2002年国际足协世界杯

Host selection.

South Korea and Japan were selected as hosts by FIFA on 31 May 1996. Initially, South Korea, Japan and Mexico presented three rival bids. South Korea's entry into the race was seen by some as a response to the bid of political and sporting rival Japan. FIFA leaders were split on whom to favor as host as politics within the world governing body held sway. With Mexico regarded as a long shot, the battle to host the tournament came down to Japan and South Korea. The two Asian rivals went on a massive and expensive PR blitz around the world, prompting Sultan Ahmad Shah, the head of the Asian Football Confederation, to step in. FIFA boss Joao Havelange had long backed the Japanese bid, but his rival in FIFA, UEFA chief Lennart Johansson, sought to undermine Havelange's plans. UEFA and the AFC viewed cohosting between the two Asian rivals as the best option. Japan was finally faced with a choice of having no World Cup or half a World Cup and they reluctantly chose to go along with co-hosting. South Korea and Japan were chosen unanimously as co-hosts in preference to Mexico. This was the first World Cup to be hosted by more than one country, the second being the 2026 World Cup, which will be hosted by the United States, Mexico and Canada. The general secretary of South Korea's bidding committee, Song Young-shik, stated that FIFA was interested in staging some matches in North Korea in order to aid Korean reunification, but it was ruled out.  At the time the decision was made, Japan had never qualified for a World Cup finals (although the Japanese did subsequently qualify for the 1998 competition). The only other countries to have been awarded a World Cup without previously having competed in a final tournament are Italy in 1934 and Qatar in 2022 (Uruguay hosted the first World Cup in 1930 so there was no prior tournament; they were defending Olympic champions from 1928).  The unusual choice of host proved an issue for football fans in Europe, used to watching international matches on or close to their time zone. With games taking place in the European morning, some schools and businesses chose to open late on match days or set up communal watching events before the start of work.

Qualification.

199 teams attempted to qualify for the 2002 World Cup. The qualification process began with the preliminary draw held in Tokyo on 7 December 1999. Defending champions France and co-hosts South Korea and Japan qualified automatically and did not have to play any qualification matches. This was the final World Cup in which the defending champions qualified automatically.  14 places were contested by UEFA teams (Europe), five by CAF teams (Africa), four by CONMEBOL teams (South America), four by AFC teams (Asia) and three by CONCACAF teams (North and Central America and the Caribbean). The remaining two places were decided by playoffs between AFC and UEFA and between CONMEBOL and OFC (Oceania). Four nations qualified for the finals for the first time: China, Ecuador, Senegal and Slovenia. As of 2019, this was the last time the Republic of Ireland, Turkey and China qualified for a FIFA World Cup finals, as well as the last time Australia and Switzerland failed to qualify.  Turkey qualified for the first time since 1954, Poland and Portugal both qualified for the first time since 1986 and Costa Rica and Uruguay qualified for the first time since 1990. Sweden, Russia and the Republic of Ireland also returned after missing the 1998 World Cup. 1998 semi-finalists the Netherlands, three-time participants in the 1990s Romania, Colombia and Norway, and Bulgaria and Morocco, who had participated in the previous two finals tournaments, failed to qualify, while South Korea set a record by appearing in a fifth successive finals tournament, the first nation from outside Europe or the Americas to achieve this feat.  All seven previous World Cup-winning nations (Argentina, Brazil, England, France, Germany, Italy, and Uruguay) qualified, which broke the record of most previous champions at a tournament before the record was broken again in 2014. The highest ranked team not to qualify was Colombia (ranked 4th), while the lowest ranked team that did qualify was China PR (ranked 50th).

List of qualified teams.

The following 32 teams, shown with final pre-tournament rankings, qualified for the final tournament:

Venues.

South Korea and Japan each provided 10 venues, the vast majority of them newly built for the tournament. Groups A–D played all their matches in South Korea and Groups E–H played all their matches in Japan. The stadiums in Daegu, Suwon, Yokohama and Saitama all hosted 4 matches each, while the other 16 stadiums hosted 3 matches each. Notably, no matches were played in Tokyo, making it the second (after Bonn in 1974) capital of a host country not to have a World Cup venue (although there were matches played in cities close to or part of the Tokyo metropolitan area, such as Saitama and Yokohama).

Match officials.

There was much controversy over the refereeing in the tournament. Questionable decisions in the match between Italy and South Korea resulted in 400,000 complaints, and featured in ESPN's 10 most fabled World Cup controversies. The match between Spain and South Korea featured two controversially disallowed Spanish goals, which Iván Helguera referred to as "a robbery" and led to Spanish press brandishing the officials "thieves of dreams", though FIFA dismissed the incident as human error.

Squads.

This was the first World Cup that featured squads of 23 players, an increase from 22 previously. Of the 23 players, 3 must be goalkeepers.

Draw.

The eight seeded teams for the 2002 tournament were announced on 28 November 2001. The seeds comprised Pot A in the draw. Pot B contained the remaining 11 European sides; Pot C contained five unseeded qualifiers from CONMEBOL and AFC. Pot D contained unseeded sides from the CONCACAF region and Africa. This was the last FIFA World Cup with the defending champion in Group A. Since 2006, the host nation has automatically drawn to Group A.  Before the draw, it was arranged that the last three teams in Pot B would be drawn into four groups which did not already contain two European teams and one would be left without a second European team. This was ultimately Group C. No group could contain more than two European teams, no unseeded South American team could be drawn with Brazil or Argentina and no unseeded Asian team could be drawn with South Korea or Japan.  France, as holders were automatically placed in Group A, South Korea were placed in Group D and Japan were placed in Group H. One of the two South American seeds (Brazil and Argentina) had to play in a group played in South Korea and the other had to play in a group played in Japan. In Pot C, China had to play in South Korea (either group A, B or C) which meant that the other Asian team in Pot C (Saudi Arabia) had to play in Japan (either group E, F or G). In Pot D, two or three African teams and one or two CONCACAF teams had to play in either South Korea or Japan.  On 1 December 2001, the draw was held and the group assignments and order of fixtures were determined. Group F was considered the group of death, as it brought together Argentina, England, Nigeria and Sweden.

Group stage.

"All times are Korea Standard Time and Japan Standard Time ()"  Groups A, B, C, D based in South Korea. Groups E, F, G, H based in Japan.  In the following tables:  The teams in the group play were ranked upon  In the original version of the rules for the final tournament, the ranking criteria were in a different order, with head-to-head results taking precedence over total goal difference. The rules were changed to the above in advance of the tournament, but older versions were still available on the FIFA and UEFA websites, causing some confusion among those trying to identify the correct criteria.

Group A.

Group A involved the defending champions France, along with Senegal, Uruguay and Denmark. The World Cup started with a 1–0 defeat of France, playing without the injured Zinedine Zidane, by tournament newcomers Senegal in the tournament's opening match held in Seoul, South Korea. On the next day, two goals by Jon Dahl Tomasson gave the Danes a 2–1 victory over Uruguay in Ulsan.  In the second set of Group A matches, France were held to a 0–0 draw in Busan by Uruguay after star striker Thierry Henry was sent off, while in Daegu, Denmark and Senegal drew 1–1.  A 2–0 defeat by Denmark in their last group game in Incheon sealed France's elimination from the World Cup.  France went out of the Cup without even managing to score a goal and earned the unwanted record of the worst World Cup performance by World Cup holders other than Uruguay in 1934, which refused to defend the title.  Senegal drew with Uruguay to clinch their place in the second round, despite Uruguay coming back from 3–0 down to draw 3–3, in their last group game in Suwon. The South Americans could not find the fourth goal that would have kept them in the Cup and thus were out of the tournament. At the end, Denmark won Group A with 7 points, followed by Senegal with 5 points. Uruguay were eliminated with 2 points and holders France with 1 point.

Group B.

Spain in Group B became one of only two teams to pick up maximum points, seeing off both Slovenia and Paraguay (in Gwangju and Jeonju respectively) 3–1 before defeating South Africa 3–2 in Daejeon.  Paraguay advanced over a late goal, winning 3–1 over newcomer Slovenia in Seogwipo to tie with South Africa on goal difference (they were already tied with four points, having drawn 2–2 in their opening game against each other in Busan). As a result, Paraguay advanced to the second round on the goals scored tiebreaker, scoring six goals compared to South Africa's five.

Group C.

Group C saw Brazil become the other team to win all three of their Group matches, defeating Turkey 2–1 in Ulsan, China 4–0 in Seogwipo and Costa Rica 5–2 in Suwon. Turkey also advanced to the next round, defeating Costa Rica on goal difference after both teams were tied with 4 points each. China, coached by Bora Milutinović (the fifth national team he coached in five consecutive World Cups), finished bottom of the group with no goals and no points.

Group D.

Group D saw co-host South Korea, Poland, United States, and Portugal square off against each other. South Korea and Poland started group play in Busan, where South Korea earned their first ever World Cup victory, defeating Poland 2–0. United States shocked group favorites Portugal the next day, defeating them 3–2 in Suwon. South Korea and United States then faced off in Daegu, where excellent goalkeeping by Brad Friedel and Lee Woon-jae resulted in a 1–1 draw, while a hat-trick by Pauleta gave the Portuguese a comfortable 4–0 win against Poland in Jeonju. In the final round of group games, South Korea eliminated Portugal in Incheon thanks to a 70th-minute goal by Park Ji-sung, finishing the game 1–0 victors, while Poland defeated the United States 3–1 in Daejeon to gain a consolation victory. South Korea topped the group and advanced beyond the first round for the first time ever with seven points, while the United States placed second with four points. Portugal and Poland were eliminated with three points each in third and fourth places respectively.

Group E.

Group E saw Germany play against Saudi Arabia, the Republic of Ireland and Cameroon. Ireland and Cameroon started group play in Niigata in a 1–1 draw, while Germany thrashed Saudi Arabia 8–0 in Sapporo. In Ibaraki, Germany held a 1–0 lead over the Republic of Ireland thanks to a 19th-minute goal by Miroslav Klose, only to draw 1–1 due to a sensational 92nd-minute equaliser by Robbie Keane. Saudi Arabia bowed out of the tournament with a 1–0 defeat against Cameroon in Saitama, thanks to a second-half goal by Samuel Eto'o. In the final matches of Group E, Germany sent Cameroon out of the tournament, winning 0–2 in Shizuoka with goals by Marco Bode and Miroslav Klose, while Ireland defeated Saudi Arabia 3–0 in Yokohama with goals by Robbie Keane, Gary Breen and Damien Duff. Germany advanced with seven points and Ireland followed along with five points, while Cameroon was eliminated with four points. Saudi Arabia produced the poorest performance of all the teams at the tournament, being eliminated without a single point or goal and conceding 12 goals.

Group F.

Group F was nicknamed the "group of death", featuring Argentina, Nigeria, England and Sweden. Argentina won their opening game in Ibaraki 1–0 against Nigeria thanks to a second-half goal by Gabriel Batistuta, while in Saitama England and Sweden drew 1–1 thanks to goals by Sol Campbell and Niclas Alexandersson. Sweden and Nigeria faced off in Kobe, where two goals by Henrik Larsson eliminated Nigeria 2–1. Meanwhile, in Sapporo, England won 1–0 over Argentina, thanks to a David Beckham penalty kick. In the final matches of Group F, England and Nigeria drew 0–0 in Osaka, while Sweden and Argentina drew 1–1 in Miyagi. Sweden and England advanced from Group F, first and second respectively with five points each, at the expense of Argentina's four points, while Nigeria finished last with one point. This was the first time since 1962 that Argentina had failed to advance to the second round.

Group G.

Group G saw Italy, Ecuador, Croatia and Mexico play against each other. Niigata saw the start of the group games, with Mexico winning 1–0 over Croatia, thanks to a penalty converted by Cuauhtémoc Blanco. Later that night in Sapporo, Italy defeated newcomers Ecuador 2–0 with ease, having both goals scored by Christian Vieri. Italy and Croatia faced off a few days later in Ibaraki, where Croatia pulled off a surprise 2–1 victory over Italy. The next day saw Mexico earn a vital 2–1 victory over Ecuador in Miyagi. In the final matches of Group G, Mexico and Italy drew 1–1 in Ōita, while Ecuador achieved their first ever World Cup victory, defeating Croatia 1–0 in Yokohama. Mexico won Group G with seven points, while Italy survived with four points. Croatia and Ecuador were eliminated with three points in third and fourth places respectively, with the former failing to repeat its surprise performance from 1998 despite their victory against Italy.

Group H.

Group H saw co-hosts Japan square off against Belgium, Russia and Tunisia. Japan earned their first World Cup points in a spectacular 2–2 draw against Belgium in Saitama, while Russia earned a 2–0 victory over Tunisia in Kobe. Japan would get their first ever World Cup victory a few days later in Yokohama, defeating Russia 1–0 through a second-half goal by Junichi Inamoto, while Belgium and Tunisia drew 1–1 in Ōita. In the final matches of Group H, Japan defeated Tunisia with ease, winning 0–2 in Osaka, while Belgium survived against Russia in Shizuoka, winning 3–2. Japan won Group H with seven points, while Belgium advanced with five points. Russia was eliminated with three points and Tunisia was eliminated with one point.

Knockout stage.

For the second round, quarter-finals and semi-finals, the qualifiers from Groups A, C, F and H played their games in Japan while the qualifiers from Groups B, D, E and G played their games in South Korea. Daegu, South Korea, hosted the third-place match while Yokohama, Japan, hosted the final.

Round of 16.

In the round of 16, Germany beat Paraguay 1–0 with a late goal by Oliver Neuville in Seogwipo. England defeated Denmark in Niigata 3–0, with all goals occurring in the first half of the game. Sweden and Senegal faced off in Ōita and finished 1–1 in regular time and it took a golden goal from Henri Camara in extra time to settle the game for Senegal 2–1. Spain and Ireland played in Suwon, where Spain led most of the match 1–0 until a late penalty kick scored by Robbie Keane made the match go to extra time, where Spain emerged victorious in a penalty shoot-out. The United States beat CONCACAF rivals Mexico 2–0 in Jeonju with Brian McBride and Landon Donovan scoring the goals. Brazil defeated Belgium 2–0 in Kobe, with an amazing volley by Rivaldo and a splendid counter-attack goal by Ronaldo. Turkey ended co-hosts Japan's run with a 1–0 win in Miyagi, thanks to a Ümit Davala goal in the 12th minute. The other co-hosts, South Korea, defeated Italy 2–1 in extra time in Daejeon with a goal by Ahn Jung-hwan in the 117th minute, after a match filled with many controversial refereeing decisions. South Korea's win ensured that, for the very first time in the Cup's history, teams from five continents – Europe, North America, South America, Africa and Asia – reached the quarter-finals of the same tournament.

Quarter-finals.

In the quarter-finals, England and Brazil squared off in Shizuoka, where Ronaldinho scored a free-kick goal over England's David Seaman early in the second half as Brazil won 2–1. The United States lost to Germany 1–0 in Ulsan by a Michael Ballack goal in the 39th minute, but controversy surrounded the game when United States demanded the referee give a penalty for a goal-line handball by Torsten Frings in the 49th minute, but the referee did not award the penalty. South Korea got another success in Gwangju in a controversial manner, overcoming Spain 5–3 on penalties after a 0–0 draw in which the Spaniards twice thought they had scored while onside; however, the efforts were disallowed by the referee with controversial decisions. The hosts became the first team in the Asian Football Confederation to reach the semi-finals of the World Cup, eclipsing the record of their North Korean counterparts who reached the quarter-finals in 1966. They also became the first World Cup semi-final team not from UEFA or CONMEBOL since the United States did it in the first World Cup in 1930. Turkey defeated Senegal 1–0 in Osaka, with a golden goal scored by İlhan Mansız in the 93rd minute.

Semi-finals.

The semi-finals saw 1-0 games; the first semi-final, played in Seoul, saw Michael Ballack's goal suffice for Germany to eliminate South Korea. However, Ballack had already received a yellow card during the match before, which forced him to miss the final based on accumulated yellow cards. The next day in Saitama saw Ronaldo score a goal early in the second half, his sixth of the competition for Brazil, to defeat Turkey in a replay of their Group C encounter.

Third place play-off.

In the third-place match in Daegu, Turkey beat the South Koreans 3–2, their first goal coming from Hakan Şükür straight from the opening kick-off (even though South Korea kicked off) in 10.8 seconds, the fastest ever goal in World Cup history.

Final.

In the final match held in Yokohama, Japan, two goals from Ronaldo secured the World Cup for Brazil as they claimed victory over Germany. Ronaldo scored twice in the second half and, after the game, won the Golden Shoe award for the tournament's leading scorer with eight goals. This was the fifth time Brazil had won the World Cup, cementing their status as the most successful national team in the history of the competition. Brazil became the only team since Argentina in 1986 to win the trophy without needing to win a penalty shoot-out at some stage during the knockout phase and the total number of penalty shoot-outs (2) was the lowest since the four-round knockout format was introduced in 1986. Brazil also became the first team to win every match at a World Cup Finals since 1970 and set a new record for highest aggregate goal difference (+14) for a World Cup winner. Brazil's captain Cafu, who became the first player to appear in three successive World Cup finals, accepted the trophy on behalf of the team.

Statistics.

Goalscorers.

Ronaldo won the Golden Shoe after scoring eight goals. In total, 161 goals were scored by 109 players, with three of them credited as own goals. Two of those own goals were in the same match, marking the first time in FIFA World Cup history that own goals had been scored by both teams in the same match.

Awards.

Oliver Kahn is the only goalkeeper to have won the Golden Ball in FIFA World Cup history.

Final standings.

After the tournament, FIFA published a ranking of all teams that competed in the 2002 World Cup finals based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition.

Sponsorship.

The sponsors of the 2002 FIFA World Cup are divided into two categories: FIFA World Cup Sponsors and South Korea and Japan Supporters.

Ticket sales problem.

The original domestic ticket allocation had fully sold out and the organising committee completed sales of tickets returned from the international allocation by the end of April. However, it was obvious at the opening matches that there were a significant number of empty seats. It was gradually revealed that the World Cup Ticketing Bureau (WCTB) still had unsold tickets in its possession. After FIFA agreed to sell this inventory, JAWOC undertook sales over telephone and WCTB handled the internet sales. For the second round Japan vs. Turkey match in Miyagi in particular, although it was reported by both parties that all tickets had been sold, some 700 seats remained empty.

Controversies.

The tournament was criticized for many poor and questionable refereeing decisions. South Korea in particular faced scrutiny and allegations of corruption due to the favorable decisions they received in their controversial victories over Portugal in the Group Stages, Italy in the Round of 16 and over Spain in the quarter-finals.

Cultural event.

The official FIFA cultural event of the 2002 World Cup was a flag festival called "Poetry of the Winds". Held in Nanjicheon Park, an area of the World Cup Park close to the stadium, "Poetry of the Winds" was exhibited from 29 May to 25 June in order to wish success upon the World Cup and promote a festive atmosphere. During the flag art festival, hand-painted flags from global artists were displayed as a greeting to international guests in a manner that was designed to promote harmony (2002 Flag Art Festival Executive Committee).

Aftermath and legacy.

The tournament had a major economic impact on both South Korea and Japan, generating an estimated US$1.3 billion in revenue. Spending from World Cup tourists in South Korea created US$307 million in direct income and US$713 million in valued added. Japan spent an estimated US$5.6 billion on preparations for the event, which had a US$24.8 billion impact on the Japanese economy and accounted for 0.6% of their GDP in 2002.

The 2002 FIFA World Cup was the 17th FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for men's national association football teams organized by FIFA. It was held from 31 May to 30 June 2002 at sites in South Korea and Japan, with its final match hosted by Japan at International Stadium in Yokohama.

2002年国际足协世界杯(英语:2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan),于2002年5月31日至6月30日在大韩民国和日本举行。这是历史上首次由两个国家联合举办的国际足协世界杯,亦是首次在亚洲举行的世界杯。因此,本届作赛也有2支东道主队和卫冕冠军队直接参加决赛阶段作赛,也正是从这届世界杯以后,卫冕冠军需要参加预选赛才能进入世界杯决赛。这也是首次在欧洲和美洲以外的地区举行的世界杯。在最终的决赛中,巴西与德国这两个常胜军展开了他们在世界杯史上的第一次交锋,最后,巴西队以 2–0 战胜德国队,第5次赢得了世界杯冠军。


Franchise history.

The first organizational meeting of the American Football League took place on August 14, 1959. Harry Wismer, representing the city of New York at the meeting, proclaimed the state was ready for another professional football team and that he was more than capable of running the daily operations.  Wismer was granted the charter franchise later dubbed the Titans of New York as Wismer explained, "Titans are bigger and stronger than Giants." He secured the Titans' home field at the decrepit Polo Grounds, where the team struggled financially and on the field during its first three years. By 1962, the debt continued to mount for Wismer, forcing the AFL to assume the costs of the team until season's end. A five-man syndicate, headed by Sonny Werblin, saved the team from certain bankruptcy, purchasing the lowly Titans for $1 million. Werblin renamed the team the New York Jets since the team would play in Shea Stadium near LaGuardia Airport. The new name was intended to reflect the modern approach of his team. The Jets' owners hired Weeb Ewbank as the general manager and head coach. Ewbank and quarterback Joe Namath led the Jets to prominence in 1969, when New York defeated the heavily favored Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III and solidified the AFL's position in the world of

Ownership.

Wismer.

Harry Wismer, a businessman, had been interested in sports for much of his life when he was granted a charter franchise in the American Football League. A three-sport letterman, football, particularly, stuck with Wismer who went on to play for the University of Florida and Michigan State University before a knee injury ended his playing career. Undeterred, Wismer began his career as a broadcaster originally with Michigan State and became a pioneer of the industry. Later,

Werblin syndicate.

Sonny Werblin graduated from Rutgers University and was employed by the Music Corporation of America, eventually becoming president of the company's television division. With a vast knowledge of media, Werblin was determined to put the spotlight on the team. His first order of business, after changing the team's name and jerseys, was to sign Joe Namath to an unprecedented contract. Werblin's gamble would later pay off as Namath, who became a public star, led the Jets on to victory in Super

Hess.

Leon Hess became well known for his Hess Corporation gas stations; however, he also played an instrumental part in the development of the Jets during his tenure as co-owner and eventual sole owner. Hess had often fought for improvements while the team was a tenant at Shea Stadium but generally stayed away from football operations, allowing his coaches and general manager to make football-related decisions.  Becoming the team's majority stockholder in 1973, Hess bought Philip H. Iselin's share upon his death in 1976 after which only two of Hess' partners remained, Townsend Martin and

Woody Johnson.

With the team for sale, two potential buyers were found in Cablevision and philanthropist Woody Johnson whose grandfather, Robert Wood Johnson II, expanded Johnson & Johnson. Johnson was unknown among the other NFL owners at the time of his $635 million purchase of the franchise. However, Johnson had a passion

Christopher Johnson.

In 2017, Woody Johnson was appointed by President Donald Trump as the United States Ambassador to the

Stadiums.

Owner Harry Wismer sought out a place for the team to play their home games but was only able to secure the dilapidated Polo Grounds, which had not had a major tenant since the baseball New York Giants vacated the stadium in 1957. The Titans played their first four seasons at the stadium—in the final season they were renamed the Jets. The Titans shared the stadium with baseball's new expansion team, the New York Mets, for two years before both teams moved to the Shea Stadium in Queens in 1964. The Jets hold the distinction of being the final team to host a game at the Polo Grounds, a 19–10 loss to the Buffalo Bills on December 14, 1963.  Wismer hoped the Titans could play in what would become known as Shea Stadium beginning in 1961. However, funding difficulties and legal problems delayed construction of the stadium. Wismer signed a memorandum of understanding in late 1961 to secure the Titans' new home. That memorandum recognized that the Mets would have exclusive use of the stadium until they had completed their season. As the team moved to Shea under new ownership, they were, in most years, required to open the season with several road games, a problem made worse in 1969 and 1973 when the Mets had long playoff runs.  Feeling that this arrangement put the Jets at a disadvantage, the team announced in 1977 that they would play two home games a year during the month of September at the Giants' new home in New Jersey, Giants Stadium. Litigation began between New York City and the Jets over the issue, and in the lawsuit's settlement, the city agreed to allow the Jets to play two September home games a season at Shea beginning in 1978 for the remaining six years in the Jets' lease. In 1977, the Jets were to play one September game at Giants Stadium and an October 2 game at Shea.  In spite of these issues, majority owner Leon Hess was interested in renewing the team's lease at Shea, which was due to expire in 1983. Hess negotiated with New York mayor Ed Koch. Hess wanted the city to redevelop the stadium to expand its capacity. He also hoped to renegotiate other aspects of the lease—the Jets received no money from ticketholders

Rivalries.

New England Patriots.

Since the inception of the American Football League, the Jets have maintained what is considered to be a marquee rivalry with the New England Patriots. The rivalry was relatively docile in its early years until 1966 when the Jets removed the Patriots, who had hopes of appearing in Super Bowl I, from playoff contention with a 38–28 defeat at Shea Stadium. The Patriots returned the favor in 1985 when the Jets lost to New England 26–14 in the wild card round; the Patriots went on to Super Bowl XX where they were defeated by the Bears.  The rivalry began to escalate and receive increased media attention in 1997 when a disgruntled Bill Parcells vacated his head coaching position with New England to accept the same position with New York. The

Buffalo Bills.

The Jets and the Bills represent the same state (New York), and this rivalry represents the differences between New York City and Western New York, where the Bills play. The teams are both charter members of the American Football League and have generally stayed in the same division since, even after the NFL and AFL merged. Aside from a few notable

Miami Dolphins.

New York has maintained a rivalry with the Miami Dolphins since the Dolphins' inception in 1966. One of the most famous games in Jets history took place in 1994 when the Dolphins ran the Fake Spike play, giving them an improbable victory and halting the Jets' momentum that season, serving as a precursor to the Jets' next two unsuccessful years under Rich Kotite. The Jets went on to complete an improbable victory of their own

New York Giants.

The New York Jets previously maintained a high tension rivalry against their in-town counterparts, the New York Giants, that has since diminished due to the infrequency with which the teams meet in the regular season. The pinnacle of the rivalry came on August 17, 1969 when both the Jets and Giants met for the first time, in a preseason game which was viewed as a "turf war" by both opponents. The Giants, considered a mediocre team at the time, were regarded as underdogs and were under much scrutiny by the media and their fans. Ultimately, the Jets bested their rival 37–14; this would result in the firing of Giants coach Allie Sherman.  The Jets met the Giants in 1988 during the final game of the regular season. The Jets, with a 7–7–1 record, had little to lose as their hopes for playoff contention had vanished. The Giants,

Logos and uniforms.

The Jets redesigned their uniforms and primary logo for the 2019 season. The new team colors are a medium green that the franchise calls "Gotham Green," white, and black. The primary logo is a green football-shaped oval outlined in white, oriented horizontally, with the word "JETS" in thick, sans-serif italics positioned just below the horizontal axis with "NEW YORK" above it in smaller letters, and a miniature football graphic at bottom center partially covering the lower portion of the "E" and "T".  The primary uniform consists of green jerseys with white numerals and white jerseys with green numerals, green and white pants, and green socks. The numerals are in a new sans-serif block-style font and have thin black outlines, with "NEW YORK" in thick sans-serif italics above the numerals on the front, TV numerals on the upper shoulders, and the player's name in sans-serif block letters on the back, in either green or white. The jerseys have opposite-colored stripes around the shoulder that taper toward the collar, and the pants have opposite-colored stripes on each side that taper toward the lower thigh. The team also has a black alternate uniform with white numerals outlined in green, green stripes and black socks.  The helmet is a deep metallic emerald green with a black facemask; the decal on each side is a secondary logo, consisting of the primary logo's "JETS" wordmark and football graphic.  The team's original uniforms, as the Titans of New York in 1960, were navy blue with old gold numerals, gold pants with two parallel blue stripes on each side, and navy blue helmets with a single gold stripe down the center and no logo decals. The white jerseys had navy blue numerals. In 1961, the Titans added UCLA-style shoulder stripes (gold and white on the blue jerseys, gold and navy blue on the white jerseys), changed the pants striping to a blue stripe flanked by white stripes, and employed a somewhat brighter shade of gold.  When the Titans became the Jets in 1963, navy and gold were abandoned in favor of kelly green and white. The jerseys had opposite-colored sleeves with thick stripes on the shoulders and cuffs, above and below the TV numerals. The pants were

Cheerleading squad.

The team originally named the Jets Flag Crew was established in 2006. In 2007, the group underwent an expansion and was appropriately renamed the Jets Flight Crew. The squad regularly performs choreographed

Radio and television.

The Jets' current flagship radio station is WEPN 98.7 ESPN with Bob Wischusen, as the play-by-play announcer and former Jet Marty Lyons of the Sack Exchange, as the color analyst.  Any preseason games not nationally televised are shown on WCBS-TV. SportsNet New York, which serves as the official home of

Season-by-season record.

This is a partial list of the Jets' last five completed seasons. For the full season-by-season franchise

Players.

Pro Football Hall of Famers.

Ewbank, Martin, Mawae, Maynard, and Namath are recognized based upon their achievements with the Jets. Ewbank is also recognized based upon his achievements with the Baltimore Colts, coaching them to NFL championships in 1958 and 1959. Riggins is recognized primarily for his seasons with the Washington Redskins (1976–1979, 1981–1985), as is Monk (1980–1993), who won three Super Bowl championships with Washington. Lott is in the Hall of Fame primarily for his exploits as a member of the San Francisco 49ers. Baugh and

Ring of Honor.

The Jets established a Ring of Honor on July 20, 2010, to commemorate former players. Each season,

American Football League All-Time Team.

The following Titans/Jets were selected to the American Football League All-Time Team on January 14,

All-Time Four Decade Team.

New York announced their official All-Time Four Decade

Notable first-round draft picks.

Perhaps the most famous of the Jets' first round picks came in 1965 when they selected Alabama quarterback Joe Namath who boosted the Jets into the national spotlight with his boisterous personality and lifestyle. His physical talents on the field helped improve the Jets' fortunes, leading them to victory over the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III. Though injuries hampered the latter part of Namath's career, he is best remembered, according to former teammate John Dockery, as "a guy that came along and broke a lot of the conventions." Namath was inducted into the Hall of Fame

References.

Notes Bibliography

The New York Jets are a professional American football team based in the New York metropolitan area. The Jets compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team is headquartered in Florham Park, New Jersey. The Jets play their home games at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey, which they share with the New York Giants. The franchise is legally and corporately registered as New York Jets, LLC.

纽约喷射机(英语:New York Jets)是美国国家橄榄球联盟在新泽西州东卢瑟福的一支球队。喷射机在1960年作为美国橄榄球联盟的一个创始成员成立,后来在美国橄榄球联盟和国家橄榄球联盟合并后成为大联盟的成员。


Logos and uniforms.

Aside from a brief change to maroon in 1948 instituted by then head coach Bo McMillin, which was influenced by his years as coach at Indiana, the Lions uniforms have basically remained the same. The design consists of silver helmets, silver pants, and either blue or white jerseys.  The shade of blue used for Lions uniforms and logos is officially known as "Honolulu blue", which is supposedly inspired by the color of the waves off the coast of Hawaii.  There have been minor changes to the uniform design throughout the years, such as changing the silver stripe patterns on the jersey sleeves, and changing the colors of the jersey numbers. "TV numbers", which are auxiliary uniform numbers to help TV broadcasters identify players from the line of scrimmage, were added to the jersey sleeves in 1956. White trim was added to the logo in 1970, with outlines (white on the blue jersey, silver on the white jersey) added to the numbers in 1972; the color arrangement on the numbers on the blue jerseys was reversed in 1982. The gray facemasks became blue in 1984. In 1998, the team wore blue pants with their white jerseys along with grey socks but dropped that combination after the season. In 1999, the "TV numbers" on the sleeves were moved to the shoulders.  In 1994, every NFL team wore throwback jerseys, and the Lions' were similar to the jerseys used during their 1935 championship season. The helmets and pants were solid silver, the jerseys Honolulu blue with silver numbers and the jersey did not have "TV numbers" on the sleeves. The team wore solid blue socks and black cleats. The helmets also did not have a logo, as helmets were simple leather back then. The Lions also wore '50s-style jerseys during their traditional Thanksgiving Day games from 2001 to 2004 as the NFL encouraged teams to wear throwback jerseys on Thanksgiving Day.  In 2003, the team added black trim to their logo and jerseys. The face masks on the helmet changed from blue to black with the introduction of the new color. In 2005, the team introduced an alternate black jersey.  For 2008, the team dropped the black jersey in favor of a throwback uniform to commemorate the franchise's 75th anniversary. The throwback uniform became the team's permanent alternate jersey in 2009, replacing the former black alternate. The Lions officially unveiled a new logo and uniforms on April 20, 2009. The logo was given a flowing mane and fangs, while the typeface featured a modern font.  On February 1, 2017, the Lions announced a new typeface, logo, and the complete removal of the color black from the team identity. While the previous logo was retained, the border was changed from black to silver. The Lions then unveiled the new uniforms on April 13, 2017, which include blue pants for the first time since 1998; the facemasks also became chrome. The Lions also added the initials "WCF" to the left sleeve as a permanent tribute to William Clay Ford, who owned the team from 1963 until his death in 2014. The sleeve addition replaces the black "WCF" patch on the left breast that was added after Ford's death.

Thanksgiving Day tradition.

In 1934, then-team owner George A. Richards, who also was the owner a major radio affiliate of the NBC Blue Network, WJR in Detroit, the forerunner to today's ABC, negotiated an agreement with NBC to carry his Thanksgiving games live across all of the network's stations. Since then, the tradition of the Lions playing on Thanksgiving has continued uninterrupted.

Players of note.

Retired numbers.

Notes:  Special cases:

Pride of the Lions.

In 2009, the Pride of the Lions was established. The Pride of the Lions is the ring of honor for the franchise's greatest players.

75th Season All-Time Team.

On November 9, 2008, the Lions honored the 75th Season All-Time Team during halftime against the Jacksonville Jaguars. The team was chosen via an online fan poll and selection committee.  Note:

Lions All-Time Team.

On September 29, 2019, the Lions honored their All-Time Team in celebration of the NFL's centennial during halftime against the Kansas City Chiefs. The team was chosen via fan voting, contributions from the Detroit Lions Legends Community, team executives, and select members of the media.

Rivalries.

The Lions have had several division rivals in their existence. Their oldest rivals are the Chicago Bears and the Green Bay Packers, whom they have faced since 1930. The Minnesota Vikings have been in a division with Detroit ever since their inaugural season in 1961. Another notable longtime division opponent was the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (25 seasons from 1977–2001).  The Lions also have a preseason rivalry with the Cleveland Browns, dubbed the Great Lakes Classic. The two teams have been playing for The Barge Trophy since 2002. The Lions and Browns had a solid rivalry in the 1950s, when they met four times for the NFL championship (Detroit won three of the matchups); they have met much less frequently during the regular season since the 1970 AFL–NFL merger due to the Browns' move to the AFC.

Radio and television.

Radio.

The Lions' flagship radio station is WJR 760 AM. Dan Miller does play-by-play and Lomas Brown does color commentary.  In 2015, the team announced that they were moving from WXYT-FM to WJR for the 2016 NFL season, ending a 20-year relationship with CBS Radio. The decision to part with WXYT was reportedly instigated by a demand by the team for the station to fire on-air personality Mike Valenti, who has had a history of making critical comments about the Lions during his drivetime show, as a condition of any future renewal. A CBS Radio spokesperson stated that their refusal was meant to maintain the station's integrity.

TV.

Preseason.

In 2015, WJBK took over from WXYZ-TV as the flagship station for Lions preseason games. In 2019, the announcers were Fred McLeod with play-by-play, Chris Spielman with color commentary, and Tori Petry with sideline reports. Games are produced by Fox Sports Detroit.

Regular season.

Regular season games are broadcast regionally on Fox, except when the Lions play an AFC team in Detroit, in which case the game airs regionally on CBS; however, since 2014, with the institution of the NFL's "cross flex" broadcast rules, any Lions game slated to air on Fox can be moved to CBS. The Thanksgiving Day game in Detroit is always televised nationally. In 2011, the Lions became the last NFC team to play on NBC's "Sunday Night Football" since the network began airing Sunday night games in 2006.

Blackouts.

The Lions' winless performance in 2008 and 2–14 season in 2009, coupled with the effects of the Great Recession in Michigan, led to several local broadcast blackouts, as local fans did not purchase enough tickets by the 72-hour blackout deadline. The first blackout in the then seven-year history of Ford Field was on October 26, 2008 against the Washington Redskins. The previous 50 regular season home games had been sellouts. The second home game of the 2009 season in which the Lions broke the losing streak, also against the Redskins, was blacked out locally, as well as the comeback victory over the Cleveland Browns. The Lions had only one blackout in 2010, yet another Redskins game, which the Lions won 37–25. However, in 2015, the NFL suspended its blackout policies, meaning that all Lions games will be shown on local TV, regardless of tickets sold.  Games were also often blacked out at the Lions' previous home, the 80,000-seat Pontiac Silverdome, despite winning seasons and the success and popularity of star players such as Barry Sanders.

Lions cheerleaders.

On June 13, 2016, the Lions announced their decision to add official cheerleaders to the organization. The team also announced that Rebecca Girard-Smoker, formerly the director of the Detroit Pistons dance team, would be the coach of the cheerleading squad. It marked the first time in over 40 years the team had an official cheerleading squad. The cheerleading squad is a part of the entertainment during football games, and active at community events.

The Detroit Lions are a professional American football team based in Detroit. They compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the National Football Conference (NFC) North division. The team plays its home games at Ford Field in Downtown Detroit.

底特律雄狮另译底特律狮子(英语:英语:Detroit Lions)是一队职业美式足球球队,位于密歇根州的底特律。现时为NFC北区的球队,前身为朴茨茅斯斯巴达人,1929年成立,当时是一支不属于任何联盟的职业球队,1934年改迁底特律,并更名为底特律雄狮到现今。


History.

The first traces of settlement in the Stavanger region come from the days when the ice retreated after the last ice age c. 10,000 years ago. A number of historians have argued convincingly that North-Jæren was an economic and military centre as far back as the 9th and 10th centuries with the consolidation of the nation at the Battle of Hafrsfjord around 872. Stavanger grew into a center of church administration and an important south-west coast market town around 1100–1300.  Stavanger fulfilled an urban role prior to its status as city (1125), from around the time the Stavanger bishopric was established in the 1120s. Bishop Reinald, who may have come from Winchester, England, is said to have started construction of Stavanger Cathedral ("Stavanger domkirke") around 1100. It was finished around 1125, and the city of Stavanger counts 1125 as its year of foundation.  With the Protestant Reformation in 1536, Stavanger's role as a religious center declined, and the establishment of Kristiansand in the early 17th century led to the relocation of the bishopric. However, rich herring fisheries in the 19th century gave the city new life.  Stavanger was established as a municipality 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). On 1 January 1867, a small area of Hetland municipality (population: 200) was transferred to the city of Stavanger. Again on 1 January 1879, another area of Hetland (population: 1,357) was transferred to Stavanger. Then again on 1 January 1906, the city again annexed another area of Hetland (population: 399). On 1 July 1923, part of Hetland (population: 3,063) was moved to the city once again. Finally on 1 July 1953, a final portion of Hetland (population: 831) was moved to Stavanger. In the 1960s, the work of the Schei Committee pushed for many municipal mergers across Norway. As a result of this, on 1 January 1965, the city of Stavanger (population: 51,470) was merged with the neighboring municipalities of Madla (population: 6,025) and most of Hetland (population: 20,861).  The city's history is a continuous alternation between economic booms and recessions.  In 1969, a new boom started as oil was first discovered in the North Sea.  After much discussion, Stavanger was chosen to be the on-shore center for the oil industry on the Norwegian sector of the North Sea, and a period of hectic growth followed.  On 1 January 2020, the municipalities of Finnøy, Rennesøy, and Stavanger are scheduled to merge into one, large municipality called Stavanger.

Government.

All municipalities in Norway, including Stavanger, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor.

Municipal council.

The municipal council "(Kommunestyre)" of Stavanger is made up of

Geography.

The municipality of Stavanger is located in a coastal landscape, bordering the sea to the west and Boknafjorden in the northeast. The Byfjorden and Gandsfjorden run along the east side of the city. It is part of the Low-Jæren, a flat area of land consisting mostly of marsh, sand, and stone aur, that ranges from Ogna River in the south to Tungenes in the north; it is the northernmost part that includes Stavanger. The majority of the municipality lies between in elevation. The landscape has a distinctive appearance with rocks and hills where there is no settlement or agriculture. The city of Stavanger is closely linked to the sea and water, with five lakes (including Breiavatnet, Stora Stokkavatnet, and Mosvatnet) and three fjords (Hafrsfjorden, Byfjorden, and Gandsfjorden); sea and water form the landscape, providing a shoreline rich with vegetation and wildlife.  The terrain is low-lying: 49% of the area is less than above sea level, While 7% of the land is at. Stavanger's highest point is the tall Jåttånuten with the Ullandhaug as the second highest point.  The city has developed on both sides of a hollow that runs right through the terrain, with steep slopes up from the bottom. An extension of Boknafjorden and Byfjorden intersects the harbor into the hollow from the northwest, while Hillevåg lake intrudes from Gandsfjorden in the southeast. Breiavatnet is located between the two fjord arms.  The city includes many islands off the coast including: Bjørnøy, Buøy, Engøy, Grasholmen, Hellesøy, Hundvåg, Kalvøy, Lindøy, Sølyst, and Vassøy. It also includes the eastern half of the island of Åmøy.

Parks.

There are several parks and green spots in Stavanger municipality, both in the city and beyond. Central to the town is the city lake which is in turn surrounded by the city park, built as the city's first urban park in 1866–1868. Between the city park and the bay is located Kielland garden, which got its name because the poet Alexander Kielland's house at the time was here. Kielland Park went through a major renovation in 2007 as part of the Millennium in Stavanger municipality. At the opposite end of the city lake there is a small park outside the station; here there is Emigration, a gift from the Norwegian emigrants in the United States, commemorating the men and women of Norwegian ancestry who built America.  Bjergstedparken, a park north of Old Stavanger, is the location of Bjergsted Music Center, including Stavanger Concert Hall, and its outdoor areas are often used for festivals and outdoor concerts. The Missing park, built in honor of Lars Missing, is located up the hill on the west side of the harbor, and

Climate.

Stavanger is located on a peninsula on the southwest coast of Norway. The climate is greatly influenced by the Gulf Stream which creates warmer temperatures throughout the year compared to other cities at

Boroughs.

Stavanger is officially partitioned into 22 parts and 218 subparts. Stavanger is also divided into 7 boroughs.

Neighborhoods.

Neighborhoods include Byhaugen, Old Stavanger, Bekkefaret, Bergjeland, Eiganes, Forus, Gausel, Godeset, Indre Tasta,

Economy.

In the early 20th century, Stavanger's industry was mainly related to fisheries and shipping. In the first half of the century it was known for canning, and in the 1950s there were over 50 canneries in town. The town was even called Norway "canned capital", and included Christian Bjelland, who founded Chr Bjelland & Co. A/S. The last of these factories were closed down in 2002.  Around 1950, over half of the working population in the city employed in industry. Structural changes in industry and the strong development of the service industry has radically changed the city's economic base, and the service industry now represents over 11 percent of employment. However, the city still has 29 percent of the county's industrial employment.  Engineering is now the main industry with 59 percent of manufacturing employment. This is mostly related to the offshore petroleum industry, and production of oil platforms alone account for 40 percent. Other important industries are publishing – especially high printing and the major daily newspapers in town, Stavanger and Rogaland Avis Aftenblad – and food and beverage, which includes the processing of local agricultural products from Jæren, including Gilde Vest with one of the largest slaughterhouses.  Employment by place of work and industry in 2007 to 0.6% in primary, 27.4% in secondary and tertiary industries 71.7%. Employment by place of work by sector in 2007 to 24.4% in the public sector and 75.6% in the private sector and public enterprises.  Industry has in recent years become highly decentralized. The most important of the newer industrial areas are Forus in the south, on the border of Sandnes and Sola, and Dusavik (mainly petroleum-related activities) in the north, on the border of Randfontein. Significant older industrial areas are Hillevåg, Buøy, the eastern districts, and in some places elsewhere along the coast. Shipbuilding and shipping has also traditionally been of great importance to the city's economic growth, and Rosenberg Shipyard, established in 1896, is located on Hundvåg. Today Stavanger is also among the country's most important maritime cities, coming in fourth for registered fleets after the cities of Oslo, Bergen and Ålesund.  For the fourth consecutive year, Stavanger Region was in 2007 ranked best business region. Telemarksforsking Bo worked with Ministry NM to rank the regions in Norway with regard to profitability, growth and new businesses.

Media.

The city's largest daily newspaper, Stavanger Aftenblad came out with its first issue in 1893. Competitor Rogalands Avis was first published in 1899 under the name "1ste Mai" ('1 May'), and published daily. In 1987 an attempt was made to establish a new daily newspaper, The West Coast, but it was only released for two months and ended with a total loss of NOK 27 million.  The first newspaper published in Stavanger, "Stavangerske Adressecontoirs Efterretninger", was a handwritten weekly newspaper that probably came out in 1769 and 1770. This was not an ordinary newspaper, but a so-called link newspaper

Agriculture and food.

Stavanger region is often referred to as Norway's answer to the French food region of Lyon. The Culinary Institute, headquartered in Ullandhaug, provided a very important focus on food in Stavanger. After the Culinary Institute went bankrupt, partly due to activities in Oslo on 4 June 2008, a new culinary organization was established by the Foundation Rogaland knowledge park and Rogaland County Council. This new institute, now also known as The Culinary Institute, maintained parts of the work of the original organization, and eventually bought back the name, logo

Oil industry.

In recent times, the city has come to be called the "oil capital," and Norway's national and largest oil company, Equinor, is headquartered at Forus, in Stavanger. Equinor (at the time known as Statoil) was founded as a limited company owned by the Government of Norway on 14 July 1972 by a unanimous act passed by the Norwegian parliament Stortinget, to enable Norwegian participation in the oil industry on the continental shelf, to build up Norwegian competency within the petroleum industry, and to establish the foundations of a domestic petroleum industry. Establishing Equinor's headquarters in Stavanger naturally led to Stavanger becoming the center of the oil industry. Petoro, a Norwegian state-owned company

Tourism.

Stavanger is a popular tourist destination, especially in summer. The hotels in the city have good occupancy year round due to a lot of commuters who travel to work and

Transport.

Airport.

Stavanger Airport, Sola, is located in Sola, 14 minutes away from Stavanger City Center. The airport opened in 1937. In 1940 Stavanger Airport, Forus, opened, but closed in 1989. In 2013 Sola airport had over 4 million passengers and was the largest airport in Rogaland county. It is also the 3rd largest airport in

Railway.

Stavanger S opened in 1878 and is the terminus of both the Sørlandet Line and the Jæren Line.  The Southern Railway goes from Oslo S to Drammen, to Kristiansand S, to, finally, Stavanger S. This route, 545 kilometers (339 mi) between Oslo and Stavanger, is scheduled over four times every day and takes around seven hours. The railway was constructed in several phases, the first section being opened in 1871 and the last not opened until 1944. While there was continual construction work from Oslo westward as far

Roads.

European route E39 goes through Stavanger from Haugesund and the Mastrafjord Tunnel and Byfjord Tunnel, then goes south to Sandnes. Fylkesvei 44 starts from Stavanger and ends in Kristiansand, via Sandnes and Flekkefjord.  National road 509 runs between Stavanger, via Tananger arm Stavanger Airport, Sola Cross and Forus, the

Sea.

Located outside Stavanger, there is a port serving ferries to Hirtshals, Denmark. There have been advocates for the Smyril Line ferry between the Faroe Islands and Denmark to make a stop in Stavanger as the new port in Risavika allows this

Bus.

The local bus service in Stavanger is administered by Rogaland Kollektivtrafikk (RKT) under the brand name "Kolumbus". The buses are operated by Boreal Transport. RKT administers all

Education.

University of Stavanger (UIS) is the fifth university established in Norway, on 29 October 2004, when the University of Stavanger (HiS) gained university status by decision of the Council. The university has about 9,000 students and 1,200 employees and is organized into three faculties: Faculty of Humanities, Social Sciences and the Faculty of Science. The archaeological museum is also part of the university. The campus is located in Ullandhaug, with most departments located there. John B. Møst was employed as a university in 2011. Marit Boyesen was selected as the principal for the period 2011 to 2015, and started her tenure as rector 1 August 2011. As rector, she is the head of the academic activities of the University of Stavanger as well as Chairman of the University Board. The University of Stavanger became a member of European Consortium of Innovative Universities (ECIU) in October 2012.  The VID Specialized University has a long history

Culture.

Museums.

The city has several museums and collections that are both local and national. The city's most visited museum is the Norwegian Petroleum Museum, opened in 1998. In its ten years of visitation records, from 1998 to 2008, almost 95,000 people visited the museum annually.  The city's oldest museum is Missjonmuseet, established in 1864, located on the ground floor of the faculty building at MHS. The museum has about 5,000 exhibits consisting of several objects of ethnographic and historical interest from the various mission fields of study.  Stavanger Museum, founded in 1877 and thus one of the oldest museums, includes several historic buildings and collections. Stavanger Museum consists of a total of eight buildings: Stavanger Museum Muségata 16, Stavanger Maritime Museum, the Norwegian Canning Museum, Ledaal, Breidablikkveien museum,

Churches.

The Church of Norway has two deaneries "(prosti)" within the municipality of Stavanger: the Stavanger arch-deanery

Film.

South West Film Forum was established in 1992 and is an organization of film workers in Rogaland. Its goal is to increase the skills of film workers in the region and encourage more filmmaking. Film Forum Southwest has received operating support from the City of Stavanger since 1995 and from the county since 1997. Additionally, they have received grants for film workshop from the county and for other industry-stimulating measures from Stavanger municipality.  Stavanger has since 1997 had a grant for the support of local filmmaking. The aim has been to stimulate the local film community growth and development, and to contribute to local filmmakers so they can initiate film projects that can then apply for production funding from other government agencies. In addition, they support the already completed projects – primarily to help cinemas display locally produced film.  The feature film Mongoland became a Norwegian film success, made outside of the traditional infrastructure for Norwegian

European Capital of Culture 2008.

Stavanger and its region, along with Liverpool, United Kingdom, was selected as a European Capital of Culture for 2008. The "Stavanger2008" vision is expressed through the concept "Open Port". This can be understood both in its English sense

Sport and recreation.

The largest local football club in Stavanger is Viking FK, one of the most successful football clubs in Norwegian history, having won a total of 8 league titles and 5 Norwegian Football Cup titles. The club plays its home matches at SR-Bank Arena, which was opened in 2004.  After a short stint in the second-tier division, OBOS-ligaen, in the 2018 season, Viking FK was once again promoted to the

Music.

Every May, Stavanger is host to MaiJazz, the Stavanger International Jazz Festival. The International Chamber Music Festival takes place every August.  Stavanger is the home of the Stavanger Symphony Orchestra (SSO). Covering another part of the musical

Community art.

Stavanger participates in the annual Nuart festival, organised for national and international artists who operate outside of

Tourism.

Especially in the summertime, Stavanger's harbour is full of large cruiseships: in 2011 Stavanger hosted 130 cruiseships. The Port of Stavanger is a popular stop on the route to the Norwegian Fjords. The charming city center is just a small walk from the quay.

Outdoor activities.

There are not many outdoor activities in Stavanger itself, however, splendid opportunities are nearby in adjacent municipalities: Lysefjorden is particularly popular for hiking. Tourists typically visit places like Preikestolen (aka the Pulpit Rock), and Kjeragbolten. Preikestolen is a massive rock overhanging the fjord (604 meters below). Kjeragbolten is

City centre.

Old Stavanger (Gamle Stavanger) is located right next to the city centre and has a collection of 18th- and 19th-century wooden structures.  Stavanger domkirke (St. Swithun's cathedral) was built between 1100 and 1150 by the English bishop Reinald in Anglo-Norman style, and in the late 13th century a new choir was added in Gothic

Twin towns – sister cities.

Stavanger has several sister cities; they are:

Stavanger (,,, ) is a city and municipality in Norway. It is the fourth largest city and third largest metropolitan area in Norway (through conurbation with neighbouring Sandnes) and the administrative centre of Rogaland county. The municipality is the fourth most populous in Norway. Located on the Stavanger Peninsula in Southwest Norway, Stavanger counts its official founding year as 1125, the year the Stavanger Cathedral was completed. Stavanger's core is to a large degree 18th- and 19th-century wooden houses that are protected and considered part of the city's cultural heritage. This has caused the town centre and inner city to retain a small-town character with an unusually high ratio of detached houses, and has contributed significantly to spreading the city's population growth to outlying parts of Greater Stavanger.

斯塔万格(,)是挪威的一个市镇,是罗加兰郡行政中心,拥有挪威第三大都会区。 人口为挪威第四多。城市位于挪威西南部的斯塔万格半岛,官方宣称的成立时间是1125年,即斯塔万格大教堂成立之年。市中心有大量18及19世纪的木建筑, 这些建筑都被当做城市的文化财产而受到保护,因此也使得市中心显得与众不同。 由于都市化的缘故,与其周边形成了“大斯塔万格”。


Early life.

The second of six children, Sodano was born on 23 November 1927 in Isola d'Asti, Piedmont, to Giovanni and Delfina Sodano. His father (1901-1991) was a Christian Democrat deputy in the Italian Parliament for three terms from 1948 until 1963. After studying philosophy and theology at the seminary of Asti, Sodano was ordained a priest by Bishop Umberto Rossi on 23 September 1950, and then did pastoral work and taught dogmatic theology at the Asti seminary.  He studied in Rome at the Pontifical Gregorian University, where he obtained a doctorate in theology, and at the Pontifical Lateran University, earning a doctorate in canon law. To prepare for a diplomatic career he entered the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy in 1959. Upon joining the diplomatic service of the Holy See, he served as secretary in nunciatures in Latin America. In 1968 he was assigned to the Council for the Public Affairs of the Church in the Vatican.

Apostolic nuncio.

On 30 November 1977, Sodano, who speaks English, German, Spanish, French and Italian, was appointed titular archbishop of Nova Caesaris and apostolic nuncio to Chile, one of the countries where he had served as nunciature secretary. He was consecrated in his native Asti by Cardinal Antonio Samoré on 15 January 1978. He arrived at a difficult moment, with Chile on the brink of war with Argentina over the Beagle Channel and Augusto Pinochet in power. In 1980, together with Cardinal Raúl Silva Henríquez, he tried without success to get Pinochet to allow the return of certain political exiles, and in 1984 he obtained, at the cost of a dispute between the Holy See and the military government of Chile, safe conduct for four members of the Revolutionary Left Movement, who had sought diplomatic asylum in the nunciature, to leave for Ecuador.  In 1987, when Pope John Paul II visited Chile, Sodano arranged for him to meet in the nunciature the leaders of the opposition to the Pinochet government. The following year, the Pope appointed Sodano Secretary for Relations with States, a post corresponding to that of a foreign minister, and on 1 December 1990 named him Secretary of State, creating him Cardinal-Priest of S. Maria Nuova on 28 June 1991.

Secretary of State.

On 29 June 1991, Sodano became Cardinal Secretary of State, succeeding Cardinal Agostino Casaroli, who had retired on 1 December 1990. On 10 January 1994, Pope John Paul II named Sodano Cardinal Bishop of the suburbicarian see of Albano. Sodano retained his relationship to the church of Santa Maria Nuova no longer as titular but "in commendam", that is, in trust or in his custody.  On 27 December 1998, he wrote, at the request of the democratic government of Chile, an official letter to the British Prime Minister Tony Blair stating that "the Chilean Government considers it an offence to its territorial sovereignty as a nation the fact of being deprived of the power to judge its own citizens" through the detention of Pinochet in Britain. When in 2002 Sodano turned 75, John Paul invited him to stay on as Secretary of State, though this is the customary retirement age for heads of major Vatican departments. On 30 November 2002, exactly twenty-five years after he was first appointed a bishop, he was elected vice-dean of the College of Cardinals, succeeding Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, who became Dean. In 2003 Sodano drew attention by quite positively commemorating the 500th anniversary of the election the Renaissance Pope Julius II.  When Pope John Paul II died on 2 April 2005, Sodano, who participated in the 2005 papal conclave, was not generally seen as one of the "papabili", the cardinals likely to become the next pope. This was largely due to his advanced age (although he is seven months younger than the cardinal who was eventually elected, Joseph Ratzinger, who took the name Benedict XVI), and his lack of experience outside the Roman Curia. During the conclave, because Cardinal Ratzinger, the pope-elect, was the Dean, Sodano as the Sub-Dean exercised the duties normally allotted to the Dean in asking the pope-elect if he accepted his election and by what name he would be called. Also as the Sub-Dean and the most senior Cardinal-Bishop, Cardinal Sodano discharged the duties normally allotted to the Dean at the new pope's papal inauguration. At the papal inauguration, Sodano presented Pope Benedict XVI with the Ring of the Fisherman, and along with the protopriest Stephen Kim Sou-hwan and the protodeacon Jorge Arturo Medina Estévez, was one of the three cardinals who made the public profession of obedience to the new pope.  Sodano's position as Secretary of State expired upon the death of John Paul II. Benedict XVI reappointed him to the position on 21 April 2005, despite the fact that he was past the customary retirement age. On 30 April Benedict ratified Sodano's election to the position of Dean of the College of Cardinals by the suburbicarian Cardinal Bishops, adding as was customary the suburbicarian see of Ostia to his honorary titles.  On 22 June 2006, Benedict XVI accepted Sodano's resignation as Secretary of State, effective 15 September 2006. On 18 September 2012, Sodano was named by Pope Benedict XVI as one of the Synod Fathers of the 13th Ordinary General Assembly of the Catholic Synod of Bishops.  When Pope Benedict XVI resigned, Sodano as Dean of the College of Cardinals summoned the cardinals for the conclave during the "sede vacante" and was the principal concelebrant of the "Pro eligendo Pontifice" mass on the morning the conclave opened. He was not eligible to participate in the conclave, which elected Pope Francis. At the inauguration of the new pope, Sodano, as Dean of the College, presented the Ring of the Fisherman to Francis.  On 21 December 2019, Pope Francis accepted Sodano's resignation as Dean of the College of Cardinals, following the Pope's annual Christmas meeting with officials of the Curia that opens with a greeting by the Dean. As Dean Emeritus, Sodano no longer has the title of Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia, which is reserved to the Dean.

Sex abuse cases.

Former Irish minister for foreign affairs Dermot Ahern stated that in 2004, Sodano pressured him to "indemnify the Catholic Church against legal actions for compensation by clerical child sexual-abuse survivors" in Ireland, which Ahern refused.  Jason Berry writes that Sodano, as John Paul II's secretary of state, "pressured Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, the future Pope Benedict, in two notorious cases," the Hans Hermann Groër case and the Marcial Maciel case, to stop investigations into abuse. In his address as Dean of the College of Cardinals to Pope Benedict XVI at Easter 2010, Sodano told him: "The people of God are with you and do not allow themselves to be impressed by the petty gossip of the moment, by the trials that sometimes assail the community of believers." Victims of clerical sex abuse interpreted the "petty gossip" remark as a highly inappropriate reference to their complaints.  On 8 May 2010, the Austrian Catholic news agency Kathpress published remarks made by Cardinal Christoph Schönborn, in what was supposed to be a private conversation with newspaper editors. The Austrian cardinal criticized Sodano's "petty gossip" comment, and indicated that Sodano had blocked actions of then-Cardinal Ratzinger, who was serving as head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, and was intending to investigate accusations against Schönborn's predecessor Cardinal Hans Hermann Groër. Schönborn added: "The days of cover-up are over. For a long while the Church's principle of forgiveness was falsely interpreted and was in favour of those responsible and not the victims."  On 21 December 2019, the Legion of Christ identified 33 priests and 71 seminaries as sex abusing 175 children for decades and stated that Sodano was the one who led efforts to cover up the reports of abuse when he was serving as Secretariat of State. Sodano was accused of seeking a deal to bury documents detailing abuse. A third of the sex abuse cases which Sodano was accused of covering up involved notorious predator priest Marcial Maciel. The same day, Pope Francis accepted Sodano's resignation as Dean of the College of Cardinals. However, the Vatican claimed he resigned due to his "advanced age."

Angelo Raffaele Sodano, (born 23 November 1927) is an Italian prelate of the Catholic Church, a Cardinal since 1991. He was the Dean of the College of Cardinals from 2005 to 2019, and Cardinal Secretary of State from 1991 to 2006; Sodano was the first person since 1828 to serve simultaneously as Dean and Secretary of State.

安杰洛·索达诺(;1927年-11月23日)是意大利籍天主教主教级枢机,阿尔巴诺罗马城郊教区领衔主教、枢机团荣休团长和圣座荣休国务卿。


Organization.

The IRTF is composed of a number of focused and long-term research groups. These groups work on topics related to Internet protocols, applications, architecture and technology. Research groups have the stable long term membership needed to promote the development of research collaboration and teamwork in exploring research issues. Participation is by individual contributors, rather than by representatives of organizations. The list of current groups can be found on the IRTF's homepage.

Operations.

The IRTF is managed by the IRTF chair in consultation with the Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG). The IRSG membership includes the IRTF chair, the chairs of the various Research Groups and other individuals ("members at large") from the research community selected by the IRTF chair. The chair of the IRTF is appointed by the Internet Architecture Board (IAB) for a two-year term. These individuals have chaired the IRTF:  The IRTF chair is responsible for ensuring that research groups produce coherent, coordinated, architecturally consistent and timely output as a contribution to the overall evolution of the Internet architecture. In addition to the detailed tasks related to research groups outlined below, the IRTF chair may also from time to time arrange for topical workshops attended by the IRSG and perhaps other experts in the field.  The RFC Editor publishes documents from the IRTF and its research groups on the IRTF stream. The detailed IRTF research group guidelines and procedures are described in RFC 2014. The procedures for publishing documents on the IRTF RFC stream are defined in RFC 5743. The concept of RFC streams is defined in RFC 4844.

The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) focuses on longer-term research issues related to the Internet while the parallel organization, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), focuses on the shorter term issues of engineering and standards making. The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) promotes research of importance to the evolution of the Internet by creating focused, long-term research groups working on topics related to Internet protocols, applications, architecture and technology.

互联网研究专门工作组(Internet Research Task Force)是一个由互联网架构委员会(IAB)授权对一些长期的互联网问题进行理论研究的组织。同IETF一样,IRTF有很多研究小组,分别针对不同的研究题目进行讨论和研究。


Family and early life.

Tiye's father, Yuya, was a non-royal, wealthy landowner from the Upper Egyptian town of Akhmim, where he served as a priest and superintendent of oxen or commander of the chariotry. Tiye's mother, Tjuyu, was involved in many religious cults, as her different titles attested ("Singer of Hathor", "Chief of the Entertainers" of both Amun and Min...), which suggests that she was a member of the royal family. Egyptologists have suggested that Tiye's father, Yuya, was of foreign origin due to the features of his mummy and the many different spellings of his name, which might imply it was a non-Egyptian name in origin. Some suggest that the queen's strong political and unconventional religious views might have been due not just to a strong character, but to foreign descent.  Tiye also had a brother, Anen, who was Second Prophet of Amun. Ay, a successor of Tutankhamun as pharaoh after the latter's death, is believed to be yet another brother of Tiye, despite no clear date or monument confirming a link between the two. Egyptologists presume this connection from Ay's origins (also from Akhmin), because he is known to have built a chapel dedicated to the local god Min there, and because he inherited most of the titles that Tiye's father, Yuya, held at the court of Amenhotep III during his lifetime.  Tiye was married to Amenhotep III by the second year of his reign. He had been born of a secondary wife of his father and needed a stronger tie to the royal lineage. He appears to have been crowned while still a child, perhaps between the ages of six and twelve. The couple had at least seven, and possibly more, children:

Monuments.

Her husband devoted a number of shrines to her and constructed a temple dedicated to her in Sedeinga in Nubia where she was worshipped as a form of the goddess Hathor-Tefnut. He also had an artificial lake built for her in his Year 12. On the colossal statue now in the Egyptian Museum she is of equal height with her husband. As the American Egyptologists David O'Connor and Eric Cline note:

Influence at court.

Tiye wielded a great deal of power during both her husband’s and son’s reigns. Amenhotep III became a fine sportsman, a lover of outdoor life, and a great statesman. He often had to consider claims for Egypt's gold and requests for his royal daughters in marriage from foreign kings such as Tushratta of Mitanni and Kadashman-Enlil I of Babylon. The royal lineage was carried by the women of Ancient Egypt and marriage to one would have been a path to the throne for their progeny. Tiye became her husband’s trusted adviser and confidant. Being wise, intelligent, strong, and fierce, she was able to gain the respect of foreign dignitaries. Foreign leaders were willing to deal directly through her. She continued to play an active role in foreign relations and was the first Egyptian queen to have her name recorded on official acts.  Tiye may have continued to advise her son, Akhenaten, when he took the throne. Her son’s correspondence with Tushratta, the king of Mitanni, speaks highly of the political influence she wielded at court. In Amarna letter EA 26, Tushratta, corresponded directly with Tiye to reminisce about the good relations he enjoyed with her then deceased husband and extended his wish to continue on friendly terms with her son, Akhenaten.  Amenhotep III died in Year 38 or Year 39 of his reign (1353 BC/1350 BC) and was buried in the Valley of the Kings in WV22; however, Tiye is known to have outlived him by as many as twelve years. Tiye continued to be mentioned in the Amarna letters and in inscriptions as queen and beloved of the king. Amarna letter EA 26, which is addressed to Tiye, dates to the reign of Akhenaten. She is known to have had a house at Akhetaten (Amarna), Akhenaten's new capital and is shown on the walls of the tomb of Huya – a "steward in the house of the king's mother, the great royal wife Tiyi" – depicted at a dinner table with Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and their family and then being escorted by the king to her "sunshade". In an inscription approximately dated to November 21 of Year 12 of Akhenaten's reign (1338 BC), both she and her granddaughter Meketaten are mentioned for the last time. They are thought to have died shortly after that date. This information is corrorborated by the fact that the shrine which Akhenaten created for her—which was later found transported from Amarna to tomb KV55 in Thebes—bore the later form of the Aten's name which was only used after Akhenaten's Year 9.  If Tiye died soon after Year 12 of Akhenaten's reign (1338 BC), this would place her birth around 1398 BC, her marriage to Amenhotep III at the age of eleven or twelve, and her becoming a widow at the age of forty-eight to forty-nine. Suggestions of a co-regency between Amenhotep III and his son Akhenaten lasting for up to twelve years continue, but most scholars today either accept a brief co-regency lasting no more than one year or no co-regency at all.

Burial and mummy.

Tiye is believed to have been originally buried in the Royal Tomb at Amarna alongside her son Akhenaten and granddaughter, Meketaten. Evidence shows the two northern pillars of the incomplete pillared hall were removed to accommodate a sarcophagus plinth and pieces of her smashed sarcophagus were found in and around the burial chamber. Analysis of the badly damaged decoration on the left wall beyond the plinth also indicates that Tiye was buried there. In a depiction that closely resembles the mourning of Meketaten in chamber γ, a figure stands beneath a floral canopy while the royal family grieves. The figure wears a queenly sash but cannot be Nefertiti as Nefertiti is shown with the mourners. Tiye's sarcophagus was likely contained within multiple nested shrines, like those of her grandson Tutankhamun. The inscription on a portion of such a shrine found in KV55 indicates that Akhenaten had the shrines made for his mother.  Following the move of the capital back to Thebes, Tiye, along with others buried in the royal tomb, were transferred to the Valley of the Kings. The presence of pieces of one of her gilded burial shrines in KV55 indicate she was likely interred there for a time. Provisions had been made during the reign of her husband Amenhotep III for her burial within his tomb, WV22. Shabti figures belonging to her were found in this tomb.  In 1898, three sets of mummified remains were found in a side chamber of the tomb of Amenhotep II in KV35 by Victor Loret. One was an older woman and the other two were a young boy who died at around the age of ten, thought to be Webensenu or Prince Thutmose, and a younger, unknown woman. The three were found lying naked side-by-side and unidentified. The mummy of the older woman, who would later be identified as Tiye, was referred to by Egyptologists as the 'Elder Lady' while the other woman was 'The Younger Lady'. Several researchers argued that the Elder Lady was Queen Tiye. There were other scholars who were skeptical of this theory, such as British scholars Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton, who once stated that "it seems very unlikely that her mummy could be the so-called 'Elder Lady' in the tomb of Amenhotep II."  A nest of four miniature coffins inscribed with her name and containing a lock of hair was found in the tomb of her grandson, Tutankhamun— perhaps a memento from a beloved grandmother. In 1976, microprobe analysis conducted on hair samples from the Elder Lady and the lock from the inscribed coffins found the two were a near perfect match, thereby identifying the Elder Lady as Tiye.  By 2010, DNA analysis, sponsored by the Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities Zahi Hawass, was able to formally identify the Elder Lady as Queen Tiye. She was found to be about 40–50 years old at the time of her death, and tall.

Tiye (c. 1398 BC – 1338 BC, also spelled Tye, Taia, Tiy and Tiyi) was the daughter of Yuya and Tjuyu. She became the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep III. She was the mother of Akhenaten and grandmother of Tutankhamun. In 2010, DNA analysis confirmed her as the mummy known as "The Elder Lady" found in the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV35) in 1898.

泰伊(Tiy,公元前1398年—前1338年11月21日之后)古埃及新王国时期第十八王朝法老阿蒙霍特普三世的大王后,古埃及最出名的“平民王后”。艾赫米姆人。 其父为势力强大的大臣,尤亚,母为当时当哈托尔的歌手的贵妇,图玉,法老伊特努特-阿伊与大臣安恩的姐妹,她参与朝政。为阿蒙霍特普四世之母。泰伊在11岁(约公元前1387年)或12岁(约公元前1386年)时嫁给了阿蒙霍特普三世,并成为王后,阿蒙霍特普四世即位后成为其主要顾问。她最后一次出现是与孙女梅珂塔吞出现于定日为埃赫那吞统治12年(公元前1338年)11月21日的一封信上,据推测她们应该在同年相继去世。


Definition.

Consider the regression equation formula_1 where the dependent random variable formula_2 equals the deterministic variable formula_3 times coefficient formula_4 plus a random disturbance term formula_5 that has mean zero. The disturbances are homoskedastic if the variance of formula_5 is a constant formula_7; otherwise, they are heteroskedastic. In particular, the disturbances are heteroskedastic if the variance of formula_5 depends on i or on the value of formula_3. One way they might be heteroskedastic is if formula_10 (an example of a scedastic function), so the variance is proportional to the value of x.  More generally, if the variance-covariance matrix of disturbance formula_5 across i has a nonconstant diagonal, the disturbance is heteroskedastic. The matrices below are covariances when there are just three observations across time. The disturbance in matrix A is homoskedastic; this is the simple case where OLS is the best linear unbiased estimator. The disturbances in matrices B and C are heteroskedastic. In matrix B, the variance is time-varying, increasing steadily across time; in matrix C, the variance depends on the value of x. The disturbance in matrix D is homoskedastic because the diagonal variances are constant, even though the off-diagonal covariances are non-zero and ordinary least squares is inefficient for a different reason: serial correlation.

Consequences.

One of the assumptions of the classical linear regression model is that there is no heteroscedasticity. Breaking this assumption means that the Gauss–Markov theorem does not apply, meaning that OLS estimators are not the Best Linear Unbiased Estimators (BLUE) and their variance is not the lowest of all other unbiased estimators. Heteroscedasticity does "not" cause ordinary least squares coefficient estimates to be biased, although it can cause ordinary least squares estimates of the variance (and, thus, standard errors) of the coefficients to be biased, possibly above or below the true or population variance. Thus, regression analysis using heteroscedastic data will still provide an unbiased estimate for the relationship between the predictor variable and the outcome, but standard errors and therefore inferences obtained from data analysis are suspect. Biased standard errors lead to biased inference, so results of hypothesis tests are possibly wrong. For example, if OLS is performed on a heteroscedastic data set, yielding biased standard error estimation, a researcher might fail to reject a null hypothesis at a given significance level, when that null hypothesis was actually uncharacteristic of the actual population (making a type II error).  Under certain assumptions, the OLS estimator has a normal asymptotic distribution when properly normalized and centered (even when the data does not come from a normal distribution). This result is used to justify using a normal distribution, or a chi square distribution (depending on how the test statistic is calculated), when conducting a hypothesis test. This holds even under heteroscedasticity. More precisely, the OLS estimator in the presence of heteroscedasticity is asymptotically normal, when properly normalized and centered, with a variance-covariance matrix that differs from the case of homoscedasticity. In 1980, White proposed a consistent estimator for the variance-covariance matrix of the asymptotic distribution of the OLS estimator. This validates the use of hypothesis testing using OLS estimators and White's variance-covariance estimator under heteroscedasticity.  Heteroscedasticity is also a major practical issue encountered in ANOVA problems. The F test can still be used in some circumstances.  However, it has been said that students in econometrics should not overreact to heteroscedasticity. One author wrote, "unequal error variance is worth correcting only when the problem is severe." In addition, another word of caution was in the form, "heteroscedasticity has never been a reason to throw out an otherwise good model." With the advent of heteroscedasticity-consistent standard errors allowing for inference without specifying the conditional second moment of error term, testing conditional homoscedasticity is not as important as in the past.  For any non-linear model (for instance Logit and Probit models), however, heteroscedasticity has more severe consequences: the maximum likelihood estimates (MLE) of the parameters will be biased, as well as inconsistent (unless the likelihood function is modified to correctly take into account the precise form of heteroscedasticity). Yet, in the context of binary choice models (Logit or Probit), heteroscedasticity will only result in a positive scaling effect on the asymptotic mean of the misspecified MLE (i.e. the model that ignores heteroscedasticity). As a result, the predictions which are based on the misspecified MLE will remain correct. In addition, the misspecified Probit and Logit MLE will be asymptotically normally distributed which allows performing the usual significance tests (with the appropriate variance-covariance matrix). However, regarding the general hypothesis testing, as pointed out by Greene, “simply computing a robust covariance matrix for an otherwise inconsistent estimator does not give it redemption. Consequently, the virtue of a robust covariance matrix in this setting is unclear.”

Detection.

There are several methods to test for the presence of heteroscedasticity. Although tests for heteroscedasticity between groups can formally be considered as a special case of testing within regression models, some tests have structures specific to this case.  These tests consist of a test statistic (a mathematical expression yielding a numerical value as a function of the data), a hypothesis that is going to be tested (the null hypothesis), an alternative hypothesis, and a statement about the distribution of statistic under the null hypothesis.  Many introductory statistics and econometrics books, for pedagogical reasons, present these tests under the assumption that the data set in hand comes from a normal distribution. A great misconception is the thought that this assumption is necessary. Most of the methods of detecting heteroscedasticity outlined above can be modified for use even when the data do not come from a normal distribution. In many cases, this assumption can be relaxed, yielding a test procedure based on the same or similar test statistics but with the distribution under the null hypothesis evaluated by alternative routes: for example, by using asymptotic distributions which can be obtained from asymptotic theory, or by using resampling.

Fixes.

There are four common corrections for heteroscedasticity. They are:

Examples.

Heteroscedasticity often occurs when there is a large difference among the sizes of the observations.

Multivariate case.

The study of heteroscedasticity has been generalized to the multivariate case, which deals with the covariances of vector observations instead of the variance of scalar observations. One version of this is to use covariance matrices as the multivariate measure of dispersion. Several authors have considered tests in this context, for both regression and grouped-data situations. Bartlett's test for heteroscedasticity between grouped data, used most commonly in the univariate case, has also been extended for the multivariate case, but a tractable solution only exists for 2 groups. Approximations exist for more than two groups, and they are both called Box's M test.

Further reading.

Most statistics textbooks will include at least some material on heteroscedasticity. Some examples are:

In statistics, a vector of random variables is heteroscedastic (or heteroskedastic; from Ancient Greek “different” and “dispersion”) if the variability of the random disturbance is different across elements of the vector. Here, variability could be quantified by the variance or any other measure of statistical dispersion. Thus heteroscedasticity is the absence of homoscedasticity. A typical example is the set of observations of income in different cities.


Impact.

At around 10:30 on 12 February 1947, eyewitnesses in the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, Primorye, Soviet Union, observed a large bolide brighter than the sun that came out of the north and descended at an angle of about 41 degrees. The bright flash and the deafening sound of the fall were observed for around the point of impact not far from Luchegorsk and approximately northeast of Vladivostok. A smoke trail, estimated at long, remained in the sky for several hours.  As the meteor, traveling at a speed of about, entered the atmosphere, it began to break apart, and the fragments fell together. At an altitude of about, the largest mass apparently broke up in a violent explosion called an air burst.  On November 20, 1957 the Soviet Union issued a stamp for the 10th anniversary of the Sikhote-Alin meteorite shower. It reproduces a painting by P. I. Medvedev, a Soviet artist who witnessed the fall: he was sitting in his window starting a sketch when the fireball appeared, so he immediately began drawing what he saw.

Orbit.

Because the meteor fell during daytime, it was observed by many eyewitnesses. Evaluation of this observational data allowed V. G. Fesenkov, then chairman of the meteorite committee of the USSR Academy of Science, to estimate the meteoroid's orbit before it encountered the Earth. This orbit was ellipse-shaped, with its point of greatest distance from the sun situated within the asteroid belt, similar to many other small bodies crossing the orbit of the Earth. Such an orbit was probably created by collisions within the asteroid belt.

Size.

Sikhote-Alin is a massive fall with the "pre"-atmospheric mass of the meteoroid estimated at approximately. A more recent estimate by Tsvetkov (and others) puts the mass at around.  Krinov had estimated the "post"-atmospheric mass of the meteoroid at some.

Strewn field and craters.

The strewn field for this meteorite covered an elliptical area of about. Some of the fragments made impact craters, the largest of which was about across and deep. Fragments of the meteorite were also driven into the surrounding trees.

Composition and classification.

The Sikhote-Alin meteorite is classified as an iron meteorite belonging to the meteorite group IIAB and with a coarse octahedrite structure. It is composed of approximately 93% iron, 5.9% nickel, 0.42% cobalt, 0.46% phosphorus, and 0.28% sulfur, with trace amounts of germanium and iridium. Minerals present include taenite, plessite, troilite, chromite, kamacite, and schreibersite.

Specimens.

Specimens of the Sikhote-Alin Meteorite are basically of two types: The first type probably broke off the main object early in the descent. These pieces are characterized by regmaglypts (cavities resembling thumb prints) in the surface of each specimen. The second type are fragments which were either torn apart during the atmospheric explosions or blasted apart upon impact on the frozen ground. Most were probably the result of the explosion at altitude.  A large specimen is on display in Moscow. Many other specimens are held by Russian Academy of Science and a great number of smaller specimens have made their way into the collector's market.

An iron meteorite fell on the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, in southeastern Russia, in 1947. Though large iron meteorite falls had been witnessed previously and fragments recovered, never before in recorded history had a fall of this magnitude been observed. An estimated 23 tonnes of fragments survived the fiery passage through the atmosphere and reached the Earth, but still less than the largest meteorite find, the Hoba meteorite of 60 tonnes.

老爷岭陨石是在1947年<unk>落在苏联锡霍特阿兰山脉(老爷岭)的陨石,这批<unk>落陨石的总量是最近的历史中最大的。