"Prose Edda".

In the "Prose Edda" book "Gylfaginning" (chapter 44), the enthroned figure of Third reluctantly relates a tale in which Thor, Loki and Thor's servants, Þjálfi and Röskva are traveling to the east. They arrive at a vast forest in Jötunheimr, and they continue through the woods until dark. The four seek shelter for the night and discover an immense building. Finding shelter in a side room, they experience earthquakes through the night. The earthquakes cause all four to be fearful, except Thor, who grips his hammer in defense. The building turns out to be the huge glove of Skrýmir, who has been snoring throughout the night, causing what seemed to be earthquakes. The next night, all four sleep beneath an oak tree near Skrýmir in fear. Thor wakes up in the middle of the night, and a series of events occur where Thor twice attempts to destroy the sleeping Skrýmir with his hammer. Skrýmir awakes after each attempt, only to say that he detected an acorn falling on his head or that he wonders if bits of tree from the branches above have fallen on top of him. The second attempt awakes Skrýmir. Skrýmir gives them advice; if they are going to be cocky at the castle of Útgarðr it would be better for them to turn back now, for Útgarða-Loki's men there won't put up with it. Skrýmir throws his knapsack onto his back and abruptly goes into the forest and "there is no report that the Æsir expressed hope for a happy reunion".  The four travelers continue their journey until midday. They find themselves facing a massive castle in an open area. The castle is so tall that they must bend their heads back to their spines to see above it. At the entrance to the castle is a shut gate, and Thor finds that he cannot open it. Struggling, all four squeeze through the bars of the gate, and continue to a large hall. Inside the great hall are two benches, where many generally large people sit on two benches. The four see Útgarða-Loki, the king of the castle, sitting.  Útgarða-Loki says that no visitors are allowed to stay unless they can perform a feat. Loki, standing in the rear of the party, is the first to speak, claiming that he can eat faster than anyone. Loki competes with a being named Logi to consume a trencher full of meat but loses. Útgarða-Loki asks what feat the "young man" can perform, referring to Þjálfi. Þjálfi says that he will attempt to run a race against anyone Útgarða-Loki chooses. Útgarða-Loki says that this would be a fine feat yet that Þjálfi had better be good at running, for he is about to be put to the test. Útgarða-Loki and the group go outside to a level-grounded course.  At the course, Útgarða-Loki calls for a small figure by the name of Hugi to compete with Þjálfi. The first race begins and Þjálfi runs, but Hugi runs to the end of the course and then back again to meet Þjálfi. Útgarða-Loki comments to Þjálfi that he will have to run faster than that, yet notes that he has never seen anyone who has come to his hall run faster than that. Þjálfi and Hugi run a second race. Þjálfi loses by an arrow-shot. Útgarða-Loki comments that Þjálfi has again run a fine race but that he has no confidence that Þjálfi will be able to win a third. A third race between the two commences and Þjálfi again loses to Hugi. Everyone agrees that the contest between Þjálfi and Hugi has been decided.  Thor agrees to compete in a drinking contest but after three immense gulps fails. Thor agrees to lift a large, gray cat in the hall but finds that it arches his back no matter what he does, and that he can only raise a single paw. Thor demands to fight someone in the hall, but the inhabitants say doing so would be demeaning, considering Thor's weakness. Útgarða-Loki then calls for his nurse Elli, an old woman. The two wrestle but the harder Thor struggles the more difficult the battle becomes. Thor is finally brought down to a single knee. Útgarða-Loki said to Thor that fighting anyone else would be pointless. Now late at night, Útgarða-Loki shows the group to their rooms and they are treated with hospitality.  The next morning the group gets dressed and prepares to leave the keep. Útgarða-Loki appears, has his servants prepare a table, and they all merrily eat and drink. As they leave, Útgarða-Loki asks Thor how he thought he fared in the contests. Thor says that he is unable to say he did well, noting that he is particularly annoyed that Útgarða-Loki will now speak negatively about him. Útgarða-Loki, once the group has left his keep, points out that he hopes that they never return to it, for if he had an inkling of what he was dealing with he would never have allowed the group to enter in the first place. Útgarða-Loki reveals that all was not what it seemed to the group. Útgarða-Loki was in fact the immense Skrýmir, and that if the three blows Thor attempted to land had hit their mark, the first would have killed Skrýmir. In reality, Thor's blows were so powerful that they had resulted in three square valleys.  The contests, too, were an illusion. Útgarða-Loki reveals that Loki had actually competed against wildfire itself ("Logi", Old Norse "flame"), Þjálfi had raced against thought ("Hugi", Old Norse "thought"), Thor's drinking horn had actually reached to the ocean and with his drinks he lowered the ocean level (resulting in tides). The cat that Thor attempted to lift was in actuality the world serpent, Jörmungandr, and everyone was terrified when Thor was able to lift the paw of this "cat", for Thor had actually held the great serpent up to the sky. The old woman Thor wrestled was in fact Old Age ("Elli", Old Norse "old age"), and there is no one that old age cannot bring down. Útgarða-Loki concludes by telling Thor that it would be better for "both sides" if they did not meet again. Upon hearing this, Thor takes hold of his hammer and swings it at Útgarða-Loki but he is gone and so is his castle. Only a wide landscape remains.

"Gesta Danorum".

In "Gesta Danorum" a ship meets strong winds and sacrifices are made to various gods to obtain favorable weather, including to one called Utgarthilocus. With vows and propitiations to him a beneficial spell of weather is obtained. Later an expedition to the land of the giants comes upon this figure.  As a proof of their accomplishments, the men bring back a hair pulled from the giant's beard, stinking so harshly that several men drop dead on smelling it.  Apart from the name of the giant there is little that reminds of Snorri's Útgarða-Loki. The bound giant figure is more reminiscent of the bound Loki who likewise lies chained and tortured in a cave.

Popular culture.

The Danish animated film "Valhalla" (Peter Madsen and others, 1984) is based on the Útgarða-Loki story from the "Prose Edda". Útgarða-Loki serves as the villain and Elli is described as his mother.  In the Marvel Comics continuity, Utgard-Loki is an enemy of Thor. He had attempted to lead a cadre of Frost Giants against a weakened Asgard but was defeated by a small force of its defenders.  Utgarda-Loki also makes an appearance as the final boss in the video game "Ragnarok Odyssey."  Skrymir also appears in the "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" novel "".  Utgard-Loki appears as a supporting character in Rick Riordan's "Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard" series. He is stated to be king of the mountain giants and the most powerful sorcerer in Jotunheim.

In Norse mythology, Útgarða-Loki (Anglicized as Utgarda-Loki, Utgard-Loki, and Utgardsloki) was the ruler of the castle Útgarðr in Jötunheimr. He was one of the Jötnar and his name means literally "Loki of the Outyards", to distinguish him from Loki, the companion of Thor.

乌特迦·洛奇,、英语:Utgarda-Loki。又名斯克里米尔(Skrymir)及法亚拉(Fjalar)。他是北欧神话中的一名霜巨人,是约顿海姆(Jothuheim)中外域厄特加尔的统治者。厄特加尔有时候也等于整个约顿海姆,其意为「外域」(英语:Outyards)。而乌特迦·洛奇这个名字就是「外域的洛基」(英语:Loki of the Outyards)之意,以和阿萨神族(英语:Aesir)中的洛基(Loki)做区别。


Early life.

Wehrlein was born in Sigmaringen to a German father and Mauritian mother. His father Richard Wehrlein, who entered German boxing championships, owns a CNC machining company in Ostrach.

Career.

Karting.

Wehrlein began karting in 2003 and raced only in his native Germany in his early career. He worked his way up from the junior ranks to progress through to the KF2 category by 2009, when he finished on fifth position in ADAC Kart Masters.

ADAC Formel Masters.

2010 saw his debut in the ADAC Formel Masters championship with ADAC Berlin-Brandenburg e.V. (also known as Mücke Motorsport). Wehrlein finished sixth in the championship with a win at Sachsenring and three other podiums. He remained in the series with the team for the next year. Wehrlein scored seven wins at Oschersleben, Sachsenring, Zolder, Nürburgring and Lausitz on his way to the championship title.

Formula 3 Euro Series.

In 2012, Wehrlein stepped up to the Formula 3 Euro Series, continuing with Mücke Motorsport. He finished 2nd in the championship to Daniel Juncadella.

DTM (2013–2015).

Wehrlein made his debut in the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM) in 2013 at the age of 18. In a career spanning three seasons Wehrlein managed to be one of the leading drivers in the field despite his youthful age.  In his debut season he achieved 3 points finishing 22nd in the championship. He also achieved his first of two fastest laps in his career.  In 2014 he switched teams to HWA where he became the youngest driver in the series history to claim pole position and win a race on route to 8th in the championship with 46 points collected. Besides his stand out victory at Lausitz, Wehrlein's second best result of the season was a fifth-place finish at Norisring.  In 2015 DTM returned to running two races per race weekend, resulting in 18 rounds in the 2015 championship. Due to the inconsistency of most teams and drivers Wehrlein won the title easily having scored in all rounds except for three. He achieved 5 podiums, one fastest lap and two wins. He is the first driver to win the championship having not claimed a pole position throughout his championship season while also being the youngest ever DTM champion.

Formula One.

In September 2014, it was announced that Wehrlein would act as a reserve driver for the Mercedes F1 Team. He took part in preseason testing in Barcelona, driving for both Force India and Mercedes.

Manor (2016).

On 10 February 2016, it was announced that Wehrlein would make his F1 debut with Manor Racing. It is understood that Manor would receive access to Mercedes's wind tunnel in exchange for hiring Wehrlein. He picked number 94, in reference to his birth year. Wehrlein scored his and Manor's only point of the season at the with a tenth-place finish.

Sauber (2017).

On 16 January 2017, Wehrlein signed with Sauber. He was forced to miss the first test in Barcelona due to an injury he sustained while competing in the Race of Champions. He was replaced by Antonio Giovinazzi before returning for the second test at the same circuit. Despite being fit to take part in the, he later withdrew after participating in the first two practice sessions, with Giovinazzi replacing him for the rest of the race weekend. On 3 April 2017, Sauber F1 announced Wehrlein would again be replaced by Giovinazzi for the 2017 Chinese Grand Prix. He proceeded with entry into the following Bahrain Grand Prix, qualifying 13th and finishing the race in 11th. He finished eighth in the Spanish Grand Prix after running a one-stop strategy. He did not lose a single one of the places he gained, although a five-second penalty for a pit entry violation cost him seventh to Carlos Sainz Jr. His race at the Monaco Grand Prix ended when, on the 57th lap, Jenson Button tried to lunge down the inside at Portier but succeeded in flipping the Sauber onto its side against the barriers, necessitating another scan of his back. He scored his second points finish of the season in the chaotic Azerbaijan Grand Prix after fighting hard with his teammate Marcus Ericsson for 10th position. This took his points tally to 5 points. Despite having beaten Ericsson in both qualifying and the majority of races, plus being the only driver who scored points for Sauber that season, on 2 December 2017, Sauber announced that Wehrlein would not be renewed for the 2018 season and that he would be replaced by Charles Leclerc.

Ferrari test driver (2019).

On 8 January 2019 Wehrlein was announced as the development driver for Ferrari.

Return to DTM (2018).

On 7 February 2018, it was announced that Wehrlein will return to the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters with Mercedes-AMG's HWA Team after losing his Formula One seat. Pascal exited Mercedes-AMG after the 2018 season.

Formula E (2019–).

Wehrlein moved to Formula E for the 2018–19 season, driving for Mahindra Racing. He did not contest the opening round of the season in Diriyah, with Felix Rosenqvist replacing him, instead making his debut at the Marrakesh ePrix. Wehrlein earned his first pole position in just his third race in the series at the Mexico City ePrix. In the race he crossed the finish line in second, 0.210s behind Lucas di Grassi after being overtaken in the last corner, but was given a 5-second time penalty for cutting a corner earlier in the race which relegated him to sixth position. He set the fastest qualifying time in the qualifying session for the Paris ePrix, but he and teammate d'Ambrosio had their times disallowed for underweight cars, promoting Oliver Rowland to pole position. On 8 June 2020, Wehrlein announced his departure from the Mahindra team in a post on Instagram.

Racing record.

Career summary.

<nowiki>*</nowiki> Season still in progress.

Complete Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters results.

Driver did not finish, but completed 75% of the race distance.

Complete Formula E results.

Season still in progress.

Pascal Wehrlein (born 18 October 1994) is a German-Mauritian Formula E racing driver for the Indian team Mahindra Racing and development driver for Scuderia Ferrari who previously raced in Formula One for both the Sauber and the MRT teams. Holding dual nationality of Germany and Mauritius, he races under the German flag in Formula One. He had previously raced in the DTM, winning the title with the Mercedes-Benz team HWA AG in 2015. In 2014 Wehrlein became the youngest driver to win a DTM race at the age of 19 and the youngest to win the title in 2015 at the age of 20.

帕斯卡尔·维尔莱茵(;1994年-10月18日)是一位德国的赛车运动员。他曾经效力于一级方程序的索伯车队,他在2014年成为一位F1的测试车手。他的母亲是毛里求斯人,因此他也拥有毛里求斯国籍。而在他的赛车车身上也能看到德国和毛里求斯两国的国旗图案。现时他有参加电动方程序的比赛。


History.

C was created by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in the early 1970s as an augmented version of Ken Thompson's B. Another Bell Labs employee, Brian Kernighan, had written the first C tutorial, and he persuaded Ritchie to coauthor a book on the language. Kernighan would write most of the book's "expository" material, and Ritchie's reference manual became its appendices.  The first edition, published February 22, 1978, was the first widely available book on the C programming language. Its version of C is sometimes termed "K&R C" (after the book's authors), often to distinguish this early version from the later version of C standardized as "ANSI C".  In April 1988, the second edition of the book was published, updated to cover the changes to the language resulting from the then-new ANSI C standard, particularly with the inclusion of reference material on standard libraries. The second edition of the book (and as of 2018, the most recent) has since been translated into over 20 languages. In 2012, an eBook version of the second edition was published in ePub, Mobi, and PDF formats.  ANSI C, first standardized in 1989 (as ANSI X3.159-1989), has since undergone several revisions, the most recent of which is ISO/IEC 9899:2018 (also termed "C18"), adopted as an ANSI standard in June 2018. However, no new edition of "The C Programming Language" has been issued to cover the more recent standards.

Reception.

"Byte" magazine stated in August 1983, "["The C Programming Language"] is the definitive work on the C language. Don't read any further until you have this book!" Jerry Pournelle wrote in the magazine that year that the book "is still the standard... a bit terse". He continued, "You can learn the C language without getting Kernighan and Ritchie, but that's doing it the hard way. You're also working too hard if you make it the "only" book on C that you buy."

Influence.

"The C Programming Language" has often been cited as a model for technical writing, with reviewers describing it as having clear presentation and concise treatment. Examples generally consist of complete programs of the type one is likely to encounter in daily use of the language, with an emphasis on system programming. Its authors said:  The book introduced the "Hello, World!" program, which prints only the text "hello, world", as an illustration of a minimal working C program. Since then, many texts have followed that convention for introducing a programming language.  Before the advent of ANSI C, the first edition of the text served as the "de facto" standard of the language for writers of C compilers. With the standardization of ANSI C, the authors more consciously wrote the second edition for programmers rather than compiler writers, saying:  The influence of "The C Programming Language" on programmers, a generation of whom first worked with C in universities and industry, has led many to accept the authors' programming style and conventions as recommended practice, if not normative practice. For example, the coding and formatting style of the programs presented in both editions of the book is often referred to as "K&R style" or the "One True Brace Style" and became the coding style used by convention in the source code for the Unix and Linux kernels.

The C Programming Language (sometimes termed K&R, after its authors' initials) is a computer programming book written by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie, the latter of whom originally designed and implemented the language, as well as co-designed the Unix operating system with which development of the language was closely intertwined. The book was central to the development and popularization of the C programming language and is still widely read and used today. Because the book was co-authored by the original language designer, and because the first edition of the book served for many years as the "de facto" standard for the language, the book was regarded by many to be the authoritative reference on C.

《C程序设计语言》(英语:"The C Programming Language"),又译为C语言程序设计,是介绍C语言的计算机科学著作,由计算机科学家布莱恩·柯林汉(Brian Kernighan)和C语言之父丹尼斯·里奇(Dennis Ritchie)合著,是第一部介绍C语言编程方法的书籍。它因作者名字的缩写被简称为K&R;或是因封面颜色,被称为白皮书。


Career overview.

Gaultier was the European junior squash champion in 2000 and 2001. He also won a British Junior Open title and finished as the runner-up at the World Junior Squash Championships.  In 2003, Gaultier was a member of the French team which finished runners-up to Australia at the World Team Squash Championships. In the semi-finals against England, Gaultier won the deciding match against Lee Beachill which took France through to the final.  At the 2006 World Open, Gaultier defeated World No. 1 and defending-champion Amr Shabana in the semi-finals, before losing in five games in the final to David Palmer 11–9, 11–9, 9–11, 10–11 (4–6), 2–11. In 2007, Gaultier again reached the World Open final, losing 7–11, 4–11, 6–11 to Shabana.  At the 2007 British Open, Gaultier defeated his fellow Frenchman Thierry Lincou in the final 11–4, 10–12, 11–6, 11–3. He became the first French winner of the British Open.  At the 2009 Tournament of Champions, Gaultier defeated the world No.1 Karim Darwish in the semifinal, and beat Nick Matthew in the final with a score 11–9, (2–11), 11–8, 11–4. He is the only Frenchman to have won the title.  Gaultier moved to the top of the world ranking on November 2009, a feat achieved after losing in the final of the Hong Kong Open a month earlier. In 2009 he became the second French player to become world no 1.  Gaultier has since won the Qatar Classic and reached the semi-finals of the J.P. Morgan Tournament of Champions, and later won the Case Swedish Open after dispatching Karim Darwish in the finals.  In 2013 he was Gold medalist of the World Games in Cali against Simon Rösner in the final. He won the US Open against Nick Matthew 11–4, 11–5, 11–5. Two weeks later, he reached the World Championship final for the fourth time, losing again 11–9, 11–9, 11–13, 7-11, 11–2 to Nick Matthew.  In February 2014 he once again reached the top of the World Ranking, but again only for a month, as was the case in November 2009. One month later, in March, he won the Metro Squash Windy City Open, another PSA World Series tournament in the University Club of Chicago beating the apparently injured Ramy Ashour in the final 11–7, 11–3, 11–4. In April he reached World Number 1 ranking for the third time. In May he won the British Open for the second time beating Nick Matthew in a very quick final 11–3, 11–6, 11–2.

Grégory Gaultier (born 23 December 1982, in Épinal, France) is a professional squash player from France. He has won the 2015 World Open Squash Championship, the British Open three times, in 2007, 2014 and 2017, the Qatar Classic in 2011, the US Open twice, in 2006 and 2013, the Tournament of Champions in 2009, and the PSA World Series Finals thrice, in 2008, 2009 and 2016. He reached the final of the World Open in 2006, 2007, 2011 and 2013, and the World No. 1 ranking in 2009. Gaultier is affectionately known to his friends as The General.

基哥利·基尼地亚(法文:Grégory Gaultier),法国壁球男子选手,两次英国公开赛、一次卡塔尔经典赛以及两次年美国公开赛冠军,4度打进世界壁球锦标赛决赛但都屈居亚军。他于2009年11月短暂登上过世界排名第一的位置,为法国第二位登上球王宝座的选手;2014年他再度重回球王宝座8个月。


History.

The King's Chapel congregation was founded by Royal Governor Sir Edmund Andros in 1686 as the first Anglican Church in colonial New England during the reign of King James II. The original King's Chapel was a wooden church built in 1688 at the corner of Tremont and School Streets, where the church stands today. It was situated on the public burying ground, now King's Chapel Burying Ground, because no resident would sell land for a church that was not Congregationalist (at the time, the Congregational church was the official religion of Massachusetts).  In 1749, construction began on the current stone structure, which was designed by Peter Harrison and completed in 1754. The stone church was built around the wooden church. When the stone church was complete, the wooden church was disassembled and removed through the windows of the new church. The wood was then shipped to Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, where it was used to construct St. John's Anglican Church. That church was destroyed by fire on Halloween night, 2001. It has since been rebuilt. Originally, there were plans to add a steeple, although funding shortfalls prevented this from happening.  During the American Revolution, the chapel sat vacant and was referred to as the "Stone Chapel". The Loyalist families left for Nova Scotia and England, and those who remained reopened the church in 1782. It became Unitarian under the ministry of James Freeman, who revised the Book of Common Prayer along Unitarian lines in 1785. Although Freeman still considered King's Chapel to be Episcopalian, the Episcopal Church refused to ordain him. The church still follows its own Anglican/Unitarian hybrid liturgy today. It is a member congregation of the Unitarian Universalist Association.  Inside, the church is characterized by wooden columns with Corinthian capitals that were hand-carved by William Burbeck and his apprentices in 1758. Seating is accommodated by box pews, most of which were originally owned by the member families who paid pew rent and decorated the pews to their personal tastes. The coveted Pew No. 30 is the Governor's Pew (reserved for Jonathan Belcher, the Royal Governor) was, on October 27, 1789, occupied by George Washington. Belcher's son, Jonathan Jr., was wed in the chapel in 1756. The current uniform appearance of the pews dates from the 1920s.  Music has long been an important part of King's Chapel, which acquired its first organ in 1713, bequeathed to the congregation by Puritan minister Thomas Brattle. The present organ, the sixth installed in King's Chapel, was built by C.B. Fisk in 1964. It is decorated with miters and carvings from the Bridge organ of 1756, and it is slightly below average in size compared with most mid-1900s European chapel organs. For forty-two years, the eminent American composer Daniel Pinkham was the organist and music director at King's Chapel. He was succeeded by Heinrich Christensen.  The King's Chapel bell, cast in England, was hung in 1772. In 1814 it cracked, was recast by Paul Revere and Sons, and was rehung. It is the largest bell cast by the Revere foundry, and the last one cast during Paul Revere's lifetime. It has been rung at services ever since.  Within King's Chapel is a monument to Samuel Vassall, brother of the colonist William Vassall, a patentee of the Massachusetts Bay Company, and an early deputy of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Samuel Vassall of London was also named a member of the Company in its 1629 Royal Charter but never sailed for New England, instead remaining in London to tend to business affairs; his brother William frequently clashed with John Winthrop, and eventually removed himself to Scituate, Massachusetts. The monument to Vassall, London merchant, mentions his resistance to King Charles's taxes imposed on Tonnage and Poundage, especially as Parliament had refused the King's request for a lifetime extension. Vassall subsequently represented the City of London as a Member of Parliament (1640–1641), which restored some of Vassall's estate. Later Vassalls in Massachusetts, including William Vassall for whom Vassalboro, Maine was named, were Loyalists and fled to England during the American Revolutionary War.

References.

Notes Further reading

King's Chapel is an independent Christian unitarian congregation affiliated with the Unitarian Universalist Association that is "unitarian Christian in theology, Anglican in worship, and congregational in governance." It is housed in what was for a time after the Revolution called the "Stone Chapel", an 18th-century structure at the corner of Tremont Street and School Street in Boston, Massachusetts. The chapel building, completed in 1754, is one of the finest designs of the noted colonial architect Peter Harrison, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960 for its architectural significance.

国王礼拜堂(King's Chapel)是美国波士顿的一座基督教一位论派(Unitarian)教堂,位于特莱蒙街(Tremont Street)和学校街(School Street)路口。


Early life.

Rockefeller was the fifth and last child of Mary Todhunter Rockefeller and Nelson Rockefeller. He was the third son of seven children fathered by Nelson Rockefeller, and he had a twin sister, Mary.  After attending The Buckley School in New York, and graduating from the Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire, where he was a student senator and exceptional varsity wrestler, Rockefeller graduated "cum laude" from Harvard University with a B.A. in history and economics. In 1960, he served for six months as a private in the U.S. Army and then went on an expedition for Harvard's Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology to study the Dani tribe of western Netherlands New Guinea. The expedition filmed "Dead Birds", an ethnographic documentary movie produced by Robert Gardner, and for which Rockefeller was the sound recordist. Rockefeller and a friend briefly left the expedition to study the Asmat tribe of southern Netherlands New Guinea. After returning home from the Peabody expedition, Rockefeller returned to New Guinea to study the Asmat and collect Asmat art.  "It's the desire to do something adventurous," he explained, "at a time when frontiers, in the real sense of the word, are disappearing."  He spent his time in Netherlands New Guinea actively engaged with the culture and the art while recording ethnographic data. In one of his letters home he wrote: I am having a thoroughly exhausting but most exciting time here... The Asmat is like a huge puzzle with the variations in ceremony and art style forming the pieces. My trips are enabling me to comprehend (if only in a superficial, rudimentary manner) the nature of this puzzle...

Disappearance.

On November 17, 1961, Rockefeller and Dutch anthropologist René Wassing were in a dugout canoe about from shore when their double pontoon boat was swamped and overturned. Their two local guides swam for help, but it was slow in coming. After drifting for some time, early on November 19 Rockefeller said to Wassing "I think I can make it" and swam for shore. The boat was an estimated from the shore when he made the attempt to swim to safety, supporting the theory that he died from exposure, exhaustion, and/or drowning. Wassing was rescued the next day, while Rockefeller was never seen again, despite an intensive and lengthy search effort. At the time, Rockefeller's disappearance was a major world news item. His body was never found. He was declared legally dead in 1964.

Speculation.

It is believed that Rockefeller either drowned or was attacked by a shark or saltwater crocodile. As headhunting and cannibalism were still present in some areas of Asmat in 1961, it has also been speculated that Rockefeller may have been killed and eaten by Asmat tribespeople.  In 1969, the journalist Milt Machlin traveled to the island to investigate Rockefeller's disappearance. He dismissed reports of Rockefeller living as a captive or as a Kurtz-like figure in the jungle, but concluded that circumstantial evidence supported the idea that he had been killed. Several leaders of Otsjanep village, where Rockefeller likely would have arrived had he made it to shore, had supposedly been killed by a Dutch patrol in 1958, thus providing some rationale for revenge by the tribe against someone from the "white tribe". Neither cannibalism nor headhunting in Asmat were indiscriminate, but rather were part of a tit-for-tat revenge cycle, so it is possible that Rockefeller found himself the inadvertent victim of such a cycle. The incident is described in "Dance of the Warriors", the second volume of the documentary series "Ring of Fire" by the Blair brothers.  A book titled "Rocky Goes West" by author Paul Toohey claims that, in 1979, Rockefeller's mother hired a private investigator to go to New Guinea and try to resolve the mystery of his disappearance. The reliability of the story has been questioned, but Toohey claims that the private investigator swapped a boat engine for the skulls of the three men that a tribe claimed were the only white men they had ever killed. The investigator returned to New York and handed these skulls to the family, convinced that one of them was the skull of Rockefeller. If this event did actually occur, the family has never commented on it. However, the History Channel program "Vanishings" reported that Rockefeller's mother did pay a $250,000 reward to the investigator which was offered for final proof whether or not Michael Rockefeller was alive or dead.  In the documentary film "Keep the River on Your Right", Tobias Schneebaum states that he spoke with Asmat cannibals who described finding Rockefeller on the riverside and eating him.

2014 book on disappearance.

In 2014, Carl Hoffman published the book "Savage Harvest: A Tale of Cannibals, Colonialism, and Michael Rockefeller's Tragic Quest for Primitive Art" where he discusses researching Rockefeller's mysterious disappearance and presumed death. During multiple visits to the villages in the area, he heard several stories about men from Otsjanep killing Rockefeller after he swam to shore. The stories, which were similar to testimonials collected in the 1960s, center around a handful of men arguing and eventually deciding to kill Michael after he swam to shore, in revenge for a 1958 incident in which men from the village were killed in a confrontation with Dutch colonial officials. All of the men who participated in the murders directly benefited from the event, but wanted to avenge the deaths of their fellow tribesmen. Soon after the murders, the villages were swept by a cholera epidemic and the villagers believed that it was retribution for killing Rockefeller. As Hoffman left one of the villages for the final time, he witnessed a man acting out a scene wherein someone was killed, and stopped to videotape it. When translated, the man was quoted as saying:  Don't you tell this story to any other man or any other village, because this story is only for us. Don't speak. Don't speak and tell the story. I hope you remember it and you must keep this for us. I hope. I hope. This is for you and you only. Don't talk to anyone, forever; to other people or another village. If people question you, don't answer. Don't talk to them, because this story is only for you. If you tell it to them, you'll die. I am afraid you will die. You'll be dead; your people will be dead, if you tell this story. You keep this story in your house; to yourself, I hope, forever. Forever.... In 1978 a Canadian geologist visiting the Asmat met a missionary named Otto Konig who showed him Rockefeller's watch and glasses and confirmed that he had been killed and eaten.

Asmat artifacts and photographs.

Many of the Asmat artifacts Rockefeller collected are part of the Michael C. Rockefeller Wing collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The Peabody Museum has published the catalogue of an exhibition of pictures taken by Rockefeller during the New Guinea expedition.

In popular culture.

The 1973, "National Lampoon Comics" contained a story (titled "New Guinea Pig") that focused on Rockefeller's disappearance as being a ruse so he could kill all the black people in New Guinea and his family could steal their resources.  Rockefeller's disappearance was the subject of episode #30 of In Search of... (TV series) which originally aired January 21, 1978.  The band Guadalcanal Diary wrote a song about Rockefeller's disappearance called "Michael Rockefeller" which appeared on their 1986 album "Jamboree".  In the travel adventure book "Ring of Fire: An Indonesian Odyssey" the Blair brothers claim to have discussed Rockefeller's death with a tribesman who killed him.  Christopher Stokes's short story "The Man Who Ate Michael Rockefeller", published in the 23rd issue of "McSweeney's Quarterly Concern" (Spring 2007), presents a fictional account of young Michael's demise.  The 2004 novel "King of America" by Samantha Gillison is loosely based on the life of Michael Rockefeller.  The 2007 film "Welcome to the Jungle" deals with two young couples who venture after Michael Rockefeller (thinking they can make a lot of money if they find evidence of Rockefeller) but meet grisly demises.  Jeff Cohen's play "The Man Who Ate Michael Rockefeller", based on the short story by Christopher Stokes, had its world premiere in an Off Broadway production at the West End Theatre in New York, directed by Alfred Preisser, from September 10 to October 3, 2010.  In 2011, Agamemnon Films released a documentary titled "The Search for Michael Rockefeller", based on journalist Milt Machlin's book of the same name released in 1974. In his book, Carl Hoffman characterized Machlin's early book as "mostly the tale of a wild-goose chase" but still important in laying the groundwork for questioning official stories of Rockefeller's disappearance The film introduces a third theory, that Rockefeller survived and was living among the locals. This theory is supported by a verbal claim of contact made by a mysterious Australian adventurer, plus a few frames of film footage showing a bearded white man among indigenous men, wearing local garb.  In 2012, Michael's surviving twin sister Mary published a memoir, titled "Beginning with the End: A Memoir of Twin Loss and Healing," about coping with her grief after the death of her brother. The book was issued in paperback in 2014 as "When Grief Calls Forth the Healing.

Michael Clark Rockefeller (May 18, 1938 – presumed to have died November 19, 1961) was the fifth child of New York Governor and future U.S. Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, and a fourth-generation member of the Rockefeller family. He disappeared during an expedition in the Asmat region of southwestern Netherlands New Guinea, which is now a part of Indonesian province of Papua. In 2014, Carl Hoffman published a book that went into detail about the inquest into his killing, in which villagers and tribal elders admit to Rockefeller being killed after he swam to shore in 1961. Despite these claims, no remains or other proof of his death have ever been discovered.

麦可·克拉克·洛克斐勒(英语:Michael Clark Rockefeller,1938年-5月18日-1961年-11月17日),他是前美国副总统纳尔逊·洛克斐勒第一段婚姻中最小的儿子。


Social.

One of the primary functions of the family involves providing a framework for the production and reproduction of persons biologically and socially. This can occur through the sharing of material substances (such as food); the giving and receiving of care and nurture (nurture kinship); jural rights and obligations; and moral and sentimental ties. Thus, one's experience of one's family shifts over time. From the perspective of children, the family is a "family of orientation": the family serves to locate children socially and plays a major role in their enculturation and socialization. From the point of view of the parent(s), the family is a "family of procreation", the goal of which is to produce, enculturate and socialize children. However, producing children is not the only function of the family; in societies with a sexual division of labor, marriage, and the resulting relationship between two people, it is necessary for the formation of an economically productive household.  Christopher Harris notes that the western conception of family is ambiguous and confused with the household, as revealed in the different contexts in which the word is used. Olivia Harris states this confusion is not accidental, but indicative of the familial ideology of capitalist, western countries that pass social legislation that insists members of a nuclear family should live together, and that those not so related should not live together; despite the ideological and legal pressures, a large percentage of families do not conform to the ideal nuclear family type.

Size.

The total fertility rate of women varies from country to country, from a high of 6.76 children born/woman in Niger to a low of 0.81 in Singapore (as of 2015). Fertility is low in

Types of family.

Although early western cultural anthropologists and sociologists considered family and kinship to be universally associated with relations by "blood" (based on ideas common in their own cultures) later research has shown that many societies instead understand family through ideas of living together, the sharing of food (e.g. milk kinship) and sharing care and nurture. Sociologists have a special interest in the function and status of family forms in stratified (especially capitalist) societies.  According to the work of scholars Max Weber, Alan Macfarlane, Steven Ozment, Jack Goody and Peter Laslett, the huge transformation that led to modern marriage in Western democracies was "fueled by the religio-cultural value system provided by elements of Judaism, early Christianity, Roman Catholic canon law and the Protestant Reformation".  Much sociological, historical and anthropological research dedicates itself to the understanding of this variation, and of changes in the family that form over time. Levitan claims: "Times have changed; it is more acceptable and encouraged for mothers to work and fathers to spend more time at home with the children. The way roles are balanced between the parents will help children grow and learn valuable life lessons. There is [the] great importance of communication and equality in families, in order to avoid role strain."

Conjugal (nuclear) family.

The term "nuclear family" is commonly used, especially in the United States of America, to refer to conjugal families. A "conjugal" family includes only the spouses and unmarried children who are not of age. Some sociologists

Single-parent family.

A "single-parent family" consists of one parent together with their children, where the parent is either widowed, divorced (and not remarried), or never married. The parent may have sole custody of the children, or separated parents may have a shared-parenting arrangement where the children divide their time (possibly equally) between two different single-parent families or between one

Matrifocal family.

A "matrifocal" family consists of a mother and her children. Generally, these children are her biological offspring, although adoption of children is a practice in nearly every society. This kind of family occurs commonly where women have the resources to rear their children by

Extended family.

The term "extended family" is also common, especially in the United States. This term has two distinct meanings:

Family of choice.

The term family of choice, also sometimes referred to as "chosen family" or "found family", is common within the LGBT community, veterans, individuals who have suffered abuse, and those who have no contact with biological "parents". It refers to the group of people in an individual's life that satisfies the typical role of family as a support system. The term differentiates between the "family of origin" (the biological family or that in which people are raised) and those that actively assume that ideal role.

Blended family.

The term "blended family" or "stepfamily" describes families with mixed parents: one or both parents remarried, bringing children of the former family into the new family. Also in sociology, particularly in the works of social psychologist Michael Lamb, "traditional family" refers to "a middle-class family with a bread-winning father and a stay-at-home mother, married to each other and raising their biological children," and "nontraditional" to exceptions to this rule. Most of the US households are now non-traditional under this definition. Critics of the term "traditional family" point out

Monogamous family.

A monogamous family is based on a legal or social monogamy. In this case, an individual has only one (official) partner during their lifetime or

Polygamous family.

Polygamy is a marriage that includes more than two partners. When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, the relationship is called polygyny; and when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry. If a marriage includes multiple husbands and wives, it can be called polyamory, group or conjoint marriage.  Polygyny is a form of plural marriage, in which a man is allowed more than one wife. In modern countries that permit polygamy, polygyny is

Kinship terminology.

Degrees of kinship.

A first-degree relative is one who shares 50% of your DNA through direct inheritance, such as a full sibling, parent or progeny.  There

Terminologies.

In his book "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family", anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan (1818–1881) performed the first survey of kinship terminologies in use around the world. Although much of his work is now considered dated, he argued that kinship terminologies reflect different sets of distinctions. For example, most kinship terminologies distinguish between sexes (the difference between a brother and a sister) and between generations (the difference between a child and a parent). Moreover, he argued, kinship terminologies distinguish between relatives by blood and marriage (although recently some anthropologists have argued that many societies define kinship in terms

Roles.

Most Western societies employ Eskimo kinship terminology. This kinship terminology commonly occurs in societies with strong conjugal, where families have a degree of relative mobility. Typically, societies with conjugal families also favor neolocal residence; thus upon marriage, a person separates from the nuclear family of their childhood (family of orientation) and forms a new nuclear family (family of procreation). Such systems generally assume that the mother's husband is also the biological father. The system uses highly descriptive terms for the nuclear family and progressively more classificatory as the relatives become more and more collateral.

Nuclear family.

The system emphasizes the nuclear family. Members of the nuclear family use highly descriptive kinship terms, identifying directly only the husband, wife, mother, father, son, daughter, brother, and sister. All other relatives are grouped together into

Collateral relatives.

A sibling is a collateral relative with a minimal removal. For collateral relatives with one additional removal, one generation more distant from a common ancestor on one side, more classificatory terms come into play. These terms (Aunt, Uncle, Niece, and Nephew) do not build on the terms used within the nuclear family as most are not traditionally members of the household. These terms do not traditionally differentiate between a collateral relatives and a person married to a collateral relative (both collateral and aggregate). Collateral relatives with additional removals on each side are Cousins. This is the most classificatory term and can be distinguished by degrees of collaterality and by generation (removal).  When only the subject has the additional removal, the relative is the subjects parents siblings, the terms Aunt and Uncle are used for female and male relatives respectively. When

Aggregate relatives.

English-speakers mark relationships by marriage (except for wife/husband) with the tag "-in-law." The mother and father of one's spouse become one's mother-in-law and father-in-law; the wife of one's son becomes one's daughter-in-law and the husband of one's daughter becomes one's son-in-law. The term "sister-in-law" refers to three essentially different relationships, either the wife of one's brother, or the sister of one's spouse. "Brother-in-law" is the husband of one's sister, or the brother of one's spouse. The terms "half-brother" and "half-sister" indicate siblings who share only

Types of kinship.

Patrilineal.

Patrilineality, also known as "the male line" or "agnatic kinship", is a form of kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is traced through his or her father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritance of property, rights, names, or titles by persons

Matrilineal.

Matrilineality is a form of kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is traced through his or her mother's lineage.  It may also correlate with a societal system in which each person is identified with their matriline—their mother's lineage—and which can involve the

Bilateral descent.

Bilateral descent is a form of kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is traced through both the paternal and maternal sides. The relatives on the mother's side and father's side are equally important for emotional ties or for transfer of property or wealth. It is a family arrangement where descent and

History of theories.

Early scholars of family history applied Darwin's biological theory of evolution in their theory of evolution of family systems. American anthropologist Lewis H. Morgan published "Ancient Society" in 1877 based on his theory of the three stages of human progress from Savagery through Barbarism to Civilization. Morgan's book was the "inspiration for Friedrich Engels' book" "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State" published in 1884.  Engels expanded Morgan's hypothesis that economical factors caused the transformation of primitive community into a class-divided society. Engels' theory of resource control, and later that of Karl Marx, was used to explain the cause and effect of change in family structure and function. The popularity of this theory was largely unmatched until the 1980s, when other sociological theories, most notably structural functionalism, gained acceptance.

The nuclear family in industrial society.

Contemporary society generally views the family as a haven from the world, supplying absolute fulfillment. Zinn and Eitzen discuss the image of the "family as haven [...] a place of intimacy, love and trust where individuals may escape the competition of dehumanizing forces in modern society". During industrialization, "[t]he family as a repository of warmth and tenderness (embodied by the mother) stands in opposition to the competitive and aggressive world of commerce (embodied by the father). The family's task was to protect against the outside world." However, Zinn

The postmodern family.

Others argue that whether or not one views the family as "declining" depends on one's definition of "family". "Married couples have dropped below half of all American households. This drop is shocking from traditional forms of the family system. Only a fifth of households were following traditional ways of having married couples raising a family together." In the Western World, marriages are no longer arranged for economic, social or political gain, and children are no longer expected to contribute to family income. Instead, people choose mates based on love. This increased role of love indicates a societal shift toward favoring emotional fulfilment and relationships within a family, and this shift necessarily weakens the institution of the family.  Margaret Mead considers the family as a main safeguard to continuing human progress. Observing, "Human beings have learned, laboriously, to be human", she adds: "we hold our present form of humanity on trust, [and] it is possible to lose it"... "It is not without significance that the most successful large-scale abrogations of the family have occurred not among simple savages, living close to the subsistence

Domestic violence.

Domestic violence (DV) is violence that happens within the family. The legal and social understanding of the concept of DV differs by culture. The definition of the term "domestic violence" varies, depending on the context in which it is used. It may be defined differently in medical, legal, political or social contexts. The definitions have varied over time, and vary in different parts of the world.  The Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence states that:  In 1993, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women identified domestic violence as one of three contexts in which violence against women occurs, describing it as:

Family violence.

Family violence is a broader definition, often used to include child abuse, elder abuse, and other violent acts between family members.  Child abuse is defined by the WHO as:  Elder abuse is, according to the WHO: "a single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust which causes harm or distress to an older person".

Parental abuse of children (child abuse).

Child abuse is the physical, sexual or emotional maltreatment or neglect of a child or children. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Department for Children and Families (DCF) define child maltreatment as any act or

Parental abuse by children.

Abuse of parents by their children is a common but under reported and under researched subject. Parents are quite often subject to levels of childhood aggression in excess

Elder abuse.

Elder abuse is "a single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person." This definition has been adopted by the World Health Organization from a definition put forward by Action on Elder Abuse in the UK. Laws protecting the elderly from abuse are similar to, and related to, laws protecting dependent adults from abuse.  The core element to the harm of elder abuse is the "expectation of trust" of the older person toward their abuser. Thus, it includes harms by people the older person knows or with whom they have a relationship, such as a spouse, partner or family member, a friend or neighbor, or people that the older person relies on for services. Many forms of elder abuse are recognized as types of domestic violence or family violence.

Forced and child marriage.

Forced and child marriages are practiced in certain regions of the world, particularly in Asia and Africa, and these types of marriages are associated with a high rate of domestic violence.  A forced marriage is a marriage where one or both participants are married without their freely given consent. The line between forced marriage and consensual marriage may become blurred, because the social norms of many cultures dictate that one should never oppose the desire of one's parents/relatives in regard to the choice

The concept of family honour.

Family honor is an abstract concept involving the perceived quality of worthiness and respectability that affects the social standing and the self-evaluation of a group of related people, both corporately and individually. The family is viewed as the main source of honor and the community highly values the relationship between honor and the family. The conduct of family members reflects upon family honor and the way the family perceives itself, and is perceived by others. In cultures of

Economic issues.

A family is often part of a sharing economy with common ownership.

Dowry, bride price and dower.

Dowry is property (money, goods, or estate) that a wife or wife's family gives to her husband when the wife and husband marry. Offering dowry was common in many cultures historically (including in Europe and North America), but this practice today is mostly restricted to some areas primarily in the Indian

Property regimes and taxation.

In some countries married couples benefit from various taxation advantages not available to a single person or to unmarried couples. For example, spouses may be allowed to average their combined incomes. Some jurisdictions recognize common law marriage or "de facto" relations for this purposes. In some jurisdictions

Rights and laws.

Reproductive rights.

Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health. These include the right to decide on issues regarding the number of children born, family planning, contraception, and private life, free from coercion and discrimination; as well as the right to access health services and adequate information. According to UNFPA, reproductive rights "include the right to decide the number, timing and spacing of children, the right to voluntarily marry and establish a family, and the right to the highest attainable standard of

Parents' rights.

The parents' rights movement is a movement whose members are primarily interested in issues affecting parents and children related to family law, specifically parental rights and obligations. Mothers' rights movements

Children's rights.

Children's rights are the human rights of children, with particular attention to the rights of special protection and care afforded to minors, including

Marriage rights.

Each jurisdiction has its own marriage laws. These laws differ significantly from country

Legal reforms.

Legal reforms to family laws have taken place in many countries during the past few decades. These dealt primarily with gender equality within marriage and with divorce laws. Women have been given equal rights in marriage in many countries, reversing older family laws based on the dominant legal role of the husband. Coverture, which was enshrined in the common law of England and the US for several centuries and throughout most of the 19th century, was abolished. In some European countries the changes that lead to gender equality were slower. The period of 1975–1979 saw a major overhaul of family laws in countries such as Italy, Spain, Austria, West Germany, and Portugal. In 1978, the Council of Europe passed the "Resolution (78) 37 on equality of spouses in civil law".

Health.

Family medicine.

Family medicine is a medical specialty devoted to comprehensive health care for people of all ages; it is based

Maternal mortality.

Maternal mortality or maternal death is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to

Infant and child mortality.

Infant mortality is the death of a child less than one year of age. Child mortality is the

Politics.

While in many parts of the world family policies seek to promote a gender-equal organization of the family life, in others the male-dominated family continues to be the official policy of the authorities, which is also supported by law. For instance, the Civil Code of Iran states at Article 1105: "In relations between husband and wife; the position of the head of the family is the exclusive right of the husband".  In some parts of

Work-family balance.

Work-family balance is a concept involving proper prioritizing between work/career and family life. It includes issues relating to the way how work and families intersect and influence each other. At a political level, it is reflected through policies such maternity leave and paternity leave. Since the 1950s, social scientists as well as feminists have increasingly criticized gendered arrangements of work and care, and the male breadwinner role, and policies are increasingly targeting men as fathers, as a tool of changing gender relations.

Protection of private and family life.

Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights provides a right to respect for one's

Criticism.

Certain social scientists have advocated the abolition of the family. An early opponent of the family was Socrates whose position was outlined by Plato in "The Republic". In Book 5 of "The Republic", Socrates tells his interlocutors that a just city is one in which citizens have no family ties.  The family being such a deep-rooted and much-venerated institution, few intellectuals have ventured to speak against it. Familialism has been atypically defined as a “social structure where... a family's values are held in higher esteem than the values of the individual members of the family.” Favoritism granted to relatives regardless of merit is called nepotism.  The Russian-American rationalist and individualist philosopher, novelist and playwright Ayn Rand compared partiality towards

The family and social justice.

One of the controversies regarding the family is the application of the concept of social justice to the private sphere of family relations, in particular with regard to the rights of women and children. Throughout much of the history, most philosophers who advocated for social justice focused on the public political arena, not on the family structures; with the family often being seen as a separate entity which needed to be protected from outside state intrusion. One notable exception was John Stuart Mill,

Global trends in family composition.

In 2015, Nicholas Eberstadt, political economist at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington, described a "global flight from family" in an opinion piece in the "Wall Street Journal". Statistics from an infographic by Olivier Ballou showed that,  However, Swedish statisticians reported in 2013 that, in contrast to many countries, since the 2000s, fewer children have experienced their parents' separation, childlessness had decreased in Sweden and marriages had increased. It had also become more common for couples to have a third child suggesting that the nuclear family was no longer in decline in Sweden.

In human society, a family (from ) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of families is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Ideally, families would offer predictability, structure, and safety as members mature and participate in the community. In most societies, it is within families that children acquire socialization for life outside the family. Additionally, as the basic unit for meeting the basic needs of its members, it provides a sense of boundaries for performing tasks in a safe environment, ideally builds a person into a functional adult, transmits culture, and ensures continuity of humankind with precedents of knowledge.

家庭是一种以婚姻、血缘、收养或同居等关系为基础而形成的共同生活单位。由婚姻组成的家庭关系,经由生育孩子、收养不具血缘关系的孩子,产生出以血缘、拟制血亲为连带的家庭成员。


History.

Steward Observatory owes its existence to the efforts of American astronomer and dendrochronologist Andrew Ellicott Douglass. In 1906, Douglass accepted a position as Assistant Professor of Physics and Geography at the University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona. Almost immediately upon his arrival in Tucson, Douglass established astronomical research programs using an 8-inch refracting telescope on loan from the Harvard College Observatory and actively began to pursue funding to construct a large research-class telescope in Tucson. Over the next 10 years, all of Douglass’ efforts to secure funding from the University and the Arizona Territorial (and later State) Legislatures ended in failure. During this time period, Douglass served the University of Arizona as Head of the Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Interim President, and finally Dean of the College of Letters, Arts, & Sciences.  Then on October 18, 1916, University President Rufus B. von KleinSmid announced that an anonymous donor had given the University $60,000 “...to be used to buy a telescope of huge size.” That donor was later revealed to be Mrs. Lavinia Steward of Oracle, Arizona. Mrs. Steward was a wealthy widow who had an interest in astronomy and a desire to memorialize her late husband, Mr. Henry Steward. Douglass made plans to use the Steward gift to construct a 36-inch diameter Newtonian reflecting telescope. The Warner & Swasey Company of Cleveland, Ohio was contracted to build the telescope, but the United States entry into World War I delayed the contract since Warner & Swasey had war contracts that took priority. The situation was further delayed by the fact that up until this time, the expertise in large telescope mirror making was in Europe. The war made it impossible to contract with a European company. So Douglass had to find an American glass company that was willing to develop this expertise. After a couple of failed castings, the Spencer Lens Co. of Buffalo, New York ultimately produced a 36-inch mirror for the Steward Telescope.  The telescope was finally installed in the observatory building in July 1922, and the Steward Observatory was officially dedicated on April 23, 1923. In his dedication address, Douglass recounted the trials and tribulations of establishing the observatory, then gave the following eloquent justification for the scientific endeavor:  In concluding I wish to leave with you a more general view. This installation is to be devoted to scientific research. Scientific research is business foresight on a large scale. It is knowledge obtained before it is needed. Knowledge is power, but we cannot tell which fact in the domain of knowledge is the one which is going to give the power, and we therefore develop the idea of knowledge for its own sake, confident that some one fact or training will pay for all the effort. This I believe is the essence of education wherever such education is not strictly vocational. The student learns many facts and has much training. He can only dimly see which fact and which training will be of eminent use to him, but some special part of his education will take root in him and grow and pay for all of the effort which he and his friends have put into it. So it is with the research institutions. In this Observatory I sincerely hope and expect that the boundaries of human knowledge will be advanced along astronomical lines. Astronomy was the first science developed by our primitive ancestors thousands of years ago because it measured time. Performing that same function, it has played a vast part in human history, and today it is telling us facts, forever wonderful, about the size of our universe; perhaps tomorrow it will give us practical help in showing us how to predict climatic conditions in the future.

Observatories.

Steward Observatory manages three different observing locations in southern Arizona: Mount Graham International Observatory (MGIO), Mount Lemmon Observatory, and Catalina Station on Mount Bigelow. It also operates telescopes at two additional important observatories: Kitt Peak National Observatory (KPNO) and Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory on Mount Hopkins. Steward is a partner in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey-III, which is located in New Mexico at Apache Point Observatory. Steward maintains a student observatory on Tumamoc Hill approximately west of the campus. The original observatory building in Tucson is used only for public outreach and undergraduate general education.  The Arizona Radio Observatory, a subsidiary of Steward Observatory, operates one telescope each at KPNO and MGIO.  Steward Observatory participates in three international projects. It is a full member in the twin Magellan Telescopes at Las Campanas Observatory in northern Chile. It is also a member in two projects planned for same region: the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope and the Giant Magellan Telescope, a next generation extremely large telescope. The Richard F. Caris Mirror Laboratory is fabricating and finishing the mirrors for both telescopes, and also made the two Magellan mirrors.

Research groups.

The Richard F. Caris Mirror Laboratory, located under the east side of Arizona Stadium, has pioneered new techniques of large mirror production, including spin-casting lightweight honeycomb mirrors in a rotating furnace, and stressed-lap polishing. The Mirror Laboratory completed the second mirror for the Large Binocular Telescope in September, 2005. The Mirror Lab also cast the 8.4 meter diameter primary/tertiary mirror for the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, and has started work on 2 of the 7 off-axis primary mirrors for the Giant Magellan Telescope.  The Infrared Detector Laboratory built the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) instrument for the Hubble Space Telescope and the Multiband Imaging Photometer (MIPS) instrument for the Spitzer Space Telescope. For the James Webb Space Telescope, Steward built the Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam) and helped build the Mid-IR Instrument (MIRI). Both instruments have been delivered to NASA; launch is currently scheduled for March 2021.  Other groups include the Center for Astronomical Adaptive Optics (CAAO), the Imaging Technology Laboratory (ITL), the Steward Observatory Radio Astronomy Laboratory (SORAL), the Earths in Other Solar Systems (EOS) group, and the Astrochemistry/Spectroscopy Laboratory.

Steward Observatory is the research arm of the Department of Astronomy at the University of Arizona (UA). Its offices are located on the UA campus in Tucson, Arizona (US). Established in 1916, the first telescope and building were formally dedicated on April 23, 1923. It now operates, or is a partner in telescopes at five mountain-top locations in Arizona, one in New Mexico, one in Hawaii, and one in Chile. It has provided instruments for three different space telescopes and numerous terrestrial ones. Steward also has one of the few facilities in the world that can cast and figure the very large primary mirrors used in telescopes built in the early 21st century.

斯图尔德天文台(英语:Steward Observatory)位于美国亚利桑那州的图森市,隶属于亚利桑那大学天文系,由安德鲁·道格拉斯在1916年创建。本天文台管理和运行多台望远镜,包括6.5米的多镜面望远镜(英语:MMT)、2台8.4米的大双筒望远镜(英语:LBT)、以及位于格拉汉姆山国际天文台、基特峰国家天文台、弗雷德·劳伦斯·惠普尔天文台、莱蒙山天文台上的数个光学和亚毫米波望远镜。


Gameplay.

"Aliens: Colonial Marines" is a first-person shooter based on the "Alien" science fiction horror film series. The game's campaign mode, which can be played by a single player or cooperatively by up to four players, features 11 missions that involve players moving from one checkpoint to another while fighting opponents controlled by the game's artificial intelligence. Opponents consist of either Alien creatures, also known as Xenomorphs, or hostile human mercenaries. Xenomorphs are fast and primarily attack with their claws or by spitting acid, while mercenaries are slower and use firearms.  As the fictional Colonial Marines military unit depicted in James Cameron's 1986 film "Aliens", players have access to weapons such as pistols, shotguns, grenades, pulse rifles, flamethrowers, robotic sentry turrets, and smartguns, which automatically track and target opponents. They may also use welding torches to seal doors and motion trackers to detect unseen enemies. Ammunition can be found on defeated mercenaries or from certain locations in the mission area. The Colonial Marines are protected by a health bar that is divided into segments. If a segment is partially depleted, it will automatically regenerate over time. Med-Packs throughout the missions may be acquired to restore lost health segments. Players may also collect pieces of armor that protect the health bar with a secondary meter that does not automatically regenerate. Players have a limited time to revive a player whose health has been fully depleted. If they fail to do so, the downed player cannot return to the game until the surviving players reach the next checkpoint.  In addition to the campaign mode, "Colonial Marines" features a competitive multiplayer mode where two teams of up to five players face each other in four different scenarios. Each scenario involves one team playing as Colonial Marines and the other as Aliens. After a time limit has been reached, players switch roles and play once more on the same map. Scenarios include Team Deathmatch, where both teams must kill as many opposing players as possible; Extermination, where Colonial Marines must detonate bombs in egg-infested areas protected by Aliens; Escape, which involves Colonial Marines completing objectives to reach a destination while being assaulted by Aliens; and Survivor, where Colonial Marines must survive attacks from Aliens with limited health and ammunition resources for as long as possible. Unlike Colonial Marines, Alien players play from a third-person perspective and cannot use firearms, but have the ability to climb walls, run on ceilings, deliver attacks with their claws, and unleash streams of acid.  Players earn experience points by overcoming opponents, completing challenges, and finding collectibles—Audio Logs, Dog Tags, and Legendary Weapons, all of which related to characters who appear in the film series. Challenges range from killing opponents in a particular way to winning multiplayer matches and completing campaign missions under a difficulty setting. Players have two ranks, one for their Colonial Marine character and another for their Alien character. When a sufficient amount of experience has been obtained, their characters rank up. Colonial Marine ranks unlock weapon upgrades for use in both the campaign and the competitive multiplayer modes. These include alternate fire attachments, telescopic sights, and larger capacity magazines. In contrast, Alien ranks unlock new combat abilities for Alien characters. Completing challenges also unlock appearance options for both Colonial Marine and Alien characters, and new attributes that are exclusive to Colonial Marines in the competitive multiplayer mode.

Plot.

17 weeks after the events of "Aliens", the "Sephora" spaceship sends a full battalion of Colonial Marines to investigate the "Sulaco" spaceship, now in orbit around the LV-426 moon. A massive Xenomorph infestation is discovered inside the "Sulaco" and several Marines are killed in the initial onslaught. Corporal Christopher Winter, private Peter O'Neal and private Bella Clarison discover that hostile mercenaries working for the Weyland-Yutani corporation are in command of the "Sulaco" and have been breeding Xenomorphs on board for study. Shortly before both ships are destroyed in the ensuing confrontation, the Marines, along with commander Captain Cruz, "Sephora" android Bishop and pilot lieutenant Lisa Reid, escape aboard her dropship and take shelter in the ruins of the Hadley's Hope colony complex on LV-426.  Although the Marines learn that Clarison has been attacked by a facehugger and needs medical treatment, Cruz orders Winter to travel to a nearby Weyland-Yutani research facility set up near a derelict Xenomorph spacecraft and recover a manifest that identifies an unknown prisoner from the "Sulaco". In an attempt at saving Clarison, Winter and O'Neal accept the mission and escort her to the facility, where they intend to convince surviving personnel to remove the Xenomorph embryo from her body. However, upon arrival, an interrogated Weyland-Yutani medical officer explains to them that Clarison's life cannot be saved because the creature's invasive placenta is cancerous and will eventually kill her even if the embryo is successfully extracted. Clarison dies shortly after a chestburster hatches from her.  Winter and O'Neal recover the manifest they were sent to find and rescue the prisoner, who is revealed to be corporal Dwayne Hicks. Hicks explains that Weyland-Yutani intercepted and boarded the "Sulaco" prior to its arrival at the Fiorina 161 planet. A fire in the hypersleep bay subsequently caused the "Sulaco" survivors Ellen Ripley, Newt and Bishop to be jettisoned from the ship, along with the body of an unidentified man who was mistaken for the corporal. Hicks himself was captured by Weyland-Yutani personnel and subjected to torture during interrogation, overseen by android Michael Weyland in an attempt to learn more about the Xenomorphs' origins and to gain control of the "Sulaco"s weapon systems. From Hicks, the Marines also learn that an FTL-capable ship is docked at the research facility, representing the last chance for the Marines to escape the moon.  After gathering the remaining "Sephora" personnel on the colony, Cruz orders an all-out assault on the Weyland-Yutani complex in the hopes of capturing the FTL vessel. Winter and Hicks spearhead the advance, but the ship leaves shortly before they can reach it. In a last desperate attempt, Cruz pilots a dropship up to the escaping vessel and crashes into its hangar. Winter is confronted by a Xenomorph queen in the hangar bay, and attempts to eject her using a cargo launching system, but fails when she climbs back aboard. Cruz sacrifices himself when he launches the crippled dropship directly into the queen, propelling both out of the vessel. Winter, O'Neal, Reid, Bishop, and Hicks confront Weyland, who is ultimately executed by Hicks. In search of useful intelligence, Bishop connects to the destroyed android and states that he has "everything".

Development.

Design.

"Colonial Marines" was conceived by Gearbox Software after an encounter between the company's creative director, Bryan Martell, and the director of the original "Alien" film, Ridley Scott. When "" was released in 2005, Gearbox was interested in working with an existing intellectual property and had previously considered Scott's 1982 film "Blade Runner" and Michael Mann's 1995 film "Heat" as candidates. Martell's discussion with Scott on the "Alien" universe inspired him to approach 20th Century Fox about the licensing opportunities. Sega, who bought the rights to publish games based on the franchise in December 2006, gave Gearbox complete freedom to present them with an idea for a game. Because Gearbox had experience with first-person shooters and the development team was composed of people who were fans of "Aliens", the company proposed a first-person shooter that would be a direct sequel to it.  Although the final script for the game was written by Gearbox writer Mikey Neumann, Bradley Thompson and David Weddle, writers of the 2004 television series "Battlestar Galactica", collaborated with Gearbox during the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike to develop the story and characters. The game takes place shortly after the 1992 "Aliens" sequel "Alien 3", but addresses the events that lead to it. As a result, "Colonial Marines" is considered part of the series' canon. Several locations of "Aliens" like the "Sulaco" spaceship and the Hadley's Hope colony were recreated for the game. To keep the same level of authenticity, concept artist Syd Mead, who collaborated with Cameron on the film to design the "Sulaco", was hired to recreate its "mechanical mood" and design areas of the spaceship that did not appear in the film but would be used in the game. The development team also contacted Kodak to get color channel details about the film's film stock.  Originally, "Colonial Marines" was intended to feature squad-based gameplay, allowing the player to issue orders to Colonial Marines controlled by the game's artificial intelligence using context-sensitive commands. These would include hacking doors, sealing air vents, and setting up sentry turrets. In cooperative mode, players would then be able to directly control these Marines, who would have their own strengths and weaknesses. However, this idea was ultimately dropped to make the gameplay more accessible. Gearbox chose to develop the game for Microsoft Windows and the then recently released PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles, stating that their technology would "do [the film] justice."

Production.

Although Gearbox is credited as the primary developer of "Colonial Marines", multiple development studios contributed to the game's production. Initial work on "Colonial Marines", internally codenamed "Pecan", began in 2007 with the creation of a prototype by Demiurge Studios, who also helped Gearbox with the networking and multiplayer aspects. Between 2007 and 2010, Gearbox did not focus on the development of the game, instead preferring to work on other projects like "Borderlands" and "Duke Nukem Forever", a game that took over a decade to develop. The game was built using Epic Games' Unreal Engine 3, but Gearbox spent a considerable amount of preproduction time developing a custom real-time lighting and shadow renderer that is "plugged" into the engine to capture the feel of "Aliens". Nerve Software, a company that handled the multiplayer of the 2001 first-person shooter "Return to Castle Wolfenstein", built multiplayer maps for the game.  When "Borderlands" was released in 2009, the game turned out to be a critical and commercial success. This led Gearbox to immediately start work on a sequel, "Borderlands 2", and outsource primary development on "Colonial Marines" to TimeGate Studios, who was developing "" at the time. In late 2010, when TimeGate started to focus their work on "Colonial Marines", the company realized that very little progress had been made to the game. According to one source, the game was simply a collection of unrelated assets that included a lighting and shadow renderer. Although TimeGate handled primary development on the game until "Borderlands 2" was almost complete in mid-2012, their work had to constantly be approved by both Gearbox and Sega. Because narrative designers were still writing the script of the campaign mode, entire scenes and missions were discarded due to story changes. One of these involved the player escorting a scientist who would be a secret agent working for the Weyland-Yutani corporation.  To further complicate the situation, there were disagreements on how the game should be designed; Sega wanted "Colonial Marines" to be more similar to a "Call of Duty" game, with fewer Aliens and more Marines to shoot at, a view Gearbox and TimeGate disagreed with. Developers also struggled to optimize the game after spending a significant amount of time increasing its graphical fidelity for a press demo, which ran on high-end computers not normally meant for general use. The game's shader and particle fidelity was then decreased significantly before release, and textures had to be reduced in size to fit into the memory restraints of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.  When Gearbox took the project back in mid 2012, the company was not satisfied with TimeGate's work, partially because the game could not run on the PlayStation 3. With a release date set for February 2013, asking Sega for an extension was not an option because the game had already been delayed several times. This resulted in Gearbox only having nine months to revise TimeGate's work and finish the game. How much of the game was actually made by Gearbox was highly questioned by TimeGate. According to Gearbox CEO Randy Pitchford, TimeGate "contributed 20-25 percent of the game's overall development time." However, without considering Gearbox's preproduction time, Pitchford said that TimeGate's effort was equivalent to theirs. A moderator on the official TimeGate forum revealed that the studio worked on the weapons, characters, Aliens, story, and multiplayer component, while some TimeGate developers estimated that 50 percent of the campaign mode in the released game was made by them.  Several actors from the films were involved in the game. Michael Biehn reprised his role as corporal Dwayne Hicks, while Lance Henriksen voiced the androids Bishop and Michael Weyland. Henriksen remarked that it was interesting for him to voice a character that he had not touched in more than 25 years. In contrast, Biehn commented negatively on his experience in voicing his character, stating that there was a lack of passion from the people who were in charge of the project. The soundtrack was composed by Kevin Riepl, who is best known for his work on numerous independent films and the "Gears of War" series. Because the story of the game is canonical, Riepl's score was heavily influenced by Jerry Goldsmith's work on "Alien" and James Horner's work on "Aliens". The soundtrack was recorded at Ocean Way in Nashville, Tennessee.

Marketing and release.

"Colonial Marines" was confirmed in December 2006, shortly after Sega acquired the "Alien" video game license. The game was announced by "Game Informer" magazine in its March 2008 issue, where its title, premise and intended gameplay features were revealed. Although "Colonial Marines" shares the same title as a canceled 2002 PlayStation 2 project by Electronic Arts and Fox Interactive that would feature a similar setting and subject matter, the game is completely unrelated to it. Originally intended to be released in 2009, the game was delayed after Gearbox laid off several employees in November 2008. This led some to question whether the game had been canceled or not. In the following years, few other announcements were made, although Gearbox did show some screenshots at the 2010 Penny Arcade Expo.  At the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo in Los Angeles, after confirming that "Colonial Marines" would be released in spring 2012, Gearbox unveiled a teaser trailer and revealed that a Wii U version was in development. A live gameplay demo played by a Gearbox representative was also showcased at the event. In January 2012, Sega announced that the game had been delayed to a fall 2012 release, stating that the company did not want to "sacrifice the creative process just for the sake of following a [deadline]." In May 2012, the game was delayed one last time, with Gearbox stating that "Colonial Marines" would launch for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on February 12, 2013, while the Wii U version would follow later. In the months leading up to the game's release, more trailers and demos were released.  Prior to its release, "Colonial Marines" was criticized for not featuring any playable female character. When a petition was formed to change this, Gearbox included them in both the cooperative and multiplayer modes. In addition to the standard edition of the game, a collector's edition was made available for purchase. The collector's edition included a Powerloader figurine inspired by the film, a Colonial Marines dossier, character customization options, exclusive multiplayer weapons, and a firing range game level. Players who pre-ordered the game could also receive some of the collector's edition content as a bonus. Shortly after the game's release, Gearbox released a patch that fixed numerous campaign and multiplayer bugs and offered various visual improvements. The Wii U version, which was being handled by Demiurge, was canceled in April 2013.

Downloadable content.

"Colonial Marines" supports additional in-game content in the form of downloadable content packs. Between March and July 2013, four downloadable content packs were released for the game. A season pass to these packs could be purchased before the game was released. The first pack, "Bug Hunt", was released on March 19, 2013, and adds a new cooperative mode that involves up to four players fighting increasingly larger waves of Xenomorphs and hostile soldiers across three new maps. Players earn in-game money by killing opponents, which can then be spent on different options like buying ammunition or opening up new areas of the map to increase their chances of survival. The second pack, "Reconnaissance Pack", was released on May 7, 2013, and extends the game's competitive multiplayer mode with four maps and more customization options for Xenomorph characters, while the third pack, "Movie Map Pack", was released on June 11, 2013, and adds four maps set in locations from the first three "Alien" films.  The fourth and final pack, "Stasis Interrupted", was released on July 23, 2013, and adds a new campaign mode that takes place before the campaign of the base game, exploring what happened to Hicks between "Aliens" and "Alien 3". The campaign features four "interlocking" missions where players must play as three different characters. "Stasis Interrupted" also adds several new achievements for players to unlock, which were initially leaked via a list of PlayStation 3 Trophies. According to a report, both Demiurge and Nerve were in charge of developing the downloadable content packs for the game, but it was not confirmed if they contributed to the development of "Stasis Interrupted".

Reception.

Critical response.

"Colonial Marines" received negative reviews from critics, who criticized its uninspiring gameplay, technical issues, low-quality graphics, and superficial thrills, especially when compared to Cameron's film. Writing for "IGN", editor Tristan Ogilvie remarked that, although "Colonial Marines" looks and sounds like "Aliens", it does not feel like it and does not bring anything new to the first-person shooter genre. Similarly, Kevin VanOrd of "GameSpot" described the game as "a shallow bit of science-fiction fluff with cheap production values and an indifferent attitude." "Electronic Gaming Monthly", however, praised the game for its respect to the source material, describing "Colonial Marines" as "easily the best gaming representation of the franchise to date."  The game was criticized for having low-resolution textures, low-quality lighting, poor character models and animations, and uncontrolled aliasing and screen tearing. "Eurogamer" noted that the game reuses graphical assets very often, resulting in many levels having "identical corridors and murky exteriors". However, the "Aliens" aesthetic was praised by some reviewers, with "Edge" noting that it was reproduced faithfully in the game and that it was still attractive years after the film was released. The game's numerous bugs frustrated critics. These included poor collision detection and glitchy artificial intelligence, causing enemies to freeze or fail to recognize each other. Technically, the PC version was considered more polished than the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions.  The story drew criticism for its lack of a consistent continuity with the "Alien" films. "Edge" remarked that the game's Colonial Marines are in an inappropriate context because in the film they are depicted as Weyland-Yutani's private army and tasked with fighting Alien creatures. However, in the game, the Colonial Marines fight Weyland-Yutani's other private military armies. "Destructoid" editor Jim Sterling criticized the story for its archetypal characters and immature dialogue, stating that the game fails to understand the essence of "Aliens". He explained that the film "dissected its posturing'manly man' stereotypes, and showcased how utterly frail a cowboy mentality can be when everything falls apart", while "Colonial Marines" "revels in its own testosterone, submerged gleefully in a pool of dank ultramasculinity."  Journalists primarily criticized the gameplay for the weak artificial intelligence of enemies. They remarked that Xenomorphs simply rush toward players, making the motion tracker useless. According to "GameTrailers", "there's never really the sense that you're being stalked by an intelligent enemy, and you'll always get a warning ping anyway." The setting and level design were praised by "Electronic Gaming Monthly", but "GameSpot" noted that the levels were clearly not designed for cooperative gameplay. VanOrd explained that additional players do not take the role of companions that are controlled by the game's artificial intelligence, but are simply added to the game, resulting in crowded matches with players fighting for space and trying to shoot enemies. The Survivor and Escape multiplayer scenarios were highlighted as the strongest aspects of the game. "PC Gamer" said that they encourage Colonial Marine players to coordinate their actions with motion trackers as Alien players try to hunt them intelligently. However, the longevity of the multiplayer mode was questioned due to the limited randomization it provides and the lack of computer-controlled bots.

Sales.

In the United Kingdom, "Colonial Marines" topped the all formats charts in its first week of release. On both the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 individual charts, the game also reached the top position. According to GfK Chart-Track, it was the biggest release of the year in the United Kingdom and held the second highest first week sales for an "Alien" game since Sega's 2010 title "Aliens vs. Predator". In the United States, "Colonial Marines" reached No. 6 on the all formats charts for February 2013. As of March 31, 2013, as stated in Sega's end-of-fiscal-year report, "Colonial Marines" had sold 1.31 million units in the United States and Europe.

Controversy and lawsuit.

Upon release, "Colonial Marines" drew a significant controversy. According to a report, Gearbox had been moving people and resources off "Colonial Marines" onto "Borderlands" and "Duke Nukem Forever" while still collecting full payments from Sega as if they were working on the game. When Sega discovered this misconduct, they temporarily canceled "Colonial Marines", leading to the round of layoffs at Gearbox in late 2008. Gearbox outsourced a significant portion of development to other developers to compensate for their mismanagement. While Sega initially denied such outsourcing, sources claimed otherwise, suggesting that the game was rushed through redesigns, certification and shipping, despite being largely unfinished. The game drew additional controversy when sequences from press demos were compared to the same sequences in the final game, revealing that the finished game is significantly lower in graphical quality.  In April 2013, two players filed a lawsuit, claiming that Gearbox and Sega had falsely advertised the game by showing demos at trade shows that did not resemble the final product. The demos, described as "actual gameplay" by Gearbox CEO Randy Pitchford, were said to feature graphical fidelity, artificial intelligence, and levels not featured in the game. Although Sega suggested settling the lawsuit from their part and agreed to pay US$1.25 million, they denied any illegal behavior. However, Gearbox filed a request to have claims against them dropped, stating that the company, as a software developer, did not have responsibility for marketing decisions. Gearbox officials added that the company supplemented Sega's development budget with its own money to help Sega finish the game and that they had not received any royalty from its sales. The lawsuit lost class-action status and Gearbox was dropped from the case in May 2015. Pitchford said that he lost between US$10 and US$15 million of his own money on "Colonial Marines" and refuted the accusations against the studio. In 2017, a modder discovered a typographical error in the game's code, which when corrected notably improved the artificial intelligence of enemies.

Aliens: Colonial Marines is a 2013 first-person shooter developed by Gearbox Software based on the "Alien" film series. It was published by Sega for Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360. A sequel to James Cameron's 1986 film "Aliens", the game follows a group of Colonial Marines, a fictional military unit, as they confront the Weyland-Yutani corporation in an effort to rescue survivors from the "Sulaco" spaceship. The game features a campaign mode that supports both single-player and cooperative gameplay, and a multiplayer mode in which players compete in different scenarios.

是Gearbox开发,世嘉发行的第一人称射击游戏。游戏采用异形的世界观,情节发生在系列第三部电影《异形3》(1992)之后。游戏是世嘉制作的第三部异形游戏:前两部为《异形大战铁血战士》(2010)和《异形:群袭》(2011)。游戏于2013年2月13日在PlayStation 3、Xbox 360和Microsoft Windows上发行。原制作中的Wii U版于2013年4月5日宣布取消发行。