History.

Background.

During the late middle ages and the renaissance, the power of the king was tempered by a håndfæstning, a coronation charter each king had to sign before being accepted as king by the nobility. This tradition was abandoned in 1665 when King Frederick III of Denmark managed to establish a hereditary absolute monarchy by Lex Regia ("The Law of The King", ). This was Europe's only formal absolutist constitution. Under Lex Regia, absolute power was inherited for almost 200 years.  In the beginning of the 19th century, there were a growing democratic movement in Denmark and King Frederick VI only made some small concessions, such as creation of "Consultative Estate Assemblies" () in 1834. But these only served to help the political movements, of which the National Liberals and the Friends of Peasants were the forerunners. When Christian VIII became king in 1839, he continued the political line of only making small democratic concessions, while upholding the absolute monarchy.  At this time Denmark was in a personal union between kingdom of Denmark and the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg called "The Unitary State" (Danish: "Helstaten"), but the Schleswig-Holstein question was causing tension. Under the slogan "Denmark to the Eider", the National Liberals campaigned for Schleswig to become an integral part of Denmark, while separating Holstein and Lauenburg from Denmark. Holstein and Lauenburg were then part of the German Confederation, while Schleswig was not. On the other side, German nationalists in Schleswig were keen to keep Schleswig and Holstein together, and wanted Schleswig to join the German Confederation. Christian VIII had reached the conclusion that, should the Unitary State survive, a constitution covering both Denmark, Schleswig and Holstein was necessary. Before his death in January 1848, he advised his heir Frederick VII to create such a constitution.  In March 1848 following a series of European revolutions, the Schleswig-Holstein question became increasingly tense. Following an ultimatum from Schleswig and Holstein, political pressure from the National Liberals intensified, and Frederick VII replaced the sitting government with the March Cabinet, where four leaders of the Friends of Peasants and the National Liberals served, among those D.G. Monrad and Orla Lehmann, both National Liberals. The ultimatum from Schleswig and Holstein was rejected, and the First Schleswig War started.

Drafting and signing of the first constitution (1849).

Monrad drafted the first draft of the Constitution, which was then edited by Lehmann. Sources of inspiration included the Constitution of Norway of 1814 and the Constitution of Belgium. The draft was laid before the "Constitutional Assembly of the Realm" (). This assembly, which consisted of 114 members directly elected in October 1848, and 38 members appointed by Frederick VII, was overall split in three different groupings: the National Liberals, the Friends of Peasants, and the Conservatives. A key topic for discussion was the political system, and the rules governing elections.  On 25 May 1849, the Constitutional Assembly approved the new constitution, and on 5 June 1849 it was signed by Frederick VII. For this reason, it is also known as the "June constitution". Today, 5 June is known as Constitution Day and is a national holiday in Denmark.  The new constitution establish the Rigsdag, a bicameral parliament, with an upper house called the Landsting, and a lower house called the Folketing. While the voting rights for both chambers were the same, the elections to the Landsting was indirect, and the eligibility requirements harder. The constitution gave voting rights to 15% of the Danish population. Due to the First Schleswig war, the constitution was not put into force for Schleswig; instead this question was postponed to after the war.

Parallel constitution for the Unitary State (1855-1866).

Following the First Schleswig war, which ended in Danish victory in 1852, the London Protocol reaffirmed the territorial integrity of the Unitary State, and solved an impending succession issue, since Frederick VII was childless. Since the June constitution was not put into force in Schleswig, the Schleswig-Holstein question remained unsolved. Work for creating a common constitution for the Unitary State started, and in 1855 the rigsdag accepted "Helstatsforfatning (Constitution for The Unitary State)," which covered affairs common to Denmark, Schleswig and Holstein. At the same time, the June constitution was limited to only be applicable in Denmark.  In 1863 this constitution was changed, the new one was called "Novemberforfatningen". This was shortly before Second Schleswig war, where Denmark lost control of Schleswig and Holstein, rendering the parallel constitution void.

The Revised Constitution (1866).

In 1866, the defeat in the Second Schleswig War, and the loss of Schleswig-Holstein led to tightened election rules for the Upper Chamber, which paralyzed legislative work, leading to provisional laws.  The conservative Højre had pressed for a new constitution, giving the upper chamber of parliament more power, making it more exclusive and switching power to the conservatives from the original long standing dominance of the National Liberals, who lost influence and was later disbanded. This long period of dominance of the Højre party under the leadership of Jacob Brønnum Scavenius Estrup with the backing of the king Christian IX of Denmark was named the "provisorietid" (provisional period) because the government was based on provisional laws instead of parliamentary decisions. This also gave rise to a conflict with the Liberals (farm owners) at that time and now known as Venstre (Left). This constitutional battle concluded in 1901 with the so-called systemskifte (change of system) with the liberals as victors. At this point the king and Højre finally accepted parliamentarism as the ruling principle of Danish political life. This principle was not codified until the 1953 constitution.

Universal suffrage (1915).

In 1915, the tightening from 1866 was reversed, and women were given the right to vote. Also, a new requirement for changing the constitution was introduced. Not only must the new constitution be passed by two consecutive parliaments, it must also pass a referendum, where 45% of the electorate must vote yes. This meant that Prime Minister Thorvald Stauning's attempt to change the Constitution in 1939 failed.

Reunion with Schleswig (1920).

In 1920, a new referendum was held to change the Constitution again, allowing for the reunification of Denmark following the defeat of Germany in World War I. This followed a referendum held in the former Danish territories of Schleswig-Holstein regarding how the new border should be placed. This resulted in upper Schleswig becoming Danish, today known as Southern Jutland, and the rest remained German.

Current Constitution (1953).

In 1953, the fourth constitution abolished the Upper Chamber (the Landsting), giving Denmark a unicameral parliament. It also enabled females to inherit the throne (see "Succession"), but the change still favored boys over girls (this was changed by a referendum in 2009 so the first-born inherits the throne regardless of sex). Finally, the required number of votes in favor of a change of the Constitution was decreased to the current value of 40% of the electorate.  In 2009, the Act of Succession, which is referenced in the constitution and considered an integral part of it, was changed to eliminate male-preference primogeniture in favour of absolute primogeniture. The changes was approved in a referendum.

Summary of the constitution.

The Danish constitution consists of 89 sections, structured into 11 chapters. The Folketing have published the constitution with explanatory annotations; it is available in both Danish and English through their website.

Constitutional institutions.

The Constitution establishes Denmark as a constitutional monarcy, where the monarch serves as a ceremonial Head of state. The title of monarch is hereditary and passed on to the firstborn child, with equal rights for sons and daughters.  The political system of Denmark can be described as a democracy with a parliamentary system of governance. The powers of the state is separated into 3 different branches. The legislative branch held by the Folketing, the executive branch held by the Danish government, and the judicial branch held by the Courts of Denmark.

The monarchy.

The Danish monarch, as the head of state, holds great "de jure" power, but "de facto" only serves as a figurehead who is not interfering in politics. The monarch formally holds executive power and, co-jointly with the Folketing, legislative power, since each new law requires royal assent. By article 12, 13 and 14, the powers vested in the monarch can only be exercised through the ministers, who are responsible for all acts, thus removing any political or legal liability from the monarch. The monarch appoints the ministers after advice from the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is itself appointed after advice from the leaders of the political parties of the Folketing, a process known as a "Queen's meeting" (). The monarch and the Cabinet attend regular meetings in the Council of State, where royal assent is given, and the monarch is regularly briefed on the political situation by the Prime Minister and Foreign minister.  The Constitution requires the monarch to be a member of the evangelical lutheran church, though not necessary the Church of Denmark.

The government.

The Government holds executive power, and is responsible for carrying out the acts of the Folketing. The Government does not have to pass a vote of confidence before taking the seat, but any minister can be subject to a motion of no confidence. If a vote of no confidence is successfully passed against the Prime Minister, the government must resign or call a snap election.

The Folketing.

The Folketing is the legislative branch of Denmark, and is located at Christiansborg. It consists of 179 members, of which 2 members are elected in Greenland, and 2 in the Faroe Islands. General elections is nominally held every 4 years, but the Prime Minister can at any point call a snap election. All Danish citizens over the age of 18 years who are living permanently within Denmark is eligible to vote, except those placed under legal guardianship. The same group of people is able to run for office. The electoral system is characterized as a party-list proportional representation system, with an election threshold on 2%. As a result, Denmark has a multi-party parliamentary system, where no single party has an absolute majority.  The session starts anew each year on the first Tuesday in October, and when interrupted by a general election; all previously unfinished business is cancelled. The Folketing then elects a speaker, who is responsible for convening meetings. The Folketing lay down their own rules of procedure, subject to the requirements in the Constitution. Among those, the required quorum of 90 members of the Folketing, and the rule that every proposed law requires three readings in the Folketing, before it can be passed into law.  The Folketing also have the responsibility of holding the government accountable for the governance. The members of the Folketing does this by submitting questing to the ministers and convene them to explanatory hearings. In addition, the Folketing elect a number of "State Auditors" (), who has the responsibility to look through the public accounts, and check that everything is okay, and that the government only spend money approved by the Folketing. Furthermore, the Folketing also appoints an ombudsman, who investigates wrongdoings by the public administrative authorities on behalf of the public.

The courts.

The Courts of Denmark are independent of the other two branches. The Constitution does not stipulate how the courts are to be organized. Instead, this is regulated by statute. In the normal court system, there are 24 District Courts, High Courts and the Supreme Court. In addition to these, there is some special courts. There are certain rights in the Constitution with respect to the judiciary system.  There is a special Court of Impeachment, which can prosecute ministers for their official acts.  The court system is able to perform judicial review of laws, i.e. check if they are constitutional. This right is not included in the constitution, but was established by the Supreme Court in the beginning of the 20th century, when it decided to hear cases about the constitutionality of land laws. While this right was contested in the beginning, the political system eventually accepted it. The Supreme Court have been reluctant to rule laws unconstitutional; the only time it have done so was in 1999, when it found that the Tvind law breached the principle of separations of power. Cases about the constitutionality of laws can only be initiated by people directly affected by the laws. All can do this with respect to the Danish relation to EU, because of its wide effects on society.

The Church of Denmark.

The Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Denmark is the state church established by the Constitution. The queen have a number of duties in the Church of Denmark, and is often considered its head, but this is not a formal role in any way.

The State Auditors.

The state auditors are responsible for checking the public accounts. They are supported by Rigsrevisionen.

The Parliamentary Ombudsman.

The Parliamentary Ombudsman is an independent institution under the Folketing, in charge of investigating and inspecting public authorities. It is inspired by Swedish example, and was established in 1955, following its inclusion in the 1953 constitution. The ombudsman is both appointed by and can be dismissed by the Folketing. The ombudsman cannot be a member of the Folketing themselves. While the constitution allows the Folketing to appoint two ombudsmen, by law it only appoints one. The current ombudsman,, is Niels Fenger.  The ombudsman handles 4,000-5,000 complains annually from the general public, and can also open cases on its own accord. In addition to that, the ombudsman have a monitoring division that inspects prisons, psychiatric institutions and social care homes. Since 2012 it has also had a children's division. The ombudsman cannot demand any action from the administration. It can only voice criticism and make recommendations, but these carry a lot of weight, and its recommendations are usually followed by the administration.

Civil rights.

The Constitution of Denmark outlines fundamental rights in sections 71–80. Several of these are of only limited scope and thus serve as a sort of lower bar. The European Convention on Human Rights was introduced in Denmark by law on 29 April 1992 and supplements the mentioned paragraphs.

Personal liberty.

The constitution guarantees the personal liberty. No citizen can be held in detention based on their race, religion or political views, and detention can only be used if prescribed by law. People arrested need to be put before a judge within 24 hours, known in Danish as a "grundlovsforhør" (lit. constitutional interrogation), who decides if the provisional detention should be continued, and this decision can always be appealed. Special rules can apply in Greenland. Detention outside the criminal system or the immigration system, say due to mental illness, can be brought before the courts.

Right to property.

The constitution guarantees the right to property. A search warrant is needed to enter private property, confiscate things, or break the secrecy of correspondence, though general exemptions can be made by law. Expropriations must be for the public good, with full compensation, and as allowed by law. Bills regarding expropriations can by 1/3 of the Folketing be delayed until passed again after a general election. All expropriations can be brought before the courts.

Freedom of speech and freedom of the press.

Denmark have freedom of speech and freedom of press, but some things, say libel or breaking confidentiality, can still be brought before a judge. Censorship is forbidden. §77: "Anyone is entitled to in print, writing and speech to publish his or hers thoughts, yet under responsibility to the courts. Censorship and other preventive measures can never again be introduced."  There's widespread agreement in Danish legal theory that § 77 protects what is called "formal freedom of speech" (formel ytringsfrihed), meaning that one cannot be required to submit one's speech for review by authorities before publishing or otherwise disseminating it. However, there is disagreement about whether or not § 77 covers "material freedom of speech" (materiel ytringsfrihed), the right to not be punished for ones speech. There is agreement that the phrasing "under responsibility to the courts" gives legislators some right to restrict speech, but conversely there have been several court decisions implying that some material freedom of speech does exist. The discussion is about whether the material speech has limits or not, and if so, what those limits are.

Freedom of association.

All citizens have freedom of association, but associations who use violence or other illegal means can be temporary banned by the government, while dissolution is tested in court. Dissolution of political association can always be appealed to the Supreme Court.  In 1941, during the occupation by Nazi Germany, the Rigsdag banned the Communist Party through the communist law. The law also legalized existing interments of Danish communists, including members of the Folketing. Both the internments and the law broke rights in the constitution, but was justified by the necessity of the situation. The Supreme Court found the law constitutional; a decision that was criticized as the Supreme Court President had been involved in its creation. The case illustrated how long Danish politicians was willing to go to ensure Danish control of law enforcement, and that democracy can be stretched to ensure its continued existence.  In addition to the communist law, on only two occasions have an association been forcefully dissolved. In 1874, the International Workers Organization, a precursor to the Social Democrats, was dissolved for being revolutionary, and in 1924, the organization Nekkab was dissolved for being a meeting place for homosexuals. In 2020, the gang Loyal to Familia was dissolved by the Copenhagen City Court; a judgment that has been appealed. The gang was temporarily banned in 2018, and the court case – the first dissolution case against a criminal gang – was initiated. Prior to this, it has been investigated if Hells Angels, Bandidos and Hizb ut-Tahrir could be banned, but the conclusions was that it would be difficult to win the cases.

Freedom of assembly.

Citizens have freedom of assembly when unarmed, though danger to public order can lead to outdoor assemblies being banned. In case of riots, the police can dissolve assemblies when it "in the name of the King and the law" have requested it three times.

Freedom of religion.

Section 4 establishes that the Evangelical Lutheran Church is "the people's church" (), and as such is supported by the state. Freedom of religion is granted in section 67, and official discrimination based on faith is forbidden in section 70.

Other rights.

All children have the right to free public education, though no duty to use it; home schooling and private schools are allowed. The political system shall seek to make sure that all able to work can find a job. Those unable to support themselves have the right to public support, if they submit to the related requirements. Access to professions shall only be regulated for the public good, so trade guilds cannot regulate this themselves.

Other themes.

National sovereignty.

Section 20 of the current constitution establishes that the delegation of specified parts of national sovereignty to international authorities requires either a 5/6 majority in Parliament or an ordinary majority in both Parliament and the electorate. This section has been debated heavily in connection with Denmark's membership of the European Union (EU), as critics hold that changing governments have violated the Constitution by surrendering too much power.  In 1996, Prime Minister Poul Nyrup Rasmussen was sued by twelve Eurosceptics for violating this section. The Supreme Court acquitted Rasmussen (and thereby earlier governments dating back to 1972) but reaffirmed that there are limits to how much sovereignty can be surrendered. In 2011, Prime Ministers Lars Løkke Rasmussen faced a similar challenge when he was sued by twenty-eight citizens for having adopted the European Lisbon Treaty without a referendum. The group of professors, actors, writers and Eurosceptic politicians argued that the Lisbon Treaty hands over parts of national sovereignty to the EU and therefore a referendum should have taken place. The case was later dismissed.  Section 20 was used in 1972 when Denmark, after a referendum, joined the EEC (now EU). More recently, in 2015 an (unsuccessful) referendum was held on one of its EU-opt-outs.

Greenland and the Faroe Islands.

As section one of the constitution states that it "shall apply to all parts of the Kingdom of Denmark", is also applies in Faroe Islands and Greenland. The Faroe Island and Greenland each elect two members to the parliament; the remaining 175 members are elected in Denmark.  The Folketing have by law given the Faroe Island and Greenland extensive autonomy; the Faroe Island was given "home rule" in 1948, and Greenland was too in 1979. Greenland's home rule was in 2009 replaced by "self rule". There is an ongoing legal debate about what constitutional weight these arrangements have. In general, there are two conflicting views: (a) the laws delegate power from the Folketing and can be revoked unilaterally by it, and (b) the laws have special status so changes require the consent of the Faroese Løgting or the Greenlandic Inatsisartut, respectively.  Proponent of the first interpretation include Alf Ross, Poul Meyer, and Jens Peter Christensen. Ross, the chief architect of the Faeroese home rule, compared it to an extended version of the autonomy of municipalities. Meyer wrote in 1947, prior to the Faeroese home rule, that if power was delegated as extensive in other parts of the country, it would probably breach section 2 of the 1915 constitution, suggesting it did not do that here due to the Faroe Islands' separate history. Similarly, Christensen, a Supreme Court judge, said that due to the special circumstances, the scope of delegation need not be strictly defined.  Proponents of the second interpretation include Edward Mitens, Max Sørensen and Frederik Harhoff. Mitens, a Faeroese jurist and politician, argued that the Faeroese home rule had been approved by both the Løgting and the Rigsdag, so it was an agreement between two parties, in particular because the approval by the Løgting happened according to special rules put in place in 1940 with the consent of the Danish representative there, during the occupation by the United Kingdom. Sørensen said the intention with the Faeroese home rule was that it should not be unilaterally changed, as stated in the preamble, so it had that effect. Harhoff, in his 1993 Doctorate dissertation, considered the home rule acts of the Faroe Islands and Greenland to be somewhere in between the constitution and a usual act by the Folketing, as it had been treated as such.

Separation of powers.

Denmark have separation of powers into the three classic branches: the legislative, held by the Folketing; the executive held by the government; and the judiciary, held by the courts. The separation of powers is described in the constitution, and is there, as in many democracies, to prevent abuse of power. The Folketing enact laws, and the government implements them. The courts make judgments in disputes, either between citizens, or between authorities and citizens.  The Constitution is heavily influenced by the French philosopher Montesquieu, whose separation of powers was aimed at achieving mutual monitoring of each of the branches of government. However, the division between legislative and executive power in Denmark is not as sharp as in the United States.  In 1999, the Supreme Court found that the Tvind law, a law that barred specific schools from receiving public funding, was unconstitutional, because it breached the concept of separation of powers by settling a concrete dispute between the Tvind schools and the government. The judgment is the only time the courts have found a law to be unconstitutional.

Parliamentary power.

In several sections the Constitutional Act sets out the powers and duties of the Danish Parliament. Section 15 in the Act, which deals with the parliamentary principle, lays down that "a Minister shall not remain in office after the Parliament has passed a vote of no confidence in him". This suggests that Ministers are accountable to Parliament and even subservient to it. The Cabinet exerts executive power through its Ministers, but cannot remain in office if the majority of the Folketing goes against it. Another important feature of the Danish parliamentary system is that the Constitutional Act lays down that "the Members of the Folketing shall be elected for a period of four years", but still, "the King may at any time issue writs for a new election".

The Constitutional Act of the Kingdom of Denmark (), or simply the Constitution (), is the constitution of the Kingdom of Denmark, applying equally in Denmark proper, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The first constitution was adopted in 1849, and the current constitution is from 1953. It is one of the oldest constitutions in the world. The Constitutional Act has been changed a few times. The wording is general enough to still apply today.

丹麦王国宪法 ()是丹麦王国的宪法,适用于丹麦、格陵兰岛和法罗群岛。丹麦第一部宪法是1849年通过的并几经修改,目前的宪法是1953年修订的,丹麦王国宪法是世界上最古老的宪法之一。


History.

Gradually, after World War II, the quantity of U.S. dollars outside the United States increased significantly, as a result of both the Marshall Plan and imports into the U.S., which had become the largest consumer market after World War II.  As a result, large amounts of U.S. dollars were in the custody of foreign banks outside the United States. Some foreign countries, including the Soviet Union, also had deposits in U.S. dollars in American banks, granted by certificates. Various history myths exist for the first Eurodollar creation, or booking, but most trace back to Communist governments keeping dollar deposits abroad:  In one version, the first booking traces back to Communist China, which, in 1949, managed to move almost all of its U.S. dollars to the Soviet-owned Banque Commerciale pour l'Europe du Nord in Paris before the United States froze the remaining assets during the Korean War.  In another version, the first booking traces back to the Soviet Union during the Cold War period, especially after the invasion of Hungary in 1956, as the Soviet Union feared that its deposits in North American banks would be frozen as a retaliation. It decided to move some of its holdings to the Moscow Narodny Bank, a Soviet-owned bank with a British charter. The British bank would then deposit that money in the U.S. banks. There would be no chance of confiscating that money, because it belonged to the British bank and not directly to the Soviets. On 28 February 1957, the sum of $800,000 was transferred, creating the first eurodollars. Initially dubbed "Eurobank dollars" after the bank's telex address, they eventually became known as "eurodollars" as such deposits were at first held mostly by European banks and financial institutions. A major role was played by City of London banks, as the Midland Bank, now HSBC, and their offshore holding companies.  In the mid-1950s, Eurodollar trading and its development into a dominant world currency began when the Soviet Union wanted better interest rates on their Eurodollars and convinced an Italian banking cartel to give them more interest than what could have been earned if the dollars were deposited in the U.S. The Italian bankers then had to find customers ready to borrow the Soviet dollars and pay above the U.S. legal interest-rate caps for their use, and were able to do so; thus, Eurodollars began to be used increasingly in global finance.  Eurodollars can have a higher interest rate attached to them because of the fact that they are out of reach from the Federal Reserve. U.S. banks hold an account at the Fed and can, in theory, receive unlimited liquidity from the Fed if necessary. These required reserves and Fed backing make U.S. Dollar deposits in U.S. banks inherently less risky, and Eurodollar deposits slightly more risky, which requires a slightly higher interest rate.  By the end of 1970, 385 billion eurodollars were booked offshore. These deposits were lent on as U.S. dollar loans to businesses in other countries where interest rates on loans were perhaps much higher in the local currency, and where the businesses were exporting to the US and being paid in dollars, thereby avoiding foreign exchange risk on their loans.  Several factors led Eurodollars to overtake certificates of deposit (CDs) issued by U.S. banks as the primary private short-term money market instruments by the 1980s, including:

Market size.

Since the Eurodollar market is not run by any government agency its growth is hard to estimate. However, the Eurodollar market is by a wide margin the largest source of global finance. In 1997, nearly 90% of all international loans were made this way.  In December 1985 the Eurodollar market was estimated by J.P. Morgan Guaranty bank to have a net size of 1.668 trillion. In 2016, the Eurodollar market size was estimated at around 13.833 trillion.

Futures contracts.

The Eurodollar futures contract refers to the financial futures contract based upon these deposits, traded at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME). More specifically, EuroDollar futures contracts are derivatives on the interest rate paid on those deposits. A Eurodollar future is a cash settled futures contract whose price moves in response to the LIBOR interest rate. Eurodollar futures are a way for companies and banks to lock in an interest rate today, for money they intend to borrow or lend in the future. Each CME Eurodollar futures contract has a notional or "face value" of $1,000,000, though the leverage used in futures allows one contract to be traded with a margin of about one thousand dollars.  CME Eurodollar futures prices are determined by the market's forecast of the 3-month USD LIBOR interest rate expected to prevail on the settlement date. A price of 95.00 implies an interest rate of 100.00 - 95.00, or 5%. The settlement price of a contract is defined to be 100.00 minus the official British Bankers' Association fixing of 3-month LIBOR on the day the contract is settled.

How the Eurodollar futures contract works.

For example, if on a particular day an investor buys a single three-month contract at 95.00 (implied settlement LIBOR of 5.00%):  On the settlement date, the settlement price is determined by the actual LIBOR fixing for that day rather than a market-determined contract price.

History.

The Eurodollar futures contract was launched in 1981, as the first cash-settled futures contract. People reportedly camped out the night before the contract's open, flooding the pit when the CME opened the doors. That trading pit was the largest pit ever, nearly the size of a football field, and quickly became one of the most active on the trading floor, with over 1500 traders and clerks coming to work every day on what was then known as the CME's upper trading floor. That floor is no longer, with the CME having moved over to the CBOT's trading floor and 98% of Eurodollar trading now done electronically.

Eurodollar futures contract as synthetic loan.

A single Eurodollar future is similar to a forward rate agreement to borrow or lend US$1,000,000 for three months starting on the contract settlement date. Buying the contract is equivalent to lending money, and selling the contract short is equivalent to borrowing money.  Consider an investor who agreed to lend US$1,000,000 on a particular date for three months at 5.00% per annum (months are calculated on a 30/360 basis). Interest received in 3 months' time would be US$1,000,000 × 5.00% × 90 / 360 = US$12,500.  This demonstrates the similarity. However, the contract is also different from a loan in several important respects:

Other features of Eurodollar futures.

40 quarterly expirations and 4 serial expirations are listed in the Eurodollar contract. This means that on 1 January 2011, the exchange will list 40 quarterly expirations (March, June, September, December for 2011 through 2020), the exchange will also list another four serial (monthly) expirations (January, February, April, May 2011). This extends tradeable contracts over ten years, which provides an excellent picture of the shape of the yield curve. The front-month contracts are among the most liquid futures contracts in the world, with liquidity decreasing for the further out contracts. Total open interest for all contracts is typically over 10 million.  The CME Eurodollar futures contract is used to hedge interest rate swaps. There is an arbitrage relationship between the interest rate swap market, the forward rate agreement market and the Eurodollar contract. CME Eurodollar futures can be traded by implementing a spread strategy among multiple contracts to take advantage of movements in the forward curve for future pricing of interest rates.

Sweeps.

In United States banking, Eurodollars are a popular option for what are known as "sweeps". Until 21 July 2011, banks were not allowed to pay interest on corporate checking accounts. To accommodate larger businesses, banks may automatically transfer, or sweep, funds from a corporation's checking account into an overnight investment option to effectively earn interest on those funds. Banks usually allow these funds to be swept either into money market mutual funds, or alternately they may be used for bank funding by transferring to an offshore branch of a bank.

Eurodollars are time deposits denominated in U.S. dollars at banks outside the United States, and thus are not under the jurisdiction of the Federal Reserve. Consequently, such deposits are subject to much less regulation than similar deposits within the U.S. The term was originally coined for U.S. dollars in European banks, but it expanded over the years to its present definition. A U.S. dollar-denominated deposit in Tokyo or Beijing would be likewise deemed a Eurodollar deposit (sometimes an Asiadollar). There is no connection with the euro currency or the eurozone.

欧洲美元(英文:Eurodollar),是指储蓄在美国境外的银行,不受美国联邦储备系统监管之美元。因此,这些 美元比美国境内的美元受到更少的管制,有很强的灵活性。


History.

Archaeological findings have attested human presence in the area from the Bronze Age; the first historical inhabitants were the Lusitanians, followed by the Celts, who came from east to the Pyrenees. To this period, and to the following Roman domination, belong remains of several "castra" (military camps), villas and the bridge which gives its name to the city. The Roman rule lasted from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century, when they were replaced by the Visigoths.  In the 8th century, the Moors conquered the Iberian Peninsula and called it Al-Andalus, ending four centuries of Visigothic presence in what is now Spain, France, Portugal and Gibraltar. In the 12th century the Muslim geographer al-Idrisi described the bridge as one of the world's marvels. In the 12th-13th centuries Alcántara was a frontier city, devoted to military activities and animal husbandry. After the collapse of the Caliphate of Córdoba, it belonged to several Islamic taifas (petty kingdoms).  Ferdinand II of León liberated it in 1167, during his wars against Portugal, but later the town was recaptured by the Almohads. The Christians conquered it indefinitely in 1213 with Alfonso IX of León. In 1217 it was given to the military order of Calatrava. They however considered it too difficult to defend, and thus the following year they were replaced by the Order of San Julian de Pereiro, a military order created in 1156 and which had its headquarters on the Rio Cora and which later took its name from Alcántara, where they established. The city maintained its strategical importance until 1655, when Portugal was finally separated from Spain. In 1807, during the Peninsular War, it was occupied by the French troops.  Alcántara lost all its importance in the 19th century, when the order's properties were secularized. Its depopulation was halted only in the 1960s, when the electric company Hidroelectrica Espaňola built here several plants. However, its economy was not boosted, and the town is still part of one of the less developed areas of Spain.  The Order of Alcántara, a religious and military order, was established in 1176 here, for defence against the Moors, and was suppressed in 1835.  In 1499, Peter of Alcantara, teacher of Theresa of Avila, saint and Franciscan reformer, was born here.

Alcántara is a municipality in the province of Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain, on the Tagus, near Portugal. The toponym is from the Arabic word "al-Qanṭarah" (القنطرة) meaning "the bridge".

阿尔坎塔拉()西班牙西部小城,位于卡塞雷斯省境内塔霍河南岸的丘陵上,距卡塞雷斯63千米。阿尔坎塔拉之名源于阿拉伯语(),意为“桥” 。该城为阿尔坎塔拉区首府。


Club career.

Portugal.

Gama was born in Vila Verde, Braga District. A S.C. Braga youth graduate, he appeared aged 16 in his first Primeira Liga game, a 2–2 away draw against U.D. Leiria, being subsequently acquired by FC Porto in a €750,000 deal.  After spending most of his first seasons with the club's B-side, Gama served another two first division loans, at Braga in 2006–07– scoring in a 4–0 home win over FC Slovan Liberec for the campaign's UEFA Cup– and Vitória de Setúbal in the following two years.  In mid-July 2009, Gama was released by Porto and joined Rio Ave F.C. on a two-year contract. During his first season with the Vila do Conde club he was one of the few players to appear in all 30 league matches, contributing to a final 12th place in the top division; he scored in home wins against former side Setúbal (1–0) and Leixões SC (2–0).

Deportivo.

As many compatriots during that timeframe, Gama signed for Spain's Deportivo de La Coruña on 27 July 2011, for an undisclosed fee. He contributed with 29 games and seven goals in his first year, to help the Galicians win the Segunda División championship.  Gama made his debut in La Liga on 20 August 2012, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–0 home win against CA Osasuna.

Dnipro.

On 20 August 2013, following Deportivo's relegation, Gama moved teams and countries again, joining FC Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk on a three-year contract. On 13 September of the following year, he scored a hat-trick in a 5–2 win at FC Metalist Kharkiv.  Gama contributed with 16 appearances – all rounds included – to help his team reach the final of the 2015 Europa League against Sevilla FC, being an unused substitute in the 2–3 loss in Warsaw.

Alcorcón.

On 17 February 2018, after a further two top flight seasons with Deportivo, free agent Gama signed a short-term deal with AD Alcorcón. He scored his only goal for the latter on 3 June, helping the hosts defeat CF Reus Deportiu 3–0.

Aris.

On 10 August 2018, Gama joined Aris Thessaloniki F.C. on a two-year contract for an undisclosed fee. Seventeen days later, in his Superleague Greece debut, he scored in a 3–0 away win against PAS Lamia 1964.

International career.

Internationally, Gama first participated in the 2003 UEFA European Under-17 Championship, as Portugal emerged victorious on home soil. He also helped the team reach the quarter-finals in that year's FIFA World Cup held in Finland, scoring one goal against Cameroon.  Gama captained Portugal in the 2004 European Under-17 Championship, being crowned top goal scorer after netting three in five appearances and being essential as the national side took third place. In 2006 he appeared with the under-19s at the Under-19 European Championship, scoring in every game in the group stage.  Gama was part of the squad that took part in the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup, scoring two goals in Portugal's only win in the tournament – one from a free kick and the other from the penalty spot in a 2–0 triumph against New Zealand. In the ensuing Autumn he was called up to the under-21s and, in 2010, he played with the Olympic team in the 2009–11 International Challenge Trophy.

Personal life.

Gama's older brother, Augusto, was also a footballer. He too represented Braga and Rio Ave.

Honours.

Club.

Vitória Setúbal  Deportivo  Dnipro

Bruno Alexandre Vilela Gama (born 15 November 1987) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays for Greek club Aris Thessaloniki F.C. mainly as a right winger.

布鲁诺·亚历山大·维莱拉·伽玛(Bruno Alexandre Vilela Gama)是一名葡萄牙足球运动员,场上位置是右前卫。


Signs and symptoms.

The symptoms of Felty's syndrome are similar to those of rheumatoid arthritis. Patients suffer from painful, stiff, and swollen joints, most commonly in the joints of the hands, feet, and arms. In some affected individuals, Felty's syndrome may develop during a period when the symptoms and physical findings associated with rheumatoid arthritis have subsided or are not present; in this case, Felty's syndrome may remain undiagnosed. In more rare instances, the development of Felty's syndrome may precede the development of the symptoms and physical findings associated with rheumatoid arthritis.  Felty's syndrome is also characterized by an abnormally enlarged spleen (splenomegaly) and abnormally low levels of certain white blood cells (neutropenia). As a result of neutropenia, affected individuals are increasingly susceptible to certain infections. Keratoconjunctivitis sicca may occur due to secondary Sjögren's syndrome. Individuals with Felty's syndrome may also experience fever, weight loss, and/or fatigue. In some cases, affected individuals may have discoloration (abnormal brown pigmentation) of the skin, particularly of the leg, sores (ulcers) on the lower leg, and/or an abnormally large liver (hepatomegaly). In addition, affected individuals may have abnormally low levels of circulating red blood cells (anemia), a decrease in circulating blood platelets that assist in blood clotting functions (thrombocytopenia), abnormal liver function tests and/or inflammation of the blood vessels (vasculitis).

Causes.

The cause of Felty's syndrome is unknown, but it has been found to be more common in those with chronic rheumatoid arthritis. Some patients share the HLA-DR4 serotype. This syndrome is mostly present in people having extra articular manifestations of rheumatoid arthritis. People with this syndrome are at risk of infection because they have a low white blood cell count.

Mechanism.

The underlying pathogenesis of Felty's syndrome is not clear.

Rheumatoid Arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease that is characterized by inflammation of the synovial joints due to attack by the body's own immune system. In this condition, the white blood cells travel through the blood stream to the synovial joints and release pro-inflammatory cytokines upon arrival. The result of this chemical release causes the synovial cells to release harmful chemicals in response as well as begin the growth of new blood vessels, forming a pannus. The pannus receives blood supply from the newly formed vessels and grows inward, invading the articular cartilage and bone within the joint. The damage to the once healthy tissue causes inflammation and ultimately fluid build-up in the joint. An accumulation of fluid results and the joints swell, slowly decreasing the space that keeps the bones from touching. If this condition is not treated, the joint space will completely narrow, causing ankylosis. At the advanced stage of ankylosis, joint mobility is completely occluded. Early presentation is commonly seen in the joints of hands and of the feet. As the disease progresses it can be seen in the knees, wrists, hips, and shoulders. This condition can affect and damage several other body systems such as the eyes, heart, lungs, and blood vessels.  Rheumatoid arthritis is a condition that cannot be cured but symptoms can be treated using certain medications alone or in conjunction. Due to the increased inflammatory response of the body's immune system, this condition can cause a reduction in red and white blood cells.

Neutropenia.

In Felty's syndrome, chronic activation of neutrophils progresses to neutropenia and unabated infections. Neutropenia is a decreased concentration of neutrophils in the blood. Neutrophils are the most abundant cells among white blood cells and play an important role in the immune system by destroying bacteria via phagocytosis. Inflammatory chemicals draw neutrophils to the area where they congregate and fight infection. A decrease in the number of neutrophils stimulates an autoimmune response which leads to arthritis. The loss and destruction of neutrophils leading to neutropenia is therefore, inflammation-driven due to the body's need for the immune response.

Splenomegaly.

Splenomegaly is a condition of the spleen causing it to be enlarged. The splenic condition involving Felty syndrome is more specifically noted as "inflammatory" splenomegaly. The spleen is an important lymphatic organ that is involved in filtration of the blood by discarding old and damaged red blood cells as well as maintaining platelet levels. The spleen is a lymphatic organ, which means it is largely involved in the immune system and immune responses. When the spleen becomes enlarged, it is a strong sign of infection somewhere in the body, and can be caused by inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. The increased need for production assistance of white blood cells to affected areas causes hyperfunction of the spleen. This increase in defense activities ultimately causes hypertrophy of the spleen, leading to splenomegaly. The spleen is found in the left upper quadrant (LUQ) of the peritoneal cavity and due to its enlargement, can cause stress on neighboring organs.

Diagnosis.

This condition affects less than 1% of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The presence of three conditions: rheumatoid arthritis, an enlarged spleen (splenomegaly), and an abnormally low white blood cell count are indications that Felty's syndrome is possibly occurring. This condition as a whole is difficult to diagnose due to its complexity given a combination of disorders. It is commonly overlooked or misdiagnosed as other conditions (e.g., leukemia, systemic lupus erythrematosus) because of the rarity and lack of good understanding about it. An acronym can be used to make recognizing this disease somewhat easier:  S: Splenomegaly  A: Anemia  N: Neutropenia  T: Thrombocytopenia  A: Arthritis (rheumatoid)

Conditions of the Blood.

A complete blood count (CBC) can be done to diagnose anemia (normochromic, normocytic), thrombocytopenia, and neutropenia. Abnormal liver function tests are commonly used to help in diagnosis as the spleen and liver are strongly affected by one another.

Splenomegaly.

If rheumatoid arthritis is present and other symptoms occur that are not commonly found within RA itself, such as a palpable spleen, further testing should be done. A palpable spleen is not always a clinical significance, therefore CT scan, MRI, or ultrasound can be administered in order to help diagnose the condition. According to Poulin et al, dimensional guidelines for diagnosing splenomegaly are as follows:

Rheumatoid Arthritis.

RA in patients with Felty's syndrome is chronic (after 10–15 years), and presents with increased severity along with extra articular manifestations. RA can be mistaken for other conditions such as gout if not clinically diagnosed. Diagnosis can be confirmed by use of X-rays or synovial fluid analysis.

Treatment.

There is no real treatment for Felty's syndrome, rather the best method in management of the disease is to control the underlying rheumatoid arthritis. Immunosuppressive therapy for RA often improves granulocytopenia and splenomegaly; this finding reflects the fact that Felty's syndrome is an immune-mediated disease. A major challenge in treating FS is recurring infection caused by neutropenia. Therefore, in order to decide upon and begin treatment, the cause and relationship of neutropenia with the overall condition must be well understood. Most of the traditional medications used to treat RA have been used in the treatment of Felty's syndrome. No well-conducted, randomized, controlled trials support the use of any single agent. Most reports on treatment regimens involve small numbers of patients.  Splenectomy may improve neutropenia in severe disease.  Use of rituximab and leflunomide have been proposed.  Use of gold therapy has also been described.

Prognosis.

Prognosis is dependent on the severity of symptoms and the patient's overall health.

History.

The condition was named after its founder Augustus Roi Felty (1895-1964), after the doctor reportedly saw 5 patients in 1924 with a combination of conditions never before documented. The presence of chronic arthritis, splenomegaly, and leucopenia in all 5 patients prompted him to use his name to define the unknown syndrome.

Felty's syndrome, also called Felty syndrome, (FS) is rare autoimmune disease characterized by the triad of rheumatoid arthritis, enlargement of the spleen and too few neutrophils in the blood. The condition is more common in those aged 50–70 years, specifically more prevalent in females than males, and more so in Caucasians than those of African descent. It is a deforming disease that causes many complications for the individual.

费尔蒂症候群(英语:Felty's syndrome,缩写作 英语:FS)是一种罕见的自体免疫性疾病;其特别的三联征包括类风湿性关节炎、和血液的嗜中性白血球太少。它好发于 50-70 岁,女性比男性更普遍,且白种人比非洲裔的发生率更高。它是一种会造成残障的疾病,且合并多种并发症。


History.

The concept of a forum for the world's major industrialized countries emerged before the 1973 oil crisis. On Sunday, 25 March 1973, the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, George Shultz, convened an informal gathering of finance ministers from West Germany Helmut Schmidt, France Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, and the United Kingdom Anthony Barber before an upcoming meeting in Washington, D.C. When running the idea past President Nixon, he noted that he would be out of town and offered use of the White House. The meeting was subsequently held in the library on the ground floor. Taking their name from the setting, this original group of four became known as the "Library Group". In mid-1973, at the World Bank-IMF meetings, Shultz proposed the addition of Japan to the original four nations, who agreed. The informal gathering of senior financial officials from the United States, the United Kingdom, West Germany, Japan, and France became known as the "Group of Five".  Then, in 1974, President Pompidou of France died and his immediate successor refused to run in the special election, making two changes of head of state in France in one year. Chancellor Brandt of West Germany was forced to resign in a scandal, and his successor lasted only nine days making two changes in West Germany as well. In addition, then-President of the United States Richard Nixon and Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka were forced to resign in disgrace. Queen Elizabeth II was forced to broker a deal to form a government after a hung election, which was so unstable that another election the same year had to take place, and finally, the traditionally unstable government of the 1st Italian Republic changed Prime Ministers yet again. The new American President Gerald Ford, asked some other new heads of state/government to hold a retreat the following year to get to know one another.  In 1975, a summit hosted by France brought together representatives of six governments: France, West Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Schmidt was head of government and Giscard d'Estaing head of state, respectively, in their respective countries, and since they both spoke fluent English, it occurred to them that they, and British Prime Minister Harold Wilson and U.S. President Gerald Ford could get together in an informal retreat and discuss election results and the issues of the day. In late spring, d'Estaing of France invited the heads of government from West Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States to a summit in Château de Rambouillet; the annual meeting of the six leaders was organized under a rotating presidency, forming the Group of Six (G6). In 1976, with Wilson out as prime minister of Britain, Schmidt and Gerald Ford felt an English speaker with more experience was needed, so Pierre Trudeau, the Prime Minister of Canada, the next largest advanced economy after the first six, was invited to join the group and the group became the Group of Seven (G7). Since first invited by the United Kingdom in 1977, the European Union has been represented by the president of the European Commission and the leader of the country that holds the presidency of the Council of the European Union; the Council President now also regularly attends.  Until the 1985 Plaza Accord no one outside a tight official circle knew when the seven finance ministers met or what they agreed upon. The summit was announced the day before and a communiqué was issued afterwards.  Following 1994's G7 summit in Naples, Russian officials held separate meetings with leaders of the G7 after the group's summits. This informal arrangement was dubbed the Political 8 (P8) – or, colloquially, the G7+1. At the invitation of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair and President of the United States Bill Clinton, Russian President Boris Yeltsin was invited first as a guest observer, later as a full participant. After the 1997 meeting Russia was formally invited to the next meeting and formally joined the group in 1998, resulting in a new governmental political forum, the Group of Eight or G8. The Russian Federation, in fact, had and has limited net national wealth and financial weight compared to the other members of the G8. Russia also has never been a major advanced economy according to the IMF. However, the Russian Federation was ejected from the G8 political forum in March 2014, following the Russian annexation of Crimea.  In 2020, US President Donald Trump advocated that Russia should be invited to re-join the group and invite Australia, India and South Korea to join.

Early function.

This organization was founded to facilitate shared macroeconomic initiatives by its members in response to the collapse of the exchange rate 1971, during the time of the Nixon shock, the 1970s energy crisis and the ensuing recession.

Work.

Since 1975, the group meets annually on summit site to discuss economic policies; since 1987, the G7 Finance Ministers have met at least semi-annually, up to four times a year at stand-alone meetings.  In 1996, the G7 launched an initiative for the 42 heavily indebted poor countries (HIPC).  In 1997, the G7 provided $300 million to the effort to build the containment of the reactor meltdown at Chernobyl.  In 1999, the G7 decided to get more directly involved in "managing the international monetary system" through the Financial Stability Forum, formed earlier in 1999 and the G-20, established following the summit, to "promote dialogue between major industrial and emerging market countries". The G7 also announced their plan to cancel 90% of bilateral, and multilateral debt for the HIPC, totaling $100 billion. In 2005 the G7 announced debt reductions of "up to 100%" to be negotiated on a "case by case" basis.  In 2008 the G7 met twice in Washington, D.C. to discuss the global financial crisis of 2007–2008 and in February 2009 in Rome. The group of finance ministers pledged to take "all necessary steps" to stem the crisis.  On 2 March 2014, the G7 condemned the "Russian Federation's violation of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine." The G7 stated "that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) remains the institution best prepared to help Ukraine address its immediate economic challenges through policy advice and financing, conditioned on needed reforms", and that the G7 was "committed to mobilize rapid technical assistance to support Ukraine in addressing its macroeconomic, regulatory and anti-corruption challenges." On 24 March 2014, the G7 convened an emergency meeting in response to the Russian Federation's annexation of Crimea at the official residence of the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, the Catshuis in The Hague. This location was chosen because all G7 leaders were already present to attend the 2014 Nuclear Security Summit hosted by the Netherlands. This was the first G7 meeting neither taking place in a member nation nor having the host leader participating in the meeting. On 4 June 2014 leaders at the G7 summit in Brussels, condemned Moscow for its "continuing violation" of Ukraine's sovereignty, in their joint statement and stated they were prepared to impose further sanctions on Russia. This meeting was the first since Russia was expelled from the G8 following its annexation of Crimea in March.  The annual G7 leaders' summit is attended by the heads of government. The member country holding the G7 presidency is responsible for organizing and hosting the year's summit. The serial annual summits can be parsed chronologically in arguably distinct ways, including as the sequence of host countries for the summits has recurred over time and series. Generally every country hosts the summit once every 7 years.

Country leaders and EU representatives (as of 2020).

Member country data.

The G7 is composed of the seven wealthiest advanced countries. The People's Republic of China, according to its data, would be the second-largest with 16.4% of the world net wealth, but is excluded because the IMF and other main global institutions do not consider China an advanced country and because of its relatively low net wealth per adult and HDI. As of 2017 Crédit Suisse reports the G7 (without the European Union) represents above 62% of the global net wealth. Including the EU the G7 represents over 70% of the global net wealth.

Special invitations.

French President Emmanuel Macron, the host of the G7 summit held in Biarritz in August 2019, has also invited non-member countries. The invited guest nations include Australia, Chile, Egypt, India, Iran, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, and Spain.

Controversy.

2014 suspension and subsequent exclusion of Russia.

In March 2014 Russia was suspended by G7 members from the political forum G8 following the annexation of Crimea. After the suspension, on January 2017 the Russian Federation decided permanently to leave the G8. It was confirmed in June 2018.

2015 protests.

About 7,500 protesters led by the group 'Stop-G7' demonstrated during the summit. About 300 of those managed to reach the 3 m high and 7 km long security fence surrounding the summit location despite Germany's immense efforts to prevent it and despite its remote location – the luxury hotel Schloss Elmau at the foot of the Wetterstein mountains (altitude of above sea level). The protesters questioned the legitimacy of the G7 to make decisions that could affect the whole world. Authorities had banned demonstrations in the closer area of the summit location and 20,000 policemen were on duty in Southern Bavaria to keep activists and protesters from interfering with the summit.

2018 Trump conflict over tariffs and Russia.

The 2018 meeting in Charlevoix, Canada, was marred by fractious negotiations concerning tariffs and Donald Trump's position that Russia should be reinstated to the G7. The Trump administration had just imposed steel and aluminum tariffs on many countries, including European countries that are fellow members of the G7, and Canada, the host country for the 2018 meeting. Trump expressed dismay at Canadian Prime Minister Trudeau for holding a press conference in which Canada restated its position on tariffs (a public criticism of Trump's economic policy), and directed his representatives at the meeting to not sign the economic section of the joint communiqué that is typically issued at the conclusion of the meeting. German Chancellor Angela Merkel described Trump's behavior as a "depressing withdrawal," while French President Emmanuel Macron invited him "to be serious." In the final statement signed by all members except the US, G7 announced its intention to recall sanctions and to be ready to take further restrictive measures within the next months against the Russian Federation for its failure to completely implement the Minsk Agreement.  Trump repeated calls for Russia to be re-admitted to the group in the 2019 meeting in Biarritz, saying it should be included in discussions relating to Iran, Syria, and North Korea. The Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte supported Trump's proposal, Shinzo Abe of Japan was neutral, and the rest of the G7 pushed back against the suggestion, after which the atmosphere allegedly became "tense".

2019 Amazon rainforest fires and Brazil.

U.S. President Donald Trump's reiteration of Russia's readmission to the group (see above), instigation of a trade war with China, increased tensions in Iran, Trump's alleged reluctance to attend the conference and a number of international crises made the 2019 G7 meeting in Biarritz, France the most divided since its inception. Following Trump's previous rescinding of his signature to a joint communiqué agreed in 2018 due to an alleged slight from Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau (see above), French President Emmanuel Macron agreed that the group would not issue a joint communiqué at the Biarritz conference.  The G7 nations pledged to help Brazil and other countries in South America to fight the wildfires. This money was welcomed, although many critics saw the measure as being too little, too late. Macron threatened to block a major trade deal between European Union and Brazil (Mercosur) that would benefit the very agricultural interests accused of driving deforestation.

The Group of Seven (G7) is an international intergovernmental economic organization consisting of the seven major countries: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States, which are the largest IMF-advanced economies in the world.

七大工业国组织(英语:Group of Seven,简称G7)是一个由世界七大发达国家经济体组成的国际组织,目前成员为美国、加拿大、英国、法国、德国、意大利及日本。组织成立于1973年,当时称为五国集团(G5),1975年因意大利加入改为六国集团(G6),1976年再因加拿大的加入而改成现有的七国集团,其后在1997年至2014年曾经因俄罗斯的加入而组成八大工业国组织(G8),但由于俄方介入克里米亚战争而遭受国际制裁后,被冻结席位,组织再次称为G7。2018年,德国和美国总统特朗普曾经提出过让俄罗斯回归,但遭受大部分成员国的否决后,俄罗斯方面亦表明无意重返G7(重组G8),因此目前的G7成员基本上已稳定下来。此外,欧盟亦获邀成为非正式成员。


Youth.

Grau's father, a rich tobacco grower, wanted Ramón to continue in his footsteps, but Ramón himself wanted to be a doctor. He studied at the University of Havana and graduated in 1908 with a Doctor of Medicine degree, then expatriated to Europe in order to expand his medical knowledge. He returned to Cuba in 1921 and became a professor of physiology at the University of Havana.  In the 1920s he was involved with the student protests against then-President Gerardo Machado, and was jailed in 1931. Upon his release he was exiled from Cuba, temporarily migrating to the United States.

Revolution of 1933.

After the 1933 Cuban Revolution Grau initially became one of the five members of the Pentarchy of 1933 government (). Thereafter, on, members of the Directorio Estudiantil Universitario met in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palacio de los Capitanes Generales and after intensive debate between various proposed candidates, it was agreed that Ramón Grau would be the next president. Grau's presidency became known as the One Hundred Days Government and ended on.

Cabinet members.

Carlos E. Finlay for Secretary of Health, Antonio Guiteras Holmes for Secretary of Government, Ramiro Copablanca for Secretary of the Presidency, Germán Álvarez Fuentes for Secretary of Agriculture, Joaquin del Rio Balamaseda for Secretary of Justice, Julio Aguado for Secretary of War & Navy, Gustavo Moreno for Secretary of Public Works and Manuel Marquez Sterling for Secretary of State

One Hundred Days government.

The One Hundred Days government was in part a mixture of reformist-moderate minded individuals such as Grau and radicals including Antonio Guiteras Holmes. The One Hundred Days government is mainly remembered for left-leaning or progressive reforms such as the establishment of the 8-hour work day as per Grau's presidential decree no. 1693, a raise of minimum wage, nationalization of Cuban Electric Company, and granting autonomy to the University of Havana. Despite the government's progressive agenda, the government faced significant political power struggles. On the one hand it was not recognized by the U.S. government, secondly there were still other groups especially members of the traditional parties such as the Liberal, Conservative and Union Nacionalista parties as well as the ABC who either did not support Grau's government or wanted a more inclusive administration. Finally, while the Army Chief of Staff Fulgencio Batista, nominally surrendered the power of the army to the new government, in reality Batista was having talks, making behind-doors deals with Sumner Welles and other political groups.  Eventually Batista would force Grau's resignation on January 15, 1934. Grau, however, still maintained significant power throughout the beginning of his presidency and on one occasion various ranking members of Grau's cabinet as well as students from the Directorio Estudiantil Universitario wanted Batista removed or assassinated. This was partly because Batista was holding talks with Sumner Welles and other members of the Cuban opposition regarding a potential change in government without the knowledge or public sanctioning of Grau's administration.  In addition to the political struggles, the dire state of the economy due to the Depression of the 1930s and the massive debt left over by Machado's administration, there was also the issue of the army officials regrouping and setting up camp in the Hotel Nacional de Cuba. After failed negotiations between army officials and Grau's government, this deadlock would ultimately end with the Battle of the Hotel Nacional of Cuba on October 2, 1933.  In 1934 Grau went on to found the Partido Auténtico. His niece, Pola Grau Alsina (1915– 2000), served as First Lady of Cuba during his first presidency.

Constitution of 1940.

Grau was instrumental in passing the 1940 Constitution of Cuba. For much of the Constitutional Convention, he served as the presiding officer (even after his coalition was pushed into the minority after the defection of one of the parties that formed it). He would eventually come to be replaced by Carlos Márquez Sterling.  In 1940 Grau ran in the presidential election and lost to Fulgencio Batista. Most independent observers at the time qualified the 1940 election as free and fair elections.

Election of 1944.

In 1944 Grau won the popular vote in the presidential election, defeating Carlos Saladrigas Zayas, Batista's handpicked successor, and served until 1948. Despite his initial popularity in 1933, accusations of corruption tainted his administration's image, and a sizable number of Cubans began to distrust him.  As Grau assumed the presidency, he was forced to address many financial problems left by his predecessor, Batista. In a July 17, 1944 dispatch to the U.S. Secretary of State, U.S. Ambassador Spruille Braden stated: It is becoming increasingly apparent that President Batista intends to discomfit the incoming Administration in every way possible, particularly financially. A systematic raid on the Treasury is in full swing with the result that Dr. Grau will probably find empty coffers when he takes office on October 10. It is blatant that President Batista desires that Dr. Grau San Matin should assume obligations which in fairness and equity should be a matter of settlement by the present Administration.  In 1947, Cuba was the only Western country to vote against the creation of Israel.  After turning over the presidency to his protégé, Carlos Prío, in 1948, Grau virtually withdrew from public life. He emerged again in 1952 to oppose Batista's "coup d'état". Grau ran for president in the 1954 and 1958 Batista-sponsored elections but withdrew just prior to each election day, claiming government fraud. After the Cuban Revolution and the rise of Fidel Castro in 1959, Grau retired to his home in Havana and maintained a low profile. He died there on July 28, 1969.

Dr. Ramón Grau San Martín (September 13, 1881, La Palma, Pinar del Río Province, Spanish Cuba – July 28, 1969, Havana, Cuba) was a Cuban physician and President of Cuba (1933–1934, 1944–1948). He was the last president other than an interim president, Carlos Manuel Piedra, to be born during Spanish rule. He is sometimes called Raymond Grau San Martin in English.


History.

The oldest station in The Hague is Den Haag Hollands Spoor ("The Hague Holland's Rail") on the main line from Amsterdam to Rotterdam, opened in 1843 by the Hollandsche IJzeren Spoorweg-Maatschappij ("Holland's Iron Railroad Company"). This station was built at some distance from the city centre.  In 1870, the "Nederlandsche Rhijnspoorweg-Maatschappij" (Dutch Rhine-railroad Company) opened a second station in The Hague, "Den Haag Rijnspoor" ("The Hague Rhine Rail") for trains to Gouda and Utrecht. This station was built much closer to the city centre. From 1888 this railroad was the property of the Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van Staatsspoorwegen (State Railway Operation Company); the station was renamed "Den Haag Staatsspoor" ("The Hague State Rail").  In the 1970s, Nederlandse Spoorwegen decided to build a new Central Station in The Hague and it was decided to build the new station next to Staatsspoor station. The old station was demolished after the new station was completed. A chord was also built to connect the station to the line to Amsterdam. Although Centraal station is the largest station in The Hague, it is served only by terminating trains; Intercity and international trains travelling between Amsterdam and Rotterdam stop only at Hollands Spoor station. Now, The Hague is the only city in the Netherlands which still has two major railway stations. The main hall of Den Haag Centraal is currently undergoing a renovation in order to increase the railway station's capacity. The roof has been replaced. It is now higher, and made of glass plates placed in a framework of stainless steel. Moreover, more commercial space has been added next to both side entrances, and new tiling is due to be placed. The renovation was planned to finish by the end of 2014 but is still going on as of May 2019

Train services.

There are 22 scheduled trains per hour that leave Den Haag Centraal on a normal weekday (07:00 - 20:00). Sprinter services call at every station along the way whilst Intercity trains only stop at the major stations. There are 6 trains an hour (each way) connecting Den Haag Centraal with Rotterdam Centraal, 6 train an hour connecting it with Utrecht and 4 with Amsterdam.

Tram services.

Den Haag Centraal is a public transportation hub and a major nodal hub for the tram network run by HTM Personenvervoer. The railway station features two separate sets of platforms.  These are two elevated island platforms serving four tracks, located above and lying perpendicular to the heavy rail tracks, serving lines 2, 3, 4, and 6. Regular lines 2 and 6 use the inner tracks, while the RandstadRail lines 3 and 4 use the outer tracks. They connect directly to the to the west and the elevated tracks to Ternoot and Beatrixkwartier to the east.  These are two ground-level side platforms and one island platform between them, located parallel to the heavy rail tracks outside the south-western entrance. All other city tram lines that call at the station use these platforms.

Metro services.

The Rotterdam-based RET operates RandstadRail line E, a high-capacity metro service via Leidschenveen and Pijnacker to Rotterdam Centraal station. From there it shares track with line D of the Rotterdam Metro and terminates at Slinge station.  Until August 2016, these services used platforms 11 and 12 of the mainline station, alongside the heavy rail tracks. Since then, two dedicated elevated platforms have come into use. Here, metro trains use the high-level side platforms; the low-level island platform is used by RandstadRail trams in case of emergency, when the connecting tracks via Beatrixkwartier cannot be used.

Bus services.

There is a bus platform above the rail roads, which is connected to the Prins Bernhardviaduct running over the tracks. The platform is accessible from the station's main hall. Several city and regional lines of three different carriers stop here. HTM's bus lines starting with an "N" are night buses and only run on Fridays and Saturdays.

Den Haag Centraal (; English: "The Hague Central") is the largest railway station in the city of The Hague in South Holland, Netherlands, and with twelve tracks, the largest terminal station in the Netherlands. The station was completed in 1973, adjacent to its predecessor: station "Den Haag Staatsspoor", which was subsequently demolished. It is the western terminus of the Gouda–Den Haag railway.

海牙中央车站(),荷兰海牙市最大的火车站,为荷兰最大的火车终点站,有12个股道。该火车站1973年完工,毗邻海牙较早的海牙国家车站(Den Haag Staatsspoor)。海牙中央火车站为豪达-海牙铁路的终点站。


Description.

The railway station is situated on a hill falling from the south of the city to the River Aire and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal basin. Much of it is supported on Victorian brick-vaulted arches situated just off Neville Street which contain a centre consisting of cafés, restaurants, shops and exhibition spaces called Granary Wharf, known locally as the Dark Arches.  The railway station has 17 platforms, making it the largest by number of platforms in England outside London. There are 11 terminus and six through platforms. Most platforms are subdivided into up to four sections, i.e. 1a, 1b, 1c etc. Altogether, including the numbers, there are 47 platforms. Retail facilities in the station include coffee shops, fast food outlets, a bar, newsagents, chemists and supermarkets. A British Transport Police station on New Station Street houses officers who police the West Yorkshire railway stations.  Leeds railway station retained manned ticket barriers through the 1990s until 2008, when they were replaced by automatic barriers by Northern to reduce congestion around the barriers at peak times.  Platform usage varies depending on operational circumstances but is generally:

Transport links.

Leeds Interchange, located at the New Station Street exit, provides onward transport connections from the station. There are five bus stands serving Arriva, First and Yorkshire Tiger routes 4, 5, 16, 16A, 19, 19A, 40, 85, 87, 90, 757, 870 and DalesBus services. A 24-hour taxi rank also operates at the interchange.  Further bus stops are located on Neville Street below the railway station, as well as around City Square outside the railway station. Infirmary Street and Boar Lane bus points are a short walk for more bus connections.

Cycle hub.

Leeds Interchange hosts one of the UK's first cycle hubs that allows a number of cycling services including repair, storage and rental. The facility opened in summer 2010 and is designed to encourage visitors and commuters into Leeds to continue their journey from the railway station by bike. Its design is based on the Dutch cyclepoint concept.

History.

Past railway stations.

The railways arrived in Leeds in 1834, when the Leeds and Selby Railway (which became part of the North Eastern Railway) opened its line. It had a terminus at Marsh Lane east of the city centre. In 1840, the North Midland Railway (a constituent of the Midland Railway) constructed its line from Derby via Rotherham to a terminus at Hunslet Lane to the south. It was extended to a more centrally located terminus at Wellington Street in 1846, known as "Wellington Station".  Another railway station, "Leeds Central" (on Wellington Street), was opened in 1854 by the Manchester and Leeds Railway and the London and North Western Railway, or LNWR. The railway station became owned jointly by the LNWR and the North Eastern Railway, but other companies had powers to run trains there, including the Great Northern Railway and the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway.  In 1869, "New Station" opened as a joint enterprise by the LNWR and the North Eastern Railway. It connected the former Leeds and Selby Railway Line to the east with the LNWR lines to the west. A mile-long connection was built, carried entirely on viaducts and bridges. New Station was built partially on a bridge over the River Aire, adjacent to Wellington railway station.  The map to the right shows the variety of different railway lines in Leeds in 1913. Following the 1921 Railways Act, when railways in Great Britain were grouped into four companies, New Station was jointly operated by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS) and the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER).

1938 rebuilding.

The first rationalisation occurred in 1938, when two railway stations (New and Wellington) were combined to form "Leeds City Station", opening on 2 May that year. This was designed by LMS architect William Henry Hamlyn. The third railway station, Leeds Central, was unaffected by the change. Part of Wellington railway station later became a parcels depot. The north concourse and the Queens Hotel were built at this time.

Leeds Blitz.

In March 1941, the Luftwaffe launched attacks on Leeds, Armley, Beeston and Bramley. Leeds New Station was one of the primary targets, along with the Town Hall, Kirkgate Markets, the Central Post office, the Quarry Hill flats, Hotel Metropole and part of the Inner Ring Road. The station was bombed, causing an unknown number of casualties, and was later rebuilt.  The Transport Act 1947 nationalised nearly all forms of mass transport in Great Britain and came into effect on 1 January 1948. British Railways came into existence as the business name of the Railway Executive of the British Transport Commission (BTC) on 1 January 1948.

1962 British Railways House.

In 1962 British Railways House, now City House, was added to the railway station. It was designed by architect John Poulson providing British Railways with administrative buildings. The building became dated and hard to let before refurbishment in 2009. The building was lambasted in 1967 by poet John Betjeman who said it blocked all the light out of City Square, and was a testament to money with no architectural merit. In 2010 the building was bought by property company Bruntwood which is (as of 2017) redeveloping it to provide serviced offices, with a new look to the façade.

1967 rebuilding.

In 1967 further remodelling of the site took place and trains using Central Railway Station were diverted into the City Railway Station which became the main railway station serving the city. Central Railway Station was closed and has been demolished. The viaduct leading to Central Railway Station is one of many disused viaducts near Leeds Railway Station. Engineering work included replacing 100-year-old bridges over the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, the construction of the south concourse & an overall roof, along with major platform and track layout alterations and the commissioning of a new power signal box to control the railway station area.  At the time of this rebuilding, the railway station was served by 500 trains on a typical day, with 2.75 million passenger journeys a year. Wellington (or City North) became entirely devoted to parcels traffic at this time with the track layout extensively changed. The remaining Midland line trains which previously used City North station were diverted into the City South station, the former LNWR/NER 'New' station, and called simply Leeds from this time.

Electrification.

The station had overhead electrification installed under the ownership of British Rail in 1988, to facilitate usage of the new Class 91 services on the East Coast main line.

2002 rebuilding.

By the 1990s, the railway station's capacity was exceeded on a daily basis, and the 1967 design was deemed inadequate. Between 1999 and 2002, a major rebuilding project took place, branded as "Leeds 1st". This project saw the construction of additional approach tracks at the western end of the railway station, improving efficiency by separating trains travelling to or from different destinations and preventing them from having to cross each other's routes. The railway station was expanded from 12 to 17 platforms, with the construction of new platforms on the south side, and reopening of the disused parcels depot to passengers on the north side.  The majority of the track, points and signals were also replaced and the 1967 power box closed – control being handed over to the signalling centre at. The most visible change to passengers, however, was the replacement of the 1967 metal canopy with a new glass roof, considerably increasing the amount of daylight on the platforms. A new footbridge was also provided, replacing the previous underpass. Ancillary improvements included a new multi-storey car park and railway station entrance, refurbishing the North Concourse and expanding retail facilities.  A small temporary railway station called Leeds Whitehall was provided to handle some services while the railway station was being remodelled. This has now been demolished.

2008 work.

In 2008 automated ticket gates were installed in place of the human-controlled ticket checking, to speed up the passage of passengers. When the gates came into operation at the end of October 2008 they suffered from several faults including accepting expired tickets. An oversight on the part of Northern also meant that the gates were not compatible with West Yorkshire Metro Cards.

Southern entrance.

A £17.3 million southern entrance to allow for easier access from the south completed on 3 January 2016. It widens the railway station's western footbridge and provide escalators, stairs and lifts to a partial deck over the River Aire in an iconic structure. The deck provides access to either side of the river for passengers to access Granary Wharf and Little Neville Street or Holbeck. It contains extra ticket vending machines and cycle storage. Around 20% of passengers are expected to use the new entrance.

Future.

Leeds City railway station is the third-busiest railway station outside London in England; being a very busy railway station, expansion is needed. Passenger numbers at Leeds are expected to surge by 63% by 2029, meaning further expansion is necessary.

Future Remodelling.

In October 2017, it was proposed that the station could be remodelled for the proposed HS2 scheme. The proposal includes new platforms on the northside of Leeds as well as HS2 services running into the existing east-west platforms as well as the proposed terminal platforms allowing links to proposed 'Northern Powerhouse Rail'. In November 2017, details were released about how the station might look.

Expansion.

Plans are being drawn up to expand the railway station's capacity with new lines and platforms alongside platform one in the Riverside Car Park on the site of the original Leeds Wellington railway station to cater for predicted growth. Also Metro announced plans to replace platform 1 with three separate platforms using the car park next to it. This would increase platform numbers from 17 to 20. Work on a new terminal platform alongside platform 1 (labelled platform 0) began in late 2018 and is due for completion in 2021.

South concourse.

Network Rail plans to improve the south concourse by opening up the skylights to allow in natural light. The first phase of works will aim to reduce congestion. Consideration will be given to a mezzanine level for retail units. Network Rail has said that it "is looking at the feasibility of the provision of a new roof to the concourse. The latter scheme is one that will be taken forward in conjunction with Bruntwood" in connection with the redevelopment of City House.

Future service.

In June 2014, Network Rail accepted Alliance Rail t/a Great North Western Railway Company (GNWR) to operate services between London Euston and Leeds via Warrington Bank Quay and Huddersfield with six services per day in both directions. The services were proposed to start in 2017 using Pendolino trains. However, in January 2015 the proposed services were rejected.  London North Eastern Railway plan to operate direct services between London King's Cross and via Leeds from 2020.  As part of the new Arriva Rail North franchise, from May 2019 there will be a new hourly service to, calling at Bradford Interchange, Manchester Victoria and. Originally planned for December 2017 the introduction has been delayed for operational reasons. New services between Halifax and Hull will also be introduced and those to Nottingham will be re-routed via Wakefield Westgate rather than via Barnsley (saving 20+ minutes' journey time) and extended to/from Bradford Interchange. There will also be new direct services to Lincoln via Barnsley and Worksop. These new routes will be marketed under the "Northern Connect" brand and use new DMUs.

HS2 platforms.

The original plans for HS2 proposed a separate new station in Leeds to the south of the River Aire at New Lane. However, a later review in November 2015 instead recommends that HS2 platforms be added to the existing station. These would attach to the southern part of the existing station building, and span the river in a North-South alignment to create a 'T' shape.  Whilst not directly linking the rail lines, it will allow a common concourse for easy interchange between high speed and classic rail services. These plans were approved by the Government in November 2016.

Services.

The railway station is served by train operators, London North Eastern Railway, CrossCountry, TransPennine Express, Northern and East Midlands Railway. It is also the hub of the MetroTrain network in West Yorkshire, being the terminus of the following lines:

External links.

Leeds railway station (also known as Leeds City railway station) is the mainline railway station serving the city centre of Leeds in West Yorkshire, England. It is the third-busiest railway station in the UK outside London (as of 2018). It is located on New Station Street to the south of City Square, at the bottom of Park Row, behind the landmark Queens Hotel. It is one of 20 stations managed by Network Rail.

利兹站(英语:Leeds railway station,又称为Leeds City railway station) 是一座服务利兹市中心的主线铁路车站,位于英格兰西约克郡。截至2016年,本站为英国伦敦地区以外第三繁忙的车站。 本站的位置是在城市广场以南的新车站街,位处公园路的下游,地标建筑皇后酒店的后方。本站是英国国营铁路公司所管理的19座车站之一。


Plot.

In the near future, a device called the "DC Mini" allows the user to view people's dreams. The head of the team working on this treatment, Doctor Atsuko Chiba, begins using the machine illegally to help psychiatric patients outside of the research facility, using her alter-ego "Paprika", a persona she assumes in the dream world. Chiba's closest allies are Doctor Toratarō Shima, the chief of the department, and Doctor Kōsaku Tokita, an obese, genius man-child and inventor of the DC Mini.  Paprika counsels Detective Toshimi Konakawa, who is plagued by a recurring dream. She gives Konakawa a card with the name of a website on it. Because they are unfinished prototypes, the DC Minis lack access restrictions, allowing anyone to enter another person's dreams, which poses grave consequences when they are stolen. Shima goes on a nonsensical tirade and jumps through a window, nearly killing himself. Upon examining Shima's dream, which is a parade of random objects, Tokita recognizes his assistant, Kei Himuro, which confirms their suspicion that the theft was an inside job.  After two other scientists fall victim to the DC Mini, the chairman of the company, Doctor Seijirō Inui, who was against the project to begin with, bans the use of the device. This fails to hinder the crazed parade, now in Himuro's dream, which claims Tokita. Paprika and Shima find that Himuro is only an empty shell. The real culprit is Inui, who believes that he must protect dreams from mankind's influence through dream therapy, with the help of Doctor Morio Osanai.  Paprika is captured by the pair after an exhausting chase. Osanai admits his love for Chiba and peels away Paprika's skin to reveal Chiba underneath. However, he is interrupted by the outraged Inui who demands that they finish off Chiba; as the two share Osanai's body, they battle for control. Konakawa enters the dream and flees with Chiba back into his own recurring dream. Osanai gives chase, which ends in Konakawa shooting Osanai to take control of the dream. The act kills Osanai's physical body in the real world.  Dreams and reality begin to merge. The dream parade runs amok in the city, and reality starts to unravel. Shima is nearly killed by a giant Japanese doll, but is saved by Paprika, who has become separate from Chiba. Amidst the chaos, Tokita, in the form of a giant robot, eats Chiba and prepares to do the same to Paprika. A ghostly apparition of Chiba appears and reveals that she has been in love with Tokita and has been repressing these emotions. She comes to terms with her repressed desires, reconciling herself with the part of her that is Paprika. Inui returns in the form of a giant humanoid nightmare, reveals his twisted dreams of omnipotence, and threatens to darken the world with his delusions. Paprika throws herself into Tokita's body. A baby emerges from the robotic shell and consumes Inui, aging into a fully-grown combination of Chiba and Paprika as she does so, then fades away, ending the nightmare.  In the final scene, Chiba sits at Tokita's bedside as he wakes up. Later, Konakawa visits the website from Paprika's card and receives a message from Paprika: "Atsuko will change her surname to Tokita...and I suggest watching the movie "Dreaming Kids"." Konakawa enters a movie theatre and purchases a ticket for "Dreaming Kids".

Music.

The soundtrack was released on 23 November 2006 under the TESLAKITE label. It was composed by Susumu Hirasawa. A bonus movie was included with the CD.  The soundtrack is notable for being one of the first film scores to use Vocaloid (Lola as the "voicebank") for vocals. It's also the last of Hirasawa's albums where an Amiga computer was used for composition. All MIDI was sequenced through an Amiga 4000 running the Bars n Pipes program.

Release.

Festivals.

"Paprika" premiered on 2 September 2006, at the 63rd Venice Film Festival. It screened at the 44th New York Film Festival, playing on 7 October 2006. It competed at the 19th Tokyo International Film Festival 21–29 October 2006, as the opening screening for the 2006 TIFF Animation CG Festival. It also competed in 27th Fantasporto from 23 February to 3 March 2007. "Paprika" was shown at the 2007 National Cherry Blossom Festival in Washington, D.C., as the closing film of the Anime Marathon at the Freer Gallery of the Smithsonian, and at the 2007 Greater Philadelphia Cherry Blossom Festival. It played at the Sarasota Film Festival on 21 April 2007, in Sarasota, Florida. Additionally, it was shown at the 39th International Film Festival in Auckland, New Zealand, on 22 July 2007, and was shown as the festival travelled around New Zealand.

Box office.

In the United States, the film received a limited release in 2007, with Sony Pictures distributing the film. It grossed $882,267 in the United States. In other territories, the film grossed $62,648 in Singapore, Italy and South Korea, for an overseas total of $944,915 outside of Japan.

Reception.

Critical reception.

"Paprika" has received positive reviews from film critics. It holds an 84% "Certified Fresh" approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 90 reviews, with an average rating of 7.29/10 and the consensus reading, "Following its own brand of logic, "Paprika" is an eye-opening mind trip that is difficult to follow but never fails to dazzle." Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score, rated the film 81 out of 100 based on 26 critic reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". "Paprika" won the Best Feature Length Theatrical Anime Award at the sixth-annual Tokyo Anime Awards during the 2007 Tokyo International Anime Fair.  Andrez Bergen of "Yomiuri Shimbun" praised the "Paprika" as the "most mesmerizing animation long-player since Miyazaki's "Spirited Away" five years ago" (in 2001). He also praised the film's animation and backgrounds. Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" gave it a positive review, saying that the film is a "sophisticated work of the imagination" and "challenging and disturbing and uncanny in the ways it captures the nature of dreams". LaSalle later went on to say that the film is a "unique and superior achievement." Rob Nelson of "The Village Voice" praised the film for its visuals. However, he complained about the plot, saying that "Paprika" is not "a movie that's meant to be understood so much as simply experienced - or maybe dreamed." Nelson later went on to say that Kon "maintains a charming faith in cinema's ability to seduce fearless new (theater) audiences, even one viewer at a time." Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" said that the film has a "sense of unease about the rapidly changing relationship between our physical selves and our machines." Dargis praised Kon for his direction, saying that he "shows us the dark side of the imaginative world in "Paprika" that he himself has perceptively brightened." Helen McCarthy in "500 Essential Anime Movies" said that "Paprika" "proves once again that the great science fiction doesn't rely on giant robots and alien worlds".  Conversely, Roger Moore of the "Orlando Sentinel" gave a negative review, saying "With a conventional invade-dreams/bend-reality plot, it's a bit of a bore. It's not as dreamlike and mesmerizing as Richard Linklater's rotoscope-animation "Waking Life", less fanciful than the Oscar-winning anime "Spirited Away"." Bruce Westbrook of the "Houston Chronicle" said the film "is as trippy as a Jefferson Airplane light show" and criticized the characters and the dialogue.  "The Lord of the Rings" actor Elijah Wood praised "Paprika" in an interview, stating, "That movie blew my mind, too. That also pushed the envelope of what animation is, and it was kind of almost like a total mind-head trip, that film, from a visual stand point." "Time" magazine included it in its top 25 animated films of all time, while "Time Out" also included the film in its list of top 50 animated films of all time. Rotten Tomatoes included it in its list of fifty best animated films of all time. "Newsweek Japan" included "Paprika" in its list of the 100 best films of all time, while the American edition of "Newsweek" included it among its top twenty films of 2007. Metacritic has listed the film among the top 25 highest-rated science fiction films of all time, and the top 30 highest-rated animations of all time.

Awards and nominations.

"Paprika" received the following awards and nominations:

Legacy.

Live-action adaptation.

A live-action adaptation of "Paprika", to be directed by Wolfgang Petersen, was in development in 2010. However, since then, there has not been any significant update to whether it will be produced.

Impact on others.

Several critics and scholars have noted many striking similarities of the movie with the 2010 Christopher Nolan film "Inception".

Kon and Seishi Minakami wrote the script, and Japanese animation studio Madhouse animated and produced the film alongside Sony Pictures Entertainment Japan, which distributed it in Japan. The score was composed by Susumu Hirasawa. The film received wide acclaim from critics. Sony Pictures via Sony Pictures Classics distributed the film in the United States, where it received a limited release.

《盗梦侦探》(日语:)是日本作家筒井康隆撰写的科幻小说。原作第一部于《Marie Claire》1991年1月号至1992年3月号、第二部于《Marie Claire》1992年8月号至1993年6月号上连载,由中央公论社先发行,后交给中公文库(中央公论社)和(新潮社)发行;繁体中文版由独步文化代理;简体中文版由上海译文出版社代理。


Biography.

Wei Jianxing was born in Xinchang County, Zhejiang Province. He moved to Shanghai and entered Guanghua University High School in 1947, where he became close to fellow Zhejiang native and Guanghua alumnus Qiao Shi, who was a leader of the student movement of the underground Communist Party of China (CPC). Wei joined the CPC in March 1949.  Wei later enrolled in Dalian University of Technology and graduated in 1952, majoring in mechanics. From 1952 to 1953, he studied Russian language in Fushun. Wei was then sent to the Soviet Union to study industrial management until 1955. In the early stages of the Cultural Revolution he was politically disgraced and performed manual labour, but regained favour in 1970 and became the head of the revolutionary committee of the factory he worked at. Between 1981 and 1983 he served as Mayor of Harbin.  Wei was then transferred to work at the All-China Federation of Trade Unions where he served on the organization's Secretariat. He then rose to become head of the Organization Department of the Communist Party of China. His work gained recognition from then party General Secretary Hu Yaobang. In 1987 Hu was oustered in a power struggle by conservative forces within the party and Wei, being branded a Hu loyalist, was transferred out of the organs of power to serve in a relatively unimportant position of Minister of Supervision. While serving at the ministry Wei played an important role in developing China's civil servant supervision programs as well as rules and regulations on the discipline of government officials.  In October 1992, at the 14th Party Congress, Wei was named to the Politburo, in addition to becoming a Secretary of Central Secretariat, and the Secretary of Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (CCDI). During Wei's term as CCDI chief, some 680,000 disciplinary cases were processed. The most prominent case was that against Beijing party chief Chen Xitong, who was investigated for corruption beginning in July 1994 and expelled from the party a month later. In the wake of Chen's disgrace Wei himself took over at Beijing party chief and stayed in the position for two years. In 1993, he also became Chairman of the All-China Federation of Trade Unions and served for two terms. At the 15th Party Congress held in 1997, Wei earned a seat on the elite seven-man Politburo Standing Committee and continued to serve as CCDI Secretary.  Wei retired in 2002 and left public life. He has attended some official functions sporadically since then. He died in Beijing on 7 August 2015.

Wei Jianxing (; 2 January 1931 – 7 August 2015) was a senior leader in the Communist Party of China, most active during the 1980s and 1990s. He successively held a number of important offices, including member of the Politburo Standing Committee, the Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the Communist Party Secretary of Beijing and the chairman of All-China Federation of Trade Unions.

尉健行(1931年-1月2日-2015年-8月7日),浙江新昌人,前中国共产党和中华人民共和国领导人之一。曾任中共中央政治局常委、中央纪律检查委员会书记、中央书记处书记、中华全国总工会主席。