he brings with him to Arrakis are even referred to as

Heroism.

Brian Herbert wrote that ""Dune" is a modern-day conglomeration of familiar myths, a tale in which great sandworms guard a precious treasure of melange...[which] resembles the myth described by an unknown English poet in "Beowulf", the compelling tale of a fearsome fire dragon who guarded a great treasure hoard in a lair under cliffs".  Paul's rise to superhuman status follows the hero's journey template; after unfortunate circumstances are forced onto him, he suffers a long period of hardship and exile, and finally confronts and defeats the source of evil in his tale. As such, "Dune" is representative of a general trend beginning in 1960s American science fiction in that it features a character who attains godlike status through

Middle-Eastern and Islamic influences.

Due to the similarities between some of Herbert's terms and ideas and actual words and concepts in the Arabic language, as well as the series' "Islamic undertones" and themes, a Middle Eastern influence on Herbert's works has been noted repeatedly. In addition to Arabic, "Dune" derives words and names from multiple other languages, including Hebrew, Navajo, Latin, Chakobsa, the Nahuatl dialect of the Aztecs, Greek, Persian, East Indian, Russian, Turkish, Finnish, and Old English.  As a foreigner who adopts the ways of a desert-dwelling people and then leads them in a

Zen and religion.

Early in his newspaper career, Herbert was introduced to Zen by two Jungian psychologists, Ralph and Irene Slattery, who "gave a crucial boost to his thinking". Zen teachings ultimately had "a profound and continuing influence on [Herbert's] work". Throughout the "Dune" series and particularly in "Dune", Herbert employs concepts and forms borrowed from Zen Buddhism. The Fremen are Zensunni adherents, and many of Herbert's epigraphs are Zen-spirited. In ""Dune" Genesis", Frank Herbert wrote: Brian Herbert called the "Dune" universe "a spiritual melting pot", noting that his father incorporated elements of a variety of religions, including Buddhism, Sufi mysticism and other Islamic belief systems, Catholicism, Protestantism, Judaism, and Hinduism.

Plot arc.

The "Dune" universe, set in the distant future of humanity, has a history that stretches thousands of years (some 15,000 years in total) and covers considerable changes in political, social, and religious structure as well as technology. Creative works set in the "Dune" universe can be said to fall into five general time periods:

The Butlerian Jihad.

As explained in "Dune", the Butlerian Jihad is a conflict taking place over 11,000 years in the future (and over 10,000 years before the events of "Dune") which results in the total destruction of virtually all forms of "computers, thinking machines, and conscious robots". With the prohibition "Thou shalt not make a machine in the likeness of a human mind," the creation of even the simplest thinking machines is outlawed and made taboo, which has a profound influence on the socio-political and technological development of humanity in the "Dune" series. Herbert refers to the Jihad several times in the novels, but does not give much detail on how he imagined the causes and nature of the conflict. Critical analysis has often associated the term with Samuel Butler and his 1863 essay "Darwin among the Machines", which advocated the destruction of all advanced machines.  In Herbert's "God Emperor of Dune" (1981), Leto II Atreides indicates that the Jihad had been a semi-religious social upheaval initiated by humans who felt repulsed by how guided and controlled they had become by machines. This

The Corrino-led Imperium.

The ancient Battle of Corrin—occurring 20 years after the end of the Butlerian Jihad—spawns the Padishah Emperors of House Corrino, who rule the known universe for millennia by controlling the brutally efficient military force known as the Imperial Sardaukar. Ten thousand years later, one balance to Imperial power is the assembly of noble houses called the Landsraad, which enforces the Great Convention's ban on the use of atomics against human targets. Though the power of the Corrinos is unrivaled by any individual House, they

The rise of the Atreides.

As Frank Herbert's "Dune" (1965) begins, Duke Leto Atreides finds himself in a dangerous position. The 81st Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV has put him in control of the desert planet Arrakis, known as Dune, which is the only natural source of the all-important spice melange. The most valuable commodity in the known universe, the spice not only makes safe and reliable interstellar travel possible, but also prolongs life, protects against disease, and is used by the Bene Gesserit to enhance their abilities. The potential financial gains for House Atreides are mitigated by the fact that mining melange from the desert surface of Arrakis is an expensive and hazardous undertaking, thanks to the treacherous environment and constant threat of giant sandworms which protect the spice. In addition, Leto is aware that Shaddam, feeling threatened by the rising power and influence of the Atreides, has sent him into a trap. Failure to meet or exceed the production volume of his predecessor, the villainous Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, will negatively affect the position of House Atreides in CHOAM, which relies on spice profits. Further, the very presence of the Atreides

The reign and fall of the God Emperor.

At the time of "God Emperor of Dune" (1981), Paul's son, the God Emperor Leto II Atreides, has ruled the Empire for 3,500 years from the verdant face of a transformed Arrakis; melange production has ceased. Leto has forced the sandworms into extinction, except for the larval sandtrout with which he had forged a symbiosis, transforming him into a human-sandworm hybrid. Human civilization before his rule had suffered from twin weaknesses: that it could be controlled by a single authority, and that it was totally dependent upon melange, found on only one planet in the known universe. Leto's prescient visions had shown that humanity would be threatened by extinction in any number of ways; his

The return from the Scattering.

In the aftermath of the fall of the God Emperor, chaos and severe famine on many worlds cause trillions of humans to set off into the freedom of unknown space and spread out across the universe. This diaspora is later called the Scattering and, combined with the invisibility of Atreides descendants to prescient vision, assures that humanity has forever escaped the threat of total extinction. At the time of "Heretics of Dune" (1984) and "" (1985)—1500 years after Leto's death—the turmoil is settling into a new pattern; the balance of power in the Empire rests among the Ixians,

Legacy.

"Dune" has been widely influential, inspiring numerous novels, music, films, television, games, and comic books. It is considered one of the greatest and most influential science fiction novels of all time, with numerous modern science fiction works such as "Star Wars" owing their existence to "Dune". "Dune" has also been referenced in numerous other works of popular culture, such as "Star Trek", "The Kingkiller Chronicle", and "Futurama". "Dune" was cited as a major source of inspiration for Hayao Miyazaki's anime film "Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind" (1984).  Jon Michaud of "The New Yorker" noted in 2013, "what's curious about "Dune" stature is that it has not penetrated popular culture in the way that "The Lord of the Rings" and "Star Wars" have." He praised Herbert's "clever authorial decision" to excise robots and computers ("two staples of the genre") from his fictional universe, but suggested that this may be one explanation why "Dune" lacks "true fandom among science-fiction fans".  Since 2009, the names of planets from the "Dune" novels have been adopted for the real-world nomenclature of plains (planitiae) and complexes of valleys (labyrinthi) on Saturn's moon Titan. Planet names used to date include Arrakis, Caladan, Giedi Prime, Kaitain, Salusa Secundus, and Tleilax. The Hagal dune field and other sites on Mars are informally named after planets mentioned in the "Dune" series. The city of Tacoma, Washington, Herbert's birthplace, dedicated part of Point Defiance Park as the ""Dune" Peninsula" to honor the writer and the series.

Dune is a science fiction media franchise that originated with the 1965 novel "Dune" by Frank Herbert and has continued to add new publications up to 2017. "Dune" is frequently cited as the best selling science fiction novel in history. It won the 1966 Hugo Award and the inaugural Nebula Award for Best Novel, and was later adapted into a 1984 film and a 2000 television miniseries. Herbert wrote five sequels, and the first two were presented as a miniseries in 2003. The "Dune" universe has also inspired some traditional games and a series of video games. Since 2009, the names of planets from the "Dune" novels have been adopted for the real-world nomenclature of plains and other features on Saturn's moon Titan.

《沙丘》(英语:"Dune")是一系列美国科幻小说,由作家弗兰克·赫伯特所创作。系列的第一部——《沙丘》出版于1965年,那年赫伯特45岁;系列的最后一部——《沙丘终结篇》完成于1985年,即赫伯特去世的前一年。也就是说,在他的写作生涯里,有三分之二的岁月是在清贫和默默无闻中度过的;他最后能够取得辉煌的成功,一半应归功于他执著的个性,另一半则应该归功于来自贝弗丽的支持。